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Coppélie Cocq
© Coppélie Cocq, CC BY 4.0 http://dx.doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0096.03
This chapter examines the role played by participatory media in environmental activism. The starting point for this study is the current debate on the exploitation of natural resources in Sweden’s Sámi region. When discussing this issue, different points of view about the environment are expressed. Some commentators believe that nature should be viewed as a commodity, while others perceive it as a heritage that must be protected. These views are expressed during demonstrations and in newspaper articles. They also circulate online in, for instance, Facebook groups, on Twitter, and through various blogs and YouTube uploads. They are articulated in posts and comments and voiced through music, short films, pictures, and posters. This chapter focussed on YouTube video clips, shedding light on how those who oppose mining depict nature and make their contribution to the environmental debate.
Perceptions of the environment differ according to cultural and social background. Sometimes nature is perceived as a commodity, something to be consumed. Sometimes it is seen as a heritage to preserve. As became evident in interviews conducted in a previous project,2 perceptions of nature and landscape, and an intimate relationship to the land, are experiences that are difficult to convey in words (Cocq 2014a, 2014b). This sense of ineffability is confirmed by the central role played by cultural workers in the debate about the Sámi land exploitation situation. Through fine arts, music, and performance, artists and cultural workers take a stance in the debate, adopting an indigenous, emic perspective. These initiatives contribute to the debate by raising questions about the rights of indigenous people, and by increasing the visibility of Sámi groups in rural areas.
This chapter will explore how visual and audiovisual participatory media can express, shape, and convey perceptions and understanding of nature — that is, perspectives that are difficult to communicate verbally in the public debate on environment and its exploitation. The study focuses on the relationship between media, culture, and society rather than on the use of media for the communication of meaning.
The increasing need to communicate emic perspectives on environmental and indigenous issues is met, and becomes visible through, an increased use of social and participatory media in, among other things, social movements. In contrast to traditional mass media, social media platforms are said to provide ‘prosumers’ (Olin-Scheller and Wikström 2010; Bruns 2008) due to easier modes of production, diffusion, and consumption.
The potential of social media for enabling marginalised voices to reach arenas they would otherwise not have access is the subject of much debate. As Saskia Sassen (2004) pertinently emphasises, social media are not isolated from social logic. Discourses of democratisation nuance the effects of new media on any larger political debate (O’Neil 2014). Critical voices suggest that social media, in fact, contribute to maintaining or even strengthening existing structures and power relations (Dean 2003; Fuchs 2010).
This study investigates how marginalised voices search for a venue in the media landscape. The case used as an example is that of the environmental movement’s resistance to the mining industry’s plans for the territory known as Sápmi. The movement is both local — it is concerned with Sápmi, the traditional area of the indigenous people of Europe — and global, insofar as it concerns indigenous rights and environmental struggle.
Mining Boom, Land Rights, and Perceptions of the Environment
Sápmi, the traditional area of Sámi settlement, comprises the northern regions of Sweden, Norway, Finland, and Russia. It is a heterogeneous area in terms of languages, livelihoods, and population. Discourses of decolonisation, cultural and linguistic revitalisation, and mobilisation for strengthening indigenous land rights are topics of immediate interest in contemporary Sápmi. In Sweden, this discourse is becoming increasingly prominent at the national level.
An increasing number of permits for exploration for minerals in Sweden has led to a ‘mining boom’. This, in combination with multiple types of exploitation (wind power, etc.) located in reindeer-herding areas, has led to a growing debate about the Swedish Minerals Act, as well as issues such as traditional land use, indigenous rights, mining, and growth in relation to what is termed majority society.
The summer of 2013 was a milestone for the mining resistance movement. That was when reindeer herders, various local actors, environmentalists, and others worked together to prevent a foreign exploration company from conducting exploratory drilling in Gállok (Jokkmokk municipality). From July to September 2013, a group of activists occupied the area in order to block the way for vehicles attempting to enter the prospection area. On several occasions there were confrontations with the police. Through demonstrations, art installations, and debates in social media, the protest movement brought national and international attention to the Gállok events.
Cultural variations in perceptions of the environment have been the subject of previous research. Such variations have been studied in a Sámi context by Rydberg, whose work shows how memories and language link the landscape to the identity of the Sámi in Handölsdalen sameby (administrative unit for reindeer herding; Rydberg 2011, 91–93). Conflicts between indigenous groups and international commercial interests elsewhere in the world have also been discussed, in terms of the spillover effects of globalization (e.g., Tsing 2005).
Previous research has also emphasised the need for the investigation of environmental issues in relation to human practices, representations, and behaviour (Nye et al. 2013; Evernden 1992) as well as ecological ethics (Plumwood 2002). The approach to nature as a construct and the rejection of the human-nature dichotomy open up the investigation of our practices, narratives, and understandings of the environment as modes of shaping, maintaining, and questioning representations.
Internet videos make it possible to combine different media materials. They disseminate images and movies — along with lyrics and music. This form of digital expression provides new tools that are being used strategically in activist movements. Social media have become a natural channel for activism, and the Web 2.0 has enabled increased communication, commitment, and coordination in activism. The effort to achieve ideological homogeneity is not the most interesting part of this development, but rather the efforts toward dialogue and understanding (Dahlberg 2007).
YouTube: A Channel for Environmental Activism
In order to investigate the use of participatory media in communicating nature, I have chosen two short films on YouTube as case studies. These films circulated in the summer of 2013, at the time of the Gállok conflict. YouTube was the platform that was used to publish videos and give an account of the ongoing struggle, for instance during interventions and clashes with the police. As part of the campaign against the mining industry, short clips were produced and published on YouTube.
The first YouTube video that concerns us was produced under the YouTube account name ‘whatlocalpeople’. ‘What local people?’ is the question that Clive Sinclair-Poulton, president of the British mining company, Beowulf Mining, asked at a presentation of one of its mining projects. The local people that he referred to, or rather questioned the existence of, were the people living in the area of Gállok (Kallak), located 45 kilometres outside Jokkmokk. Sinclair-Poulton’s question was rhetorical, and came as a response to a query about possible objections from the local population to a mining project.
The answer to Sinclair-Poulton’s statement came partly in the form of a website, http://www.whatlocalpeople.se. When we enter the website, we are met by a short movie showing Sinclair-Poulton’s presentation and statement, reinforced by a picture of clear-cutting (a forestry practice in which most or all trees are cut down within a given tract of forest). His question, ‘What local people?’ is followed, on the website, by an answer in the form of a series of portrait photographs — the faces of the people who live and work in the area, along with the text ‘We are the locals!’
Furthermore, the homepage contains tabs with which the web-visitor can navigate and find information about several mining projects in Sápmi. Under the tab ‘Vi finns’ [We exist], we learn about the website’s background:
The background for the creation of this website was anger. An anger caused by a statement made during an international mining conference in Stockholm. There, representatives of Beowulf Mining (Jokkmokk Iron Mines AB) presented their plans for mining of iron ore in an approximately 4.5 × 5 km large open pit in Gállokjávrre (known as Kallak), 50 kilometres west of Jokkmokk.3
Black and white photos are displayed at the head of the webpage — faces that demonstrate the existence of local people, satirising the manner in which Sinclair-Poulton used clear-cutting to illustrate the absence of a local population. The images used here emphasise the statement ‘Vi finns!’ [We exist]. ‘What local people’ is also the name of an exhibition, a YouTube account, and has become a slogan in the fight against exploration in the area around Gállok. It is also the title of a spoken-word poem by the artist Mimie Märak, performed at the site of Gállok.4
The video Vägvalet — för fast mark och rent vatten5 [Choice at the crossroads — for solid ground and clean water], the first example discussed in this chapter, was published by the whatlocalpeople account on 3 July 2013. The video does not mention any specific producer; it simply refers to the movement ‘whatlocalpeople’. This was at the beginning of the Gállok occupation, before the events got the attention of local, national, or international media. Almost two years later, the video again circulated in social media forums: on 13 February 2015, a post in the Facebook group Gruvfritt Jokkmokk [Mine-free Jokkmokk] linked to the video, maintaining that it was still of great interest, given the recent resolution from Sweden’s Mining Inspectorate referring the final decision on the Gállok mine project to the government.
Other YouTube video materials by whatlocalpeople include records of performances, speeches held at festivals, and demonstrations. Not least, it is this account that posted videos of confrontations with the police during the summer of 2013 in Gállok.6 These are the videos that attract the most viewers.
A short text introduces Vägvalet, a 2.30 minute long video:
En underbar värld eller feta nackars välde. Miljöbalk mot mineralstrategi. Vad väljer du?’ [A wonderful world or the empire of the ‘fat necks’. Environmental code against mineral strategy. What do you choose?]
Bli en del av den växande rörelsen [Become part of a growing movement]:
www.urbergsgruppen.se
www.whatlocalpeople.se
www.facebook.com/groups/ingagruvor
#Kallak
The clip starts with a quote from Dag Hammarskjöld, United Nations Secretary-General from 1953 to 1961 and a Swedish diplomat.
‘Din skyldighet är “att”. Du kan aldrig rädda dig genom “att icke”.’
[‘Your duty is “to”. You can never save yourself by “to not”.’]
The clip is introduced by the first two verses of the song ‘What a Wonderful World’ by Louis Armstrong. Images of forests, flowers and plants, mountain landscapes, birds, moose, and water are displayed on the screen. A banner at the bottom provides information about the Swedish Environmental Code (1998, 808), sustainability, and our responsibility to ‘administer nature’.
Fig. 3.1 Screenshot from Vägvalet (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=adJDdTw5AsQ)
Images of unpopulated natural areas are combined with the music to give a sense of harmony. About one minute into the movie, a voice interrupts Armstrong and the slideshow by shouting ‘Hallå?! Hallå?!’. This marks the beginning of the second part of the video. The music changes to the song ‘Staten och kapitalet’ [‘State and capital’] by the Swedish punk band Ebba Grön. This gives the slideshow a different tone. A banner with the text ‘test pit at Gállok (Kallak) July 1, 2013’ provides information about the images displayed, including a video of a great trench dug through the forest by machines. The text at the bottom of the screen now concerns the global demand for minerals. Headlines of news articles about the mining industry and its profits are shown in a collage, followed by images of machines and wide tracks dug into the ground, as well as of representatives of the government and the mining industry. Headlines of news articles appear again, this time referring to a possible environmental disaster, followed by pictures of an open mining pit.
The video ends with the words: ‘You can choose — your children and grandchildren cannot’. ‘Be part of an emerging/growing movement’ appears, with links to websites and Facebook groups. In the background, we hear voices shouting, as they do at demonstrations: ‘No mines in Jokkmokk’. In the last image, a text reads, ‘We believe in the future’.
Fig. 3.2 Screenshot from Vägvalet (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=adJDdTw5AsQ)
The video is divided into two parts, each representing contrasting and conflicting descriptions of the environment. The first illustrates the values of sustainability and responsibility, reinforced by text about the Swedish Environmental Code. The images connote harmony, showing wildlife, pristine nature, etc. The music is meant to reinforce the frame of harmony, hope, and celebration of life and the world. The video’s aesthetics anthropomorphise nature. This is a recurrent rhetorical strategy used in environmental discourse that has been proven effective in influencing people’s relation to nature, fostering conservation behaviour, and enhancing connectedness to nature (Tam et al. 2013).
The video’s second part stands in contrast to this, not least because of the abrupt break and change in the tone of images and sound. The focus is now on financial gain and the risks run by environment and population. The pictures show traces left in the landscape and images of politicians and mining companies. The music, the lyrics of which make a statement about government and capitalism, aims at inspiring anger. The voice heard at the beginning of the Ebba Grön song, which interrupts the middle of the film, functions as a wake-up call. The two perspectives are set out in contrast, placed next to each other in order to offer the viewer a choice: the one or the other. The title indicates that we have reached a ‘crossroads’ and that this is about the future (‘your children and grandchildren’).
The second video considered here is entitled Our land, our water, our future.7 It was produced and published by the photographer Tor Lundberg Tuorda on 19 December 2012. He has produced and published several videos on YouTube on the topics of the mining boom, the preservation of the environment, and responses to and actions against colonialism. He participates regularly in events related to the mining boom, including protest marches, and meetings. Tor Lundberg Tuorda is also active in academic circles. In an interview, he explains his work and the ambition behind his films:
The only thing I can do is to inform, to be stubborn. There is so much total madness in this. That’s what I do, it is the only power I have — with my camera as a weapon.8
Other films by Lundberg Tuorda include the recent ‘The Parasite’,9 about Swedish colonisation. His works have been screened in various contexts. His short film Mineralernas förbannelse [The Curse of Minerals] has, for instance, been shown as part of the museum exhibition ‘Inland’10 at the Västerbotten Museum in 2015.
The video Our land, our water, our future is a 1:54-long English-language clip introduced with the words: ‘This video was shown in Stockholm 17/11 at [2012] at the manifestation “Our land, Our water, Our Future” (© Tor Lundberg)’.
Our land, our water, our future is composed of stills and moving pictures. The images depict water, a child drinking out of a guksi (Sámi drinking vessel of birch wood), a person swimming in a lake, a reindeer herd in a snow landscape, a child making a snow angel, animals in the forests. A female voice accompanies the video declaims: ‘Clean water, fresh air, white snow, deep forests. This is where we come from. This is what we live off’. As the voice continues speaking, the film shows people picking berries and herbs, hunting, fishing, boiling water over an open fire, cooking and eating outdoors, all activities that are in harmony with nature, that use natural resources, and that involve children.
Fig. 3.3 Screenshot from Our Land (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5p6BygBUmGA)
A shift occurs in the story, however, when the voice says:
Now, [the] mining industry threatens to destroy our lands. Companies from all over the world want to convert the natural wealth into money. They leave only devastated mountains, forests and rivers behind: an impoverished future for our children.
At 0:57 in the film, a picture of Ruovddevárre, located in the Laponia World Heritage Area, appears along with the text ‘Owned by English Beowulf Mining’ — that is, the British company prospecting in Gállok. While the view zooms in on the mountain, we hear the sound of an explosion. The mountain and trees tremble. Next, we see a photo of Sarek National Park, the world heritage area of Laponia, while hearing the sound of an airplane in the background. A text reads: ‘Ore-searching by the Swedish State. Bårddetjåhkkå, Sarek national park’.
Fig. 3.4 Screenshot from Our Land (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5p6BygBUmGA)
Following that is a picture with the text ‘Gállok (Kallak) owned by English Beowulf mining’. Here again, we hear the sound of ongoing blasting. A hole emerges in the middle of the picture that expands to another photo: one of a mine (an open pit). The forests and mountains are erased by the mine, illustrating what Gállok would look like if a mine were to be built there.
Fig. 3.5 Screenshot from Our Land (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5p6BygBUmGA)
The loud noise of machines takes over and the frame suddenly becomes a dark screen. The voice comes back, asking ‘Is this what we need? Is this what we want?’. The video concludes with brief information about the producer.
This video is built as a story that begins with humans in harmony with nature. The natural resources are berries, game, fish, etc. A complication in the narrative occurs when the mining industry comes into the picture. In the second part of the story, the harmony is disrupted. This disruption is visualised through the blurring of images, trembling, and noises. The end of the story is uncertain. The narrative voice turns back to the audience, sharing the concern depicted in the film, as well as a sense of responsibility.
Contesting Narratives
The two short films presented above produce two parallel discourses about the environment. These discourses stand out by virtue of their contrast, which establishes them as mutually exclusive. One discourse focuses on sustainability, harmony between humans and nature, and a long-term perspective. The other focuses on exploitation (mining) and how it affects the landscape. The portrayal of an exploitative attitude’s effects on the environment amounts to a portrayal of devastation which reinforces the idea of preservation suggested in the first discourse.
Although these ways to represent the environment stand in contrast to each other, they are presented from the same perspective. Traditional use of the environment and traditional interaction with the land and the landscape are core values. Other uses and interactions, an open pit for instance, are associated with devastation.
The articulation of the two conflicting discourses on the environment does not suggest a dialogue between the two different representations. When it comes to communication, these films are concerned with communicating one perception of the environment, that of the protest movement opposed to the mining industry; they do not communicate the discourses of the pro-mining movement.11
Bringing into question the existence of local people, exemplified by the statement of Clive Sinclair-Poulton, transforms Gállok into a ‘terra nullius’ (Fitzmaurice 2007), an unoccupied area belonging to no one. This discourse legitimises exploitation of the area. It also justifies the area’s use as a potential solution to the shortage of jobs and an increasing need for minerals (cf. Frost 1981).
The question ‘what local people?’ is therefore a strong rhetorical position. It does more than question the presence of a local population and local rights to land and water. Those who feel a strong connection to that particular place find their identity and existence questioned. The short films described in this chapter can be interpreted as a response, an effort to increase the visibility of people in the Sápmi region. The films and stills show locals (presumably) in interaction with nature — not a terra nullius. Human presence in the landscape is almost exclusively represented by local people. The ‘others’ are machines, represented here by an airplane, digging machines, and other heavy equipment. Politicians and leaders from the mining industry are not present on site; they appear in excerpts from the media’s coverage. The human presence involved in the area’s exploitation is, accordingly, toned down and hidden behind machines. This creates a dehumanisation of the mining industry that in itself produces a contrast with the anthropomorphism of nature illustrated in the first part of each video.
Both videos make use of rhetorical techniques to include the audience. The online visitor is not addressed as a passive viewer: at the end of each video, the audience is asked ‘Is this what we need? Is this what we want?’, and is reminded that ‘You can choose — your children and grandchildren cannot’. The use of ‘we’ and ‘you’ explicitly addresses the person watching the video. Thus, the audience is asked to take a side when faced with the two contrasting views of nature and the environment. The use of pronouns such as ‘we’ and ‘our’, however, does not only serve to include the audience. They also express a sense of possessiveness. Still more directly, the question of responsibility is addressed — that is, the mining industry’s and politicians’ irresponsibility. At the end of each of the short films, the question is turned back to the viewer: what is YOUR choice? Take a stand! — that is to say, assume responsibility.
The videos give an illusion of interaction: ‘you’ can choose how the narrative will continue, how it will end. The course of the film is determined, but what will happen next is indeterminate. In Vägvalet, we are invited to contribute to developing the narrative towards a harmonic interplay between humans and nature, by agreeing to ‘join the movement’.
Media Logic
‘Activist media’ (Lievrouw 2011) set themselves apart from traditional communication by being different channels rather than different forms of communication. As has been emphasised in other studies (Altheide 2013), the conceptual logic remains unchanged across media. This media logic is ‘a form of communication and the process through which media transmit and communicate information’ (Altheide 2013, 225). The video clips are examples of tools for communicating points of view and perceptions of nature. They are not isolated; their context, i.e., their origin in activist movements and reactions to prospections in Gállok and in Sápmi, is formed not only by the contemporary debate about the environment and indigenous rights, but also by the media landscape from which they emerge, as well as by a social logic composed by power structures and authorities.
The debate links together different networks of alternative and marginalised voices, authorities and elites. In the videos, one can discern the following networks: Sámi reindeer herders, other locals, environmental activists — through reference to the demonstration in Stockholm — politicians, and the mining industry. Authority and power relations are expressed in the positions given to the actors. Politicians are viewed in settings that denote authority, such as political meetings and conferences. Locals, on the other hand, are portrayed as isolated from larger social contexts, but in their home environment, illustrating traditional knowledge and emic understanding — which also lends authority.
The offline context in which the YouTube clips emerged is yet another aspect to be taken into account. The film by Tor Lundberg Tuorda, for instance, was shown at a demonstration. Tuorda and whatlocalpeople (as a YouTube account and a catch phrase) are closely associated with the coverage of the events of Gállok in the summer of 2013. At that time, neither local nor national media were covering the conflict. The first police actions at the site would have taken place unnoticed had it not been for the cameras and smartphones of activists and locals. Amateur films were posted on YouTube and photos were shared on social media forums, eventually attracting the attention of international and, subsequently, Swedish media.
The issue of exploitation and land rights has, since then, attracted the attention of the mass media and been the topic of several articles in international, national, and local newspapers. It has been the subject of books (Müller 2013; Müller 2015; Tidholm 2012) and national and international television documentaries. Before such attention, the topic was rarely discussed in media or touched upon in public discourse. Emic perspectives were marginalised. Today, even though locals and environmentalists have succeeded in making their voices heard in the mass media, neither these media nor public discourse sufficiently reflect the variety of perspectives on the issue.
The video clips discussed in this chapter operate within the context of a debate about exploitation in Sápmi. They borrow elements from media and political discourses, from demonstrations, and from activism. This entwinement and interplay between the videos and the social logic of the debate illustrate the ‘new social condition’ defined as mediatization, where ‘the media may no longer be conceived as being separate from social and cultural institutions’ (Hjarvard 2013).
The clips make use of principles of form, language, and aesthetics borrowed from other media. Depictions of nature as harmonious, quiet, and rich have connotations similar to those found in advertisements promoting biological products or tourist brochures, for instance. But the videos also copy other media, such as traditional media news channels: the banner at the bottom of the screen, with its informative text, and the chaotic pictures (movement, sound) bring to mind reports from conflict areas. The voice that interrupts Louis Armstrong in Vägvalet suggests a reporter trying to make us pay attention to a live report from the field, thus creating an impression of immediacy.
In terms of affordance and usability (Norman 1999), YouTube facilitates the diffusion of the videos, which can be posted or linked to on other social media platforms — common sharing practices that can result in a quick, free, and large-scale dissemination of information. The short format of the videos and the fact that information about the legislation (the Environmental Code) is given in an accessible way — devoid of legal jargon — also increases the videos’ usability.
Mediatization and media logic imply that short films, such as those studied here, create and are forced into a mode of communication that is familiar, appealing, and recognisable in terms of language and framing. The format of the films makes it apparent that they were produced with limited resources. Thus, even an uninformed viewer would rapidly recognise these videos as the products of activists rather than as the products of the mining industry or a lobby organisation. In a polarised debate such as this one, the ‘home-made’, DIY aspect lends credibility and authenticity to the message that the video clips convey.
The choice of aesthetics, language, and principles of form indicates that the producers prefer to communicate according to the logic and mechanism typical of activist movements, rather than adopt the system mechanisms used by professionals. The media logic of activist media prevails here. This implies that the videos address an audience that recognises and is receptive to this particular logic. Interestingly, although the DIY aspect of these activist initiatives is manifest in the format, some aspects are, on the other hand, ‘borrowed’ from traditional media (the banner, the speaker voice) — as discussed above.
The music in the short videos is another vehicle for perspectives, ideologies, and identities. ‘What a Wonderful World’ and the soundtrack of Our land reinforce the sense of harmony expressed in the photos and moving pictures. The song Staten och kapitalet in the second part of Vägvalet, an anti-capitalist critique of the relation of the state to capitalist corporations, is a Swedish classic. It was created by the Progg-band12 Blå tåget [Blue Train] in 1972. The version used in the video is a cover from 1980s by the Swedish punk band Ebba Grön. The choice of the song in itself conveys an ideology and a message (Arvidsson 2008). Re-emerging in a new context, the song carries power and resonance from the original context (Frandy 2013), creating continuity between anti-capitalist movements of the 1970s and environmental activism in 2013.
The familiar narrative structure of the videos contributes to their affordance. The narratives of the two clips are similar and follow a structure recognisable from oral genres. Borrowing terminology from narrative research (Labov and Waletzky 1967), we can describe this structure as consisting of various phases, including an abstract (an introduction to what the story is about, that is, the traditional use of the land), an orientation (the main actors are local people, the story takes place in Sápmi, in our time), and a complicating action (exploitation). The next phase, the evaluation, tells us about the threats and dangers that arise. The concluding phases (result and coda) are not provided; the story remains incomplete and the viewer is addressed directly, encouraged to influence the final outcome. The course of action is simplified and the actors are depicted, crudely, as good and peaceful or bad and aggressive. Nature is anthropomorphised, while the workers of the mining companies are left out, with the focus being on technique and infrastructure.
Due to the format and the context of the production of short films, it is a challenge to present the complexity of the situation. To some extent, the narratives illustrated in Vägvalet and Our land fail in representing the many actors, the variety of perspectives, the various conditions, and the geographical specificity of different mining projects at play in the debate over exploitation in Sápmi. On the other hand, communicating a message concerning the environment in the format of a short video in participatory media inherently implies and requires a degree of simplification. This is the case in the videos meant to reach out and illustrate the impact of mining in Sápmi.
The anonymous producer(s) of the whatlocalpeople homepage and user of the YouTube account of that same name both stress the utility of participatory media as a benefit. ‘It is a good way to convey a message, by linking […] One can quickly get a knock-on effect’.13 The producer also mentioned the opportunity to be thought-provoking without forcing an interpretation on people. ‘One must make people think, not make things too easy for them — let them put two and two together’.
To achieve this, the producer uses pictures and films, ‘as a complement to text. It can be tiresome to read a compendium. But with pictures, one can create interest in reading that compendium. Like the pictures in opinion pieces in DN [Dagens Nyheter, the national newspaper]’.
When it comes to the participatory aspects of these YouTube videos, it is difficult to determine their impact. Vägvalet had (as of 18 February 2015) no visible comments on YouTube; it had 944 viewings. Our land had 493 viewings and 2 comments to the producer (by 18 February 2015). The videos have been spread on Facebook, a platform more welcoming to comments and responses than YouTube. Interaction through comments, in other words, takes place to a greater extent outside the frame of YouTube. Sharing videos on other platforms, such as Facebook, is indeed in itself a mode of interaction. Although it would be relevant to examine the reception of the videos in relation to the producer’s intention and ambition to reach an audience, this falls outside of the scope of this chapter.
Polarisation or Zone of Contact
One important question in studies of activism and social media is whether social media can create a zone of contact for increased dialogue between the parties in a conflict, or if, on the contrary, social media contribute to a polarisation of the debate by creating spaces primarily for those who are already in agreement with each other.
In the case of this particular study, there is one aspect that one must keep in mind. The general Swedish population has little knowledge of Sámi culture, history, and living conditions. Lack of knowledge is one factor that might complicate the creation of mutual understanding, leading to a polarisation of the debate. From this perspective, any effort aimed at spreading knowledge and information about Sápmi as a cultural landscape, and about its population, would improve people’s understanding of the Sámi perspective on the conflict.
The controversy over mining and exploitation is, however, not only a Sámi issue. It is also an environmental concern, a question of human and indigenous rights. Debates over the opening of new mines are related to specific geographical places. The environment and specific places become common denominators for various groups concerned with the issue — environmentalists, reindeer herders, indigenous rights activists, and locals. The importance of local attachment in framing social movements is articulated in social media. These media play a role in bringing together different groups and interests in activist movements, as happened in the case of the movement against the mining industry. Participatory media are a meeting point where one talks, organises, fetches and spreads information; they facilitate the emergence of networks. From this perspective, social media constitute a zone of contact (cf. Pettersen 2011) for different groups concerned with the same issue.
The question remains, however, whether social media can be a zone of dialogue and exchange for those on opposite sides of a debate.14 The videos, through their aesthetics and principles of form and language, address an audience receptive to arguments about sustainability, environmental preservation, traditional use of natural resources (fishing, berry picking, etc.), and respect for the natural and cultural landscape. The opposite standpoint is depicted in negative terms, with focus on devastation, destruction, disturbance, and greed. As seen from this perspective, the videos do not invite dialogue. Rather, these examples illustrate how participatory media are used for creating a space for marginalised voices and counter discourses, and for diffusion of information.
The videos also address people who are interested in debating the advantages and disadvantages of the mining project as it relates to the wider issue concerning the exploitation of natural resources. At the very least, the videos might ‘make people think’, to quote the producer of whatlocalpeople. The videos invite people to take sides. They give information; they communicate a perspective in an effort to convince. To address such a heterogeneous audience is naturally challenging. The videos elaborate a perception of the environment and of the relationship between landscape and people based on a direct, unmediated experience of nature. Part of the audience might very probably be composed of people who have experienced nature in Sápmi only from a distance. Discourses about, and representations of, a landscape from which the actor is distanced tend to reproduce a ‘coloniser gaze’ (see for instance Jørgensen 2014) as opposed to a local gaze. There is a risk that communicating nature through Internet videos to a broad audience might, thus, create distance to the landscape. The clips are produced from an emic, local perspective, and their context of production (including producers, social context, media logic, and conduits) must necessarily be taken into account if one is to fully understand the relationship between the landscape and people that these clips illustrate and shape.
Conclusions
The short videos do more than provide a narrative about the environment. They can also include, reflect, and shape the debate about mining in Sápmi. They illustrate how, for voices in the margin, participatory media open up alternative modes of outreach communication. These can be means for self-representation, in this case they allow the locals to stress their presence in the landscape and their view about what nature is. The circulation of information which YouTube made possible is primarily a diffusion of information in an effort to raise awareness.
The perception of nature and the environment shaped and narrated in the films focuses on harmony and the interaction between people and landscape that results from traditional land use. The way in which nature is depicted is framed by the need to protect the environment and assume responsibility, particularly now when exploitation threatens its existence.
The videos present polarised narratives. Although these narratives represent two differing views on natural resources, they do so from a single perspective. They represent the point of view of people who have a specific agenda, one of many viewpoints expressed during the debate. Other actors, such as local pro-mining movements, are not represented. This simplification of the debate can be understood as partially rhetorical, a consequence of a media logic and mode, influenced by the choice of media. This chapter’s analysis of the films indicates that their main target audience are those concerned about issues such as environmental preservation.
It would therefore be hazardous to draw conclusions about the potential of participatory media for opening a dialogue or for preventing conflict. But, less than two years after the publication of the first YouTube videos of the kind discussed here, the topic of the mining boom on indigenous land has moved from the periphery to the centre of public debate. Undeniably, extensive use of YouTube, Facebook, Twitter, and blogs during and after the conflict in Gállok has, at the very least, helped trigger this shift.
Internet resources
Videos by Tor Lundberg Tuorda:
The Parasite, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IYM3grMxYJs
Videos by Whatlocalpeople:
Gruvmotståndet trappas upp i Gállok, dag 1, https://www.youtube.com/watch
?v=5Ry06RncwYI
Polisingripande i Kallak, del 3, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YhhFdLvPinU
Other resources
Exhibition
Inland, Västerbottens Museum, http://www.inland.nu
Interviews
Tor Lundberg Tuorda (30 May 2013), personal interview.
Producer of Whatlocalpeople (31 May 2013), personal interview.
1 The research for this paper was financially supported by the Swedish Foundation for Humanities and Social Sciences, Riksbankens Jubileumsfond.
2 Andersson and Cocq, ‘Nature Narrated. A Study of Oral Narratives about Environmental and Natural Disasters from a Folkloristic and Linguistic Ethnographic Perspective’, 2012–2014.
8 Personal interview, 30 May 2013.
9 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IYM3grMxYJs, published on 23 January 2015.
11 A study of how nature is communicated by the pro-mining advocates is not included in this chapter.
12 Progg was a left-wing, anti-commercial musical movement in Sweden in the late 1960s and 1970s.
13 Personal interview, 31 May 2013.
14 Without data about the consumption and reception of the YouTube videos, any discussion of their impact on pro-mining advocates would be hazardous. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Journalism_and_Mass_Communication/The_Environment_in_the_Age_of_the_Internet_(Graf)/1.03%3A_Exploitation_or_Preservation_Your_Choice_Digital_Modes_of_Expressing_Perceptions_of_Nature_and_t.txt |
Anna Roosvall and Matthew Tegelberg
© A. Roosvall and M. Tegelberg, CC BY 4.0 http://dx.doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0096.04
Introduction
This chapter examines how views on natural ecology connect to specific media ecologies. It focuses particularly on activists in organisations working to highlight indigenous perspectives on climate change and the threat climate change poses to many indigenous communities. Of principal concern is how these activists discuss Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) in relation to mainstream/alternative, national/local and non-indigenous/indigenous news media, in analogue as well as digital forms, and the roles indigenous perspectives play in media ecologies where the activists live.
Ecology refers to the relationship between a group of living things and their environment (Merriam-Webster online). The term is most commonly used in relation to the natural and biological sphere, as in the discussion of climate change as a threat to natural ecosystems. Concurrently, there is a tradition in media research that views media as environments in a similar way (Scolari 2013). Much like the diverse flora and fauna that make up any natural ecosystem, media ecologies consist of different forms of media (mainstream, alternative, national, local, online, and offline) and media actors (producers, consumers, intermediaries, etc.). Each possesses varying degrees of power and influence within a particular media ecosystem. The case studied in this chapter reveals how natural and media ecosystems are (dis)connected in mediated communication on climate change.
Climate change is a global issue with particular impacts for indigenous peoples, especially those who rely on natural ecosystems as a primary means of subsistence (see Roosvall and Tegelberg 2015). Indigenous peoples often engage closely with land and waters, practicing livelihoods that depend on nature. In Tebtebba’s (Indigenous Peoples’ International Centre for Policy Research and Education) Guide on Climate Change and Indigenous Peoples, Victoria Tauli-Corpuz1 writes:
Our ancestors and we, the present generations, have coped and adapted to climate change for thousands of years. However, the magnitude and nature of present-day climate change seriously challenges our resilience and our capacities to adapt. We contributed the least to climate change because of our sustainable traditional livelihoods and lifestyles and yet we are the ones who are heavily impacted by it (2009, vii).
The Tebtebba report details climate change impacts on diverging ecosystems and the indigenous groups who live in these areas: the ‘tropical and sub-tropical ecosystems’, ‘semi-arid and arid lands’ (drylands), ‘high altitude and high montane ecosystems’, ‘coastal and marine ecosystem’ (small-island states and low-lying areas), and the ‘arctic ecosystem’. UN reports have likewise discussed the particular threat climate change poses in certain areas where indigenous groups live. Sámi reindeer husbandry, for instance, is a traditional form of sustenance that is threatened by climate change in relation to the Arctic ecosystem in Sápmi (Sámi land: northern Finland, Norway, Russia, and Sweden) (Anaya 2011). Our previous research found that indigenous peoples and their perspectives on these critical issues were underrepresented in media coverage of climate change (Roosvall and Tegelberg 2012, 2013, 2015). These findings contribute to a wider literature on the misrepresentation and marginalisation of indigenous voices in mainstream public discourses in many countries (Avison and Meadows 2000; Knudsen 2006; Anderson and Robertson 2011; Pietikäinen 2003, 2008). This in turn can be related to the media ecologies that indigenous peoples feel they must relate to as they try to make their voices heard on these issues (Roosvall and Tegelberg 2015).
Three aspects of these media ecologies are particularly relevant to this chapter: how mainstream and alternative media work separately and relate to each other; how national and local media work separately and relate to each other; and finally how non-indigenous and indigenous media work separately and relate to each other, which can take place in analogue as well as digital outlets. Mainstream media and alternative media work in different ways, for instance, by citing different sources (Atton 2002; Harcup 2003). This is important for groups, like indigenous peoples, that fall outside of mainstream media sourcing practices (Pietikäinen 2003; Roosvall and Tegelberg 2013, 2015). While sourcing differences can also characterise local media coverage, added distinctions can be made between local and national media (for more on alternative vs. mainstream local media, see Harcup 2003). For instance, there has been a tendency for local journalists to spend less time outside the newsroom, diminishing their encounters with local people more than journalists working for national media (Witschge and Nygren 2009). Another difference is that national media are produced far away from indigenous sites affected by climate change, whereas certain local and regional media are produced closer to these sites. Furthermore, non-indigenous and indigenous media tend to differ in that indigenous media strengthen indigenous identity (Russell 2005; Pietikäinen 2008; Hafsteinsson and Bredin 2010) while non-indigenous media tend to marginalise indigenous peoples (Pietikäinen 2003; Anderson and Robertson 2011).
The categories mentioned frequently overlap so that mainstream media, national media, and non-indigenous media can be used in conjunction to characterise the same media outlets. However, some nations have national indigenous media (e.g., Sweden, Canada). Additional overlap and demarcations can be observed between alternative, local, and indigenous media. While such distinctions and intersections are relevant to this study, we do not intend to map the media systems discussed here. Instead we focus on indigenous activists’ general views on media ecology as well as those particular to the countries and/or regions they inhabit. In the interviews (conducted in 2011) we did not make an explicit distinction between analogue and digital or legacy and social media, but focused on mainstream versus alternative media more generally. Distinctions between analogue and digital as well as legacy and social media will come up in this study to the extent that the interviewees themselves bring it up. We take as a point of departure the distinctions mainstream/alternative, and also national/local and indigenous/non-indigenous media, following results from a previous study (Roosvall and Tegelberg 2015) where the same interviews we analyse here pointed to the relevance of these categories. In the current chapter, we elaborate on and explore these findings further within a media ecology framework, with a focus on how natural ecology is represented by the activists and by the media in this context. We emphasise two key themes: how these activists assess media representations of indigenous issues, indigenous knowledge, and TEK; and what strategies the activists employ to overcome the communication challenges these media ecologies pose for them.
Hence the aim of this chapter is to explore how representations of views on natural ecology are related to the constitution of media ecologies. We are particularly interested in indigenous activists’ perspectives on these issues in their work to spread knowledge about, and influence public opinion on, the effects of climate change on indigenous lands and the planet at large. In order to address these concerns we consider the following questions:
• How do indigenous actors facing critical ecological problems caused by climate change relate to and assess the media’s role in generating awareness of these challenges?
• How are views on natural ecology, and particularly TEK, connected to media ecology, specifically concerning different parts of media ecosystems?
• What types of approaches to climate challenges do interviewees advocate for and how do they envision the media’s role in addressing these problems?
The chapter begins by distinguishing between TEK and Western scientific approaches to climate change. It then presents and discusses media ecology theories. This theoretical discussion provides a framework for the analysis of interviews conducted with indigenous activists at the 2011 UN Climate Summit in Durban, South Africa. The activists call for changes to a news media ecosystem that currently marginalises their voices, in particular their critical perspectives on climate change and knowledge of its impact on natural ecosystems. The interviewees stress the importance of further integration of TEK perspectives into the existing news media ecosystem. We conclude that these changes are urgently needed in order to establish a more democratic and effective means of addressing climate change and avoiding fatal changes to our planetary ecosystems.
Defining Traditional Ecological Knowledge
Traditional Ecological Knowledge is one of the phrases used to identify the environmental knowledge and cultural subsistence practices of indigenous peoples (Eriksen and Adams 2010). Indigenous particularity is sometimes emphasised in the terminology itself, in phrases like ‘indigenous environmental knowledge’ (ibid.). We have chosen to use the term Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) since it recognises the existence of this type of knowledge among indigenous peoples, while not exclusively limiting it to these groups. Definitions of TEK, however, tend to differ according to the worldviews of those who define it (McGregor 2002). In Western thought, TEK is frequently conceptualised as knowledge that exists in a domain separate from the people who possess it. For indigenous peoples, TEK may instead encompass nature, culture, and spirituality: ‘Focus is on relationships between knowledge, people, and all of Creation (the “natural” world as well as the spiritual)’ (McGregor 2002, 8). This relational approach often influences how indigenous peoples relate to and make use of natural resources. Gunvor Guttorm (2011, 69–70) highlights, in a similar way, how the TEK of indigenous Sámi in Sweden is differentiated from other local knowledge in the same region. The main difference being that the indigenous variant includes a spiritual take on the idea that humans are part of nature. Nature, culture, and spirituality intersect in a similar way in, for instance, indigenous Andean worldviews (Apffel-Marglin 1998).
Clarkson, Morrissette, and Regallet (1992) characterise the main divergence in conceptions of ecological knowledge as sacred (indigenous) and secular (Western) perspectives (13). The dominant secular perspective views ecosystems as passive entities that consist of resources that can be endlessly exploited to satisfy human needs (1992, 12). Human thoughts, emotions, and actions are compartmentalised, deemed to exist on a plane separate from the earth’s natural ecosystems. This contrasts with a sacred perspective, which aims to balance the needs of the community with the needs of the individual and the earth. In this relational view, humans do not control natural ecosystems but rather live in a sustainable, harmonious relationship with them (1992, 10). David Suzuki (1997) refers to this as a sacred balance between humans and the natural world that has existed since time immemorial. He stresses that humans depend upon natural ecologies for survival, that they are central to our essence, and that it is only very recently, in the long span of human life, that we began to think otherwise (15–16). This shift, not only in how humans think but also in how we impact our environment, concurs with what is beginning to be recognised as a new geological epoch: the Anthropocene, in which human activities have a significant global impact on the world’s ecosystems (Boykoff and Yulsman 2013, 359), and in the end risk destroying them. Urry (2011) notes that in Western Europe and North America the late 19th century, when nature was irreversibly transformed (which signifies the beginning of this transcendence into the Anthropocene), was also the period when this unfortunate epistemological division between nature and society reached its climax. The same period was also marked by a huge increase in dissemination and visualisation in the media sector, as well as the peak of imperialism with its condescending view of ‘other’ people (Roosvall, 2016).
In a counter-hegemonic move, researchers, policy makers, and activists alike have recently begun to acknowledge that indigenous knowledge can play an important role in understanding and helping to mitigate climate change (Hulme 2009, 81–82; Huntington 2013; Tipa 2009; Tauli-Corpuz et al. 2009). Deborah McGregor observes several cases where TEK has already started to play a role in sustainable development initiatives (McGregor 2002, 2004). However, she notes that key differences in how indigenous and non-indigenous peoples relate to TEK have posed challenges for conservation initiatives that draw insights from both worldviews (see also Tipa 2009). Indigenous peoples with their long tradition of adapting to climate change could lead the way in adaptation initiatives (Tauli-Corpuz et al. 2009), if these challenges are resolved.
Defining Media Ecology
Media ecology and ‘ecology of communication’ are both concepts used to refer to media and communication as an environment. ‘Ecology of communication’ details how information and communication technologies operate and are intertwined with activity (Altheide 1994). Media ecology refers more particularly to the study of media as environments. Both conceptualisations resonate with the general definition of ecology as the relationship between a group of living things and their environment (see Introduction). In this chapter we use the term media ecology in order to underline our interest in studying representations of Traditional Ecological Knowledge in mediated communication, both in terms of its outcomes and its conditions.
Media ecologists study interactions between humans and mediated communication in a range of different historical and cultural contexts (McLuhan 1964; Nystrom 1973; Postman 1985). According to Neil Postman, the words ‘media’ and ‘ecology’ are combined in order to:
[…] make people more conscious of the fact that human beings live in two different kinds of environments. One is the natural environment and consists of things like air, trees, rivers, and caterpillars. The other is the media environment, which consists of language, numbers, images, holograms, and all of the other symbols, techniques, and machinery that make us what we are (Postman 2000, 11)
Like natural environments, the ways in which humans interface with media have profound effects on our thoughts, feelings, and actions (ibid.) in what Mark Deuze (2012) calls ‘media life’. Consequently, media ecologists study these influences by focusing on the structure, content, and impact of a media environment, rather than by isolating one of these factors while neglecting others (Logan 2007, 21). This ecological approach to studying media resonates with TEK’s holistic conception of the relation between knowledge and life. We explore this resemblance here by discussing indigenous activists’ views on the media ecologies that affect their lives and consider how this relates to their views on natural ecology.
Building on this theoretical foundation, Robert Logan (2007) calls for studies that bridge biological nature and media environments. He does this in order to establish that media function as ‘living organisms’. This extends the scope of media ecology beyond the study of interactions between media to encompassing biological nature (2007, 21). In line with TEK, Logan contends that it is not adequate to study biology and culture separately since ‘[…] human evolution is a combination of biological and cultural evolution’ (2007, 21). Just as natural ecosystems must be studied relationally as ‘emergent phenomena’, so too must media ecologists turn their attention toward biology and the nonlinear dynamics that influence media systems. Here the key point is that one cannot possibly isolate certain elements of media or natural ecosystems and study them independently.
Christine Tracy uses these theoretical insights to explain why the prevailing ‘ecology of news’ consistently fails to challenge the existing beliefs of media consumers and producers (2012, 134–135). This occurs in spite of the sophistication of contemporary information and communication technology. It has become increasingly challenging to process the tremendous volume of news and information circulated by news media. Tracy explains that as ‘[…] the amount of information provided increases, its significance and value decreases’ (2012, 136). The consequence is ‘perceptual bias’, a symptom of news overload that causes audiences to only process information that reinforces what they already know. This, as we shall see, poses significant challenges for those concerned with raising awareness of alternative perspectives on environmental issues.
The ‘perceptual bias’ Tracy identifies as a limitation of the prevailing news ecology resonates with the challenges indigenous activists face in trying to get their message across in mainstream media (Roosvall and Tegelberg 2015). In other words, it may be because TEK represents a different worldview that it seldom occupies a central position in the news ecology. Media produced by indigenous activists have however been concluded to be capable of countering prevailing myths and assumptions (Avison and Meadows 2000; Alia 2001; Russell 2005; Pietikäinen 2008; Hafsteinsson and Bredin 2010). A primary aim of indigenous produced media is to resonate more closely with the identities and lived experiences of indigenous peoples. In this chapter, we are not interested in continuing to lament the fact that indigenous peoples are ignored by mainstream media. Instead our focus is on calls made and steps taken by indigenous actors to reform coverage of climate change in the news media ecosystem.
Method and Material
This study focuses on interviews conducted with indigenous activists at COP17 in Durban, South Africa in December 2011.2 During the summit we conducted six interviews with activists from indigenous organisations representing natural ecosystems from across the globe. One interview included two interviewees. The interviewees were:
• Curtis Konek and Jordan Konek of the Inuit Youth Delegation, Arviat, Nunavut, Canada;
• Vibeke Larsen, a Sámi politician from Norway;
• Raymond de Chavez of Tebtebba, an umbrella organisation representing a network of indigenous groups;
• Tito Puanchir, President of the Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of the Ecuadorian Amazon (CONFENIAE);
• Tiina Kurvits of Many Strong Voices, an advocacy organisation that promotes security and sustainability in coastal communities in the Arctic and in small island developing states;
• François Paulette, former Chief of Smith’s Landing First Nation, Northwest Territories, Canada
Some of these organisations are associated with a particular ecosystem: the Inuit Youth Delegation with the Arctic ecosystem and CONFENIAE with ‘tropical and sub-tropical ecosystems’. Others have a mandate that encompasses several ecosystems: Many Strong Voices covers the Arctic as well as ‘coastal and marine ecosystems’ and Tebtebba speaks to the range of different ecosystems inhabited by the indigenous groups this organisation represents. Sámi and First Nations representatives, Vibeke Larsen and François Paulette, account for large national territories with several ecosystems. In Vibeke Larsen’s case, the Arctic is significant because of the Sámi’s representation on the Arctic council. Climate change continues to have severe impacts across the northern regions of the Nordic countries and parts of Western Russia, which together constitute the traditional Sámi territories (Sápmi). Climate and ecosystems are mixed in Norway. Part of Norway is situated within an Arctic (tundra) climate, part in a subarctic climate and a boreal ecosystem, etc. Similarly, François Paulette’s community lies in Canada’s vast northern boreal forest ecosystem, one of the world’s largest carbon basins.
The interviews took place either outside the official summit halls in an NGO tent or at the main entrance where some of the activists were demonstrating. We posed four basic questions about climate change, media reporting, and indigenous peoples:
• What do you think about media coverage of indigenous peoples and climate change?
• Is there a difference between mainstream media and alternative media reporting on indigenous peoples and climate change?
• Do you have an opinion on how media coverage could be improved?
• Do you have advice for media researchers on how to approach these issues in future research?
We focus here on the first three questions (for elaboration on question 4, please see Roosvall and Tegelberg 2015), taking Alan Bryman’s (1996, 46) position that open-ended interviews help to facilitate analysis of social matters from the perspectives of the actors involved. In accordance with this emphasis on the perspectives of interviewees, we use extensive quotes from our open-ended interviews to ensure that the voices of our respondents are heard.
Our interview analysis draws on critical discourse analysis in order to describe structures of texts (in this case transcribed talk) and relate them to social, political, and cultural contexts (see van Dijk 2000). We focus on what can be termed key themes or topics (Berglez 2008; van Dijk 1988, 2000).3 These are distinguished with the help of our theoretical approach and categorised accordingly into two groups of statements: one relating to natural ecology and the other relating to media ecology. The themes are subsequently discussed with attention to power relations. In particular, power relations concerning diverging views on ecology (for instance TEK vs. Western knowledge) and power relations between indigenous people and the media. In distinguishing themes, Olausson (2009, 424) asks ‘which themes and topics — e.g., statements, discussions, questions, arguments — are granted prominence (in a hierarchical order)’ (see also Berglez 2008; van Dijk 1988). We apply this approach to the interviewees’ responses to our questions, and focus on how themes and topics (statements, discussions, questions, arguments) are granted prominence, within the frames of the theoretically determined themes, media ecology vs. natural ecology, and how subthemes are related to these frames.
The discussion of results follows the thematic methodological approach and is thereby divided into two main parts. The first focuses on statements concerning the natural ecosystems threatened by climate change and steps taken by indigenous peoples to defend these threatened territories. The second part concerns statements regarding the news media ecology and its limitations.
The interview analysis is combined with analysis of materials collected through basic participant observation (Iorio 2011) at the summit. In this chapter we will evoke those parts of our participatory observation that included collection of material and documentation of the communicative environment of the interviewees, mainly focusing on their booths in the NGO tent.4 Photographs can be used as part of visual methodology, for instance in the form of photo documentation (Rose 2011). We have used a basic form of this here, documenting how the activists themselves communicate through material displayed in their booths as well as how they present themselves in official performances. We use some of this material to contextualise and add to the interview material.
Analysis
Talking about Traditional Ecological Knowledge
In interviews with indigenous activists from areas with diverging natural ecologies, we observed a pattern of recognising a balance, sometimes framed as a sacred balance, with the natural environment that has endured for generations. Each interviewee alludes to the importance of maintaining a holistic relationship with a particular natural ecosystem; that is, they allude to central features of Traditional Ecological Knowledge.
Without naming it explicitly, Tito Puanchir (CONFENIAE) explains how TEK informs relations between Amazonian indigenous peoples and the natural world.5 Puanchir says:
[…] we live in the Amazon jungle and we have territories where there is lots of biodiversity with natural resources like water and air. We have an intimate relation with nature, with all living things. This is the reason why we care for the environment, why we give back with benevolence instead of destroying it, which we do not think is a good approach. How one manages the environment depends on how one understands it.
There is no separation between nature, culture, and spirituality in this Amazonian worldview. Local decisions about how to use the land stem from this holistic understanding. Puanchir proceeds to elaborate on the ways in which this intimate relationship with the natural world informs community decisions regarding the management and conservation of resources:
I believe our ancestors foresaw what was going to happen. They performed a ritual in front of the waterfall; a place where they went to find strength, to better understand the world, what is happening and what will come to pass in the future. They used that knowledge, as well, to manage existing resources […] for us, the waterfall is sacred […] our god rests in that place and protects the jungle. If we intervene massively, if we chop down the trees and contaminate the water, all of these things and all these beings will disappear […] we will be left with nothing.
In this worldview, resource management processes are informed by consultation with the natural world itself. Rupturing this sacred balance between humans and the local ecology places the health and spiritual well-being of the Amazonian community at risk.
The essence of Puanchir’s statements corresponds to what Guttorm (2011) underlines as the feature that distinguishes Sámi views on TEK from other local perspectives; namely that it includes a spiritual dimension. This view is reminiscent of the Andean worldview detailed by Frederique Apffel-Marglin (1998). Indigenous approaches to human-nature relationships thus seem to transcend ecosystems, as the Sámi mainly connect to the Arctic, Puanchir to the tropical/subtropical ecology, and Andean views to high altitude and high montane ecosystems.
When asked how to raise better awareness of the climate challenges Amazonian indigenous peoples must confront, Puanchir places emphasis on intergenerational education that integrates TEK:
We are also working on a bilingual, intercultural Amazonian educational curriculum which we want to transform into a formal education system to help children learn how to protect and care for the jungle. This is for children from birth and for new parents who must encourage children to know and develop a relationship with nature from birth through their academic formation.
Taken together these statements attest to the importance of TEK for past, present, and future generations. The past is evoked through a focus on ancestors and ancient spiritual rituals; the present through statements on deforestation and contemporary strategies to stop such practices; and, the future, in Puanchir’s emphasis on planning new curricula that help children and new parents become conscious of the importance of preserving a sacred balance with nature.
Fig. 4.1 Inuit Youth Delegation Booth in the NGO tent
This bridging of past, present, and future was mirrored at the Inuit Youth Delegation’s booth in the NGO tent (Figure 4.1). A storyboard containing a series of picture panels draws attention to ongoing changes in the relations between Inuit and the Arctic ecosystem. The first panel, labelled ‘past’, depicts community members practicing TEK. Pictures associated with the past feature two hunters cleaning a caribou, a dog team traveling across the frozen Arctic tundra, and other images depicting traditional foods. Pictures of the present depict change as well as continuity with the past. Change is represented by a picture of young people crowded around a computer and another of a supermarket aisle lined with boxes of Kraft dinner. The adjacent images show continuity with the past, connecting present and past in accordance with TEK: we see a young man at work cleaning a caribou, and an elder showcasing her handicrafts. Pictures from past and present stand in sharp contrast to the empty panels under the label ‘future’. The blank panels attest to the uncertainty that surrounds TEK’s future role in the Arctic ecosystem due to the impacts of climate change. Rapid changes in the Arctic ecosystem are eroding the balanced relation between Inuit and their natural surroundings. Risks to the natural ecosystem, in other words, are directly correlated with community health risks.
Our interview with Curtis Konek of the Inuit Youth Organization underlines the conflict between TEK and Western science and stresses that aspects of TEK are not granted sufficient attention (see also Roosvall and Tegelberg 2015). Vibeke Larsen, a Sámi Representative with the Norwegian Delegation, alludes to a conflict between TEK and Western science in a similar way. Larsen comments on the impact renewable energy projects are having on the traditional reindeer herding territories they encroach upon in northern Norway. She says:
[…] they have to take some reindeer inland to build this [windmills] and you have to build roads into it and all the wires. So you have to take a lot of land. Then they come into conflict with the Sámi reindeer herding and you are in conflict between climate and the traditional way to live. So that’s where the Sámi parliament comes in […] we consult with the Norwegian society, how can we do this without too much influence on the reindeer herding but still have the green energy because it [sic] will benefit, we will benefit in the long term from green energy. So it’s a hard place for the Sámi parliament because we want to be responsible for society, we want to be responsible for our future, and, at the same time, we have to take care of our old culture and the reindeer herding. (See also Roosvall and Tegelberg 2015)
Here Larsen identifies conflicts that can arise between two different climate-friendly initiatives: the former linked to Western scientific strategies for adaptation and mitigation (a national wind energy project); and the latter rooted in TEK (traditional reindeer herding) (see also Roosvall and Tegelberg 2015). The statement underscores that even development initiatives widely viewed as climate-friendly may create conditions that pose added threats to locally practiced TEK. A holistic view helps underline that all of these ‘side-effects’, and how they in turn may disturb ecosystems, need to be taken into consideration.
Raymond de Chavez of Tebtebba says:
[…] indigenous peoples have really managed and conserved forests through generations, so when you talk of REDD indigenous peoples should be central to the whole discussion. And so we are [trying] to ensure that indigenous concerns are included in the REDD architecture.
REDD, a UN programme, is short for Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation. When combined with the new REDD+ initiative, a climate change mitigation solution, this programme includes the issues of deforestation and forest degradation as well as the role of conservation, enhancement of forest carbon stocks and sustainable forest management.6 Raymond de Chavez stresses that indigenous peoples’ TEK perspective on the management and conservation of forests means they should be at the centre of REDD policy discussions. Yet, as de Chavez implies, this knowledge is rarely considered. Similar conflicts have been noted in the Australian context where Aboriginal and conservation interests have been polarised (Adams 2004). Michael Adams (2004) notes, however, that collaborations can bridge these gaps while at the same time bridging gaps between non-indigenous and indigenous peoples more generally.
François Paulette identifies an economic aspect of ecological conflicts by describing how national economic interests in Canada threaten the boreal ecosystem: ‘[…] they [the Canadian government] are increasing the tar sands output which will destroy more environment […] the river, the people’. Paulette invokes TEK to suggest that Canadians should become more ecologically conscious. He urges Canadians to ‘[…] have more of a conscience, not a political conscience but more of an environmental conscience, more of a spiritual conscience about the land, the earth and us human beings’ (emphasis added). Tina Kurvits of Many Strong Voices echoes the point that the scope of TEK does not have to be limited to indigenous peoples. For example, she explains that ‘[…] in Newfoundland, there are no indigenous people […] but the Newfoundlanders have been there for centuries so local knowledge is really important. If you’ve been there for three, four hundred years you know something more than a government scientist coming in for the first time’. Kurvits points to local knowledge as part of TEK, which corresponds with Guttorm’s (2011) aforementioned approximation of indigenous and local knowledge. The exception being that local knowledge, in Guttorm’s view, does not include a spiritual angle on the holistic human-nature relation.
Indigenous Perspectives on Media Ecologies
While none of the interviewees make explicit references to media ecology in their comments on media coverage, many stress that what we term the news media ecology should be enhanced to raise greater awareness of ecological issues. Interviewees speak of the limitations of a national news ecology dominated by mainstream media, which reinforces the status quo and rarely makes room for indigenous perspectives or knowledge of climate change. They also comment on the ways in which their own media practices, situated within diverse news ecologies, attempt to create dialogue and generate awareness of these issues.
When asked about coverage of indigenous perspectives on climate change, Tina Kurvits of Many Strong Voices, the organisation focused on Arctic communities as well as small island states, stresses that: ‘[…] in the mainstream media we’re not seeing an awful lot […] once in a while there might be something but it tends to focus on say the polar bears, as opposed to the impact on the people that would be hunting bears or that are dependent on the wildlife on the land. So overall […] I’m certainly not overwhelmed by it [the coverage]’. When indigenous perspectives are featured in climate stories, Kurvits suggests they fall under two categories. The story is either sensational, and therefore picked up by mainstream media for its dramatic appeal, or the scope of the coverage is limited to local or regional news media.
Regarding the attention that does occur in some instances Kurvits says: ‘[…] it tends to be when there is a dramatic event, it’s not really about making connections to what climate means to people living in these regions that are immediately affected by it and that are really dependent on their immediate environment’. She adds later that: ‘[…] when you see things being covered [in Canada] it would be more in say the northern papers, or in the papers from the regions’. Kurvits implies here that it is national rather than local or regional coverage that is ideal. This, as we shall soon see, is something several interviewees indicate without making it explicit.
Kurvits is also critical of the news media’s failure to make the connection between climate change and the livelihoods of the indigenous peoples it affects. She goes on to explain that this shortcoming was the catalyst for ‘Portraits of Resilience’ (http://www.manystrongvoices.org/portraits/), a campaign that has generated some media attention. However, she notes that these events tend to draw more attention from alternative and local media than they do from mainstream outlets. Kurvits’ organisation Many Strong Voices features a celebrity endorsement (from Richard Branson) as a banner that appears above all its webpages. This reinforces points Kurvits makes in the interview about having to stage sensational media events (the example she gives is bringing together iconic indigenous and island state leaders in the same place) in order to get the mainstream media to pay any attention to the issues.
Alison Anderson (2013) notes that the practice of using celebrities to capture media attention for, in this case, climate change in the Arctic, can be very effective. Yet, at the same time, the intended message can become altered or even disappear. This coincides with our own findings from studies of media reporting on indigenous peoples and climate change (Roosvall and Tegelberg 2012, 2013): indigenous activists seem to get the most attention if they stand out by wearing traditional clothing, but this focus on cultural identity tends, at the same time, to either alter the political messages they try to deliver or make them disappear. The media focus on the clothing is parallel to the sensationalism in this sense. Our basic participant observations showed that many indigenous activists wear traditional clothing (wholly or partly) at public events like demonstrations and press gatherings, as well as when they tend to their booths in the NGO area. As we have mentioned elsewhere (Roosvall and Tegelberg 2015), the Inuit Youth Delegation quickly changed into traditional clothing after arriving late for a press event (due to a traffic jam) wearing jeans and sneakers.
Fig. 4.2 Press event with the Inuit Youth Delegation in the NGO tent
Fig. 4.3 Tito Puanchir of the Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of the Ecuadorian Amazon being interviewed by Matthew Tegelberg in the NGO tent
The purpose of mentioning the connection between the media’s focus on traditional clothing and the simultaneous downplaying of politics that is often noticeable in articles is not meant to indicate that indigenous peoples should not wear traditional clothing in order to have their political messages respected, but rather to identify what seems like a pattern in media reporting. It is this pattern of media representations, rather than indigenous self-representations, which must be scrutinised.
Like Kurvits, above, several other activists reiterate the negligence of mainstream national media in reporting indigenous perspectives on climate change. At the same time, the consensus is that it is mainstream and national media attention that these indigenous activists seek. Jordan Konek of the Inuit Youth Delegation discusses the importance of the CBC, the national Canadian broadcaster, and its lack of coverage of indigenous issues/perspectives:
CBC National should be around here because they are [...] known for really getting the idea out. I mean they are pretty much the deal, if they wanna spread something they’ll spread it and the Canadians will find out what’s going on [...] I think that CBC News — The National [the flagship news program] should have been here, or they should be here, filming these kind of things because we are the people that are experiencing the problems and they should spread it.
Jordan Konek underlines the importance of the mainstream national media. He proceeds to elaborate further, explaining that:
[…] the best way to improve media is to share, share what’s most important. If media, let’s say CBC and CTV [Canada’s largest privately owned TV network] shared […] because this [climate change] is a serious issue [...] that is gonna affect our lives in the future and if they share it together instead of competing against each other I think that would be the best way to improve their media skills, only they’ll do what they like.
Jordan Konek echoes the concerns raised by Kurvits about the lack of attention mainstream Canadian media pay to the Inuit people affected by climate change. CBC News — The National is a nightly news broadcast that Konek identifies as the primary agenda setter in the Canadian news media ecology. He concludes that national mainstream media, like the CBC and CTV, need to relate to each other in new ways; that is, they need to stop competing and start sharing. Without this collaboration it is unlikely Canadians will be informed of the local challenges Inuit are facing in the Arctic. The statement criticises the established media ecology and calls for a new, differently balanced one.
After criticising Canada’s mainstream media for failing to generate awareness of Arctic climate change, Jordan and Curtis Konek discuss their own strategies of communicating via social media.
Curtis Konek: We blog when we feel like blogging and we blog when we hear something interesting from an elder [...].
Jordan Konek: A lot of the films that I’ve put together are on the Nanisiniq website (http://nanisiniq.tumblr.com/), where we post [...] the views that we’re getting are pretty good and the blogs we’re gonna be posting a lot more of it. And I’m gonna be putting a blog sometime this week talking about what I think about coming here and to see how I feel about seeing other walks of life cause this is completely different from my culture, so yeah, we’re gonna be sharing lots about Durban.
They emphasise the importance of ‘sharing knowledge’, explaining how community members have begun using social media platforms (YouTube, Tumblr, Twitter) to document and share indigenous knowledge of climate change.
François Paulette suggests that efforts to raise awareness of indigenous issues in mainstream media are futile since they represent the interests of corporate stakeholders. He says that the ‘Mainstream media are conservative […] It [sic] supports the views of right-wing leaders, sides with industry […] most of the papers in the world are right wing conservative papers so they reflect the profile of industry and governments rather that the people’. Paulette thus underscores the political leanings of most mainstream media outlets and highlights their connection to corporations and governments. His statements scrutinise the same mainstream media from which most interviewees want attention. He problematises the ecology of the national news media system further as he talks about indigenous media on the national level, when he mentions Aboriginal Peoples Television Network (APTN) as an alternative to dominant mainstream narratives about climate change and its effects on indigenous peoples. The national media ecology does in fact encompass indigenous programming and channels in some countries like Canada (and Sweden, Norway, etc.), but this is seldom taken into consideration when the national media ecology is discussed.
Larsen echoes Paulette’s critique of mainstream media coverage: ‘The mainstream media in Norway don’t cover indigenous problems anyway. So they cover climate changes but they don’t cover the indigenous aspect in the climate change’. The mainstream media ignore particular experiences of climate change in northern indigenous communities that are marginalised in Norwegian media generally. Larsen stresses that one of the key problems is that large, corporate media do not know anything about indigenous peoples and that they should make more of an effort to get to know indigenous peoples and understand their perspectives. Larsen does not address the issue of alternative media much, aside from noting that there are two main types of Sámi media: Sámi radio and print media. It is interesting that these come up as alternative media, where alternative is likely understood as an alternative to non-indigenous media. Such non-indigenous media is media that indigenous groups must relate to. As our interviews show, indigenous activists try to balance the bias of non-indigenous media by offering other perspectives, either from within or outside these media.
One way of offering other perspectives is to become the media, much like the strategies the Koneks discuss above. Raymond de Chavez from Tebtebba mentions having a Twitter account and using digital social media (Twitter and Facebook) to get the message out. He also discusses how the organisation uses email and social media platforms to stay in touch. These communication technologies are essential for transnational organisations, like Tebtebba, that do not have the bankroll to bring together widely dispersed group members. While becoming the media is a strategy for many activists, and one that often takes place in the realm of digital social media within the wider media ecology, the importance of legacy media is consistently underlined in parallel with these online and social media practices.
Tito Puanchir talks further about the importance of raising consciousness among local Amazonian communities by using not only digital, but also local, legacy media to disseminate information:
[…] in the first place information is power […] we have, through the national government, started to work with communities toward implementing Internet and telephones and we want this to eventually cover all the communities of the Amazon. Another strategy is to widen the scope of coverage on indigenous radio, so they can broadcast on what is happening in the communities in their own languages […] [At] the universities […] we want to create virtual classrooms so that information can be known throughout the country. For example in places that are difficult to access, we need to cooperate with the universities but we don’t have the resources to do this on our own.
Puanchir relates to multiple geographical levels when he talks about the media ecology. The national is important since governments need to be involved, and so are the local communities where radio can be broadcast in local languages. Puanchir thus brings up a crucial feature of the media ecologies: language. This is something that could be added to the divisions we made initially: to mainstream vs. alternative, national vs. local, and non-indigenous vs. indigenous media, and the different ways in which they intersect. Thus we add national language (and ‘global English’ media) vs. local indigenous language media and consider how this distinction intersects with the others. Distinctions are also made by the interviewees between social media and mainstream media, as mentioned in the examples of media strategies applied by de Chavez and the Koneks. When asked about possible differences between mainstream and alternative media, several interviewees associated alternative media with social media (see also Roosvall and Tegelberg 2015). While these media were seen as significant for representing the voices of indigenous peoples, they were not seen as sufficient for bringing the messages to wider audiences.
Conclusions
This chapter has detailed how natural and media ecosystems are (dis)connected in mediated communication on climate change. Across the interviews, a number of subthemes emerge in statements interviewees make about the ecology of news and how it relates to views on natural ecology, particularly their own views on Traditional Ecological Knowledge. These subthemes can be identified: the crucial role of national mainstream media; the crucial role of indigenous media (these roles are inherently different yet connected to each other); and a perceived conflict between TEK and Western views and practices. The most common subtheme, ‘the crucial role of national mainstream media’, includes the contention that national mainstream media fail to adequately represent indigenous perspectives. This concern is identified, at least implicitly, by each of the indigenous activists we interviewed. Vibeke Larsen implies that the mainstream media are not even aware of what indigenous perspectives encompass. Others, like François Paulette, contend that ignoring these perspectives is politically and economically motivated. Hence media logic in the mainstream realm of the news ecology is strongly connected to power. In the prevailing media ecology, it is necessary to connect to this power if a message is to be widely heard and respected. Consequently, it makes sense that all the actors share the consensus that getting indigenous voices and views into the mainstream media is crucial for raising awareness of the issues they face. Some interviewees, however, point to the need for a re-balancing of current media ecologies — which unlike natural ecologies are constructed ecologies closely connected to distribution of means — as some of the traits of the second subtheme, ‘the crucial role of indigenous media’, reveals.
Regarding ‘the crucial role of indigenous media’, many interviewees refer to examples of indigenous-produced media designed to respond to a lack of interest in indigenous views in mainstream media. The significance of this subtheme in the interview material can be summed up as follows: firstly, it demonstrates the limitations of mainstream media coverage of climate change, which mostly ignores indigenous perspectives and experiences in addition to content produced by indigenous media. Secondly, it points to an imbalance in prevailing news media ecologies that justifies calls for reform or even a complete restructuring with new boundaries: changes that make room for these neglected perspectives to be articulated more widely. Finally, among interviewees, alternative media seems to mean producing your own content on digital social media platforms; indigenous actors turn to these platforms (examples given include Twitter, YouTube, blogs, and Tumblr) to disseminate their own messages.
However, most interviewees do not seem confident that the message has a wide enough impact when limited to alternative and social media channels. Hence the questions that remain are: To what extent is the general public exposed to media produced by indigenous actors? Should indigenous peoples be solely responsible for their own media coverage? What adaptations can be made to mainstream media ecologies to help indigenous activists bringing their stories to the public? Or conversely, and more importantly, how can mainstream media adapt to the urgency of climate change by giving a voice to indigenous activists and their perspectives on natural ecologies?
The third subtheme concerning ‘a perceived conflict between TEK and Western views/practices’ is strongly connected to the first two subthemes. There is an urge to share indigenous perspectives, and especially TEK approaches, with the rest of the world in order to save the planet at the global and the local (their own communities or territories) scale. In order to share these perspectives, mainstream media are still deemed necessary. Similarly, local or national indigenous media are considered the channels where these perspectives can be shared. However, as previously noted, this media is often produced in indigenous languages. This is important per se but, at the same time, limits the scope of this coverage to local audiences (except for the few nation-states where indigenous groups are dominant). Hence the perceived conflict between diverging perspectives on nature and ecology, particularly concerning the human-nature relationship and conservation, is mirrored in a conflict between mainstream national and indigenous local media. Thus, we can conclude that these subthemes create connections between the main media ecology theme and the natural ecology theme, indicating that they are intertwined through the particular disconnection of TEK views on natural ecology from the mainstream national non-indigenous news ecology, whether this is expressed in analogue or digital platforms.
Mike Hulme (2009) notes that climate change is not only an environmental but also a cultural and political phenomenon. It is reshaping the ways we understand ourselves as human beings and our place in the world, much as the ‘media life’ we live (Deuze 2012) and the media ecologies that surround us help shape our thoughts. In a world threatened by climate change, there is a balance in natural ecologies that must not be disturbed (but has already been disturbed), while there is an imbalance in media ecologies that must be disturbed so that it becomes more inclusive of indigenous voices and traditional ecological knowledge on a level that reaches large audiences. Our results indicate the potential for reshaping dominant perceptions of climate change through reshaping media ecologies bounded by nation-states. To achieve this these ecologies must be more inclusive of indigenous voices and perspectives and less focused on the nation-state level as a naturalised level of understanding climate change. In addition, they must move beyond the nation-state hegemony’s connections to modernity, which downplay holistic views on human-nature relationships. Such developments can, in turn, play a positive role in preserving the natural ecologies that are currently threatened by climate change. By marginalising indigenous perspectives on climate change, journalists have missed an opportunity to gain valuable insights and foster critical dialogue between communities with divergent views on how to respond to climate change. If one thing is certain, despite differences in the national media ecologies and natural ecologies that these indigenous activists relate to, the interviewees each offer similar takes on the complete disconnect between their own views on natural ecology and those represented in prevailing media ecologies.
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1 Victoria Tauli-Corpuz is now United Nations Special Rapporteur on the rights of indigenous peoples. She is an indigenous leader from the Kankanaey Igorot people of the Cordillera Region in the Philippines. She was the chair of the UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, 2005–2010.
2 The same interviews are referred to in an article on media geographies of climate justice (Roosvall and Tegelberg 2015). The focus here, however, is different. We highlight ecological aspects of media and nature and how these may intersect, rather than focusing on how aspects of justice are intertwined with geographical scales. We chose the umbrella term ‘indigenous activists’ to refer to the interviewees. However, differences within the group make them connect to this term to varying degrees. While she is not of indigenous descent, Tina Kurvits works for an organisation advocating for justice for Arctic communities and small island states, which are mostly constituted by indigenous peoples. Vibeke Larsen, in turn, is a politician with the Sami parliament that works within the Norwegian delegation. All interviewees are united by their advocacy for indigenous rights in relation to climate change.
3 In Berglez’s (2008) and van Dijk’s (1988) accounts, thematic analysis is merely one part of critical discourse analysis. It is generally combined with schematic analysis, micro-analysis of texts, and analysis of the sociocultural context. Because schematic analysis is suited to manufactured texts, particularly media texts, rather than utterances in interviews, it is not considered here (although we do of course pay attention to utterances that are emphasized by interviewees). We connect loosely to the microanalysis of texts by paying attention to power relations. However, the bulk of our emphasis is at the thematic level, where we distinguish how natural and media ecology themes are constructed by interviewees. The sociocultural context is addressed in the contextualization of our results.
4 Our previous research (Roosvall and Tegelberg 2015) elaborates on the experience of taking part in press events organised by these organisations.
5 The interview with Puanchir was originally conducted in Spanish and later translated into English by Matthew Tegelberg. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Journalism_and_Mass_Communication/The_Environment_in_the_Age_of_the_Internet_(Graf)/1.04%3A_Natural_Ecology_Meets_Media_Ecology-_Indigenous_Climate_Change_Activists_Views_on_Nature_and_Med.txt |
Heike Graf
© Heike Graf, CC BY 4.0 http://dx.doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0096.05
This chapter examines ‘ordinary’ people’s media communication about environmental issues. I have chosen the example of garden blogs. They fall under the category of topic-centred blogs; themes concerning gardens and gardening are expected and communicated through narratives, comments, and images. Based on approximately fifty Swedish and German blogs and a qualitative, difference-theoretical analysis, I want to examine how they communicate ecological concerns from the angle of gardeners’ everyday ‘banalities’. To this end, I examine the communicative patterns which increase the likelihood of interconnected communication within the blogosphere, patterns which, in turn, create virtual collectives, and can support ecological roles in the garden. Blog entries relate to the blog’s own mode of operation and that of its network, meaning that the topics addressed are those that have the potential quality of ‘embracing’ all the people interested in the network. As a result, blog entries addressing ecological concerns focus on topics of consumption and production through the communication frames of pleasure, enthusiasm, and mutual agreement.
Garden Blogs
Blogging has been described as a publishing revolution, and has become, as a result, a topic of interest within media research. The bulk of existing blog research focuses on issues such as the relationships between bloggers and the public sphere, or bloggers and journalism in order to understand the increasing influence of weblog authors on public opinion. Researchers have also addressed gender and identity issues, as well as media genre issues, educational purposes, and relationships within blog communities (e.g., Gurak et al. 2004; Lopez 2009; Lüders et al. 2010; Pole 2010; van Doorn et al. 2007; Schmidt 2007; Siles 2012).
Garden blogs, however, belong to the sphere of domestic blogs. Compared to other domestic blogs, such as craft, fashion, and interior décor blogs, the presence of garden blogs on the Internet is still relatively limited (Bosch Studie 2011). According to the commercial study Global Garden Report 2010, gardening blogging is popular in Scandinavia (as well as in the USA, UK, and China), but less popular in the German-speaking countries (the study mentions Austria and Switzerland, and presumably it also applies to Germany). Swedish gardening bloggers are largely women, as noted in the report. There are no statistics on German gardening bloggers, but here I would also assume that most of the bloggers are women.
The oldest garden blog, written in Swedish, originated in 2005, but most blogging activity has occurred since 2008, and most blogs are situated within a blog host, such as blogspot.com. Often in the form of a diary, one engages in the act of blogging when they add ‘posts’ to their weblog. They give insight to their thoughts and post pictures for others, allowing their audience to read these entries and provide feedback through enabled comment functions.
Approximately 50 more-or-less regularly updated garden blogs, 25 written in Swedish and 25 in German, comprised this study. In selecting the blogs, I used criteria, such as identifying hobby gardeners, that catch a certain variety of popular and somewhat popular blogs; gender is also a criterion, although most garden bloggers are female. Of the examined blogs, 50% were created by females, 30% by men, and 20% by couples. Finally, the examined garden bloggers are ordinary people who possess a small or large garden to cultivate vegetables, fruits, trees, and flowers. Since it is their hobby, they mostly garden for pleasure. In line with many other bloggers, they see blogging as an activity pursued for enjoyment (Lenhart 2006, 7).
The blogs selected for this study are a mixture of well-established and more recent blogs, with differing numbers of frequent readers (e.g., subscribers on blogspot.com). Some of these blogs attract from 50 to 400 followers, with others drawing more than 1,000 visitors per month. Depending on the type and intensity of the prevailing network, Jan Schmidt (2006) distinguishes between strong and weak ties. Strong ties are characterised by manifold relationships, for instance, knowing someone not only from virtual life but also from ‘real’ life, as a friend and/or relative. Looking at the comments on the entries, it is often obvious that relatives and/or close friends follow the entries. These ties make it easier to express solidarity and to give emotional support within virtual network communication. In contrast, weak ties mainly serve as information exchange, and in some ways establish mutual influence. According to Schmidt, those actors who are heavily involved in networks and their participants are also connected to each other, and have a ‘bonding social capital’ (Schmidt 2006, 52).
I do not want to examine what the blogs are about so much as how they address ecological issues (see also recent articles by Haider 2015, and Smith 2015), and how they are shaped in order to increase the likelihood of interconnected communication. Thus, and according to systems theory as described below, I examine the own mode of operation of the blogosphere in order to understand how ecological issues find resonance (see the foreword in this volume), or not, in the blogosphere.
To answer my research question, I first made a list of all the topics addressed in each blog. Second, I sorted out the topics that did not deal with ecological issues. And third, I took a closer look at the topics that remained to understand how they are conditioned (a term I explain below). At first glance, the use of images differs. Hence, I divide the blogs into two types: (1) images, especially photos used as illustrations of texts, which represents approximately two-thirds of the examined blogs; and (2) photos that constitute the main content of the blog, which is then called a photo blog.
I have remained outside of this blogosphere as a ‘lurker’, that is, as a passive audience member. However, I have had access to posted comments when they were openly published. The entries that I analyse were posted between 2007 and 2014.
Environmental Communication from a Systems-Theoretical Perspective
This chapter is based on the theoretical perspective of operational constructivism, which considers posted content as always the result of a selection process of possible entries and images made by an observer, not by the world itself. Here, the observer perspective becomes central. Observing is complex and related to the own mode of operation, that is, to oneself, the content of the perceived information or undertaken activity, and also to the perceived blogosphere as such. It is a construction of meaning made by an observer and, therefore, contingent. But it is not arbitrary, and it is influenced by expectations, preconditions, and finally by what one's own consciousness and perception provide for meaning production (Luhmann 1987, 217).
According to this approach, the non-human environment, i.e. nature, can only be a subject when it is communicated about in the manner described in the introduction to this volume. According to Niklas Luhmann, we take notice of nature when we are irritated or disturbed by it in some way. This communicative reaction is called resonance. By means of our own modes of operation, we try to react to those disturbances. For example, the garden blogger presents methods of getting rid of pests, as I will show below.
In different contexts or (in the terminology of systems theory) different systems, communication can only be addressed according to communicative patterns society, or the blogosphere, or the media have established. In the news media, for example, communication about ecology in general and sustainability in particular is mainly associated with problems and dangers (e.g., Foust et al. 2009).
Difference-Theoretical Approach
Systems theory begins with a difference and not with a ‘unity, a cosmology, a concept of the world or of being’ (Luhmann 2013, 44). Difference means that one indicates one thing rather than another. It derives from the observer’s perspective, which builds on differences. Observing means to draw distinctions. Difference also applies to the definition of systems. We cannot speak of systems without recognising that they are separated from something, that is, from their environment. For example, it is not possible to speak of blogging if we cannot distinguish it from other forms of communication. On the basis of this separation, the system, and here the blogosphere, obtains its unity and therefore the possibility to operate on its own. As a result, systems are operationally closed, but must also be sensitive to the general environments in which they function. They cannot exist without an environment.
Systems theory avoids essentialism. It maintains that the world itself does not contain any information. For example, a blog entry about the benefits of wildflower-rich lawns says more about the blogger’s sense-making than about the actual lawn. ‘Information is information for an observer’ (Fuchs 2001, 17). It is not information if the observer cannot connect to it. To connect to it, the observation must mean something to an observer (in my case to the blogger). This applies to both those who write blogs, and to those who read them.
If we apply a difference-theoretical approach to my field of study, we have to admit that we cannot say anything about what the blog-writing gardener really does in the garden — even if the blog is decorated with a lot of garden images and seems to display the garden’s reality. However, we can say something about the relationship of the gardener-observer to that which he or she observes. As I have argued elsewhere (Graf 2012), it becomes obvious that the blog entries we examine are related to the blogger’s preferences, to the blog as a genre and as a network, and to the various social systems to which the blog topics refer.
Differences can already be seen with the choice of blog name. One might call one’s blog simply ‘André’s Blog’, or, more programmatically, ‘The Optimistic Gardener’, or even ‘Northern bliss’. Often, a blog will feature a motto that further articulates its specific identity, such as ‘For an unhappy person, every flower is a weed, for a happy one, each weed is a flower’ (Das wilde Gartenblog). They my also feature a brief description such as ‘Thoughts and reflections about the gardens, the dirt under the fingernails, and a little chatter’ (Fundera Grönt, see Figure 5.1).
Fig. 5.1: The motto of this blog: ‘Thoughts and reflections about the gardens, the dirt under the fingernails, and a little chatter’ (http://funderagront.blogspot.se)
On the ‘About Me’ pages, one often finds self-descriptions and sometimes even a photo of the blogger. Some bloggers divulge their own or their garden’s address in order to give information about specific gardening conditions, while others, more reticent, only mention their gender and the region where they live or where the garden is situated (see Graf 2012).
Blogging is intentional; the entries must possess ‘connectivity’, if communication is to occur. According to Luhmann (1987), communication is not the transmission of information, but the union of three components: the selection of information (what is selected to be communicated or what the message is about), the selection of utterance (of a form of communication: how the information is to be communicated), and the selection of understanding (about the meaning that is generated: is a meaning selected, and if so which one?). Connectivity is determined by the contact or relationship with something, in our case the blogosphere, that condition communication in terms of what is possible in concrete communication practices. Without these conditions, meaningful blog communication would not be possible.
The blog entries create a chain of operations, and this happens selectively. The chain already begins with the information. Information is — in line with its standard definition (cf. Shannon and Weaver 1949) — a selection from a repertoire of possibilities. In other words, it is a selection made to communicate this and not other information. For example, on the right side column of the website we can find a list of self-determined blog categories such as ‘Weeds’, ‘Friday’, ‘Watery’, etc. We can also find automatically generated links to older entries, and links to other blogs and an archive of older posts. Furthermore, Luhmann’s communication hypothesis includes the issue of how to communicate this selected information. There is a clear difference between information and utterance. One can decorate the blog’s posted information with images; one can express the information in different rhetorical styles, in different languages, etc. What is more, information plus utterance may not get anyone’s attention (in which case the communication does not take place). Conversely, information plus utterance can be understood (in which case communication does take place). Here, understanding is not a psychological concept. We are not concerned with what a message or the author behind the message really mean. However, communication within the blogosphere, for instance, occurs when a reaction takes place, that is, when blog entries or comments ‘relate’ to each other (Taekke 2005, 14). For example, some kind of understanding is indicated by the statistics appearing on the right-hand column of the blog: a list of subscribers, the numbers of visitors per day, including the countries from which the visitors come, and a list of links to other blogs and websites. However, it is in the connecting communication (that is, comments, entries referring to other entries, etc.) that understanding first takes place — a clear differentiation between information and utterance is made.
The central problem of being able to understand information and utterance — that is, being connectible in the communication process — is that communication is only understandable in context. In this respect, communication processes are always formed by the observer’s expectations and his or her commonly shared knowledge. Because of the dependence on contexts, communication is bound to concrete environments, to places and times. Every communicative contribution within a discourse is verified whether or not it is relevant or expected. One can use one’s own experience to set up communication in such a way that one may expect to be understood (Luhmann 1987, 140).
The act of indicating something tells us where we are and where we might continue (Luhmann 2013, 54). In indicating, for example, that organic food is more desirable than conventional food, a blogger reveals how irritations from the non-human environment as well as the social environment (e.g., politics, media, economy, family) are processed within the genre of blogging. Applying systems theory demands thinking in relationships; meaning that the treatment of a topic about food is not arbitrary, but limited in different ways. All communication has its own mode and its own common sense. Commonality is limited by garden bloggers’ modes and hows, and not by contents and whats, as I will show in the following sections.
The Role of Topics
Generally, communication occurs with the help of topics. In other words, topics are the essential precondition for communication, and represent what can be of interest to others according to one’s own mode of communication. Topics combine different utterances and thereby structurally link the blogosphere. In addition, they organise the memory of communication (Luhmann 1996, 28). Without posting topics there can be no network of bloggers.
As mentioned above, blog postings on ecology can be generally understood as resonance (Luhmann 2008), that is, bloggers resonate in reaction to irritations caused by the natural environment or by the way in which the social environment deals with ecological dangers. The success of a blogosphere depends on the acceptance of the bloggers’ topics. Bloggers thus depend on people giving them attention by reacting to them with communication of their own.
Not all topics are successful: some are ignored. Some topics, however, provoke new contributions or entries in the blogosphere over and over again. Schmidt (2006) differentiates between topics that are ‘spikes’, ‘spiky chatters’, and ‘mostly chatters’. The first are topics which attract only limited attention from observers; the second are wave-like, as they are discussed over a longer period; and the third set of topics are discussed at a low but stable level (Schmidt 2006, 58).
Topics have a concrete or factual aspect on the one hand, and a temporal one on the other. Here, according to Luhmann, we can distinguish between topics and contributions (Luhmann 1996, 28f). In the blogosphere, contributions are called posts or entries. These entries refer to topics and can take the form of images or textual messages. Topics live longer than the individual posts do, and combine the different posts into a long-term or short-term nexus of meaning. Some posts provoke new contributions or at least comments. However, other topics are exhausted quickly.
The observer (and in this case the blogger) can distinguish between topics and functions of communication. For example, he or she can say to him or herself and to others: if I do not explain this or that in a special way, I will end up losing my followers. This reasoning has to do with the underlying mode of communication which is both connected to social values (e.g., environmental behaviour) and to the rules of the blogosphere (see Graf 2012). I will explain this further when dealing with the various topics.
According to news value research, and in a similar way to mass media, the blog entries follow certain selection criteria with regard to information and utterance. These criteria also influence how the information is posted. As I have written elsewhere, selection criteria such as novelty, values, identification, conflicts, and visuality guide garden bloggers’ communication (Graf 2012). For example, an entry has to tell us something new. The simple repetition of a previous entry is not expected. The issue of ecology is associated with known values such as sustainability or biodiversity, and referring to them can presuppose common acceptance and facilitate understanding. In addition, blogging about a hobby such as gardening involves feelings and emotions which facilitate the identification with an entry and therefore connective communication.
Ecology and Gardening in the Mainstream Media
Blogging about the garden does not occur in a vacuum. It is influenced to a great extent by the mass media’s coverage of ecology, that is, of the human relations with the non-human environment. With the help of anxiety rhetoric, the news media´s coverage revolves around problems and dangers. Over time, it has become common sense to communicate in favour of doing something to combat global warming, pollution, ozone depletion, deforestation, etc.
In contrast to news journalism, anxiety rhetoric plays a subordinated role in TV programs, and magazines covering lifestyle and hobby issues such as gardening. Gardens as ‘artificial creations within Nature’ (Verdi 2004, 361) have always been of human interest and, hence, a topic for literature, fine and applied arts, science, TV programs, etc. Communicating about gardens and gardening is rich in symbols as well as feelings: gardening offers both a spiritual and a physical dimension, and can be interpreted in practical and also decorative ways. It can also be communicated as a place of politics (McKay 2011; Graf 2014). The aim of the gardener often relates to the Garden of Eden trope: all modern gardeners are ‘engaged in recapturing Eden, if only in a limited way, and some more explicitly than others’ (Nadel-Klein 2010, 167).
Content about garden and gardening has enjoyed high popularity in the last twenty years. In line with lifestyle media (Christensen 2008), the media presentation of gardening deals with people’s spare time, where the demands of the working life are absent. It focuses on dreams of greater well-being, and shows how these dreams can bee realised. Readers and viewers are told what to do in their gardens in order to improve their quality of life. TV programs and garden magazines focus on consumers’ desire for the new and try to feed it; one learns how to renew the garden in order to make it more tasteful. Readers and viewers are informed about the latest goods to purchase in order to be ‘attuned to the culturally befitting ways of how they should be consumed’ (Taylor 2005, 123). The garden is seen as a paradise won in ‘the struggle against the overpower of Nature’, and as ‘Nature tamed and made elegant, a far cry from dark and dangerous thorny forests or deserts’ (Verdi 2004, 361, 363).
Gardens have become a place where issues of identity can be expressed. To renew one’s garden has to do with positioning oneself in regard to symbolic values. These lifestyle media insist that the ‘aestheticisation of components of everyday life — such as the garden — will lead to a more gratifying lifestyle’ (Taylor 2005, 123). In these makeover programs and magazines, a rapid lifestyle benefit is simulated, while principles of what is considered to be good taste and style are simultaneously disseminated. Thus, gardening is seen from the angle of pure appearance and exhibited ‘as a desirable end in itself’ (Taylor 2005, 119). Images of the perfect garden adorn the pages of glossy magazines, which Taylor describes as promoting an ‘almost clinic obsession with maintaining a coherent design’ (Taylor 2005, 119), often without consideration of climate and location.
This trend of expanding aesthetics to the non-social environment has gained momentum in the last past ten years. It is also connected to a kind of ‘ecological turn’, as Lyn Thomas (2008, 177) has observed of British lifestyle television, where irritations deriving both from the non-human and social environment are addressed. It is not only about the pure beauty of village and garden life, but also about destructive habits of consumption that must be changed. The ‘ecoreality’ of British lifestyle programs defines a new morality aimed at changing our way of living. It emphasises individual solutions, such as a sustainable way of life, rather than mere style and appearance (Thomas 2008). Television gardening supports the dissemination of ethical information by providing advice on how to garden in an ecological manner (Bonner 2008, 31). Thus, design and sustainability need not be contradictions. Business has jumped on the bandwagon and begun to mark their products as environmentally friendly. Purchasing organic or locally produced food has become part of the green zeitgeist. Growing one’s own carrots and cabbages nicely planted together with edible flowers might also involve pleasure and the projection of a pleasing appearance. Reducing one’s lawn with insect-friendly flowers in order to halt the decline in honey bees and insect pollinators can also improve the fashionableness of the garden; such horticultural knowledge and good taste can impress one’s friends and visitors. Here, tasteful design does not come above all else, but it is supported by the moral values of environmentally friendly practice in the garden. This can go even further in other (e.g., Australian) gardening shows, where water-wise gardening is central to dealing with permanent water scarcity. Therefore, aesthetics is no longer of major consideration, as Frances Bonner suggests: ‘Regardless of pleasing appearance, good gardening here produces fruits and vegetables, especially tomatoes’ (Bonner 2008, 32). Going green is fashionable, and marks a certain modern lifestyle.
To summarise, the content of media programs and magazines about gardens and gardening may vary, and offer something for everyone. One can enjoy a total makeover show and feel the desire to do the same or at least purchase new goods for one’s immediate pleasure; or one can observe garden design informed by ecological implications and at least consider rejecting thoughts on fashionableness.
The Topics of Gardening Blogs
With the rise of the Internet, gardening issues are no longer reserved for the mass media but can also be addressed by individual people to a large public. Similar to the treatment of the above mentioned topics in the media, the communicative reactions of the garden bloggers to ecological concerns cohere around two ideas: domination over or partnership with nature. As such, the entries generally concentrate on two main topics: topics of consumption in terms of goods, and topics of production in terms of gardening.
The discussion of these topics is stable and sometimes even wave-like. These are topics with a high potential of connectivity: most of the bloggers can and do refer to them frequently, and thus reveal what they think of the non-human environment. This means that if one wants to trigger further communication, ecological concerns, such as global warming, are not addressed in isolation but are folded into gardening issues (see Graf 2011, 276).
How the bloggers put themselves in a position to recognise ecological concerns in terms of these issues is a question that relates not only to the non-human and social environment but also to the blog as such, especially the role that photos play in the blog. If photos dominate the blog, garden life is mostly seen through the lens of a camera (Graf 2012). As a result, garden design and aesthetics are in focus, and ecological concerns may not interfere with pleasing appearances.
When addressing consumption issues, I will stress the fundamental distinction between controlled consumption and the unfettered purchasing typical of the market economy. I will not focus on consumption in terms of consuming the beauty of nature, as photo blogs mainly do, but consumption defined as consuming goods offered on the market. Hence, my examples stem from text-based blogs which include, e.g., advice to buy special garden products and not others. These types of reactions to irritations are mainly directed at the social environment, whereas topics about production are directed both at the social and non-social environment. The latter kind are generally about sustainable methods: green gardening that involves planting, improving, and preparing the soil, as well as garden aesthetics. Topics can deal with hands-on advice about ecological soil improvement and plant protection, and can also relate to reflections about appearance and biological diversity. Green gardening, especially pest control and biodiversity, is often addressed in relation to attitudes of respect (partnership) and disrespect (domination) towards nature.
Both topics have likely to arouse the expression of emotions and values, which function as identity markers in the blogosphere. This mixture of emotions and beliefs create a personal arena of expression in order to show what the garden means for the blogger, and a need to manage one’s relations in the blogosphere.
In the following, I want to illustrate in detail how bloggers communicate ecological awareness (or the lack of it) according to the main topics of consumption and production. I will then draw conclusions about the mode of communication used in the blogosphere of garden bloggers.
Consumption: Developing/Refusing a ‘Buyosphere’
Julia Corbett (2006) claims that the environmental lifestyle communicated by the marketplace is ‘hedonistic and narcissistic — it’s all about your enjoyment, your pleasure and comfort, about your looking good and having the latest toys’ (2006, 93). Some of my examined bloggers adapt the semantics of hedonism and encourage consumption. They inform each other about the latest products and where to buy the cheapest plants. Hence, they create a ‘buyosphere’ (Corbett 2006, 93ff) in which bloggers use expressions like ‘I want that’ and ‘It was a real steal’, showing their gratitude for being inspired to purchase new products. This topic also contains complaints about insufficient space, from gardeners who cannot find room for the new plants they want to purchase.
Some personal bloggers also use targeted advertisements, have commercial sponsors, and aspire to commercialising their blogging activities. As a result, they promote their own and others’ products and services, from food to design: many gardening bloggers advertise and sell their handicrafts. Besides showing commercial instincts, they all, to some degree, seem to be inspired by other posts presenting new products, plants, or garden tools. New purchases are sometimes ecologically motivated (in order to increase insect life in the garden, for example), and sometimes motivated entirely by a desire to consume.
This latter motivation is expressed the following example, in which a female blogger tells a success story about purchasing a coveted plant at a reduced price:
This week I got a very good bargain. Was eating breakfast when I saw that they sold olive trees at City Gross. My dear colleague E was also excited so we set off with my van. We thought that they would already be sold since the ad had warned that they had only a very limited number of trees. (Landet krokus, 5 May 2011)
The blog is relatively popular, with 274 readers (May 2015), and can be credited with a certain bonding capital. In response to this post, the author received eleven comments which shared her excitement. The post (and the blog as a whole) emphasises garden style issues, with little consideration for location or climate. Possessing an olive tree, which seldom or never bears fruit in the Scandinavian climate, has a symbolic power of trendiness in the consumer society. Olive trees are associated with the Mediterranean — that is, with leisure time, relaxation and a feel-good atmosphere. The identity-value of the tree overshadows its use-value. In addition to a plant, the blogger has also bought style and an appearance of trendiness, which can be displayed to the blogosphere.
However, the purchase of an olive tree does not mean the same thing to all gardeners, as revealed in a comment from another female blogger, rated lower with respect to followers, at 74 (May 2015):
Mediterranean flair is this year’s catchphrase in the garden world […] and the shops follow suit. 129kr for a 1.5m-tall olive tree at a discount store. Have not fallen for it yet. Olive trees will soon be in the home of every Svensson, worth her name, I guess. Like the new harangue: house, dog, and an olive tree. (Trädgårdstankar, 12 May 2011)
In adopting trends, this blogger makes a distinction: once the olive tree becomes part of mass-lifestyle culture, the blogger loses interest, since it can no longer be the vehicle of an individualised vision of herself. Bargains help to spread a sort of mass-culture of gardening, which this blogger rejects. There is only one comment on this post saying,
Olive tree […] yes I have two and I’m getting sick of them, do not really believe it’s my thing. They do not look so nice if I may say so. (Trädgårdstankar comment, 17 May 2011)
To follow garden trends is to find intense, short-lived pleasure in novelties. The implication is that one changes plants each season. This kind of interest in plants produces a consumer attitude which entails constant renewal. Another blogger criticises this attitude:
Not enough that the fashion industry forces us to critically see over our closet year after year, now even the flower industry can give us a bad conscience. The potted plants trend is away from small-scale flowers, bustling flower windows, to huge soloists, the bigger the better […] I have better things to do than following every trend according to potted plants. (Günstig gärtnern, 28 Jan 2011)
This female blogger refuses to apply an ideology of trendiness to house-plants, and thus to adopt a lifestyle culture which demands a ‘rapid turnover of identity indicators’ (Bonner 2008, 34). The fifteen responses to her post all agree with this sentiment, tell different stories on the same theme, and stress the incompatibility of sustainability and fashionable gardening trends. These trends lead to throw-away thinking, which in turn exhausts natural resources and causes ecological damage. Most of the responses stress the importance of establishing a relationship to one’s own plants, a view that is incompatible with ephemeral fashion. Close relationships with plants, and with nature, is a recurring theme in blogs that favour sustainable gardening over trend-following and constant renewal (Graf 2011). These entries show, in line with nature identification research (e.g., Milstein 2011), that nature identification practices can shape ecological roles and, more concretely, lead to the rejection of unfettered consumption.
A more ecocentric perspective is taken, for example, in complaints about ‘careless container planting’. The containers hold plants with differing light and water requirements; these plants are selected exclusively for the sake of their decorative foliage and flowers. Here, appearance takes precedence over good growing conditions. These containers are made for a quick sale, and have short life-spans, which in turn causes people purchase more of them. This throw-away culture, which has spread to garden products, gives a wider perspective on the society we live in, as this blogger relates:
For me, it is simply an emerging disregard towards nature. I go so far as to say that these little things contribute to the growing disrespect shown to people in many ways […] For negative things always begin creeping, in small format. (Wurzels Garten, 19 Aug 2007)
This entry received nine responses, all of which expressed approval, e.g., ‘it’s nice to know that there are like-minded people’ (Wurzels Garten, 19 August 2007). Commentators recount similar observations, and at the same time they ask self-critically if the gardening blogosphere is free from ‘sins against nature’ such as ‘thoughtlessly consuming’ the garden products on offer. This comment, emphasising individual behaviour, demands that bloggers take a critical look at their own consumer behaviour.
Another object of criticism is the economy of abundance, with displays of a growing number of gardening products and accessories. According to this next female blogger, who has 113 followers (June 2013), such displays are unnecessary:
Currently, DIY stores, garden centres, supermarkets, and even drugstores accumulate garden accessories. The seed trays, pots, seedling transplant tools, peat pots. There are heated green houses and ‘root trainer’ for vegetables, tomato supports of all kind of materials, and for each seedling you can find the respective pot and fluid. In addition there are kneepads, huge collections of gardeners clothing from shoes to hats, gloves and garden jackets; vegetable and seed labels from wood, metal or plastic for hanging, plugging and clamping. This is really astonishing because nobody really needs those things [...]. (Mauerblumen, 30 March 2011)
As an alternative to buying new products, the blogger shows her readers how to reuse old tin cans or even baking pans for planting seeds, how to build one’s own mini-greenhouse with plastic bottles which have been cut, and how to use plastic wraps to keep the soil moist in indoor seed beds. Finally, she admonishes her followers and readers not to buy ‘all this stupid stuff!’ This is different from the previous blogger’s discussion of the olive tree. Industry’s attempt to infuse these products with meaning and link them to lifestyle has not succeeded here. Rather, the attempt provoked a blog entry that argues for critical consumption and against purchasing unnecessary goods. The blogger received nine comments describing similar experiences of unnecessary purchasing and contributing further advice about how to reuse materials. All the commentators argue, in effect, that one must take use-value into account when purchasing something.
This topic of abstinence from consumption includes contributions about various liquid solutions for creating the ‘perfect garden’, such as ‘lawn without moss’ and ‘flower beds without weeds’. As one entry argues:
When you are in the store you will be easily convinced that there are the herbicides you just need. What you cannot read on the leaflet is that this disrupts the micro life of the soil and may even damage the plants you want to protect. (Lindas Trädgårdsblogg, 11 April 2011)
This blogger, who has 137 followers (May 2015), warns against buying chemical fertilisers and moss killing products. All eight responses express approval. The writers thank her for a wise blog entry and highlight critical consumer behaviour by telling similar stories.
The range of garden products is also critiqued from the perspective of ‘respect’ for nature. Such respect is indicative of the favoured relationship between humans and nature, one which Merchant describes ‘as a partnership rather than domination’ (Merchant 2003, 206). For example, one blogger, with 105 followers (December 2013), gives information about the conditions in which the poinsettia, which is very popular at Christmas time, is produced. The writer quotes from the Swedish Nature Conservation Society, enlightening the reader with information about the large amount of pesticides used in poinsettia production. These pesticides are harmful to people, especially to those who grow them, and to the environment. This observation leads to a clear statement:
If the merchant cannot guarantee toxic-free poinsettias, there will be a Christmas without them. (Njut i Din Trädgård, 14 December 2010)
All six responders agree and demand more information about the conditions under which popular house-plants are grown. The idea is to make the consumer more informed and critical.
These entries, in turn, inspire a whole range of entries about what to buy and what not to buy in order to undertake ecological gardening. This work should begin with the selection of the right seeds, as an entry makes clear:
It feels really good to buy organic seeds when I want to grow organically. My little garden is microscopic compared to the area that is used to produce the seeds! If I then choose to buy organic seeds, it should make a little difference? (Lindas Trädgårdsblogg, 22 March 2012)
The process may continue with, for instance, the resolution to buy heirloom seeds and plants instead of hybrids in order to preserve biodiversity. The reader learns that heirloom seeds are, in contrast to the hybrids, open-pollinated.
A great many entries are about purchasing the right food, meaning food that is ecological and locally grown. The following blogger, who has 465 subscribed readers (May 2015) and thus a certain amount of bonding social capital in the Swedish blogosphere, challenges his blog audience to cook with organic food. His ambition is to involve and engage the whole network, making them think and act ecologically:
By the way, today, it will be 100% organic. It feels a little better each time I do this. I’m still not 100% organic in my life, but on the way […] If you think this is a hard task, it is because I am just a thorn in your side and you wish that you could make this decision, too. Yep it is so! (Hannu På Kinnekulle, 10 May 2011)
This blogger also thinks it necessary to change consumer behaviour. Judging from the comments, he meets with approval: some readers want to do better, some tell him they already eat organic food, and so on. A few weeks later, he returns to the subject, telling his audience that he feels good when buying locally produced organic food. He documents the claim with a photo of his freshly purchased goods (19 September 2011). He also relates how he declines to buy certain products, such as his favourite salami sausage, because the store cannot offer organic alternatives:
[…] something strange happened then, I said no thanks and left without buying my favourites, hm. I’ve never done it before. But I’m in an organic mood that I hope lasts for a long time; a vegetarian doesn’t munch a grilled beef tenderloin just because there’s no salad! (Hannu På Kinnekulle, 10 April 2010)
Other bloggers argue in favour of ecological meat. However, not all locally produced meat is ecological, which one blogger finds regrettable:
Unfortunately, not everything they sell is KRAV labelled (organic production), but most of it is locally produced. We are trying to cut down on our consumption of meat (especially beef), but it feels good to buy from local farms where the cattle have grazed in the neighbourhood. Then it also feels good to be able to show the kids where the food we eat comes from. (Lindas Trädgårdsblogg, 8 March 2012)
As these examples illustrate, ecological issues, understood as reactions to irritations caused by the market economy, are, under the topic of consumption, addressed from a great variety of perspectives. One can argue for both more or less consumption, and even for boycotting consumption. One can introduce values to the conversation and argue for the right or wrong way of consuming. Thus good roles, that is to say critical consumer attitudes, are mostly articulated from the point of view of one’s own behaviour (Graf 2012), and bad roles are mostly ascribed to the market economy with its drive for profit and destructive influence on the non-human environment. One can further introduce emotions in order to strengthen one’s own argument. By attributing values and norms to consumer behaviour, a social dimension of communication is actualised. It can, for example, be expressed as ‘green’ behaviour and related to the zeitgeist; to a greater or lesser degree, this is what creates bonds between bloggers in the network.
Why do bloggers so often describe objects of consumption either as something that they ‘must have’ or something that should be boycotted? It is common knowledge that consumption issues dominate our lives. Many scholars describe modern society as a consumption society, in which to live means first and foremost to consume (e.g., Bauman 2007, Hellmann 2011). Nevertheless, not all acts of consumption are subjects of communication. Why do gardening bloggers busy themselves in addressing these issues?
Consumption studies have shown that individual choice has increased to such an extent that every form of consumption is contingent and therefore based on a decision about what to select (Hellmann 2011, 220). The decision-making process increases the possibility of communicating about consumption. What function does the topic of consumption have within the blogosphere? Again, it is about managing relations: how do bloggers wish to be regarded by others? They express identity, and therefore preferences, in accordance with the roles they assume in the blogosphere. Some bloggers prefer to blog about recycling possibilities and to show their creativity in finding new solutions. Some prefer to blog about the latest fashionable plant they purchased, in order to mark their affiliation to a certain group of ‘modern’, trendy people. Others prefer to do both.
The consumption issue involves feelings and fantasies and offers a wide spectrum of topics to communicate about. Goods can be ascribed symbolic meanings and ranked according to aesthetic criteria. The view of an olive tree in the garden can start someone daydreaming, which can then lead to a blog entry about the great feeling of having got a good deal in purchasing the plant. Communication about consumption issues ensures that all readers are more or less involved and hence interested — that is, it is a topic that ‘embraces everyone’ (Slater cit. in Hellmann 2011, 242) and so increases the possibility of connective communication.
Production: Developing Green Gardening
Gardeners’ blogs about improving the soil by growing organically, being sparing with natural resources such as water, and avoiding the use of pesticides for pest control are embedded in an array of ecological concerns. I have not read a single post advocating the use of pesticides or chemical fertilisers in order to get a bigger harvest. My educated guess is that if some bloggers were using pesticides, they would not write about it. One male blogger did a poll among his followers, asking how many used synthetic fertilisers and pesticides: 39 bloggers answered, of whom 64% never used these products, while 36% did (Wir Sind im Garten, 31 January 2010). However, it seems an unwritten rule that the network communication of gardening bloggers mainly revolves around some form of green gardening. Posting a statement in favour of pesticides would cause the blogger to lose followers. Accordingly, there is a recurring pattern among gardening bloggers of making clear statements like the following:
For me, it is obvious not to use toxins or chemical fertilisers. I want the garden to grow from a land where worms and microorganisms feel comfortable. I like the idea of having a cycle in the garden where I use plant remains and grass clippings that become soil, which I can then grow in. To disrupt the soil ecosystem with environmental toxics does not feel good. (Lindas Trädgårdsblogg, 14 April 2011)
She received eight responses, all of which were positive; some thanked her for making the statement, and wanted to follow her example.
Nevertheless, gardening is not without disturbances. A great number of entries are about pest control; for example, what should one do when the Spanish slug invades the garden? Here again, entries suggesting non-toxic methods are at the forefront. Much advice is given: different sorts of traps are shown and their function explained — beer traps, overturned flowerpots, grapefruit halves left overnight, or coffee grounds placed on the top of the soil to protect plants against attacks. Where this invasive slug is concerned, entries often express negative emotions and describe vivid behaviour, as the following female blogger shows:
Jahapp, so, it is time again. May I present: The first Spanish slug! This brazen creature has dared to show up on my terrace […] Immediately, I went back into the house and took a pair of pincers and a small plastic bag. Went for a walk in the garden and got together a small bag of ‘good & mixed’ that I put in the freezer. I think, it is the easiest and least messy way to get rid of slugs. Obviously, it should be the least painful, too. After few days in the freezer they have fallen asleep forever and you can throw the bag in the trash. (Trädgårdstoken, 11 June 2010, see Figure 5.2)
Fig. 5.2 The first Spanish slug in the garden (Trädgårdstoken, http://www.tradgardstoken.se/2010/06/sniglar.html)
To most of the bloggers, discovering the first slug is an inducement to write about different ways of killing them. This meets with approval. It is considered fair to kill slugs, if the deed is performed in a manner that causes a minimum of suffering. One male blogger compares his slug killing with the ‘massacre’ at Wounded Knee and accompanies it with a photo of a pair of scissors next to bisected slugs (Nervenruh, 21 July 2011). Slugs, and especially Spanish slugs, give rise to loaded language and emotive arguments, which provoke further communication. Since these arguments mostly connect to shared, negative connotations, the expression of negative feelings is likely to meet with sympathy and further communication from the blog community. The topic of slugs has the potential function of allowing, and perhaps also directing, strong negative emotions in communication. Here, the line between respect and disrespect towards nature is drawn: in plain English, slugs do not deserve respect.
However, this sentiment does not apply to all bloggers. Under the heading ‘One always does things differently’, a female blogger, whose entries often show a clear identification with nature and an ecocentric point of view, describes her different way of dealing with pests:
[…] I wish the slugs in my vegetable garden ‘bon appétit!’ instead of killing them, and I’m delighted to see all the happy weeds in the patio slab gaps. (Mauerblumen, 27 May 2011)
This blogger, who has 113 followers (June 2013), received six comments. None of them explicitly discuss her unconventional attitude towards slugs, but in a general manner they praise her ‘individualism’ and ‘humorous writing style’, accompanied by ‘wonderful photos’ of columbine flowers. However, the comments do not address the topic of slug control; on this subject there is no further communication. The garden blog community seems to agree: when it comes to pest control, there are limits to one’s respect for nature.
When bloggers write about identification with, and respect for, nature, biodiversity is a recurring theme, especially where green gardening is concerned. This tendency can conflict with the recommended gardening methods. Two bloggers (a couple) prefer to leave dead trees standing in order to support a rich insect life.
We don’t like to cut dead trees, if we can think of another use. Dead wood is good for small animals and can be an element to create structure in the garden. (Das wilde Gartenblog, 9 August 2010, see Figure 5.3)
Fig. 5.3 A tree skeleton as trellis (das wilde Gartenblog, http://www.das-wilde-gartenblog.de/2010/08/09/baumskelett-als-rosenstaender)
This method is illustrated by the picture above, which shows the tree skeleton being used as a trellis. All four responses praise this ‘great idea’. By explaining the importance of insect diversity, the bloggers defend this exceptional trellis against possible critique as an ‘ugly’ garden design. Here, forms of sustainable gardening function as a means for getting likes. Had the bloggers not explained the reasoning behind this trellis, they would probably not have provoked comments or further communication, since positive feedback is the norm in the gardening blogosphere (Graf 2012).
Another issue which leads to a discussion of style versus sustainability is the lawn issue, meaning the obsession with cultivating the perfect lawn. A female blogger asks provocatively:
What to do against the English lawn? No matter, what gardening magazine I open at this time — the very big topic is currently not only about spring flowers but also about the so-called ‘English lawn’: a dark green, dense turf, free from intruding plants such as flowers, herbs and different types of grass. There seems to be gardeners, who actually want to have a lawn in the garden that looks like artificial grass, is ecologically useless, and needs a lot of care and chemicals. (Mauerblumen, 3 April 2011)
This female blogger, who attracts attention by contradicting conventional views and styles of gardening (e.g., the usual method of dealing with slugs), gives advice about how to increase the biodiversity of a mono-cultural lawn. Of 13 comments, all but one agree with her, saying for instance that ‘This is also an anathema to me!’ They stress the beauty of flowering lawns and tell more stories about improving biodiversity.
Soil improvement is another topic that, because it raises controversy, gives rise to many entries. Pros and cons of different soil improvement measures are discussed, and each blogger can make claims regarding her/his successful method without losing face. When the subject of sustainability is discussed, relatively new soil improvement methods can be introduced, as in the following entry:
Constant watering is not our goal, neither to acquire tons of fertile soil from elsewhere. Both alternatives make little sense, ecologically. It costs money, and energy, and does not change the underlying problem. We rather continuously work to improve the soil in order to increase the humus component that better keep nutrients and moisture. (Das wilde Gartenblog, 2 June 2011)
These bloggers1 (another couple), whose blog explicitly specialises in sustainable gardening, introduce a new form of soil improvement by using terra preta, that is, a mixture of charcoal, pottery shards, and organic material. The couple shows how to make terra preta and how to create a flower-bed using it. Their first results are displayed: vegetables that grow better than in ordinary beds.
All of the fifteen comments are positive, expressing gratitude for news of this innovative method of soil improvement and adding more information about it. The blog entry has something distinctive to tell that gets attention and evokes further communication.
The preparation of garden beds is a topic that leads to discussions about whether the soil should be turned or not. There are two categories of entries, divided by their recommendations for preparing the soil. One group of entries claims that turning the soil is essential. Another group, which highlights sustainable gardening, holds the opposite position. The following entry belongs to this latter category:
Good soil is ACTIVE (Living) — that is one that can develop a happy ‘soil life’ among microorganism, earth and plant roots. This would naturally be disturbed when one comes with a spade and turns it. (Das wilde Gartenblog, 10 November 2010)
This blog recommends mulching, in order to conserve moisture and improve the fertility of the soil. The entry provoked 16 comments, mostly expressing agreement. Only a few bloggers took into consideration the soil texture, and recommended digging in some cases, mainly when clay soil was in question. However, most of the commentators gave further reasons for mulching rather than digging, and added that this method saves energy and time for the gardener; they concluded that mulching is the best way to develop a healthy garden. In this blog, no divergent and competing opinions were expressed, even though there are possible alternative ways of improving the soil. By investing one’s own descriptions of digging with values — in this case, that good soil means special digging practices — the blogger is attempting to direct the reader’s understanding and invite his or her acceptance. Generally, values function on a basis of mutual agreement, that is, as long as they are not challenged. The comments that follow seem to indicate that this move has been successful: the entry is not challenged. But values can also be controversial, and the result can be a loss of readers and followers. Therefore, the addition of values to self-description is meant to direct communication, that is, manage it so that the blogosphere produces the desired relations, on the grounds of specific normative preferences. However, values have a limited range of application; they do not, for instance, give concrete instructions on how to deal with soil improvement under different conditions.
But not all bloggers communicate environmentally conscious gardening behaviour. As mentioned above, blogs dominated by photographic illustrations do not address environmental issues nearly as often, and if they do, environmental concerns are complemented by aesthetic considerations. In many cases, it matters little whether someone wants to cultivate a Mediterranean plant in a northern climate, or create a jungle atmosphere in a dry area by extensive watering. If one can present wonderful images from one’s garden, one will gain respect and admiration in return.
The focal points of ecological concerns are primarily soil improvement, biodiversity, and pest control. In line with systems theory, the expression of green gardening behaviour can be understood as highly selective resonance, that is, as a reaction to bloggers’ own ideas of what can be done in reaction to ecological danger. It conforms to the norms of the blogosphere with respect to subject matter and the manner of communication.
Conclusions
Blog entries are the outcome of a network of connected and related observations. They cannot be understood merely as representations of what is going on in the garden. There is a lot more to an entry. As a social means, entries must possess connectivity if communication is to occur. Hence, blogging has the function of managing relationships in the blogosphere, meaning that in the context of the blog community, communication is framed in such a way that entries are constantly coordinated with each other. By expressing preferences, a writer establishes a blog identity. The success of a blog depends on the acceptance of these uttered and visualised preferences. It means, that someone pays attention by reacting to the entries with further communication.
Topics belong to the precondition of communication. With respect to the examined garden bloggers, the most successful topics are those that have the quality of ‘embracing’ everyone interested in gardening and addressing ecology in some way, including issues of consumption and production. Addressed from the angle of gardening ‘banalities’, such blogs have the potential to enhance connecting communication. The content of the topics shows the resonance, that is, how the bloggers react to irritations of both the non-human and the social environment. The topic of consumption can be addressed from several different perspectives; it is possible to argue for more or even less consumption without being aware of ecological consequences. However, topics concerned with production in home gardens are generally dominated by arguments for sustainable gardening, at least in text-based blogs.
How these topics find resonance in the blog entries relates — according to Luhmann — to the mode of operation that is particular to the blogosphere. In other words, references to ecological consequences such as climate change are seen from the point of view of the garden blogger, who is influenced by various preconditions, including his/her own consciousness, perception, and expectations of blog communication. To put this in concrete terms, resonance in the form of topics relates to the following communicative conditions understood as modes of operation:
The form of the blog: This is mainly determined by the use of images in the blogs. Photo blogs show gardening from an aesthetic, through-the-lens point of view. This produces a preference for constant renewal. Text-based blogs allow for more differentiation and, therefore, are more likely to display expressions of ecological awareness.
The blog identity: This defines the establishment of relationships. Blog relationships will be jeopardised if a blogger, in contrast to developed expectations of the blogger’s views on consumption, biodiversity, ecological pest control, etc., transforms the blog into an environmentally unfriendly one, e.g., by arguing for the use of chemical pesticides. By adding values to self-descriptions, a blogger directs the understanding of his or her entries; if this guidance is challenged, the result can be lost readers. Accordingly, the values expressed are expected to conform to the values of those visiting the blog.
The blog communication pattern: This is characterised by communication frames of pleasure, enthusiasm, mutual agreement, and also hope (e.g., for better results). These blog networks have established a feel-good atmosphere, in which suggestions for improving sustainability and arguments for purchasing new, trendy plants meet with general approval. This feel-good atmosphere stands in stark contrast to the apocalyptic anxiety rhetoric of the news media’s coverage of environmental issues. It is striking that comments almost always express agreement and often even admiration. The worst that can happen, apparently, is to receive no comments. This communication culture derives from the content: gardening as a mutual, pleasurable hobby. The blogs resemble lifestyle media in that they focus on personal pleasure and well-being (Graf 2011, 2012).
The general environmental morality of society: Communication involves morality, meaning what one ought to do in order to behave ecologically. Within the circles of garden bloggers, it has been considered common sense to prioritise sustainable gardening in communication, to work towards increasing biodiversity, to economise the use of natural resources, etc. For example, one can expect approval if one shows that one buys locally produced food or bee-friendly flowers. This may explain why communication about damage to the environment, for example by the use of chemicals, is almost entirely absent.
This mode of operation acts as a filter for selecting information from the non-human environment (e.g., one’s own garden, nature, the weather) and the social environment (e.g., the economy, the media) in order to organise blog communication. Blogging is not so much about convincing people with different opinions as it is about coordinating the network of people who share similar interests and opinions. Bloggers and readers probably follow the blogs that share their values: If one is passionate about sustainable gardening and wishes to learn methods for doing it better, one may follow the blogs that are dedicated to this practice. If one is primarily passionate about garden design and garden renewal trends, one may follow blogs in that stream instead. Readers are unlikely to read, or get involved with, blogs that hold views opposed to their own.
Blogs
Das wilde Gartenblog, http://www.das-wilde-gartenblog.de
Fundera Grönt, http://www.funderagront.blogspot.com
Günstig gärtnern, http://www.guenstiggaertnern.blogspot.com
Hannu På Kinnekulle, http://www.hannu-s.blogspot.com
Landet Krokus, http://www.landetkrokus.se
Lindas Trädgårdsblogg, http://www.lindastradgard.blogspot.com
Mauerblumen, http://www.mauerblumen.blogspot.com
Nervenruh, http://www.nervenruh.blogspot.com
Njut i Din Trädgård, http://www.czmastergarden.blogspot.com
Trädgårdstankar, http://www.tradgards-tankar.blogspot.com
Trädgårdstoken, http://www.tradgardstoken.se
Trädgårstankar comment, http://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=246658779628727907&postID=6726970233021335637
Wir Sind im Garten, http://www.hobby-garten-blog.de
Wurzels Garten, http://www.wurzerlsgarten.blogspot.com
1 There is no data on the number of people who follow this blog. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Journalism_and_Mass_Communication/The_Environment_in_the_Age_of_the_Internet_(Graf)/1.05%3A_The_Culture_of_Nature_-_The_Environmental_Communication_of_Gardening_Bloggers.txt |
Madeleine Hurd and Steffen Werther
© M. Hurd and S. Werther, CC BY 4.0 http://dx.doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0096.06
The idea of an ecologist neo-Nazi seems, at first, ridiculous. Is one to imagine skinheads biking, in formation, bringing their milk-cartons to recycling centres? Well, no, not exactly: but many neo-Nazi parties have an environmentalist side to their party platforms. Neo-Nazi politicians espouse many standard environmentalist planks; neo-Nazi websites condemn pollution; neo-Nazi youth spend time cleaning parks. Indeed, environmentalism and militant xenophobia seem oddly compatible. In this chapter, we will look at how neo-Nazi websites and print media wed the slogans, symbols, visuals, and narratives of the radical patriot to those of the home-land-loving environmentalist, and how this combination results in a surprisingly coherent set of complementary media messages (or media ‘frame’).
We are interested in the symbols, slogans, narratives, and visuals used to package the combined environmentalist/right-wing extremist message. We are particularly interested in two emotional media frames. The first is the frame of fear and anger; the second, that of nostalgia and love. Fear concerns threats to the German people, and the need for militant action against its enemies. Nostalgia imbues neo-Nazi visions of what must be protected. Both frames are combined in a narrative of ‘irreparability’, effectively linking the visuals and narratives of militant xenophobia to biocentric environmentalism.
We are equally interested in how the neo-Nazi media seek to trigger environmentalist action. Their triggers range from suggestions for everyday practices to political action and drawn-out descriptions of ritualised group performances. These promote a variety of reader roles: whether you are a concerned consumer, back-to-earth gardener, worried parent, animal-lover, or anti-globalisation activist, you can be included in the right-wing environmentalist coalition. The resultant actions are re-presented, with appropriate tone, narrative, and visuals, in the neo-Nazis’ media. These narratives and visuals, together with the triggers themselves, help reinforce the environmentalist slant held, by those same media, such that it becomes integral to the central neo-Nazi message of racist xenophobia.
Our case history is the media of the National-Democratic Party of Germany (Nationaldemokratische Partei Deutschlands, or NPD), with an emphasis on the years 2010–2013. The NPD was, during these years — and despite its small size — preeminent on the German far right. One-time competitors had either declined into political insignificance (e.g., the so-called Republikaner) or been subsumed into the NPD (Deutsche Volksunion). Nor did Germany — in contrast to neighbouring countries such as Holland, Austria, Denmark, and Switzerland — produce a major right-wing populist party systematically willing to tap the vote potential of xenophobia. This, of course, has changed in subsequent years; but in the early ‘teens, the NPD did command some ideological centrality.1
This German party — like extremists elsewhere — has had to tread a thin line between attracting loosely organised, violence-prone militants, and the more respectable voters from whom the pary gains a parliamentary presence. The NPD has, in fact, continued to acknowledge and collaborate (to some extent) with local, loosely organised hooligan forces such as Freie Kameradschaften and Freie Kräfte (Verfassungsschutzbericht 2012, 93). Nonetheless, the party has — like similar parties in other countries — increasingly moved towards parliamentary respectability. So far, its success has been modest. It did not garner more than 1.3%-1.5% of the vote in the 2009 and 2013 federal elections (around 560,000 individual votes), and has only around 6,000 formally registered members.
These poor returns disguise the party’s substantial local presence, however. The NPD has gained around 350 mandates in county elections, receiving — twice running — the 5% of votes in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern and Sachsen needed to take a place in the Landtag. On the communal level, it can be a factor indeed. In some communities, the NPD may rely on a steady 20% of the votes (Brandstetter 2012, 9). At this level, the actions of militants can be felt — in threats of vandalism and arson. After all, direct-action militants and voters go together: as Karl Richter put it in 2011, they make up ‘two edges of the same sword, both fighting for the Volk’ in the movement of ‘national resistance’ (Verfassungsschutzbericht 2011, 89).
Fig. 6.1 Screenshot of NPD folder, ‘Our program: a decent Heimat as the foundation of our Volkstums. Source: NPD homepage; http://www.npd.de/inhalte/daten/dateiablage/ThemenHeimat_2010.pdf
The face-to-face world of direct action thus remains an important element in NPD appeal and recruitment. If, on the one hand, the party pays a price for refusing to cut its ties to the street activists — it is, for instance, adversely affected by police exposure of the activities of the neo-Nazi terrorist group ‘Nationalsozialistischer Untergrund’ (NSU) — it has, on the other, the continued appeal of intense camaraderie, either in street actions or in nationalist ceremonies and marches. Triggers for and reports on such camaraderie are packaged into party media, forming a managed web of communicative relationships. The emotions, visuals, and rituals of these group performances (often presented as image events) are, we argue, key in linking the party’s politics to environmentalism.
NPD Media: Party Websites
The party’s message is conveyed via a variety of networked forums, including party websites, blogs, Twitter, YouTube videos, magazines, fanzines, and leaflets. There are, moreover, street media: demonstrations, flags, speeches, songs, clothing, tattoos, car-and-lamppost stickers, all of which contribute strong visuals and slogans to the party’s political, social, and traditional media. We will concentrate on the NPD websites, with special attention to how the party’s environmentalist message is networked both with its sub-organisations’ sites and with an openly pro-NPD environmentalist magazine. Our research covers, roughly, the years between 2010 and 2013.
What metaphors, symbols, and rhetoric are used to promote the emotional frames (fear, nostalgia) and narratives (heroic epic, irreparability) that allow the seemingly effortless wedding of far-right extremism and environmentalism? How are these gendered; what kinds of time-spaces are envisioned? What types of performances are encouraged — and how are performance narratives fed back into the websites, so as to strengthen the message?
The NPD party’s national and ‘Landes’ websites (npd.de, npd-bayern.de, npd.mv.de, etc.) provide visuals and text in the service of symbols, slogans, and narratives. They are networked with other media; and there are a multitude of invitations to reader action (‘triggers’): write messages or ask questions, order a product or donate money, learn more about or join a group. The reader chooses between different banner headlines (each with an evocative image), and clicks to read party news, history, and activities, as well as national and international news blurbs. A search engine simplifies things for those seeking information on any one issue or the most recent party and activist activities.
In 2013, the party’s websites were dominated by the NPD’s electioneering slogans, short pieces on its political-social crusades, descriptions of and suggestions for street and political action against various threats, as well as the faces, deeds, and words of its political leaders. Images invited readers to respond to slogans and click on further options: Aktuelles, Partei, aktiv werden [news, party, become active]. Under Partei — illustrated by a smiling blue-eyed blonde girl against flowers, a favourite NPD symbol (http://npd.de/themen/) — the reader could pick through the party’s premises, choosing, e.g., ‘Often Asked’ with answers to questions such as ‘Is the NPD Hostile to Foreigners?’, ‘Why Does the NPD Oppose the Multi-Cultural Society?’ and ‘Is the NPD Anti-Semitic? Surely It Is Permissible to Criticise Jews Too’ (npd.de/oftgefragt/).
Emotions
Most texts are brisk and angry in tone. The exception is when it comes to descriptions of what is at risk: then, texts become nostalgic and lyrical. On the whole, however, focus is on the party, portrayed as a never-surrendering vanguard. The party leads the battle against the Volk’s enemies: international elites, the majority parties, the mainstream media.
An epic narrative (available through a click on ‘History’) constitutes the party’s autobiography. Founded in 1964, the NPD presents itself as waging an unswerving battle against the unremitting foes of ‘the German people’. It is the ‘only true resistance movement’. The party will never cease to address burning issues — ‘no matter how the bankrupt [mainstream] parties shift and turn’ — for every day is a ‘day lost to our Volk and its life-interests’. ‘[O]ur determination’ to ‘take over the leadership of Germany’ remains ‘unbroken’ (http://npd.de/geschichte/). There is a great sense of urgency throughout; it is a matter of war against inhuman enemies. These are, in their turn, usually spoken of with deep contempt, if not with leaden ‘humour’ in contrast to the hyper-masculinist, courageous Kameradschaft [cameradie] of national heroes.
Standard metaphors, well-known to scholars of Nazi rhetoric, paint the war in simple colours. There is the innocent German Volk — unfortunately, a favourite ‘host’ for ‘nomadic’ ‘parasites’, its purity threatened by ‘corruption’ and ‘contamination’. The threat comes from groups alien to the Volk (e.g., ‘Nomadentum’ — in older parlance, ‘Judentum’; today, the ‘US in collaboration with the EU’). Allowed into the Volk’s Germany, through the ‘back-door’ by the ‘profit-hungry machinations’ of ‘a few tens of thousands of profiteers’, the ‘internationalist corrupters of the Volk’ collaborate with domestic ‘do-gooders, liberals, and internationalists’ to destroy the foundations for Volk existence. These are not people as much as abstractions or, perhaps, vermin: ‘The collected enemies of our Volk and country have been gnawing away at the NPD for nigh-on fifty years’.
The result: the German people, characterised by ‘honour, history and pride’, are at terrible risk. Prevented from ‘knowing their own traditions, singing their own songs, living according to their own habits and customs, saving their Heimat for their children, preventing the immigration of foreigners’ (note how the last is a precondition for the Volk’s otherwise innocuous actions), they are ‘threatened with extinction’. But ‘every Volk has a right to survival’; ‘we will never allow [its destruction]’ (see npd.bayern: Völkerschützer; npd.de/geschichte; https://www.facebook.com/npd.de; https://nsantispe.wordpress.com).
The websites allow no room for comments and discussion (this would invite disruption from organisations such as Antifaschistische Aktion). Nonetheless, the general tone implicitly, and many texts explicitly, urges readers to get involved. There are ‘want to contribute?’ and ‘join us!’ buttons. Links encourage readers to learn about and participate in the party’s women and youth movements. Local websites give details of planned events, demonstrations, music festivals, and the like. One can, moreover, visit (and probably join) their Facebook page and follow their Twitter account. A few clicks lead the reader, finally, to pages advertising downloadable pamphlets (‘Work With Us. Change Things. Act.’), leaflets and posters, as well as the paraphernalia of street communication: stickers, T-shirts, emblems, buttons, caps, all imprinted with the party logo or various right-wing symbols (the Iron Cross, the German Eagle, an outline of ‘the stolen Heimat’; see npd-materialdienst.de).
The sites are heavily visual. Images evoke either nostalgia and affection (the Volk and the Heimat to be protected), or fear and hate (the enemy). The sites’ images alternate, accordingly, between classic German statues, little blonde girls, snow-covered pine branches with Christmas lights, picturesque townscapes, families holding hands in a field, and dark silhouettes of knife-wielding foreigners, cows with their throats bloodily cut, looming burka-clad figures, EU skyscrapers, the state tax office. The former images dominate in presentations of party ideology and doings; the latter, in news of the world at large.
Fig. 6.2 Screenshot of NPD’s Facebook page, ‘Animal protection is protection of the Heimat! Vote for the NPD on September 22!’ Campaign poster for the 2013 German federal elections. Source: NPD Facebook page, http://www.facebook.com/npd.de/photos/pb.268232929583.-2207520000.1461139625./10151722063984584/?type=3&theater
That world, indeed, seems to be in a state of war. The sites’ media logic leads their controllers to select items that reinforce the master narrative that informs the whole: the Volk under attack. In 2011, to take one example, the news on the NPD Bavaria website (arranged under various banner icons) was dominated by the threats posed by profit mongering, internationalism, immigrants, and foreign culture. The banner choice of Heimat gives one, accordingly, an ‘Open Letter’ protesting housing for asylum-seekers and an exposé of the Sochi Winter Olympics profit mongering. An article entitled ‘Turkish flags over Würzburg’ warns that Turkish ‘guest workers’ have arrived in Germany not because Germany needs workers, but because NATO and the US have forced Germany to accept the surplus people of an overpopulated Turkey. An image of a placidly happy cow precedes a blurb protesting the low prices paid by (good) German dairy farmers; a bloody, dying cow illustrates Turkish ‘cruelty to animals’ (npd.bayern: Meldungen 2011).
This media logic — framing the narrative of battle, the emotion of fear and anger, protecting the loved family and country from threat — remains constant over the years. In November/December 2013, homepage headlines included ‘Stop, At Long Last, the Import of Criminal Foreigners’ (with a picture of a knife-holding hand against a black-clad torso); ‘Against the Sell-Out Of Citizenship and the Liquidation of the German People!’; and ‘Asylum-Seekers Can Bring Serious Illnesses to Germany’ (npd.de: Meldungen Nov/Dec 2013).
At the time of writing (6 January 2016), the website npd.de provides a running slide-show: the stereotypical little blonde girl, profiled against a bed of Rudbeckia (‘Work, Family, Heimat, Our Program for Germany’); an open, people-filled boat on a tidal wave, with a no-entry sign superimposed over a map of Europe (‘The Boat is Full — Stop the Deluge of Asylum-Seekers’); and a bronze statue of a sword-wielding warrior (‘The NPD Defends Itself!’). Four editorials are presented: one on ‘foreigners’ massive assaults in Köln, Hamburg and Stuttgart’ proving that ‘mass immigration’ is a ‘threat’; the second, protesting that the Bundeswehr, or armed forces, must be used against threats inside Germany; the third, calling for ‘a state of law instead of integration insanity’; and the fourth, maintaining that the ‘majority of Germans see immigration as no enrichment’ — rather, ‘mass immigration’ is condemned as bringing only ‘financial burdens, growing organised criminality and a risk of Islamist attacks hitherto unknown to Germany’. The four ‘short notices’ on the side of the page include, in the same tone, the promise of ‘a list of the attempted and successful homicides by asylum-seekers in Saxony alone’ and the exhortation to ‘protect our women, our constitutional rights, and our German Heimat against foreign criminals’ (npd.de: Meldungen Dec 2015–Jan 2016).
The NPD presents itself as engaged in nationalist struggle, awakened to danger from invading foreigners and actively fighting — in the teeth of the establishment — these enemies of the German people. The Volk to be protected is presented, in turn, less in words than in saccharine images: an agrarian or small-town idyll of happy, healthy families (with a strong emphasis on small blonde girls). The dark threats to this idyll, as shown by the news items and their accompanying images, give the websites an emotional frame that combines nostalgia for a (familial, feminine) world of harmony, security, and beauty with fear, anger, and urgency (adult, masculine, soldierly).
The narrative structure that carries these emotional frames conforms to Robert Cox's use of the term ‘irreparable’ as a narrative descriptor (2013, 384–385). Media using this narrative call on readers to act now, urgently, immediately because the ‘irreparable’ is just around the corner. Otherwise, they risk the destruction of the most valuable thing in the world, the precondition for their existence. It is already weak, polluted, threatened; soon it will be too late; once destroyed, it — and they — will be lost forever. Cox cites this narrative appeal as common within environmentalist media forums. As NPD websites prove, it has equal resonance for the narratives, metaphors, and emotions that inform the neo-Nazis’ media logic. It should come as no surprise, then, that the neo-Nazi narrative can incorporate environmentalism. Let us now turn to how the two narratives of ‘irreparability’ are merged.
The NPD and the Environment
First, let us establish that environment was a NPD media concern. The npd.de website’s ‘party program’ provided information on the party’s stance on a number of issues. Among the more standard matters, such as ‘Society: Living in Germany, Justly and Economically’ and ‘Family: Children and Families Are Our Future’, there appears ‘The Environment: Protect Our Living Space!’
When one clicks, one is presented with an image of what seems to be a primeval German forest. An introductory text frames the political measures proposed. These are manifold. The state must intervene against ‘unbounded economic growth’, promote local production, end cheap-wage food imports, stop chemical waste dumping, and protect water supplies. The NPD opposes any import of genetically modified foods. Agriculture is to be protected. Animal transports are to be minimised, and laws passed that increase the ‘punishment of those who torture animals’. ‘Religiously motivated methods of butchering such as Schächten [halal slaughter] are to be criminalised’. To round it off, ‘Perverse practices of sodomy are to be forbidden and punished as severely as possible’ (npd.de/thema/umwelt).
Fig. 6.3 Screenshot of NPD homepage, ‘Environment: Protect our Lebensraum’. Source: http://www.npd.de/thema/umwelt
The party’s Bavarian affiliate likewise posts a separate party plank on the environment. It wishes to encourage alternative sources of energy; regional self-sufficiency; a ban on atomic energy; rebuilding towns on a human, familial scale; the promotion of ecological agriculture and businesses; and strong legal enforcement of resource husbandry and environmental protection. ‘Ethical principles’ must come before economic growth: ‘Humans and nature are not economic goods!’ (npd.bayern: Eine intakte Natur).
These measures fit, in fact, within the frame proposed by the plank’s introductory text. It runs as follows:
NPD endorses a comprehensive protection of our Heimat as living space for humans and animals. We refuse to countenance the profit-maximising degradation of space, resources, and living beings, in accordance with our holistic understanding of natural interdependence and cooperation and because of our responsibility for the future. (npd.de/thema/umwelt)
Ecologically, this is a fairly radical statement. Most parties go no further than (the fairly anthropocentric) planks of sustainability and preservation. Few ecocritics would find fault with a ‘holistic understanding of natural interdependence’ in a ‘living space for humans and animals’. Most would share the hostility to ‘the profit-maximising degradation of space, resources, and living beings’. Similarly, ecocritics might agree with particular statements in defence of local production and knowledge:
Our farmers must not become defenceless victims of banks, EU-bureaucrats, and international seed and fertiliser distributors [...] The protection of the natural foundations of life is, in our opinion, of the highest priority. We do not accept the subordination of the active protection of nature to unbounded economic growth. (npd.de/thema/umwelt)
We have met these enemies before — internationalists, capitalists, the EU. The goods to be protected — traditional, place-bound, harmonious — are also familiar. The leaflet 'The Right to Heimat' (offered for download on the same website) makes things doubly clear. Heimat is the key concept. A people’s right to its Heimat, the territory which nourishes it and to which it is tied by history and tradition, is the ‘most important collective human right’. Within certain borders, it seems, people and nature co-evolved, producing a unique Volk, culture, and landscape. ‘Volkstum and culture are essential foundations of human worth […] because of this, resident groups have made the Heimat an object of protection for centuries’. The pamphlet’s cover presents the imagined idyll: an old stone house in green, garden-like countryside. But this idyllic Heimat of ‘all European peoples’ has its enemies:
cultural imperialism, the destruction of the environment, and globalisation [cause...] the systematic destruction of our identity and consciousness of our Heimat. Our roots are replaced by mere consumption. The destruction of the environment, the result of years of rapacity on the part of global big capital, eliminates the prerequisites for our existence. (npd.de: Recht auf Heimat)
A Volk, it seems, is defined by its culture, which has evolved, historically, in dialectic with its territory: the result is the Heimat. ‘Therefore and fundamentally’, The Right to Heimat pamphlet continues, ‘environmental protection can never be divided from cultural evolution’ (ibid.). For this reason, the Bavarian website explains, ‘unbounded economic growth, overambitious, overgrown industrial projects, the industrialisation of agriculture, the urbanisation of villages’ are to be condemned: they lead to the ‘destruction of traditional links and cultures’. Humans, when ‘uprooted from their environment’, are deprived of identity (npd.bayern: Eine intakte Natur). A Heimat’s territory, culture, and people are one; ‘our’ identity cannot exist without all three. There is no division, it seems, between culture and nature. If one’s Heimat is despoiled, the website goes on to explain, the Volk is threatened in ‘its very substance’ (ibid.). Again, ecocritics would agree with much of this reasoning — if not the conclusions.
The far right’s belief that different peoples are defined by their historical interaction with specific landscapes and climates has its roots, as Jonathan Olsen (1990) has shown, in a European-wide neo-Romantic ideology. Popularised in the nineteenth century, and reinforced in the twentieth, by pseudo-scientific biological determinism, it holds that peoples are partly determined by their specific natural milieu, as expressed in their culture, language, and history. This (as Olsen puts it) means believing that all people are ‘the expression of an “eco-niche”, the places, nations, and cultures to which they naturally belong’. Each Volk is held to be unique — and ‘the most natural thing on earth’ (Olsen 1990, 6; see also Ditt 2001; Sharma 2012).
Or, to paraphrase Olsen’s argument, the far-right myth holds that the German people have developed both biomass and culture in fundamental interaction with the land and animals surrounding them. This is the Heimat that must be protected. But neo-Nazis take the reasoning in an unpleasant direction. If Germans are to survive, they must protect German nature and land against non-German immigrants. Such immigrants, as the product of altogether other natural systems, are necessarily alien to German nature and culture. They can only cause harm. Indeed, their need to leave their original Heimat shows how they have already ruined their own land. But worse still, of course, are those with no Heimat at all. Here we have, e.g., the international capitalists. Anchored, according to some NPD texts, in the ‘East Coast of the US’, they shade into the spectre of international Jewry.
In their critique of international capitalism, we again find strains faintly reminiscent of left-wing ecocriticism. Militant ecology, reborn in the 1970s, included left- and right-wing streams. Both condemned imperialism and international capitalism, with a special focus on their destruction of local environments. Indeed, left and right environmentalism share enemies. Ecological activism, Olsen argues, appeals to humans’ identity-affirming connection to the immediate natural world. Consequently, many environmentalists warn — again, in Olsen’s words — against the ‘homogenizing globalism that turns place into space and home into nowhere in particular’ (1990, 5). This emotional attachment and fear of loss are linked as easily to the right as to the left. For the former, it becomes an argument for territorial exclusiveness. We must defend our (fragile and essential) place — culture, nature, and people — from invaders and despoilers. Or according to the NPD’s environmentalist slogan: ‘Protection of the environment is protection of the Heimat’. For, as the Bavarian NPD website puts it in its party program, ‘An Intact Nature is the Foundation of Our Future’:
National politics is environmental politics. The lack of ecologically responsible politics threatens every Volk in its substance. Economic interests must come second to the protection of nature. The human is part of nature. Nature, therefore, is not simply the ‘Umwelt’ of humans, their physical space, but also the Mitwelt, their cultural environment (npd.bayern: Eine intakte Natur).
The enemies of this natural Mitwelt, aided by a Heimat-denying establishment, are themselves outside. It is outdoors that alien biomass, polluting and weakening the combined human-nature world, attacks: immigrants and their children, waste-dumpers, the international transport of food, the import of genetically modified crops, invasive species, foreign plants, trash and littering, cruelty to and perverse sexual actions with animals. It’s a matter of biomass misplaced: too little of the good, too much of the alien. (Indeed, the 2013 NPD website advertises condoms labelled ‘For Foreigners’ as a means of averting ‘demographic catastrophe’; npd.de: Kondome). Let us look at some details of how all these aspects are packaged into a single media message.
The Neo-Nazi World of Umwelt & Aktiv
Here, we turn to the quarterly pro-NPD environmentalist periodical Umwelt & Aktiv [Environment & Active]. This Magazine for Holistic Thinking: Environmental Protection, Animal Protection, Protection of the Heimat is available (along with the anti-foreigner condoms) on the npd.de web-page. If one clicks on the link, reads the extensively informational website, and orders the magazine, one receives about 35 pages of folksy, glossy, colourful ‘environmentalist’ news and features. Umwelt & Aktiv has no advertisers; it has been active for about ten years. As German journalists and anti-fascist groups have repeatedly pointed out, it is run and written by more or less openly committed NPD members (Pfaffinger 2014; Najoks 2008; Valjent 2012: recherche-nord.com 2014, ndr.de 2013).
The magazine website presents a ‘Letter of Welcome’ to visitors and subscribers, which immediately makes the nature-territory-culture-Volk connection.
The protection of nature begins at home, in the native (heimischen) woods, mountains, lakes, and beaches — in short, the Heimat. And thereto belongs also the protection of culture as the natural bearer of local environmental and animal protection, free from commercial imperatives [...] We must think of ourselves, our children, and our country! (U&A.de: Wir über uns)
How is this message made flesh? Let us suppose ourselves to have ordered a fourth-quarter issue (2011). Here we find our familiar enemies, in articles on African and Indian small farmers combating international seed monopolies; in condemnations of industrial animal farming (accompanied by a picture of dead, bloody hen); and, under ‘Protection of the Heimat’, an exposé of the foreign purchase of German agricultural land (a giant hand embossed with a dollar sign hovering over a field). Other threats to German biomass are also on the move: there is a condemnation of ‘bad food’ (a hamburger impaled by American and EU flags), while German biomass itself is self-imploding — as an article blaming Germany’s declining birth-rate on the mainstream media’s celebration of career-minded women makes clear. Finally, there is the nostalgic counter-frame, that of the (threatened) beloved: a celebration of homeopathic medicines (juxtaposing herbs to needles), the picture of a mother nursing her child that illustrates the career-women article, and visually-rich articles and poems on the significance of the time-honoured, essentially German celebration of Advent and ‘Jul’ (U&A 2011, 4).
Fig. 6.4 Sample issues of Umwelt & Aktiv. Photo: Steffen Werther.
These three themes — the enemy, the urgency, the beloved — convene under the combined right-wing/environmentalist narrative of irreparability. Environmentalism and right-wing ideology are usually intermixed. The standard anti-globalisation, pro-environment information is given a special slant: the need to protect German (and European) biomass. Why, asks one article, are ‘800 million Africans’ leaving their own countries? The reason is that they are driven out by the plundering of multinationals and their own population explosions. Why are they ‘waiting to go to Europe?’ Because of that continent’s population ‘vacuum’. Can anyone believe, the writer asks, that border guards and walls will prevent Europe from being ‘filled by immigrants’? The place of Africans, the writer concludes snidely, ‘is in African wars of liberation, not in the social service and anti-discrimination bureaus of Europe’ (U&A 2011, 2).
Indeed, all alien bodies — and their alien culture and practices — should be kept at bay. Otherwise, the essential link between people and nature will be at risk. For what is it besides the ‘soulless multi-kulti society’ that weakens Germans’ relationship to nature — that nature which is the ‘power resource for the German people and the spring of Volk health’? Volk and nature should always be linked. Conversely, ‘nationalism and the battle to maintain Völker are nothing more than the broadening of the idea of protecting nature to include humans’. For are not peoples ‘a creation of nature’? And do not they, as a people, also deserve protection against extinction? But the German people will not survive a transmutation into ‘identity-less coffee-brown mixtures, a collection of consumers’, lacking sentiment for the ‘fatherland’ — which is, in turn, ‘indissoluble from love of nature, tradition, Heimat, and family’ (U&A 2010, 2).
There is no division between humans and nature here: the Germans’ communal soul is part and parcel of the German environment. The converse is true as well: the biomass of the German environment must be protected, on behalf of the German soul. Foreigners must be kept doubly at bay. ‘Now they are also plundering the woods’. Once, this Mecklenburg-Vorpommern NPD homepage article reads, ‘before Germany became so colourful and international’, gathering mushrooms had been a pleasant, relaxing past-time. Today, bands of Eastern Europeans are ‘swarming’ in search of mushrooms, picking the land bare, and destroying the woods. When a forester tried to stop them, he was first threatened at knife-point; then they tried to run him over. So far, this has been an isolated occurrence — perhaps; but ‘Poland is nearby and the media lies’ (npd.de: Pilze).
Like the NPD website, Umwelt & Aktiv is also concerned with the suffering that foreigners cause (German) animals. The culprits are, predictably, both commercial, industrial husbandry practices (the dead hen described above) and immigrants. Much ink is spilled denouncing kosher and halal slaughtering — foreign biomass (people) attacking German biomass (animals). Jewish and Muslim immigrants bring ‘in their baggage a type of animal-torture as yet unknown to us’, in contravention to ‘the norms that obtain here’. Those who tolerate this torture of animals then, the author concludes with heavy-handed sarcasm, give ‘an outraged howl, when Orientalist politico-terrorists cut, not the throats of sheep and cows, but of Western hostages’ (U&A 2011, 1).
From humans to domestic animals, and thence to the rest of German nature. There are invasive fish, insect, and plant species as well. An article entitled ‘Invasion from Asia’ details the ‘cannibalistic’ and rapidly reproducing Asiatic ladybugs (juxtaposed to the German ladybug, the object of affectionate attention). The article ‘Animal Immigrants’ denounces an alien crayfish. Indeed, ‘animals with migration background are on the increase’ (U&A 2011, 2; 2010, 4).
And then there is the alien biomass that will be eaten by Germans (the EU-American hamburger is a typical example). ‘Clone-Meat on German Plates’ tells of one of many unwanted American biomass invasions: the invasion through genetically modified plants (U&A 2011, 2). Umwelt & Aktiv joins NPD Party websites in repeatedly attacking the spread of (American-sponsored) genetically modified crops. In the vividly illustrated ‘The Dialogue Between Two Seeds, Geni and Normi’, the latter weeps over ‘an evil plan for immeasurable profits’, hatched by the multinational American concern Monsanto, which plans, efficiently and secretly, to ‘bring death and illness to humans’ (U&A 2011, 1).
What would German biomass look like, then, if left in peace? The nostalgic counter-ideal is, predictably enough, that of the doughty, self-supporting small farmer. Here, indeed, the story suddenly broadens to mythic proportions, stretching back into the ur-History of the German people.
Ten thousand years ago, according to one Umwelt & Aktiv writer, the North European farmer cared for and nurtured ‘his “Garden of Eden” in accordance with nature-derived understanding [natürlichen Verstand] — the opposite of the abstract, world-foreign intellect’ (U&A 2011, 4). Indeed, as a website contributor explains, there was once an ‘ancient European, “Nordic” culture’, pagan, pure, and pro-environment, a culture that survived all subsequent immigration (U&A.de 2013: Heimatschutz). In the ‘old pagan faith’, another magazine author explains, ‘scarcely a natural phenomenon existed which was not honoured as godlike’. There was a pantheistic idea of the ‘souls intrinsic to all living creatures, the godliness of every living being’ (U&A 2011, 4). The great perversion came with the ‘Christianisation of the Germanic peoples’. Old beliefs were suppressed — including the ‘deep and gripping love of nature’, rooted in the ‘Germanic soul’, but missing altogether in the Bible (U&A 2009, 2). And today? We are in a ‘capitalistic and atomised world that has to do only with profit maximising’. The brutal power of ‘global concerns’ leads to a psychologically impoverished ‘consumption ideology’—‘the era of the total rule of money’. ‘Synthetically homogenised space’, in the opinion of another writer, ‘is replacing what were, once, stammesgeschichtlich [historical-tribal] communities’ (U&A 2010, 2; 2011, 2). Again, ecocritical tropes and narratives are meshed, unpleasantly, with those of militant nationalism.
Nature-Oriented Action: A Cure for National Ills
What are the neo-Nazi solutions? Umwelt & Aktiv does not mention the NPD (although the Party’s environmentalist policies are, at one point, reproduced in full). But both party and Umwelt & Aktiv websites and publications provide plenty of recommendations for pro-nature action. Umwelt & Aktiv writers, in particular, direct their appeals to those mainstays of German environmentalism: the rediscovery and maintenance of the German’s age-old interrelationship with and participation in nature.
This is done by recommending action on three levels. The first can be called everyday — a return to the practices of our ancestors. Here, Umwelt & Aktiv gives many cosy recommendations. There are ancient herbal medicines (as used by ‘Wotan, as magical medicine’), ‘aromatherapy’ (associated in ‘all old cultures’ with ‘godliness, purity, strength, and power’), bee-keeping, preserving fruit, and gardening. Then there is a second level, that of maintaining a pro-nature family culture. This will be triggered (the authors hope) by, for instance, articles on how to teach children to sing poems celebrating spring (U&A 2011, 1; 2011, 2; 2010, 2).
Both sets of practices, it will be noted, are heavily gendered: environmentalist racism, it seems, is one way of connecting women to what is otherwise a heavily masculinised movement. By the same token, emphasis on environmentalist everyday practices reinforces the feminine nature of the nostalgic and beloved, the wife-and-child home: the Heimat, which the male soldier protects against intrusion (here, evidently, the soldier stands for NPD activists; for more on the gendered nature of the Heimat, see Ecker 2002).
Much triggering, however, is directed to a third level of engagement: efforts to encourage groups, even communities, to join together in re-treading the paths of their ancestors. If we are to return, one writer urges, to the ‘way of thinking’ rooted ‘in the Germanic’, which respected and loved eagles, horses, deer, ‘old trees and blooming bushes’, we must hold fast to ‘traditions and inherited values’. These are, it transpires, uniquely German, pre-Christian, and pro-environment (U&A 2009, 2). We should, for instance — as an article on solar energy puts it — revive solstice celebrations of ‘Mother sun’, the ‘first god of life’. To be sure, state-sponsored festivals for the ‘religious honouring of the sun’ did occur under National Socialism; but since then, the alienation from nature inherent in industrialised farming has meant the steady demotion of the sun as a holy object. But perhaps the turn towards solar energy will bring back the old ways? (U&A 2011, 1).
The implications of reviving old group rituals are far-reaching: only by re-establishing the relationship between nature and humans can the German people be saved. ‘The [tradition of the] April joke is dying out’, complains one Umwelt & Aktiv writer: ‘our regional dialects and customs are dying out, animal and plant species are dying out’. The ‘Mischgesellschaft [mixed society] caused by alien-ethnic immigration’ has caused a ‘loss of the way-of-life, of Volkstum and culture’. The threat of loss is dire: ‘the German people is headed for extinction’.
Perhaps still in small towns and villages, the May Pole is still raised [...] but is one really still greeting the beautiful, life-giving season of the sun? [...] who tends the family grave [...] who still knows by name the trees, flowers, and animals, growing at the roadside and in the woods? [...] all that which our people have made and that concerns them is almost totally suppressed. (U&A 2011, 3)
One solution to this looming problem seems to be extensive descriptions of how readers can enact ‘traditional German’ festivals. Here, the articles draw on highly charged, tradition-laden icons, framed in a ritualistic, solemn, and soothing narrative: that of liturgy and, hence, redemption. A pagan version of Christmas is, understandably, a favourite. The author of ‘Christmas: Then, Today, and Tomorrow’ tells us that ‘Christmas is something special for us Germans’, for ‘most Christmas customs have Germanic roots’. These customs ‘bring us people together and let us experience that we are part of a community’ (U&A 2011, 4). ‘The Germanic Jul-Festival’ (which adds a, presumably pagan, burning circle of wood to the usual icons of snow-covered pines, candles, and nuts) goes further, giving step-by-step instructions on how to recreate the authentic pagan ritual. It presents itself as a paean of ‘praise to nature’ (U&A 2010, 4). The article is followed by a Viking-esque poem: ‘Fall storms roar’, but ‘No weather-storm is too hard for us / we are of Nordland’s Art!’ (ibid.). Finally, the link between winter solstice and warrior ancestors is brought out on the magazine’s back cover, where a German soldier and a lit candle illustrate the text ‘Once a year, in the holy night / the dead warriors leave off their guard [...] We die for you, because we believe in Germany’ (ibid.). The (familial) idyll nourishes (masculinist) activist militancy; the militants are needed to fight the idyll’s enemies.
Local NPD websites also urge people to practice what they term ‘culture-bearing’ seasonal community traditions (that is, traditions that strengthen and uphold German culture). Besides giving instructions on how to conduct ‘traditional’ festivals, they publish lengthy reports on actual celebrations. Such reports are integral to triggering the local demonstrations, festivals, excursions, and hikes, the face-to-face encounters which make up an essential part of any social movement. Indeed, one finds a surprisingly rich set of narratives of everyday environmentalist and nature-oriented praxis. Let us turn to this last aspect of neo-Nazi environmentalist media: the interplay between media that seek to trigger nature-human festivals, and the subsequent presentation of these performances in that same media. How do this interplay affect the emotions and narratives that make up the eco-Nazi media frame?
Women, Youth, and Germanic Nature: From Umwelt to Aktion
The national NPD homepage is a bit too lofty to tell of local organisational doings, but local and sub-organisation websites give them a lot of space. There are political demonstrations; there is the annual commemorative event. Many events are meant to project the Party as a manly fighting organisation — mourning the deaths of martyrs, celebrating the founding of the party, meeting to drink beer and listen to speeches, the great music festivals, the convivial party-member outings to a war memorial or historic site. But many activities are seasonal and directly connected to nature. Let us look at several such activities, as reported on the two sub-organisation websites given prominence on the NPD’s homepage: the Ring Nationaler Frauen (National Women Group, hereafter Ring) and the Junge Nationaldemokraten (National-Democratic Youth). These will, we hope, give an idea of how neo-Nazi media trigger actions — and reports on actions — that reinforce both their two central emotional frames and their overriding ‘irreparable’ narrative.
The Ring, although many years old, is not large; indeed, the 2012 Report by the Federal Agency for Internal Security put it at 100-odd members (Verfassungschutzbericht 2012, 103). Its main website (http://www.ring-nationaler-frauen-deutschland.de) is, judging from the entries, kept alive by female NPD representatives. Like the NPD’s website, the Ring’s is concerned with the doings of the party, political news, and organisation events. In accordance with the neo-Nazis’ conservative gender norms, their website gives food, culture, customs, and traditions a first-place ranking. It is here that nature figures most prominently.
‘Defence of the environment is defence of the Heimat’, the NPD program maintains — and, predictably, neo-Nazi women have a role here. The Ring website posts invitations to, and lengthy reports on, group celebrations of German nature. A brief, 2014 dip into the website provides, for instance, an account of a ‘Thüringer Advents-Aktion’, where Ring members gave out home-made cookies and propaganda to passing women (whose eyes supposedly glowed with gratitude), as well as information on the ancient pagan roots of the St. Martin’s Day celebration. There are also longer narratives, detailing members’ doings, such as the Ring’s ‘Visit to native orchids’ in the Schwäbische Alb. A ‘whole meadow […] full of different herbs’ provides ‘an impressive experience’ of the ‘well-known plants of our Heimat’. Finally, after enjoying the herbs (pictures are included) and the ‘stupendous view of the Alb and the Hohenzollern Fortress’, the women had some ice cream — ‘after our time in the sun, a wonderful refreshment’. The harmonious, secure, child-like pleasures of traditional German nature-culture are thus offered (Ring.de: Advent; Orchid).
But the writers for this website want us, above all, to celebrate seasonal festivals, such as ‘“Mariae Himmelfahrt” and the Sprig of Herbs’ and ‘The Summer Solstice’ (found under the Customs and Culture banner button). The roots of such festivals, we are repeatedly reminded, lie in purely Germanic culture. A piece on ‘Carnival-Time’, for instance, emphasises that the celebration long antedates Christianity; doubting readers are referred to Swedish stone inscriptions. Such practices, the writer explains, re-enact the fight between winter and summer, re-awakening sleeping nature and bidding it be fruitful. ‘The winter is conquered, nature is woken’ — and we are encouraged to participate in these rites of spring (Ring.de: Brauchtum; Mariae; Sommer; Fasching).
And then there are the harvest festivals, predictably paying homage to the threatened German farmer. ‘The original harvest-festival customs, which have their roots in pagan history’, consist, in fact, of ‘the farmer’s thanks for the successful harvest’ as well as ‘the people’s thanks to the farmer’. This custom should be especially revered today, when foreign imports threaten ‘our own sound Bauerntum [peasantry]’ and people with ‘the poisons in industrially produced food sources’ and ‘genentically manipulated agricultural products’. What is worse, the Germanic festival has been supplanted by Halloween, an American custom ‘forced through by great commercial concerns’ and the mainstream media (Ring.de: Herbst).
This trigger to action is complemented by a narrative of the Ring’s proper celebration of the annual ‘Harvest Thanks Festival’ — ‘already a tradition’ (Ring.de: Erntedankfeier). The reader is provided with a ritualised narrative of happy, enthusiastic celebrants sharing food, songs (‘Of Autumn’), and poetry in order to give thanks to farmers. The audience ‘listened eagerly’ to speeches on the value of the family, the avoidance of pesticides, and the profitibility of ecological vegetables. Halloween, which ‘does not correspond to our Art’, is again mentioned; the event ended with the ‘well-known’ song, ‘The Woods Are Already Bright’. Many were ‘thankful for the lovely hours in harmonious community’, and new members joined — all now ‘properly ready for autumn thoughts and moods’ (ibid.).
Fig. 6.5 Screenshot of local NPD’s Facebook page, ‘Protection of the environment is protection of the Heimat’. This NPD slogan (here used by the NPD youth organisation) is popular at all levels of the party, as well as among independent extremists. Source: Facebook page NPD Berlin-Pankow, http://www.facebook.com/npd.pankow/photos/a.475618535916618.1073741827.475614375917034/851724564972678/
This is evocative, of course, of the Heimat idyll. We would also like to point to the function played by the form as well as the fact of festival reports. The narratives, although varying in tone, tend to have predictable content. The group convenes; key symbols are displayed; there is movement through space, speeches, songs, and poetry; people enjoy food, drink, and games; finally, there is a happy dispersal — upon which, often, the overriding moral is spelled out (e.g., in a concluding poem). Durkheimian scholars of ritual would consider these group rituals as a means of reinforcing community by confirming the eternal validity of its values. The posting of a website narrative of the meeting might, in its turn, do more than spread complacency and (hopefully) trigger emulative action. It might (we argue) also serve to publicly affirm the efficacy and significance of the rituals. The story itself, we postulate, reinforces communal memory; its standardised form cleanses and focuses members’ social recollection. Finally, the narrative might function as a linked element in a larger collective of website texts. Future party members could take the text as a sort of liturgy when planning their own festivals (and their own reports on those performances). See, they might say, these are not just random bodies bumbling about. These are patriotic Germans fighting for the survival of their species by reclaiming nature, land usages, collective practices: biomass reclaiming biotope.
For one should not forget that invocations of idyllic Heimat are not innocent. The above may seem an innocuous re-invention of a nature-loving, community-affirming, environmentalist Germanic tradition; but there is always a link between this idyll and the media frame of angry activism, brought together under the shared ‘irreparability’ narrative. Some Ring reports on seasonal rituals, indeed, openly demonstrate the marriage. Take, for instance, the ‘Summer Fest and Summer Solstice in Baden-Württemberg’ of 2013 (held by the party as a whole; see Ring.de: Sommerfest). The festivities included a speech, stands with traditional local as well as vegan foods, playing space for children, and ‘Viking’ contests for ‘big and small’, the latter arranged by the NPD’s National Youth. A bonfire was planned, together with speeches and songs. The report includes images of group activities and symbolic (‘pagan’) constructions (ibid.).
Thus far, the report’s tone is celebratory. But it suddenly changes to angry scorn: the police intervened. The fire was forbidden. The Summer Festival was resumed, and its various (standard, ritualised) actions detailed; but the tone remains one of embattled militancy. Participants formed a circle of lit torches, sang the Deutschlandlied [German national anthem], and listened to poetry; a ‘fire speaker’ (Feuerredner) assured them that each torch was ‘for our Heimat’. ‘Strengthened’ by words and song, all went home ‘with a good feeling, despite all repression’. The battle, it seems, would go on: ‘Also next year we will again hold a Summer Solstice Festival of NPD Baden-Württemberg. We promise this! (their emphasis). The narrative ends with a poem. ‘Once upon a time, when the country was still free’, there stood ‘at Summer Solstice, on every height a fire […] We greet the sun that stands over us. May the heart also remain bright and true that never forgets its origins’. Pro-nature rituals (including vegan food-stands) combine, here, with nationalist militancy (ibid.).
From women singing autumn songs to fire-speakers, police, and Deutschlandlied: the pro-nature performance narratives are shifting from the timeless and idyllic to the urgent, angry-fearful media frame. Unsurprisingly, this is clearly illustrated by pro-nature performance narratives posted by the NPD’s National-Democratic Youth (Junge Nationaldemokraten, JN; the website tag is Aktion-Widerstand.de). In 2013, this group numbered around 350 members; it was affiliated with the NPD, but also termed itself ‘national-revolutionary’ in the ‘proto-political field’. This involved links to the loosely organised, informal nationalist groups and gangs — e.g., Freie Kräfte and Autonome Nationalisten — whose group identity often depended on neighbourhood, music, street performance, and violence. These are the groups that are often responsible for illegal direct action (Verfassungsschutzbericht 2012, 99).
The homepage of ‘Youth for Germany’ uses the NPD colour-scheme, but features, as background, a fertile farming landscape. The ‘Our Goals’ heading mentions ‘a German-European principle of lineage and descent [Abstammungsprinzip]’, that is, biomass. As usual, territory and culture interact: ‘We want our culture to live and be preserved. Therefore, we support the traditions of our thousands-year-old culture, which is so closely bound to the land in which we live’ (AW.de: Ziele).
Given this, the JN do engage in the party’s pro-nature, seasonal festivals. In 2013, the website gave the Germanic origins of Walpurgis Night and urged comrades to enjoy celebrating it. For Easter 2013, coffee, cakes, and games united comrades in an ‘ur-Germanic festival’. ‘Come to us, you also, and be who you are — youth, forward!’ The youth of Lausitzmarsch have gone on a nature-hike and celebrated the summer solstice. ‘With songs, poems, fire-speeches, torches, flags, and a small fire we carried on the tradition of our people. All in all, it was a deep experience in the community’ (AW.de: Walpurgis; Ostern; Lausitz).
Furthermore, the JN website provides many accounts of nature-hikes, ranging from one-day affairs for the whole family to all-male marches: ‘Lived Community’, the New Year ‘Through Forest and Sand for Fatherland’, ‘To Hike Always Gives Fresh Air’ (featuring the poem ‘Kameradschaft is Stronger Than Death’) (AW.de: Gemeinschaft; Wald und Sand; Luft). A comrade’s post explains the ideology supposedly underlying these hikes.
What are we then looking for? We want to live close to nature, do not need the luxury that is supposedly so important in our lives [...] In our hearts burns the longing for freedom. This we no longer find in the dirty streets of our towns [...] We storm [stürmen] to the countryside […] We long to feel our own earth [under our feet], get to know our own Heimat. To see and experience how great our Germany is. We wish to experience true community. (AW.de: Warum)
The hikes and their associated camps (Autumn Camp, New Year’s Camp, Pentecost Bund Camp) are meant to give youth an experience of the ‘greatness of Germany’, to feel their Heimat’s ‘own earth’ under their feet, to ‘experience true community’, to ‘be who you [really] are’ (ibid.). They probably promote comradeship and enthuse younger members by combining shared bodily movement, song, and food with isolation from everyday society. This, at least, is how the nature-hike narratives on the JN website present the experience.
The tone of nature-hike narratives vacillates, interestingly, between the angry activist and the happy idyll. The report on New Year’s Eve hike of ‘JN Mecklenburg’ along the Baltic coast’s ‘native’ woods and beaches is more grim than happy. The hike was used to ‘exchange thoughts about the political battle and also to get to know still unknown co-fighters better personally’. While the ‘typical BRD youth’ can ‘scarcely wait for the drunkenness of New Year’s Eve’, the report concludes, the hikers ‘dedicate themselves to the Gemeinschaft [community] while keeping spirits and bodies sound’ (AW.de: Wald und Sand).
Other narratives are a combination of activism and idyll. The report on a Christmas Day ‘Hike in Rothaargebirge’ describes a dozen JN members in a ‘mountain landscape characterised by the woods, fields, and rivers’. Once there, they erected tents and flag, and took off through the woods ‘with Volkstreuen songs on their lips’. They supposedly impressed other hikers, who were surprised that there were ‘nationalists’ like this. The young men bathed in the river, listened to bird songs, engaged in communal sports and lessons in self-defence, ate, drank, slept, cleaned up the campsite, and returned home — a fine combination of being friendly to nature, advertising the party, and training as activists (AW.de: Rothaargebirge).
Some reports, finally, make the enjoyment of an idyll into an activist act. The 2012 account of the annual mixed-sex ‘JN Easter March’ exults in the exploration of Germany’s natural-cultural landscape. After visiting the ruins of the ‘impregnable fortress Hohentwiel’, young people ‘snatched up their banners’ and marched through ‘several small villages, which we greeted, loudly, with marching songs’. Setting up camp, they ‘enjoyed the lovely nature’ by eating, singing, and playing games around the fire. All these activities were part of ‘this beautiful hike full of fun and community in this special landscape. Do you also want to be a part of this community and take part in one of our numerous hikes? Then sign up at the following address’ (AW.de: Vulkane).
The tone in this last account is fairly bucolic; like the other hike reports, it shows how enjoyment of the German idyll makes for sound bodies, creates community, and reconnects hikers with the identity-affirming nature of the German Heimat. For the JN, moreover, the idyll is never far from activism; recreation in nature has an ultimate, soldierly purpose. Indeed, enjoyment of nature is itself an activist act. The singing Rothaargebirge hikers impressed other nature-lovers; the Easter youths traversed villages, carrying banners and ‘loudly’ singing marching songs (of, one suspects, a patriotic bent). This German Heimat is free of alien biomass, foreigners, plants or animals, buildings or cultural practices. Indeed, the landscape is now re-inscribed with German consciousness through the songs and banners, the sound, pure bodies of militantly German youth.
German biomass is thus itself a weapon, as the JN insert their clean bodies, their concern for nature directly into threatened spaces. In 2012–2013, they were, for instance, proud participants in so-called ‘Social Days’, initiated (according to the NPD’s website) to
make a contribution to the community [...] cleaning public places and monuments, [providing] food for the needy, visiting children’s and old people’s homes, holding children’s festivals, and much more [...] Germany is not only an economic location, but also Heimat and Fatherland. It is up to us alone to preserve a beautiful country. (npd.de: Sozialer Tag)
Some JN groups use Social Days for political demonstrations; others dedicate the time to ostentatiously cleaning up natural spaces. Thus in Niedersachsen, as the local NPD website post (‘Together for a Cleaner Environment’) tells us, ‘eager Heimat-true activists’ from the JN took part in the battle against ‘the dirtying of the environment’. They cleaned up a recreational roadside area, finding half-empty vodka bottles and marijuana cigarette butts — the ‘participating activists were, on occasion, very startled’. Many people evidently do not care where they litter. ‘This tendency towards egoism has its roots, quite naturally, in the liberal-capitalist system, which must be overcome. The JN will also in the future engage itself in social encounters among our Volk!’ (npd.niedersachsen.de: Gemeinsam).
Just under that item, one finds ‘Social Day of the NPD: JN In Bremen Too’. Here, the youth clean up park playgrounds. The vodka-bottles, cigarette-packages, and heroin-needles they find provide a cross-section of the German Republic’s addiction-society (Suchtgesellschaft), we are told. Further, the fact that ‘German children’ are a ‘minority’ in many Bremen playgrounds ‘not infrequently leads to problems'. ‘In connection with the cleansing of playgrounds’, the surrounding households got JN leaflets in their mailboxes (npd-niedersachsen.de: Sozialer Tag).
From nature and parkland playgrounds to society itself: Germany should be kept clean. German youth, drawing mind-and-body strength from the natural, healthy, environmentalist idyll of the Heimat, are ready to go to angry war with those that threaten that environment and, thus, the entire German Volk. The two media frames, idyll and anger, meet in his — and, sometimes, her — pure German biomass.
One can, finally, argue that these three interconnected levels of media manage, together, to achieve something in an area where many other environmentalist movements fail — including many on the liberal left. They integrate nature into the human condition: biomass into biotope. Nature is not just a resource to exploit. It is essential to race consciousness: one would, supposedly, be as lost without the nature of one’s Heimat as one would be without its culture, history, or human biomass. People and countryside are connected; all are native biomass. This connection, so constructed, is perhaps more deeply ecocritical than the liberal tropes of ‘sustainable development’. It is also frightening.
On-Line Resources
Junge Nationale: Aktion-Widerstand.de
Walpurgis, http://www.aktion-widerstand.de/?p=8477
Gemeinschaft, http://www.aktion-widerstand.de/?p=9435
Wald und Sand, http://www.aktion-widerstand.de/?p=5398
Rothaargebirge, http://www.aktion-widerstand.de/?p=9613
Other websites
http://www.nsantispe.wordpress.com
Umwelt & Aktiv: articles cited
2009, 2: Sojka, Klaus, ‘Tierschutz und Kirchen’.
2010, 2: Kast, D., ‘Hermann Löns: Heidedichter, Naturschützer und ungehörter Warner’; Anon., ‘Baum des Jahres 2010’; Anon., ‘Aromatherapie’; Anon., ‘Die Kräuterhexe’; ‘Wie gefährlich ist Werbung nun wirklich?’; Blum, Robert, ‘Schiefergas: Energiepolitik zwischen Autarkie und Grundwasservergiftung’; Anon., ‘Genmanipulierte Erdnussbutterkekse’; Anon., ‘Kängurufleisch — Tierquälerei vom anderen Ende der Welt’.
2010, 4: Fürst, Alexander, ‘Der germanischen Julfest’; B.A.H., ‘Tierische Einwanderer’.
2011, 1: Howanietz, Michael, ‘Sol invictus’; Howanietz, Michael, ‘Der genormte Mensch’; Anon., ‘Dialog zwischen zweit Samen Geni och Normi’; Ulrich Dittmann, ‘Tierrechte’.
2011, 2: Blum, Robert, ‘Klonfleisch von US-Farmen: United States of Klonfleisch: Klonfleisch auf deutschen Tellern’; Horn, Laura, ‘Asiatische Maikäfer’; Weber, Britta, ‘Mama Afrika — der geknechtete Kontinent: Schnelleres globales Bevölkerungswachstum’.
2011, 3: Blum, Robert, ‘Deutschland stirbt’.
2011, 4: Dittmann, Ulrich, ‘Tierschutzberichte der Bundesregierung von 2011 — ein Dokument des Versagens’; Thüne, Wolfgang, ‘Landwirtschaft — Klimaschutz frisch vom Acker?’; Mireille, Dankwart (film review).
2012, 2: Zittmayr, Renate, ‘Gentechnik-freies Österreich’.
1 During 2013, the political constellation shifted somewhat. The far-right party Alternative für Deutschland (AfD) was founded as a protest party against German participation in the euro’s financial politics. Between 2013 and 2015, the AfD mushroomed into a more general populist right-wing party. It has representatives in five German Landtag. It has, at the moment of writing, the support of around 10% of all German voters. This turn to the right has positioned the AfD as a direct competitor to the NPD, especially in Eastern Germany (conservative politicians have designated it ‘NPD light’). The NPD has been able to maintain its own voter base, but has not grown — the AfD steals the additional voters it might have gained as sentiment hardens towards financial aid to Greece and the ongoing ‘refugee crisis’. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Journalism_and_Mass_Communication/The_Environment_in_the_Age_of_the_Internet_(Graf)/1.06%3A_The_Militant_Media_of_Neo-Nazi_Environmentalism.txt |
If you can’t communicate and talk to other people
and get across your ideas,
you’re giving up your potential.
– Warren Buffet, American business magnate
Try This
• Work in a group of 4-5 people.
• Make a list of all the possible ways you might use public speaking now and in the future.
Why Does Public Speaking Matter?
If you are a student, public speaking may be the most important class you take. Really! I believe it is the most important because it makes your other classes “work.” Some of you expect public speaking will be part of your future–maybe you are going into sales, or teaching, or politics, or even ministry, and you will be expected to give speeches on a regular basis.
The rest of you may be thinking graduation will mark the end of your public speaking days. I doubt you will make it through life without giving speeches. After all, if you are good at your job, you will likely be asked to train others to do your job–that’s public speaking. If you know a lot about your topic, you will likely go to a conference where you talk about what you know–that’s public speaking. Many of you will find yourselves at a meeting in front of a group of colleagues explaining your proposal–that’s public speaking. Others of you will be managers giving out awards to your associates as part of a ceremony–that’s public speaking. All of you will likely be called on to give a toast at a wedding or retirement party–that’s public speaking. All of you will likely speak at a funeral of a loved one—that’s public speaking. In addition, you will have to do a job interview, and these days many of them are conducted as group interviews or even as presentations–that’s public speaking.
Like it or not, most of you will do public speaking. It is for these reasons I say, your ability to give a speech well can make all your other training work for you. It can help you in your relationships as you use your skills to celebrate with others.
Let me remind you of a few more reasons having good presentation skills is important to you.
If I went back to college again,
I’d concentrate on two areas:
learning to write and to speak before an audience.
Nothing in life is more important
than the ability to communicate effectively.
President Gerald Ford
Employers Seek Good Communicators
Getting ahead of the next curve requires courage and communication:
Courage to determine the next bold move, and communication
to keep the troops committed to the value of moving forward.
Rallying stakeholders to move together in a common course of action
is all part of the innovation and survival process.
Leaders at every level in an organization
need to be skillful at creating resonance
if that organization is to control its own destiny.
Nancy Duarte, Resonate: Present Visual Stories that Transform Audiences
Employers want to hire people who are good communicators. Learning to develop your public speaking skills will help you to be employable and to succeed in your future career. The National Association of Colleges and Employers does an annual survey of the top attributes employers want to see on resumes and communication skills are consistently high on the list.
ATTRIBUTE % OF RESPONDENTS
Problem-solving skills 91.2%
Ability to work in a team 86.3%
Strong work ethic 80.4%
Communication skills (written) 77.5%
Leadership 72.5%
Communication skills (verbal) 69.6%
Initiative 69.6%
Detail-oriented 67.6%
Technical skills 65.7%
Flexibility/adaptability 62.7%
Interpersonal skills (relates well to others) 62.7%
Computer skills 54.9%
Organizational ability 47.1%
Creativity 23.5%
Source: Job Outlook 2020, National Association of Colleges and Employers
Graduates Say Public Speaking Skills Helped with Career Improvement
Public speaking is not just essential to get the job but to keep and advance in a job. Surveys of college graduates reported oral and written communication skills, public speaking, group leadership, and motivating and managing others were most essential for career improvement. In a Gallup Alumni survey, graduates reported they wished they had more communication training to help them once they have graduated.
Public Speaking is a Part of Your Civic Responsibility
Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful,
concerned citizens can change the world.
Indeed it is the only thing that ever has.
Margaret Mead, American Cultural Anthropologist
Speaking up for what you believe in is an important part of being in a democracy. This is not all about you. The opportunities you have been given and the education you are receiving can be used to help others. Boyer, in an article titled Civic Education for Responsible Citizens, suggests at the heart of a good education is civic engagement. Students should “develop responsible ways of thinking, believing and acting.”
You Can Make a Difference
Rather than tell you why you should speak up, I would rather show you how others have spoken out and made a difference.
Watch this excerpt from Greta Thunburg. At age 16, she spoke at the UN Climate Action Summit in 2019. To watch the full speech https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TMrtLsQbaok
At age 19, Zach Wahls stood before the Iowa House Judiciary Committee to talk about his experience of growing up with same-sex parents.
Amanda Gorman at 22-years-old read her poem, The Hill We Climb at the inauguration of US President Joe Biden and Vice President Kamala Harris.
Presentational Literacy Helps You Share Your Ideas
Chris Anderson, from TED Talks, reminds us of the campfires of old have become the fires of the internet where ideas can spread. More than ever presentational literacy is important.
(Heads up, there is an embedded ad in this video)
Public Speaking Allows You To Tell Your Story
Each of us has a story to tell.
Think about a tough time you went through and how you came out stronger having been through that experience.
What if you could take that experience and use it to help others push through?
Think about how you had to learn something the hard way.
What if you could tell others about what you learned so they don’t make the same mistake?
Think about a historic event you witnessed: 911, Global Pandemic, Race Riots.
What if you could tell others what you witnessed so they could see history as more than words on a page?
A lot of public speaking is just people telling their stories. Here examples.
Go to National Public Radio’s This I Believe and find a story.
Go to the Moth, the Art and Craft of Storytelling, and watch one of the speeches. This club in New York City had now gone international. (Think of a coffeehouse meets poetry slam meets comedy club. )
Professional Speakers Can Make Good Money
Some people make a career around public speaking. Just for fun, follow one of these links to a speaker bureau and see how some are using their public speaking skills and earning a substantial income in the process.
Public Speaking Can Help You Grow as a Person
When most people think about public speaking, they think about what they are giving to others. Very few people think of public speaking in terms of what they get. You will find when you deliver a speech, you gain knowledge, you gain confidence, and you gain a wonderful feeling of accomplishment.
Speech coach Martin McDermott helps his students think about what they will gain by asking them, “What will go right when you speak?”
• I will learn about public speaking, a workplace skill in great demand.
• I will stand up to one of the greatest fears human beings face.
• My audience will learn something valuable from me they can apply to their lives.
• I will experience power and self-confidence I didn’t know I had.
• I will see myself in a new and more positive light.
• I will share interesting parts of myself, and others will come to know and like me.
• I will discover a hidden talent for speaking.
• I will grow as a person.
What is the Purpose of Public Speaking?
The many fathers of rhetoric debated this heavily. Quintilian, a Roman rhetorician said citizens have five duties when it came to public speaking:
• Defend truth.
• Protect the innocent.
• Prevent criminal behavior.
• Inspire the military.
• Inspire the public.
Do you think this list is still applicable?
Are there any things you would add?
Are there any things you would take away?
So What Who Cares?
One of the things you should do as you write a speech is to ask, “So what who cares?” Who is going to listen to your speech and why they should care about what you are saying? When I wrote this book, I asked myself the same question. I asked, “Why would anyone care about public speaking.”
So what, who cares? You should care because public speaking is not a class you take, it is what you do to get your message across. It is not about getting a grade or having a checkmark on your degree plan, it is about learning to develop important skills that will help you accomplish your goals. It is not about you as a professional, having to give a speech, it is about you having an opportunity to share your message. It is not about you as a teacher having to teach, but about students who need to learn.
So what, who cares. Hopefully, you care. Hopefully, you care enough about yourself to try to be the best version of yourself.
What happens from this point on, is up to you.
Be skillful in speech,
that you may be strong.
Merikare, Egyptian Pharoah
Key Takeaways
Remember This!
• Public speaking is a skill that is not only helpful while you are in college but will likely be helpful in job attainment and career advancement.
• Doing public speaking will help you grow in knowledge and gain confidence.
Bonus Features
Please share your feedback, suggestions, corrections, and ideas
I want to hear from you.
Do you have an activity to include?
Did you notice a typo that I should correct?
Are you planning to use this as a resource and do you want me to know about it?
Do you want to tell me something that really helped you?
Click here to share your feedback.
References
Anderson, A. (2021). We can help you master public speaking. [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kcoch-Mpgls Standard Youtube License.
Aras, K. (2012). The nuts and bolts of public speaking: Practical tools for powerful presentations. Retrieved from http://www.thecommunicationfactory.com/seminars/skills/PublicSpeaking.php
Boyer, E. L. (1990). Civic education for responsible citizens. Educational Leadership, 48(3), 4-7. http://www.ascd.org/ASCD/pdf/journals/ed_lead/el_199011_boyer.pdf
Cicero, Marcus Tullius. (2001). de Oratore. The Rhetorical Tradition: Readings from Classical Times to the Present (2nd ed.). Ed. Bizzell, Patricia, & Herzberg, Bruce.
Colby, A, Ehrlich, T. Beaumont, E. & Stephens, J. (2011). Educating undergraduates for responsible citizenship. Change, 35 (6) (2003): 40-48. https://doi.org/10.1080/00091380309604127
Elder, L. & Paul, R. (2008). Critical thinking: Strategies for improving student learning, Part II. Journal of Developmental Education, 32 (2). 34-35. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ868666.pdf
Gallup (2014). Measuring college and university outcomes. Measuring College and University Outcomes (gallup.com)
Gorman, A. (2021). The Hill We Climb. Biden-Harris Inauguration. [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LZ055ilIiN4 Standard YouTube License.
Quintilian. Quintilian’s Institutes of Oratory J. S. Watson. London: G. Bell and Sons, 1856. Print.
McDermott, M. (2014). Speak with courage. Bedford St Martin.
National Association of Colleges and Employers. (2020). The top attributes employers want to see on resumes. https://www.naceweb.org/about-us/press/2020/the-top-attributes-employers-want-to-see-on-resumes/
National Speech & Debate Association. (2020). Happy National Speech and Debate Education Day from Jared Padalecki. [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YW8B4azcKA8 Standard YouTube License.
Snippe, E. (2016). 101 quotes to inspire speakers. https://speakerhub.com/blog/101-quotes
Thunberg, G. (2019). Emotional Greta Thunberg attacks world leaders: “How dare you?” [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVlRompc1yE Standard YouTube License.
Thunberg, G. (2019). Greta Thunberg to world leaders: ‘How dare you? You have stolen my dreams and my childhood.’ [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TMrtLsQbaok Standard YouTube License.
Wieges, J. C. (2011). Civic engagement in the public speaking classroom. [Dissertation, Iowa State University]. https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1198&context=etd
Zekeri, A.A. (2004). College curriculum competencies and skills former students found essential to their careers. College Student Journal, 38, 412-422. (no doi).
University of Minnesota Library Open Resource Textbook. (2013). Speaking in personal and civic contexts in communication in the real world: An introduction to communication studies. https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/12-1-speaking-in-personal-and-civic-contexts/
Wahls, Z. (2011). Zach Wahls speaks about family. [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FSQQK2Vuf9Q&feature=emb_logo Standard YouTube License. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/Advanced_Public_Speaking_(Meade)/01%3A_Writing_a_Speech/1.01%3A_Public_Speaking--So_What_Who_Cares.txt |
The success of your presentation
will be judged not by the knowledge you send
but by what the listener receives.
Lilly Walters, Secrets of Successful Speakers
There are four words that can change everything about how you look at public speaking. These four words can alter how you look at nervousness, how you design your content, the way you present, and the way the audience receives the message. What are these words? “It is not about you.”
It is Not About You
It is not about you. So, there you have it–the secret to success in speaking wrapped up in five little words. It is not about you; it is about your audience. Most of the time, speakers think, “I have this great message I need to tell people” or “I need to inform them of what I know.” In each case, it is about “I”. To be a successful speaker, you have to change your way of thinking. A speech is not about you, the speaker, it is about them, the audience. It is about the fact they need something, and you can provide it for them. They may need information, they may need to be inspired, they may need to know about a product that will improve their lives, they may need to celebrate a special moment. They have needs and when your message meets those needs, your audience will be transformed. Chris Anderson of TED talks says, The truth about “speaking your truth” is this: “If the audience doesn’t understand how your truth applies to them, or what they get by learning about your dreams, they’ll tune out or quickly forget what you’ve said.” The more you think about your audience and explore who they are and what they need, the more you can tailor your speech.
Treat your audience as guests
who’ve consented to give you
some of their precious time and attention.
Don’t abuse their gift
by making them feel like captives
who are compelled to listen to you.
Vivian Buchan, Make Presentations with Confidence
Give Your Audience Something of Value: Audience Before Content
A speech is a gift you give the audience. Chris Anderson, the curator of TED Talks, says, “Focusing on what you should give, should be the foundation of your talk.” From the moment, you are tasked with giving a speech, you should ask yourself what gift you have to give. One way to think about it is the acronym ABC-audience before content. One professional speaker helps herself to think about what she gives by imagining herself handing out one-hundred-dollar bills to each audience member. This helps her remember her speech should give each person something of value.
Game designer Jane McGonigal tells her audience she is giving them something valuable. She suggests she will give them seven and a half extra minutes to their life. Watch her introduction to hear for yourself.
I’m a gamer, so I like to have goals. I like special missions and secret objectives. So here’s my special mission for this talk: I’m going to try to increase the life span of every single person in this room by seven and a half minutes. Literally, you will live seven and a half minutes longer than you would have otherwise, just because you watched this talk.
Speech is about serving your audience instead of serving your agenda. One group of speech coaches, Ginger Public Speaking, emphasize being servant speakers. They illustrate the difference between taking and serving this way:
Normal public speaking can focus more on taking from an audience:
• I need them to listen to me.
• I need them to look interested in what I’m saying.
• I need them to laugh at my jokes.
• I need them to affirm my expertise.
• I need them to know how good I am.
Servant speaking is all about building a community:
• I want to give my community what they most need to hear.
• I believe my message will bring benefit to those listening.
• I want the people listening to me to feel a part OF something not apart FROM something.
Every speech, every time, is about connecting with the audience. Think about who they are and the perspective they bring. Think about their wants, their needs, their desires, and their perspective. Public speaking is about serving, it is about giving a gift. Watch this short video where Chris Anderson talks about the gift of an idea.
Did you notice three out of four of the key features that Chris Anderson mentions have to do with the audience?
1. Limit your talk to just one major idea.
2. Give them a reason to care.
3. Build your ideas based on what the audience already knows.
4. Make your idea worth sharing. Who does this idea benefit?
The information in this video is for a specific context–how to give a TED Talk–but many of the lessons apply to public speaking in general.
Getting into the Mind of Your Audience
“Speakers do not give speeches to audiences; they jointly create meaning with audiences,” according to scholars Sprague, Stuart, and Bodary, to create meaning, you need to think about what your audience already knows. You need to get into the mind of your audience. The key to good speaking is to put an idea in the mind of your audience. For this to work, you need to think about them and their worldview. To do this, you need to research your audience as well as your topic.
Frank Luntz knows all about how to get in the mind of an audience, it’s what he does for a living. He is an American political and communications consultant and he polls audiences to find out their beliefs. He specializes in helping speakers find what words best resonate with audiences. He says:
You can have the best message in the world, but the person on the receiving end will always understand it through the prism of his or her own emotions, preconceptions, prejudices, and preexisting beliefs. It’s not enough to be correct or reasonable or even brilliant. The key to successful communication is to take the imaginative leap of stuffing yourself into your listener’s shoes to know what they are thinking and feeling in the deepest recesses of their mind and heart. How that person perceives what you say is even more real, at least in a practical sense, than how you perceive yourself.
This means not just looking at an audience in terms of demographics, but rather, what are their goals, why should they care, what do they need?
Ask Yourself, What Do They Need?
Many of you are reading this book because you are in a public speaking class. If so, you are thinking, “What do I have to do to make an “A” on this speech?” or “What is the least I can do to get my college credit?” Notice that both approaches focus on “I.” Realize when you give your presentation, there will be an audience of college students that need something. What do they need? They need not be bored. They need to think it was worth it to come to class. They need to learn things. They need to be inspired. If it is a persuasion speech, don’t think about what you need to persuade them to do, think about them and how their lives will be improved if they listen to your speech and act on the important issue you presented. If you are giving a ceremonial speech, think about how you can make them feel a part of something–make them feel included.
The goal of effective communication
should be for listeners to say
‘Me too!’ versus ‘So what?’
– Jim Rohn, motivational speaker
I want to share with you a few scenarios from my own experience. Read carefully and consider what the audience needs.
INFORMATION:
I spoke to the monthly meeting of Kiwanis about a nonprofit I managed.
What did my audience need?
• To enjoy themselves among friends after the meal.
• To know about what is happening in their community.
• To feel like their involvement in the club was meaningful.
• To feel like they could do things that will make a difference.
• To feel like they are a part of something important.
Why did they come to the speech?
Because they are part of a club that has weekly luncheons with community speakers. They are there to be with like-minded individuals, they are there to find ways to get involved, and they are there to network.
CELEBRATION:
I spoke to a sorority at their annual banquet that honored the academic achievements of the group.
What did my audience need?
• To feel bonded with others in their sorority.
• To feel proud of their achievements.
• To feel motivated to succeed and make good grades in college.
• To feel like the university cares about their success and recognizes their hard work.
Why did they come to the speech?
They liked being part of a group where they make friends and celebrate accomplishments. They were required to attend, or they would be fined. They knew me or one of the other speakers that day.
PERSUASION:
I spoke to a major corporation about why they needed to buy diesel engine parts from the company I worked with.
What did my audience need?
• To know about the product and how it might benefit them.
• To be able to understand the details of the product enough to make an informed decision.
• To feel empowered to make an informed choice.
• To feel good about their decision.
• To be able to get back to work in a timely fashion.
• To feel like they were doing what was right for their company and their customers.
Why did they come to the speech?
They benefited from finding good products for their company. It was their job. Saving their company money while buying a good product makes them look good.
TRAINING:
I spoke at a teaching camp to a group of college faculty and gave them tips for teaching.
What did my audience need?
• To know about specific ways to improve teaching.
• To feel good about being a teacher.
• To understand the teaching tip in a way they could apply it.
• To connect with and feel encouraged by other teachers.
Why did they come to camp?
It is an optional camp, so they came specifically to learn to be a better teacher. They came to spend time with friends.
Do this anytime you have a speech to give. Put yourself in the mind of the audience and write their needs and motivations.
Write down what they need and why they are at the event. It is easy to think about the tangible reasons they attended, but it is helpful to think about the emotional reasons they are there. Are they there to bond with friends? Are they there to be inspired? Are they there because they have to be? What reward do they get for coming? Notice in some of my examples, I have things like “to feel good,” “to know more,” “to connect.”
Make yourself a graphic of the target audience members. As you write your speech, keep looking at this reference so you keep the audience’s needs in mind. Here is one I made for students I have in my public speaking class.
Nancy Duarte, the author of The Art and Science of Creating Great Presentations, suggests you ask yourself these questions about your audience.
1. Lifestyle: What does a walk in their shoes look like?
2. Knowledge: What do they already know and not know about your topic?
3. Motivation and Desire: What are their wants and desires? What motivates them?
4. Values: What is important to them? How does their use of time and money reveal their priorities?
5. Influence: What influences their behaviors and thoughts?
6. Respect: What makes them feel respected? How do they give and receive respect?
Your audience may get tired after eating a big meal.
Consider the Situational Needs
Consider the setting of your speech. After a big lunch, people may be tired. If they have listened to other speeches before yours, they may be fatigued from sitting and listening so long. If they have been listening for a while, consider having them engage briefly with another audience member. If you know they have been sitting, consider how you can have them move a little. If the room is stuffy, or loud, or if they were forced to come and listen, acknowledge how much you appreciate their presence.
Consider the Audience’s Needs
People don’t remember what we think is important.
They remember what they think is important.
John Maxwell, leadership expert
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is one tool you can use to help you analyze audience needs. Work through the pyramid and see if you can relate each level to your topic in some way. I find it is particularly helpful to use it as a brainstorming tool when constructing speeches. In short, psychologist Abraham Maslow suggested people are motivated by their needs and they seek to satisfy their needs. For our purposes, we won’t delve into the larger theory but rather acknowledge that people seek to satisfy their needs. The more you identify and talk to their need and demonstrate how those needs can be satisfied, the more likely they are to have a positive response to your topic (and more likely to be persuaded).
Let’s work through an example of this. Imagine you are doing a speech to persuade people to take a self-defense course at a local gym.
• PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS: People need to sleep: I can remind listeners that they sleep better once they exercise. They will sleep better knowing they can protect themselves. Taking a self-defense class will help them get a good night’s sleep.
• SAFETY NEEDS: People need to feel safe: I can remind them of crime statistics to make them feel unsafe so they take the class to regain a sense of safety.
• BELONGING NEEDS: People need to belong: I can encourage them to take the class with a group of friends or I can remind them of times they missed spending time with friends because they were uncomfortable being out late at night alone. Take a self-defense class will give them the confidence they need to go out with friends.
• ESTEEM NEEDS: People need to feel good about themselves: I can remind them how bad it feels to not be able to fend for themselves and tell them how good it feels to have the confidence to know how to defend themselves. Learning new skills makes you feel good. Independence feels good.
• COGNITIVE NEEDS: People have the need to know, so I can tell them about the science of some of the techniques and why they work.
• SELF-ACTUALIZATION NEEDS: People need to feel safe, they need to know and belong, so they can work to fulfill their life’s goals. A college student who is afraid to walk to their night class, might skip class and then fall short of their personal goal of graduating.
Designing a presentation without an audience in mind
is like writing a love letter and addressing it:
To Whom It May Concern.
– Ken Haemer, Presentation Design Manager
Recipe for Listenability
Listenability: What does that mean in plain English?
By using easily understood phrases and words and giving the audience a reason to listen you are making your speech listenable.
Think of your speech in terms of listenability. Communication scholar D.L. Rubin says, “Listenable discourse is characterized by linguistic and rhetorical structures that ease the particular cognitive burdens listeners face.” (What do you think about that quote, appropriate to the audience of this book or unnecessarily wordy and full of big words? Was it a listenable quote–I don’t think so.)
In plain English, make your speech easy to listen to. How do you do that? Glad you asked, let me share with you a few ways.
Find Common Ground
Seek to establish a connection with your audience right away. Find common ground or draw from common experiences. If you are talking to a civic organization read their mission statement and seek commonalities. Work in the common ground such as, “Like you, I am passionate about finding a better solution for the homeless in our area.” Recognize similarities if they represent a cause that matters to you, if you have a hometown team in common, if you all ate a catered lunch, or if you all walked uphill to get to class. It is no coincidence when speakers come onto a college campus, they almost always mention one of these: The mascot, the sports team, a place on campus, a famous eating establishment, or a campus hero. These details draw the audience in to listen. People appreciate a speaker who took the time to think about them it will increase both liking and credibility.
When I teach a public speaking class, I always dedicate a day to helping my students understand the audience and how to relate. I ask questions and we put the answers on the board. For example, I ask, “How many like camping?” “How many like cats?” “How many are politically involved?” We put the answers to the questions on the board for everyone to see. Once the board is covered, I explain they should take a picture of this and reference it in all of their speeches. For example, they might say, “I noticed only 20% of the class is politically involved, which is why I decided to persuade you to take a political science class during your time at college” or they might say, “Most of the class said they liked camping. Now I know you like camping, I want to tell you about why you need to go camping along the Buffalo River.”
Sometimes a speaker will use the same speech with different audiences and common ground has to change. Julie Miyeon Sohn, Toastmaster’s competitor, reflected on what she learned about adapting to an audience. Her failure to adapt caused her not to win at the World Championship of Public Speaking:
“One thing I would do differently is changing how I select my speech topic. My story about learning English was well received in Korea because the Korean audience had all had a similar experience to mine. However, I failed to connect with the audience at the semi-final because the story was not very relatable to the international audience. I would change my story to something more universal so that everyone can relate to it regardless of their race, nationality, and age.”
In order to find common ground, you need to take time to get to know the audience. In addition to the traditional research, one speaker suggests reading up on the news before you speak and draw references to things most people might know. Make sure the examples you give are now by most audience members. Speaker Nancy Duarte shares her common ground mishaps:
I referred to an airline, (an example of amazing customer service, Open Skies) to an audience of American business executives, forgetting that an airline with only one route (NY-Paris) wasn’t something many of them would know.
Even if most of your audience knows about your common ground reference, they may have differing opinions about it. Nancy Duarte says,
I learned this the hard way with the same audience, telling them, proudly, how a former customer had asked me for referral to a therapist (everyone goes to therapists in NY!), which provoked guffaws from brawny macho Midwesterners.
Finding common ground with your audience, not only gets their attention, but it helps them get on the same wavelength–literally. Princeton neuroscientist Uri Hasson says the more commonality between a storyteller and listener, the more brain imaging shows that the brains sync up. Let that sink in. When you find common ground through story, it shows up on a brain scan. Your audience’s brain scan lights up in the same places yours does–that is incredible. Thinking about your audience and then finding common ground is crucial to your success.
The royal road to a man’s heart
is to talk to him about the things he treasures most.
Dale Carnegie, Author, Speaker
To Be Listenable, Reference Someone in the Group
When possible, go to a speaking event early and talk to several people. Engage them in friendly conversation and then ask them questions related to your topic. During your presentation, point them out and say, “Derek was telling me that….” The audience’s attention zooms in when you acknowledge someone from the group. If you don’t have time to visit beforehand, you can always reference the host who invited you. Mentioning anyone they know can draw the audience’s attention.
To Be Listenable, Tell Them How It Applies to Them
To keep the audience’s attention, talk about what they care about the most–themselves. Get the audience on your side by telling them why this speech is relevant to them. Don’t just assume they know, help them make those connections. Typically, highly engaged, and knowledgeable audiences, need only a light reminder of the topic’s application. For those that are not very knowledgeable or not motivated listeners, you need to tell them specifically how it applies and why. One easy way to do this is to say, “So what, who cares…” Another way is to simply ask the audience, “Why do you think this should matter to you?” Then, answer the question.
Laura Tempesta, Sports Bra Expert, Inventor & Founder of Bravolution, gave a TED Talk about bras and cleverly found a way to relate to the whole audience. Watch to see how she engages the WHOLE audience and makes them want to listen.
So, let’s take a look at the design of the bra and the limits it imposes. And for those of you who don’t wear bras, I’m assuming you’ve encountered a few along the way and are familiar with the technology. Laura Tempesta
To Be Listenable, Use the Language of Your Audience
Author, William Butler Yeats said, “Think like a wise man but communicate in the language of the people.” Make sure that the words you use match the vocabulary and the knowledge level of the audience. Throughout your speech, define your terms clearly and carefully. Be careful not to use jargon or “insider” language that will exclude listeners who aren’t “in the know.” While working for a nonprofit, I was invited to come onto the university campus to speak to campus groups interested in volunteering. To identify with the audience, I told them I was a COMM major. After my presentation, someone came up to me and said, “Ms. Meade, what is a COMM?” I explained it was shorthand for Communication Major. We laughed at my mistake, I apologized for assuming everyone knew what it meant, and then he offered to join my organization. It goes to show you, even within the group (in my case people on a college campus), you can’t assume people know the specialty language. It also goes to show you that you can mess up and still make a friend (if you acknowledge your mistake gracefully).
I am often to be a judge for a unique speech competition. Graduate students have three minutes to explain their research in a way anyone can understand. They have to make it plain enough a layperson can understand what they are doing and what the results mean. Many graduate students have been working in complex theories and specialty language for so long they have a hard time realizing not everyone knows what these concepts mean. It is important you learn to know how to adapt your message to audiences with differing levels of knowledge and complexity.
Watch this Wired video where an astrophysicist explains gravity in five levels of difficulty. (You don’t have to watch the whole video, just watch a little bit of how she talks to each person to get the point). This is an excellent example of talking about the same topic to different audience members.
Finding the right vocabulary and the right tone for the right audience takes a lot of thought and practice. Alan Alda and the Center for Communicating Science issued a “flame challenge” and they asked scientists to explain a flame to 11-year-olds.
To watch more on this https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hS6rOCdy-uo
Here is perhaps the simplest case
of persuasion.
You persuade a person only
insofar as you can talk their language
by speech, gesture, tonality, order,
image, attitude, idea,
identifying your ways with theirs.
Kenneth Burke, American literary theorist
Use Inclusive Language
Inclusive language means many things. It means speaking to the knowledge level and education level of your audience. It also means designing sentences where you invite them to be a part.
NO: I know most people worry about what goes intotheir food.
YES: I know most of us worry about what goes into our food.
The use of “us” and “our,” makes the sentence more personal and friendly. As much as possible, use personal pronouns with your audience. As Shel Leanne points out in the book, Say It Like Obama: The Power of Speaking with Purpose and Vision, these words help to “send the message that the speaker and those listening are on the same team, in the same boat, facing the same fate.”
Give the Audience a Map of the Journey so they Won’t Get Lost
Tell them what you are going to say, say it, and then tell them what you said. Along the way, help them stay on track by telling them where they are headed. “Now that we talked about this history of this, I want to share with you the future of the product.”
Always keep the focus on what is the point of your speech. Nancy Duarte, presentation expert suggests, “Every bit of content you share should propel the audience towards that destination.”
Take the Audience’s Perspective
Your speech is a journey, and you are taking your audience on that journey with you. Chris Anderson, TED Talk curator says, “It is your job to know about your fellow travelers. What do they need from the journey and how can you help them, so they enjoy the trip and they don’t get lost?” Delve into the audience’s mind, what is their perspective of your topic?
Consider This
When the country music singer, Garth Brooks arrives as the venue, he sits in many of the seats that are pointing at the stage and asks, “What am I doing for this person.” As a speaker, it is good to sit in the many (symbolic) seats of your audience and ask, “What am I doing for this person?”
Ask for Audience Participation
Actively involving your audience helps them stay alert and attentive. All too often, speakers seem to spit random words at generic people. The audience is supposed to passively sit back and take in whatever comes their way. An audience is made up of people who need to be considered, addressed, and engaged and it is your challenge to figure out how to connect. Consider using one of the following when engaging your audience:
• Ask rhetorical questions.
• Take an informal poll.
• Ask for a volunteer.
• Have them write something down.
• Ask them to talk with their neighbor about a topic.
• Have everyone yell the answer at the same time.
• Tell them there will be a “test” at the end.
Watch Toastmaster’s World Championship Speech by Darren Tay Wen Jie to see how he relates to the audience.
Look at All the Ways He Connected with the Audience
Darren Tay said in a Business Insider interview that he emphasized the importance of making audience members feel like he was talking directly to them. One way he does this is by asking rhetorical questions of the audience: “If you are all wondering whether the underwear Greg used was clean, I had the same question.” Look at this list of all the ways he connects with the audience in this speech.
• He opens by staring at them directly.
• If you are all wondering whether the underwear Greg used was clean, I had the same question.
• Mr. contest chair, fellow toastmasters, and anyone including those watching worldwide. If you are looking at Calvin Klein here, stop staring! My eyes are up here.
• “I gonna knock you in my teeth and punch you in the guts and laugh at your sorry behind. He didn’t quite use the word- behind. I just cleaned up the words because this is a toastmaster program.
• And, have you ever wondered why a bully needs to tell you the exact sequence that they gonna bully you?
• My friends, whenever I heard those words, my hands would tremble. Have you ever felt so fearful, that you cannot eat or sleep?
• My friends, as much as we tried to deny it, we are our toughest and strongest bully. We beat ourselves up and put ourselves down. Have you ever felt that you are not good enough? I thought that way.
• I’m standing on stage now in front of two thousand of you and more are watching worldwide but I am not afraid anymore. I am in control because I am acknowledging it, I am stepping out of it, observing it, and watching it weaken and fade. My friends, let’s all not run away from our inner bullies anymore. Let us all face our inner bullies and acknowledge its presence and fight. Let us all be together as a family supporting one another because we can all outsmart and (outlast).
Asses and Elephants
Making Assumptions Makes an Ass out of U and Me (ASSuME)
Make a list of the known demographics of your audience and create a profile. Make a list of what you know about them and what you assume about them. Be honest, but don’t let that profile lead you astray. Don’t create unrealistic stereotypes and expectations based on the way you profiled them. For example, just because your audience is made up of seventy-year-old women, does not mean that they have the same values as your conservative grandma. Most of us naturally default to grouping things based on what we already know–don’t assume.
While persuading the class to skydive, one student said, “I know you may not be interested Dr. Meade, but you can tell your sons about it.” Just for the record, I went skydiving the next year– my sons still haven’t been. In another speech, I had a student say, “Now that I have shown you how to make taco casserole, you can take this recipe home with you to make it. Guys, you can take it to your girlfriend.” The guys were upset because she didn’t think they were interested or capable.
In the first example, they made assumptions about abilities and interests based on age, and in the other example, they made assumptions based on gender roles. Don’t assume.
Let’s Talk About the Elephant in the Room
What do you call people? Frankly, this is a tricky topic. It is like the elephant in the room that everyone can see but no one wants to mention. African American/Black/Native American/Indian/Transexual/Non-binary–there are so many different words in the “people dictionary”. What is acceptable and what is offensive seems to change regularly. If I am honest (and I try to be), I get nervous about what to call people, because I’m afraid I will mess up and someone will get upset when I didn’t mean any ill intent. Then I think, why do people get their feeling hurt over the littlest things? Well, if you are on the receiving end, they are not little things. I try to remember when someone said hurtful things to me and then it is easier to remember why it matters. Even if the person who hurt my feelings wasn’t trying to be mean, it still hurt. When I was hurt by those words, I was too busy with my own thoughts to hear anything else they had to say.
Hurt people do not listen. If the point of my speech is to be heard and I said something that causes my audience not to listen, I hurt not only them but my own cause.
I once spoke before an interfaith board of directors. I had a list of the names and organizations that were represented, and I thought I had done all my research. During my presentation, I talked about the need for volunteers in the community, I talked about how each of their groups represented a belief that people should help each other, and then I asked them to “Go back to your churches and ask if they will allow me to come out and give a talk about how your church can get involved with helping others.” After my presentation, a member of the board came up to me and said, “Lynn, not all of us go to church, some of us go to synagogue.” I thanked her for correcting me and I learned to use the phrase “faith groups” instead of the word “churches” when talking to an interfaith audience. Because I was gracious in accepting my mistake, we developed a great working relationship for years to come. Before speaking to a group– do your research. If you mess up (and if you are human, you will mess up eventually), be gracious to those who pointed out your mistake, learn from your mistake, and accept responsibility.
Do no harm. Create no barrier. When taking the audience-centered approach, consider what the audience needs so they can listen. Do your research to learn the preferred name for a group and the vocabulary of the group because it respects the audience. Audience members who feel respected are more likely to listen.
Your Credibility is Linked to the Audience’s Opinion of You
Every time you speak, you are building credibility, maintaining credibility, or diminishing credibility, according to Ryan Sheets, Director of the Business Communication Lab at the University of Arkansas, your credibility (ethos) is linked to what the audience thinks of you. An audience expects you to not only have knowledge but also to be trustworthy and sincere. What they think about you translates to how much they will listen to your message. That opinion is formed by looking at the way you are dressed, how you carry yourself, the words you say, and the way you address them.
Your credibility is tied up in their opinion of you and whether they think you care about them.
Thinking About the Audience Makes You Less Anxious
When you realize speech is not about you having something to say but rather, you are giving the audience something of value, it changes things. Not only will you give a better speech, but you will benefit yourself as well. When you think about the needs of the audience, you become less nervous. Focusing on their needs and the topic helps you focus on providing a service rather than delivering a performance.
• Instead of thinking, “I am so nervous,”
try thinking “the audience really will benefit from knowing this.”
• Instead of thinking, “I will persuade them to do this”
change your thinking to “their life will be better if they try this.”
If you pick a topic you are passionate about and if you believe in it, you will begin to care more about the importance of the topic and less about your own personal discomfort. If you feel a little nervous, think about how your information can improve lives or change people’s perspectives. Make your topic so important that you forget to be nervous.
Quit being so self-centered. It’s not about you—- it’s about the audience. They need something and you have it. Writer Ambrose Redmoon said, “Courage is not the absence of fear, but rather the judgment that something else is more important than fear.”
Don’t be selfish. It does little good to have all that experience and all that knowledge and keep it to yourself. Author Marianne Williamson says, “Your playing small does not serve the world.” It is worth a little discomfort for the awesome privilege you have to change, educate, motivate, and persuade your audience. They need this information, and you are the one lucky enough to get to give it to them. When you spend all your time thinking about how to connect with the audience and how to help them understand what you have to offer, you have less energy to spend worrying about if you are nervous.
I tell myself that what I have to say in any speech
is important for people to hear,
and that I prepped for it,
and am well versed in it.
So basically knowing that what I have to say is worth hearing
makes me confident in saying it.
Andrew Powell, Former University of Arkansas Communication Student
Audience Analysis Tools
There are many ways to gather information about the audience,
Here are a few of the most common and a list of the pros and cons of each
Interview
• Ask the person who invited you to tell you about the audience.
• When possible, interview a member of the audience.
• Sometimes, it is helpful to ask someone outside the group to give you their impressions of the group.
Pros
• Gives great insider information.
• Often yields quotable items.
Cons
• Are time-consuming.
• The interviewee always represents a limited perspective.
Survey
• Send out an electronic survey.
• Do an informal survey by those who pass by in a break room or lunchroom.
• Have the leadership administer a survey.
Pros
• Allows you to know key opinions.
• Gives the audience the first impression of you as someone who wants to be prepared.
Cons
• Surveys may become a burden to people who don’t want one more thing to do.
• People often say what is expected rather than what they really feel.
Internet Research
• Search the internet for information about the group, the person, the venue.
• Check out professional- LinkedIn– and social media-Facebook, Instagram, Twitter– sites for information.
• Look up the mission statement of the organization.
• Find pictures of the venue.
Pros
• Gives you an overview of who they want people to think they are.
• Helps you identify the priorities of an organization.
Cons
• It can be/feel a little creepy to look at family photos of someone on their Facebook and Instagram.
• Mentioning you looked at their social media can freak them out.
Demographic Data
Demographic data can come from statistical sources or it can come from asking questions to the person who invited you to the venue.
• Race
• Religion
• Age
• Professional status
• Education level
• Sexual Orientation
• Beliefs
Pros
• Gives you an overview of who they want people to think they are.
• Helps you identify the priorities of an organization.
Cons
• Can result in stereotypes.
• Can be time-consuming.
When we think a speech is about what we have to say, we get it wrong. The whole reason you are giving the presentation is for the audience. The speech is about them, and your job is to figure out who they are and what they need before you write even the first word.
Key Takeaways
Remember This!
• The most important thing to remember is it is not about you; it is about the audience.
• Focus on making your speech listenable.
• Make a list of what your audience needs and the reasons they are listening to your speech.
• Don’t stereotype or make assumptions about your audience.
• Know the right words to use for your specific audience.
• Use a variety of tools to gather information about your audience.
Extras to Help You with Understanding Audience
Exercises
Actor and writer Alan Alda trains communicators by teaching them basic improvisational techniques. The goal is to help them to gain empathy and to learn to read people better. In this video, he explains a couple of ways to gain empathy with your audience.
From the book, If I Understood You, Would I Have This Look on My Face by Alan Alda
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References
Alda, A. (2012). Alan Alda’s ‘Flame Challenge’ illuminates the importance of communicating science. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hS6rOCdy-uo Standard Youtube License
Alda, A. (2017). If I understood you, would I have this look on my face? Random House.
Alan A. (2017). Grow your empathy through visual perception. Big Think. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qulq_n5zbTs Standard YouTube License
Anderson, C. (2016). TEDs secret to great public speaking by Chris Anderson. [Video] YouTube. https://www.ted.com/talks/chris_anderson_ted_s_secret_to_great_public_speaking?language=en Standard YouTube License
Anderson, C. (2016). TEDtalks: The official TED guide to public speaking. Mariner Books.
Aristotle. (2007). On rhetoric: A theory of civil discourse, 2nd ed. trans George Kennedy. Oxford University Press.
Broadside Blog. (2012). How to give a speech (Hint: be authentic). https://broadsideblog.wordpress.com/2012/11/15/how-to-give-a-great-speech-hint-be-authentic/
Buchan, V. (2019). Make presentations with confidence. Barron’s: A business success guide. Barron’s Educational Series.
Burke, K. (1969). A rhetoric of motives. University of California Press.
*In the Burke quote, I changed it from “his” to gender-inclusive language “theirs.” A topic worth thinking about and discussing.
Cartier, F.A. (1952). The social context of listenability research. Journal of Communication, 2, 44-47. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1952.tb00177.x
Duarte, N. (2010). Resonate Present visual stories that transform audiences. Wiley.
Feloni, R. (2016). Here’s a breakdown of the speech that won the 2016 World Championship of Public Speaking. https://www.businessinsider.com/toastmasters-public-speaking-champion-darren-tay-2016-8
Goble, F. (1970). The third force: The psychology of Abraham Maslow. Maurice Bassett Publishing.
Goldberg, B. (2020). Top 5 TED Talk cliches you should avoid. https://masterclass.ted.com/blog/5-TED-Talk-cliches-to-avoid
Harris, L. (2017). Stand up speak out: The practice and ethics of public speaking. Creative Commons License. https://open.lib.umn.edu/publicspeaking/
Jeary, T. (1997). Inspire Any Audience. River Oak Publishing
Kardes, F.R., Kim, J. & Lim, J.S. (1994). Moderation effects of prior knowledge on perceived diagnosity of beliefs derived from implicit versus explicit product claims. Journal of Business Research, 29, 219-224. https://doi.org/10.1016/0148-2963(94)90006-X
Kienzle, R. & J. Miyeon, S. (2017). Losing at the World Championship of Public Speaking. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/losing-world-championship-public-speaking-robert-bob-kienzle-kienzle/
Luntz, F. (2007). Words that work: It’s not what you say, it’s what people hear. Hyperion.
Martin, B.A.S., Lang, B. & Wong, S. (2013). Conclusion explicitness in advertising: The moderating role of need for cognition and argumentation quality on persuasion. Journal of Advertising, 32(4), 57-65. https://doi.org/10.1080/00913367.2003.10639148
Maslow, A.H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50 (4), 370-96. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054346
Maxwell, J. (2010). Everyone communicates few connect: What the most effective people do differently. Thomas Nelson.
McGonigal, J. (2012). The game that can give you 10 extra years of life. [Video] YouTube. License.https://www.ted.com/talks/jane_mcgonigal_the_game_that_can_give_you_10_extra_years_of_life/transcript?language=en Standard YouTube License.
Rubin, D.L. (1993). Listenabilty = oral-based discourse+ considerateness. In Wolvin, A.D. & Coakley, C.G. (Eds.) Perspectives on Listening. Ablex.
Rubin, D.L., Hafter, T. & Arata, K. (1999). Reading and listening to oral-based versus literature-based discourse. Communication Education, 49, 121-134. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634520009379200
Sawyer, A.G. & Howard, D.J. (1991). Effects of omitting conclusions in advertisements to involved and uninvolved audiences. Journal of Marketing Research, 28, 467-474. https://doi.org/10.2307/3172786
Saylor Academy (2012). Stand up, speak out: The practice and ethics of publicsSpeaking. Saylor Academy. https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/textbooks/77
Sheets, R. (2020) Walton College of Business Presentation. The University of Arkansas.
Snippe, E. (2016). 101 quotes to inspire speakers. https://speakerhub.com/blog/101-quotes
Spencer, G. (1995). How to Argue and Win Every Time. St. Martin
Sprague, J., Stuart, D., & Bodary, D. (2010). The speaker’s handbook (9th ed.) Wadsworth Cengage.
Strategic Business Insight. US Framework and VALS Types. http://www.strategicbusinessinsights.com/vals/ustypes.shtml
Tay, D. (2016). Outsmart, Outlast. Toastmasters World Championship. [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v26CcifgEq4 Standard YouTube License
Tempesta, L. (2019). You’ll never look at a bra the same way again. TEDxKCWomen. [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GrxJ-9_qXeM Standard YouTube License.
Toastmasters (2013). Keep your audience engaged. [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JHl4yUQMBYA Standard YouTube License.
Toastmasters: Know your audience. [Video] YouTube. https://www.toastmasters.org/Resources/Know-Your-Audience Standard YouTube License. Walters, L. (1993). Secrets of successful speakers: How you can motivate, captivate, and persuade. McGraw Hill.
Wired. (2019). Astrophysicist explains gravity in 5 levels of difficulty. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QcUey-DVYjk
Wolvin, A. (2017). Listenability: A Missing Link in the Basic Communication Course. Listening Education, 13-21. No doi available.
Wrench, J.S., Goding, A. Ifert-Johnson, D., Attias, B.A. Stand up, Speak out. The practice and ethics of public speaking. Flatworld Knowledge. https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/textbooks/77 | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/Advanced_Public_Speaking_(Meade)/01%3A_Writing_a_Speech/1.02%3A_Engage_Your_Audience-_Don%27t_Spit_Random_Words_at_Generic_People.txt |
The way to get to good ideas
is to get lots of ideas and
throw the bad one’s away
Linus Pauling,
Nobel Prize Winner
Maybe you can relate to this scenario. You open the refrigerator looking for the mayonnaise and it is nowhere to be found. You scoot a few things around half-heartedly, and still no mayo. In desperation, you call out to your roommate, “Hey, have you seen the mayo?” They come in the room, open the frig, move the milk out of the way, bump the cheese to the side, and there it is–the mayo. And there you are relieved and a little embarrassed.
I like to think of brainstorming as looking for things in the frig of our minds (profound right?). Sometimes a good idea is there, we just have to move things around to find it. Sometimes, like in the mayo story, you have to enlist a friend and sometimes, you just have to move the cheese out of the way. I want to help you, to inspire you, and to equip you to find your good idea. To do that, I will talk about brainstorming, narrowing your topic, and how to move the cheese out of the way so you can see your great idea buried in the frig of your mind.
So, let’s get started, shall we?
(GAP) Goal, Audience, Parameters
In the subway station in London, a voice comes on over the intercom: “Mind the Gap.” It means, when you get on the subway train, notice there is a crack between the train and the platform, so you don’t trip. Similarly, you should mind the GAP –the goal, audience, and parameters–as you build your speech so that you don’t get tripped up.
Brainstorming begins by writing down the goals, the audience, and the parameters of your speech. If you are in a speech class it might be, “Inform college students of a health-related topic in five to seven minutes.” If you are an invited after-dinner speaker it might be, “Give a 30-minute speech after a meal to inspire local business members to achieve a goal.” Keep the GAP in front of you as you brainstorm so you don’t get sidetracked.
Refuse to Be Satisfied with Your First Idea
There is a lot of pressure, I know, to come up with an idea and it can feel so satisfying to finally have one. It is a great first step, but don’t let it end there. Write your idea down and keep going. Keep going because there may be another idea–a better idea– hiding behind that idea. It is an idea that will never come out until you get the first one written and out of the way. Matthew Dicks, storytelling champion says,
The first idea is rarely the best idea. It may be the most convenient idea. The easiest to remember. The one you personally like the most. But rarely is the first idea the one I chose. First ideas are for the lazy. The complacent, the easily satisfied.
Refuse to be easily satisfied.
Back to the Basics–Say Your ABC’s
On a piece of paper, write your GAP: Goal, Audience, and Parameters. Now, write your ABC’s with one letter per line. Your goal is to write one word that starts with each letter that could be a potential speech topic. Make sure the idea fits within your G.A.P.
If your goal is to persuade the audience of health-related behavior, your list might look like this.
Goal: Persuade the audience of a health-related behavior
Audience: College students
Parameters: 4-5 minutes
A -Apple a day keeps the doctor away
B-Bicycle for health
C-Colonoscopy
D– Vitamin D for depression
E-Eye exam
F-Fitness class
G-Go outside
Look at the ABC list again, there is one that does not fit the parameters. Can you find it? It is the colonoscopy. If you are talking to a group of college students, they are mostly not in the age bracket that this topic would concern them. Yes, you could tell them to make sure the older guardian gets one, but why not go for something more relevant to college students like cardiovascular health, eating carrots, or taking vitamin C? Now you can see why it is important to keep the GAP–goal, audience-parameters– before you as you work.
Ask Who, What, Where, When, Why, and How.
All the detectives do it and you should too–ask who, what, where, when, why, and how. Start with your GAP– goals, audience, and parameters– and then brainstorm asking these key questions.
Goal: Ceremonial speech to inspire and celebrate
Audience: College students
Parameters: 8-10 minutes
Who: Grandma, Barak Obama, Edgar Allen Poe, Salvador Dali
What: The invention of the chocolate chip cookie, the farmer’s market
Where: The Battle of the Budge, Paris, Crystal Bridges
When: 1492, 2020, after my first kiss, after the Boston Tea Party
Why: Because my mom loved me, because the man wanted to give of himself, to save his fellow soldier, because the climate was right
How: By walking with his walker in the garden every day, by giving of his allowance
Go Look in Your Fridge
I’m not kidding. Go look in the refrigerator. When I tell my students how to find ideas, I suggest they walk around their house, the park, the school, the ballfield, or wherever they visit and just call out things that they could give a speech on. If I open my fridge, I might be inspired by what I see to think of speech topics like these:
• Do I have to pay attention to the expiration dates of condiments?
• How long can I keep leftovers?
• What the heck is in Worcestershire sauce?
• Is butter healthier than margarine?
• Why are most people allergic to milk?
• Why does a dill pickle make you pucker?
• What is the best container to store leftovers in?
I could make up at least 100 topic ideas just from my frig alone –once you open up your mind and start looking for speech ideas, you will find them everywhere.
Check Your Social Media
This one is tricky, and you will have to time yourself or you may get stuck there. Open your social media and look at your pictures, your reposts, and your most common tweet topics. Make a list of ideas that come to you as you look. On mine, I see pictures of the Grand Canyon–there’s a persuasive speech! Why you should go to the Grand Canyon. I see reposts of inspiring speakers and feel-good stories–I might research the impact of positive videos on health and mood. I might research what inspirational speakers have in common. You get the idea. Be sure to leave social media in a reasonable amount of time so you can get back to working on your speech.
Write Down Story Prompts
You have stories, lots of stories. You can use stories in business speeches, stories in academic speeches, stories in teaching, stories in job interviews, stories in classroom speeches. The problem is that you may not remember those stories when you need them the most. Get a special notebook to record your daily inspiration. Your goal should be to write down one to three short-sentence stories. Write enough details to jog your memory. You might even write down what it made you think. “Today, I thought I saw a baby hummingbird. I took a picture and looked it up and discovered it wasn’t a hummingbird at all, it was a hummingbird moth. I can’t figure out why I am disappointed. Why do I think it is any less wonderous now that I know it is a moth and not a bird?” This simple story could be placed in many different speeches to talk about when you think you get one thing, and you really get another.
Matthew Dicks, Moth storytelling champion, suggests you do “homework for life” and every day write down the answer to the question, “What was the most story-worthy moment of my life?”
In searching for stories, I discovered that my life is filled with them. Filled with precious moments that once seemed decidedly less than precious. Filled with moments that are more storyworthy than I’d ever imagined. I’d just been failing to notice them. Or discounting them. Or ignoring them. In some instances, I tried to forget them completely. Now I can see them. I can’t help but see them. They are everywhere. I collect them. Record them. Craft them. I tell them onstage. I share them on the golf course and to dinner companions. But most important, I hold them close to my heart. They are my most treasured possessions. Matthew Dicks.
Get Cheesy with It
Write down the bizarre ideas. The ones you know that you will never use, but they popped into your mind. In fact, encourage yourself to get a little crazy and a lot cheesy. By cheesy, I mean come up with an idea that is too silly, too outrageous, or too fun for the situation. I began this chapter by talking about how to find something in the refrigerator and how sometimes you can’t find it because other things are in the way. This is true for an idea as well. Sometimes you can’t find a good idea because the crazy, cheesy idea is blocking the path. Once you move the cheese, you are likely to find that perfect idea there waiting for you.
Sleep On It
Some of the best ideas will come in your sleep. To tap into your nocturnal creativity, it helps to do two things. One, think about your upcoming speech, the audience, and the purpose right before going to bed and then two, sleep with pen and paper beside your bed. There’s a good chance that you will wake up with a speech topic on your mind. Write it down right away before it gets washed away by your morning cup of coffee.
Just Do It
I worked really hard to give you a lot of resources to help you to brainstorm your topic. All of this is just a worthless page of words if you don’t put it into action. Really! You just wasted your time reading it if you aren’t planning on trying any of this. If you really want to improve as a speaker start working on improving how you generate and develop ideas.
Narrow it Down
Once you have a list of ideas, it is time to narrow them down. Always go back to the G.A.P.–goal, audience, and parameters. Go down your list and mark out or refine any ideas that don’t fit. Mark them out in pencil because you might need that idea another day.
Take a good look at the remaining items and really think about your audience. What would they like? What do they need? Make sure your topic selection has them in mind. Finally, ask yourself, “Which remaining topic excites me the most?” The best topic is one that fits the goal, audience, parameters, but most importantly, the best topic is the one that excites you.
If it takes a lot of words
to say what you have in mind,
give it more thought.
– Dennis Roth, writer
Write Down Your Big Idea
Once you have your idea, write it down in one sentence. Consider these “big ideas” from top TED Talks.
Ken Robinson: Do schools kill creativity?
Amy Cuddy: Your body language shapes who you are
Simon Sinek: How great leaders inspire action
The most valuable of all talents
is never using two words when one will do.”
-Thomas Jefferson, Founding Father of the United States
Fully Develop Your Idea
Now you have picked your topic, you should explore it fully. Take your topic and write it in the middle of a paper and circle it. Write down any ideas that come to mind. I think this is best understood by seeing the process in action.
Watch this video on mind mapping. It is one of the best videos I found that clearly explains the process step by step.
Research It
Now that you have your topic and have many ways you can explore your topic, begin to refine your topic to best fit your audience. Begin researching your topic. There is an entire chapter dedicated to research that you can refer to so for now, I will talk about making your speech draft.
Write a Shi#%y First Draft
When it comes to writing, one of the best things you can do is get started. Don’t wait until you have it all figured out, just work on getting it down.
Start writing. Just start getting your ideas down. Writer Ann Handley says, “show up and throw up.” Don’t write to be perfect, don’t write expecting it will all just flow out naturally, just start writing. Writer Anne Lamont, author of Bird by Bird, describes her writing process.
Writing is not rapturous. In fact, the only way I can get anything written at all is to write really, really shitty first drafts. The first draft is the child’s draft, where you let it all pour out and then let it romp all over the place, knowing that no one is going to see it and that you can shape it later…Almost all good writing begins with terrible first efforts. You need to start somewhere. Start by getting something—anything—down on paper. A friend of mine says that the first draft is the down draft—you just get it down. The second draft is the up draft—you fix it up. You try to say what you have to say more accurately. And the third draft is the dental draft, where you check every tooth, to see if it’s loose or cramped or decayed, or even, God help us, healthy.
Silence Your Inner Critics
When you begin writing, you may have the little voices tell you that you aren’t good enough, you aren’t smart enough, and that your idea is insufficient. You need to recognize that most everyone has those voices and that your success depends on you telling them to be quiet. Realize self-doubt is normal. Be brave and take back your brain! Writer Anne Lamont, tells of her voices:
What I’ve learned to do when I sit down to work on a shitty first draft is to quiet the voices in my head. First there’s the vinegar-lipped Reader Lady, who says primly, “Well, that’s not very interesting, is it?” And there’s the emaciated German male who writes these Orwellian memos detailing your thought crimes. And there are your parents, agonizing over your lack of loyalty and discretion; and there’s William Burroughs, dozing off or shooting up because he finds you as bold and articulate as a houseplant; and so on. And there are also the dogs: let’s not forget the dogs, the dogs in their pen who will surely hurtle and snarl their way out if you ever stop writing, because writing is, for some of us, the latch that keeps the door of the pen closed, keeps those crazy ravenous dogs contained. Quieting these voices is at least half the battle I fight daily.
Your inner critic will just slow you down. Take control by sitting down and writing and silencing your inner critic.
An idea is anything that can change how people see the world.
If you can conjure up a compelling idea in people’s minds,
you have done something wondrous.
You have given them a gift of incalculable value.
In a very real sense,
a little piece of you has become part of them.
Chris Anderson, TED Talks curator
Climb Over the Writers’ Block
Don’t let mental blocks control you. Set yourself free.
Confront your fear and turn the mental blocks into building blocks.
Dr. Roopleen, Author of Words to Inspire the Winner in You
A colleague of mine has a block of wood on her desk. She will tell you it is her writers’ block. Whenever she is stuck, she looks at the block and remembers you can go over the block, under the block, or around the block. If you feel blocked, try one of these strategies.
1. Just write anything at all–(Shitty first drafts).
2. Start writing in the middle of the speech.
3. Dictate your ideas into your phone.
4. Sit down and commit to writing for 15 minutes before you allow yourself to do anything else.
5. Do something monotonous and allow your brain to relax–shower, vacuum, go for a walk.
6. Ask yourself, how would (your favorite speaker) write this speech. Write like you are pretending to be that person?
7. Change locations.
8. Stay off the internet, social media, email.
9. Tell yourself you will earn a reward for writing for 20 minutes.
10. Allow yourself to be bored.
Refine Your Idea
Once you have your idea and it is beginning to take shape, you need to refine it. Now you have your idea, create a thesis statement–a one to a two-sentence statement summarizing the main idea of your speech. This statement will eventually be used in your speech preview to let the audience know where this speech is headed. Send your thesis to a few friends and then ask them what they think the speech is about. If their response indicates they have a clear picture of your topic, proceed. If not, you need to revise your thesis statement.
Ask yourself these questions:
1. Is my thesis statement easy to understand?
2. Could someone read my thesis statement and have a clear picture of my speech?
3. Does my thesis statement reflect the topic and purpose of my speech?
A talk is a voyage
with purpose
and it must be charted.
The man who starts out going nowhere,
generally gets there.
– Dale Carnegie, author, businessman, presentation expert
Key Takeaways
Remember This!
• Brainstorm to fully develop your speech idea.
• Always refer to the GAP: Goals, Audience, and Parameters.
• Write a clear thesis statement in one or two sentences. Make sure it clearly lets your audience know what your speech will be about.
Please share you feedback, suggestions, corrections, and ideas
I want to hear from you.
Do you have an activity to include?
Did you notice a typo that I should correct?
Are you planning to use this as a resource and do you want me to know about it?
Do you want to tell me something that really helped you?
Click here to share your feedback.
Bonus Features
How to Write A Perfect Speech
Obama’s Speech Writer, Cody Keenan, gives this advice on How to Write A Perfect Speech
1. Know what you want to say.
2. Be clear about the story you want to tell.
3. Say something bigger than the moment.
4. Be authentic.
5. Be ready to lighten the mood.
6. Know your audience.
7. Always be writing and read widely.
REFERENCES
Anderson, C. (2013). How to give a killer presentation. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2013/06/how-to-give-a-killer-presentation
BBC Ideas (2019). How to write a perfect speech. BBS ideas. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oV1h7n0HcTE&feature=emb_logo Standard YouTube License.
Dicks, M. (2018). Storyworthy: Engage, teach, persuade, and change your life through the power of storytelling. New World.
Dunn, C. (2012). Mindmapping explained and demonstrated in five minutes. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vAovxXGBxR8&feature=emb_logo Standard Youtube License.
Handley, A. (2015). Everybody writes Your go-to guide to creating ridiculously good content. John Wiley and Sons.
Lamont, A. (1994). Bird by bird: Some instructions on writing and life. Pantheon Nooks.
Lidsky, I. (2016). What reality are you creating for yourself? [Video]. YouTube. https://www.ted.com/talks/isaac_lidsky_what_reality_are_you_creating_for_yourself Standard YouTube License.
More Resources
There are many ways to brainstorm, if you are still stuck and looking for an idea, try this website: https://business.tutsplus.com/articles/top-brainstorming-techniques–cms-27181 | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/Advanced_Public_Speaking_(Meade)/01%3A_Writing_a_Speech/1.03%3A_Brainstorming-_Moving_the_Cheese_Out_of_the_Way_So_You_Can_Find_Your_Best_Ideas.txt |
Get the audience’s attention, or the rest of your speech is a waste. I mean it! Most people spend the majority of their speech preparation time working on the body of their speech and then they tack on an opening and a closing last minute.
The opening and closing deserve the most attention. Why? If you don’t get the audience’s attention and get them to pay attention to you instead of… the thoughts in their heads, their grocery lists, their neighbors, their social media…then all the rest of your brilliant content is wasted because they will never hear it. Lisa Marshall of Toastmasters International stresses the opening words are so important that “I spend 10 times more time developing and practicing the opener than any other part of the speech.”
Look at the description of Person A and Person B and tell me which person you like more.
Person A
envious, stubborn, critical, impulsive, industrious, and intelligent
Person B
intelligent, industrious, impulsive, critical, stubborn, and envious
If you are like most people, you have a preference for Person B. This illustrates a study by Solomon Ashe. He had subjects rate these two people using a string of descriptive words. Now look back at the descriptions. Look closely and you will notice they are the same words in a different order. Most people put the most emphasis on the first three words in determining how they will create the person. Like Asche’s subjects, your audience will be evaluating those first three words. Let’s bring it back around to speechmaking. The first sentence out of your mouth is crucial and the first three words are especially important.
I am sure you are not surprised to know that people form opinions quickly. To prove this, researchers showed subjects either a 20-minute clip of a job applicant or a 20-30 second clip of a job applicant. They were asked to rate the person on likeability and self-assurance. People were able to form an opinion in under thirty seconds. Not only that but they were able to form the same opinions from a 30-second clip as a 20-minute exposure.
The Battle for Attention
Remember that every piece of content in our modern era is part of an attention war. It’s fighting against thousands of other claims on people’s time and energy. This is true even when you’re standing on a stage in front of a seated audience. They have deadly distracters in their pockets called smartphones, which they can use to summon to their eyes a thousand outside alternatives. Once emails and texts make their claim, your talk may be doomed. And then there’s that lurking demon of modern life, fatigue. All these are lethal enemies. You never want to provide someone with an excuse to zone out. You have to be a savvy general directing this war’s outcome. Starting strong is one of your most important weapons.
Chris Anderson, TED Talks, The Official TED Guide to Public Speaking.
“People don’t pay attention to boring things,” according to John Medina, author of Brain Rules, “You’ve got 30 seconds before they start asking the question, ‘Am I going to pay attention to you or not?'”It is important to get your audience’s attention right away. In this chapter, I will share with you several ways to win the war for attention and to start your speech right. I will show you the basic opening and closing structure of speeches and give you many examples of what that looks like. A speech, like an airplane, needs a good take-off and a good landing. Now it’s time to prepare to have a strong take-off and learn everything that goes into a speech introduction. This chapter is full of examples from a variety of talks. I included quotes from those introductions, but I also included links to each of those talks hoping you will be interested enough to want to listen.
Ways to Start a Speech
Chris Anderson likens this to battle. “First there is the 10-second war: can you do something in your first moments on stage to ensure people’s eager attention while you set up your talk topic? Second is the 1-minute war: can you then use that first minute to ensure that they’re committed to coming on the full talk journey with you?”
When thinking about your speech, spend a lot of time thinking about how to win the battle for their attention. Your introduction should make your audience want to put down their phones and listen. Your introduction should be so compelling they stop their wandering minds and turn their thoughts to you and you alone. Your introduction should start with three strong words where they form a strong opinion of you and your speech. Let me share how to accomplish this.
Story
Capturing the audience through the story is one of the most powerful ways to start a speech. A story engages the brain in powerful ways and causes the audience’s brains to sync with the speakers. A well-told story will allow the audience to “see” things in their mind’s eye and to join the speaker’s emotions.
Watch this clip by Ric Elias for how he begins his speech with a powerful story. Particularly notice his first four words, “Imagine a big explosion.”
Imagine a big explosion as you climb through 3,000 ft. Imagine a plane full of smoke. Imagine an engine going clack, clack, clack. It sounds scary. Well, I had a unique seat that day. I was sitting in 1D. I was the only one who could talk to the flight attendants. So I looked at them right away, and they said, “No problem. We probably hit some birds.” The pilot had already turned the plane around, and we weren’t that far. You could see Manhattan. Two minutes later, three things happened at the same time.
The pilot lines up the plane with the Hudson River. That’s usually not the route. He turns off the engines. Now, imagine being in a plane with no sound. And then he says three words. The most unemotional three words I’ve ever heard. He says, “Brace for impact.”
Ric Elias, Three Things I Learned While My Plane Crashed.
Consider these other examples and notice how the speaker uses a story.
More powerful introductions using story:
I love you, I believe in you and it’s going to be OK. The three things that I needed to hear three years ago when I felt more abandoned than ever. I remember that day as if it happen this morning. It was Sunday and I had just woken up early at a brisk 12:30 in the afternoon.
Ryan Brooks, Honesty, courage, and the importance of brushing your teeth.
When I was nine years old I went off to summer camp for the first time. And my mother packed me a suitcase full of books, which to me seemed like a perfectly natural thing to do. Because in my family, reading was the primary group activity. And this might sound antisocial to you, but for us, it was really just a different way of being social. You have the animal warmth of your family sitting right next to you, but you are also free to go roaming around the adventureland inside your own mind. And I had this idea that camp was going to be just like this, but better.
Susan Cain. The Power of Introverts.
I grew up to study the brain because I have a brother who has been diagnosed with a brain disorder: schizophrenia.
Jill Bolte Taylor, My Stroke of Insight.
A few years ago, I got one of those spam emails. I’m not quite sure how, but it turned up in my inbox, and it was from a guy called Solomon Odonkoh.
James Veitch This is What Happens When You Reply to Spam Email.
Eleven years ago, while giving birth to my first child, I hemorrhaged and was transfused with seven pints of blood. Four years later, I found out that I had been infected with the AIDS virus and had unknowingly passed it to my daughter, Ariel, through my breast milk, and my son, Jake, in utero.
Elizabeth Glaser, Address to the 1992 Democratic National Convention.
Good stories immediately set the stage and introduce you to the place and to the people. Doing this helps your brain can form a structure where the story takes place. It helps you see the story unfold in your mind. If you need help starting a story, Vanessa Van Edwards suggests these prompts:
• Once upon a time.
• I’m here for a reason, and it’s an interesting story.
• The best thing that ever happened to me was.
There is an entire chapter on the Power of Story that can be found here.
Humor is a rubber sword –
it allows you to make a point without drawing blood.
– Mary Hirsch
Humor
When Family Guy’s Seth MacFarlane spoke at Harvard Commencement in the rain, he started with “There’s nowhere I would rather be on a day like this than around all this electoral equipment.” People laughed, people smiled, and the speech was off to a strong start. Humor works because it gives the audience a hit of the feel-good hormone dopamine. That is … if you are funny. If you decide to use humor, make sure you are funny. Test your humor on honest friends. In addition, the humor you use should fit your personality and your audience. Be warned, some groups would find humor inappropriate, do your research.
Watch this clip for how Tshering Tobgay begins his speech with humor.
In case you are wondering, no, I’m not wearing a dress, and no, I’m not saying what I’m wearing underneath. (Laughter) This is a go. This is my national dress. This is how all men dress in Bhutan. That is how our women dress. Like our women, we men get to wear pretty bright colors, but unlike our women, we get to show off our legs. Our national dress is unique, but this is not the only thing that’s unique about my country. Our promise to remain carbon neutral is also unique, and this is what I’d like to speak about today, our promise to remain carbon neutral.
Tshering Tobgay, This Country Isn’t Just Carbon Neutral–Its Carbon Negative.
More powerful introductions using humor
I didn’t rebel as a teenager. I started late and was still going at it the summer I turned thirty. I just became an American citizen, I divorced my husband, I got a big tattoo of a bat on my arm, and I joined a New York City punk band.
Danusia Trevino, Guilty
I need to make a confession at the outset here. A little over 20 years ago, I did something that I regret, something that I’m not particularly proud of. Something that, in many ways, I wish no one would ever know, but that here I feel kind of obliged to reveal. In the late 1980s, in a moment of youthful indiscretion, I went to law school. Dan Pink, The Puzzle of Motivation.
It is really interesting to be a woman and to get to 45 and to not be married yet and to not have kids, especially when you have pushed out your fifth kid on television.
Tracee Ellis Ross, 2017 Glamour Woman of the Year.
I am not drunk…but the doctor who delivered me was.” (reference the shake she has due to a botched medical procedure at birth causing her cerebral palsey).
Maysoon Zayid, I’ve Got 99 Prolbems and Cerebral Palsey is Not One of Them.
Salutation followed by humor
Oh boy, thank you so much, thank you so much. Thank you, President Cowan, Mrs. President Cowen; distinguished guests, undistinguished guests, you know who you are, honored faculty and creepy Spanish teacher. And thank you to all the graduating Class of 2009, I realize most of you are hungover and have splitting headaches and haven’t slept since Fat Tuesday, but you can’t graduate ’til I finish, so listen up. When I was asked to make the commencement speech, I immediately said yes. Then I went to look up what commencement meant which would have been easy if I had a dictionary, but most of the books in our house are Portia’s, and they’re all written in Australian. So I had to break the word down myself, to find out the meaning. Commencement: common, and cement, common cement. You commonly see cement on sidewalks. Sidewalks have cracks, and if you step on a crack, you break your mother’s back. So there’s that. But I’m honored that you’ve asked me here to speak at your common cement
Ellen DeGenres, Commencement Speech at Tulane.
Well, thank you. Thank you Mr. President, First Lady, King Abdullah of Jordan, Norm, distinguished guests. Please join me in praying that I don’t say something we’ll all regret. That was for the FCC. If you’re wondering what I’m doing here, at a prayer breakfast, well so am I. I’m certainly not here as a man of the cloth, unless that cloth is — is leather.
Bono at the 54th annual National Prayer Breakfast.
Interesting or Startling Fact
Starting your speech by sharing a little-known fact, can be powerful. For this to fully work, you need to have the audience’s attention from the very first word. Read on for how these speakers started strong.
Powerful introductions using facts
Sadly, in the next 18 minutes when I do our chat, four Americans that are alive will be dead from the food that they eat.
Jamie Oliver, Teach Every Child About Food.
So I want to start by offering you a free, no-tech life hack, and all it requires of you is this: that you change your posture for two minutes.
Amy Cuddy, Your Body Language May Shape Who You Are.
Okay, now I don’t want to alarm anybody in this room, but it’s just come to my attention that the person to your right is a liar. (Laughter) Also, the person to your left is a liar. Also the person sitting in your very seats is a liar. We’re all liars. What I’m going to do today is I’m going to show you what the research says about why we’re all liars, how you can become a lie spotter and why you might want to go the extra mile and go from lie spotting to truth seeking, and ultimately to trust building.
Pamela Meyer, How to Spot a Liar.
You will live 7.5 minutes longer than you would have otherwise, just because you watched this talk.
Jane McGonigal. The Game That Can Give You Ten Extra Years of Life.
There are 900,000 divorces in the United States of America every year. Fewer than 10% of them ever talked to anybody about their relationship. So why would you need a science? Well, we need a science to develop effective treatment and understanding of how to make love work. Why? Why should we care about having great relationships? Well, it turns out that in the past 50 years, a field called social epidemiology has emerged, and it shows that great friendships, great love relationships between lovers and parents and children lead to greater health – mental health as well as physical health – greater wealth, greater resilience, faster recovery from illness, greater longevity – if you want to live 10 to 15 years longer, work on your relationships, not just your exercise – and more successful children as well. John Gottman. The Science of Love.
This room may appear to be holding 600 people but there is actually so many more because within each of us there is a multiple of personalities.
Elizabeth Lesser, Take the Other to Lunch.
Use a Prop
Using a physical object can draw the audience’s attention. Make sure you plan the timing of the prop, and you practice with it. It is important that it is large enough for the audience to see and they can see it well enough that they are not frustrated. Depending on your speech, it may be appropriate to put it away, so it is not distracting.
Powerful introductions using props
Darren Tay walks onto the stage and stares at the audience. He pulls a pair of underwear out of his pocket and puts them on over his suit. “Hey loser how do you like your new school uniform. I think it looks great on you. Those were the words of my high school bully Greg Upperfield. Now if you are all wondering if the underwear that Greg used was clean, I had the same questions.
Darren Tay, Outsmart, Outlast. Toastmasters 2016 World Champion of Public Speaking.
Mohammed Qahtani walks onstage, puts a cigarette in his mouth … then looks up as if noticing the audience and says, “What?” As the audience laughs, he continues. “Oh, you all think smoking kills? Ha-ha, let me tell you something. Do you know that the amount of people dying from diabetes are three times as many [as the] people dying from smoking? Yet if I pulled out a Snickers bar, nobody would say anything.” He goes on to say, his facts are made up and his real topic is about how words have power. Mohammed Qahtani, Toastmasters 2015 World Champion of Public Speaking
JA Gamach blows a train whistle and then starts his speech as if he were a conductor, “All aboard! It’s a bright sunny day and you are taking a train. You are wearing a pair of sandals you proudly made yourself. As you board the train one of your sandals slips off and falls beside the track. (J.A. loses one sandal that falls down the platform.) You try to retrieve it. Too late. The train starts to pull away. What would you have done? I would have cursed my bad luck, mad at losing a sandal.
JA Gamache, Toastmasters 2007 World Championship.
Use a Quotation
Powerful introductions using quotes
Rules for using quotes
• Be sure to use the quote purposefully and not just as placeholders.
• Quotes can just take up valuable space where you could put content unless they are not properly used.
• Let the quote be more important than the author. When using a quote at the opening, say the quote first and then the author. When using a quote at the end of a speech, say the author first and then the quote.
• Keep it short and sweet. Use a quote that gets to the point quickly.
• If you must use long quotes–put them on your slide.
• If you project a quote, read it to the audience. Never expect them to read it while you talk about something else. Never say stupid things like, “You can read, I’ll let you read this for yourselves” or “Your adults, I’ll let you process this.”
• Check the authorship and authenticity of the quote. There are so many quotes on the internet that are misattributed and misquoted. For example, who wrote the quote: “They may forget what you said, but they will never forget how you made them feel”?
• Do not go for the overused quote or your audience is prone to dismiss it. Instead of quoting an overused “I have a dream quote” do as Jim Key, the 2003 Toastmasters International World Championship of Public Speaking did and pick an equally great but lesser-used Martin Luther King Quote: “The time is always right to do what is right!”
Watch Nate Stauffer at a Moth Grand Slam as he uses poetry to start and carry his story.
Watch this clip for how Andrew Solomon opens with a quote to make us think about depression.
Reference the Occasion
Ceremonial speeches often call for acknowledgment of those in attendance or a mention of the occasion. Here is how Martin Luther King Junior set up his famous speech.
I am happy to join with you today in what will go down in history as the greatest demonstration for freedom in the history of our nation. Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic shadow we stand today, signed the Emancipation Proclamation.
Martin Luther King Junior, I Have a Dream.
Get the Audience Involved
Having the audience stand, raise their hand, or even nod in encouragement can cause them to focus on your message. This can be particularly helpful if the audience has been sitting for a while. Let me show you a few examples of how that works.
Ask a Question
You can involve the audience from the start by asking them a question.
Watch the first few minutes of Amy Purdy’s speech and how she starts with a question, “If your life were a book and you were the author, how would you want your story to go?”
More powerful introductions using a question
I’m here today to talk about a disturbing question, which has an equally disturbing answer. My topic is the secret of domestic violence and the question I’m going to tackle is the one everyone always asks. Why would she stay? Why would anyone stay with a man who beats her?
Why Domestic Violence Victims Don’t Leave- Leslie Morgan Steiner
Here’s a question we need to rethink together: What should be the role of money and markets in our societies? Today, there are very few things that money can’t buy. If you’re sentenced to a jail term in Santa Barbara, California, you should know that if you don’t like the standard accommodations, you can buy a prison cell upgrade. It’s true. For how much, do you think? What would you guess? Five hundred dollars? It’s not the Ritz-Carlton. It’s a jail! Eighty-two dollars a night. Eighty-two dollars a night.
Michael Sandel, Why We Shouldn’t Trust Markets with Our Civic Life.
How do you explain when things don’t go as we assume? Or better, how do you explain when others are able to achieve things that seem to defy all of the assumptions? For example: Why is Apple so innovative? Year after year, after year, after year, they’re more innovative than all their competition.
Simon Sinek, How Great Leaders Inspire Action.
Can you remember a moment when a brilliant idea flashed into your head?
Darren LaCroix, Ouch! World Champion of Public Speaking.
Have the Audience Participate
If you ask a question you want the audience to answer, be sure to give them time to respond. If they raise their hands, be sure to acknowledge their response. You might have the answer by standing, by raising their hands, by speaking to their neighbor. You might call on one member of the audience to answer for the group.
If you ask a question you want the audience to answer, don’t let your presentation slide give away the answer. For example, one speaker had a slide behind him that said, “Lesson 1: Don’t Worry About IQ.” He has the audience raise their hand if they want to improve their grades then he asks, “So can I get a show of hands, how many would say IQ is going to be the most important to get those marks to go up?” Very few people responded because the answer was “written on the wall” literally.
Watch this clip as Allan Pease engages the audience.
Everybody hold your right hand in front like this in a handshaking position. Uncross your legs. Relaxed position. Right hand in front. When I say the word, “Now” here’s what we’re going to do. I am going to ask you to turn to someone besides you, shake hands as if you’re meeting for the first time, and keep pumping till I ask you to stop. Then you’ll stop and freeze it and we’re going to analyze what’s happening. You got that? You don’t have time to think about this. Do it now. Pick anybody and pump. Pump, everybody. Freeze it. Hold it. Stop. Hold it. Freeze it. Keep your hands locked. Keep them locked. The person whose hand is most on top is saying “I’ll be the boss for the rest of the day.”
Allan Pease, Body Language, the Power is in the Palm of Your Hands.
More powerful introductions using audience participation
I have a confession to make. But first, I want you to make a little confession to me. In the past year, I want you to just raise your hand if you’ve experienced relatively little stress?
Kelly McGonigal, How to Make Stress Your Friend.
So I’d like to start, if I may, by asking you some questions.
If you’ve ever lost someone you truly loved, ever had your heartbroken, ever struggled through an acrimonious divorce, or being the victim of infidelity, please stand up.
If standing up isn’t accessible to you, you can put your hand up. Please stay standing and keep your hand up there.
If you’ve ever lived through a natural disaster, being bullied or made redundant, stand on up. If you’ve ever had a miscarriage, if you’ve ever had an abortion or struggled through infertility, please stand up. Finally, if you or anyone you love has had to cope with mental illness, dementia, some form of physical impairment or cope with suicide, please stand up.
Look around you. Adversity doesn’t discriminate. If you are alive, you are going to have to, or you’ve already had to, deal with some tough times Thank you, everyone. Take a seat.
Lucy Hone: The Three Secrets of Resilient People.
Advice from Moth Storytelling Club
Have a great first line that sets up the stakes and grabs attention
No: “So I was thinking about climbing this mountain. But then I watched a little TV and made a snack and took a nap and my mom called and vented about her psoriasis then I did a little laundry (a whites load) (I lost another sock, darn it!) and then I thought about it again and decided I’d climb the mountain the next morning.”
Yes: “The mountain loomed before me. I had my hunting knife, some trail mix and snow boots. I had to make it to the little cabin and start a fire before sundown or freeze to death for sure.”
Arouse Suspense or Curiosity
Watch this clip for how Kathryn Schulz creates curiosity by showing us Johnny Depp’s tattoo and then talks about her tattoo of regret. We hang on to her every word wondering, “Where is all this going and how bad can her tattoo really be?”
So that’s Johnny Depp, of course. And that’s Johnny Depp’s shoulder. And that’s Johnny Depp’s famous shoulder tattoo. Some of you might know that, in 1990, Depp got engaged to Winona Ryder, and he had tattooed on his right shoulder “Winona forever.” And then three years later — which in fairness, kind of is forever by Hollywood standards — they broke up, and Johnny went and got a little bit of repair work done. And now his shoulder says, “Wino forever.”
So like Johnny Depp, and like 25 percent of Americans between the ages of 16 and 50, I have a tattoo. I first started thinking about getting it in my mid-20s, but I deliberately waited a really long time. Because we all know people who have gotten tattoos when they were 17 or 19 or 23 and regretted it by the time they were 30. That didn’t happen to me. I got my tattoo when I was 29, and I regretted it instantly. And by “regretted it,” I mean that I stepped outside of the tattoo place — this is just a couple miles from here down on the Lower East Side — and I had a massive emotional meltdown in broad daylight on the corner of East Broadway and Canal Street. (Laughter) Which is a great place to do it because nobody cares. (Laughter) And then I went home that night, and I had an even larger emotional meltdown, which I’ll say more about in a minute.
Kathryn Schulz, Don’t Regret, Regret.
Saying unexpected things or challenging assumptions can get a speech started off right.
A herd of wildebeests, a shoal of fish, a flock of birds. Many animals gather in large groups that are among the most wonderful spectacles in the natural world. But why do these groups form? The common answers include things like seeking safety in numbers or hunting in packs or gathering to mate or breed, and all of these explanations, while often true, make a huge assumption about animal behavior, that the animals are in control of their own actions, that they are in charge of their bodies. And that is often not the case.
Ed Yong. Zombie Roaches and Other Parasite Tales. TED Talk
Keys to Success
• Memorize your first sentence so you can deliver it with impact.
• Memorize your whole speech opening if possible.
• Make sure your first three words have an impact.
Typical Patterns for Speech Openings
• Get the audience’s attention–called a hook or a grabber.
• Establish rapport and tell the audience why you care about the topic of why you are credible to speak on the topic.
• Introduce the speech thesis/preview/good idea.
• Tell the audience why they should care about this topic.
• Give a transition statement to the body of the speech.
Step Two: Credibility
First, you hook the audience with your powerful grabber, then you tell them why you are credible to speak on the topic and why the topic is important. If they know your credentials, you would not need to tell them your credibility but you may still want to tell them why you are interested in the topic. Here are a few examples of how some speakers included credibility.
Tell Why You Are Credible
I’m a doctor, but I kind of slipped sideways into research, and now I’m an epidemiologist.
Ben Goldacre, Battling Bad Science.
I started studying resilience research a decade ago at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia. It was an amazing time to be there because the professors who trained me had just picked up the contract to train all 1.1 million American soldiers to be as mentally fit as they always have been physically fit. Lucy Hone: The Three Secrets of Resilient People.
What I’m going to do is to just give a few notes, and this is from a book I’m preparing called “Letters to a Young Scientist.” I’d thought it’d be appropriate to present it, on the basis that I have had extensive experience in teaching, counseling scientists across a broad array of fields. And you might like to hear some of the principles that I’ve developed in doing that teaching and counseling.
EO Wilson: Advice to a Young Scientist.
Step Three: Tell Why it is Important
Early on in your speech, you should tell the audience why they should care. You should connect the speech to things they care about. This is where you answer, so what, who cares?
You know, I didn’t set out to be a parenting expert. In fact, I’m not very interested in parenting, per se. It’s just that there’s a certain style of parenting these days that is kind of messing up kids, impeding their chances to develop.
Julie Lythcott-Haims, How to Raise Successful Kids – Without Over-Parenting
Step Four: Tell the Purpose of the Talk (aka Preview/ Thesis)
“If you don’t know what you want to achieve in your presentation your audience never will.” – Harvey Diamond, author
Tell the audience your purpose, clearly give them an overview of the main points. MIT professor, Patrick Winston says one of the best things to add to your speech is an empowerment promise. You want to tell people what they will know at the end of your speech that they didn’t know at the beginning. It’s their reason for being here. His empowerment promise was, “Today you will see some examples of what you can put in your armory of speaking techniques and it will be the case that one of those examples–some heuristic, some technique, maybe only one will be the one that will get you the job. By the end of the next 60 minutes, you will have been exposed to a lot of ideas, some of which you will incorporate into your own repertoire, and they will ensure that you get the maximum opportunity to have your ideas valued and accepted by the people you speak with.” Notice that this statement told you what to expect and why it mattered.
Here are examples of how various speakers accomplished this.
For years, I’ve been telling people, stress makes you sick. It increases the risk of everything from the common cold to cardiovascular disease. Basically, I’ve turned stress into the enemy. But I have changed my mind about stress, and today, I want to change yours.
Kelly McGonigal, How to Make Stress Your Friend.
We’ve been sold the lie that disability is a Bad Thing, capital B, capital T. It’s a bad thing, and to live with a disability makes you exceptional. It’s not a bad thing, and it doesn’t make you exceptional.
Stella Young, I’m Not Your Inspiration, Thank You Very Much
What I’m going to show you is all of the main things, all of the main features of my discipline, evidence-based medicine. And I will talk you through all of these and demonstrate how they work, exclusively using examples of people getting stuff wrong.
Ben Goldacre, Battling Bad Science.
I would like to think that we (Arab women) poor, oppressed women actually have some useful, certainly hard-earned lessons to share, lessons that might turn out useful for anyone wishing to thrive in the modern world. Here are three of mine.
Leila Hoteit, Three Lessons on Success from an Arab businesswoman
We are often terrified and fascinated by the power hackers now have. They scare us. But the choices they make have dramatic outcomes that influence us all. So I am here today because I think we need hackers, and in fact, they just might be the immune system for the information age. Sometimes they make us sick, but they also find those hidden threats in our world, and they make us fix it.
Keren Elazari. Hackers: The Internet’s Immune System
Try This — Inspired by TED Master Class
After you write your thesis, send it to three people with the question,
“Based on what you read here, what do you think my speech will be about?”
Putting It All Together
At this point, you know you need to have a grabber, a preview, a credibility statement, and a so-what-who-cares statement. Let’s take a look at one of the top TED talks of all time by Jamie Oliver. This speech is a good illustration of everything we’ve been talking about so far and how all this works together.
Teach Every Child About Food by Jamie Oliver Analyzed
Get the audience’s attention– called a hook or a grabber.
Sadly, in the next 18 minutes when I do our chat, four Americans that are alive will be dead through the food that they eat.
Establish rapport and tell the audience why you care about the topic or why you are credible to speak on the topic. My name’s Jamie Oliver. I’m 34 years old. I’m from Essex in England and for the last seven years, I’ve worked fairly tirelessly to save lives in my own way. I’m not a doctor; I’m a chef, I don’t have expensive equipment or medicine.
I use information, education.
Tell the audience why they should care about this topic. I profoundly believe that the power of food has a primal place in our homes that binds us to the best bits of life. We have an awful, awful reality right now. America, you’re at the top of your game. This is one of the most unhealthy countries in the world.
Introduce the speech thesis/preview/good idea.
I came here to start a food revolution that I so profoundly believe in. We need it. The time is now. We’re in a tipping-point moment.
Give a transition statement
to the body of the speech.
I’ve been doing this for seven years. I’ve been trying in America for seven years. Now is the time when it’s ripe — ripe for the picking. I went to the eye of the storm. I went to West Virginia, the most unhealthy state in America. Or it was last year. We’ve got a new one this year, but we’ll work on that next season.
Never Start a Speech This Way
So we’ve talked about hooking the audience, telling why you are credible, telling them why they should care, and giving them a preview of your talk, now let’s talk about what not to say or do. There are some things that speakers say to hurt their credibility and diminish the chances the audience will listen, be sure to avoid these.
“Everybody close your eyes.”
I don’t want to close my eyes; it makes me feel awkward and exposed to be in a group of people with my eyes closed. Because of that, I keep my eyes open. The problem is when I keep my eyes open, I feel like some sort of horrible nonconformist rebel. I feel awkward with my eyes closed and I feel guilty if they are open. Either way, I just feel bad. Besides, half of the time when speakers tell audience members to close their eyes, they forget to tell us when we can open them. If you are wanting me to imagine a story, just tell me to imagine it, don’t make me close my eyes (rant over).
“Can everybody hear me?”
You should plan your opening to be intentional and with power. “Can everybody hear me” is a weak and uncertain statement and this is not the first impression you want to leave. Do a microphone check before the audience members arrive and have someone stand in different corners of the room to make sure you can be heard. Don’t waste your valuable speech time with questions that you should already know the answer to.
“How long do I have to speak?”
You should know that before you begin. Even if the presentations for the day are running over and you are the last speaker, you should ask the MC before you begin. Always plan your first words with power.
“Can you read this?”
You should make your slides big, really big. Test out your slides in advance of your speech, walk all around the room and make sure you can read them. Have a friend check them out as well. You should know they are big enough because you planned for it and tested it.
“Turn off your cell phones and laptops.”
People really hate having things taken away, not to mention that your audience may want to take notes on their devices. Chances are you are speaking to adults, let them determine if it is appropriate to have out their technology.
“I’m sorry, I’m losing my voice.” “I’m stopped up.” “I’m under the weather.”
Stop apologizing! Stop making excuses! While these lines may be true, they just come of as excuses and can make the audience either feel like you don’t want to be there, or they just feel sorry for you.
“I’m so nervous right now.”
Talking about your nervousness will make you more nervous and will make them look for signs of your nervousness. Just start your speech.
“So, Um, Ok.”
Do not start with hesitation. Plan the first words, memorize the first words, practice the first words. Do not start with “Ok, so um, now I’d like…” Plan strong and start strong.
Do Not Discuss Your Business with People Watching…Really! I Mean It!
Many of us are giving and listening to presentations in an online format. I have attended numerous presentations this year through Zoom where I have to sit and watch while the organizers engage in personal small talk or deal with the details of the presentation.
This is how the speech I recently attended began.”Donna, you are going to share your screen, right?”
“Yes. I have my PowerPoint ready to go. Will you push “record” when I give the signal?”
“Sure. Where did you say that button is again? Do you think we should wait five more minutes, I think we had more who were coming? Dave, what was the total we were expecting?”
“Yeah, we had 116 sign up, but the reminders went out late so this may be all we have. We can give them a few more minutes to log on.”
“Donna, How is your dog? Is she still struggling with her cone since her spay surgery? My dog never would wear the cone –she tore her stitches out and broke her wound open. It was terrible. Well, it looks like it is about time to begin, thank you everyone for coming.”
If you are organizing an event online, hosting a speech online, giving a presentation online–please keep it professional. Most platforms will allow you to keep the audience in a waiting room until it is time to start. If you have a business to deal with, keep the audience out until you have everything ready to go. Once the audience is in the meeting, you should engage the audience in group-type small talk or you should just start the presentation. In professional settings, you should start the meeting on time. Why punish those who showed up on time to wait for those who aren’t there yet?
A Conversation Over Coffee with Bill Rogers
I asked my long-time friend, Bill Rogers, to write an excerpt to add to the book. I met Bill when he was the Chief Development Officer for a hospital in Northwest Arkansas and I met him again when he was reinventing himself as a college student getting a Master’s Degree in the theater. He would love to share a symbolic cup of coffee with you and give you advice about public speaking.
Perfect morning for a walk, isn’t it? Join me for a cup of coffee? Wonderful. Find us a table and I’ll get our coffee.
There you go; just like you like it. There’s nothing like a great cup of coffee on the patio of your neighborhood coffee shop, is there?
Now that you’re settled in your favorite chair, take a sip, and let that glorious caffeine kick in and do its stuff. Okay, let’s talk.
So, you were asking me about public speaking.
Well, let’s see. Where do we begin?
One of the first pieces of advice I ever received was to imagine that every member of your audience is sitting there in their underwear! Yeah, right. That never worked for me. I tried it once with a local civic group of community leaders both male and female. If the intent of that tidbit is to make you relax, it certainly didn’t work for me. It just made me more self-conscious…and more nervous. I not only got distracted, but I also lost my train of thought, I started sweating, and, of course, imagined myself standing there without clothes. Needless to say, that speech was a disaster and I’ve never used it again. I suggest you don’t either.
In the early days, I also relied very heavily on my typed-up speech. Now, there’s nothing wrong with that unless you find yourself reading it word for word as I did. Nothing is more boring nor puts an audience to sleep quicker than a speaker with their nose down reading a speech. There’s no connection and connection with your audience is key.
As you know, I love theatre and I’ve done a bit of acting over the years. Early on, I learned that the quicker I learned my lines, the more I could play, experiment, and shape my character. It relaxed me and gave me enormous freedom. It led me to find a mantra for myself: “With discipline comes freedom.” This freedom will allow you to improvise as your audience or situation dictates while still conveying the core message of your presentation. That discipline and its resulting freedom apply to public speaking of any kind and, I think, will serve you well.
Another old adage we’ve all heard is Aristotle’s advice. You know the one. No? Well, roughly, it’s to tell your audience what you’re going to say, say it, and then tell them what you just said. That’s the basic formula for public speaking. And it works as a good place to start.
However, effective speaking is much more and, to me, it starts with a story or even a simple sentence.
You know the feeling you get when you read the first sentence of a good book and it just reaches out and grabs you? That should be your goal with every presentation. One sentence to capture your audience’s attention. Something that causes them to lean forward. Something that sparks their imagination.
It doesn’t have to be all that profound either. It can be something very simple. A personal story that relates to your topic. A relevant fact or statistic that defines or illustrates the issue or subject matter at hand.
A couple of classics come to mind. The first is Alice Walker’s, “The Color of Purple.”
“You better not tell nobody but God.”
And the second one is from my favorite novel, “To Kill A Mockingbird,” by Harper Lee.
“When he was nearly thirteen, my brother Jem got his arm broken at the elbow.”
Both sentences hook you immediately. A few simple words speak volumes. After reading or hearing those words, you naturally lean in. You want to learn more. You want to find out what happens next. Every effective speech or presentation does the same thing.
Of course, make sure that the first and last thing you say to your audience is both relevant and appropriate. I share this out of an abundance of caution. I once worked for an internationally recognized and well-respected children’s research hospital and I was given the privilege to speak at a national educational convention. The room was filled wall to wall with teachers. I thought I’d be cute and add a little levity. I opened my presentation with this line, “You know, I’ve had nightmares like this…” Instead of the roars of laughter, I was expecting, a wave of silence ensued. Not only was the line not funny, but it was also wholly inappropriate and I immediately lost my audience. Not my best day. Learn from my mistakes.
Finally, let’s touch on the importance of approaching a speech as a conversation. You and I are sitting here enjoying our coffee and having a friendly, relaxed conversation. Strive for that every chance you get. You may not always have that luxury. Some speeches and presentations simply demand formality. But even in those cases, you can usually make it somewhat conversational. I always try to write my speeches in a conversational style. Like I’m talking to a friend…or trying to make a new one.
So, to recap: tell a story, learn your lines, hook your audience with a simple sentence, close with a question or call to action, use repetition, keep it conversational, treat your audience as a friend, and give yourself permission to relax.
Above all, be yourself. Allow yourself to be as relaxed as you are with those closest to you. If you’re relaxed, if you try to think of your audience as a friend, then, in most cases, they too will relax and they will root for you. Even if they disagree with what you are telling them, they will respect you and they will listen.
How about another cup?
Key Takeaways
Remember This!
• The most important part of your speech is the introduction because if you don’t get their attention, they are not listening to the rest of what you have to say.
• To get attention, tell a story, use humor, share a quote, tell a startling fact, show a prop, ask a question, reference the occasion.
• In addition to the grabber, a good introduction should establish rapport and tell the audience why you are credible.
• An introduction often includes a “so what who cares statement” to tell the audience why this should matter to them.
• The thesis/preview should be clear enough that someone could read just that sentence or couple of sentences and know what the speech is about.
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References
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Open Your Speech With a Bang
Close It With a Slam-Dunk
Westside Toastmasters
“Great is the art of beginning, but greater is the art of ending,” according to poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. The first few words of your speech make the audience want to listen and the last few sentences help them decide what they feel about you and your topic. In this chapter, I will explain the function of a conclusion, the format of a conclusion, and I will give you numerous examples of ways to end your speech. Most of this chapter is dedicated to showing you good examples of different types of speech closings. Let’s get started by talking about the purpose of the closing.
A Strong Closing Does Many Things
1. Summarizes the points. By restating your points your audience is more likely to remember them.
2. Tells the audience when to clap. Let’s face it, it is so awkward when you are done with your speech, and no one claps. Being clear the end is near, relieves the audience of the pressure of wondering if they are clapping at the right time.
3. Provides resolution. Your speech should give the audience a sense of resolve or a sense of being challenged.
The Formula for Closing Most Speeches
• Transition statement to ending.
• Review the main points–repeat the thesis.
• If it is a persuasive speech, tell the audience what you want them to do or think.
• Provide a closing statement.
Restate the Thesis
Tell them what you are going to say, say it, tell them what you have said. This speech pattern is useful in most types of speeches because it helps the speaker to remember your key points. As you build your closing, make sure you restate the thesis. A good rule of thumb is to write it in such a way that if the audience were asked to restate the main points, their answer would match closely with your thesis.
EXAMPLE
Watch as Stella Young gives her thesis and then restates her thesis at the end of the speech as she wraps up.
The thesis of the talk in the introduction:
We’ve been sold the lie that disability is a Bad Thing, capital B, capital T. It’s a bad thing, and to live with a disability makes you exceptional. It’s not a bad thing, and it doesn’t make you exceptional.
Restates the thesis of the talk at the closing:
Disability doesn’t make you exceptional but questioning what you think you know about it does.
This next example is from a student’s speech. It is easy to pull out one sentence that clearly summarizes the main points of her speech. Following her summary, she winds the speech down into a thoughtful conclusion and ends with three powerful words.
Now is the time to separate the war on drugs from the war on addiction. Today you’ve heard the problems, impacts, and solutions of criminalizing addictions. Bruce Callis is 50 years old now. And he is still struggling with his addiction. while you all are sitting out there listening to this, I’m living with it. Bruce Callis is my father and for my entire life, I have watched our misguided system destroy him. The irony here is that we live in a society where we are told to recycle. We recycle paper, aluminum, and electronics. But why don’t we ever consider recycling them most precision think on Earth–the human life.
Student Tunnette Powell, Winner of the 2012 Interstate Oratorical Association Contest.
Closing Phrases
After you restate your thesis, you should carefully deliver your closing phrases. Your closing should provide a resolution to your speech and/or it should challenge the audience. Frantically Speaking writer Hrideep Barot suggests “a conclusion is like tying a bow or ribbon to a box of your key ideas that your audience will be taking along with them.”
A speech closing is not just about the words you say, but it is also the way you say it. Change the pace near the end of your speech. Let your tone alone should signal the end is near. It is about deliberate voice control, don’t let your voice weakly away.
In the next section, I will cover these ways to end your speech:
End with powerful words
End with a quote
End with a graphic
End with parallel construction
End on a positive note
End with a challenge
End with a question
End with inspiration
End with well-wishing
End with humor
End with a call to action
End with a feeling of resolve
End with a prop
The best way to teach you about advanced closings is to show not tell. For this section, I will briefly explain each type of closing and then provide a video. Each video is queued so you can play the video and watch the closing statement. I included a transcript under each video if you want to follow along. It will be most beneficial for you to watch the clip and not just read the text. By watching, you will have a chance to hear the subtle changes in the speaker’s voice as they deliver their closing statements.
End with Powerful Words
As you design your closing, look at the last three to five words and examine them to see if they are strong words. Oftentimes, you can rearrange a sentence to end with a powerful word. (I have the video cued to play just the closing)
Watch this clip for how BJ Miller ends with a powerful thought and a powerful word.
Parts of me died early on, and that’s something we can all say one way or another. I got to redesign my life around this fact, and I tell you it has been a liberation to realize you can always find a shock of beauty or meaning in what life you have left, like that snowball lasting for a perfect moment, all the while melting away. If we love such moments ferociously, then maybe we can learn to live well — not in spite of death, but because of it. Let death be what takes us, not lack of imagination.
BJ Miller, What Really Matters at the End of Life
End by Circling Back to the Opening
Another type of ending is to circle back to what you said in the beginning. You can revisit a quote, share the end to an illustration that was begun in the beginning, or you can put away a prop you got out in the beginning.
Watch this clip for how Zubing Zhang
begins and ends with the same quote to circle back around to the main idea.
She starts by telling a story of bungee jumping off the world’s highest platform and how she saw a sign with a quote that says, “Life begins at the edge of your comfort zone.” After telling her own story about pushing her emotional limits, she circles back around at the end by saying, “As the words said high on the bungee platform, “Life begins at the edge of your comfort zone.”
Yubing Zhang, Life Begins at the End of Your Comfort Zone.
End With Quote
If you end your speech with a quote, attend to the following.
1. Always say the author of the quote before the quote for example, “I want to leave you with a leadership quote ‘What you do has far greater impact than what you say,’ Steven Covey.” The problem with this ending is that “Stephen Covey” are the last two words of the speech and that is boring. Consider instead this ending. “I think Robin Sharma said it best ‘Leadership is not about a title or a designation. It’s about impact, influence, and inspiration.'” In this arrangement, the last three words are powerful–influence and inspiration.
2. Provided context for the quote before or after. Make sure the quote is meaningful and not just an easy way to end.
Watch this clip for how Sir Ken Robinson ends with a quote. Notice how he says the author and then the quote.
Also, notice how he then ties his speech to the quote with a final few sentences and ends with the powerful word–“revolution” and how he uses a strong vocal emphasis as he says his last word. (I have the video cued to play just the closing)
There’s a wonderful quote from Benjamin Franklin. “There are three sorts of people in the world: Those who are immovable, people who don’t get it, or don’t want to do anything about it; there are people who are movable, people who see the need for change and are prepared to listen to it; and there are people who move, people who make things happen.” And if we can encourage more people, that will be a movement. And if the movement is strong enough, that’s, in the best sense of the word, a revolution. And that’s what we need.
Sir Ken Robinson, How to Escape Education’s Death Valley.
End with a Graphic
You might want to use a visual to make your final point. Bringing in a picture, graphic, or object, reengages the audience to pay attention to your final ideas.
Watch this clip for how Barry Schartz uses the magic words “so to conclude” and then he creatively uses a picture of a fishbowl to narrow in on his point.
Notice how his final word is spoken with urgency as he says “disaster.” (I have the video cued to play just the closing)
So, to conclude. (He shows a picture of fish in a fishbowl) He says, “You can be anything you want to be — no limits.” You’re supposed to read this cartoon and, being a sophisticated person, say, “Ah! What does this fish know? Nothing is possible in this fishbowl.” Impoverished imagination, a myopic view of the world –that’s the way I read it at first. The more I thought about it, however, the more I came to the view that this fish knows something. Because the truth of the matter is, if you shatter the fishbowl so that everything is possible, you don’t have freedom. You have paralysis. If you shatter this fishbowl so that everything is possible, you decrease satisfaction. You increase paralysis, and you decrease satisfaction. Everybody needs a fishbowl. This one is almost certainly too limited –perhaps even for the fish, certainly for us. But the absence of some metaphorical fishbowl is a recipe for misery and, I suspect, disaster.
Barry Schwartz, The Paradox of Choice
End with Parallel Construction
Parallel construction is a series of repeated phrases. It can be a powerful tool to use in a persuasive speech as it creates a feeling of importance.
Watch this clip for how Malala Yousafzai ends with a series of parallel statements to build momentum.
Notice how her pace perfectly matches her words and you feel her strength when she ends with “education first.” (I have the video cued to play just the closing)
Dear brothers and sisters, we must not forget that millions of people are suffering from poverty, injustice, and ignorance. We must not forget that millions of children are out of schools. We must not forget that our sisters and brothers are waiting for a bright peaceful future. So let us wage a global struggle against illiteracy, poverty, and terrorism, and let us pick up our books and pens. They are our most powerful weapons. One child, one teacher, one pen, and one book can change the world.
Education is the only solution. Education First.
Malala Yousafzai, United Nations Youth Assembly
End on a Positive Note
Audiences are constantly evaluating a speaker to determine their attitude and motivation. As you consider your speech closing, ask yourself what type of impression do you want to leave? Do you want to leave them with depression or hope? Sadness or promise? Most of the time, audiences will receive messages that end positively better than speeches that end negatively.
In this speech sample, Hans Rosling showed the audience some hard statistics and he even pointed fingers at the audience as part of the problem. To help them hear his main point, he wisely ends on a positive note.
Watch this clip for how Hans Rosling
ends this thought-provoking talk on a positive note.
(I have the video cued to play just the closing)
Now, when thinking about where all this leaves us, I have just one little humble advice for you, besides everything else, look at the data. Look at the facts about the world and you will see where we are today and how we can move forwards with all these billions on our wonderful planet. The challenge of extreme poverty has been greatly reduced and it’s for the first time in history within our power to end it for good. The challenge of population growth is, in fact, already being solved, the number of children has stopped growing. And for the challenge for climate change, we can still avoid the worst, but that requires the richest, as soon as possible, find a way to use their set their use of resources and energy at a level that, step by step, can be shared by 10 billion or 11 billion by the end of this century. I’ve never called myself an optimist, but I do say I’m a possibilist and I also say the world is much better than many of you think.
Hans Rosling, Facts about the Population.
End with a Challenge
Leave the audience with a doable personal challenge. Help them mentally make sense of all the information that you shared by helping them know how to file it away and how to use it.
Watch this clip for how Melissa Butler
ends with a challenge.
(I have the video cued to play just the closing)
A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://uark.pressbooks.pub/speaking/?p=1935
So, I challenge each of you, when you go home today, look at yourself in the mirror, see all of you, look at all of your greatness that you embody, accept it, and love it. And finally, when you leave the house tomorrow, try to extend that same love and acceptance to someone who doesn’t look like you.
Melissa Butler, Why You Think You’re Ugly.
Watch this clip as
Darren LaCroix literally falls face down
to anchor the point that when we fall, we “fall forward.”
(I have the video cued to play just the closing)
Darren LaCroix talks about taking risks and falling down and getting back up, he literally and purposefully falls down during his speech and ends this way:
What’s your next step… take it. I didn’t want to look back at my life and say you know I never did try that comedy thing, but I died debt-free. All of us are headed toward that goal we are going to teach a point where we get stuck and our feet are like in cement and we can’t move but we’re so afraid of that ouch but we forget that if we lean forward and take a risk–(He falls face down) and we fall on our face. When we get up, notice, you still made progress. So please, with me, go ahead and fall. But fall forward.
Darren LaCroiz, Winning Speech delivered at National Speech Association
End with a Question
Asking a question at the end is one way to reengage the audience. It helps them think about what your topic might mean for them.
Watch this clip for how David Eagleman
reminds us about why his topic is important
and then ends with a question.
Notice how he pauses before his final question and
how he changes the pace of his speech for the final sentence.
(I have the video cued to play just the closing)
So I think there’s really no end to the possibilities on the horizon for human expansion. Just imagine an astronaut being able to feel the overall health of the International Space Station, or, for that matter, having you feel the invisible states of your own health, like your blood sugar and the state of your microbiome, or having 360-degree vision or seeing in infrared or ultraviolet. So the key is this: As we move into the future, we’re going to increasingly be able to choose our own peripheral devices. We no longer have to wait for Mother Nature’s sensory gifts on her timescales, but instead, like any good parent, she’s given us the tools that we need to go out and define our own trajectory. So the question now is, how do you want to go out and experience your universe?
David Eagleman, Can We Create New Senses for Humans?
I want to leave you with this final thought. I’ve told you about how speakers of different languages think differently, but of course, that’s not about how people elsewhere think. It’s about how you think. It’s how the language that you speak shapes the way that you think. And that gives you the opportunity to ask, “Why do I think the way that I do?” “How could I think differently?” And also, “What thoughts do I wish to create?”
Lera Boroditsky, How Language Shapes the Way We Think
End with Inspiration
“Inspiring your audience
is all about helping them
see their own vision, not yours.”
Anonymous
You may want to end your speech with inspiring and encouraging words. Pick words that resonate with most of your audience and deliver them in such a way that your audience feels your lift in emotion.
Watch this clip for how Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie
ends with an inspiring final note and a powerful last
few words “regain a kind of paradise”
(I have the video cued to play just the closing)
Stories matter. Many stories matter. Stories have been used to dispossess and to malign, but stories can also be used to empower and humanize. Stories can break the dignity of a people, but stories can also repair that broken dignity.
The American writer Alice Walker wrote this about her Southern relatives who had moved to the North. She introduced them to a book about the Southern life that they had left behind. “They sat around, reading the book themselves, listening to me read the book, and a kind of paradise was regained.”
I would like to end with this thought: That when we reject the single-story, when we realize that there is never a single story about any place, we regain a kind of paradise.
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, The Danger of a Single Story
Watch this clip for how Dan Pink
ends with an inspiring final note.
(I have the video cued to play just the closing)
Let me wrap up. There is a mismatch between what science knows and what business does. Here is what science knows. One: Those 20th century rewards, those motivators we think are a natural part of business, do work, but only in a surprisingly narrow band of circumstances. Two: Those if-then rewards often destroy creativity. Three: The secret to high performance isn’t rewards and punishments, but that unseen intrinsic drive– the drive to do things for their own sake. The drive to do things cause they matter.
And here’s the best part. We already know this. The science confirms what we know in our hearts. So, if we repair this mismatch between what science knows and what business does, if we bring our motivation, notions of motivation into the 21st century, if we get past this lazy, dangerous, ideology of carrots and sticks, we can strengthen our businesses, we can solve a lot of those candle problems, and maybe, maybe —we can change the world.I rest my case.
Dan Pink, The Puzzle of Motivation
End with Well Wishing
There are several types of closings where the speaker wished the audience well.
The Benediction Close: May God bless and keep you….
The Presidential Close: God bless you and may God bless the USA
The Congratulatory Close: I congratulate you on your accomplishment and wish you continued success.
End with Humor
You can end on a fun lighthearted note. It is important to always run your humor by a variety of people to make sure you are funny, and your humor is appropriate.
Watch this clip for how Andrew Dunham uses humor throughout his speech and ends with a funny one-liner.
(I have the video cued to play just the closing)
I wish you all the best as we begin this journey on our paths and I sincerely hope and pray that your time and success have proven to be as memorable and spiritually rewarding as mine. If not, there’s always summer school.
Andrew Dunham, Valedictorian Comes Out As Autistic During Speech
End with a Call to Action
If you are delivering a persuasive speech, let the audience know exactly what you want them to do.
End with a Feeling of Resolve
Paul Harvey made famous the line “And now you know…the rest of the story.” Your closing should allow us to know the rest of the story or to know how a situation was resolved.
Watch this clip for how Lucy Hone
ends this tough but inspiring talk with a feeling of resolve
(I have the video cued to play just the closing)
If you ever find yourself in a situation where you think there’s no way I’m coming back from this, I urge you to lean into these strategies and think again. I won’t pretend that thinking this way is easy and it doesn’t remove all the pain. But if I’ve learned anything over the last five years, it is that thinking this way really does help. More than anything it has shown me that it is possible to live and grieve at the same time. And for that I will be always grateful.
Lucy Hone, The Three Secrets of Resilient People
End with a Prop
Nancy Duarte says you should give your audience, SOMETHING THEY will ALWAYS REMEMBER–S.T.A.R. One way to do that is with an action or statement that will have the audience talking about it for a long time. President Obama did it with a mic drop.
Memorize Your Conclusion
Know your ending so well you can say it without looking at your notes. The audience is deciding what they think about you and your topic so end strong by having a plan, sticking with your plan, using strong eye contact, and a clear strong voice.
End on Time
Audiences stop listening when the time is up. If you go over, they will start checking their watches, looking at the door, or just mentally check out.
“Times about up.”
Don’t end with any references to time. It is like a giant stop sign saying, “stop listening.” Don’t highlight that you ran over time or that it is almost time for lunch. You want them to think about your speech, not the clock.
“Any Questions?”
You want them to feel a sense of closure for your speech. End with something powerful and let them applaud. After the applause, you can offer to answer questions. Similarly, projecting your last slide with the words, “Any Questions” is a weak ending.
“Let Me Add This Point I Missed”
If you forget something in the body of your speech, it is usually best to leave it out. Most of the time you are the only one who will miss it.
“Thank You to the Team”
There is a time to thank the organizers and those who helped you but it is not at the end of your speech. Your focus should be on your audience and what they need and what they need to hear is your idea. Send a thank you letter to the team if you want them to feel your appreciation.
“I’m Sorry”
“Sorry again for the technology issue,” “I apologize for going over time, ” “I regret I have no answer to this.” These are all negative phrases. Keep to your topic that is what they need to hear and stay focused.
“I’ll Close with this Video”
No, you should close with talking about the big idea.
Maximizing the Primacy Recency Effect
If I were to read you a list of thirty things on my grocery list and then asked you to list all that you can remember, chances are you would remember the first times on the list and the last items on the list ( and any ones you found interesting from the middle). When people engage in listening, they tend to remember the first and last things they hear, it is called the primacy-recency effect. This is just one more reason that your introduction and conclusion should be so well planned out. It is those first words and last words that the audience is going to remember.
The primacy recency effect influences, not only what people pay attention to in a speech, but also which speech we pay the most attention to in a series of speeches. For example, if there is a lineup of six speakers, the first and last speakers tend to get the most attention.
As a speaker, you can use this information to your advantage by volunteering to go first or last. If you are giving a long presentation, you can break it up by allowing the audience to move around or talk to a neighbor. When you come back from break, you have re-engaged that primacy effect and moved them back to a high state of attention.
Do You Have Everything You Need for a Strong Closing?
• Have I signaled my speech is coming to an end with my words or my voice?
• Have I restated my main points?
• If I am persuading my audience, do they know what I want them to do or think?
• Have I written the last three to five words in such a way that I end with powerful words?
• Have I memorized my closing?
Getting Off the Platform is Part of Your Closing
Plan on making a strong exit. Whether you are stepping off a stage or simply going to your seat, you should consider that the audience is watching you.
I have had students who finished their speech and then walked over to the trashcan and in a large, exaggerated movement, they threw their notecards in the trash. In our minds, we threw their message away with those cards. I’ve seen speakers, sit in their chairs and then announce, “I can’t believe my hands were shaking so much.” I’ve sat there and thought, “I didn’t notice.” I then realized that the comments they made influenced my perception of them and my perception of their topic.
You said your last word and the audience is applauding, now what? Look at your audience and smile and nod in appreciation before walking off the stage. If you will be answering questions, wait until after the applause stops to begin your question and answering period.
When practicing your speech, it is a good idea to start from your chair, walk up to a spot and then give your speech, and then walk back to your chair and sit down. Your “speech” impression begins and ends from your chair.
Key Takeaways
Remember This!
• A speech closing should include a review of the main points and a purposeful closing sentence.
• Persuasive speech endings should tell the audience specifically what they should do or think about.
• The recency effect suggests that people remember the most recent things they have heard which is one reason the closing is so important.
• Chance the pace of your speech and the tone of your voice to signal the end of the speech.
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References
Adichie, C.N. (2009). The danger of a single story. [Video]. YouTube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D9Ihs241zeg Standard YouTube License.
Anderson, C. (2016). TED talks: The official TED guide to public speaking. Mariner Books.
Barot, H. Fifteen powerful speech ending lines (and tips to create your own). Frantically Speaking. https://franticallyspeaking.com/15-powerful-speech-ending-lines-and-tips-to-create-your-own/
Boroditsky, L. (2017). How language shapes the way we think. https://www.ted.com/talks/lera_boroditsky_how_language_shapes_the_way_we_think Standard Youtube License.
Butler, M. (2018). Why you think you’re ugly. [Video]. YouTube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=imCBztvKgus Standard YouTube License.
Dunham. A. (2019). Valedictorian comes out as autistic during speech. [Video]. YouTube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GtPGrLoU5Uk Standard Youtube License.
Eagleman, D. (2015). Can we create new senses for humans?[Video]. YouTube https://youtu.be/4c1lqFXHvqI Standard YouTube License.
Hone, L. (2019). The three secrets of resilient people. [Video]. YouTube https://youtu.be/NWH8N-BvhAw Standard YouTube License.
Jeff, P. (2009). Ten ways to end your speech with a bang. http://sixminutes.dlugan.com/10-ways-to-end-your-speech
Jobs, S. (2005). You’ve got to find what you love. https://news.stanford.edu/2005/06/14/jobs-061505/
Khanna, P. (2016). Let the head of TED show you how to end your speech with power. https://www.fastcompany.com/3059459/let-the-head-of-ted-show-you-how-to-end-your-speech-with-p
Karia, A. (2013). How to open and close a TED talk (or any other speech or presentation). https://akashkaria.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/HowtoOpenandCloseaTEDTalk.pdf
LaCroix, D. (2001). World champion of public speaking. [Video]. YouTube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FUDCzbmLV-0 Standard YouTube License.
Mandela, N. (2011). Speech from the dock in the Rivonia trial.[Video]. YouTube https://www.nelsonmandela.org/news/entry/i-am-prepared-to-die Standard YouTube License.
Mandela, N. (1994). Presidential Inaugural Speech. [Video]. YouTube https://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/nelsonmandelainauguralspeech.htm Standard YouTube License.
Miller, B.J. (2015). What really matters at the end of life. [Video]. YouTube https://www.ted.com/talks/bj_miller_what_really_matters_at_the_end_of_life?language=en Standard YouTube License.
Moth. (2021). Storytelling tips and tricks: How to tell a successful story. https://themoth.org/share-your-story/storytelling-tips-tricks
Obama, B. (2016). White House correspondents dinner. [Video]. YouTube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NxFkEj7KPC0 Standard YouTube License.
Pink, D. (2009). The puzzle of motivation. [Video]. YouTube https://www.ted.com/talks/dan_pink_the_puzzle_of_motivation Standard YouTube License.
Rothwell, D. (2014). Practically Speaking. Oxford University Press.Robinson, K. (2013). How to escape education’s death valley. [Video]. YouTube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wX78iKhInsc Standard YouTube License.
Rosling, H. (2014). Don’t Panic-Hans Rosling showing the facts about population.[Video]. YouTube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FACK2knC08E Standard YouTube License.
Schwartz, B. (2005). The paradox of choice. [Video]. YouTube https://www.ted.com/talks/barry_schwartz_the_paradox_of_choice Standard YouTube License.
Toastmasters International. (2016). Concluding your Speech. https://www.toastmasters.org/Resources/Concluding-Your-Speech
Young, S. (2014). I’m not your inspiration, thank you very much. [Video]. YouTube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GtPGrLoU5Uk Standard YouTube License.
Yousafzai, M. (2013). Malala Yousafzai addresses United Nations Youth Assembly. [Video]. YouTube https://youtu.be/3rNhZu3ttIU Standard YouTube License.
Zhang, Y. (2015). Life begins at the end of your comfort zone. [Video]. YouTube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cmN4xOGkxGo Standard YouTube License. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/Advanced_Public_Speaking_(Meade)/01%3A_Writing_a_Speech/1.05%3A_Closing_a_Speech-_End_with_Power_and_Let_Them_Know_It_is_Time_to_Clap.txt |
Ideas are not really alive
if they are confined to one person’s mind.
Nancy Duarte, Speech coach and author
We love stories because they are engaging, they ignite the imagination, and they have the potential to teach us something. You have likely sat around a campfire or the dinner table telling stories? That is because stories are the primary way we understand the world causing communication scholar Rhetorical scholar Walter Fisher to call us homo narrans–storytelling humans. Not only is storytelling important in conversation, but it is also important to speechmaking. It is no surprise then, that when researchers looked at 500 TED Talks, they found of the TED talks that go viral, 65% included personal stories.
Professional speakers, college students, politicians, business leaders, and teachers are all beginning to understand the benefits of telling stories in speeches. Increasingly, business leaders are encouraged to move away from the old model of sharing the vision and the mission to a new model of telling the story of the business. Academic literature points out that teachers who use stories can help students understand and recall information. For years, politicians have been coached to include a story in their speeches. They do it because it works, and it is bound in science.
In short, people don’t pay attention to boring things. The story is one way to engage and help ideas come alive. Cognitive psychologist Daniel Willingham says, “The human mind seems exquisitely tuned to understand and remember stories—so much that psychologists sometimes refer to stories as ‘psychologically privileged,’ meaning that they are treated differently in memory than other types of material.”
The goal of public speaking is to plant an idea into the minds of your listeners and the most effective way to accomplish that is through a story. I want to share with you three major principles about storytelling and give you concrete ways to incorporate them into your own storytelling.
1. Stories, when told properly, will ignite both the reason center and the emotion center of your audience’s brains making them not only more effective in the moment but also more memorable in long run.
2. Stories activate the little voices in the audience’s heads and help them think creatively about problems. This activation encourages audiences to act on the idea as opposed to just being passive listeners.
3. The best way to tell a story is to connect it to a message, offer concrete details, and follow a predetermined plotline.
(Editorial note: One of the advantages of digital textbooks is I can add videos. In my opinion, the best way to learn about how to write a good story is to see numerous examples of good stories in action. I have provided you with numerous videos illustrating how the story is used in business, used in law, used in entertainment, and used in education so that you can see the many applications. This chapter is different from standard textbooks on the subject because it includes more examples than text. You will only get deep learning if you take the time to watch the video clips.)
Tell me the fact and I’ll learn.
Tell me the truth and I’ll believe.
But tell me a story and it will live in my heart forever.
–Ancient proverb
Stories Engage the Audience and Make a Point
In under four minutes, Mark Bezos, tells a memorable story. He makes us laugh, allows us to see the situation, and then uses all the emotion and visualization he has created to make a powerful point. A good story draws us in and helps us connect with the person and their idea.
The brain doesn’t pay attention to boring things.
– John Medina, author of Brain Rules
Stories Help Ideas Stick
Stories are sticky. A well-told story “sticks” to our brains and attaches to our emotions. A speaker can tell a story in such a way that the audience “sees” the story in their mind’s eye and “feels” the emotions of the story. In some situations, an audience may become so involved in the story they “react” by making facial expressions or gasping in surprise. By “seeing the story” and physically reacting to the story, the audience is moved from a passive listener to an active participant.
Think about college teachers you have had who told stories as part of their lectures. Did it help you to listen? Did it help you to learn? Chances are it did. Researchers Kromka and Goodby put it to the test on one hundred ninety-four undergraduate students. One group listened to a lecture that included a lesson with a story, while others just heard the lesson’s key points. Students that heard the narrative had more sustained attention to the lecture and they did better on a test of short-term recall. The stories helped them remember the material, but there was an added benefit. The students who heard the narrative liked the teacher more and were more likely to take another course from the instructor in the future.
One of the top TED Talks of all time is My Stroke of Insight by Jill Bolte Taylor. In this talk, she weaves a story so engaging that the audience is afraid to blink because they might miss what happens next. Watch as she tells you about the “morning of the stroke.”
On the morning of the stroke, I woke up to a pounding pain behind my left eye. And it was the kind of caustic pain that you get when you bite into ice cream. And it just gripped me — and then it released me. And then it just gripped me — and then it released me. And it was very unusual for me to ever experience any kind of pain, so I thought, “OK, I’ll just start my normal routine.”
So I got up and I jumped onto my cardio glider, which is a full-body, full-exercise machine. And I’m jamming away on this thing, and I’m realizing that my hands look like primitive claws grasping onto the bar. And I thought, “That’s very peculiar.” And I looked down at my body and I thought, “Whoa, I’m a weird-looking thing.” And it was as though my consciousness had shifted away from my normal perception of reality, where I’m the person on the machine having the experience, to some esoteric space where I’m witnessing myself having this experience.
Jill Bolte Taylor
Try This
I’d like to illustrate to you the connection between thinking and doing.
• Imagine you are looking at the Eiffel tower.
• Think of two words that start with “b.”
• Think of two words that start with “p.”
• Imagine that I am cutting a lemon in half and then squeezing the juice in a glass.
• Imagine fingernails running down a chalkboard.
When imagining the Eiffel tower, most people’s eyes scan up.
When thinking of the words that begin with “b” and “p”, most people will mouth the words.
When imagining the lemon, many people will salivate.
When imagining fingernails on a chalkboard, many people will tighten their facial muscles.
We respond physically because a connection exists between our imagination and our physical response. When we say things in our speech that cause a physical response, the audience becomes actively engaged with our talk.
Stories Help the Audience Become Emotionally Engaged
“Emotions are the condiments of speech,” according to speech coach Nancy Duarte. They add spice and flavor to your talk. Emotions such as passion, vulnerability, excitement, and fear are particularly powerful. Researchers at Ohio State have a word for that sense of being carried away into the world of a story. They call it transportation. Their research demonstrated that people can get so immersed in a story they hardly notice the world around them. Audiences can be transported by stories as facts and stories as fiction. Narrative transportation theory proposes that when people lose themselves their intentions and attitudes may change to align with the characters in the story. As speakers, our goal should be to help our audience get lost in the story. Sometimes that means telling our own stories, sometimes it means telling the stories of others, and other times telling a hypothetical story.
You’ve probably heard of an fMRI. It’s the machine that measures blood flow to the brain. Scientists used fMRI machines to measure what happened when someone is telling a story and when someone is listening to that story. What they found is exciting. When they compared the speaker’s brain to the listener’s brains, they noticed the brains were lighting up in the same places. When the speaker described something emotional, the audience was feeling the emotion and the emotional centers of their brains were lighting up. Princeton researcher, Uri Hanson calls this brain synching, “neural coupling.”
Consider a study at Emory University that noticed differences in how brains respond to texture words, “she had a rough day” versus non-texture words “she had a bad day.” The texture words activated sensory parts of the brain. When telling a story, find creative and tactile descriptions to engage your audience.
Nontexture words
He is a smooth talker He is persuasive
The logic was fuzzy The logic was vague
She is sharp-witted She is quick-witted
She gave a slick performance She gave a stellar performance
She is soft-hearted She is kind-hearted
Imagine you pull up to a flashing red stoplight at an intersection. Seeing it in your mind activates the visual part of your brain. Now, imagine a loved one giving you a pat on the back. Once you imagine it, your tactile center will light up. This is quite powerful when you think about it. When you hear a story, you don’t just hear it, but you feel it, visualize it, and simulate it.
Dopamine, oxytocin, and endorphins are what David Philips calls the “angel’s cocktail.” He suggests speakers should intentionally create stories to activate each of these hormones. By telling a story in which you build suspense, you increase dopamine which increases focus, memory, and motivation. Telling a story in which the audience can empathize with a character increases oxytocin, the bonding hormone which is known to increase generosity and trust. Finally, making people laugh can activate feel-good endorphins which help people feel more relaxed, more creative, and more focused.
Because of neural coupling (our brain waves synching) and transportation (getting lost in a story), the audience members begin to see the world of the person in the story. Because of hormonal changes, they feel their situation and can empathize. A thoughtfully crafted story has the power to help the audience believe in a cause and care about the outcome.
Time and time,
when faced with the task of persuading a group of managers
to get enthusiastic about a major change,
storytelling was the only thing that worked.
Steve Denning, the Leaders Guide to Storytelling
Stories Inspire Action
The conventional view has always been when you speak, you try to get the listeners to pay attention to you. The way you get them to pay attention is to keep the little voice inside their heads quiet. If it stays quiet, then your message will get through. Stephen Denning in The Leader’s Guide to Storytelling suggests an alternative view. He challenges speakers to tell stories to work in harmony with the voices in people’s heads. He says that you don’t want your audience to ignore their voice; you want to tell a story in a way that awakens their little voice to tell its own story. You awaken their voice and then you give it something to do. He advocates using stories as springboards to help the audience think about situations so they can begin to mentally solve problems. In this way, you are not speaking to an audience but rather you are inviting the audience to participate with you.
Consider this story told by Jim Ferrell about the local garbage man and how it engages you and creates both mental images and new ideas.
A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://uark.pressbooks.pub/speaking/?p=29
Stories Help the Ideas Stick in a Way that the Audience Remembers and Understands
Steven Covey, considered one of the twenty-five most influential people by Time Magazine, teaches on business, leadership, and family. In his books and seminars, he uses stories to help the audience remember his lessons. In this video, Green and Clean, he uses a story to help the audience understand servant leadership. As you watch, ask yourself if you will remember this story and the lesson that it offers?
A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://uark.pressbooks.pub/speaking/?p=29
Stories Help Win Law Cases–Example of a Story Analogy
Gerry Spence is considered one of the winningest lawyers and he credits his ability to tell stories to his success. In this video clip, you can see him in action as he tells this jury the story of the old man and the bird. Imagine yourself as a member of the jury, how might this affect you?
“Here’s the story of the bird that some of you wanted to hear again. This is one I’ve used many, many times. It’s a nice method by which you can transfer responsibility for your client to the jury. Ladies and gentlemen, I am about to leave you, but before I leave you I’d like to tell you a story about a wise old man and a smart-alec boy. The smart-alec boy had a plan, he wanted to show up the wise old man, to make a fool of him. The smart-alec boy had caught a bird in the forest. He had him in his hands. The little bird’s tail was sticking out. The bird is alive in his hands. The plan was this: He would go up to the old man and he would say, “Old man, what do I have in my hands?” The old man would say, “You have a bird, my son.” Then the boy would say, “Oldman, is the bird alive or is it dead?” If the old man said that the bird was dead, he would open up his hands and the bird would fly off free, off into the trees, alive, happy. But if the old man said the bird was alive, he would crush it and crush it in his hands and say, “See, old man, the bird is dead.” So, he walked up to the old man and said, “Old man, what do I have in my hands?” The old man said, “You have a bird, my son.” He said, “Old man, is the bird alive or is it dead?” And the old man said, “The bird is in your hands, my son.” Ladies and gentlemen of the jury my client is in yours.” Gerry Spence
Stories Help People Engage With Topics
Alan Alda founded the Alan Alda Center for Communicating Science because he wanted to help scientists learn how to best communicate what they know to a lay audience. In this video clip, he shares his lesson on using stories to draw in an audience.
Example from a Corporate Trainer
The Leader Who Withheld Their Story
by Robert “Bob” Kienzle
Our communication training firm was hired to conduct a storytelling workshop for a major client. I quickly realized a major problem: the leader refused to tell a story in the storytelling workshop. We brought the water to the horse and the horse wouldn’t drink. Read the full story of Bob explaining how he taught one of his corporate clients to use storytelling.
Story Changes the Brain Chemistry in Listeners
Paul Zak told audience members a story and then measured the chemicals their bodies released during this story. His conclusion is that story changes brain chemistry and makes individuals more empathetic. In this case, they were more likely to donate money to charity. Watch this video as Zak talks about a universal story structure that includes exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and denouement.
Stories Can Have Drawbacks
While storytelling can be used positively, it can have drawbacks. A story can be more memorable than the point. If the audience remembers your story without the purpose of the story, you missed it. In the teacher’s study mentioned before, students had better short-term recall when the teacher told a narrative. The study also reported that listening to stories increased student cognitive load and some students basically used up their “brainpower” to remembering extraneous information instead of the lesson. The lesson here is to make sure the story reinforces a point and to make sure that the point is clear.
Because stories draw people in emotionally, there can be ethical challenges. Is it ethical to tug at an audience’s heartstrings to get them to donate money? How about giving you money? Speakers need to consider the ethical obligation to consider the impact of the story. Stories tap into emotions and create lasting memories. Stories told with the wrong motives can be manipulative.
The Formula for a Good Story
Tension-Release
So now you see the clear advantage in telling a story, let’s talk about the formula for a good story. A good story should help the audience see the events in their mind’s eye. Your story should play out like a movie in their head. This movie happens because you help them see the setting, characters, and details. To be fully engaged, the audience must feel some sort of tension.
The formula is tension and release.
The best stories create tension or conflict and then in some way resolve conflict. In persuasion, a story can create tension that can be released only by acting on the persuasion. Haven defines a story as “A character-based narration of a character’s struggles to overcome obstacles and reach an important goal.” Notice the focus on struggle and overcoming the struggle. Once you decide on the story that you want to tell, work on helping the audience feel the tension and release.
If the point of life is the same as the point of a story, the point of life is character transformation. If I got any comfort as I set out on my first story, it was that in nearly every story, the protagonist is transformed. He’s a jerk at the beginning and nice at the end, or a coward at the beginning and brave at the end. If the character doesn’t change, the story hasn’t happened yet. And if story is derived from real life, if story is just condensed version of life then life itself may be designed to change us so that we evolve from one kind of person to another.
Donald Miller, A Million Miles in a Thousand Years: What I Learned While Editing My Life.
Dale Carnegie’s formula for storytelling includes three parts: Incident, action, and benefit. In the incident phase, the storyteller shares a vivid personal experience relevant to the point. Next, they give the action phrase, and they share the specific action that was taken. Finally, the speaker tells the benefit of taking the action. It still fits the tension-release formula, it just expands it to make sure that the speaker clearly lets the audience know what conclusion they are supposed to draw.
Dave Lieber illustrates this tension and release in his opening story and explains how it works. (You have to watch only the first five minutes to get the point, but I warn you it is hard to stop listening once he has you hooked) According to Dave Lieber, the formula is to meet the character; there is a low part in the story; the hero pushes up against the villain and overcomes.
Good stories represent a change
One part of the tension-release model is how the character changes. Matthew Dick Moth storytelling champion suggests that stories, where no change took place in the storyteller, are just anecdotes, romps, drinking stories, or vacation stories, but they leave no real lasting impression.
The story of how you’re an amazing person who did an amazing thing and ended up in an amazing place is not a story, it is a recipe for a douchebag. The story of how you are a pathetic person who did a pathetic thing and remained pathetic, is also not a story, it is a recipe for a sadsack. You should represent a change in behavior, a change in heart, a change in attitude. It can be a small change or a very large change. A story cannot simply be a series of remarkable events. You must start out as one version of yourself and end as something new. The change can be infinitesimal. It need not reflect an improvement in yourself or your character, but change must happen.
Matthew Dick.
I once was this, but now I am this
I once thought this, but now I think this
I once felt this, but now I feel this.
I once was hopeful, but now I am not
I once was lost, but now I am found
I once was happy, but now I am sad
I once was sad, but now I am happy
I once was uncertain, but now I know
I once was angry, but now I am grateful
I once was afraid, but now I am fearless
I once doubted, but now I believe
Stories Often Follow Common Plots
According to Heath and Heath of Made to Stick, there are common story plots. Each of these can be used in most speech types and can be adapted to the tension-release model.
Challenge Plot
• Underdog story
• Rags-to-riches story
• Willpower over adversity
they inspire us to act.
• To take on challenges
• To work harder
Connection Plot
• Focusing on relationships
• Making and developing friendships
• Discovering and growing in love
they inspire us in social ways.
• To love others
• To help others
• To be more tolerant of others
Creativity Plot
• Making a mental breakthrough
• Solving a longstanding puzzle
• Attacking a problem in an innovative way
they inspire us to do something differently.
• To be creative
• To experiment
• To try something new
Elements to a Good Story
For the audience to experience the tension and release, they must be invested in the story. Good stories help the audience see the setting, know the characters, and feel the action.
1. Setting
Think of the setting as a basket to hold your story. If you start with the basket, the audience has a place to hold all the other details you give them. For this reason, many storytellers begin by describing the setting.
2. Characters
When you describe how the characters look or how they felt, we can see them as if we are watching them in a movie. The trick is to tell enough details we can create a mental picture of the character without giving so much information that we get bogged down.
3. Action
When you describe the action that is taking place, the audience begins to feel the action. If you describe something sad that happened, the audience will feel the sadness. If you describe something exciting that happened to you or a character, the audience will feel that excitement.
Watch the first two minutes of this video and notice how Matthew starts with the setting and the characters and you can see the events unfold. You can see the action take place in your mind’s eye and you become invested in his story.
It’s December 23, 1988, I’m 17 years old. I’m coming out of the record store and I have a shopping bag in my hand. I see my friend Pat, he’s coming towards me. He sees the bag and he asks me what’s in it. I tell him it’s a concert t-shirt. It’s a Christmas present. It’s a surprise Christmas present for our friend Benji, my best friend. Pat looks at me a little funny–and Pat’s only 15–but he’s already cooler than I will ever be in my entire life. So when he looks at me like this, I’ve learned to pay attention. Pat tells me that guys don’t buy Christmas presents for other guys. He tells me they especially don’t buy surprise Christmas presents for other guys. He tells me that he has dated girls for six months and never bought them a single thing so for me to buy Benji a surprise Christmas present is really strange. I’m suddenly feeling very self-conscious about the betta fish in the back seat of my car, the one I bought for Pat like an hour ago at the pet store and the comic books I bought for Coug and the sweatshirt I bought for Tim. I have filled my car with Christmas presents for my friends and I know that Pat is right. It is strange to buy surprise Christmas presents for your friends, but it’s been a long time since I’ve had a good Christmas and I want this year to be different. Through a combination of failing marriage and persistent poverty and a terrible stepfather, the last Christmases have just been a disaster. Matthew Dicks
Flavor Crystals–The Little Extras
As a child, I used to love breath mints that would have blue flecks in them. They were called flavor crystals and they were there as little taste surprises that would enhance the flavor. You can enhance your story with little flavor crystals–little details that make it more interesting. Flavor crystals are those extra details that will impact your audience.
Ruben Gonzalez and Olympic Champion luger is a motivational speaker. As you watch this video clip, notice how he incorporates details in his story so we can see what’s happening.
Make Sure Your Story is Relatable
When you pick your story, make sure that you pick themes others can relate to in some way. Watch World Champion Presiyan Vasilev and notice how he uses little examples that everyone can relate to, like how you always get a flat tire when you are dressed up.
Why do flat tires always happen when you’re dressed up? Is there something collapsed in your life? Your knowledge may be limited. Your skills may be rusty. But no doubt, you will be changed when you reach out.
Do This: Keep a Story Log
Notetaking Challenge
Matthew Dicks suggests sitting down every day and asking yourself, “What happened today that is storyworthy?” Keep a notebook and write down a few ideas every day.
The Magical Science of Storytelling TED Speaker David Philips has a similar suggestion. He encourages people to not only write down your stories but you index them based on the emotional reaction you wanting to get.
Theory Application
Literary theorist Kenneth Burke asks us to think of life as a drama where people are actors on a stage. What is their motivation for what they do and what they say? He offered five strategies for viewing life that he called dramatistic pentad.
1. Act: What happened? What is the action? What is going on? What action; what thoughts?
2. Scene: Where is the action happening? What is the background situation?
3. Agent: Who is involved in the action? What are their roles?
4. Agency: How do the agents act? By what means do they act?
5. Purpose: Why do the agents act? What do they want?
How does all this relate to telling a story in a speech? The first thing you can do is to use this list when brainstorming how to fully develop your story. You can also use it as a way to evaluate the completeness of your story. The third way to use it is as a tool to evaluate your audience and how they view life. Why do they do what they do and what do they need to hear in order to be inspired, motivated, or persuaded?
In this TED Talk, My Invention that Made Peace with Lions, Richard Turere makes the audience wonder how a problem like lions killing livestock can possibly be solved. Richard draws us into his story and makes us want to know how a young boy could solve such a large problem. Watch this video and see if you can apply each of Burke’s Five Items.
Key Takeaways
Remember This!
• A story is a powerful tool because it engages the audience on not just a logical but also an emotional level.
• Good stories offer a setting, a description of the characters, and add enough detail for the audience to see the story take place in their mind’s eye. The action of a story should be told in a way that the audience can see the events unfold in their mind’s eye.
• Good stories have tension and release.
• Good stories have characters and situations that demonstrate a change.
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Bonus Features
There is so much information on this topic, that I struggled with what to include and what to leave out or put as optional. Here are a few videos that I like to think of as the BONUS FEATURES. In addition, there is a supplemental chapter on story that includes more videos and activities.
The Magical Science of Storytelling
David Philips uses stories to illustrate how storytelling can activate what he calls the angel’s cocktail: dopamine, oxytocin, and endorphins.
Angel’s Cocktail
• Dopamine
• What it does: Increases focus, motivation, memory.
• How to do it: Build suspense, launch a cliffhanger, create a cycle of waiting and expecting.
• Oxytocin
• What it does: Increases generosity, trust, bonding.
• How to do it: Create empathy for whatever character you build.
• Endorphin
• What it does: Increases creativity and focus and people become more relaxed.
• How to do it: Make people laugh.
The Structure of Story
Nancy Duarte studied hundreds of speeches and found the same storytelling technique. In her TED talk, she provides this chart. It is a story that is easy to digest, remember and retell.
Figure 1: Nancy Duarte-Persuasive Story Pattern
Examples of Storytelling
• Storytelling in a Eulogy: Brook Shield’s Eulogy to Michael Jackson:
• Storytelling in Business: Steve Denning Discovered the Power of Leadership:
• Storytelling and Education: Speak Less, Expect More. Matthew Dicks:
REFERENCES
Alda, A. (2017). If I understood you, would I have this look on my face? Random House.
Alda, A. (2017). Knowing how to tell a good story is like having mind control. Big Think. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r4k6Gm4tlXw Standard YouTube License.
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Braddock, K., Dillard, J. P. (25 February 2016). Meta-analytic evidence for the persuasive effect of narratives on beliefs, attitudes, intentions, and behaviors. Communication Monographs, 83 (4), 446–467. doi:10.1080/03637751.2015.1128555. S2CID 146978687.
Brooks, D. (2019). The lies our culture tells us about what matters–and a better way to live. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.ted.com/talks/david_brooks_the_lies_our_culture_tells_us_about_what_matters_and_a_better_way_to_live?language=en Standard Youtube License.
Burke, K. (1945). A grammar of motives. Berkeley: U of California Press.
Carnegie, D. (2017). The art of storytelling. Dale Carnegie & Associates ebook.
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Dahlstrom, M,F. (2014). Using narratives and storytelling to communicate science with nonexpert audiences. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 111(4), 13614–13620. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1320645111
Denning, S. (2005). The leader’s guide to storytelling: Mastering the art and discipline of business narrative. John Wiley and Son.
Denning, S. (2001). The springboard: How storytelling ignites action in knowledge-era organizations. Taylor & Francis.
Dicks, M. (2018). Storyworthy: Engage, teach, persuade, and change your life through the power of storytelling. New World.
Dicks, M. (2016). This is Gonna Suck. Moth Mainstage. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N3J4Q5c1C1w Standard YouTube License.
Duarte, N. (n.d.) Fifteen Science-Based Public Speaking Tips to be a Master Speaker, The Science of People. https://www.scienceofpeople.com/public-speaking-tips/.
Ferrell, J. (2017). An outward mindset for an inward world. Jim Ferrell Keynote. The Arbinger Institute. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c_phMQY_3S8 Standard YouTube License.
Fisher, W.R. (2009). Narration as a human communication paradigm: The case of public moral argument. Communication Monographs, 51 (1), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637758409390180
Fisher, W.R. (1985). The Narrative Paradigm: In the Beginning, Journal of Communication, 35(4), 74-89. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1985.tb02974.x
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Gonzales, R. (2011). Three-time Olympian, peak performance expert. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qqMOrjsRUT4. Standard YouTube License.
Green, M. C., & Brock, T. C. (2000). The role of transportation in the persuasiveness of public narratives. Journal of personality and social psychology, 79(5), 701–721. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.79.5.701
Green, S. J., Grorud-Colvert, K. & Mannix, H. (2018). Uniting science and stories: Perspectives on the value of storytelling for communicating science. Facets, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.1139/facets-2016-0079
Hasson, U., Ghazanfar, A.A., Galantucci, B., Garrod S, & Keysers C. (2012). Brain-to-brain coupling: a mechanism for creating and sharing a social world. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16(2), 114–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2011.12.007
Haven, K. (2007). Story proof: The science behind the startling power of story. Kendall Haven.
Heath, C & Heath, D. (2008). Made to Stick. Random House.
Homo Narrans: Story-Telling in Mass Culture and Everyday Life. (1985). Journal of Communication, 35 (3) https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1985.tb02973.x
Kromka, S. M. & Goodboy, A. K. (2019) Classroom storytelling: Using instructor narratives to increase student recall, affect, and attention, Communication Education, 68:1, 20-43. DOI: 10.1080/03634523.2018.1529330
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Lieber, D. (2013). The power of storytelling to change the world. TEDtalk. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Bo3dpVb5jw Standard YouTube License.
Miller, D. (1994). A million miles in a thousand years: How I learned to live a better story. Thomas Nelson.
Philips, D. (2017). The magical science of storytelling. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nj-hdQMa3uA Standard YouTube License.
Reynolds, G. (2014). Why storytelling matters TED. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YbV3b-l1sZs Standard YouTube License.
Simmons, A. (2001). The story factor: Inspiration, influence, and persuasion through the art of storytelling. Basic Books.
Spencer, G. (1995). How to argue and win every time. St. Martin.
Spence, G. (2018). Persuasive storytelling for lawyers by Alan Howard. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rzdoR2PJqYg Standard YouTube License
Turere, T. (2013). My invention that made peace with lions. TED. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RAoo–SeUIk Standard YouTube License.
Willingham, D. T. (2009). Why Don’t Students Like School?: A cognitive scientist answers questions about how the mind works and what it means for the classroom. Jossey-Bass.
Zac, P.J. (2014). Why your brain loves good storytelling. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2014/10/why-your-brain-loves-good-storytelling
Zac, P.J. (2012). Empathy, neurochemistry, and the dramatic arc: Paul Zac and the future of storytelling. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q1a7tiA1Qzo Standard YouTube License. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/Advanced_Public_Speaking_(Meade)/01%3A_Writing_a_Speech/1.06%3A_The_Power_of_Story-_The_Secret_Ingredient_to_Making_Any_Speech_Memorable.txt |
• Your colleague asks you to listen to them practice their speech practice and give them feedback.
• Your teacher asks you to give feedback to another classmate about their speech.
• Your boss asks, “What did you think about my speech?”
In each case, the person is looking to you to provide feedback. In this chapter, I will talk about how to assess the feedback situation, how to offer constructive criticism, and how to graciously receive criticism. Let’s start with how to ask for feedback and listen graciously.
Beta Testing with Friends
One useful way to test out your speech is with friends or trusted colleagues. In the world of fan fiction, writers send out a manuscript for beta testing. The idea is that a group of people with eyes on a text can provide helpful suggestions. Seek out those individuals in your life who will be beta testers for you. It is especially important for you to identify the purpose of your speech and what potential problems to look for. For example, are you wanting someone to proof your outline for formatting mistakes or are you wanting someone to tell you if your speech will work for the audience you have? You should seek out friends who will build you up, but you should also seek out those who will give you honest feedback.
Receiving Feedback
When you ask for feedback from others, receive their feedback as a gift. Someone is taking their time and giving it to you; someone is putting themselves out there and saying things that might cause discomfort, but they are doing it for you. Individuals vary on how they receive feedback and how comfortable they are with being evaluated. It can be hard, I know. Growth can be hard.
When receiving feedback, try doing the following:
1. Sit in a non-defensive posture. It is tempting to cross your arms and to tense up all your muscles when receiving oral feedback. Keep your body open and loose. Staying open helps them to feel like you really want their suggestions and closed arms can equal a closed mind — keep an open body.
2. Do not take feedback as a personal insult.
3. If the feedback is verbal, write down the suggestions (even if you disagree with the suggestions). Respect the other person’s opinions by writing them down. It makes them feel like they have been heard and you appreciate the feedback they are giving. (Writing the feedback down also helps you to not cross your arms defensively–see suggestion one– and it helps you remember the suggestions.
4. Do not take it as a personal insult. (I mean it).
5. Avoid the temptation to defend yourself. “I did it this way because…” or, “I thought it would be best to…” You already know why you did things the way you did. Interrupting them to tell them the reasons you did what you did comes off as defensive and reduces the likelihood they will give you all the feedback they have to offer. You already know what you were thinking and by telling them you haven’t advanced your situation. Use this time to learn what they are thinking.
6. Do not take it as a personal insult. (Really, this is so important).
7. Breathe. Most people feel stress when someone is giving them constructive criticism, breathe and relax so you can really listen.
8. Do not take it personally. Do not take it personally. Do not take it personally. I said it three times so it will stick. Since it is about your performance or your speech writing, it is hard not to feel criticism of your speech as a criticism of your person. Try to take criticism instead as someone caring enough about you to push you to grow.
Don’t be a Lynn. Yeah, that’s me, I’m the Lynn that you are not supposed to be. I remember being in high school debate my sophomore year and getting a grade from my teacher on my speech performance. She wrote, “slow down.” I can remember being so mad because this was proof that the “evil witch” hated me. It didn’t matter that I earned an A on that speech and that there were many positive things mentioned. It didn’t matter that she picked me to go to the best competitions. No, I was convinced that those two words meant she hated me. Now, I know to take advice as proof that someone cares and not as a criticism. It took me only twenty-plus years to get there. Don’t be a Lynn.
After Every Speech, Do a Self-Evaluation
Allison Shapira of Global Speaking suggests you do a self-evaluation after each speech:
1. What did I do well?
2. What didn’t I do so well?
3. What am I going to do differently next time?
Write these down and keep this on file for the next time you give a speech.
(As a teacher, I do this every time I get student evaluations. I have a file of helpful suggestions from students. Yes, I even keep the critiques. I review the file every semester before I reteach the class. I think it makes me a better teacher. )
Constructive Criticism
There will be times when others look to you to read over their speech or listen to them practice and then give them constructive criticism. Constructive criticism is made up of two words: constructive–the building of something, and criticism–the giving of a critique. So constructive criticism is critiquing with the intention of building something. When we give others constructive criticism, our goal should be to help build them to be better speakers.
Give Them Help
Reagel and Reagle came up with a creative way to remember the goal of feedback, it should HELP:
Help the speaker improve
Encourage another speech
Lift self-esteem
Provide useful recommendations
Give Them a Sandwich
One way to give constructive criticism is to use the sandwich method. Say something positive, give feedback about something they can work on to improve, and then say something positive. This way, the first and last words out of your mouth are positive.
Ask Questions
Ask honest questions that can help lead them to solutions or ask questions to soften the sound of negative feedback:
“What did you mean by…”
“Have you considered? ”
“Have you thought about…?”
“When you said… did you really mean?”
For example:
“Have you considered the impact of showing such a gruesome photo on your slide?”
“Have you considered starting with a quote? ”
“Have you thought about whether the people in the back will be able to see your poster?”
“Have you thought about using a microphone so everyone can hear you?”
Different People, Different Types of Feedback
It is no surprise that people give and receive feedback differently. One person might take a feedback statement and be grateful for the corrections while the next person might take it as a complete insult. People are unique and I want to talk about a few of the most common differences. My goal here is not to put people in boxes or types, but rather to help you be more empathetic as a giver and receiver of feedback.
High and Low Self Monitors
Psychology researcher Mark Snyder identified people as being either high self-monitors or low self-monitors. High self-monitors typically try to fit in and play the role according to the context. They are about image, and they are motivated to fit in with their peers. They like to know what is expected, so they can adapt to the situation. Giving them useful feedback may mean pointing out how they can make changes in their message to meet the audience’s expectations. When giving feedback to high self-monitors, focus the feedback on how they can elevate their credibility in the eyes of the audience.
On the other hand, low self-monitors tend to be motivated to act based on their inner beliefs and values. They are motivated to be true to their sense of self and to above all– be genuine. When giving low self-monitors feedback, encourage them to be the best speaker they can be while being true to themselves. Focus on giving them feedback in a way that encourages them to harness their unique talents.
While you may not know exactly whether they are high or low self-monitor, I bet you have some idea of what motivates them. The more you can tailor your feedback to them, the more likely it is they will hear what you are saying. If you are curious about your type, you can take the quiz. You can have the person giving you feedback take the quiz as well. This can be a helpful exercise to think about how you give and receive feedback.
Take the high and low self-monitor quiz to find out your type
Cultural Differences
When you know your sickness
You’re halfway cured.
French saying
In the book, The Culture Map, a Dutch businessman is quoted as saying. “It is all a lot of hogwash. All that positive feedback just strikes us in the face and not in the least bit motivating.” People from different cultural groups have different feedback norms. As our society grows increasingly diverse, it is important to learn not just how to give good feedback, but to give feedback that demonstrates an awareness of how different cultures give and receive feedback.
Erin Meyer does international training to help business professionals understand differences and similarities and how to bridge the gap:
Managers in different parts of the world are conditioned to give feedback in drastically different ways. The Chinese manager learns never to criticize a colleague openly or in front of others, while the Dutch managers learns always to be honest and to give the message straight. Americans are trained to wrap positive messages around negative ones, while the French are trained to criticize passionately and provide positive feedback sparingly. Having a clear understanding of these differences and strategies for navigating them is crucial for leaders of cross-cultural teams.
Erin Meyer, The Culture Map
Upgraders and Downgraders
Meyers identifies cultures as Upgraders and Downgraders. Upgraders use words or phrases to make negative feedback feel stronger. An upgrader might say, “this is absolutely inappropriate.” As you read this, see if you identify more as an upgrader or downgrader.
Upgraders say:
• Absolutely–“That was absolutely shameless.”
• Totally–“You totally missed the point.”
• Strongly–” I strongly suggest that you…”
By contrast, downgraders use words to soften the criticism. A downgrader might say, “We are not quite there yet” or “This is just my opinion, but…”
Downgraders say:
• “Kind of”
• “Sort of”
• “A little”
• “Maybe”
• “Slightly”
• “This is just my opinion.”
When giving and receiving feedback across cultures, it is helpful to be aware of these differences so you can “hear” what they are really saying. Take for example this statement as a Dutch person complains about how Americans give feedback.
The problem is that we cant’ tell when the feedback is supposed to register to us as excellent, ok, or really poor. For a Dutchman, the word “excellent” is saved for a rare occasion and “okay” is…well, neutral. But with the Americans, the grid is different. “Excellent” is used all the time, “Okay” seems to mean, “not okay.” “Good” is only a mild complement. And when the message was intended to be bad, you can pretty much assume that, if an American is speaking and the listner is Dutch, the real meaning of the message will be lost all together.
Erin Meyer, The Culture Map.
Nannette Ripmeester, Director of Expertise in Labour Mobility, illustrates these differences to her clients with a chart. This chart shows the differences between what the British say, what they mean, and what the Dutch understand. (This is a condensed version of her list.)
What the British Say What the British Mean What the Dutch Understand
Very interesting I don’t like it They are impressed.
Perhaps you would think about…
I would suggest…
This is an order.
Do it or be prepared to justify yourself
Think about this idea and do it if you like it.
Please think about that some more It’s a bad idea.
Don’t do it.
It’s a good idea, keep developing it.
I would suggest Do it as I want you to An open suggestion
An issue that worries me slightly A great worry A minor issue
A few issues that need to be addressed A whole lot needs to be changed 2-3 issues need rewriting
Chances are as you read this list, you identified yourself in some of the statements and identified someone you know who is in the other list. Hopefully, this made you think about how personal style can be as different as cultural style. The big idea here is when you are giving and receiving feedback, it can be helpful to try to identify their communication style and adjust accordingly.
Politeness Strategies
As you already know, whenever you critique someone’s work, there is a potential to hurt their feelings. There are many factors that influence whether the feedback is helpful or hurtful. In communication, we use the term “face” to mean the sense of self a person projects. People can “take face” by creating a situation where someone looks bad to others or people can “lose face” by doing something that diminishes them in the eyes of others. Optimally, we want people to feel like they “gain-face” and feel encouraged. The way that you give feedback as well as the person’s natural tendencies will influence how “face” is affected.
When giving feedback, you should think about how your feedback takes or gives face. You also need to consider what is at stake for the other person. Is this a small speech assignment or is it a career-defining presentation? In addition, critiquing someone privately vs critiquing someone in front of their boss will have different “face” outcomes.
How much you are willing to “take face” from someone may depend on the importance of the feedback. You will likely want to provide more suggestions for someone who is doing a career speech to get their dream job vs that same person doing a college speech worth minimal points. You will likely be more invested in helping a friend polish a speech to make it just right as opposed to someone you barely know.
Finally, the other thing influencing feedback is the power difference between people. You will likely give feedback differently to your little sister than you would to your boss. The status of the individuals and how important power is to them will impact how “face” is taken and given. For example, a high-power country like China would consider an open critique of a teacher, boss, or elder a huge insult, whereas someone from a low-power country, would be less offended. In any situation, you will be negotiating power, context, and the need to save face.
Taking all these factors into account, Brown and Levinson created Politeness Theory as a way to explain the different ways we give feedback to save face.
Bald on Record: This type of feedback is very direct without concern for the person’s esteem face. This type of feedback is usually given if there is a small fix the speaker would feel strongly about.
Examples of bald on record feedback:
• “Be sure you bold the headings.”
• “Alphabetize the references.”
Positive Politeness: In this type of feedback, you would build up the face or esteem of the other person. You would make them feel good before you make any suggestions. (It looks a lot like the sandwich method, hunh?)
Examples of positive politeness feedback:
• “You are so organized; this one little fix and it will be perfect.”
• “I love the story you told, a few more details would really help me see the character.”
Negative Politeness: The name of this type of feedback is a little misleading. It doesn’t mean you are negative. It means you acknowledge that getting feedback may make them feel negative. You would say things that acknowledge their discomfort. You might minimize the criticism so it doesn’t make them feel bad or find other ways to soften the blow of criticism.
Examples of negative politeness feedback:
• “I know this critique might sound rough and I hope it helps, but I think you really need to work on the middle section.”
• “This is just me making suggestions, but I would be able to understand more if your slide has a heading.”
• I’m not an expert on this, but I think you might need to have a stronger thesis.”
• “I see what you are trying to do here, but I think some of your audience members might not get it.”
Off Record: When you give feedback that is off the record, you are hinting vaguely that they should make a change.
Examples of off the record feedback.
• “How many sources are we supposed to have?” (Instead of saying, “You need to have more research”)
• “I thought we were supposed to have slides with our speech, maybe I heard that wrong.”
• “Are other people in the class dressing up?”
Avoidance: Some people are afraid of giving feedback so they will avoid the situation altogether.
• Criticize
• Complain
• Condemn
Perform the three R’s
• Review
• Reward
• Recommend
From Westside Toastmasters
Giving Feedback During a Speech
When you are listening to someone speak, you are giving constant nonverbal feedback. Are you leaning forward listening intently or are you leaned back picking at your fingernails? The way you listen lets the speaker know that you value them and what they are saying. It can be reassuring to the speaker to have people who are in the audience smiling and nodding.
Try this little experiment: If you have a speaker who is average or boring, lean in and listen intently. Don’t be insincere and cheesy, but rather try to be an earnest listener. You will find that when the speaker notices you paying attention, they will usually become less monotone and more engaging. The speaker affects the audience, and the audience affects the speaker.
Asking for Feedback During Your Speech
“It is not OK to say OK at the end of every sentence!” That is what my friend told me after one of my speeches. I wasn’t even aware I was saying “OK.” I asked my friend to raise a finger every time I said, “OK” in my speech. At first, it was distracting because he kept raising his fingers, but eventually, I figured out the way to get him to stop was to stop saying “OK.” Sometimes, it helps to get feedback after a speech, and sometimes it helps to get it during the speech. Having a friend put their hand to their ear to tell you to speak up can be really helpful. I once stood at the back of the room and tried to signal to my husband as he was speaking with the fly of his pants unzipped. I kept making the zipper gesture. He saw me gesturing and he could tell I wanted something, but he couldn’t understand what. He finally stopped lecturing and said, “Lynn, what do you want?” What was I to do? What would you do? I said, “Zip your pants.” Friends don’t let friends give an entire speech with their pants unzipped.
Do yourself a favor and appoint someone to be your speech buddy. Someone who will tell you if your pants are unzipped (preferably before you start) and will give you the signal to speak louder or to check your microphone. If you know that you tend to pace, lean on the podium, or say um’s, have them give you the signal.
Courage is what it takes to stand up and speak.
Courage is also what it takes to sit down and listen.
Winston Churchill
Former Prime Ministre of the United Kingdom
Assess the Situation
“How do I look?” I asked my husband before we go out on a date. “What do you think of my new dress?” Many of you know that this question can be a trap. Am I really wanting his opinion or am I wanting him to compliment me? A savvy partner will assess the situation and answer accordingly. The thought process might go, “She already bought the dress, she is excited about trying out a new restaurant and has been talking about it all week. She has been getting ready for a long time– the right answer is clearly one that makes her feel good. She is not really wanting my advice, she is fishing for a compliment.”
Take this story to heart when thinking about giving speech feedback. Your boss spent three weeks preparing for this big speech with the clients. He told you he has not slept in two days because he wanted everything to be perfect. After the presentation, he asks you, “What did you think?” A savvy co-worker will read the situation and pick out the positive parts. There may be constructive criticism that needs to happen, but when the boss is in the moment of high adrenaline after laying it all on the line, you should read the situation and hold any negative feedback for another time.
“My honesty is not a gift that everyone wants,” this phrase was from one of my students who was writing a reflective essay about navigating being honest and being appropriate. Be savvy and read the situation to know when to give feedback and when to be quiet. You should also read the person. The more you adjust your feedback to the person’s personal style and to the situation, the more likely they are to use that feedback to improve.
Key Takeaways
Remember This!
• Be open to the feedback of others, it can help you improve as a speaker.
• When giving feedback to others consider the context, their needs, the impact on their esteem, and their culture.
• Use the feedback sandwich as a model for giving constructive criticism.
Please share your feedback, suggestions, corrections, and ideas
I want to hear from you.
Do you have an activity to include?
Did you notice a typo that I should correct?
Are you planning to use this as a resource and do you want me to know about it?
Do you want to tell me something that really helped you?
Click here to share your feedback.
Bonus Features
Advice to Teachers (and Leaders)
Research suggests the following regarding giving students feedback on their speeches:
• Discuss the purpose of feedback.
• Discuss ways to view criticism.
• Give smaller, low-stakes opportunities to receive speech feedback.
• Give negative feedback privately.
• Allow feedback to come from multiple sources: In a speech class, have other students offer speech feedback.
• Phrase it as skill-building rather than deficiency. Instead of “poor eye contact” say “increasing eye contact will build a connection with your audience.”
• Give as many positive comments as possible.
• Develop a warm, positive relationship with your students so they sense goodwill when they receive feedback from you.
King, P. E., & Young, M. J. (2002). An information processing perspective on the efficacy of instructional feedback. American Communication Journal, 5 http://ac-journal.org/journal/vol5/iss2/articles/feedback.htm
Identify the Politeness Strategy
I asked numerous professionals to Beta Test (review) this book. The feedback I received had great examples of the politeness strategies mentioned in this chapter. For me, the review process was the living version of this chapter. I felt exposed and vulnerable (and still feel exposed letting you see these comments). Because I was open to criticism, I was able to correct my mistakes, become a better writer, and give you a book that represented the profession and not just my opinions.
Read these and see if you can figure out which politeness strategy is at work.
As a speaker, it will not be easy to be open to criticism, but doing so will allow you to grow. As an act of reflection, ask yourself, which feedback below would be the most palatable to you–the direct, the apologetic, the explanatory.
• After posting five sentences of praise, this reviewer wrote: “The only things I would look at are the critical comments I am making below. I hope you don’t mind. I’m a teacher.
• Is there an extra space in that highlighted area?
• This sentence reads funny to me. Seems like you are taking away from your powerful point if you end with the phrase “a little.” Sorry, just saying.
• I am an over-user of the word “that”. If you can eliminate it and the sentence still makes sense, I would go ahead and cut it.
• I was curious about your choice to provide transcripts for some videos but not for others.
• I realize you are totally confident with saying NEVER. I say NEVER and ALWAYS in class, but I am not sure I should. Maybe “Instead of” can sub for NEVER.
• Review bulleted lists for punctuation consistency: Some lines have periods in the end; some don’t.
• “It is no surprise then, that when researchers looked at 500 Ted talks.” I suggest the style “TED Talks,” as that’s how the TED org itself expresses its name, and TED was originally an acronym for Technology, Entertainment, and Design.
• The content was spot on and have no critical-minded commentary. My comments and sharings would be just on formatting. Because I’m a Monica… (maybe you’re a Friends gal, too?)
• There is a noticeable lack of diversity in the speakers featured. Almost all the examples are of speakers who are white and most of those are men. This is a big problem. It makes white, male, English-first speakers the norm rather than an example of many. This would make me wary of using this text in my classes because typically this demographic of white, male, English-first speakers only represents a bare plurality of my students.
References
Brown, P., & Levinson, S. (1978). Universals in Language Usage: Politeness Phenomena. In E. Goody (Ed.), Questions and Politeness: Strategies in Social Interaction (pp. 56-310). Cambridge University Press.
Churchhill Central: Life and words of Sir Winston Churchill. https://www.churchillcentral.com/
Gonzales, M. (2017). How to get feedback on speeches. Global Public Speaking. https://www.globalpublicspeaking.com/get-feedback-speeches/
King, P. E., & Young, M. J. (2002). An information processing perspective on the efficacy of instructional feedback. American Communication Journal, 5 http://ac-journal.org/journal/vol5/iss2/articles/feedback.htm
King, P. E., Young, M. J., & Behnke, R. R. (2000). Public speaking performance improvement as a function of information processing in immediate and delayed feedback interventions. Communication Education, 49, 365–374. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634520009379224
Mehra, A., Kilduff, M. & Brass, D.J. (2001). The social networks of high and low self-monitors Implications for workplace performance. Administrative Science Quarterly, 46 (1), 121-146. https://doi.org/10.2307/2667127
Meyer, E. (2014). The culture map: Breaking through the invisible boundaries of global business. Public Affairs. https://erinmeyer.com/books/the-culture-map/
Meyer, E. (2014). How to say “This is Crap” in different cultures. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2014/02/how-to-say-this-is-crap-in-different-cultures
Reagle, J.M. & Reagle, J.M. (2015). Reading the comments: Likers, haters, and manipulators at the bottom of the web. MIT Press. https://readingthecomments.mitpress.mit.edu/
Ripmeester, N. Rottier, B., & Bush, A. (2010). Separated by a common translation? How the Brits and the Dutch communicate. Pediatric Pulmonology. 46(4). 409-411. https://doi.org/10.1002/ppul.21380
Ripmeester, N. (2015). We all speak English, don’t we? https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/we-all-speak-english-dont-nannette-ripmeester/
Smith, C.D. & King, P.E. (2007). Student feedback sensitivity and the efficacy of feedback interventions in public speaking performance improvement. Communication Education 53(3). https://doi.org/10.1080/0363452042000265152
Snyder, M. (1974). Self-monitoring of expressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 30 (4), 526-537. http://www.communicationcache.com/uploads/1/0/8/8/10887248/self-monitoring_of_expressive_behavior.pdf
Toastmasters International. (2017). Giving effective feedback. https://www.toastmasters.org/resources/giving-effective-feedback | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/Advanced_Public_Speaking_(Meade)/01%3A_Writing_a_Speech/1.07%3A_Giving_and_Receiving_Feedback-_It_is_Harder_Than_You_Think.txt |
A designer knows he or she has achieved perfection,
not when there is nothing left to add,
but when there is nothing left to take away.
– Nolan Haims, Presentation Coach
also attributed to Antoine de Saint-Exupery
When it comes to speeches there are many formulas for how to present. Once you pick your topic, it is helpful to decide which formula works for you and use it from the start. Sure, you could wing it, but when you run into trouble, you will most likely find yourself seeking out a formula, so it just makes sense to start with an organization plan. Since this is an advanced class, I will review the basics and then talk about ways to take your speech organization to the next level by harnessing the power of three.
Staples of Most Speeches
Every math class I have ever taken starts off with reviewing the basics. Once we review the basics (fractions and decimals) and everyone has a strong foundation, then the class can work on the advanced items. I want to start off by reviewing the basics before we move on to the advanced.
Dale Carnegie wrote, “Tell them what you are going to tell them, tell them, and then tell them what you just told them.” By this, he didn’t mean being senselessly repetitive, but rather he wanted speakers to set up the framework for their speech, tell the audience the main points, and then recap the points.
The basic formula for most speeches follows this pattern:
Grabber/Hook: A statement to get the audience’s attention.
Preview/Big Idea/Thesis statement. This statement is an overview of what the speech is about.
Credibility Statement: Why should the audience listen to you talk about this? Why are you credible on this topic?
Many, but not all speeches, need this.
So-What-Who-Cares Statement: A statement telling your audience why this topic suits this audience and this occasion.
This can be achieved as a statement, or it can be sprinkled throughout.
Transitions / Signposts: Statements that move the audience from one idea to the next.
Body of Speech: Main points of your speech with transitions between main ideas.
Review: Summary of the speech.
Closure/Cincher: A series of statements that provide closure.
Audiences Will Listen According to Their Understanding of Your Credibility
One important thing to think about when building your speech is how you will build your credibility with the audience. If an audience doesn’t think you are credible, they will listen with suspicion, or they won’t listen at all. In speechmaking, there are three types of credibility–initial, derived, and terminal. Initial credibility is the credibility you have before you start to speak. It comes from any preexisting knowledge they have about you as a speaker, it comes from the way you are introduced, and it comes from the way your presentation was advertised. Next, there is derived credibility–credibility stemming from what you say during your speech, how you present yourself during the speech, and how you manage visuals during the speech. Finally, there is terminal credibility– credibility that you have at the end of the speech. Terminal credibility stems from what they think of how you managed yourself and your topic.
We live in a world where many speakers are “googled”, and their credibility is examined before they ever come in contact with their audience. When I train new teachers, I always have them google their names and see what comes up. To make a strong point, I have them open up their social media with someone else in the room. Once they have their profile pulled up, I ask them to hand their phone to the person next to them. I ask, “If a student looks at your public profiles and your social media, what will they think of you as a teacher?” New teachers are often shocked to think of students looking them up but that is the reality. Whether you are a student, a teacher, or a business professional, you need to be aware that people are looking online and using what they find there to determine your initial credibility.
(Now is a good time to pause and “google” your name and look into your social media to think about your credibility).
So, what makes up your credibility? According to communication researchers McCroskey and Teven, credibility is one part competence, one part trustworthiness, and one part goodwill. Competence is how much an audience member perceives you to be knowledgeable and an expert on the topic. You can boost your competence by using research, by having clear, organized ideas, and by clearly, articulating your ideas. Audiences are quick to form opinions and they are constantly evaluating your honesty and trustworthiness. If an audience deems you untrustworthy, every word out of your mouth will be seen as suspect. Finally, the audience evaluates your caring and goodwill. An audience wants to feel like you have their best intentions in mind. Audiences place a high priority on goodwill.
There are several ways to build your credibility with the audience. You can have someone introduce you who tells the audience why you are speaking on the subject. You can find ways to connect with the audience, so they trust you. The more a speaker shows that they understand and recognize the audience’s feelings, the closer the audience will feel towards the speaker. Demonstrating enthusiasm and passion, managing content respectfully, and showing an awareness of situational factors all can enhance credibility.
Mind the Gap
When mapping out your speech, you should always mind the GAP–goal, audience, and parameters. Always remember what the goal of the speech is, who the audience will be, and what parameters are set by the location, the time limit, and the setting.
Minding the Gap is covered in detail in the chapter on the audience.
Rules for Effective Communication
Frank Lunz, political advisor, and author of Words that Work: It’s Not What You Say, It’s What People Hear, advises politicians of these key components to be an effective communicator.
1. Simplicity: Keep the language appropriate for the audience. It is usually better to assume they do not know and explain all terms than it is to leave them with words they don’t understand.
2. Brevity: People have limited attention spans so be aware of the speech time. It is better to have fewer points than to have too many points.
3. Credibility: People will listen to you to the degree of trust that they have in you.
4. Consistency: Make sure what you say agrees with other things you have said. In other words, people look to the context of your life and other messages to interpret what you are saying. It is not uncommon for audience members to “google” a speaker before, during, and after a speech to see if they are trustworthy and consistent with what they say in their speech and in other places.
5. Novelty: Find ways to grab attention and stand out.
6. Sound and texture: Creative use of words will help attract and hold the audience’s attention.
7. Aspiration: Help the audience reflect on how your message taps into them and their goals and dreams. Help them to see more and be more.
8. Visualization: Paint vivid pictures with your words to help the audience visualize the story or the outcome.
9. Questioning: Turn some statements into questions to engage the audience.
10. Context and Relevance: Tell the audience why your speech should matter to them.
Organizing Your Ideas
Nancy Duarte, speech coach was asked, “What’s the best way to start creating a presentation?” Her reply was as follows:
My best advice is to not start in PowerPoint. Presentation tools force you to think through information linearly, and you really need to start by thinking of the whole instead of the individual lines. I encourage people to use 3×5 note cards or sticky notes — write one idea per note. I tape mine up on the wall and then study them. Then I arrange them and rearrange them — just work and work until the structure feels sound.
That is Right for You
To help your travelers understand
what is needed to achieve your vision,
articulate where you need them
to move from and where you need them to move to.
Then make everything in your speech support that transformation.
Nancy Duarte,
Illuminate: Ignite Change Through Speeches,
Stories, Ceremonies, and Symbols
In a study published in Speech Monographs, researchers found that audiences who listened to an unorganized speech were more likely to lose interest. It makes sense that if the speaker is jumping around that we quit trying to follow the message. It also makes sense that their study found that it was harder for audiences to recall the speech information from a disorganized speech. Finally, it is no surprise that disorganized speakers were judged less persuasive and less credible. To maximize the effectiveness of your speech, to make your speech more memorable, and to be seen as more credible, you should use an organized speech pattern.
There are many different formulas for how to organize your speech and I am including a list of the most common structures for you to consider. As a useful activity, you might want to go down the list and figure out how your speech could fit into each of the patterns before you settle on the one that works for you.
When I think about compelling presentations, I think about taking an audience on a journey. A successful talk is a little miracle—people see the world differently afterward.
If you frame the talk as a journey, the biggest decisions are figuring out where to start and where to end. To find the right place to start, consider what people in the audience already know about your subject—and how much they care about it. If you assume they have more knowledge or interest than they do, or if you start using jargon or get too technical, you’ll lose them. The most engaging speakers do a superb job of very quickly introducing the topic, explaining why they care so deeply about it, and convincing the audience members that they should, too.
The biggest problem I see in first drafts of presentations is that they try to cover too much ground. You can’t summarize an entire career in a single talk. If you try to cram in everything you know, you won’t have time to include key details, and your talk will disappear into abstract language that may make sense if your listeners are familiar with the subject matter but will be completely opaque if they’re new to it. You need specific examples to flesh out your ideas. So limit the scope of your talk to that which can be explained, and brought to life with examples, in the available time.
A successful talk is a little miracle—people see the world differently afterward.
Chris Anderson, TED Talk Curator
Informative Speech Patterns
Chronological:
You would format your speech in the order things occurred. First this, then that.
In this talk, America Ferrera describes her step-by-step process of trying to get a role as a Latina in the United States. She takes us on a chronological journey as she wrestles with identity.
As you watch this speech notice how she opens with a story of her as a little girl dancing in the den singing and dreaming. At the end of her speech, she loops back to the nine-year-old girl and ends with power as she expertly points to the audience to bring them in as she delivers a well-thought-out last line:
If I could go back and say anything to that nine-year-old, dancing in the den, dreaming her dreams, I would say, my identity is not my obstacle. My identity is my superpower. Because the truth is, I am what the world looks like. You are what the world looks like. Collectively, we are what the world actually looks like. And in order for our systems to reflect that, they don’t have to create a new reality. They just have to stop resisting the one we already live in.
Compare and Contrast:
You would compare things and point out how they are similar and how they are different.
In this talk, Julie Hogan informs the audience about the concept of cultural humility by comparing and contrasting a Muslim burka and academic regalia.
Cause and Effect:
You would discuss what caused something and what was the overall effect.
In this talk, Caleb Stewart informs his audience of the benefits of reading. He tells all the effects that reading has had on his life.
Problem Solution:
State the problem, tell us why it is a problem, offer us a solution to the problem.
Many of the best talks have a narrative structure that loosely follows a detective story. The speaker starts out by presenting a problem and then describes the search for a solution. There’s an “aha” moment, and the audience’s perspective shifts in a meaningful way.
If a talk fails, it’s almost always because the speaker didn’t frame it correctly, misjudged the audience’s level of interest, or neglected to tell a story. Even if the topic is important, random pontification without narrative is always deeply unsatisfying. There’s no progression, and you don’t feel that you’re learning.
Chris Anderson, TED Talk Curator
In this speech, Bart Knols tells us about the problem with mosquitoes (spoiler alert, it is malaria) and then he informs us of three innovative ways to kill mosquitoes. As you watch, notice how he uses a variety of props–a bed, a box of mosquitos, the slideshow, his boxer shorts to keep his audience engaged. His points are so clear that when his talk is over, you could remember the three main solutions and repeat them to a friend.
Spatial Organization:
Show us a map and move across the map and show us where things are located. This works for more than a map, it could be a blueprint, a piece of art, an object.
Topical Organization:
You would inform us of a topic and how this topic is broken down into subtopics.
Tucker and LeHew in, Exploring Public Speaking, offer this activity and insight:
One of the authors frequently does the following exercise in class. She has all the students take some object from their pocket, purse, or backpack and place it on a table at the front of the room. (It’s interesting what gets put on the table!). Then she has the students gather around and look at the items and “group them”–put them into categories, with each group having at least two items and all items being put in some group. Afterward, she gets the different grouping schema and discusses them. Of course, most of the groups are “correct,” even if just based on color. However, she then asks, “If you had to communicate to a classmate who is absent what is on the table, which schema or grouping pattern would you use?” The point is that grouping can be done on the basis of many characteristics or patterns, but some are clearer and better for communicating.
Less is More
Writer Richard Bach says, “Great writing is all about the power of the deleted word.” Many speakers try to do too much in a speech. They have so much information that they either speak too quickly or explain too briefly. It is better to have fewer points than you can illustrate in numerous ways. After you write your speech, go back, and try to condense. Try to find ways to be more specific and clearer.
It’s a simple equation. Overstuffed equals under-explained.
The wrong way to condense your talk
is to include all the things that you think you need to say,
and simply cut them all back to make them a lot shorter.
There’s a drastic consequence
when you rush through multiple topics in summary form.
Chris Anderson, TED Talk Curator
To make sure the audience gets your point. Tell them what you are going to say, say it, tell them what you’ve said. When you make a point, say the point, illustrate the point with a fact or story, and then tell them how the point applies.
Getting Advanced: The Rule of Three
If you have an important point to make,
don’t try to be subtle or clever.
Use a pile driver.
Hit the point once.
Then come back and hit it again.
Then hit it a third time-a a tremendous whack.
-Winston S. Churchill
Omne Trium Perfectum means everything that comes in threes is perfect. Humans love threes. In our culture, three provides a sense of the whole–it feels complete. The rule of threes suggests ideas presented in threes are easier to remember, more interesting, and more enjoyable. The three could mean have three main points, or the three could mean you have three items to a sentence. It could also mean explaining something in three different ways.
Hendiatris: Three successive words used to express one idea
Friends, Romans, countrymen. William Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar
Life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. US Declaration of Independence.
Tricolon: Three parallel words or phrases
Tonight, we gather to affirm the greatness of our nation – not because of the height of our skyscrapers, or the power of our military, or the size of our economy.
Barack Obama, Keynote speech to Democratic National Convention
Homes have been lost; jobs shed; businesses shuttered.
Barack Obama, Inaugural Address
You learn that duty, honor, and country are not simply words, but guideposts. They dictate what you ought to be, what you can be, what you will be.
Michelle Obama, West Point Banquet
Parallel construction: Repeated phrases
Anaphora: The repeat of exact words at the beginning
A sandal of hope when you reach out.
A sandal of joy when you listen to your heart.
A sandal of courage when you dare to care.
J.A. Gamache, Toastmasters
We can not dedicate
We can not consecrate
We can not hallow — this ground
Abraham Lincoln, Gettysburg Address
It means to try to tell your kids everything you thought you’d have the next 10 years to tell them in just a few months.
It means to make sure everything is buttoned up so that it will be as easy as possible for your family.
It means to say your goodbyes.
Steve Jobs, Stanford Commencement Speech
These men are our fathers, grandfathers and even great-grandfathers.
These men have been and will be apart of our lives in ways that go far beyond the Tokyo Raid.
These men are the crews that have made sure our families’ lives were on the right path.
Speech on the Doolittle reunion
This was the moment when the rise of the oceans began to slow and our planet began to heal.
This was the moment when we ended a war, and secured our nation, and restored our image as the last, best hope on Earth.
This was the moment, this was the time when we came together to remake this great nation so that it may always reflect our very best selves and our highest ideals.
Barack Obama Democratic Nomination Victory Speech – Change We Can Believe In
Epiphora: Repeat the words at the end.
There is no Southern problem.
There is no Northern problem.
There is only an American problem.
President Lydon B. Johnson
This is not, however, just America’s fight.
And what is at stake is not just America’s freedom.
This is the world’s fight.
This is civilization’s fight.
This is the fight of all who believe in
progress and pluralism, tolerance and freedom.
President George Bush, Address to a Joint Session of Congress Following 9/11 Attacks
Have Three Points to Your Speech
Have three main parts to your speech and make sure they are clear.
Now I want to share with you three things I learned about myself that day. I learned that it all changes in an instant. We have this bucket list, we have these things we want to do in life, and I thought about all the people I wanted to reach out to that I didn’t, all the fences I wanted to mend, all the experiences I wanted to have and I never did. As I thought about that later on, I came up with a saying, which is, “I collect bad wines.” Because if the wine is ready and the person is there, I’m opening it. I no longer want to postpone anything in life. And that urgency, that purpose, has really changed my life.
The second thing I learned that day — and this is as we clear the George Washington Bridge, which was by not a lot — I thought about, wow, I really feel one real regret. I’ve lived a good life. In my own humanity and mistakes, I’ve tried to get better at everything I tried. But in my humanity, I also allow my ego to get in. And I regretted the time I wasted on things that did not matter with people that matter. And I thought about my relationship with my wife, with my friends, with people. And after, as I reflected on that, I decided to eliminate negative energy from my life. It’s not perfect, but it’s a lot better. I’ve not had a fight with my wife in two years. It feels great. I no longer try to be right; I choose to be happy.
The third thing I learned — and this is as your mental clock starts going, “15, 14, 13.” You can see the water coming. I’m saying, “Please blow up.” I don’t want this thing to break in 20 pieces like you’ve seen in those documentaries. And as we’re coming down, I had a sense of, wow, dying is not scary. It’s almost like we’ve been preparing for it our whole lives. But it was very sad. I didn’t want to go; I love my life. And that sadness really framed in one thought, which is, I only wish for one thing. I only wish I could see my kids grow up.
Ric Elias, Three Things I Learned While My Plane Crashed.
Alan Alda’s Three Ways to Make Yourself Understood
Some of you may know Alan Alda from the hugely popular show, Mash. Others of you may know him as the host of Scientific American Frontiers. What many people don’t know was he was a visiting professor at Stony Brook University and the founder of the Universities’ Alan Alda Center for Communicating Science. He created that center as a place to train scientists on how to clearly communicate with the public.
In this video, he explains the rule of threes.
• Make no more than three points.
• Explain difficult ideas in three different ways.
• Find a subtle way to make an important point three times.
Key Takeaways
Remember This!
• A speaker should pick a speech pattern that fits the goal, audience, and parameters of the speech
• Following a standard speech pattern helps the speaker be more organized
• Organized speakers are easier to listen to, are perceived as more credible.
• Using the rule of threes can make your speech easier to listen to and more memorable.
Please share your feedback, suggestions, corrections, and ideas
I want to hear from you.
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REFERENCES
Anderson, C. (2016). TED Talks: The official TED guide to public speaking. Mariner.
Anderson, C. (2013). How to Give a killer presentation. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2013/06/how-to-give-a-killer-presentation
Ausubel, D. P. (1968). Educational psychology. Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
Baker, E. E. (1965). The immediate effects of perceived speaker disorganization on speaker credibility and audience attitude change in persuasive speaking. Western Speech, 29, 148–161.
Belch, G. E., & Belch, M. A. (2001). Advertising and promotion: An integrated marketing communications perspective. McGraw-Hill.
Bush, G.W. (2015). President George W. Bush addresses a joint Congress about the War on Terror. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TYnx-c8pF34 Standard YouTube License.
Bostrom, R. N., & Waldhart, E. S. (1988). Memory models and the measurement of listening. Communication Education, 37, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634528809378699
Carnegie, D. (1998). How to win friends and influence people. Pocket Books.
Churchhill Central: Life and words of Sir Winston Churchill. https://www.churchillcentral.com/
Dlugan, A. (2009). How to use the rule of three in your speeches. Six Minutes. How to Use the Rule of Three in Your Speeches (dlugan.com)
Duarte, N. & Sanchez, P. (2016). Illuminate: Ignite change through speeches, stories, ceremonies, and symbols. Portfolio and Penguin.
Ferrera, A. (2019). My identity is a superpower–not an obstacle. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.ted.com/talks/america_ferrera_my_identity_is_a_superpower_not_an_obstacle/transcript?language=en#t-191931 Standard YouTube License.
Gamache, J.A. (2007). Being Mr. G, JA Gamache, Toastmasters World Championships. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YoW-T2_6OJo Standard YouTuve License
Hogan, J. (2018). The tale of two robes. Julie Hogan. [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/w3Z3jdubP4Y Standard YouTube License.
Jobs, S. (2008). Steve Jobs’ 2005 Stanford commencement address. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hd_ptbiPoXM Standard YouTube License.
Kalb, I. (2013). Marketers must understand the power of three. Business Insider. https://www.businessinsider.com/using-the-power-of-three-to-your-marketing-advantage-2013-5
Knols, B. (2012). Three new ways to kill mosquitos. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.ted.com/talks/bart_knols_3_new_ways_to_kill_mosquitoes?utm_campaign=tedspread&utm_medium=referral&utm_source=tedcomshare Standard YouTube License.
LeFrancois, G. R. (1999). Psychology for teaching (10th ed.) Wadsworth.
Lineham, D. R. (n.d). Rule of three in speechwriting. https://davelinehan.com/rule-of-three-speechwriting/
McCroskey, J.C. & Teven, J.J. (1999). Goodwill: A re-examination of the construct and its measurement. Communication Monographs. 66(1), 90-103. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637759909376464
McCroskey, J.C. & Mehrley, R.S. (2009). The effects of disorganization and nonfluency on attitude change and source credibility. Speech Monographs. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637756909375604
McCroskey, J.C. & Young, T. J. (1981). Ethos and credibility: The construct and its measurement after three decades. Central States Speech Journal, 32, 24-34. https://doi.org/10.1080/10510978109368075
Obama, B. (2004). Keynote speech to Democratic National Convention. [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/eWynt87PaJ0 Standard YouTube License.
Obama, B. (2008). Obama victory speech-Change we can believe in. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7wJ-2Zu_Iic Standard YouTube License.
Obama, M. (2011). Address at West Point Graduation Banquet. [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/hS01mK7xMDs Standard YouTube License.
Raa Rams. (2018). Raa 2018 Keynote Speaker. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g6OchXV-Mo8 Standard YouTube License.
Smith, R. G. (1951). An experimental study of the effects of speech organization upon attitudes of college students. Speech Monographs, 18, 292–301. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637755109375045
Shu, S. B. & Carlson, K.A. (2014). When three charms but four alarms: Identifying the optimal number of claims in persuasion settings. Journal of Marketing, 78(1). https://doi.org/10.1509/jm.11.0504
Thompson, E. C. (1960). An experimental investigation of the relative effectiveness of organizational structure in oral communication. Southern Speech Journal, 26, 59–69. https://doi.org/10.1080/10417946009371589
Torgovnick May, K. (2012). How to give more persuasive presentations: A Q & A with Nancy Duarte. TED Blog. https://blog.ted.com/how-to-give-more-persuasive-presentations-a-qa-with-nancy-duarte/
Tucker, B. & LeHew, M. (n.d) Exploring public speaking (4th edition). https://alg.manifoldapp.org/projects/exploring-public-speaking | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/Advanced_Public_Speaking_(Meade)/01%3A_Writing_a_Speech/1.08%3A_Organizing_a_Speech_and_Harnessing_the_Power_of_Three.txt |
Good transitions
can make a speech more important to the audience
because they feel they are being taken
to a positive conclusion
without having to travel a bumpy road.
– Joe Griffith
Transitions
The difference between a novice speaker and an advanced speaker is in how they bridge the gap between ideas. Learning to use transitions effectively will help take your speaking to the advanced level. Transitions can be one word, a phrase, or a full sentence.
The audience is dying to know the relationship between ideas. Their brains are hard-wired for that. It’s more important when you are speaking than when you are writing because the listeners can’t go back – they have to get it when it happens. If the brain is bored, or gets tired because it’s overwhelmed, or gets confused – it can’t stay in that place, so it daydreams, creating its own interest.
Speech Coach Max Dixon, Westside Toastmasters.
So, let’s get started. I have included various transition types for you to consider. These do little good if you read them and do not use them. This list works best if you read it now and then revisit it every time you write a speech.
Beginning
• Let’s begin with…
• First, I’d like to share with you…
• Now that you’re aware of the overview, let’s begin with…
• Our first stop is…
• I will first cover…
• My first point covers…
• To get started, let’s look at…
The Order of Things
• After that…
• Next…
• Second thing…
• Our next stop is…
• Let me tell you about your next step.
Steve Jobs Commencement to Standford University
Steve Jobs clearly previews his main points, “Today I want to tell you three stories from my life. That’s it. No big deal. Just three stories.” He flows smoothly between points with clear transitions.
• “The first story is about connecting the dots.”
• “My second story is about love and loss.”
• “My third story is about death.”
Between Similar Points
• In the same way…
• In addition…
• Likewise…
• Similarly…
Between Disagreeing Points
• Conversely…
• Despite this…
• The flip side of the issue…
• However…
• On the contrary…
• On the other hand…
• However …
• On the other side …
• Yet, we cannot ignore …
• The opposing argument …
• If we examine the opposite side, we see …
Introduce an example
• This is best illustrated by an example…
• For instance…
• Take the case of…
• For example…
• To understand this…
• Let me illustrate this by…
Introduce Research
• To make the point…
• As illustrated by…
• For instance…
• Case in point…
• To solidify this point…
• As researched by…
Cause and effect
• Therefore…
• Thus…
• Consequently…
• As a result…
• This is significant because…
• Hence…
• Resulting in…
• For that reason …
• The effect is…
Elaboration
• Also…
• Besides…
• What’s more…
• In addition/additionally…
• Moreover…
• Furthermore…
Transition to a Demonstration
• Let me show you how this works…
• Let me demonstrate this…
• Now that we’ve covered the theory, let’s see it in action …
• Next, I’d like to let you see this for yourselves…
Introducing Your Visual
• As you can see from this chart…
• I’d like you to notice that…
• The table indicates…
Questions as Transitions
• Now that you know the problem, what do you think will solve it?
• What do you think will solve this crisis?
Vocabulary
Connective:
A word or phrase that connects the ideas of a speech and indicates the relationship between them.
Transitions:
A word or phrase that indicates when a speaker had finished one thought and it moving on to another.
Internal preview:
A statement in the body of the speech that tells the audience what the speaker is going to discuss next.
Internal summary:
A statement in the body of the speech that summarizes the speaker’s preceding point or points.
Signpost:
A very brief statement that indicates where a speaker is in the speech or that focuses attention on key ideas.
From the Art of Public Speaking by Stephen Lucas
Thoughts from a Former Student
One thing I learned in class that made me a better speechwriter was to pay attention to the transitions. In our outlines, there was space for our main points, but also our transitions between them. At the beginning of the semester, I thought this was a waste of time planning out my transition for a speech and that I would just wing it the day of, but I soon realized how important they were. Transitions are like the finishing touches that make everything fall together in a speech.
You may have some interesting points or facts to give to your audience, but without transitions, you have nothing to connect your points and create a narrative. An audience is much more interested in a talk if there is a continuing idea or theme, and transitions help create this. I found this out by watching the other students in my class as they learned to use transitions as well. I loved the speeches that were clearly organized and had a common idea with transitions.
Zoe Lawless, Honors Public Speaking, University of Arkansas
Movement as Transition
Many people don’t think about movement as a type of transition, but it can be a very powerful way to help your audience transition between ideas.
• Setting out a visual or putting it away signals a change in ideas.
• Some speakers will imagine a baseball diamond laid out on the floor and move to each base throughout the speech. Their opening comment is at home plate. Point one is delivered on first, point two on second, and point three on third. They stand back on their home plate to deliver the final closing statements.
• One speaker that I met said he always has a special place that is his big idea place. He may move around during his speech but when he wants the audience to know it is an important point, he stands in the big idea place.
Silence as a Transition
John Chappelear, speech consultant, suggests that the use of silence can be powerful. It is powerful, but it is not easy. Being able to stand silently in front of a large audience for 15-45 seconds requires practice. Sometimes you can use silence as a way to let the audience catch up and think deeply about what you just said.
Transitioning Between Slides
• As the next slide shows…
• As you can see…
• Next, I will show you…
Transitioning to Visuals
• As you can see from this chart…
• I’d like to direct your attention to…
• This diagram compares…
• Now, I’d like to illustrate this with…
Signaling the End is Near
• In conclusion…
• To sum it up…
• Lastly…
• In a nutshell…
• To recap…
• I’d like to leave you with…
• Finally, I’d like to say…
• The takeaway from all of this is…
• In conclusion…
• To summarise…
Moving to the Next Speaker
• I told you about the most credible theories about climate change, now John will share with you some examples of what you can do.
• I’m going to turn it over to Malachi, who will take you through the next few points.
• Next, Angie will come up and talk about…
• To help us understand this topic better, we have Beatrice, who will talk us through…
• Look to the next speaker and motion towards them as they walk to the podium, Twila will tell you more…
Problems with Transitions
These are some of the most common problems with transitions:
• Not planning out transitions and just “winging it.”
• Using fancy phrases inconsistent with the rest of the speech.
• Saying, “I have five points” and then having only four or miscounting the points.
• Overusing the same transitional phrase.
• Long pauses before transitions as the speaker tries to figure out what to say next.
Tricks on Smoothly Presenting Transitions
Now you have a list of ideas to use when you write your next speech, let’s talk about how to use transitions effectively. Speakers typically struggle as they end one point and seek to move to the next idea. This usually happens because of poor planning, not enough practice, and poor note management. Let’s talk about these one at a time. First, poor planning happens because a speaker does not put enough time and effort into writing the speech. Second, not enough practice happened because even when a speech is practiced, it is practiced with regards to getting through the main points and not about moving smoothly between points. Finally, poor note management. Let me give you some tricks.
• Make your notes large-larger than you think you need.
• Give ample space between main ideas so you can look down and see the gap and know another point is coming.
• On your notecards, make each main idea a different color.
• I usually have a “T” in a circle to remind me that this is a transition statement.
• Practice your speech twice by just reading the transition statements and the next sentence.
• The night before your speech, visualize how you will manage the transitions.
Key Takeaways
Remember This!
• Using transitions will help your speech flow smoothly.
• Practice using your transitions.
• Plan transitions for impact.
Please share your feedback, suggestions, corrections, and ideas
I want to hear from you.
Do you have an activity to include?
Did you notice a typo that I should correct?
Are you planning to use this as a resource and do you want me to know about it?
Do you want to tell me something that really helped you?
Click here to share your feedback.
References
Allgood, E., & Ebersole, T. (Eds.). (2017). COMM 2100 public speaking: A workbook for student success. Fountainhead Press.
Beqiri, G. (2018). Speech transitions: Words and phrases to connect your ideas. https://virtualspeech.com/blog/speech-transitions-words-phrases
Dugan, A. (2013, August 26). Speech transitions: Magical words and phrases.
http://sixminutes.dlugan.com/speech-transitions/
Effective speech transitions, how to make your speech flow. https://franticallyspeaking.com/effective-speech-transitions-how-to-make-your-speech-flow/
Jobs, S. (2005). Steve Jobs commencement address to Stanford University. [Video]. YouTube. https://news.stanford.edu/2005/06/14/jobs-061505/ Standard YouTube License.
Lawless, Z. (2020). Honors Public Speaking, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville. Used with permission.
Lucas, S.E. (2009). The art of public speaking. McGraw Hill.
Pace, P. (n.d). Bridge the gap–Speech transitions. https://westsidetoastmasters.com/article_reference/bridge_the_gap-speech_transitions.html#:~:text=%22I%20think%20body%20movement%20is,carries%20the%20audience%20with%20him. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/Advanced_Public_Speaking_(Meade)/01%3A_Writing_a_Speech/1.09%3A_Transitions-_Bridging_Ideas_for_a_Seamless_Presentation.txt |
Supposing is good,
but finding out is better.
Mark Twain, writer
This chapter is about being strategic with how to find your research, how to evaluate the research you find, how to smoothly work information into your speech, and how to adapt your reference page to the presentation context. Since this is an advanced public speaking book, I am going to assume you already know the basics about how to access primary research sources. My goal is for you to take what you know about research and dig a little deeper. I also want you to think about how to use your research differently to adapt to the context.
1. Brainstorm
You should thoroughly brainstorm your topic in writing before you ever begin researching. Make a list of possible words you would look up. Anytime you do this type of brainstorming, your goal should be to have at least 20 words. For example, if I wanted to give an informative speech on the impact of a teacher’s body language on student learning, I might look up any of these words–notice the variety of angles as well as how I have listed several ways of saying the same thing.
1. body language
2. nonverbal
3. immediacy behaviors
4. gestures
5. eye contact
6. occulesics
7. personal space
8. dress
9. proxemics
10. education
11. educator
12. teaching
13. teacher
14. university
15. pedagogy
16. college
17. classroom
18. learning
19. student
20. evaluations
2. Research Your Topic Broadly
Vary your research by looking up different types of research from different types of sources. Don’t just “google it.” (Yes, I like to use internet search engines, but that should not be all you do.) Look up books on the topic, look up art on the topic, look up statistics on the topic, use a library periodical search engine on your topic. I am sure you have heard this before, but I am reminding you–mostly because I need to be reminded. Resist the temptation to do just one type of research.
You should also diversify your research. Look at the authors of your research, do they represent various genders, ethnicities, and political leanings? Try being intentional with varying your research. Seeking a variety of voices on your topic leads to some varied and interesting perspectives.
3. Interview Someone
One semester, I required all my students to do an interview for their speeches. At the end of the speech day, I asked them, What stood out about the speeches? What really helped you to be drawn in? One of the most frequent answers had to do with the interview. When possible, do an interview as part of your speech research.
One of the added bonuses of doing interviews is you can use it to make a new professional contact. Use your speech research to do networking, you might be surprised that you come out with a new contact or maybe a future job opportunity.
When you talk about the interview in your speech, be sure to tell the audience who you interviewed and the credentials of the person you interviewed. It is also helpful to include why you chose to interview that person. Take a picture of the person you interviewed or their office and if it seems right for your presentation, include the photo in your slides.
Brainstorm interview prospects
• Who can you interview on your topic?
• Who is a professional in the field?
• Who could you talk to who has a lived experience related to your topic?
• Who is a professional you have always wanted to talk to and needed a good excuse to get your foot in the door?
When conducting an interview always:
• Ask open-ended questions.
• Listen way more than you talk.
• Stay focused to the very end.
• Send a thank-you note.
Food For Thought
When researching for a ceremonial speech–eulogy, wedding toast, retirement speech, birthday speech–it is helpful to talk to other people who know the person you are celebrating. This type of research usually produces information you wouldn’t have otherwise considered.
4. Look up Something Weird
Speaker, educator, and author John Spencer said, “Research shouldn’t feel like a chore. It should feel like geeking out.” Think of a weird way to look at your topic. Think of a subpart of your topic. Look up a fun fact related to your topic. Sometimes, this exercise becomes an interesting diversion, but other times, it is a gold mine of new ideas.
Using Your Research in a Speech
For the next section, I will tell you how to give an oral citation and how to write the reference (in APA) on your reference page.
Oral Citations: Using Your Research in a Speech
When mentioning your research in your speech, you should always give an oral citation. Depending on the type of speech and the type of audience, this would be done differently. Citations are about credibility–ethos. When you use high-quality sources, it instills trust in the minds of your audience. They trust the information that you are giving, and they trust you as a person.
When I was on the debate team, we had to say the entire citation…every single word of it….the author, date, article title, and the publication and issue number. For debaters talking to other debtors, this type of complete citation worked. Outside of that context, it is just too much information, and the audience gets bored. The trick is to find the balance that allows you to share key parts of your citation without losing the audience’s attention.
Instead of speaking every single part of the citation, find the part that is the most familiar to the audience (like a prominent name or publication) and speak the parts of the reference that enhances your credibility.
• If the information is from a known magazine or journal, you should mention that.
• If the article comes from a respected author that the audience knows, you should mention them.
• If the person you are citing has a title that is relevant, you should mention that.
• If the research is time-sensitive, you should mention the year of publication.
The key here is to be intentional about which part of the citation you speak. To further, illustrate this, I want to show you the difference between what you say in your speech, how you would write it on a full-sentence outline, and then how it would look on your reference page.
(These samples are in APA)
This is what you would say in your speech.
According to an article on consumer perception of coffee published in Nutrients Journal, those who were surveyed said young males are more likely to be inclined to believe there are health benefits from drinking coffee. In a market where there is increased interest in healthy food, there is room to improve the perception of coffee and the scientifically-based health benefits.
(Nutrients Journal carries the credibility of a journal. Mentioning the authors would be optional. Since most people don’t know who they are, it doesn’t help with the credibility.)
This is what it would look like on your outline.
According to an article on consumer perception of coffee published in Nutrients Journal those who were surveyed said young males are more likely to be inclined to believe there are health benefits from drinking coffee (Samoggia & Riedel, 2019).
This is what you would put on the reference page.
Samoggia, A., & Riedel, B. (2019). Consumers’ perceptions of coffee health benefits and motives for coffee consumption and purchasing. Nutrients, 11(3), 653. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu11030653
This is what you would say in your speech.
An article published in the Nutrition and Food Science Journal titled, “To sip or not to sip: The potential risks and benefits of coffee drinking” coffee drinking can reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes, Alzheimer’s disease, and Parkinson’s disease.
(The title of the article is interesting, and the mention of a Journal gives credibility. Once again, I wouldn’t mention the authors since most people don’t know them.)
This is what it would look like on your outline.
An article published in the Nutrition and Food Science Journal titled, “To sip or not to sip: The potential risks and benefits of coffee drinking” coffee drinking can reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes, Alzheimer’s disease, and Parkinson’s disease. (Taylor & Demming-Adams, 2007).
This is what you would put on the reference page.
Taylor, S. R., & Demmig-Adams, B. (2007). To sip or not to sip: The potential health risks and benefits of coffee drinking. Nutrition and Food Science, 37(6), 406-418. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/00346650710838063
This is what you would say in your speech.
As I was working on this eulogy for today, I talked to a couple of family members and asked them what they most remember about grandpa. Cousin Zena said she remembers him for always wearing bibbed overalls, an International Harvester hat, and for having shoes the size of cars. Most of all, she remembers his laugh.
(In this case, the audience only needs to know the names and relationships. No need for formal titles or last names if the people are familiar)
This is what it would look like on your manuscript.
As I was working on this eulogy for today, I talked to a couple of family members and asked them what they most remember about grandpa. Cousin Zena said she remembers him for always wearing bibbed overalls, an International Harvester hat, and for having shoes the size of cars. Most of all, she remembers his laugh.
This is what you would put on the reference page.
Meade, Z. (2021, May 8). Personal Interview.
Let’s be honest, in a real eulogy, you would not turn in a reference page. If you are in a college class, it will be required of you to establish the practice of citing your sources.
This is what you would say in your speech.
According to the Hobby Lobby website, wheeled glass nippers will cost you \$16. These will be essential for cutting glass for your mosaic.
This is what it would look like on your outline.
According to the Hobby Lobby website, wheeled glass nippers will cost you \$16. These will be essential for cutting glass for your mosaic (2021).
This is what you would put on the reference page.
Hobbylobby.com (2021) Wheeled Glass Nippers.
This is what you would say in your speech.
According to the article, How to Host Your Own Coffee Tasting on the Starbucks website, when formally coffee tasting, you should slurp your coffee to allow the coffee to spray across your tongue and palate.
This is what it would look like on your outline.
According to the article, How to Host Your Own Coffee Tasting on the Starbucks website, when formally coffee tasting, you should slurp your coffee to allow the coffee to spray across your tongue and palate (Starbucks, 2020).
This is what you would put on the reference page.
Starbucks. (n.d) Host your own coffee tasting. Retrieved May 8, 2020, https://athome.starbucks.com/host-your-own-coffee-tasting/
Do Not Say This
1. “According to google.” Google is not a source; it is a search engine. The equivalent would be to say, according to the university library. The library is where you find the information, not the information itself.
2. “According to homedepot.com.” You would never say, “According to 210 South Main Street, Fayetteville, Arkansas because that is an address. When you say “.com” you are citing an address. Don’t site a person’s address or a webpage’s address as your source. You can say, “according to the home depot website.”
3. “And my source is…” When saying your source, use the name of the specialist or the name of the article and journal. No need to tell us it is your source; we will figure that out.
4. “Quote/Unquote.” Say the author and the quote, no need to say the word “quote.”
5. “Thank you and now here are my sources.” You do not need to show your audience your references on your slide show. To make sure your audience doesn’t accidentally see your reference page, put two blank slides at the end of your presentation and then add your references. Putting them with your slides keeps them available for anyone who wants a copy of your slides.
Fake-istotle Quotes
While I was researching Aristotle, some amazing quotes came up as Aristotle quotes. The only problem is, he didn’t say them. While I was hunting down the original author, I found a website called Fake-istotle Quotes.
Why is this relevant? It demonstrates one of the many challenges of internet research– typically one person puts it out there and then others copy it. You should be a sleuth and hunt down the originals and you should sniff out faulty research. Don’t just copy the work of others, look for the original.
Good quotes, Aristotle just didn’t say them.
• We are what we repeatedly do, excellence then is not an act but a habit. Will Durant
• Mark of an educated man is to entertain a thought without accepting it. Someone other than Aristotle
Does Your Research Pass the CRAAP Test?
Once you have found your research, you should test it to make sure it is credible. Check your research for currency, reliability, authority, accuracy, and purpose using the CRAPP test.
Currency
• When was it published?
• Has it been revised since then?
• Is it current enough for your topic?
• Is it a topic where the opinions about it change over time?
Reliability //Relevance
• Can you depend on the information and trust it to be accurate?
• Is the information biased?
• Is the information the appropriate complexity for the type of project I am working on?
• Does it provide reliable sources to back up claims?
Authority
• Can you trust the source where you found the information?
• Is the author an authority or do they cite subject authorities?
• Are they reputable?
• If the material is taken from other sources, do they credit/cite those sources?
• What does the URL end with? (.gov, .org, .edu, .com?) If not, how are you determining its reliability?
Accuracy
• Can you trust the reliability of the information?
• Is the information correct? How would you know?
• Can you verify any of the information from another source?
• Do the links lead to useful information corroborating the site’s statements, or do they link to questionable information?
Purpose/Point of View
• What is the author’s motivation for publishing the resource?
• Is the author trying to inform, persuade, or entertain you?
• Does the author appear to have an ax to grind or seem blindly committed to their cause?
• Are they using this information to make money off of users?
• Is there any conflict of interest?
This video gives a great analysis of a couple of sources using the CRAPP test.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lhwB4zQD4XA&t=139s (<--- PRIVATE VIDEO)
Researching Images
Searching, finding, and using images is a type of research too. Just like text-based research, you should provide citations and give credit.
Searching for Images
When searching for images to use, you should seek out images the have a creative commons copyright or are open for use. Here are a couple of my favorite sites.
Don’t forget to reference your image on your reference page and on your slides.
• Creativecommons.org
About: “CC Search is a tool that allows openly licensed and public domain works to be discovered and used by everyone. Creative Commons, the nonprofit behind CC Search, is the maker of the CC licenses, used over 1.4 billion times to help creators share knowledge and creativity online.”
• About: All items on Unsplash can be used for free. You can use them for commercial and noncommercial purposes. You do not need to ask permission but giving credit to the photographer is appreciated.
• Eduimages
About: A free library of photos celebrating students—and the educators who teach them—in seven schools across the United States.
• Gettyimages
About: The Getty makes available without charge, all available digital images to which the Getty holds the rights or that are in the public domain to be sued for any purpose. No permission is required.
• Wikimedia Commons
About: Wikimedia Commons is free. Everyone is allowed to copy, use and modify any file here freely as long as they follow the terms specified by the author. The conditions of each media file can be found on their description page.
• Pixabay
About: All images and videos on Pixabay are released free of copyrights under Creative Commons CC0. You may download, modify, distribute, and use them royalty-free for anything you like, even in commercial applications. Attribution is not required.
Reference Page
The reference page is where you list all the sources that you used in your speech. This means the books, articles, and internet information that you use as well as any interviews, images, videos, and charts.
What Do You Do with Your Reference Page?
What you do with your reference page is going to be different based on context. Many of you are in a college speech class, which means that you will give your teacher a digital or physical copy of your reference page. I want you to be prepared for speeches outside the college classroom, so let’s look at how to use a reference page in a variety of contexts.
College Presentation
If you are in a college class, your teacher will likely ask you to turn in a copy of your reference page. You should have it typed and it should include your name.
Double-check which style (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc) that your teacher wants you to use and follow precisely the rules of that style.
For tips on using APA, go to OWL Purdue APA
For tips on using MLA, go to OWL Purdue MLA
Academic Conference Paper Presentation
Academic talks often come from research papers. Typically, you will upload your paper and reference page into a database before the conference. Sometimes, they ask for your slides as well. If that is the case, you should include a final slide to your slideshow that includes your references. You would not actually show that slide during your presentation, but it is available for those who want to download your presentation slides.
If you are giving a poster talk, you will want to have copies of your paper with references to hand out. Make a handout that is a photo of your poster on one side and key references and your name on another. Make sure your name is on it and think of it as a business card that people might keep to remember you and your research.
Academic Conference
Table talk
Discussion group
Non-paper presentation
It is likely those in attendance will want a copy of your slides. You should anticipate this and have a reference page on your slides. You would not show your reference page during your talk, but it is there for those who want a copy of your slides.
Handout. I prefer giving audiences a printed or digital handout instead of giving them my slides. I can customize a handout to give only the information that someone would want to look at after the talk. In that scenario, I only include the references that they would want to look up to gain more information.
Business Talk Put your reference page on your presentation slides but don’t show them during your presentation. If someone wants a copy of your slides, you have the references included.
(Tip: At the end of the slideshow, add two blank slides before your reference page, that way you don’t accidentally show them during your presentation)
Community Talk or Training Pass out a handout that includes relevant references where they can look up more information or create an online resource where they can get the information.
Sales Talk
Most companies have a sales brochure that they give a customer. Ideally, they should include references or point to references on a website.
You should be willing to give references if asked. It is a good idea to make a reference page when you prepare your sales presentation and have it in case you need it.
Reference Page
For reference, I have included a sample reference page in APA.
Reference Page Sample APA
• “References” should be at the top.
• Alphabetize references.
• Use a hanging indent
• Every line is double-spaced. (This sample is not correct because of the way this program formats. Every line should be double space with no single-spaced items).
For reference on this look at this sample student paper from OWL Purdue-the reference page in on page 17.
References
Hobbylobby.com (2021) Wheeled Glass Nippers.
Meade, Z. (2021, May 8). Personal Interview.
Samoggia, A., & Riedel, B. (2019). Consumers’ perceptions of coffee health benefits and motives for coffee consumption and purchasing. Nutrients, 11(3), 653. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu11030653
Starbucks. (n.d) Host your own coffee tasting. Retrieved May 8, 2020, https://athome.starbucks.com/host-yo...offee- \tasting/
Taylor, S. R., & Demmig-Adams, B. (2007). To sip or not to sip: The potential health risks and benefits of coffee drinking. Nutrition and Food Science, 37(6), 406-418. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/00346650710838063
Understanding Peer Review and Scholarly Sources
I want to make sure that you understand peer review and scholarly sources since it is an area that some struggle to grasp. When someone says they are wanting you to reference scholarly sources, typically they are talking about items that have been through the peer-review process. According to OWL Purdue, “One major character of scholarly sources is that they are peer-reviewed. Here’s how a scholarly source typically goes through the process:
1. A scholar/author writes an article and submits it to the editor of a journal or book.
2. The editor sends it to other scholars who are at least the academic peers (equals) of the author in that field.
3. The reviewers review or vet (examine) it, then tell the editor whether they think it’s good enough to be published in that journal or what should be changed.”
Oftentimes your speech is required to have peer reviewers or scholarly articles, it is important that you are able to understand why peer review articles are different and how to access them. I included this video to help you understand.
What is Peer Review, Scholarly Article?
You may be asked to use peer-reviewed/scholarly/refereed articles for your research. It is important to understand the process in order to understand why this is a more advanced type of research.
Please share your feedback, suggestions, corrections, and ideas
I want to hear from you.
Do you have an activity to include?
Did you notice a typo that I should correct?
Are you planning to use this as a resource and do you want me to know about it?
Do you want to tell me something that really helped you?
Click here to share your feedback.
In summary, it is important to know how to research your speech properly and to reference those sources in a way that gives credibility to your topic.
References
AskUs NCSU Libraries. (2014). Peer Review in 3 Minutes. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rOCQZ7QnoN0&t=9s Standard Youtube License.
Houston Community College Libraries. (2021). Evaluating sources: C.R.A.P. Test. https://library.hccs.edu/evaluatingsources/test
Huntress, C. (2017). My favorite quote of all time is a misattribution. https://medium.com/the-mission/my-favourite-quote-of-all-time-is-a-misattribution-66356f22843d
Portland State University Library (2012). The C.R.A.P. Test in action. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lhwB4zQD4XA&t=139s
Purdue University. English 106/108: Scholarly Sources and Peer Review. https://guides.lib.purdue.edu/eng106/scholarly-sources-and-peer-review
Samoggia, A., & Riedel, B. (2019). Consumers’ perceptions of coffee health benefits and motives for coffee consumption and purchasing. Nutrients, 11(3), 653. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu11030653
Sheets, R. (2021, May 18). Personal Interview. (Director of the Business Communication Lab, Walton College of Business. University of Arkansas).
Spencer, J. [https://twitter.com/spencerideas]. (July 3, 2018). Research should be fun. It should feel like geeking out. Twitter. Retrieved May 19, 2021, from https://twitter.com/spencerideas/status/1014178267820118018/photo/1
Taylor, S. R. & Demmig-Adams, B. (2007). To sip or not to sip: The potential health risks and benefits of coffee drinking. Nutrition and Food Science, 37(6), 406-418. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/00346650710838063
University of Arkansas Library Research Guide. CRAAP Test for evaluating. https://uark.libguides.com/BENG4933/Evaluation
*CRAAP test developed by Meriam Library, California State University, Chico | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/Advanced_Public_Speaking_(Meade)/01%3A_Writing_a_Speech/1.10%3A_Research-_Finding_and_Citing_Your_Research.txt |
Words have incredible power.
They can make people’s hearts soar,
or they can make people’s hearts sore.
– Dr. Mardy Grothe
psychologist and author
The category of speeches that you are most likely to have to give is ceremonial speeches. Ceremonial speaking, originally called epideictic oratory, includes graduation speeches, wedding speeches, eulogy speeches, after-dinner speeches, award speeches, toast speeches, and tribute speeches. The biggest thing that these have in common is that they have a heavy emphasis on pathos-emotion. When listening to a ceremonial speech, an audience expects to feel something and to feel a part of something. To achieve that, a good ceremonial speech will include identification, narration, and magnification.
In many ways, special occasions are the punctuation marks of life.
They are the rituals that draw us together
in celebration of some person or event
Teri and Michael Gamble
communication scholars
This chapter will look at identification, magnification, and narration and how they function in ceremonial speeches to help you prepare to construct a speech of your own.
Types of Ceremonial Speeches
• Speech of Introduction
• Award Speech
• Acceptance Speech
• Graduation Speech
• Tribute Speech (Can be to a person, occasion, or monument)
• Eulogy Speech
• After Dinner Speech
• Toast Speech
Identification
In all speeches, the audience should feel like you are considering their needs, this is especially true in a ceremonial speech. In a ceremonial speech, your audience in some way becomes part of the speech. To achieve this, you should use a lot of phrases like “we” and “our.” In the graduation speech by Matthew McConaughey, he uses “we,” and “you” words over 400 times–that is a lot of identification!
Matthew McConaughey Graduation Speech, A Lesson in Identification
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Identification
He uses “you” nearly 250 times and “we” 170 times in a 45-minute speech
• You guys and girls, and young men and women are the reason I’m here.
• I’m really looking forward to talking with you all tonight.
• You heard my dad played football here.
• I thought about what you would want, I thought about what you might need.
• I also thought about what I want to say and what I need to say. Hopefully, we’re both going to be happy on both
• It means you got an education. It means you have more knowledge in a specific subject, vocation. It means you may have more expertise in what your degree is in. But what’s it worth in the job market out there today?
• So, while we’re here, and they’re going to run across the jumbotron, let’s make it a place where we break a sweat. Where we believe, where we enjoy the process of succeeding in the places in ways that we are fashioned to.
Fun fact: Matthew McConaughey is a professor of practice at the Moody College of Communication at the University of Texas at Austin. https://moody.utexas.edu/faculty/matthew-mcconaughey
• We
• Our
• Us
• Mutual
• Together
• Shared
• United
• Unified
More Examples of Identification
Here are a few ways that my students used identification in their speeches.
The Survivor Tree, an Elm, still stands as a witness of that day as a symbol of our resilience. The same kind of resilience all Americans have when faced with a tough obstacle to overcome. Tribute to OK City Memorial
My grandpa Jack is like the wind. We can’t see him but we can feel him. He is always with us.
Lily, Tribute to Grandpa Jack
Today, we gather here to honor a famous, and beloved man, Stanley Martin Lieber. We all knew him as Stan Lee
He brought us together
He may be gone but we will not forget what for he did for us.
David Lester, Tribute to Stan Lee
Tip for Identification
When I do one-on-one speech consultations. I pull up two or three empty chairs and then I ask the person who I am coaching to tell me who is sitting in the chair and listening to their speech. I ask them to show me how that person is included in the speech. I read parts of their speech out loud with them thinking about people in those chairs and then we talk about how we can reword some things to make sure those folks feel included.
Magnification
In addition to identification, ceremonial speeches should contain magnification. Magnification is where you take an attribute of a person, and you magnify it and make it seem larger than life. It is where you highlight a positive attribute of a person or group. This works best if you tap into values that the audience share.
These are the most common magnification themes:
• Triumph over obstacles
• Unusual accomplishment
• Superior performance
• Unselfish motive
• Benefit to society
• The greatness of a simple thing
• Celebrate heroic acts and deeds
It is easiest to understand how these work in a speech by way of example. Watch the following speeches to understand how magnification can be achieved.
Oprah Winfrey's Eulogy to Rosa Parks, A Lesson in Magnification: Triumph Over Obstacle
Magnification is where you make an action larger than life. Notice how Oprah Winfrey elaborates on the action of Rosa Parks and makes it large and heroic.
I grew up in the South, and Rosa Parks was a hero to me long before I recognized and understood the power and impact that her life embodied. I remember my father telling me about this colored woman who had refused to give up her seat. And in my child’s mind, I thought, “She must be really big.” I thought she must be at least a hundred feet tall. I imagined her being stalwart and strong and carrying a shield to hold back the white folks.
…So I thank you again, Sister Rosa, for not only confronting the one white man who[se] seat you took, not only confronting the bus driver, not only for confronting the law, but for confronting history, a history that for 400 years said that you were not even worthy of a glance, certainly no consideration. I thank you for not moving.
And in that moment when you resolved to stay in that seat, you reclaimed your humanity, and you gave us all back a piece of our own.
Bill Clinton’s Eulogy for Muhammad Ali, A Lesson in Magnification: The Greatness of a Simple Thing
Before Mohammad Ali passed, he struggled with tremors. In this eulogy speech, Former President Clinton describes watching him light the Olympic flame. The mere act of walking was a simple thing that was made great by the circumstances.
• Finally after all the years that we have been friends, my enduring image of him is like a little reel in three shots: the boxer I thrilled to as a boy, the man I watched take the last steps to light the Olympic Flame when I was president, and I’ll never forget it, I was sitting there in Atlanta, by then we knew each other, by then I felt that I had some sense of what he was living with, and I was still weeping like a baby, seeing his hands shake and his legs shake and knowing by God he was gonna make those last few steps, no matter what it took. The flame would be lit. The fight would be won. The spirit would be affirmed. I knew it would happen.
Narration- Tell a Story
In addition to identification and magnification, ceremonial speeches should include stories.
This example is from a University of Arkansas student speech and he is telling the story of picking out his first dog. Notice how the small details help to draw us in and help us to see the event unfold. I left this sample in speech format so you could see how it was written on his manuscript to have a feeling for the rhythm of the speech. (/// slanted lines, signal a pause…the more lines, the longer the pause)
It was a nice day and I can still picture you running towards me
when I really try that is
As we approach the house,///
three little girls
accompanied by their father
open a shed door to the side of the property
I rode my Heelys /// down a small
//concrete sidewalk
Excited to see the little balls of fluff
My parents said to pick a good one
So I picked you /// because you bit my shoe.
Bryan Stevenson Tells a Story in an Award Acceptance Speech
Bryan Stevenson, author of Just Mercy: A Story of Justice and Redemption gave this acceptance speech when winning the Andrew Carnegie Medal for Excellence in Fiction and NonFiction. Notice how his use of narration makes us feel something about his grandmother and then we carry those feelings as he talks about racial justice.
I had a very close relationship with my grandmother. My grandmother was the daughter of people who were enslaved. Her parents were born into slavery in Virginia in the 1840s. She was born in the 1880s, and the only thing that my grandmother insisted that I know about her enslaved father is that he learned to read before emancipation, and that reading is a pathway to survival and success. So I learned to read. I put books and words in my head and in my heart, so that I could get to the places that she needed me to go.
I’m thinking about my grandmother tonight, because she had these qualities about her. She was like lots of African American matriarchs. She was the real force in our family. She was the end of every argument. She was also the beginning of a lot of arguments! She was tough, and she was strong but she was also kind and loving. When I was a little boy, she’d give me these hugs, she’d squeeze me so tightly I could barely breathe. And then she’d see me an hour later and she’d say, “Bryan, do you still feel me hugging you?” And if I said no, she would assault me again!
Did you notice the magnification (the greatness of a simple thing) in learning to read and in hugging?
Did you notice his use of identification by saying, “She was like lots of African American matriarchs?”
Speaking of identification, check out how he uses “we”
We need to change the narrative in this country about race, and poverty. We’re a country that has a difficult time dealing with our shame, our mistakes. We don’t do shame very well in America, and because of that we allow a lot of horrific things to go unaddressed.
You can use identification, magnification, and narration in all your speeches, but these three elements are especially important in ceremonial type speeches. Maya Angelou said, “People will forget what you said, people will forget what you did, but people will never forget how you made them feel.”
Key Takeaways
Remember This!
• Identification means to relate to your audience.
• Magnification means to find traits about the person you are talking about and magnify them.
• Narration means to tell a story to help your audience feel something.
• Ceremonial speeches should always include identification, magnification, and narration.
Please share your feedback, suggestions, corrections, and ideas
I want to hear from you.
Do you have an activity to include?
Did you notice a typo that I should correct?
Are you planning to use this as a resource and do you want me to know about it?
Do you want to tell me something that really helped you?
Click here to share your feedback.
References
Albanese, A. (2015). Is this the greatest book award acceptance speech ever? Publisher’s Weekly. https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/industry-news/awards-and-prizes/article/67546-is-this-the-greatest-book-award-acceptance-speech-ever.html
Clinton, B. ( 2020). Bill Clinton’s eulogy for Muhammad Ali. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=feGjy5bKMb0 Standard YouTube License.
Gamble, T. & Gamble, M.W. (1998). Public Speaking in the Age of Diversity. Allyn and Bacon.
Justis, T. (2019). Photo of graduation speaker, Anna Francis Chandler.
Lester, D. Tribute to Stan Lee. University of Arkansas.
McConaughey, M. (2016). Matthew McConaughey University of Houston Speech. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BmCTQ_mkzHU
Rigsby, R. (2017). The most inspiring speech: The wisdom of a third-grade dropout will change your life. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bg_Q7KYWG1g Standard YouTube License.
Samovar, L. A., & McDaniel, E. R. (2007). Public speaking in a multicultural society. Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury.
Saylor Academy (2012). Stand up speak out: The practice and ethics of public speaking. Saylor Academy.
Snippe, E. (2016). 101 quotes to inspire speakers. Angelou, M. Quote. https://speakerhub.com/blog/101-quotes
Thibodeau, P.H and Boroditsky, L. (2011). Metaphors we think with: The role of metaphor in reasoning. Stanford University.
Winfrey, O. (2010). Oprah eulogy [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5cfhtfNfIPE&t=1s Standard YouTube License. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/Advanced_Public_Speaking_(Meade)/01%3A_Writing_a_Speech/1.11%3A_Ceremonial_Speaking-_Identification_Magnification_Narration.txt |
Antithesis is not only a revered literary device that only the best wield,
but it’s a rhetoric device some of the most famous speakers in history
have used to emphasize their points.
It’s rousing in a speech when you juxtapose
two opposites to show a contrasting effect that’s as wide as the ocean.
Prowriting Aid
Taking your speech to the next level means being intentional with each word. In this chapter, I will demonstrate how several different colorful language devices are used in speeches. By carefully crafting your word choices, you can deliberately control the tone and emotion in your speech. I believe the best way for you to learn is to be saturated by great examples and then be challenged to use what you have learned in your own speeches. To get the most out of this chapter, take your time and read these examples out loud. Feel the emotion, get into the rhythm, let yourself experience the difference that these language devices make.
Alliteration
Alliteration is the repetition of initial sounds in neighboring words. When Emily Dickinson said, “The soul selects her own society,” she was using an alliteration. A well-used alliteration sounds pleasing and elevates your content. it helps emphasize certain words and can help create the mood. Read these examples of alliteration to understand how they operate.
Repeated D
President Mandela, we salute you, for you are a man that had a dream, a dream dedicated to desire, the desire to make the world a better place.
Tribute Speech to Nelson Mandela by Tanica van As, University of Arkanas
Repeated P
We have seen peace prevail in most places for a half century.
Women’s Rights are Human Rights by Hillary Clinton
And here’s the last part. It’s up to you to couple every protest with plans and policies, with organizing and mobilizing and voting.
Don’t Ever Let Anyone Tell You That You Are Too Angry, Commencement Speech by Michelle Obama
There are too many alliterations to count in this two-minute persuasive speech. I take that back, there are not too many to count–you should listen and try to count them. Take it as a challenge.
Repeated G
And after our first meeting, I realized that God uses good people to do great things. Eulogy to Rosa Parks by Oprah Winfrey
Repeated M
You’ve got more role models, more road maps, more resources than the civil rights generation did. You’ve got more tools, technology and talents than my generation did. No generation has been better positioned to be warriors for justice and remake the world.
Graduation Speech 2020 by Barack Obama
Parallel Construction
The next rhetorical device is parallel construction. In short, it means to repeat the same word or phrase. If it occurs at the beginning, it is called an anaphora, if it occurs at the end, it is an epistrophe. These are the easiest of the advanced techniques to write and it has the application in the most places. It can be used in almost any type of speech.
Anaphora: Repeat the Beginning
Anaphora (to bring again) (an-NAF-ruh). An anaphora is the repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of sentences. The repetition of words creates a building sensation lending to a sense of importance. Anaphora helps create rhythm, gives emphasis, and boosts speech to a higher level. Look at the following examples for how it can be used in various types of speeches.
Anaphora in Eulogy
He taught me
that I don’t always have to be the same as the crowd.
He taught me
that no matter what my passion is, I should follow it.
He taught me
that you can’t wait for opportunities to fall into your lap,
you have to go get them.
Eulogy to Grandpa by Logan Dold.
Anaphora in Tribute Speech
Magic in one way or another
had a huge part to play in our childhood.
Maybe you thought you were a fairy princess
Maybe you believed in Santa Clause or the Tooth fairy
Maybe you were like me
and made “potions” in your bathroom sink.
Tribute to Harry Potter’s Influence on My Childhood by Blake Cole
Anaphora in Graduation Speech
It feels like just yesterday, you Casey, Kara, and I were playing stuck in the mud, hot lava upstairs in the game room, monopoly, and orange juice pong at the lake.
It feels like just yesterday, Casey was the first of us girls to get a pair of platform heels. Size 5, chunky, black, and we were dying to wear them, but we had to wait until it was our turn.
It feels like just yesterday, you were writing boy’s names in chalk on the driveway with little hearts around it, drooling over them because they were a ‘hunk a hunk a cheese.’
It feels like just yesterday, you were a sophomore in high school.
Graduation Speech to Her Little Sister by Kendall Cleveland
Anaphora in Persuasion Speech
Indifference elicits no response.
Indifference is not a response.
Indifference is not a beginning; it is an end.
And, therefore, indifference is always the friend of the enemy, for it benefits the aggressor — never his victim, whose pain is magnified when he or she feels forgotten.
The political prisoner in his cell, the hungry children, the homeless refugees — not to respond to their plight, not to relieve their solitude by offering them a spark of hope is to exile them from human memory. And in denying their humanity, we betray our own.
Indifference, then, is not only a sin, it is a punishment.
The Perils of Indifference, Elie Wiesel
It is a violation of human rights when women and girls are sold into the slavery of prostitution for human greed — and the kinds of reasons that are used to justify this practice should no longer be tolerated.
It is a violation of human rights when women are doused with gasoline, set on fire, and burned to death because their marriage dowries are deemed too small.
It is a violation of human rights when individual women are raped in their own communities and when thousands of women are subjected to rape as a tactic or prize of war.
It is a violation of human rights when a leading cause of death worldwide among women ages 14 to 44 is the violence they are subjected to in their own homes by their own relatives.
It is a violation of human rights when young girls are brutalized by the painful and degrading practice of genital mutilation.
Women’s Rights are Human Rights by Hillary Clinton
Anaphora in Political Speech
Let there be justice for all.
Let there be peace for all.
Let there be work, bread, water, and salt for all.
Nelson Mandela, Inaugural Address
Yes we can to justice and equality.
Yes we can to opportunity and prosperity.
Yes we can heal this nation.
Yes we can repair this world.
Yes we can.
New Hampshire Speech by Barack Obama
If there’s a child on the south side of Chicago who can’t read, that matters to me, even if it’s not my child.
If there’s a senior citizen somewhere who can’t pay for her prescription and has to choose between medicine and the rent, that makes my life poorer, even if it’s not my grandmother.
If there’s an Arab American family being rounded up without benefit of an attorney or due process, that threatens my civil liberties.
Democratic National Convention Speech by Barack Obama
Senators, let me be clear:
We are more determined than our opponents, and we will keep fighting.
When bad actors try to use our site,
we will block them.
When content violates our policies,
we will take it down.
And when our opponents use new techniques,
we will share them so we can strengthen our collective efforts.
Opening Statement to Congress on Facebook Accountability by Sheryl Sandberg
Parallel Construction - Epistrophe: Repeat the Ending
Epistrophe (after stroke) (eh-PiSS-truh-FEE–rhymes–rhymes with apostrophe) is the repetition of the same word or words at the end of successive phrases, clauses, or sentences. The repetition makes the lines more memorable. Depending on the execution, it can give a cadence to eh speak and makes the speech feel dramatic. It is especially effective when the repeated word connects to the overall speech theme.
This is not, however, just America’s fight.
And what is at stake is not just America’s freedom.
This is the world’s fight.
This is civilization’s fight.
This is the fight of all who believe in progress and pluralism,
tolerance and freedom.
Address to a Joint Session of Congress Following 9/11 Attacks by George Bush
For no government is better than the men who compose it,
and I want the best,
and we need the best,
and we deserve the best.
Wittenburg College Speech by John F. Kennedy
I would like to thank all the people who make the King’s Academy excellent
To the Board of Governors for the wisdom you bring, the prayers that you pray, and the vision you lay out for TKA, we thank you
For the administration, for the godly oversight you bring ot the school and for making the tough calls when needed, we thank you
To the faculty who give your all eachand every day laboring to provide us with an education and pushing us to do our best even on the days that we don’t want to learn all the while talking the extra time to buld relationships that for some will last a life time, we thank you
To the staff who worked tirelessly coordinating our lives and events while supporting us and the faculty, we thank you
This time last year, I found out that I was in the running for this title,
it was then I decided I wanted it,
so I worked hard for it,
I sacrificed for it,
and yes, I stressed for it,
and I got it.
Graduation Speech to The King’s Academy by Kyle Martin
Market forces cannot educate us or equip us for this world of rapid technological and economic change.
We must do it together.
We cannot buy our way to a safe society.
We must work for it together.
We cannot purchase an option on whether we grow old. We must plan for it together.
We can’t protect the ordinary against the abuse of power by leaving them to it; we must protect each other. That is our insight. A belief in society.
Working together.
Blackpool by Tony Blair
Watch this speech by Queen Rania Al Abdullah as she speaks before the United Nations. Notice her repeated use of parallel construction as she starts of her speech with, I wish…, I wish…, I wish…
Tricolon–Repeat it three times.
Omne Trium Perfectum means everything that comes in threes is perfect. Humans love threes. In our culture, three provides a sense of the whole, complete, roundness. The rule of threes suggests that ideas presented in threes are easier to remember, more interesting, and more enjoyable. The three could mean have three main points of the three could mean have the items to a sentence. It could also mean explaining something in three different ways.
Also discussed in the chapter on speech organization
The time for healing the wounds has come
The moment to bridge the chasms that divide us has come.
The time to build is upon us.
Inaugural Address by Nelson Mandela
The flame would be lit.
The fight would be won.
The spirit would be affirmed.
Eulogy to Muhammad Ali by Bill Clinton
And when the night grows dark,
When injustice weighs heavy on our hearts,
When our best-laid plans seem beyond our reach,
Let us think of Madiba
Barack Obama Memorial to Nelson Mandela
Personification:
A personification gives abstractions and inanimate objects human qualities. These qualities may be physical, spiritual, or emotional qualities. The easiest example I can think of is the saying, “My computer hates me! I know it is out to get me because it acts up every time, I have an important paper due.” A computer is not alive. A computer cannot hate. Look at these speech examples for how personification is used in a variety of contexts.
My father taught himself how to read, taught himself how to write, decided in the midst of Jim Crowism, as America was breathing the last gasp of the Civil War, my father decided he was going to stand and be a man, not a black man, not a brown man, not a white man, but a man. The Wisdom of a Third Grade Dropout Will Change Your Life -Graduation Speech by Rick Rigsby.
It’s [COVID-19] one of these scenarios which we have been warning against for a couple of weeks already — that countries have to be prepared for the virus literally knocking at their door. Christian Lindmeier, Feb 2020 WHO Press Briefing
To the fans in Chicago, St. Louis, and Atlanta, I wanna say ‘thank you’ for your support. Your chanting of ‘B-r-u-u-u-c-e’ as I entered the game always gave me chills. I wish I could trot out there and get that feeling again, but Father Time has caught up with me. First, he took my arm, then he took my hair, then he took the color from my beard. But he cannot take the great friendships and memories I have from being a baseball player. Baseball Hall of Fame Induction Address, Bruce Sutter.
Antithesis
The Klingon in Star Trek said it best, “It’s better to die on our feet than to live on our knees.” This is an excellent example of an antithesis. An antithesis is the pairing of opposites in a parallel arrangement. To be an antithesis, there need to be two contrasting ideas. It is not enough that the ideas are opposite, they must also be intentionally juxtaposed in a balanced form. In my opinion, this is the highest form of rhetorical device. Effectively writing and using the antithesis will put you in league with the masters!
Let’s start off by looking at some famous examples. Probably the most famous of all was uttered by Neil Armstrong when he said, “that’s one small step for a man, one giant leap for all mankind.” Talk about quotable! A well-written antithesis rolls off the tongue and begs people to nod and gasp a little. That is just what happens when famous speakers use them and it is also what happens when my students use them in class. Look at these examples for inspiration.
The heaviness of being successful was replaced by the lightness of
being a beginner again less sure about everything.
Commencement to Stanford by Steve Jobs
And when I say, “Life doesn’t happen to you, it happens for you.” I really don’t know if that’s true. I’m just making a conscious choice to perceive challenges as something beneficial so that I can deal with them in the most productive way. You’ll come up with your own style. That’s part of the fun.
Graduation Speech, Jim Carrey
There is nothing wrong with America
that cannot be cured by what is right with America.
First Inaugural Address by Bill Clinton
We think we know what we want
but we often have no idea what we need.
USC School of Dramatic Arts Commencement by Kristin Bell
If you want to be really impressed, check out four antitheses in a row
We find ourselves rich in goods
but ragged in spirit,
reaching with magnificent precision for the moon
but falling into raucous discord on earth.
We are caught in war,
wanting peace.
We’re torn by division,
wanting unity.
First Inaugural Address, Richard Nixon
Watch my students in action as they master the antithesis in eulogy speeches
A woman whose spirit was always soaring
even when her feet were planted firmly on the ground.
Kayla Cross, Eulogy for her grandmother who was a pilot. University of Arkansas
I realize that it was never about your flower garden.
It was really about tending to the things of the heart
Tasha Smith, Tribute to Grandma. University of Arkansas
Recipe for a Powerful Antithesis
A. Statements that are Opposites
The first ingredient of an antithesis is opposites. I find it easiest to see the opposites by creating a box like this.
cannot help many who are poor
save few who are rich
If a free society cannot help the many who are poor,
how can they save the few who are rich. John Kennedy
live together brothers
perish together fools
We must learn to live together as brothers
or perish together as fools. Martin Luther King, Jr.
B. Evenly Balanced
Ronald Carpenter suggests drawing a teeter-tooter and putting words on either side to see if they are balanced. The phrases should be closely balanced in terms of how many beats are on each side. Let us look at an example.
I am not a perfect servant.
I am a public servant
doing my best against the odds.
Jesse Jackson
Let us accept his challenge, not as grim duty, but as an exciting challenge.
Richard Nixon, Presidential nomination acceptance speech.
He was the early bird
and I was the night owl.
Eulogy to Kobe Bryant by Vanessa Bryant
Consider Bill Clinton’s acceptance address to the 1992 Democratic Convention. “And yet just as we have won the cold war abroad, we are losing the battles for economic opportunity and social justice here at home. While this sentence has opposites, it does not have balance. As Ronald Carpenter suggests “a simple change would have made it not only opposite, but balanced: “We have won the cold ware for political democracy abroad but are losing the heated battle for economic opportunity at home.” A little bit of balancing made a good statement great.
Here is one more example that improves with a little fix. This is George Bush’s Graduation speech at West Point.
We’re determined that before the sun sets on this terrible struggle, our flag will be recognized throughout the world as a symbol of freedom on one hand and of overwhelming power on the other.
A simple addition of three words, “and a symbol,” on the second phrase takes this good sentence and gives it balance:
We’re determined that before the sun sets on this terrible struggle, our flag will be recognized throughout the world as a symbol of freedom on one hand and a symbol of overwhelming power on the other.
Go back and read those examples again to feel the difference. Now, read Martin Luther King Jr’s famous quote and notice that it has both a pairing of opposites and balance.
I have a dream that my four little children
will one day live in a nation
where they will not be judged by the color of their skin
but by the content of their character.
I have a dream today!
I Have a Dream by Martin Luther King, Jr.
And that’s what John Lewis teaches us. That’s where real courage comes from.
Not from turning on each other, but by turning towards one another.
Not by sowing hatred and division, but by spreading love and truth.
Not by avoiding our responsibilities to create a better America and a better world,
but by embracing those responsibilities with joy and perseverance and discovering that in our beloved community, we do not walk alone.
President Obama Eulogy for John Lewis
Can You Identify the Antithesis that is Opposite and Balanced?
Which of the following antithesis has the most symmetry from balancing opposites?
A. After this initial defeat, we seek ultimate peace
B. After this defeat, we seek victory and ultimate peace.
C. After this initial defeat in war, we seek ultimate victory in peace.
D. After an initial defeat, we seek ultimate peace.
E. After defeat in war, we seek ultimate victory and lasting peace.
From Choosing Powerful Words: Eloquence That Works.
The correct answer is C.
C. End the Antithesis with the Positive Statement
You should have a pairing of opposites that are evenly balanced, but you can really impact an audience by the order of the opposites. Listeners will pay the most attention to the last word in the antithesis, if you want it dark, end in a heavy word, if you want it hopeful, end in a positive word. Most of the time, you want to end with a positive word. Look at the difference between these two, which one sounds better? One ends in darkness and the other ends with a candle.
When other people cursed the darkness, she lit a candle.
She lit a candle when other people cursed the darkness.
Yes, of course, it sounds better to end with, “she lit a candle.” Always try to end on the upbeat.
D. Use as Few Words as Possible.
So now we have a pairing of opposites that are evenly balanced that end with the positive and now we want to add economy of words. Say the same thing with as few words as possible.
Because life doesn’t happen to you,
it happens for you.
Maharishi International University Commencement by Jim Carrey.
A real dream is something that not only hangs on to you
but you will hang onto it.
Steven Spielberg, Some Good News Graduation
Test Your Skills: There are five antitheses and one parallel construction in this speech, can you find them all?
Now, John McCain is my colleague and my friend.
He has served our country with honor and courage.
But we don’t need four more years … of the last eight years.
More economic stagnation … and less affordable healthcare.
More high gas prices … and less alternative energy.
More jobs getting shipped overseas … and fewer jobs created here.
More skyrocketing debt … home foreclosures … and mounting bills that are crushing our middle-class families.
More war … less diplomacy.
More of a government where the privileged come first … and everyone else comes last.
Democratic National Convention by Hillary Clinton
Key Takeaways
Remember This!
• Using rhetorical devices, colorful language, in your speech can elevate your speech writing, create impact, produce rhythm, and help the audience remember your message. There are numerous devices that are effective in speech.
• Alliteration-Repeat initial sounds of words.
• Parallel Construction–Repeat words or phrases at the beginning or end.
• Anaphora–Repeat words or phrases at the beginning.
• Epistrophe–Repeat words or phrases at the end.
• Personification–Giving innate things human characteristics.
• Tricolon–Make lists or statements in threes.
• Antithesis–Pairing of opposite phrases in parallel sentences.
Side Note: I have tried to include speech samples from various cultures, various people groups, and various political leanings. I purposefully chose speeches that represent a variety of topics to show all the different ways these speech devices are used. You may not agree with the point of view of some of the speakers (there are some of them I do not agree with), but that doesn’t keep us from respecting their ability to construct a good speech.
References
Abdullah, R.A. (2009). UNRWA is a way of life. It is a way of living. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YaqwxUFdU9w Standard YouTube License.
AP (2019). Armstong’s famous “one small step’ quote-explained. https://www.navytimes.com/news/your-navy/2019/07/13/armstrongs-famous-one-small-step-quote-explained/
Bell, K. (2019). USC School of Dramatic Arts Commencement. https://singjupost.com/kristen-bells-commencement-speech-2019-at-usc-full-transcript/
Blair, T. (1994). Leader’s Speech, Blackpool. http://www.britishpoliticalspeech.org/speech-archive.htm?speech=200
Bryant, V, (2020). Eulogy to Kobe Bryant. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/sports/kobe-bryant-memorial-vanessa-bryant-s-full-eulogy-kobe-gianna-n1142176
Carey, J. (2014). Maharishi International University Commencement by Jim Carrey https://www.miu.edu/graduation-2014 Standard YouTube License.
Carpenter, R. H. (1999). Choosing Powerful Words. Boston, Allyn, and Bacon.
Cleveland, K. Graduate Speech to Sister. Student in Advanced Public Speaking at the University of Arkansas.
Clinton, B. (1993). First Inaugural Address of William J. Clinton. https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/clinton1.asp
Clinton, B. (2016). Bill Clinton’s Eulogy to Muhammad Ali, Louisville, KY. https://www.si.com/boxing/2016/06/13/muhammad-ali-funeral-bill-clinton-eulogy-speech
Clinton, H. (2008). Hillary Clinton’s Speech at the Democratic National Convention. https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/Conventions/story?id=5663211&page=1
Clinton, H. (1995). Women’s Rights are Human Rights. https://www.pbs.org/video/washington-week-hillary-clinton-declares-womens-rights-are-human-rights/
Cole, B. Tribute to Harry Potter’s Influence on My Childhood. Student in Advanced Public Speaking at the University of Arkansas.
Dold, L. Eulogy to Grandpa. Student in Advanced Public Speaking at the University of Arkansas.
Heston, C. (2008). From my cold dead hands. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5ju4Gla2odw Standard YouTube License.
Jackson, J. (1984). Keynote speech, Democratic National Convention. https://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/jessejackson1984dnc.htm
Jackson, S. Tribute to the Boat. Student in Advanced Public Speaking at the University of Arkansas.
Jobs, S. (2005). Steve Jobs Commencement to Stanford. https://news.stanford.edu/2005/06/14/jobs-061505/ Standard YouTube License.
Kennedy, J.F. (1960). Speech of Senator John F. Kennedy, Wittenburg College, Springfield Ohio. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/speech-senator-john-f-kennedy-wittenburg-college-stadium-springfield-ohio
King, M. (1963). I have a dream. https://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/mlkihaveadream.htm
Lindmeier, C. (2020). WHO Press briefing. https://www.cnbc.com/2020/02/25/coronavirus-who-warns-virus-will-be-literally-knocking-at-the-door.html
Martin, K. (2019). Brutally honest valedictorian regrets being top of the class. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T76FdtKreNQ Standard YouTube License
Nixon, R. (1968). Presidential nomination acceptance challenge. http://www.4president.org/speeches/nixon1968acceptance.htm
Mandela, N. (1994). Nelson Mandela Inaugural Address. American Rhetoric. https://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/nelsonmandelainauguralspeech.htm
Obama, B. (2004). Speech at the Democratic National Convention. http://americanradioworks.publicradio.org/features/blackspeech/bobama.html
Obama, B. (2008). Barack Obama’s New Hampshire Primary Speech-Yes We Can. https://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/barackobama/barackobamanewhampshireconcessionspeech.htm
Obama, B. (2013). President Obama speaks at a memorial service for Nelson Mandela. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SggOsfjsL0c Standard YouTube License.
Obama, B. (2020). Barack Obama delivers a powerful eulogy at John Lewis funeral. [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/KPeqVow2hKQ?t=2328 Standard YouTube License.
Obama, B. (2020). President Obama’s commencement speech, Dear class of 2020. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NGEvASSaPyg Standard YouTube License.
Obama, M. (2020). Don’t ever let anyone tell you that you’re too angry. The Washington Post https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2020/06/07/michelle-obama-graduates-dont-ever-ever-let-anyone-tell-you-that-youre-too-angry/?arc404=true
Professor Buzzkill. (2017). Eleanor Roosevelt: It’s better to light a candle than to curse the darkness. https://professorbuzzkill.com/qnq-21-churchill-americans-2/
ProWriting Aid. Antithesis. https://prowritingaid.com/Antithesis
Rigsby, R. (2017). The wisdom of a third-grade drop-out will change your life. Graduation speech. [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/Bg_Q7KYWG1g Standard YouTube License.
Sanberg, S. (2018). Opening statement to the Senate intelligence committee on Facebook and foreign influence. American Rhetoric. https://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/sherylsandbergcongressstatement.htm.
Spielberg, S. (2020). Some Good News Graduation Advice. Rolling Stone. https://www.rollingstone.com/tv/tv-news/oprah-winfrey-steven-spielberg-give-graduates-advice-on-john-krasinskis-some-good-news-993413/
Sutter, B. (2013). Baseball Hall of Fame induction address. [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/pyeYj_UJbn0 Standard YouTube License.
Van, As, T. Tribute Speech to Nelson Mandela. Student in Advanced Public Speaking at the University of Arkansas.
Wiesel, E. (1999). The perils of indifference. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JpXmRiGst4k Standard YouTube License.
Winfrey, O. (2005) Eulogy to Rosa Parks. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5cfhtfNfIPE Standard YouTube License. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/Advanced_Public_Speaking_(Meade)/01%3A_Writing_a_Speech/1.12%3A_Professional_Speechwriting-_Using_Colorful_Language_in_Your_Speech.txt |
It’s time to take your speechwriting to the professional level. To do that, you need to learn how to effectively use metaphors and similes and you need to learn how to weave those into a theme.
Let’s start with some definitions. Similes and metaphors both make comparisons. A simile makes an explicit comparison usually using like and as. According to Merriam Webster, a metaphor is a figure of speech in which a word or phrase literally denoting one kind of object or idea is used in place of another to suggest a likeness or analogy. You can use a variety of metaphors throughout a speech, but if you stick to one consistent topic, you have a theme. A theme is where you pick a comparison, and you use it throughout your speech. This gives a sense of unity and overall elevates the level of your speech.
What is needed for an effective metaphor?
An effective metaphor uses emotional phrases properly
According to an article in Psychology Today, “Metaphors are not just a literary technique; they are a very potent psychological technique.” In a study, people were told about climate change using a war metaphor or a race metaphor. Those hearing the war metaphor found the climate change situation more urgent and were more likely to increase their conservation behaviors.
Metaphors have a profound impact on how we think and act on social issues. In the study by Thibodeau and Boroditski, participants read about a crime-ridden city where the criminal element was a beast preying upon innocent citizens (animal metaphor), or was a disease that plagued the town (disease metaphor). When subjects were asked for a solution on how to solve the problem, those who heard about the animal metaphor supported strategies such as increasing police presence and imposing stricter penalties. Those who heard the disease metaphor favored seeking out the primary cause of the crime wave and bolstering the economy. The researchers concluded, “We find that exposure to even a single metaphor can induce substantial differences. People chose information that was likely to confirm and elaborate the bias suggested by the metaphor – an effect that persisted even when people were presented with a full set of possible solutions.” In short, the metaphor influenced how they saw the problem and what type of solution would fit the problem.
Interestingly, while the metaphor influenced their opinions on the issues, they remembered the issue and not the metaphor. The researchers suggested that even when the metaphor is covert, it affected the subject’s decisions.
An effective metaphor uses something simple to help the audience understand something complex.
Metaphors take hard-to-understand ideas and compare them to simple-to-understand ideas. Take, for example, the ever famous, “Life is a box of chocolates.” It takes something abstract, in this case, love, and compares it to something familiar and understandable, a box of chocolates.
An effective metaphor is one that is understood by the listeners.
A good metaphor works because the audience understands the thing that is being compared. When I told my son, he sounded like a “broken record,” he had not idea what I was talking about. One speaker told me that he made a reference to the “one ring to rule them all” to realize that only half of the audience had never seen the Lord of the Rings movies. He said, “I used a metaphor of a movie they had never seen to explain a concept they didn’t understand. Any understanding they might have had of the concept was lost because their attention was now focused on trying to understand a movie. “
An effective metaphor fits the cultural context.
In a study, students were given an argument about whether their university should require a senior thesis. Football phrases such as “handoff,” “touchdown,” and “fumble” were used. The results suggested that those who liked sports found the metaphor more engaging than those who did not like sports. For the non-sports fan, the metaphor had no more effect than the arguments that contained no metaphor.
An effective metaphor fits the situation.
The right metaphor is one that fits the occasion. Metaphors such as “passed on” and “candle dimmed” are used in eulogy speeches. “Beginning a new chapter” and “starting a new journey” are used for graduation speeches. “Retirement is a blank sheet of paper. It is a chance to redesign your life into something new and different.” This quote by Patrick Foley is an example of how retirement metaphors work. Other retirement phrases may be “unshackled” or “beginning a new highway.”
Check out this website about international metaphors for death
The greatest thing by far
is to be a master of metaphor
Aristotle
The big idea here is that it must be the right metaphor for the subject and the audience. Metaphors can help you understand complex ideas and can take everyday ideas and make them more interesting. To some degree, metaphors help you show, not tell. A well-told metaphor can help you create visuals in the mind of your audience. When it comes to this advanced language technique, I like to show, not tell. Let’s look at how metaphors have been used in speech, I’ll start with examples of metaphors in presidential speeches.
Presidential Metaphors
Presidential speeches
Watch this movie version of the 272-word Gettysburg Address and listen for references to birth and conception.
Let’s look at a few more examples of how presidents have used metaphors in their speeches.
• We are now engaged in a great Civil War, testing whether this nation or any nation so conceived and so dedicated can long endure. Abraham Lincoln, Gettysburg Address
• And you have changed the face of Congress, the Presidency, and the political process itself. Yes, you, my fellow Americans, have forced the spring. Now we must do the work the season demands.” Bill Clinton Inaugural Address
• You can be the new majority who can lead this nation out of along political darknessDemocrats, Independents, and Republicans who are tired of the division and distraction that has clouded Washington; who know that we can disagree without being disagreeable; who understand that if we mobilize our voices to challenge the money and influence that’s stood in our way and challenge ourselves to reach for something better, there’s no problem we can’t solve – no destiny we cannot fulfill. Barack Obama
• America was targeted for attack because we’re the brightest beacon for freedom and opportunity in the world. And no one will keep that light from shining. George W. Bush, Speech after 911 Attacks.
Persuasive Metaphor
Metaphors can be very persuasive. Picking a metaphor that the audience relates to is especially important–most people can relate to pizza so that is the comparison that this TED speaker chose. Al Vernacchio criticizes the use of baseball as a metaphor for sex where there is a winner and loser– scoring, getting to first base, etc. He suggests instead that people think of sex as shared pleasure, discussion, and agreement–he suggests the metaphor of pizza. It’s an eight minute, easy to listen to speech, you won’t want to miss this.
Metaphor in Leadership
Simon Lancaster says metaphors are one of the most powerful pieces of political and leadership communication because they move us towards things or make us recoil. He looks at phrases like the “financial storm” and the “dung heap of capitalism” as ways in which the use of words influences our perception of an issue.
(Watch the four-minute clip where he talks about metaphor. It is cued to start at the part where he talks about metaphor. )
If you have time, watch the whole talk to see how he shares his six rhetorical techniques: Three breathless sentences, three repetitive sentences, balancing statements, metaphor, exaggerative statements, rhyming statements
Enduring Metaphors
There are metaphors that seem to stick around through the years. You will see these come up a lot in literature, in songs, and in speeches. These are sometimes referenced as archetypal metaphors. According to communication scholar Michael Osborn, “archetypal metaphors are grounded in prominent features of experience, in objects, actions, or conditions which are inescapably salient in human consciousness.” Because the human experience aspect is so crucial to these metaphors, you tend to find them in some of the most significant speeches in history. The timelessness of these metaphors increases the likelihood that the speech will outlive its author.
Here are a few of the most prominent enduring metaphors. I’ll give you examples of each.
• Light, Dark
• Storm, Sea, Set Sail
• Disease
• Battle, war
• Seasons, Sunrise, Sunset
• Journey, Road
Seasons, Sunrise, Sunset
Winter in our Hearts
At the dawn of spring last year, a single act of terror brought forth the long, cold winter in our hearts. The people of Oklahoma City are mourning still.
Al Gore, Oklahoma Bombing Memorial Address
Winds of Change
The wind of change is blowing through this continent. Whether we like it or not, this growth of national consciousness is a political fact.
Harold MacMillian, British Prime Minister
New Birth of Spring
This year a new birth will occur. The physical being that will be its offspring will be like the new beginning which occurs when the spring rains wash away the dead leaves of winter and give life to the summer green which, as an expression of the rhythm of the seasons, blankets our earth. That new birth will signal the wonder that we have begun to construct a new social order.
Nelson Mandela, Address to the African National Congress
Light and Dark Metaphor
“If you want a love message to be heard,
it has got to be sent out.
To keep a lamp burning,
we have to keep putting oil in it.”
Mother Teresa
Only when it’s dark enough can you see the stars.
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. I See the Promised Land Speech
The light has gone out, I said, and yet I was wrong. For the light that shone in this country was no ordinary light. The light that has illumined this country for these many years will illumine this country for many more years, and a thousand years later that light will still be seen in this country, and the world will see it and it will give solace to innumerable hearts.
Jawaharlal Nehru, Eulogy to Mahatma Gandhi
The whole fury and might of the enemy must very soon be turned on us. Hitler knows that he will have to break us in this Island or lose the war. If we can stand up to him, all Europe may be free and the life of the world may move forward into broad, sunlit uplands. But if we fail, then the whole world, including the United States, including all that we have known and cared for, will sink into the abyss of a new Dark Age made more sinister, and perhaps more protracted, by the lights of perverted science
Winston Church Hill, The Finest Hour
John Kerry will be sworn in as president, and John Edwards will be sworn in as vice president, and this country will reclaim its promise, and out of this long political darkness, a brighter day will come.
Barack Obama, Democratic National Convention
Journey, Travel, Destination
I believe we can give our middle-class relief and provide working families with a road to opportunity.
I believe that we have a righteous wind at our backs and that as we stand on the crossroads of history, we can make the right choices, and meet the challenges that face us.
Barrack Obama, 2001 Democratic National Convention
Storm, Sea, Sail
Storm
That storm sweeps across the human habitat. Like the spring rains, it seeks to drive away the pestilences that continue to afflict the world of living beings, the universal malignancies which seem to have found a home in our diseased society.
Nelson Mandela, Address to African National Congress
Stormy Sea
It’s been quite a journey this decade, and we held together through some stormy seas. And at the end, together, we are reaching our destination.
Ronald Reagan, Farewell Address
Navigate Choppy Waters
It’s been my privilege to launch Baylor upon this exciting journey of Baylor 2012 and lead the university beyond the inertia of the status quo. Now that the voyage is well underway, it’s time for someone new to navigate these sometimes choppy waters while continuing to aim for the carefully charted destination ahead. President Robert B. Sloan, Baylor University
Sails into the Wind
Ted Kennedy has gone home now, guided by his faith and by the light of those he has loved and lost. At last, he is with them once more, leaving those of us who grieve his passing with the memories he gave, the good he did, the dream he kept alive, and a single, enduring image – the image of a man on a boat; white mane tousled; smiling broadly as he sails into the wind, ready for what storms may come, carrying on toward some new and wondrous place just beyond the horizon. Barack Obama Eulogy for Ted Kennedy.
Battle, War
In an analysis of war metaphors in public discourse, researchers concluded that war metaphors are omnipresent because they draw on a common theme that can be communicated in many different situations. War metaphors work because they express an urgent negative emotion that captures attention and can motivate action.
Here are a few examples of the battle/war metaphor that come up in speech.
• I am battling a headache.
• My friend beat cancer.
• He confronted his worst fear.
• I’ve got to tackle my taxes tonight.
• He attacked every weak point in my argument.
• His criticisms were right on target.
• I demolished his argument.
• I’ve never won an argument with him.
• If you use that strategy, he’ll wipe you out.
• He shot down all of my arguments.
• Attack a position.
• Physicians battle against death.
• The disease attacks our bodies.
• War on poverty/plastic/drugs/Christmas
I challenge you to spend one day writing down all the war and battle metaphors you hear, I think you will be surprised. Now that we agree that they are ever-present, let’s look at a few speech examples.
We are engaged in a great civil war and this campus is one of the many battlegrounds. The war I’m referring to is cultural rather than military, but something very vital is at stake. Today the battle is for your hearts and minds, for the freedom to think the way you choose to follow that moral compass that points to what is right.
Charlton Heston, NRA, Free Thought and Freedom
So, will you join in the battle to give every citizen the full equality which God enjoins and the law requires, whatever his belief, or race, or the color of his skin? Will you join in the battle to give every citizen an escape from the crushing weight of poverty? Lyndon B. Johnson, The Great Society
Simile
A simile makes a comparison using like or as.
A room without books is like a body without a soul. Cicero
Life is like riding a bicycle. To keep your balance, you must keep moving. Albert Einstein
A mind is like a parachute. It doesn’t work if it is not open. Frank Zappa, Musician
When I joined Apple in 1998, I couldn’t believe my luck. I was going to get to spend the rest of my professional life working for Steve Jobs. But fate comes like a thief in the night. The loneliness I felt when we lost Steve was proof that there is nothing more eternal, or more powerful, than the impact we have on others. Tim Cook, Ohio State Commencement.
Rain, somebody said, is like confetti from heaven. So even the heavens are celebrating this morning, joining the rest of us at this wonderful commencement ceremony.” USSC Justice John Roberts, Cardigan Commencement Address
Theme
The use of theme and figurative language separates the amateurs from the pros. Sometimes a theme is referred to as an extended metaphor. Taking your comparisons and weaving them into an overall speech theme takes work, but it elevates your speech. It’s time you learn to be one of the pros. I want to demonstrate how to brainstorm a theme and then give you numerous examples to show you how it works in a speech.
Do This Before You Begin to Write Your Speech
When using a theme, make a chart of the word and all the synonyms you can think of. After you have exhausted your ideas, then you should look into a thesaurus. Write any words related to the topic. For example, when looking at the word, “foundation,” the words “build” and “construct” are related. Finally, make a column of all the opposite words you can think of on your topic.
Brainstorm
the Word
Foundation
Words Related
to Foundation
Words Opposite
of Foundation
• Foundation
• Bedrock
• Firm footing
• Solid Ground
• Well-grounded
• Understructure
• Underpinning
• Substructure
• Footing
• Groundwork
• Base
• Backbone
• Root
• Fundamental
• ABC’s
• Genesis
• Support
• Build
• Construct
• Bridge
• Build up
• Nuts and bolts
• Infrastructure
• Genesis
• Spring
• Grounds
• Architecture
• Fabrication
• Develop
• Keystone
• Pillar
• Establish
• Shaky ground
• Crumbling foundation
• Sand
• Groundless
• Teardown
• Cut out from under
• Undermine
• Undercut
• Destroy
• Decrease
• Capstone
• Climax
• Crown
• Pinnacle
• Culmination
A great people has been moved to defend a great nation. Terrorist attacks can shake the foundation of our biggest buildings, but they cannot touch the foundation of America. These acts shattered steel but they cannot dent the steel of American resolve.
George W. Bush, Speech After 911 Attacks
When you are developing your speech, you can use a stand-alone metaphor, or you can weave it into a theme. Ceremonial speeches lend themselves to themes. Funerals, tributes, graduation speeches, and toasts, all work well when given a theme. Sometimes that theme is picked because it carries the emotion and sometimes, the theme is picked because it fits the person. Let me give you some examples. In the first example, Tasha Smith a student in my class was giving a tribute to her grandmother who was a gardener. It lends itself to a speech wide theme:
Plucking the weeds out of my life and out of the lives of others. I realize that it was never about your flower garden. It was really about tending to the things of the heart. Tasha Smith, Tribute to Grandma.
For the next example, my student, Drew Oglesby gave a best man toast. Because he and his friend often took road trips together, he used the theme of travel. He told stories of their road trips, of maps, of getting lost, and of the journey. In the wedding toast, he passes the map and the title of “road trip captain” off to the new bride.
I trust these hints are helpful the next time you two are traveling. Remember, it is not the road trip that I will always cherish, but the great guy I was able to share it with. So today, I raise a glass to you two. Mr. and Mrs. ___ because I know you are going to experience far greater adventures than I could ever imagine. I am confident you two will love each other with every wrong turn in life and you will love each other with every flat tire and detour. I know you will always be there for each other, and I am positive you (the bride) will make the perfect road trip captain!
Filmmaker, Steven Spielberg used the theme of dreams in his 2020 graduation address.
Dreams are a great test. Because a dream is going to test your resolve, and you’re going to know a dream from a pipe dream. You’re going to know a dream from a casual brush with something that you got excited about, and then it evaporates. A real dream is something that not only hangs on to you but you will hang onto it. And it will power you through every obstacle that people and your environment will throw against you.
Because if we’re in service of our dreams versus our dreams being in service to us it becomes something greater. It allows us to be game and it allows us to get over our fear to go forward no matter what obstacles are thrown in our path.
Former president Ronald Reagan spoke to the nation after the space shuttle challenger crashed. He masterfully used the theme of exploration. Listen carefully as he uses words such as “Pioneer, daring and brave.”
President Ronald Reagan used the exploration, pioneer, and frontier theme in his speech about the Challenger crash.
For the families of the seven, we cannot bear, as you do, the full impact of this tragedy. But we feel the loss, and we’re thinking about you so very much. Your loved ones were daring and brave, and they had that special grace, that special spirit that says, “Give me a challenge and I’ll meet it with joy.” They had a hunger to explore the universe and discover its truths. They wished to serve, and they did. They served all of us.
We’ve grown used to wonders in this century. It’s hard to dazzle us. But for 25 years the United States space program has been doing just that. We’ve grown used to the idea of space, and perhaps we forget that we’ve only just begun. We’re still pioneers. They, the members of the Challenger crew, were pioneers.
And I want to say something to the school children of America who were watching the live coverage of the shuttle’s takeoff. I know it is hard to understand, but sometimes painful things like this happen. It’s all part of the process of exploration and discovery. It’s all part of taking a chance and expanding man’s horizons. The future doesn’t belong to the fainthearted; it belongs to the brave. The Challenger crew was pulling us into the future, and we’ll continue to follow them.
I’ve always had great faith in and respect for our space program, and what happened today does nothing to diminish it. We don’t hide our space program. We don’t keep secrets and cover things up. We do it all up front and in public. That’s the way freedom is, and we wouldn’t change it for a minute. We’ll continue our quest in space. There will be more shuttle flights and more shuttle crews and yes, more volunteers, more civilians, more teachers in space. Nothing ends here; our hopes and our journeys continue.
There’s a coincidence today. On this day 390 years ago, the great explorer Sir Francis Drake died aboard ship off the coast of Panama. In his lifetime the great frontiers were the oceans, and a historian later said, “He lived by the sea, died on it, and was buried in it.” Well, today we can say of the Challenger crew: Their dedication was, like Drake’s, complete.
The crew of the space shuttle Challenger honored us by the manner in which they lived their lives. We will never forget them, nor the last time we saw them, this morning, as they prepared for their journey and waved good-bye and “slipped the surly bonds of earth” to “touch the face
When Using a Theme, Use Consistent Metaphors
When creating a speech with a unifying theme, it is helpful to be consistent with your metaphor. Not only does it help listeners to understand, but it also elevates the theme. Just for fun, look at this mixed metaphor from President Obama.
Even though most people agree that I’m being reasonable; that most people agree I’m presenting a fair deal; the fact they don’t take it means I should somehow do a Jedi mind-meld with these folks and convince them to do what’s right.
Barack Obama messing up Star Wars and Star Trek references while working with Republicans in Congress.
I think this is likely a mess up rather than a mixed metaphor, it does bring up the point that our minds struggle when given two different metaphors to work with.
Kenneth Burke’s Four Master Tropes
Literary theorist Kenneth Burke popularized a vocabulary that allows us to think about various rhetorical devices so we can make sense of experiences. He believed that by understanding them we could discover and describe “the truth.” Let’s begin with a definition. What is a trope? It is a way of presenting thought in language. So, Burke wanted to look at how we think based on the language that is being used.
Do you need to know these words to write a good speech? Not at all. This discussion is here to help you understand the theory that you will need in other classes, it is here to give you a vocabulary to impress your friends, but most of all it is here to help you consider the thought behind the language.
1. Metaphor: A metaphor substitutes one word for another or one idea for another based on some semblance.
2. Synecdoche: Synecdoche substitutes one part for the whole. A coach who says he needs “fresh legs” or “fresh eyes” means that they want the whole person–not just the eyes. To have “boots on the ground” means to have the whole soldier on the ground. When someone is “counting heads” they are counting more than just the head and the Navy a navy officer saying, “All hands on deck” is expecting more than just hands.
3. Metonymy: A metonymy elaborates by reducing a concept. It reduces a larger idea to a single word or phrase. When we say, “the White House issues a statement” we don’t mean the building itself. “Hollywood is corrupt” is a reference to something larger and “beware of the bottle” is not a warning about a bottle, but about the effect of alcohol.
4. Irony: Substitutes a statement for its opposite. What is said contradicts what is meant. When you see that you have a flat tire and say, “That’s great.” You mean just the opposite.
Kenneth Burk in Grammar of Motives
Key Takeaways
Remember This!
• A metaphor is a comparison.
• A simile is a comparison that uses “like” or “and.”
• A theme is a type of extended metaphor.
• An effective metaphor: uses emotional phrases properly, uses a simple thing to help the audience understand something complex, is understood by listeners, fits the cultural context
Side Note: I have tried to include speech samples from various cultures, various people groups, and various political leanings. I purposefully chose speeches that represent a variety of topics to show all the different ways these speech devices are used. You may not agree with the point of view of some of the speakers (there are some of them I do not agree with), but that doesn’t keep us from respecting their ability to construct a good speech.
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References
Annas, G. J. (1995). Reframing the debate on health care reform by replacing our metaphors. New England Journal of Medicine, 332(11), 744-748.
Aristotle, (1954). Poetics. trans Ingram Bywater Modern Library.
Brooks, R. (2017). Metaphors for death from around the world. The Langauge Blog. https://k-international.com/blog/metaphors-for-death-around-the-world/
Burke, K. (1954). Grammar of Motives. Prentice-Hall.
Burke, K. (1941). Four master tropes. The Kenyon Review 3(4), 421-438.
Burkely, M. (2017). Why metaphors are important. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-social-thinker/201711/why-metaphors-are-important
Bush, G. W. (2001). 911 Address to the Nation. https://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/gwbush911addresstothenation.htm
Clinton, B. (1993), Bill Clinton Inaugural Address. https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/clinton1.asp
Enelow, D. (1999). The four master troupes. http://faculty.headroyce.org/~denelow/English%2011/rhetoric/Mastertropes.htm;
, C.R. & . (1993). Student metaphors for the college freshman experience. Communication Education, 42 (2), 123-141. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634529309378920
Cook, T. (2020). Ohio State University. Commencement speech. https://news.osu.edu/apple-ceo-tim-cook-delivers-ohio-state-commencement-address/
Flusberg, S.J., Matlock, T. & Thibodeau, P.H. (2018) War metaphors in public discourse, Metaphor and Symbol, 33 (1), 1-18,
Flusberg, S. J., Matlock, T., & Thibodeau, P. H. (2017). Metaphors for the war (or race) against
climate change. Environmental Communication, 11 (6), 769-783. https://doi.org/10.1080/17524032.2017.1289111
Geary, J. (2009). Metaphorically speaking. TED Global 2009. https://www.ted.com/talks/james_geary_metaphorically_speaking?language=en
(1983). Functions of key metaphors in early Quaker sermons, 1671–1700. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 69(4), 364-378. https://doi.org/10.1080/00335638309383663
(1983). Metaphor in argumentation. Rhetoric Society Quarterly 13(3-4), 201-207. https://doi.org/10.1080/02773948309390696
Johnson, L. (1964). The great society. http://www.umich.edu/~bhlumrec/c/commence/1964-Johnson.pdf
King, M.L. (1968). I see the promised land. http://www.edchange.org/multicultural/speeches/mlk_promised_land.html
Lancaster, S. (2016). Speak like a leader. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bGBamfWasNQ
Lakoff, G & Johson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. University of Chicago Press.
Lincoln. A. (1863), Gettysburg Address. http://www.abrahamlincolnonline.org/lincoln/speeches/gettysburg.htm
Mandela, N. (1994). Address by Nelson Mandel to the African National Congress National conference on reconstruction and strategy, Johannesburg. http://www.mandela.gov.za/mandela_speeches/1994/940121_recon.htm
Macmillion, H. (1960). The wind of change speech. https://web-archives.univ-pau.fr/english/TD2doc1.pdf
Mere Rhetoric. (2015). Four master tropes. https://mererhetoric.libsyn.com/four-master-tropes
Metaphor. Merriam Webster. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/metaphor
Nehru, J. (1948). Mahatma Gandhi’s Eulogy. https://www.funeralwise.com/celebration-of-life/ceremony/eulogy/gandhi/
Obama, B. (2003). Democratic National Convention keynote address. https://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/convention2004/barackobama2004dnc.htm
Obama, B. (2008). New Hampshire primary concession speech. https://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/barackobama/barackobamanewhampshireconcessionspeech.htm
Obama, B. (2009). President Obama’s Eulogy for Senator Edward Kennedy. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xK5-uJc3EnY
Ogollsby, D. Roadtrip Captian. University of Arkansas.
Osborn, M., & Ehninger, D. (1962). The metaphor in public address. Speech Monographs 29(3). 223-234. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637756209375346
Osborn, M. (1967). Archetypal Metaphor in Rhetoric The Light-Dark Family. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 53. 115-126. https://doi.org/10.1080/00335636709382823
Osborn, M. (1977). The evolution of the archetypal sea in rhetoric and poetic. Quarterly Journal of Speech 63, 347-363.https://doi.org/10.1080/00335637709383395
Pollio, H.R., Barrow, J.M., Fine, H.J. & Pollio, M.R. (1977). The Poetics of Growth: Figurative Language in Psychology, Psychotherapy, and Education. Lawrence Erlbaum
Reagan, R. (1986). President Ronald Reagan’s Speech on Space Shuttle Challenger. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DqilE4AAa-M[ Standard YouTube License.
Reagan, R. (1989). Farewell Address to the Nation. https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/archives/speech/farewell-address-nation
Roberts, J. (2017). Cardigan Mountain School Commencement Address. American Rhetoric. https://www.americanrhetoric.com/spe...mmencement.htm
Sargent, L.D., Bataille, C.D., Vough, H.C., Lee, M.D. (2011). Metaphors for retirement: Unshackled from scheduled. Journal of Vocational Behavior. 79:2, 315-324. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2011.03.002
Smith, T. Tribute to Grandma. University of Arkansas.
Spielberg, S. (2020). Some Good News Graduation. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IweS2CPSnbI Standard YouTube License
Thibodeau P.H., & Boroditsky L (2011) Metaphors We Think With: The Role of Metaphor in Reasoning. PLoS ONE 6(2): e16782. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0016782
Ventura, J. (2016). Sh*t politicians say The funnies, dumbest, most outrageous thins ever uttered by our leaders. Skyhorse Publishing.
Vernacchio, A. (2012). Sex needs a new metaphor. Here’s one. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.ted.com/talks/al_vernacchio_sex_needs_a_new_metaphor_here_s_one Standard YouTube License
Wise, A. (2020, April 17). Military metaphors distort the reality of COVID-19. Scientific American. https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/military-metaphors-distort-the-reality-of-covid-19/
University of Arkansas Student Speech Samples from Tasha Smith, Tribute to Grandma, Drew Oglesby, Roadtrip Captain. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/Advanced_Public_Speaking_(Meade)/01%3A_Writing_a_Speech/1.13%3A_Professional_Speechwriting-_Metaphor_Simile_and_Theme.txt |
“I want pictures in my mind,” I tell my students. “Paint me pictures. Give me word pictures.” The more I can see, feel, taste, and smell what is happening in the speech, the more I am engaged. This chapter is about how to give your students a sensory experience when you speak. It is about using vivid and sensory words to engage the audience. I want to “show” you what this looks like by giving you several quality speeches to experience for yourself.
The tongue can paint
what the eyes can’t see.
Chinese proverb.
Listen as Will Smith describes jumping out of an airplane. By describing the light colors and what is going on in his mind, we begin to feel his story.
Consider This
Which of these two sentences gets your attention?
The glass shattered into tiny pieces
or
the glass broke
If you are like most people, the sentence that says the “glass shattered into tiny pieces” captured your attention and caused you to visualize the breaking glass. You might have even thought of the last time you broke a glass. It works because it used vivid language.
Listen as Matthew Dicks explains what it is like to be homeless and taken in by a family that has a pet goat that chews on his hair at night and then he continues to tell his story of being robbed at gunpoint. Notice how you can “see” his story in your mind’s eye.
In an experiment of investing in the market, researchers tested whether or not language would affect investor judgment. They tested vivid words versus pallid words. In this study, a vivid phrase was “sales jumped...analysts viewed this as very impressive” and the pallid phrase was ” sales increased..analysts view this performance as positive.” The vivid phrase showed stronger results. In other words, how you tell people to invest can impact the outcome. This is just one of many studies that show the impact of vivid language on thoughts and behaviors.
In other research studies, vivid messages created greater desirability for the product, caused people to have more favorable beliefs toward an idea and even influenced judgments. Why do they work? Vivid messages work, in part, because they hold our attention.
For vividness to be effective, it must do all the following:
(a) Emotionally interesting.
(b) Vivid enough to produce sensations or visual images.
(c) Relatable. It must be consistent with the audience’s experiences and knowledge.
(d) Related to the central thesis.
At the center of it all, is the audience. The key to making vividness work is audience understanding. For example, A cenote is a pool of water made by a sinkhole that exposes groundwater. This water is usually very clear, very clean, and very cool. Unless you’ve been to a cenote, you may have no idea what a cenote is and therefore would have no idea when a speaker says the lake water was like the cool, clear, water of a cenote. Instead of evoking images, it only produces confusion. Vividness works when the audience can relate, and they can call up the sensations or visual images.
It is also important that the vivid statements relate to the thesis. Researchers Guadagno, Rhoads, and Sagrins tested why sometimes vividness worked and other times it did not. With testing, they found that vivid words persuaded only when the message was strong and the vivid words regarded the central thesis. When vivid information was introduced that did not relate to the main point, it became a distraction. It seems that vividness enhances persuasion, but only when purposefully used, otherwise it is just a distraction that undermines persuasion. Oh yeah, no surprise here, but vividness can’t save a weak argument.
Angelina Jolie Speaks at World Refugee Day
Let’s look at a strong speech that uses vividness.
• Stripped of home and country, refugees are buffeted from every ill wind that blows across this planet.
• They guided me into a small dirt house with no roof to keep out the scorching heat, and they dusted off the two old mats that they ate, slept and prayed on. And we sat and we talked, and they were just the loveliest women. And then with a few twigs and a single tin cup of water, they made the last of their tea and insisted on me to enjoy it.
• He had a dusty face, the brightest green eyes I have ever seen but such a sad look but she explained that he’s always asking for more food. And it hurts her to say that they have nothing. And she asked if we would consider taking him, would we take her sons so he could eat. And she said it with tears in her eyes with such desperation.
• He sat on the dusty floor; he’s been shot on the back and left paralyzed. And he crawled forward to shake my hand, he was no more than fifteen. He had big pretty eyes, big wide sparkling smile, and after all he’d been through, he’s full of laughter and love. Later that night I asked whether he’d not been taken to a hospital or at least given a wheelchair and I was told that the boy’s entire family had been killed so there was no one to look after him.
Angelina Jolie World Refugee Day transcript
After you read this chapter, revisit this speech. While looking at the transcript, try to make a list of all the vivid and sensory words. Categorize them based on the sense they activate.
Use Sensory Words
One type of vividness comes from sensory words. Research demonstrates that we process those words faster than other words. By sensory words, I’m talking about words that have to do with seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, touching. For just a moment, imagine you are in Paris and you look up to see the top of the Eiffel tower where the structure touches the sky. Chances are, as you thought about this, your eyes went up. You sensed with your body the words that were being spoken. When you hear or read sensory words that you can relate to, your brain lights up. Your brain lights up in the same area that the actual experience would occur–it is as if you are experiencing the word and not just hearing it. When someone talks about the “sweet, gooey cookie pulled out of the oven, and the sweet aroma fills the air and you look down at the partially melted chocolate chips and are eager to take a bite. ” This sentence caused many of you to taste and see the cookie and your brain lights up as if you are eating one. Words that evoke a mental image are the most likely to evoke a sensory image. The more you create “word pictures” that we see in the movie of our minds, the more likely we are to experience it with other senses.
What follows is a chart of the main senses and with examples of the words associated with that sense.
The Power of Sensory Words
Touch Sensory Words
Tactile words describe the texture of how something feels. You can also use them to describe feelings and abstract concepts.
gritty, creepy, slimy, sticky, rough
Examples of touch words:
• Two minutes into the interview, I knew his abrasive personality would be an issue if we hired him.
• With a forced smile, I put on the itchy Christmas sweater my grandmother bought me.
Sound Sensory Words
Words related to hearing often describe the sound.
crashing, thumping, piercing, thundering, squeaking
Examples of hearing words:
• He had a big, booming voice.
• The sound of screeching tires was soon followed by the deafening sound of a car horn.
Sight Sensory Words
Visual words describe the appearance of something. They may indicate color, shape, or appearance.
gloomy, dazzling, bright, foggy, vibrant
Sight word examples:
• Her golden hair looked disheveled thanks to the gust of wind.
• He was a towering presence.
Taste and Sensory Words
Taste words are interesting because often they are a metaphor for something else. For example, a “bitter rejection” has nothing to do with taste.
zesty, tantalizing, sweet, stale
Examples of taste words:
• It’s a bittersweet situation.
• The scrumptious jalapeno poppers comforted Karl after his bitter rejection.
Smell Sensory Words
Words related to smell describe — yes, you guessed it — how things smell. Often underutilized, sensory words connected with smell can be very effective.
putrid, flowery, stinky
Examples of smell words:
• The pungent smell was unmistakable: someone in this elevator was wearing Axe Body Spray.
• No matter the expiration date, it was clear from its rancid stench the milk had gone bad.
Many of these examples are from smartblogger.com and exchangedmarketing.com.
Notice how Brene Brown describes a situation–She has on white slacks and a pink sweater set and how she dropped her coffee on the tile floor, and it splashed on her. She goes on to say that she blamed her husband. She uses it to make a powerful point about blame and accountability and demonstrates for us the power of how vivid descriptions can draw us in and make us want to listen.
Considerations of Using Vividness
The easier that information is for me to think about, remember, and recall, the more that information influences my decisions. Your goal should be to give the information in such a way that people can process that information. The availability heuristic suggests that when making decisions we tend to base those decisions on things that come to our mind easily. If information is recent, vivid, and fits into our thought patterns, it is more available and therefore is more likely to influence our decision-making.
We are likely to think crime is a threat if there has been a recent break-in in our neighborhood. We are more likely to feel afraid if we watch a lot of crime shows or if there has been a featured news story on assaults. Since that information is recent in our mind and the stories were told to us in a vivid manner, we are more likely to pay attention to that information and then bring it to mind when someone suggests taking a self-defense course.
This collection of motivational stories is powerful because they are real and because in each case, they are told with vividness.
In this next video, the founder of charity water, Scott Harrison tells how he got involved in charity water and what his organization does. Watch this documentary and speech video as he talks about drinking from “scummy swamps.” And how he describes how the women are “breaking their backs to get it.” (You can stop watching at the statistics part –but I warn you it may be hard to stop). What is the point here? The point is for you to notice how he infuses speech, powerful visuals, and vivid words to persuade us to act and to help others to get clean water.
If you watched the video, you saw a worm in the water. Some of you likely had a visceral reaction. For many of you, it caused you to sympathize with the cause, for others, it may have gone too far, and you protected yourself by not watching or by making fun of the video.
If you try to take vividness too far, it can backfire on you. Thoughts that are too uncomfortable, might cause people to suppress the information or deny it altogether. This is particularly true when creating messages that instill fear.
The Extended Parallel Process Model looks at how people respond to messages that create fear as a way to drive positive health outcomes. For example, to get someone to wear a condom, a speaker might activate fear and make them afraid that they will get a sexually transmitted disease. A speaker might share statistics, gruesome stories, and even show slides of infections (flashback to high school health class). The challenge is that people have different reactions to fear-invoking situations–they either minimize their fear–“That’s not going to happen to me, I could tell if my partner has an infection” or they minimize the danger and wear a condom. So what makes the difference?
A speaker who is trying to use research and analogies that produce fear has to find the “sweet spot” in order to get the audience to react in a way that produces a positive health outcome. If the danger feels like it is too much, the listener will just panic or deny the danger. Describing things in too vivid of detail can often backfire and cause people to worry but do nothing or deny that the situation is real.
The goal should be to use just enough vividness that it is memorable and to direct examples towards the specific audience, so they are relatable. Most importantly, fear messages work best when coupled with a specific plan of action. If people feel like there is a do-able way to get rid of the fear, and they are capable of doing it, they are more likely to react.
To recap. For an audience to be impacted, the message has to be relatable. It should be vivid enough to be memorable and activate the senses–but not so vivid that it overwhelms the main message. Vivid descriptions should support the central message. If you are trying to persuade an audience and you use vividness to produce fear, you need to offer them specific, manageable ways to act. Vividness is one more tool in your public speaking toolbelt. Use it wisely!
Key Takeaways
Remember this!
• For vivid words to work they must be emotionally interesting, vivid enough to produce sensations or visual images, relatable to the audience, and related to the central thesis.
• Vivid messages are easier to remember and can be more persuasive.
• When using fear appeals, make sure you could the fear with an action that the audience is capable of performing.
Please share your feedback, suggestions, corrections, and ideas
I want to hear from you.
Do you have an activity to include?
Did you notice a typo that I should correct?
Are you planning to use this as a resource and do you want me to know about it?
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Face your fears!
There are two types of speakers:
Those that are nervous and those that are liars.
Mark Twain
Normal People Get Nervous
Most people will tell you the thought of making a speech makes them apprehensive. In fact, a poll by the National Communication Association found that only 24% of Americans are very comfortable giving a speech. You may be part of the 24%, or you may be like the rest of the population–uncomfortable at the thought of speaking in front of others. “According to most studies, people’s number one fear is public speaking. Number two is death. Death is number two. Does that sound right? This means to the average person, if you go to a funeral, you’re better off in the casket than doing the eulogy.” This quote from actor and comedian Jerry Seinfeld is funny because it is true. Researchers at the University of Nebraska conducted research to see if indeed students feared public speaking to that extent, so they surveyed 2,543 college students. The answer was “yes.” Public speaking ranked up there with death as the most common fear.
So, there you have it. If the thought of a speech makes you feel apprehensive, you are Normal. Normal people have all kinds of physical reactions when delivering a speech or even thinking about delivering a speech:
• Sweaty palms
• Accelerated heart rate
• A knotted stomach
• Dry mouth
• A lump in the throat
• Shortness of breath
Can you relate to any of these feelings? If you have any of these, you are not broken, you are not doomed for speech failure, quite the contrary. If you experience any of these, you are NORMAL.
At this point, you may be thinking pointing out your anxiety does not make you feel any better. Hang in there and keep reading. The goal of this chapter is threefold. It is to help you to realize that if you are anxious, apprehensive, or nervous about public speaking, then you are normal. It is to help you understand most people will have some physical responses to being anxious and it is how you think about these responses that make a difference. The biggest takeaway of all is for you to learn to be intentional with your thoughts and to change your mindset. In doing these things, you will prepare the path for future speaking success.
Time to Check Your Brain’s Check Engine Light
A man’s life
is what his thoughts
make of it.
Marcus Aurelius
There is a dashboard warning light in my car that lets me know something is wrong. When I take it to specialists, they plug in my car and “read the code” and they tell me exactly what the problem is. Let’s assume, your brain’s dashboard warning light is on and letting you know you may have a thinking problem. Let’s “read the code” to see what the issue is so we can fix it. You may have some faulty reasoning happening that is causing your speech anxiety. Time for a diagnostic. See how many of these relate to you.
All or Nothing Thinking:
All or nothing thinking assumes your self-meter has two options: all perfect or total failure. If you have ever given a speech and forgotten a part or misspoke a word and then declared the speech a disaster, you might have all or nothing thinking. A speech can be good- even great-and still contain speech mistakes. In fact, most speeches contain at least one mistake.
What’s the Fix for All Or Nothing Speaking? The fix for all or nothing thinking is to realize a perfect speech rarely exists. A great speech is one that communicates an idea to an audience. If you do that, you have accomplished the goal. If you mess up, or should I say when you mess up (because normal people make mistakes), then all is not lost. Recognize that the speech can be good and contain mistakes. You might say, “Overall the speech was great, I just wish I would have had a stronger ending. I will write it out next time.”
Overgeneralization:
Overgeneralization is the belief that a single failure is a universal sign of failure. If you are on a diet and you eat a cookie and then declare yourself a diet failure, you have overgeneralized. If you have a failure, it doesn’t mean you are a failure. If you have ever had a less than perfect speech moment, and then declared yourself a bad speaker, you have overgeneralized.
What’s the Fix for Overgeneralization? The fix is to recognize that one mistake does not make you a mistake. One failure, does not make you a failure. If you make a mistake, recognize it and make a plan to correct it in the future. The most important thing of all is to realize you are not defined as a failure because you made a mistake.
Fortune Telling:
Have you ever told yourself, “I know this is going to be a disaster?” If you predict your speech will go badly, then you have a fortune-telling problem. The more you fortune tell your speech will be a disaster, the more you undermine your own success. By fortune-telling (also known as self-fulfilling prophecy), you are wishing you will fail and then you will make your own negative predictions come true. Some people even delight in their own misfortune, “See, I told you I wasn’t cut out for public speaking.”
What’s the Fix for Fortune Telling? The fix to the fortunetelling problem is to take control and to stop. Predicting your own failure is just your own way of not trying. If you want to predict something, predict that if you practice, you will get better. If you focus on the needs of the audience, you will connect with them. If you do vocal exercises, you will strengthen your voice. Throw the darn crystal ball away, it was negative, unreliable, and you have outgrown it now.
Reality Check
At one time or another, most of us have gotten caught up in our failures or we have created scenarios in our head about the terrible things that may happen. It is just plain silly the way we torture ourselves. Most of us get worked up and miss out on sleep worrying about things that never even happen. Sometimes you just have to have a reality check.
So, what if you say the wrong word and they laugh….
Will they fire you—probably not.
Will they walk out—unlikely.
Will they hate you—not likely
Will your face turn red—maybe, but so what?
Is it really that awful? ——no
One professional speaker commented no matter what happens in a speech that she can turn it into something good. She suggests if everyone walks out on her, she can still use that. Next time I speak, I can say, “Last time I gave this talk the whole room walked out on me.”
Change Takes Effort
Whether you are a seasoned speaker or just getting started, it is important to realize everyone’s mind and motivation need a tune-up from time to time. It is difficult to break out of faulty patterns of thinking and it is not enough to just recognize it, you have to do something about it. Motivational speaker, Mel Robbins, illustrates this in a talk to executives. After reminding them that they came to the conference to network and to make new connections, she asks each of them to raise a hand if they sat by someone they already know. Most people laughed and raised their hands because they know they are supposed to network and yet most of them are playing it safe and sitting with friends. They, like us, were motivated to change, and yet they fell back on old patterns of behavior. As a conference activity, Robbins then proceeded to make them change seats and sit by someone new. They looked uncomfortable, grumbled a bit, and then changed seats. She reminded them we want to change, but change is hard and change is uncomfortable.
It is one thing to be motivated to think about change and it is another thing to be motivated to actually make the change. Making the change causes discomfort and leads to resistance, even if you are the one telling yourself the do it. Change is uncomfortable, but growth is worth it.
What’s the point? The point is you likely recognize that there are areas you need to work on. You likely already know what you need to do. You are already motivated to think about improving (that is why you are reading this book or taking a speaking class). It is not enough to want to change, you have to act on it. To do the next step, you must recognize that change causes discomfort. You are going to have to be vigilant to begin making those changes. Change is uncomfortable, make a plan, and stick to it.
Choose Which Self to Wear to Your Speech
In the morning, I go into my closet and I look at all the clothes that I have to wear. I pick out which ones to put on for the day. I decide whether to dress like casual Lynn or professional Lynn. I make a decision on how to dress each day. In the same way, I decide which self to wear each day. I decide who to be each day. One of the most powerful things I learned about identity is that I don’t have one identity, I have many to pick from. Just like picking which outfit to wear for the day, I pick which “me” to be for the day.
Think about the “self-clothes” you wear every day. If you are like me, there are times when you have felt unsure of yourself, maybe you lowered your eyes when people looked at you, maybe you talked in a powerless voice–on that day, you were wearing your shy self. On a different day, you felt like the expert, you were able to tell people how to accomplish a task, and you used your assertive voice–on that day, you were wearing your powerful self. Which was the real you? They both were. The people around you, the situation you were in, your mood at the moment, all contributed to which self you brought out for the day.
This is also true for which speaker you will be. You make the decision about which self you bring to your speech. You can bring the brave, outspoken “you” that has great things to say or you can bring the “you” that decides to play small.
A lot of growth can happen when you learn you are not an attribute, but rather you act out an attribute. You are not shy, you act shy. You are not bold, you act boldly. You are not nervous, you act nervous. Once you realize you are not going against your biology or against your personality to be a powerful, confident speaker, then you can give yourself permission to wear a powerful self to your speech. That “power self” outfit will look good on you, so try it on!
Consider This
I often have students play a game where they stand up in groups and each group talks at the exact same time as the other group with the goal of competing for the audience’s attention. In this game, students wave their arms, make direct eye contact, and raise their voices. They laugh and they have fun. I do this to let them know that they can speak loudly, use gestures, and have fun in front of an audience. I remind them they have just demonstrated to me they are capable of expressive movement and dynamic voice projection. Later when they tell me, they “just can’t project their voice” or they “just aren’t a person who gestures,” I remind them of the exercise where they demonstrated to me they can do both. I let them know they are capable of it; sometimes they decide to do it and other times they decide not to do it but they must own the fact that it is a choice they made.
Even after this activity, an occasional student will try to tell me, “I can’t project my voice” or “I’m just not assertive.” I never argue, I ask them if they have siblings. If they answer, “yes,” I ask them if they have ever yelled at their sibling to get out of their stuff. They usually laugh and say, “Oh, yes.” I then ask them to tell me of places they feel comfortable, and they act assertively. They tell me of a club they are in, a friend pack they hang out with, or a role where they feel confident. I remind them that clearly, they know how to project their voice because they have done it before. Clearly, they know how to be assertive because they have been assertive before. I remind them they know how to talk to others and be confident because they have acted confidently before. They have the ability; they just choose when to use that ability.
Now, I want you to think of a time you have chosen to define yourself as weak, shy, or unassertive. I want you to ask yourself why did you decide that for yourself? Think of at least three settings where you brought your “big self” to the situation. Think about a time, you have projected your voice. Think about a time you felt the power of your own words. You know you have the ability, what causes you to not want to bring it out?
We All Feel Like Imposters
Feel powerless or insecure? You are not alone. When interviewed, top executives, college professors, leaders of all kinds admit they often feel powerless. They often feel like they don’t belong, they aren’t smart enough, they are not good enough, and they don’t speak clearly enough. And yet, they put on their assertive selves and act the part until they begin to fully feel the part. They decide just because they have feelings of smallness does not mean they should act small. They have the choice not to act on the powerlessness they feel. In fact, for most, it pushes them to try harder. These leaders decide even if they sometimes feel like an impostor, they can still act the part and be powerful. They can put on their “big self” and so can you.
What’s the point? You decide how you are going to act in a speech. You control which you to wear for the day, you control whether you act powerful, and you control whether you bring your “big self” to the presentation. I hope you decide to try on the powerful you. You owe it to yourself to see what you can do. You might just decide it is a good fit.
Who Will You Decide to Be?
Don’t Do This Do This Instead
Awfulizing Me
“What if I mess up? I always mess things up.”
Overcomer Me
“I’m tough and can take on any challenge.”
“It may not be easy, but I can do it.”
Insecure Me
“What if they don’t like me? They will hate me.”
Confident Me
“I’ve got this because I have practiced and I know my stuff.”
Hater Me
“Speech is stupid. I can’t believe I have to do this.”
Powerful Me
“I’ve got great things to say, and I know it will cause them to think.”
Downer Me
“I know I’m going to mess it all up. I always do. Why even try?
Optimistic Me
“I may not be perfect, but I have something important to share.”
“I’ve been given this opportunity to speak, I’m going to make the most of it.”
You are capable of being all these.
Which one will you pick on your speech day?
What’s the Worst That Could Happen?
Sometimes, you can create fears to keep yourself from fully trying. If that happens, the best thing you can do with your fear is to take it to its logical absurdity.
What if I mess up?
So what?
People will laugh at me!
So what?
They won’t like me!
So what?
No one will be my friend.
Really, So what?
If no one in the class will be my friend, then I will be lonely.
So what?
No one will talk to me outside of class and I will be so lonesome I will drop out of college.
Are you sure? So, then what?
I will drop out of college, never have good relationships which means I will never get a job.
So what?
I will be homeless living under a bridge with a stray dog.
All that because you messed up on your speech in college. Really?
As I said, we take it to its absurdity. So, what if you mess up. Usually, the worst that can happen is you get a little embarrassed at the time and have a good story to tell for a lifetime.
Use the A.W.A.R.E Method to Beat Anxiety
If you feel anxiety is getting too much, do what nurses are trained to do and be aware. The A.W.A.R.E. method can help:
Accept that you feel anxious. Fighting it will not take away the anxiety.
Watch your anxiety. What changes are you noticing in your body, your thoughts, and your perception?
Act normal. Breath normally and act as if you feel confident and calm. This will pass and your anxiety will fade away.
Repeat the three steps above until your anxiety reduces to an acceptable level.
Expect the best. Invest your time and energy in what can help you, don’t worry about what might go wrong.
I was once given the advice to think of emotions like a river. Emotions flow into us and will flow through us and out of us as long as we don’t try to dam them up.
Know That They Can’t Tell How Nervous You Are
You know the feeling that goes through your mind: “I’m so nervous. I bet everyone can tell”? Well, guess what—they can’t. At least this is what research suggests. If you have felt like people could peer into your very soul and see your insecurity, you are not alone. The illusion of transparency is the tendency for people to overestimate the degree to which their personal mental state is known by others. Because our emotions feel so strong to us, we are sure that they “leak out” and that everyone can tell just how we feel. When researchers put it to the test, they found that observers just are not very good at picking up on a speaker’s emotional state. The speakers thought the audience could sense their insecurity and could see their hands shaking and could hear their voice shaking, but the audience noticed very little or not at all. Researchers in an article titled, The Illusion of Transparency and the Alleviation of Speech Anxiety, suggest:
What’s inside of you typically manifests itself too subtly to be detected by others. You should just relax and try to do your best. Know that if you become nervous, you’ll probably be the only one to know.
The researchers found simply telling people the audience could not see through them made them less anxious as speakers. The bottom line is this: speaker anxiety is not very accurately detected by audiences. Simply knowing this can help set you free. Do not worry, they can’t see through you. Now you know, you can let it go.
Know That You Are Likely Misinterpreting Cues
“I saw that guy in the back make an angry face, I know he hated my speech.” It is easy when you are nervous to look at the audience and the looks on their faces as hostile. I once got a note from a student who told me he thought I hated his speeches because I gave him mean looks. I thought about it long and hard because I really liked the student, and I really liked his speeches. Maybe it was because I had been wearing the wrong glasses and squinted a little, maybe it was because the room and windows created weird light streaks that made it hard to see his slides, maybe it was because I had a headache that day, or maybe it was because I just make weird facial expressions (my kids tell me this one is true). The problem is I liked his speeches and he thought I hated them.
I found an article in the Psychophysiology Journal that might explain what happened. In this study, researchers told participants that they would have to give a speech. While waiting for their turn to give the speech, participants looked at a series of facial expressions and were tested by an electroencephalogram. The researchers found that participants who thought they were fixing to give a speech were more likely to judge the faces they saw as angry.
Think about it. This implies that when you are ready to give a speech, you may see neutral faces as angry. The famous lawyer Gerry Spence wrote about something similar. Every time he spoke, he noticed one of the jurors would look stern and cross his arms across his chest. He just knew that juror was really opposed to his message. He was shocked when all the jurors voted in favor of his client. How could that be? What about the man with his arms crossed? Later, the juror said, his crossed arms weren’t in opposition, he just had a big belly, and it is a nice place to rest his arms. Be aware of the tendency to interpret other’s nonverbals in a negative way.
You do not know what is going on in the minds of your audience so always assume the best.
Realize That Stress Can Be Helpful
Health psychologist Kelly McGonigal shares her surprising revelation-stress can be a good thing. In her TED Talk, How to Make Stress Your Friend, she reveals that when it comes to stress, a rapid heartbeat and fast breathing are not the problem. The problem is what we believe those physical reactions mean. It is how we label the stress that matters most. Think about it. Your heart pounds and your breath quickens in moments of joy. Your heart pounds and your breath quickens before acts of great courage. Your heart pounds and your breath quickens in anticipation of special events. A pounding heart and quickened breath can be a good thing. When you interpret those physical symptoms as something good, it opens your blood vessels and sends extra oxygen to your brain and you feel energized and prepared. When you label that fast heartbeat and rapid breathing as helpful, you feel more confident, less anxious, and less stressed out. McGonigal suggests it is when you interpret these reactions as bad that it constricts your blood vessels leading to health issues.
Football players and other athletes often do things to get pumped before running out on the field. These players believe an adrenaline rush means they are going to play well. They think of adrenaline as a gift that means they are charged up. They believe the adrenaline will help them run faster and be more alert. If you are a speaker and you experience an adrenaline rush, be like these players and think of it as a sign your body is awake, alert, and ready to go. Just remember that most people experience some version of butterflies before they speak. If you are nervous, you are normal. Good speakers channel energy into making a good speech. Good speakers know you do not want to get rid of the butterflies, you just want them to fly in formation.
So, what does that mean for you? It means your pounding heart and heavy breathing have prepared you for action.
Watch the full video on stress here.
The Surprising Side Effect of Stress
Ready for the bonus feature?
Now you have watched the video, you know there is another great side effect to stress–you become more social. McGonigal suggests that when you are stressed, not only do you release adrenaline, but you also release oxytocin. It is the release of oxytocin that makes you want to spend time encouraging people and being around people. All these years, I have joked that my public speaking students have bonded so fiercely because they bonded through pain, and now I know it is literally true. Since they were together in times of high excitement during speeches, they felt closer and more bonded (much like a sports team).
McGonigal also suggests that an oxytocin reaction is a form of self-healing. When you have an oxytocin reaction, you tend to want to seek and give support. All of this wonderful oxytocin protects, regenerates, and strengthens your heart.
What does this mean for you? It means if you feel anxious about an upcoming speech, call a friend or get a hug from your mom. That feeling you have makes you want to tell someone how you feel is your body’s way of helping you to be successful and healthy. Your body knows what it needs, it doesn’t need to run from speech, it needs to connect with people who care about you. In your anxiety, you should encourage others. In doing so, you help yourself along the way. Your body knows what to do- listen.
Let Fear Propel You
It is normal to have physical reactions when thinking about public speaking and it is how we frame these feelings that makes all the difference. Many famous speakers tell of wrestling with fear and Gerry Spence, lawyer and author of How to Argue and Win Every Time and Win Your Case, is one of them. I will let him describe his battle in his own words.
“In the courtroom, I sometimes carry on a silent conversation with myself about my fear, while the jurors look on wondering, as they must, what occupies this strange man who stands silently before them looking down at his feet. My conversation with myself most often sounds like this:
“How are you feeling, Gerry?” I ask.
“The jury is watching, waiting for me to begin my argument,” I reply. “I can’t just stand here saying nothing.”
“I asked you, how are you feeling?”
“You know how I feel.
“What is the feeling?”
“You know what the feeling is.”
“Are you afraid to say it?”
“All right. I’m afraid.”
“Well, you should be. Big stakes. The prosecutor wants to destroy your client. He wants to destroy you.”
“I don’t want to think about it. Not now. Not standing here.”
It’s all right to be afraid. You should be afraid. Go ahead. Feel it.
“But the jury’s watching.”
“They can wait a few seconds more.
Fear is energy.
If you feel your fear, you can also feel its power, and you can change its power to your power.”
Suddenly, I look up at the waiting jury. I hear myself address them in a clear, quiet voice, “Ladies and gentlemen of the jury.” Suddenly, I am vaguely aware that something is happening to my fear. I have looked it in the eye. I have stared it down. It retreats like a whimpering cur that is now afraid to face me! The pain of it recedes. I feel a new power well up. And my argument begins…
I have learned not to be ashamed of my fear, but to embrace it. One cannot be brave without it, for is not our bravery merely the facing of our fear?”
Can you see a pattern emerge with these things? Fear is not the problem, it is how we allow fear to cripple us or give us the power that matters.
Believe That with Practice, You Can Improve
When you think about speaking are you tempted to believe, “Some people are just born good speakers” or “I just wasn’t made for this public speaking stuff.” If that is you, you may have what Stanford researcher Carol Dweck calls a “fixed mindset.” It does not have to be that way, Dweck found when people left their options open and believed that they could improve, they did. One way to keep your mind open is to add the word “yet” to the end of the sentence. It’s easy. Let’s try it: “I haven’t mastered this…yet. I haven’t learned to gesture without thinking about it…yet.”
Another way you can help yourself have a growth mindset is to pick a few growth mindset quotes and place them where you can see them every day. Look at them, read them out loud, and think about where you want to be. Let a growth mindset become your new habit.
Here are a few of my favorite quotes:
• It’s not always about being the best. It’s about being better than you were yesterday. –Jigoro Kano
• No matter how many mistakes you make or how slow your progress, you are still way ahead of everyone who isn’t trying. –Tony Robbins
• Life is 10% what happens to you and 90% how you react to it. –Charles Swindoll
• Courage is like a muscle. We strengthen it when we use it. –Ruth Gordon
• Sometimes what we call “failure” is really just that necessary struggle called learning.–Louis Armstrong
• May your choices reflect your hopes, not your fears. –Nelson Mandela
• A comfort zone is a beautiful place but nothing ever grows there. –John Assaraf
• You won’t always be motivated; you will have to learn to be disciplined.–Author unknown
• Doubt kills more dreams than failure ever will. –Suzy Kassem
• You have not failed unless you have quit trying. –Gordon B. Hinckley
Change the Way You Think About Things
Whatever you do, do not think about the pink elephant. Stop!
Don’t think about the pink elephant with cute pink ears. Do not think about an elephant with a hot pink tail. How are you doing? If you are like most people, not too well.
Now, try this. Think about a green monkey. Go ahead. Picture its green curly tail and its fluffy green fur. So, here’s the question, when you were thinking of the green monkey, did your image of the pink elephant go away? For most people, it did.
What’s the point? The point is before a speech, most people tell themselves, “I won’t be nervous, I won’t be nervous, I won’t think of the pink elephant.” Do you see where I’m headed with all of this? Telling yourself not to be nervous rarely helps. The more you say, “I won’t be nervous,” the more you feel nervous.
So how do you stop thinking of the pink elephant? By thinking of the green monkey of course. Apply this to speaking. Instead of saying, “I won’t be nervous” or “I won’t forget what to say,” say things like, “This speech is going to be great! I can do this.” or “My audience will love the part where I…” Speech teacher, Donn King calls this harnessing your green monkey, and researchers call it cognitive restructuring. You will restructure the way you think about things.
Conquer your fear with positive self-talk. Tell yourself you will be relaxed, articulate, and confident…and you will be.
Cognitive Restructuring
Don’t Say
(Pink Elephant)
Do Say
(Green Monkey)
• I’m afraid my voice will crack.
• I’ll mess up and say the wrong words.
• I’m so nervous.
• I hate doing speeches.
• I can do this.
• The audience will like my topic.
• I am confident.
• I know my stuff.
• I am smart and capable.
• I will speak with power and authority.
I often use the green monkey analogy when making presentations to groups. I say, “When you think about the green monkey, the pink elephant goes away. Except for some of you, some of you imagine the green monkey riding the pink elephant (the audience always laughs). You are the special ones who do things differently.” I said this in a special presentation to Panamanian Engineering students and their director Michael Rau sent me a picture and a note that said, “This is me.”
This made my day and I keep it on my desk as a reminder–we all do things differently. Sometimes the green monkey (positive thinking) can erase the pink elephant (negative self-talk). For others, the self-doubt may still be there but the monkey (positive thinking) eventually learns to drive the fear to work towards great things. Each of us finds different ways to believe in ourselves and harness our fears. Each of us is working to find our way, so find what works for you.
Focus On What You Want More Of
If you think, I am energized.
If you think, I am going to speak confidently.
If you think, I am going to share important things and they will want to listen
Then, you’ll get more of those feelings.
Think about things you actually want to increase.
Plan on Recovering Well
I Hope You Mess Up At Least Once—I Really Mean It!
I hope you mess up so you can get it over your unrealistic expectation of perfection.
I love hearing stories of how people messed up in speeches. My favorite one is of a mega-church pastor who attempted to say ‘the church is a living organism’ but he accidentally said another much more embarrassing “O” word. Guess what? He is still preaching.
I love showing videos of where Obama says there are 52 states and I laugh at how Bush says “Americans are working to put food on their family.” Guess what? They still managed to get things done.
I love to see the video of where the local TV anchor’s tooth falls out during a broadcast. Guess what—he is still the anchor.
Being human and making mistakes makes you human; how you deal with those mistakes can make you more approachable. One of my first jobs was as a cashier at a convenience store. Whenever I made a mistake, I would lower my eyes and look ashamed and repeatedly tell the customer how sorry I was. One day, my boss came up to me and said I needed to find a better strategy for when I messed up. He said by repeatedly apologizing, I was making it a bigger deal than it was. The next time, I messed up, I looked at the customer and said, “This very special hamburger is only sixty-five dollars and twenty cents.” The customer laughed and made a remark about how it had better be a darn good burger. I assured him it was a great hamburger while I fixed my mistake. He left smiling.
What’s the point? The point is that mistakes will not kill you. Mistakes give you good stories to tell. I hope you mess up at least once so when you are sitting around with friends who are willing to listen to your stories that you can tell them of your most embarrassing speech blunder. I hope everyone can have a good laugh. And laughter after all…is good for you.
Besides, perfect people are boring. Robert Glover, psychotherapist, and author says, “In general people are not drawn to perfection in others. People are drawn to shared interests, shared problems, and an individual’s life energy. Humans connect with humans. Hiding one’s humanity and trying to project an image of perfection makes a person vague, slippery, lifeless, and interesting.”
Just remember the audience doesn’t expect perfection. They don’t judge that you made a mistake, but rather how you recover from it. When you do mess up, don’t make a big deal of it. Most of the time, you are better off not even mentioning it at all. If you are quick on your feet, you might say one or two funny words but then go on. You have great things to say, don’t let a little bump in the road slow you down. Practice your speech and plan on being perfect, but if that doesn’t work out, plan on recovering well. Try again. Fail better.
If you pretend you didn’t make a mistake,
chances are the audience won’t notice, and certainly won’t dwell on it.
Interrupting your speech by apologizing or panicking
will make your mistake more noticeable and will throw you off.
Jennifer Conner
University of Arkansas Speech Student
Realize the Audience is On Your Side
Chris Anderson of TED Talks gives the following wisdom:
Acknowledging nervousness can also create engagement. Showing your vulnerability, whether through nerves or tone of voice, is one of the most powerful ways to win over an audience, provided it is authentic. Susan Cain, who wrote a book about introverts and spoke at our 2012 conference, was terrified about giving her talk. You could feel her fragility onstage, and it created this dynamic where the audience was rooting for her—everybody wanted to hug her afterward. The fact that we knew she was fighting to keep herself up there made it beautiful, and it was the most popular talk that year.
I share this example for a couple of reasons. One, notice you can hear her nervousness and yet you get so carried away with her message you forget about it quickly. Two, many of you may think of yourself as an introvert who is just not the “public speaking” type, and yet, here she is speaking powerfully and giving examples of other introverts who speak powerfully.
Key Takeaways
Remember this!
• Most people get nervous at the thought of public speaking. If you are nervous, you are normal.
• It is not the physical reaction of stress that is the problem, it is how you think about it. Think of the adrenaline rush as excitement. The way you feel is your body getting you ready to succeed.
• You have permission to be powerful. Have a growth mindset and allow yourself to try.
• Decide what you have to say is more important than any discomfort you have.
• Focus on what the audience needs to hear. Move your focus from what the audience needs to hear more than your need you have to be comfortable.
• By now, you should have identified you have some ways of thinking that may be holding you back. You are armed with the knowledge that you can choose which self to bring to your speech. Now, it is time to try it out.
Please share your feedback, suggestions, corrections, and ideas
I want to hear from you.
Do you have an activity to include?
Did you notice a typo that I should correct?
Are you planning to use this as a resource and do you want me to know about it?
Do you want to tell me something that really helped you?
Click here to share your feedback.
References
Anderson, C. (2016). TED talks: The official TED guide to public speaking. Mariner.
Anderson, C. (2013). How to give a killer presentation. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2013/06/how-to-give-a-killer-presentation
Ayers, J. (1995). Comparing self-constructed visualization scripts with a guided visualization. Communication Reports 8, 193-199. https://doi.org/10.1080/08934219509367626
Ayres, J & Hopf, T. (1992). Reducing speech anxiety and enhancing performance. Communication Reports 5(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1080/08934219209367538
Behnke, R. R., Sawyer, C. R., & King, P. E. (1987). The communication of public speaking anxiety. Communication Education, 36(2), 138–141. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634528709378654
Bergland, C. (Jan. 2013). Cortisol: Why “the stress hormone” is public enemy number one. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-athletes- way/201301/cortisol-why-the-stress-hormone-is-public- enemy-no-1
Buchan, V. (1991). Make presentations with confidence. Barron’s Educational Series.
Bulard & Carrol (1993). Communicating from the inside out. Kendall Hunt.
Cain, Susan. (2012). The Power of introverts. TED.com. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.ted.com/talks/susan_cain_the_power_of_introverts Standard YouTube License.
Cuddy, A. Your Body Language Shapes Who You Are. TED.com. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.ted.com/talks/amy_cuddy_your_body_language_may_shape_who_you_are?language=en Standard YouTube License.
Day-Calder , M. (2017). Conquer your fear of public speaking. Nursing Standard, 32(3), 37. doi: 10.7748/ns.32.3.37.s42
Dominus, S. (2017). When the revolution came for Amy Cuddy. New York Times Magazine. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/18/magazine/when-the-revolution-came-for-amy-cuddy.html
Dweck, C. (2016). Mindset: The new psychology of success. Random House.
Dweck, C. (2014). The power of believing you can improve. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.ted.com/talks/carol_dweck_the_power_of_believing_that_you_can_improve?language=en Standard YouTube License.
Dwyer, K.K & Davidson, M.D (2012). Is public speaking really more feared than death? Communication Research Reports 29(2). DOI: 10.1080/08824096.2012.667772
King, D. (n.d). Managing speech anxiety. http://donnellking.com/
King, D. (n.d.) Managing stage fright. http://www.soapbox orations.com/squiggles/stagefright.htm.
McCluen, M. (1964). Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. MIT Press.
McCroskey, J. C. (1977). Oral communication apprehension: A summary of recent theory and research. Human Communication Research, 4(1), 78-96. http://www.jamescmccroskey.com/publications/074.pdf
McGonigal, K. (2013). How to make stress your friend. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.ted.com/talks/kelly_mcgonigal_how_to_make_stress_your_friend?language=en. Ted.com. Standard YouTube License.
Osborn, Osborn, & Osborn (2012). Public speaking: Finding your voice. Allyn Bacon
Robbins, M. (2018). Stop Giving a Shit. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P_B6mJRpg-A Standard YouTube License.
Savitsky, K. & Gilovich, T. (2003). The illusion of transparency and the alleviation of speech anxiety. Journal of Experimental
Social Psychology, 39, 618-625. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1031(03)00056-8
Snyder, K. (n.d). Controlling nerves.http://www.presentation-pointers.com
Stevanoni, E. & Salmon, K. (2005). Giving memory a hand: Instructing children to gesture enhances event recall. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 29(4). /DOI: 10.1007/s10919-005-7721-y
Toastmasters International. (n.d). 90 Tips. https://www.toastmasters.org/About/90th-Anniversary/90-Tips
Toastmasters. (2013). Managing fear. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d1u7THOudfw Standard YouTube Licence.
VanEdwards, V. (n.d.) Five secrets of a successful TED Talk. https://www.scienceofpeople.com/secrets-of-a-successful-ted-talk/
Weiser, M.J., Pauli, P., Reicherts, P., & Muhlberger, A. (2010). Don’t look at me in anger! Enhancing the processing of angry faces in anticipation of public speaking. Psychophysiology 47(2), 271-280.
Wenner, M. (2009). Smile it could make you happier. Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/smile-it-could-make-you-happier/ | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/Advanced_Public_Speaking_(Meade)/02%3A_Presenting_a_Speech/2.01%3A_Overcome_Communication_Apprehension_by_Hacking_Your_Brain.txt |
You will never be more aware of your body than when giving a speech. Things like eye contact and gesturing, suddenly feel unnatural. The good news is there are many ways to harness your fear and turn it into power. There are many thought experiments you can do and many ways to “hack your body” to deal with the anxiety that comes from giving a speech. In this chapter, we will talk a little about thought and a lot about action.
Visualize Yourself Giving Your Speech
Visualize yourself giving your speech. Imagine yourself rising from your chair and walking towards the podium. Imagine delivering your first few words with power. Imagine your audience smiling and nodding. Imagine using your visuals effectively. Imagine thunderous applause at the end and imagine confidently walking back to your chair.
Researchers who study communication apprehension in public speaking reported that 80% of college students who used positive visualization strategies were able to reduce their level of apprehension. When students visualized giving a speech, they could reduce negative thinking and lower their communication anxiety. Not only that, but students who visualized giving their speech had better gestures and fewer “ums.”
Visualization, it is easy, it is free, and it works. Try it!
Talk About Yourself in Positive Ways
It’s time to start talking nice to yourself. In the book, Communicating from the Inside Out, the authors noted the thoughts you have about yourself trigger up to 100 times more brain activity than random thoughts. In addition, when you talk out loud to yourself, your brain activity increases1,000-fold. Did you catch that? When you talk about yourself, you activate your brain in a powerful way. When you hear your own voice talk about you, you activate your brain even more, because not you have involved the listening center. It makes sense when you think about it. When I say, “I’ve got this,” I activated the part of my brain that had the thought, I activated the part of my brain associated with speech, and I activated the part of the brain associated with listening. That is a lot of brainpower given to one sentence. When you say things, good or bad, you hear yourself loud and clear. It is as if you sat in the car and cranked the volume up. When you do that, make sure the “song” you are playing to yourself is a good one.
The lesson here is this—be careful what you tell yourself because you are listening more than you know. Take charge of your thoughts and replace any negative thoughts with positive ones. Talk nice…. Your brain is listening.
Say Positive Things About Public Speaking
Your brain communicates with the firing of neurons. These neurons are like an interstate system in your brain. The more often a neural route is used, the larger it becomes. When you take the same road over and over in your thoughts, the messages transmit faster and faster. If the road is used repeatedly, then those thoughts become automatic. Think of it like the familiar road back to your house, you can drive there without even thinking about it–it’s automatic. That’s why when you practice — playing the piano, driving a car, or putting a golf ball, it becomes easier. Eventually, it is like you are on autopilot.
If you think positive thoughts over and over, then those positive thoughts become automatic. If you think negative thoughts over and over, those thoughts become automatic. That is why you have to beware of any negative thoughts you have about public speaking because if you keep thinking negative thoughts, you will make the pathway so large and strong it eventually becomes your default setting. Once those thoughts are on autopilot, they will keep playing over and over until you do something to consciously stop them.
To stop the automatic negative thoughts concerning public speaking, you need to consciously take control. You need to (1) recognize that negative thoughts are a choice and you can choose to think positive thoughts, (2) say positive things out loud and often and, (3) use visualization techniques to visualize yourself being successful at presentations. Repeat this often so these pathways become automatic.
Say “I Am Excited”
Never say, “I am nervous;” instead say, “I am excited.” When you feel nervous acknowledge it. Acknowledge that you are having a physical reaction and then take control of the interpretation. Think, “I can feel my heart beating fast. I’m nervous because I’m about to do something of consequence. It is normal for me to feel like this. I am going to interpret this feeling as excitement. I am excited.”
Give a Talk, Instead of a Speech
Instead of saying, “I have a speech to give on Monday”, say, “I am giving a talk on Monday.” A speech is fear-inducing. A talk is something simple that you do every day. Think about it, they are called TED Talks not TED Speeches.
Exercise, Laugh, and Breathe to Reduce the Effect of Cortisol
Cortisol is the stress hormone released when you are anxious, upset, or scared. Since public speaking can be a source of stress, it benefits you to work on ways to reduce the cortisol reactions. Changing how you think about stress helps, but you also need to “burn off” stress.
Exercising before and after a speech can be a powerful way to help your body reduce the effects of cortisol. A Psychology Today article, Cortisol: Why “the Stress Hormone” is Public Enemy Number One, suggests several ways to lower your cortisol levels.
1. Physical activity: exercise, walk, do yoga.
2. Meditation and deep breathing.
3. Spend time with friends.
4. Laughter.
5. Listen to some of your favorite music.
Get started on your public speaking playlist today! After that, go hang out with friends. Take a walk together.
Tips from Toastmaster’s International
• Breathe out. Take slow deep breaths in and then release your breath from the bottom of your abdomen to get the maximum benefits of release and relaxation.
• Get rest. Try to get an adequate amount of sleep prior to your speech to ensure optimal mental alertness.
• Fuel your mental engine. Eat a light meal at least 20 minutes prior to your speech.
Release the Tension in Your Body
How can you make your body work for you, you ask? You can stop many of your nervous reactions by releasing the tension in your muscles.
• Roll your shoulders, loosen your arms.
• Close your eyes and notice any tight muscles. When you notice a tight muscle, first tense it– then relax it.
• Sit with your palms open and facing up on your lap.
• Consciously try to slow down your breathing.
• Make funny faces to relax your cheeks and facial muscles.
• Notice if your neck and facial muscles are tense. If they are, make a point to relax them. (See video below)
In this video, family therapist, Emma McAdam illustrates a quick way to release stress. She suggests stress is like an angry toddler that won’t be ignored and has to be acknowledged.
FAKE CONFIDENCE
When you get nervous, your body responds in very direct ways. Your breathing gets short and your muscles begin to tense up. Here’s the good news! Your body and your mind work in a feedback loop. Let me give you an example: If I am mad, I make a mad face and if I make a mad face, I feel mad. Now that you know there is a feedback loop, you can break into it. In the example I just gave you, I could break the mad feedback loop by smiling. If I smile long enough and add a “happy thought,” then my body tells my mind that I am happy.
The same is true with what happens when you experience communication apprehension. When you begin to feel nervous, your muscles tighten, and your breathing becomes shallow. The more your body acts nervous, the more your mind believes you are nervous. The good news is you have the power to break into the cycle. You can stop or slow down the physical reaction of nervousness.
The Facial Feedback Hypothesis states that when you make a facial expression, it can influence the emotion that you are feeling. For example, when you force yourself to smile, you begin to enjoy the moment more. The more you smile, the more you may alter your own perception of the situation. As a speaker, when you fake confidence with your body and face, you may actually begin to feel more confident. Amy Cuddy says, “Fake it until you become it.” Watch this quick video to explain more about the facial feedback effect.
STAND LIKE WONDER WOMAN
Stand like Wonder Woman (or Superman) with your legs spread and your hands on your hips. Now hold that pose for two minutes. Do you feel powerful yet? Amy Cuddy, Harvard Researcher, had test subjects’ power pose (tall stance open arms, open torso) for as little as two minutes before subjecting them to a stressful job interview. Those who stood in a power pose reported feeling more confident and less nervous.
But wait, there’s more. When they asked the job interviewers what they thought of the interviewees, those conducting the interviews preferred those who had power posed before the job interviewer. The effect not only influenced the speakers, but also the listeners.
When observers view you acting confidently, they treat you like you are confident which guess what….makes you feel more confident.
Act confident to feel confident.
*** Reference the NY Times Article for challenges to some of Amy Cuddy’s research.
Pretend To Be Someone Else
Are you still feeling a little unsure about yourself? No worries—just pretend like you are an actor playing the part of someone who is confident. Think about a confident speaker you know. When you are mentally preparing for your speech, imagine you are that person: How would they walk, how would they talk, how would they gesture? When I make a professional presentation, I often think about my former boss who is a powerful communicator. I ask myself, how would he enter the room and shake hands? How would he walk to the podium? How would he move around during the speech? I steal his confidence to get started. When you start your speech, imagine you are that powerful person. Use their confidence going into the speech. I’m always amazed at how much confidence I gain by starting my speech as someone else. As I continue to speak that confidence that I borrowed slowly becomes mine.
Gesture to Help Release Nervous Energy
I love the movie clip from Talladega Nights where the race car driver, Ricky Bobby, is being interviewed and he keeps making his hands float up awkwardly. After struggling with his hands a while, he finally blurts out, “What do I do with my hands?” I am always amazed at how I don’t even think about my hands most days, but when I get up to give a speech, suddenly, I am aware they exist, and I have no idea what to do with them. If you are like me and like most speakers, you struggle with your hands during presentations.
Nonverbal researchers did a study where they had people describe what they did that day. When the participants told the story using their hands, they added more details to their story, spoke more fluidly, and were able to think better. Gestures seemed to help the speaker to recall information and to speak more fluidly. Did you know that even people who are blind from birth, gesture? It seems to serve the purpose of helping the speaker to think of words and maintain a flow in the speech.
Gesturing doesn’t just help the listener; it helps the speaker. But what does this mean for you? It means you are meant to gesture. It suggests that when you gesture, you will be able to think of ideas more clearly and thus speak with better fluidity. In addition, gestures can help you to release nervous energy. When you gesture, you can relieve cognitive stress, you can relieve nervous energy, and which makes you appear more confident.
Gestures also help the audience listen and understand. Studies show that speakers who gesture are seen as more persuasive, more likable, and as having more leadership potential. In a major study of the most popular TED Talks, the researchers discovered that the more gestures, the more views, and likes for the speech.
Gesturing—good for the speaker, good to relieve stress, and good for the audience!
Quick Tips with Your Hands
Make the OK sign with one hand. The act of touching your fingertips together relieves stress. This is a good trick to try when you feel a little anxious because it really is going to be “OK.”
Sweaty palms? Have an ice-cold water bottle that you hold in your hand to reduce the temperature of your hands.
Memorize Your Opening and Closing
Opening and closing a speech are the times when speakers tend to get the most nervous. For that reason, you should memorize the first few sentences and the last few sentences of your speech. When you start off powerfully, you feel powerful, and the audience expects you to be powerful. Carefully write out the first few words. Practice those over and over until you can say them with confidence and power.
When you begin to wind down your speech, your audience is preparing to clap. They don’t want to clap too soon or too late, so they are on high alert. Having a planned out closing, not only helps you own the last point, but it also gives them a definitive notion of when to clap. If you are like most of us, you might get a little extra nervous near the end. That’s why you should memorize your ending. By memorizing the closing, you are helping to relieve that tension and finish in a way that demonstrates your confidence and knowledge.
PRACTICE UNTIL IT FEELS COMFORTABLE
PRACTICE AT LEAST FIVE TIMES
The best way to practice speaking is to practice speaking. It may sound obvious, but it is true. Make sure you practice your speech at least 5-10 times from start to finish.
PRACTICE GETTING FUNKY
After you have practiced your speech with your notes, I suggest you go someplace comfortable and practice your speech without note cards. Don’t worry if you don’t know all the details—just wing it! I like to call this “Getting funky.” Do something a little crazy like sing your speech, do your speech in a wrestler’s voice, rap your speech, or dance around while saying your speech.
Relax, have fun, get funky. This will help you associate speech with being relaxed and having fun. For “funky” speech practice, it is less important to get the words right and it is more important to relax your body, put a smile on your face, and have fun. After doing this exercise, go back and do your speech with notes and in a serious tone. You will be amazed at how much more relaxed you feel.
PRACTICE TO A LIVE AUDIENCE
It is one thing to practice to a mirror, it is another to practice to a living thing. Find a friendly face, a roommate, a friend, or a dog, and practice your speech to a live audience member. Practicing with a set of watching eyes makes a big difference.
PRACTICE BY RECORDING YOURSELF
Record yourself giving your speech. Sit back and watch your video recording and make notes of areas where you need to make adjustments.
PRACTICE BY VISUALIZING YOUR SPEECH
Sit in your chair and imagine yourself giving your speech. Imagine your confidence as you walk to the podium. Imagine your strong opening, image the audience smiling at you. Imagine their nods of approval as you give your powerful ending.
We are what we repeatedly do.
Excellence is not an act
but a habit.
Aristotle
WRITE YOURSELF ENCOURAGING NOTES
On top of your speech notes, put positive messages to yourself. Write “I’ve got this” in bright colors on the top of the page. Add a little cartoon character that makes you smile. Put a picture of your loved one making a funny face, a picture of your dog, a cartoon picture that makes you happy. One TED Talk speaker said she wrote on her notes, “This Matters, I’ve got this!”
I still get nervous on the first day of class, so I draw a smiley face on my notes and the phrase, “I love being a teacher.”
BREATHE: BELLY BREATHING
One way to manage stress is to do deep breathing. Place one hand on your chest and one hand on your stomach. Take a deep breath in through your nose. Feel the breath go in. Let the breath completely fill up your lungs—inhale for 15 seconds. You should feel the hand that is on your stomach rise. Now, open your mouth and let the air out slowly over 15 seconds. Repeat this. Each time try to fill up your lungs fully. Taking as few as 3 belly breaths can increase your oxygen allowing you to relax.
BREATHE: THE NOSTRIL SWITCH
Put your finger on the side of your nose and push the nostril closed.
Breathe in through the nose and out through your mouth.
Now, push the other nostril closed.
Breathe in through the nose and out through your mouth.
Do this until you have taken 3 breaths on each side.
Now, take 3 big breaths in through the mouth and out through the nose with both nostrils open.
This should deepen your breathing and relieve some of the stress.
Most importantly——Don’t just read about deep breathing—- DO IT!
Taking a deep breath, faking that I’m confident,
and focusing on the topic helped me manage my anxiety.
After a few seconds, I would forget about the anxiety
and really get into what I was speaking about!
Tara Johnson
Advanced Public Speaking Student, University of Arkansas
Think of Giving a Speech as a Conversation with Friends
Your goal is not to be Winston Churchill or Nelson Mandela. It’s to be you.
If you’re a
scientist, be a scientist; don’t try to be an activist.
If you’re an artist, be an artist; don’t try
to be an academic.
If you’re just an ordinary person, don’t try to fake some big
intellectual style; just be you.
You don’t have to raise a crowd to its feet with a
thunderous oration.
Conversational sharing can work just as well.
In fact, for most
audiences, it’s a lot better.
If you know how to talk to a group of friends over dinner,
then
you know enough to speak publicly.
― Chris J. Anderson, Curator TED Talks
Key Takeaways
• Visualize yourself being successful at speaking.
• Talk about public speaking in positive ways. Say, “I’m excited!” instead of “I’m nervous.”
• Exercise, laugh or meditate to reduce the cortisol reaction.
• Do exercises to release tension. Beware of tension and relax your muscles.
• Pretend to be confident, borrow someone else confidence if needed. Fake confidence and it will become you.
• Memorize your opening and closing.
• Write yourself positive notes.
• Practice, practice, practice.
Please share your feedback, suggestions, corrections, and ideas
I want to hear from you.
Do you have an activity to include?
Did you notice a typo that I should correct?
Are you planning to use this as a resource and do you want me to know about it?
Do you want to tell me something that really helped you?
Click here to share your feedback.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
Sources of Anxiety and Ways to Overcome
1. Situational — When talking to friends, we may not be nervous but if asked to say the same thing as a speech, we get nervous. The solution is to think of a presentation as a conversation rather than a performance.
2. Audience –Sometimes we are nervous because of who is in the audience. The solution is to visualize your speech and the audience’s positive reaction.
3. Goal –We may get anxious when we think about the goal of the speech. Often times we have a future goal that we are worried about. The solution is to focus on the moment–exercise, play a video game, do a tongue twister.
No Freaking Speaking: Managing Public Speaking Anxiety by Matt Abrahams
Developing Self Confidence
Lessons from soccer coach, Dr. Ivan Joseph on how to develop self-confidence.
• Practice and keep practicing. Repetition is important for learning a skill.
• Self-talk. Be aware of the things you say to yourself.
• Get away from the people who will tear you down.
• Catch yourself doing good and record it.
The Skill of Self Confidence by Dr. Ivan Joseph
References
Abraham, M. (2012). No freaking speaking: Managing public speaking anxiety. Toastmasters. [Video] YouTube. . Standard YouTube License
Ayres, J. & Hopf, T.S. (1985). Visualization: A means of reducing speech anxiety. Communication Education, 34(4),
Bergland, C. (2013). Cortisol: Why “the stress hormone” is public enemy number one. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-athletes-way/201301/cortisol-why-the-stress-hormone-is-public-enemy-no-1
Bullard, B & Carroll, K. (2012). Communicating from the inside out. Kendal Hunt.
Cuddy, A. (2015). Game changer: Amy Cuddy, power poser. [Video] YouTube.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IICi5Zw9jY4. Standard YouTube License.
Cuddy, A. (2018). Tips for Success in Public Speaking. [Video] YouTube.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hI9kJuWEuIo. Standard YouTube License.
Dominus, S. (2017). When the revolution came for Amy Cuddy. New York Times Magazine. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/18/magazine/when-the-revolution-came-for-amy-cuddy.html
Joseph, I. (2012). The skill of self-confidence TEDxRyersonU [Video] YouTube.. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w-HYZv6HzAs&vl=en Standard YouTube License.
Kamath, A., Urval, R. P., & Shenoy, A. K. (2017). Effect of alternate nostril breathing exercise on experimentally induced anxiety in healthy volunteers using the simulated public speaking model: A randomized controlled pilot study. BioMed Research International. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/2450670
Keysers, C., & Gozzola, V. (2014). Hebbian learning and predictive mirror neurons for actions, sensations, and emotions. Philosophical Transitions. Royal Society of Biological Science. 369(1644), 20130175. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0175
LeFebvre, L., LeFebvre, L.E. , & Allen, M. (2018). Training the butterflies to fly in formation: Cataloguing student fears about public speaking. Communication Education, 67(3) ,
, M.M. & . (2020). Metamorphosis of public speaking anxiety: Student fear transformation throughout the introductory communication course. Communication Studies, 71 (1), 98-111. https://doi.org/10.1080/10510974.2019.1661867
LeFebvre, L., LeFebvre, L.E. , & Allen, M. (2020). “Imagine All the People”: Imagined interactions in virtual reality when public speaking. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 9. https://doi.org/10.1177/0276236620938310
McAdam, E. (2018). Stress Release: Fast anxiety reduction technique. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lrhPTqholcc
McCroskey, J. C. (1972). The implementation of a large‐scale program of systematic desensitization for communication apprehension. Speech Teacher, 21, 255
Sessinghaus, R. (2017). Visualization and Mental Rehearsal. Perform For Success. [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2dS63aaXjGo. Standard YouTube License.
Udacity. (2015). Facial feedback effect – Intro to Psychology. [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lh0bL7p5eN4 Standard YouTube License. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/Advanced_Public_Speaking_(Meade)/02%3A_Presenting_a_Speech/2.02%3A_Overcome_Communication_Apprehension_by_Hacking_Your_Body.txt |
You can speak well
if your tongue can deliver the message of your heart.
– John Ford, celebrated Irish American director
In this chapter, I will give you some practical tips to help you strengthen your presentation skills and I want to steer you away from some of the bad advice out there. The best things you can do when it comes to presentation skills are (1) believe you can improve with practice and (2) realize connection, not perfection is the goal.
Believe You Can Improve
When you think about speaking are you tempted to believe, “Some people are just born good speakers” or “I just wasn’t made for this public speaking stuff.” If that is you, you may have what Stanford researcher, Carol Dweck calls a “fixed mindset.” She suggested that we have a fixed mindset– people are just born to be good at things or we have a growth mindset–people, with effort, can learn new skills.
When it comes to public speaking, you should work on having a growth mindset and acknowledge that effort is needed for mastery. You can improve, but it may take work. Especially with public speaking, practice equals progress. Adjusting your belief to a growth mindset frees your self-limiting beliefs and allows you to move beyond what you thought was possible.
Those who think they got their success from effort often can go farther than those who believe success is due to their natural ability. The key to making the change is to continually recognize your effort: “I gave it my best, I really stretched myself today, I put a lot of time into this, and I can tell it made a difference.” In addition, Dweck suggests the simple change of adding the word “yet” to your self vocabulary helps keep you growth-focused. Instead of saying, “I’m not good a public speaking,” say “I’m not good at public speaking yet.” Believe if you work hard enough, and practice enough, and get help when needed, you can improve and grow.
The Power of YET
Avoid saying, “I can’t do this”
but rather say “I can’t do this yet
In one case, you are telling your brain to quit trying
in the other version, you allow yourself to be open to possibilities.
Never say, “I’m not good at public speaking.”
but rather say, “I may not be a perfect speaker yet but what I have to say is important
so I will work and keep getting better at it.”
Believing you can improve is an important first step. In my many years of teaching public speaking, I have witnessed some of the most insecure, timid speakers rise to become confident, and powerful in only a few months. I have seen a student who ran out of the class crying on her first speech, be voted the best speaker by her last speech. I have watched a student who stumbled over every word, evolve into a powerful speaker who delivers speeches to large groups every week. Some people seem to know how to succeed at public speaking naturally, but for most of us, it takes work. Realize with practice, you can improve as a speaker. If you are one of those lucky natural speakers, realize you too have room to improve. Now, let’s talk about two specific presentation skills where you can improve–eye contact and gestures.
To get started, I want to tell you some of the worst speaking advice I have ever been given.
Bad Advice–Look at Their Foreheads
I had a teacher in high school who told me, “Don’t make eye contact with the audience because they will make you nervous. Don’t look at their eyes–look at their foreheads.” Just for fun, walk up to a friend and begin to speak to their forehead to see how they react. Really, try it. It just looks weird. Chances are your friend will say, “What the heck are you doing?” That is the same thing your audience will think if you stare at their foreheads. Honestly, it is harder to focus on foreheads than it is to look in the eyes.
Bad Advice–Imagine Your Audience Naked
A well-meaning friend told me, “Just imagine your audience naked.” Maybe you too have heard this advice, and it is the worst. If you are in my audience and I imagine you naked, I guarantee there will be NO EYE CONTACT. No eye contact at all! One speech coach said, “Depending on your audience, this is too exciting or too disgusting.” This piece of advice is designed to make you feel more at ease, but it doesn’t work. I do not know about you, but the thought of speaking to a room full of naked people does not make me feel relaxed.
Bad Advice– Stare at Random Spots Above Their Heads
I have heard this one multiple times from well-meaning teachers. “Look at the back wall.” If you look over the person, you miss the person. Ask yourself, why is eye contact so frightening? Is it because there is a person connected to those eyes? Is it because if we look at the person, we have to acknowledge their existence? One nonverbal researcher says, “Eye contact makes interaction an obligation.” If I make eye contact, I must recognize I am speaking to a real person with feelings, expectations, and dreams. If I make eye contact, I must realize a speech is an interaction and I have an obligation to that person. If I make eye contact, I become much more aware they expect something from me and I feel obligated not to waste their time.
The other reason this is bad advice is it makes you look odd, and you will lose credibility with the audience. It is a strange thing to talk to walls. If you are a speaker, it looks strange for you to look over the audience’s heads to stare at the wall. I guarantee the audience feels strange when you do it. Even in a large audience where you can’t make eye contact with everyone, you should at least find people throughout the room to look at.
Bad Advice– Follow the Eye Contact Formula
A lot of well-meaning advisors will say things like “Make eye contact for 3-5 seconds with each person” (the three-second rule) or “scan the audience from left to right” (the lighthouse technique) or “find three places in the room and look to those” (the umpire technique). The advice is not entirely bad, but the problem is it puts too much pressure on the speaker. If I am counting the seconds or working on the perfect eye contact pattern, then I am missing the point of being conversational.
Good Advice on Eye Contact
The most important advice I can give you on eye contact is to JUST DO IT. Find friendly faces around the room and look at them. Find those nice people who smile and nod and then begin looking at them in the room. Looking at them helps you gauge whether they are listening.
When speaking to a large audience, you may have to make audience contact instead of eye contact. Look at various areas where the audience members are seated to create the feeling that you are looking at them.
Benefits of Eye Contact
There are many benefits to making good eye contact. Communication researcher Steven Beebe conducted a study where he discovered an increase in eye contact increases a speaker’s perceived credibility. Other research suggests eye contact impacts focus memory, and recall. Eye contact helps the audience to see you as credible, and to remember your message more–what is not to love about that?
Watch the video, below by Dananjaya Hettiarachchi and notice how he looks directly at audience members. It is obvious why he is the world champion.
Practical Tips for Maximizing Eye Contact
• If you struggle with eye contact, at the top of every page of your notes write–“Make eye contact.”
• Have your friends sit at various places throughout the room so you have a few friendly eyes you can talk to.
• Practice with people. Sure, it is helpful to record yourself, to practice talking to a wall, and to speak to a mirror, but those are no substitutes for what happens when you speak to people. Find some friends and practice with them. Chris Anderson, of TED, says: “Perhaps the most important physical act onstage is making eye contact. Find five or six friendly-looking people in different parts of the audience and look them in the eye as you speak. Think of them as friends you haven’t seen in a year, whom you’re bringing up to date on your work.”
Eye Contact in Online Presentations
Increasingly, business presentations are being made in the online environment. The pandemic forced schools to use online learning tools where teachers give lectures online and students give presentations online. In addition, many businesses are conducting job interviews through virtual platforms. It is likely you will encounter an online speech and it is helpful to understand the unique differences. If you are making your presentations online, eye contact means looking into the camera. Draw a smiley face on a notecard and tape it beside your camera to remind you to look at your audience. It is tempting to try to make eye contact with the faces on your screen, and it is OK to look at the faces on the screen to remind you of your audience but spend the majority of your presentation time looking into the eyes of the camera.
It can be helpful to tape your notecards on a wall behind your computer or phone screen so you can glance at them briefly and then speak directly to your audience. Do not try to read your speech off your computer or phone screen; it will be obvious to the audience you are reading.
Cultural Note
Eye contact can vary from culture to culture and person to person. Just because an audience member looks away from you, it may not mean they are not interested. Consider the following differences.
• In some cultures, it would be considered inappropriate to make eye contact with someone of different gender (or sex).
• When in a high-power culture (a culture where those in power are given higher status and have deferential body language), you may notice those in lower status lower their eyes or avoid eye contact with those of higher status.
• Arabs, Latin Americans, and Southern Europeans tend to make direct eye contact
• Those from Asia and parts of Africa tend to make less eye contact.
• Those on the Autism Spectrum may avoid eye contact to help them focus on the words you are saying.
All you need is something to say,
and a burning desire to say it…
it doesn’t matter where your hands are.”
Lou Holtz, former Arkansas Razorback football coach
Gestures
Isn’t it funny how we rarely notice what our hands are doing while we are talking? When we get up there to give a speech, suddenly we are aware of our hands, and we can’t figure out what to do with them. One of the frequently asked questions I hear is, “What do I do with my hands?” The short answer is to relax and gesture naturally. Vivian Buchan, author of Make Presentations with Confidence suggests, “The only place a gesture comes from is inside you. Gestures come from your heart and soul, your instincts, your interests, and your involvement.” She suggests focusing on your speech and your passion and the gestures will work themselves out. The more you practice your speech, the more you will feel confident gesturing.
“Great speakers keep their body open” according to Dananjaya Hettiarachchi, 2014 Toastmasters International world champion of public speaking. “Failing to make gestures or holding your hands tightly in front of you makes you look insecure. When you’re nervous, you try to cover your vital organs.” It is OK to feel nervous, the goal is to try and not look nervous. Public speaking instructor Cathy Hollingsworth offered this nugget of advice:
So many times, when speakers are telling a story to their friends in person or even via the phone, gestures are big and descriptive but when speakers get in front of an audience, all of sudden, arms and hands become appendages that have no apparent purpose. This is what I tell speakers: Use your gestures as “bodily visual aids”. Pretend you are in a situation in which there are no electronics to show slides nor is there a whiteboard. How will you get your ideas across to the audience? Easy! Just use your gesturing to take the audience along with you on the speech. Be brave enough to make those gestures big and at least shoulder high. This is not charades, but it is close.
Gestures help you look like a polished speaker. Vanessa Van Edwards did a study and found the top TED talk speakers made an average of 465 gestures in 18 minutes while the less popular speakers made 272 gestures. The top speakers gestured almost twice as much. Gestures not only increase a speaker’s credibility but speakers who gesture are seen as more persuasive and more likable. According to Vanessa van Edwards, “It’s not what you say; it’s how you say it.” She found people rated speakers similarly on charisma, credibility, and intelligence whether they saw the speech with the sound on or off.
When speakers gesture, listeners are better able to learn the content. People who were instructed to gesture while learning new information, had better recall of information. That sounds like a good study tip!
It’s not just your audience that will be helped by your gestures, you will be helped as well. Did you know people who are born blind gesture in some of the same ways sighted individuals do? How do they know to gesture? Why do they gesture? They gesture because it seems to be something they are hardwired to do. They gesture because it seems to help the speaker to think and speak more clearly. I often have my students sit on their hands and then tell a story about their weekend or give directions to their favorite restaurant. It is amazing how many of them struggle to think of directions when they can’t move. It might be said you think with your hands. In a study where they asked children to talk about a game they played, those who gestured while speaking told more details and they spoke with fewer hesitations. The authors suggested gesturing reduces cognitive load. It is easier to hold up your hands and say “The fish I caught is this big” than it is to say, “the fish I caught was big. He was about 10 inches long.” Gestures give us a shortcut to speaking.
In addition, gestures beat out the rhythm of the speech. They help us synchronize our words to our speech. Typically, we speak in chunks of about four to five syllables called a phonemic clause. At the end of that chunk, we tend to gesture. Try it for yourself. I wrote the phrases as most people say them (phonemic clause). Say these phrases out loud and see what gestures you do naturally.
I don’t know where they are
I’ve looked everywhere
I simply cannot remember
where I put my keys.
They were right there table
last night.
Read it again. This time, notice you naturally gesture right before the last beat of the phrase. Gestures don’t come after the phrase, they come during the phrase. You can tell if someone has been speech coached poorly because they will gesture after the phrase. It looks unnatural.
Gestures are Good
• They are good for the audience’s attention to your speech.
• They are good for the audience’s recall of the speech.
• They help you as a speaker to be more fluid in speaking.
• They help to reduce your cognitive load.
• They help you keep the rhythm in your speech.
With all this information, you know you should gesture throughout your speech. One way to loosen up and find your own gestures is what I call, “getting funky.” After you have your speech written, sing your speech, say it in a funny accent, or rap it while in the shower. As silly as this sounds, it will help relax you and in those funky practices, you will find you begin having more free-flowing gestures.
Students in Dale Carnegie classes often do the Box Factory activity to help them learn to use their whole bodies in their speech.
Dale Dunphy posted as part of a Dale Carnegie course, he had to tell a story of the Box Factory with enthusiasm and emphasize certain words. Other participants talked about the importance of telling the story with their whole bodies.
The Box Factory
I found myself yesterday near a huge box factory located on a high hill.
Running all around this building was a picket fence about this high.
I walked up to the factory, threw open the door, walked in, and found myself in a long hallway.
At the far end of the hallway was a spiral staircase.
I walked up this spiral staircase, pushed open a sliding door, and found myself in a big room piled high with boxes.
There were big boxes, middle-sized boxes, and very small boxes.
Suddenly, the boxes came tumbling down around my head!
I woke with a start, yawned, stretched, and went back to sleep.
Watch this short clip from Dale Carnegie Training of Western CT as they do this activity.
As silly as activities like this one may seem, they help speakers to relax and to use their whole bodies in speeches.
What NOT to Do with Your Hands
• Do NOT put both hands in your pockets.
• Do NOT jingle keys or change in your pocket.
• Do NOT hold hands clasped behind your back.
• Do NOT fidget with your pen, necklace.
• Do NOT tap or pound on the podium.
• Do NOT rest your hands on the podium.
• Do NOT wring hands.
• Do NOT play with your hair.
• Do NOT fidget with your clothing.
• Do NOT pick your fingernails.
• Do NOT fiddle with notecards.
Pro-Tip
When you feel yourself getting nervous, touch your index finger to your thumb, it is a self-soothing gesture
Advanced Gestures
Some of you are still working on relaxing enough to gesture. That is OK, it takes time and like any other skill, with practice, you will get better. Others of you have spoken long enough you are wanting to take your gestures to the next level, this section is for you.
Sabina Nawaz, speech coach recommends people “air out their armpits” when they gesture. That is her way of reminding people to make their gestures large and noticeable and to move their arms away from their torso. Dale Carnegie Trainer, Larry Prevot, says speakers who keep their arms too close to their body remind him of old westerns where the hero is tied up. The rope is around his chest and arms bound tightly, but below the elbow, his hands are free allowing him to finally escape, “Be that hero today. Remove the perceived constraints that are pinning your upper arms against your chest and start using everything at your disposal.” Darren Tay, Toastmaster’s World Champion, said in a Business Insider interview “It’s common for novice public speakers to have their gestures centered either too close to their face, which suggests nervousness, or too low, which is distracting. He said the ideal center is around the belly button.”
In addition to making the arm movements large, the next pro tip is to gesture palms up. Toastmaster Champion Hettiarachchi, suggests you look at the back of your hand and then look at the palm of your hand. Which one relaxes your eye? The palm relaxes your eye which is why great public speakers tend to open their palms towards the audience (video included in bonus features below). In the TED talk, Power in the Palm of Your Hand (video included in bonus features below), Allan Pease tells of a study where speakers had 20 minutes to present a proposal using palm-up gestures, palm down gestures, or pointing gestures. Here’s what he found: The palm-up speakers were described as laid back, friendly, humorous, and engaging. The speakers with the palm up gesture maintained 40% more retention than the speaker who used the palm-down gesture. The palms down speakers were described as authoritative, and the pointing speakers were described with negative adjectives.
How To Stop Shaking When You Are Nervous
In this video, How to Stop Shaking when You Are Nervous, Trace Dominguez explains how New York City Police and Members of the Military stop their hands from shaking when they have an adrenaline response. Tactical and box breathing can help you slow down your rapid heart rate and stimulate the vagus nerve. The slower and deeper you breathe, the more relaxed you feel. This technique is done by taking deep breaths through the nose.
How To Do Box Breathing:
1. Exhale all the breath out of your lungs.
2. Breathe in for four seconds. As your chest rises and air enters let your mind travel up the side of the box.
3. Hold for four seconds and in your mind travel across the top of the box.
4. Breathe out for four seconds and let your mind travel down one side of the box.
5. Relax for four seconds and let your mind travel across the bottom.
6. Repeat at least three times.
According to clinical psychologist, Dr. Symington, This visual of the box “provides a helpful anchor for your attention and quickly allows you to get into the flow of rhythmic breathing.”
Watch this short video, How to Stop Shaking When You’re Nervous, as it relates to box breathing.
Your Body Language
When does your speech credibility begin with an audience? At first glance. People start evaluating you the moment they see you. If you are pacing wildly in the hall, if you are sitting submissively while playing on your phone, if you are in the bathroom before your speech having a pep talk and a member of the audience sees you, that is when they start the credibility meter. The moment you arrive at the speech venue, you should walk, talk, and act with confidence. I once worked for a company that insisted our car was clean inside and out because the client might see it out their office window and begin sizing up our credibility. If you are a college student, consider the fact that every day your classmates see you in class, you are either gaining credibility or losing credibility. If you sit passively in class playing on your cell phone every day, if you wear pajama pants to class, if you slump over dismissively when others give their speeches, you will have diminished credibility with that audience.
Posture
Your body tells people how you wanted to be treated. Your body tells people what you want them to think of you. Confident posture tells your audience you believe you are a person of power, and you know what you are talking about. A confident posture shows your audience you are “comfortable in your own skin.” When people see someone with good posture and body confidence, they perceive them to have more positive attributes and to have increased competence and power. Your confident posture helps you as well, as Harvard Researcher Amy Cuddy points out, people who hold themselves confidently also feel confident. Individuals with a confident posture had more positive attitudes and were more persistent when engaging in a complex task.
To Move or Not to Move, That is the Question
In some situations, you are expected to stand behind a lectern and in other settings, you are standing there with nothing between you and the audience. You will have to adapt to various contexts in your speaking career. In most settings, it is recommended you put as few barriers between you and the audience as possible. When thinking about movement remember, you are a tree–plant your feet but move your branches naturally in the wind. Ok, you can be a tree that moves a little. When you do decide to walk around, make sure it looks purposeful and not nervous–there is a difference between engaged movement and pacing.
The video in this chapter, Body Language –Gestures and Eye Contact in Public Speaking shows a variety of speakers and how each adapts to the speech situation. As you watch it, pay special attention to their feet and arms. One of the things that I like about this video is that it shows that there is no one definitive way to do gestures. Each speaker’s unique personality comes out in their body movements. I tell my students that being a good speaker is about learning to be comfortable in their own skin and learning their unique way of connecting with the audience.
Movement for Advanced Speakers
For you advanced speakers, it is time to be even more intentional with your movement. Some speakers use the baseball method of movement where they “walk their points”. Imagine a baseball diamond on the floor. When you make your first point, you walk to first base. On your second point, you walk to the second base, and on your third point, you move to the third base. Walking to home plate signals that your speech has come full circle (or full diamond) and you are restating the thesis to show how you are connecting with where you began. This physical representation of your speech can help anchor ideas in the minds of the audience.
Cathy Hollingsworth suggests you use purposeful movement to take your audience with you on the journey.
“For many speakers, the hardest thing to resist is walking aimlessly the whole speech. Then, that movement looks like nervous wandering. Instead, take a few steps during a transition and STOP. Stay awhile and talk! When you move to the next point or start to tell a story, take a few more steps and STOP. Stay awhile and talk.”
I learned one of my favorite tricks at a teacher’s retreat. After about an hour of walking around the room teaching, the conference leader looked at us and asked “Do you see where I am standing? Have you noticed every time I make a big point, I stand in the same place?” He went on to tell us throughout the weekend-long conference he had conditioned us to pay attention to his big idea by standing in the same spot every time he drew a conclusion. When he stood in that spot, we knew what he was about to say was important. This same speaker would stomp with one foot at times as he made a point to get our attention. It was like an exclamation point. He even did a hop using both feet once or twice as a double exclamation point.
The distance you are from the audience and the position of your eyes to the audience can also have an effect. You can create intimacy when telling a personal story by walking closer to the audience or even by sitting down. Moving from behind the podium can signal “I am being vulnerable before you.” Making your eyes the same level as the audience can signal we are on the same level (though the room and size of the audience can influence this). The key is whatever you do, make movement intentional and purposeful (imagine me doing a two-footed hop here!).
Enlist the Help of a Friend. Chances are you have some presentation area where you need work. Ask a friend to give you an honest assessment of what you do. For example, I used to rock up and back when I spoke. I had a friend who would move his pointer finger up and back to let me know when I was doing it. It took a lot of practice and several “rockin” speeches, but eventually, I corrected the behavior.
How To Dress for Your Speech
How do you dress for your speech? The answer should be “it depends.” It depends on the context, the audience, the topic, and the occasion. Kelly Stoetzel, TED’s Content Director says the most important thing is you “wear something you feel great in.” She also suggests “Believe it or not, your clothing can earn you an audience connection before you’ve even spoken a word.” Here are a few guidelines to consider:
1. Consider the context, topic, and purpose. It may give you credibility to wear a lab coat as you talk about your experience working as a nurse’s assistant. Wearing hiking gear would be appropriate for a speech on how to rappel, and yoga pants are appropriate for a speech about the sun salutation poses. I’m not telling you to dress gimmicky, but to consider what is appropriate for the topic.
2. Dress nicer than your audience to enhance your credibility. If you are talking to other college students in your class and they are wearing jeans and t-shirts, wear nice pants and a collared shirt. If you are presenting to business professionals in suits, wear a suit. It can be a mistake to overdress your audience. If you dress too formally, they will think you are untrustworthy and insincere, however, if you dress too casually the audience might not take you seriously. Whatever you wear, consider the impact. Typically, there is a balance between looking credible and looking approachable. For example, a study of college teachers found teachers who dressed in professional attire were perceived as more organized and knowledgeable while those dressed casually were perceived as more approachable.
3. Dress professionally to feel credible. Martin McDermott said, “People elevate their behavior to match their attire.” Dressing professionally can make you feel more confident resulting in enhanced cognition and abstract processing.
4. Avoid distracting clothing and artifacts. Unless you are comfortable in high heels, you should avoid them in a speech. Be aware that some dress shoes can be very loud and distracting. If you are tempted to fidget with a ring or necklace, it is best not to wear them when you speak.
5. Practice in your outfit. It is a good idea to practice your speech in the outfit you will wear to your speech. It will help you identify any issues like sagging straps or an overly tight shirt that restricts gestures.
6. Consider the sweat factor. Typically, people perspire more when they are giving a speech. Wear something that minimizes any sweat stains.
7. Consider the backdrop. If you wear black pants and a black shirt, you may get lost in front of a black velvet curtain. If possible, get a picture of or visit the venue where you will be speaking to consider how it will impact your clothing choices.
8. Consider microphones. If you will be wearing a lapel microphone, you shouldn’t wear a floppy cardigan. If you are wearing a microphone with a battery pack, you will need a belt or defined waistline to clip it onto. If you are wearing an over-the-ear microphone, your dangling earrings may make loud noises that are picked up by the mic. Always ask what the microphone set up will be days before the event so you can dress accordingly.
9. Zip it. The best advice about clothing rules I have ever received as a speaker is to always check your fly before you speak.
Social psychologist Erving Goffman asks us to consider we are all like actors on a stage. When we are backstage, we may act one way, and when we are on the front stage, we act another. Actors make intentional choices when performing on the main stage; he called this impression management. As actors, we use props, clothing, artifacts, and nonverbal communication to tell people which “character” we are. If we are successful, the audience will view us the way we want to be viewed. Consider which character you will be and be intentional about how to create that character on your “front stage.”
Thoughts for My Blotchy Friends
Sometimes, I get red blotches that start at my chest and crawl up my neck, and land on my face. I’m not alone. Some of my very best speakers, have the same thing happen. I like to think of it as a sign of great speaking. I don’t want my badge of greatness to distract the audience, so I always consider how my clothing choices can magnify the issue. A crisp white shirt next to my red neck highlights the issue, whereas a black shirt with a nice necklace breaks up the red and doesn’t highlight it so much. If I pull back my hair in a ponytail, there is more of my red neck exposed, so I wear it long.
Of course, the best solution is not to get red. Easy to say, but not so easy to do, huh? Doing deep breathing before a speech, being well prepared, and caring about your speech topic all help. The biggest thing of all is to be aware of your triggers. I get red when I get passionate. If I say, “I love teaching and making a difference in the lives of my students.” I may get red. If I think someone in the audience thinks I’m not competent, I may get red. If I wear a hot, itchy fabric, I may get red. If someone has on a certain perfume or if I eat certain foods, I will get red. For some of us, red happens. If red happens to you, it certainly doesn’t mean you avoid speaking.
If this is you, you can minimize it, and more importantly, when it happens, the audience can still enjoy your speech. When I see it happen to my students as they passionately pursue their topic, I forget to notice. If you get red, you are in good company. Dress to minimize it, breathe deeply, and focus on the message and your audience will too.
Key Takeaways
• Public speaking is a skill and with practice, you can improve. Keep an open mindset.
• Make eye contact with the audience being sure to look in different areas of the room.
• Gestures should be natural. Gestures help both the speaker and the listeners.
• Open palms and larger gestures can make you appear more approachable.
• Use confident body posture, not just during your speech, but any time you are in sight of your audience.
• Dress according to the context, speech topic, and audience. Typically, dress a little bit above your audience.
Extra Resources
Watch These Videos That Were Referenced in the Text
He starts talking about the palm at 4.35
The Power of YET
Carol Dweck explains how “basic human abilities can be grown and how using “Yet” and “Not Yet” influences learning in different classroom settings. Whether you are teaching kids math or teaching yourself to improve as a public speaker, practicing a growth mindset will be crucial for your success.
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References
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Cook, S. W., Yip, T. K., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (2010). Gesturing makes memories that last. Journal of memory and language, 63(4), 465–475. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2010.07.002
D News. How to Stop Shaking When You Are Nervous. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yJhI0Du5jO4 Standard YouTube License.
Dunphry, D. Facebook post on Dale Carnegie’s Box Factory
Dweck, C.S. (2014). Developing a growth mindset with Carol Dweck. [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/hiiEeMN7vbQ Standard YouTube License
Dweck. C.S. (2008). Mindset: The New Psychology of Success. Ballentine Books.
Feloni, R. (2016). Here’s a breakdown of the speech that won the 2016 World Championship of Public Speaking. Business Insider. https://www.businessinsider.in/heres-a-breakdown-of-the-speech-that-won-the-2016-world-championship-of-public-speaking/articleshow/53834528.cms
Goffman, E. (1956). The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Doubleday.
Hettiarachchi, D. (2014). I see something-World Champion of Public Speaking 2014 [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bbz2boNSeL0 Standard YouTube License.
, & (2001). The resilience of gesture in talk: Gesture in blind speakers and listeners. Developmental Science, 4, 416422. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-7687.00183
Johnson, T.W., Francis, S.K. and L. D. Burns, L.D. (2007). Appearance management behavior and the five-factor model of personality, Clothing, and Textiles Research Journal, 25 (3), 230–243. https://doi.org/10.1177/0887302X07302982
Kelley, D.H. & Gorham, J. (1988). Effects of immediacy on recall of information. Communication Education, 37:3,
Lidsky, I. (2016). What Reality Are You Creating for Yourself? [Video]. YouTube. https://www.ted.com/talks/isaac_lidsky_what_reality_are_you_creating_for_yourself. Standard YouTube License.
McDermott, M. (2014). Speak with Courage: Fifty Insider Strategies for Presenting with Confidence. Bedford.
Nawaz, S. (2017). Awkward or awesome? What your hand gestures say when you’re giving a speech. https://beleaderly.com/what-hand-gestures-say-when-giving-a-speech.
Nazish, N. (2019). How to de-stress in five minutes, according to a Navy Seal. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/nomanazish/2019/05/30/how-to-de-stress-in-5-minutes-or-less-according-to-a-navy-seal/?sh=5223f3c93046
Pease, A. (2013). Body language, the power is in the palm of your hands. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZZZ7k8cMA-4 Standard YouTube License.
Ping, R. & Goldin-Meadow, S. (2010). Gesturing saves cognitive resources when talking about nonpresent objects. Cognitive Science, 34:4. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1551-6709.2010.01102.x
Phillips, P. & Smith, L. (1992). The Effect of Teacher Dress on Student Perceptions. ERIC https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED347151
Prevost, L. (n.d.) Five public speaking tips from the Dale Carnegie Course. https://larryprevost.com/2017/08/dale-carnegie-course-gives-5-tips-for-speaking-with-passion
Reid, A., Lancuba, V. & Morrow, B. (1997). Clothing style and formation of first impressions. Perceptual and Motor Skills 84 (1), 237-238. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1997.84.1.237
Science Daily. Study: Body posture affects confidence in your own thoughts. (2009). NewsRx Health & Science, 176. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/10/091005111627.htm
Slepian, M.L., Ferber, S.N.Gold, J. M., and Rutchick, A. M. (2015). The cognitive consequences of formal clothing. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 6 (6). 661–668. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550615579462
, & (1993). Proprioceptive determinants of emotional and nonemotional feelings. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 211220. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.64.2.211
Stevanoni, E. & Salmon, K. (2005). Giving memory a hand: Instructing children to gesture enhances their event recall. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 29(4). DOI: 10.1007/s10919-005-7721-y
Toastmasters International. (2011). Gestures Your Body Speaks. https://www.toastmasters.org/-/media/files/department-documents/education-documents/201-gestures.ashx
Van Edwards, V. (2017). You are contagious. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cef35Fk7YD8 TED Talk. Standard YouTube License | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/Advanced_Public_Speaking_(Meade)/02%3A_Presenting_a_Speech/2.03%3A_Delivery_Advice-_Do_Not_Imagine_the_Audience_Naked_Managing_Eye_Contact_Movement_and_Gestures.txt |
“Testing, check, check, can you hear me?” Your first impression matters and you don’t want your first impression to be a microphone check. The most important part of your speech is the sound–if they can’t hear you, what’s the point? Learn to project your voice when speaking in smaller venues and learn to use a microphone when speaking in larger ones.
In this chapter, I will talk about general principles of good microphone management as opposed to details on how to use a specific microphone.
Test Your Microphone
• You should never have to ask, “Can everyone hear me” during your speech, you should do that when you check out the room and venue.
• Test out the volume for the microphone, don’t yell.
• Have a sound spotter who will tell you if there are volume issues.
Microphone Test Phrases
The Harvard sentences are short sentences used during World War II to test out communications systems used by the military. These sentences were designed to be balanced phonetically and to incorporate different sounds of speech.
You can use these sentences as part of your microphone check.
1. A king ruled the state in the early days.
2. The ship was torn apart on the sharp reef.
3. Sickness kept him home the third week.
4. The wide road shimmered in the hot sun.
5. The lazy cow lay in the cool grass.
6. Lift the square stone over the fence.
7. The rope will bind the seven books at once.
8. Hop over the fence and plunge in.
9. The friendly gang left the drug store.
10. Mesh wire keeps chicks inside.
For the complete list of 72 groupings of ten sentences, go to Harvard Sentences
Understand Your Microphone
• Know how to turn it on and off.
• Know how to mute it.
• Know how to put it on the stand, clip it, hold it.
• Know how to attach it if it is a clip-on/lavalier.
Hand-Held Microphones
• Do not hide your face with the microphone.
• Practice holding it so you know where the “sweet spot” is and where the “dead spot” might be.
• If someone asks you a question, either give them the microphone or repeat the question.
Podium Microphones
• Podium mics are sensitive enough to pick up your voice so you do not need to slouch to lean into the microphone.
• Test how far you can get away from the microphone for it to pick up your voice.
• Stay in place. If you walk away, they won’t be able to hear you.
Wearable Lavalier Microphone
• Clip it on 4-6 inches from your mouth.
• Do not wear jewelry that will bang against the microphone (dangly earrings, bulky necklaces).
• Do not let your hair get tangled in the microphone or make noises.
• Do not put it on a floppy jacket.
• Wear clothing that you can easily clip on a microphone.
Computer Microphones
• Test your equipment with a friend.
• Beware of ambient noises –birds, lawnmowers, dishwashers.
• Record your voice on the computer’s microphone so you know what you sound like.
• Know the location of the computer microphone. (I accidentally covered mine with a sticky note and then couldn’t figure out why they couldn’t hear me.)
A Few Other Microphone Tips
• It is about people hearing your speech, if given the option, use a microphone.
• Cough away from the microphone.
• Avoid screaming into the microphone or making loud sounds.
• If you go to the bathroom and you have on a wireless microphone, make sure it is muted. I mean it–this is very important!
• Be sure to mute or turn off your microphone as soon as you are done speaking.
For a great overview of microphone usage as well as some helpful visuals, watch this short video.
A good speech, but notice how he unnecessarily bends to use the microphone.
Just for fun. Watch as everyone tries to keep it business as usual when the Texas mayor leaves his microphone on during a bathroom break.
Key Takeaways
Remember This!
• Test your microphone in advance.
• Test your microphone in advance.
• Test your microphone in advance.
Please share your feedback, suggestions, corrections, and ideas
I want to hear from you.
Do you have an activity to include?
Did you notice a typo that I should correct?
Are you planning to use this as a resource and do you want me to know about it?
Do you want to tell me something that really helped you?
Click here to share your feedback.
References
Anim, M. (2011). Picture of Irish Sinn Fein Senator Kathryn Reilly, speaking at a commemoration. Wikimedia. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kathryn_Reilly.jpg
Dahl, C. (2015). Best HS graduation speech ever! Weber high graduation 2015. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DRiV4KZBoIY Standard YouTube License.
Harvard sentences. http://www.cs.columbia.edu/~hgs/audio/harvard.html
New York News (2015). Texas mayor leaves mic on during bathroom break. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kafVFxP3uaQ Standard Youtube License.
Reed, G. (2017). Microphone test phrases every presenter should know. Ethos 3. https://ethos3.com/2017/03/microphone-test-phrases-every-presenter-should-know/
TMikaelsonJ2 (2019). Jared—6/20/19— 2019- 2020 National Speech and Debate Education Day Spokesperson and Duo Judge. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vwq1McgGDfg Standard YouTube License.
Toastmasters. (2018). Toastmasters tips- The proper way to use a microphone. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=twuRPGDDD5I Standard Youtube License.
Zhang, S. (2015). The “Harvard Sentences” secretly shaped the development of audio tech. https://gizmodo.com/the-harvard-sentences-secretly-shaped-the-development-1689793568 | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/Advanced_Public_Speaking_(Meade)/02%3A_Presenting_a_Speech/2.04%3A_Using_a_Microphone_Effectively-_Turn_It_Off_Before_Going_to_the_Bathroom.txt |
There is no such thing as presentation talent,
it is called presentation skills.
-David JP Phillips, author of How to Avoid Death by PowerPoint
Why Your Voice is the Most Important Part of Your Speech
The most important part of your delivery has to be your voice. You are not an actor in a silent film, a mime in a skit, nor a person giving lessons on lip reading. You are a presenter giving a speech. If they can’t hear you and they can’t understand your words, then you have failed. Like any other skill, strengthening your voice takes practice, but it is time well spent. This chapter gives you reasons for why you should develop your voice and includes activities and videos to help you improve your voice.
First things first. Let’s talk about why it is important to work on your voice. If you have an attractive voice, people tend to attribute other positive characteristics to you. Research highlights that those with attractive voices are believed to be warmer, more likable, and more honest. Those with confident voices are believed to be more dominant and are perceived to be higher achievers. Strengthening your voice can help you with your speech, but it can also help you in other parts of your life. A strong voice will help you in your job interview, in meetings, and in interpersonal relationships.
This chapter is mostly made of exercises for you to try to strengthen your voice. Reading the activities will not help you, doing the activities will. As with all skills, you won’t necessarily improve with one try, it takes practice.
Warm Up Your Voice
Do A Five-Minute Vocal Warm-Up
1. Loosen up and shush: Loosen up your upper body, take a deep belly breath and then say shhhh
2. Tongue Trills: Descending and ascending
3. Hum it Up: Hum up and hum down
4. Chant: Meem, Mime, Mohm, Moom
5. Pronounce: Ma, Pa, Ta
TRY IT: Watch the video below to learn how to warm up your voice using these five steps.
Work on Clearly Articulating Words
Articulation refers to the clarity of the sounds you produce. The opposite of articulation is mumbling. Try putting a pencil in your mouth horizontally and then read your textbook out loud working on keeping your lips off of your teeth to exaggerate the sounds.
Another way to work on articulation is to do the practice drills. Here are some suggestions from Communication in the Real World.
• Say “Red Rover” ten times, overenunciating each r.
• Say “Wilbur” ten times, overenunciating the w and r.
• Say “Bumblebee” ten times, enunciating each b.
• Say “Red-letter, yellow-letter” five times, making sure to distinctly pronounce each word.
• Say “Selfish shellfish” five times, making sure to distinctly pronounce each word.
• Say “Unique New York” five times, enunciating the q and k. (To really up the challenge, try saying, “You need, unique, New York.”)
Bring Your Voice Up Front
Bring your voice from the back of your throat to inside your mouth. Practice bringing your voice forward by trying this exercise.
Say the words “coal, coal, coal.”
Now, do it again. Say the words “coal, coal, coal” as you hold one hand in front of your mouth and feel the air pushing out on your hand. Do it several times to feel the air.
Now say the words “coal, coal, coal,” but this time let it drop to the back of your throat. Notice that the air is no longer pushing on your hand.
When people have strong, energetic voices, they have their voices upfront. When people are tired, weak, or unenergetic, they have their voices in the back of their throats. As speakers, we want to have strong energetic voices.
Now you understand what we are trying to do. Try it one more time each way: “coal, coal, coal.” This time, don’t just feel for the air difference, but also listen for the difference in sound.
Practice Regularly
When I first started doing public speaking, I practiced by reading out loud. I can remember reading the book Jaws to my sister every night before bed. I would walk around the room with the book in my hand and in my best clearly articulated, well-projected voice, I would read:
The great fish moved silently through the night water, propelled by short sweeps of its crescent tail. The mouth was open just enough to permit a rush of water over the gills. There was little other motion: an occasional correction of the apparently aimless course by the slight raising or lowering of a pectoral fin—as a bird changes direction by dipping one wing and lifting the other.
It is not enough to want to get better; you have to practice. Poet Laurette Amanda Gorman struggled with speech articulation throughout her life particularly struggling with Rs and Sh’s. It took practice to have the strong voice that she uses today.
Watch this short video and notice how she clearly articulates each word. At age 22, she is the first poet to perform at a Superbowl.
Click this link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-ejbSCjg2qo to watch (Embedding is disabled so you have to watch it on YouTube)
Practice These Phrases
Once you have your voice warmed up, voice coach Graham Williamson suggests you practice these phrases. As you speak them, try to keep an even tone and pace as if you were speaking one long word with no break in between.
1. Many men munch many melons.
2. Mandy made marinade in May.
3. Major Mickey’s malt makes me merry.
4. My mom’s marvelous modern manicure.
5. Mervin Maclean’s mess marred my marmalade.
Magnify Your Voice
Having a strong, clear voice is important for speechmaking. The best way to learn to amplify your voice is with practice. Amplify doesn’t mean to scream, it means to use the force of your breath and the amplification provided in your mouth to make the sounds strong and clear.
Try talking to your furniture. Right now, look at a chair that you can see and say, “Hello chair.” Imagine seeing your words as rays of light traveling to the chair. Now, look out of a window or a door and see an object farther away and try it again. For example, I may look out the window and say, “Hello tree” and imagine my words traveling to the tree. Try this for various objects at varying distances.
Arguably you may feel silly doing this but trust the process and give it a try. Practice with things inside your room and outside your window. Feel the air and notice the difference.
Practice-Changing Your Volume
To practice changing the volume of your voice, Williamson suggests counting exercises. Try to do it in one breath.
1. Count and gradually increase the loudness.
1. Count and gradually decrease the loudness.
1. Count and increase the loudness on every 2nd number.
1. … on every 3rd number.
1. … on every 4th number.
1. … on every 5th number.
The monotonous speaker not only drones along in the same volume and pitch of tone but always uses the same emphasis, the same speed, the same thoughts—or dispenses with thought altogether.
Monotony: the cardinal and most common sin of the public speaker.
J. Berg Esenwein, The Art of Public Speaking
Yawn to Open Up
1. Yawn a couple of times really big. Feel the back of your throat open when you are yawning.
2. Now try a big yawn, as you exhale close your mouth, let out a sigh. The goal is to open your throat.
3. Focus on the back of your throat opening up. Now yawn right before taking a big breath to open up the back of your throat. Relax your larynx and your head and neck muscles.
TRY IT: Watch the video below for step-by-step instructions.
(Turn up your volume, the video is very quiet).
Exercise Your Vocal Folds
1. Grab a straw and prepare to try this technique.
2. Put the straw in your mouth, pinch your nose, and hum.
TRY IT: Watch the video below for step-by-step instructions.
Use Pauses
Watch the video and notice how he uses pauses to give the audience time to laugh. He also uses pauses to give the audience time to anticipate what he is going to say next. In those pauses, you can tell that the audience has guessed what is going to happen by their gasps, laughs, and sighs. One person even says, “Oh, no!”
Joy is a concept that is very hard to pin down, but you know it when you see it. And I saw the joy in the eyes of my roommate. The dude is clearly excited about something.
Advanced Vocal Training
All the activities above are for all speakers. For those of you who want to take your vocal training to the next level, watch this video to find your natural range. She references a piano keypad, so I made one available for you.
You can download a virtual piano keyboard here: https://www.onlinepianist.com/virtual-piano
Speak With Power
Avoid Uptalk
Uptalk is where the voice goes up at the end of sentences. To many listeners, uptalk makes the speaker sound uncertain, insecure, and annoying. Within other circles (groups of uptalkers), the use of uptalk may signal that the speaker is “one of us.” UK Publisher, Pearson, interviewed 700 managers on the use of uptalk and this is what they found:
• 85% thought it was a “clear indicator of insecurity.”
• 70% found uptalk annoying.
• Of those, 50% said that uptalk would hinder the prospect of employees and interviewers.
• 44% stated that they would mark down applicants with uptalk by as much as a third.
The evidence is clear that in professional circles, uptalk can hurt your credibility. Record yourself while giving a speech and listen for uptalk. Start being aware of when you do it in everyday speech.
Avoid Filled Pauses
Um, uh, ok, like, ya know. All of these happen to even the best speakers, but they are distracting. According to one study, recording yourself and listening to your speech is one way to reduce ums. Another trick is to replace the filler word with the word “period” or “pause” in your everyday speech to help your filler awareness.
Why do we use filler words? We use filler words because we are afraid of silence and pauses. As an advanced speaker, you should begin to think of pauses as a purposeful thing you do for emphasis. Eliminating those “ums” will make you sound more organized and confident.
Public speaking instructor Cathy Hollingsworth emphasizes that speeches need to “start with real words” (not ok, um, or so). In her classes, she even gives students a do-over and allows them to restart if they begin with a filler (but only if they catch it themselves).
Watch this fun slam poem by the teacher and poet Taylor Mali on that trouble with filler words.
Keep Your Voice Healthy
Stay Hydrated.
Staying hydrated helps your body lubricate your vocal cords. It can take up to six hours for the water you drink to get to your vocal cords so you need to hydrate hours before your speech. You cannot wash off your vocal cords. You cannot slick them down with water.
Limit Alcohol and Caffeine.
Balance alcohol and caffeine consumption with water. Drink one glass of water for each cup of coffee or alcoholic beverage.
Humidify.
Use a humidifier when the air is dry to keep your throat moist.
Avoid Inhaling Smoke.
Do not smoke and avoid second-hand smoke. This also includes avoiding other airborn pollutants as much as possible.
Protect Your Voice.
Project your voice, don’t scream. Avoid vocal extremes. Too much shouting or too much whispering can damage your voice.
Warm Up Your Voice.
Before you give a speech, sing, or teach. Practice humming and gliding.
Resist Dairy: It Makes You Snotty.
Dairy products can thicken mucus and clog you up. When you get excess mucus, you are likely to damage your voice by repeated throat clearing.
Avoid Throat Clearing and Limit Coughing.
Coughing and throat clearing are hard on your voice. Try sipping water or sucking on a non-menthol or non-eucalyptus cough drops. It is better for your voice to cough than to clear your voice multiple times. The need to clear the voice often comes from thick mucus–staying hydrated thins the mucus and reduces the need to clear your voice.
Avoid Speaking from Your Throat
Use your breath to carry your voice. Speak from your core and use your diaphragm to support your breath. If you speak from your throat, your voice will begin to sound raspy, and you will struggle to maintain volume in even a three minute speech.
Occupational Voice Users Often Abuse Their Voices.
When people think about occupational hazards, few people immediately think of voice damage but studies highlight that occupational voice users are at risk. Teachers, preachers, singers, actors, and coaches are all considered high-risk categories. Their voice damage can cause pain, it can reduce their effectiveness at their jobs, and can even result in loss of income. In 2001, it is estimated that 28 million workers experienced voice problems every day. One in three teachers reports a financial loss due to voice problems. “School teachers report problems with their voices 60% of the time in their lifetime and 11% at any given time”, according to the Cleveland Clinic. It may be no surprise that some coaches do a lot of yelling. In a survey of 500 soccer coaches, 28% reported having vocal symptoms such as coughing and hoarseness. Pastors are another group who often experience vocal abuse. Fifty-seven percent of Seventh-Day Adventists pastors who were studied experienced voice clearing and hoarseness. Even though Catholic and Pentecostal pastors use their voices differently, there was no significant difference in groups in terms of hoarseness, and 14% of those pastors studied reported the hoarseness did not clear completely and hindered work life. In summary, for many professionals, their voice is the tool of their trade and it becomes an occupational hazard to abuse their voice.
What Occupations Experience Voice Disorders?
• Teachers
• Sports coaches
• Radio broadcasters
• Wind instrumentalists
• Attorney
• Business professional
• Fitness instructors
• Cycling instructors
• Telemarketers
• Customer service representatives
• Tour guides
• Music teachers
Unless you are a musician, actor, or speech professional, you may not have thought about how important it is to protect your voice. Everyone should protect their voice–it is precious. Learning to use your voice safely and in a confident manner can benefit you not just in your speech life. In the words of Jen Mueller, American television and radio sports broadcast journalist, “The only way you find your voice is to use it.” Now is your time to find it and use it!
Key Takeaways
Remember This!
• Having a strong voice can help you as a speaker, but it can also help you professionally.
• Do vocal exercises to improve the strength of your voice.
• Using proper air control helps your voice.
• Avoid vocal fillers and uptalk.
Please share your feedback, suggestions, corrections, and ideas
I want to hear from you.
Do you have an activity to include?
Did you notice a typo that I should correct?
Are you planning to use this as a resource and do you want me to know about it?
Do you want to tell me something that really helped you?
Click here to share your feedback.
OPTIONAL EXTRAS
Your Speaking Voice
This is a newsletter put out by Toastmasters that talks about vocal quality. A great resource.
https://toastmasterscdn.azureedge.net/medias/files/department-documents/education-documents/199-your-speaking-voice.pdf
Focus on Varying Your Voice
There are many factors in your voice you should consider when making a speech.
1. Volume
2. Pitch
3. Pace
4. Timbre
5. Tone
6. Prosody
7. Pace
8. Silence
Watch the video below for examples of each of these.
It only takes one voice,
at the right pitch
to start an avalanche.
Dianna Hardy
International Bestselling Author
References
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Benchley, P. (1974). Jaws. Ballantine Books.
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Byeon H. (2019). The risk factors related to voice disorder in teachers: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International journal of environmental research and public health, 16(19), 3675. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16193675
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Carpenter, C.J. (2012). A metanalysis and an experiment investigating the effects of speaker disfluency on persuasion. Western Journal of Communication, 76(5). https://doi.org/10.1080/10570314.2012.662307
Childs, L. (2016). Voice care: Sorting fact from fiction. UT Southwestern Medical Center. https://utswmed.org/medblog/vocal-cords-care-qa/
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Clements, P. (2013). Five-minute vocal warm-up for actors and public speaking by Page Clements. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Eub7MzfsbdM Standard YouTube License.
Cleveland Clinic. (2020). Ten ways to keep your voice healthy and strong. https://health.clevelandclinic.org/10-ways-to-save-your-voice/
Daily Mail. (2014). Want a promotion? Don’t speak like an Aussie: Rising in pitch at the end of sentences makes you sound ‘insecure’ Daily Mail https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2538554/Want-promotion-Dont-speak-like-AUSSIE-Rising-pitch-end-sentences-make-sound-insecure.html
Engstrom, E. ( 1994 ). Effects of nonfluencies on speaker’s credibility in newscast settings. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 78, 793743. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1994.78.3.739
Esenwein, J.B. & Carnagie, D. (2015). The art of public speaking. The home correspondence school. https://library.um.edu.mo/ebooks/b17773544.pdf
Fellman, D., & Simberg, S. (2017). Prevalence and risk factors for voice problems among soccer coaches. Journal of Voice: Official Journal of the Voice Foundation, 31(1), 121.e9–121.e15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvoice.2016.02.003
Gorman, A. (2021). Amanda Gorman Performs at SuperBowl LV. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M8PxYIlEGMo Standard YouTube License.
Ibekwe, M.U. (2019). Hoarseness among preachers in Port Harcourt Metropolis. Otolaryngology Online Journal, 9, 25-32. (no doi).
Lyon, A. (2017). What is uptalk? [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HEfMwri22SM Standard YouTube License.
Mali, T. (2012). Speak with conviction typology poem by Taylor Mali. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dp9Hb8LAgqs Standard YouTube License.
Martins, R. H., Pereira, E. R., Hidalgo, C. B., & Tavares, E. L. (2014). Voice disorders in teachers. A review. Journal of Voice: Official Journal of the Voice Foundation, 28(6), 716–724. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvoice.2014.02.008
Miller, G. R., & Hewgill, M. A. ( 1963 ). The effect of variations in nonfluency on audience ratings of source credibility. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 94, 3644. https://doi.org/10.1080/00335636409382644
, C.C., , M.R, , M.A., & . (2020) A component analysis of awareness training for reducing speech disfluencies. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 76. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.795
National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders Information Clearinghouse. (2021) Taking care of your voice. https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/taking-care-your-voice
Neto, F. & Silva, I. & Madeira, A. & Menezes, C. & Goncalves, L. & Navarro, L. (2009). Analysis of the vocal health of the preachers of the Seventh-Day Adventist Churches. International Archives of Otorhinolaryngology. 13.
Phyland, D., & Miles, A. (2019). Occupational voice is a work in progress: active risk management, habilitation, and rehabilitation. Current opinion in otolaryngology & head and neck surgery, 27(6), 439–447. https://doi.org/10.1097/MOO.0000000000000584
Jeffers, J. M., & Underwood, G. D. (1993). Enhancing presentation dynamics through voice projection. The Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing, 24(5), 234-237. https://doi.org/10.3928/0022-0124-19930901-11
Ramasubamanian, A. (2019). The Moth presents Ashok Ramasubamanian. [Video]. YouTube.https://youtu.be/MvyPn0FFPio Standard YouTube License.
Sereno, K. K., & Hawkins, G. J. ( 1967 ). The effects of variations in speakers’ nonfluency upon audience ratings of attitude toward the speech topic and speakers’ credibility. Speech Monographs, 34, 5864. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637756709375520
Shellenbarger, S. (2013). Is this how you really talk? Your voice affects others’ perceptions; Silencing the screech in the next cubicle. Wall Street Journal.
http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887323735604578440851083674898
Szymanowskl, A. R., Borst, K. S., & Sataloff, R. T. (2014). Voice disorders in teachers: Examining the problem and evaluating prevention. Journal of Singing – the Official Journal of the National Association of Teachers of Singing, 71(2), 201-206.
Tate, A.S. (2021). Here’s what poet Amanda Gorman says about her speech and auditory issues: The only thing that can impose my is myself. Today. https://www.today.com/parents/poet-amanda-gorman-has-speech-auditory-processing-issues-t206441
Toastmasters (2011). Your speaking voice. https://toastmasterscdn.azureedge.net/medias/files/department-documents/education-documents/199-your-speaking-voice.pdf
Tomlinson, J. M. Jr., Fox Tree, J. E. (2011). Listeners’ comprehension of uptalk in spontaneous speech. Cognition 119(1), 58–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2010.12.005
The University of Minnesota. Communication in the real world. Creative Commons Open Resource Textbook. https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/
Treasure, J. (2013). How to Speak so That People Want To Listen by Julliane Treasure. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.ted.com/talks/julian_treasure_how_to_speak_so_that_people_want_to_listen Standard YouTube License.
University of Michigan Medicine. (n.d.). Maintaining vocal health. https://www.uofmhealth.org/conditions-treatments/ear-nose-throat/maintaining-vocal-health
Van Edwards, V. (2017). Can you make your voice sound better? The Science of Vocal Power. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9wvu4ukcOM Standard YouTube License.
Van Edwards, V. (2019). Five vocal warm-up exercises before meetings, speeches, and presentations by Vanessa Van Edwards. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7eDcHZZn7hU Standard YouTube License.
Verdolini, K., & Ramig, L. O. (2001). Review: occupational risks for voice problems. Logopedics, phoniatrics, vocology, 26(1), 37–46.
Warren, P. (2016). Uptalk- The phenomenon of rising intonation. Cambridge University Press.
Williamson, G. (2014). Voice projection exercises https://www.sltinfo.com/voice-projection-exercises/.
Weitzberg, E., & Lundberg, J. O. (2002). Humming greatly increases nasal nitric oxide. American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine, 166(2), 144–145. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.200202-138BC
Zuckerman, M. and Driver, R.E. (1989). What sounds beautiful is good. The vocal attractiveness stereotype. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 13, 67-82. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00990791
Zuckerman, M. Hodgins, H. and Miyake, K. (1990). The vocal attractiveness stereotype: Replication and elaboration. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 14, 97-112. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01670437 | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/Advanced_Public_Speaking_(Meade)/02%3A_Presenting_a_Speech/2.05%3A_Why_Your_Voice_is_the_Most_Important_Part_of_Your_Speech-_If_They_Can%27t_Hear_You_It_is_Only_a_Frustrating_Exercise_in_.txt |
Zoom in, Zoom out.
But never lose your focus.
Shikha Td, poet
There are many reasons you will need to know how to speak to a camera.
1. You are in an online class and you have to record your speech to submit it.
2. You are making a conference presentation and the conference is online.
3. You are in a Zoom/Teams (or other online) meeting.
4. You are making a career presentation as part of a job interview.
5. You are a teacher/trainer doing remote training.
6. You are a businessperson making pitches online.
Let’s face it, the pandemic elevated the need for video meetings and presentations, and it is likely they are here to stay. Many businesses are doing interviews remotely and several have moved to online platforms for training. This chapter will talk about best practices for using a camera in a live online format and in a recorded and then playback format.
Understand the Context
The first thing you need to do is fully understand the context. Will you be recording and uploading, or will you present live? Is this a one-time presentation? Will this presentation be recorded so others can see it online? All these factors will make a difference.
Check Your Light
Make sure you have adequate lighting.
1. Never be in front of a window where you are backlit.
2. Always have adequate lighting on your face.
3. Use a lamp or lighting system to light your face and adjust it properly.
4. If you use a ring light, try bouncing it off the ceiling so you do not get light rings in your pupils.
5. Avoid using an overhead light because it casts shadows under your eyes.
Check your Camera
I once made a 30-minute video recording of a lecture to realize later that I didn’t have the equipment set up correctly. The sound was not recorded. I was so frustrated because I had to do the entire thing over again. Avoid my mistake and record a test segment and then make sure it works before you record too much of your speech. Look at the playback and consider whether the lighting is good enough for the audience to see your face.
If you have an important conference on Zoom or Teams, check your equipment beforehand. The first time I taught online, I practiced with my family. I practiced making the slides work, checking the microphone, the lighting, and the camera angle. Most accounts will allow you to sign up for a temporary free account if you need to practice outside of school or work.
Check the Sound
Record yourself speaking for a minute and then play it back. Is the sound OK? Can the audience hear you clearly? If not, adjust your microphone. Sometimes the sound echoes in the room or there are too many background noises. Make sure your audio is clear and there is very little interference.
Some setups work better using a headset and microphone and some computers and cell phones work well with the main microphone. In many programs, you can go in through settings and adjust to the sound.
Check for Interferences
I had a student give his speech using his computer and he set his phone on the desk beside his laptop. He kept getting audio notifications beeping throughout his speech. It was very distracting. Turn off notifications or turn off your cell phone entirely. If you are working from home, tell your roommates, siblings, and friends you will need the space to be quiet. Closing the window and closing the door can help keep out some ambient sound.
Put the Video Camera at or Above Eye Level
This may mean you set your laptop on a stack of books, or you readjust your web camera on your desktop. However it is accomplished, make sure the camera is level or a little higher than your eyes. The most common mistake that I see is when someone leans the laptop lid back making it look like the camera is looking up the nose of the speaker.
Look Directly into the Camera
Eye contact is established when you look at the camera directly. If it helps, draw a smiley face and put it on your camera to remind you to look in the “eyes” of your audience.
Think About Where to Put the Note Cards
Tape your note cards to the top of your computer screen or hang them on something behind your computer. Place your cards so you never have to look down to see your notes.
Frame the Shot
Depending on the type of speech, you want to frame your head or do a 3/4 shot. It is best to frame the shot so the audience can see your gestures.
3/4 Shot
Notice how Senator Elizabeth Warren uses the 3/4 shot so you can see her gestures. Notice how she looks directly into the camera.
Head Shot
President Barack Obama gave his speech with a headshot frame. Notice how his great “eye contact” make it look like he is talking to you directly.
Stand Don’t Sit (If possible)
You should read the situation on this one, but if in doubt stand. You will have better air support if you are standing. You will also gesture more freely.
Gesture
You should have open gestures. If you do a tight headshot, you will not see your gestures, so you need to pull the camera back and gesture higher.
Fix the Camera Zoom in One Place
If you are having a friend record you with a handheld device, make sure that the zoom is kept in one place. Sometimes bored camera operators will zoom in and out making for a very unprofessional recording.
Plan the Ending
Your ending will leave a lasting impression so do not leave it to chance. Plan out the exact last words and then resist the temptation to tack on any last comments. Speech endings are always challenging, they are even more difficult online.
Edit the Video
If you are recording your video in advance to be played back later. Edit the part where your arm reaches up to turn on and turn off your recording device. If appropriate, use the feature that allows you to put words on the screen if important words or concepts are relevant.
Here is a video I found helpful (mostly) about lighting setup and camera placement. I particularly like her advice to wear pants.
During the 2020 pandemic when many things went viral, Toastmasters held its speech contests virally. Notice how this creative speaker made the most of the situation to earn him the first-place win.
Key Takeaways
Remember This!
• Always check your equipment: Camera, microphone, lighting.
• Make “eye contact” by looking into your camera.
• Adjust your camera so it is eye level or slightly above eye level.
Please share your feedback, suggestions, corrections, and ideas
I want to hear from you.
Do you have an activity to include?
Did you notice a typo that I should correct?
Are you planning to use this as a resource and do you want me to know about it?
Do you want to tell me something that really helped you?
Click here to share your feedback.
References
Carlucci, C. (2020). How to look better on video calls/facetime/Zoom. [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7ppTAA-1tm0 Standard YouTube License.
Carr, M. (2020). 2020 Toastmasters World Champion of Public Speaking: Mike Carr. [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TA7awoBxBxc Standard YouTube License.
Obama, B. (2020). President Barack Obama’s commencement speech to class of 2020 | Full Speech [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sTFWC1PiLVE Standard YouTube License.
National Speech and Debate Association. (2019). Senator Elizabeth Warren Celebrates National Speech and Debate Education Day! [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KYNO7cAzuYQ Standard YouTube License. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/Advanced_Public_Speaking_(Meade)/02%3A_Presenting_a_Speech/2.06%3A_Speaking_to_a_Camera-_Making_Eye_Contact_is_Key.txt |
There are many ways to deliver your speech. Each one has some specific things to know. In this chapter, we will cover impromptu speaking, extemporaneous speaking, manuscript speaking, memorized presentation, and finally group or team presentations.
Impromptu
• Ray, corporate will be here in five minutes and I want you to walk them through the proposal.
• Jade, would you give a toast to the partners in a few minutes?
• Alex, the speaker is going to be 15 minutes late, would you go out and talk about some related topic until she gets here.
• I have a few people here who need a quick brush up on how to use features of Microsoft Teams, do you have a minute to show them?
• I think I want to buy this computer but I’m not sure if it is right for me, would you demonstrate how to log onto Zoom with it?
• Our political candidate has asked that you go to the Farmer’s Market and talk with constituents about his beliefs about the upcoming zoning changes.
• Javantee, at today’s business meeting, could you tell us about the progress your team is making on project X?
• Eve, would you give your testimony at Bible study in a few minutes.
• Mr. Davidson, the reporter will be here in two minutes to take your statement about the opening.
• We will be asking you questions at the end of your presentation if that is OK with you.
It is likely that each of you reading this book will be called to give an impromptu speech in your life. It is that sudden and often unexpected call to give a speech. In public speaking classrooms and in speech clubs, a topic is offered, and you have a few minutes to prepare.
Steps to Success in an Impromptu Speech
1. Breathe. Often the call to give a speech will catch you off guard. Take a deep breath, fill your body full of wonderful idea-giving, stress-reducing oxygen.
2. Jot down a few quick ideas.
3. If time, write down three solid points on the topic.
4. Always figure out what your first three words will be. Never let your first words be, “Ok, so um”.
5. Plan your last sentence. If you do not have a plan to end and end strong, you will find yourself rambling in search of an ending.
Impromptu Like a Pro
• To put the “Advanced” into your public speaking, use strong signposts. ” I have three points to tell you today,” “point one,” “point two,” “point three,” “Now that I have given you three things to consider.”
• As with all speaking, you should plan the first three words and the last three words to be strong and impactful.
Extemporaneous Speech
Extemporaneous speaking is speaking with brief notes and careful practice. When doing this type of speech, you have written most of the main ideas of your speech in an outline, but the speech is delivered from brief notes. The main ideas are developed but the exact wording of the point is decided at the moment.
The advantage of this type of speaking is you can prepare, plan, and practice. Not having every word scripted helps the speech feel fresh, alive, and real. In addition, the fact every single word isn’t written allows you wiggle room to add new information that seems relevant during the speech. It also can provide a buffer if you mess up. Since it is not scripted, it is easier to pick up and recover.
Steve Johnson who gave a Ted Talk on Where Good Ideas Come gave this commentary on why he decided not to memorize his speech:
In all of my TED talks, I very deliberately did not memorize them, precisely because the audience can hear memorized text very clearly, and it takes awas from the spontaneous, engaged nature of speaking to a live audience. The other problem with a memorized speech is that when it fails, it fails catastrophically. If you’re just talking, following a rough outline, if you slip up a bit and forget a small piece, it’s barely noticeable to anyone but you. But if you’re reciting something from memory and draw a blank, you’re likely to freeze with nowhere to go. It’s like your mental teleprompter has frozen.
Steps to Success in an Extemporaneous Speech
The process for developing an extemporaneous speech is as follows:
1. Think of a topic.
2. Create a thesis statement/ big idea.
3. Research your topic.
4. Outline your speech with a pattern appropriate to the topic and audience.
5. Prepare clear preview and review statements at the opening and closing of your speech where you state and restate the main purpose of your speech.
6. Add a clear opening and closing statement.
7. Create brief notecards from your outline.
8. Deliver the speech in a conversational manner with good eye contact and body movement that enhances the topic and your credibility.
The key advantage of extemporaneous speaking is it tends to feel more natural.
Salman Khan, of Khan Academy learning programs, made several TED Talks on educational principles and says,
I personally tend to list out bullet points of what I want to talk about and try communicating those ideas in my natural language as if I’m talking to friends at a dinner table. The key is to keep your mind focused and let the words fall out. The audience knows when you are thinking about what you are saying versus when you have just memorized a script.
Extemporaneous –Always Have This Speech Ready to Go
There are a few speeches that you should always have ready to go
• Elevator Speech-Imagine you are taking an elevator ride with the person that you want to work for, give you a loan, do research with, partner with and you have only one minute to convince them to talk with you.
• Corporate Story-If you are in business, you should have your corporate story ready to go in a one to two minute speech. This speech should tell people who you are and what you believe.
Memorized
In the early days of rhetoric, students would learn the art of speaking by memorizing the speeches of others and delivering them in public places. The Greek rhetors placed a great emphasis on the skill of memorization and it is even considered one of the canons of rhetoric. The most common times you will see a speech memorized is for toast speeches and acceptance speeches. After all, it ruins the moment if you have a wine glass in one hand toasting the groom and your speech notes in the other. Memorizing your toast helps you to be in the moment. In addition, many sales companies require their salespeople to memorize the company sales script. These tested formulas often pay off in larger sales, so they expect associates to deliver word-per-word scripts in their sales presentations. Some politicians have memorized stump speeches or at least memorized answers to standard questions.
While not as prevalent as it was in ancient Greek and Rome, memorized speeches are making a comeback. The biggest place of resurgence is on the Ted stage. Chris Anderson, Ted Talk curator said, “Many of our best and most popular TED Talks have been memorized word for word.”
TED speaker and voice artist Rives says,
I memorize the s#@! out of it. I memorize the talk until the talk is like a tune. I workshop the talk in my mouth. I run it fast and slow, singsong and stentorian, cool and cooler. I rehearse the talk until I’m performing the talk, not remembering it.
Pamela Meyer, TED speaker says,
You haven’t really memorized your talk thoroughly until you can do an entire other activity that requires mental energy while giving your talk. Can you give your talk while measuring out the ingredients to make brownies?
The advantage of memorizing your speech is you can plan every word making the most of your speech time. Not having to look at notes frees you up to make good eye contact. The disadvantage of memorizing your speech is you might not sound fresh and your audience may perceive it more as a performance than a speech. Some speakers take on a machine gun tone with their voice giving away the memorized format. Sometimes eye contact is lost as the speaker reads off the “invisible notecard in the sky.” The biggest disadvantage is that you risk going blank and forgetting what to say.
If you do decide to memorize your speech, be sure you know it well. TED curator, Chris Anderson says, “Most people go through what I call the ‘valley of awkwardness,’ where they haven’t quite memorized the talk. If they give the talk while stuck in that valley, the audience will sense it … Getting past this point is simple, fortunately. It’s just a matter of rehearsing enough times that the flow of words becomes second nature. It is important,” according to Anderson ” that, you are not supposed to recite your talk, you’re supposed to live it. Embody it. It must come across as if you are sharing these ideas for the first time.”
Have a backup plan. If you decide to memorize your talk, keep a notecard in your pocket. If you forget what to say, pause and say, “Let me refer to my notes” and then pull them out or pause for a moment and have a sip of water. No matter how well you know your talk, have a backup plan.
Examples
After all the memorization work I’d done, performing this speech felt like swinging a racquet or shooting a basketball, like dancing a routine you know perfectly. The speech had become a literal part of me, encoded in the neural connections of my brain. Memorization, I realized, is a place where the mind learns to cope with the body. Consciously, we want to remember something, but that’s not sufficient to embed information in the networks of the brain. We have to earn the memories we want.
Alexis Madrigal. What Memorizing a Ted Talk Did for My Brain
Memory Techniques
Greek poet Simonides of Ceos is the first recorded use of the method of loci (loci being Latin for places). It is more recently called the memory palace. If you have ever watched BBC’s Sherlock, you may have noticed that Sherlock uses the memory palace to remember things. Individuals who compete in memory competitions often use the memory palace or memory journey technique to remember long lists of times–Clemons Mayer memorized 1040 random digits by using a 300-point journey through his house and Gary Shang used the technique to memorize pi to 65,536 digits. Brain scans of these super memorizers show the region of the brain involved with spatial awareness is activated when using this technique.
So how does it work? In short, this technique suggests that you remember things in familiar spatial environments. For example, you might imagine each part of your speech being located in one of your kitchen cabinets. When you open the cabinet door, you can see the speech part. Speaker Irina Elena Antonescu found images and cut and pasted them on big sheets of paper in a kind of journey to help her memorize her talk. Heather Hanson learned from Grandmaster of Memory, Nishant Kasibhatla how to think in pictures and how to find pictures that make sense to her in some way.
I’ll show you how it works. This picture illustrates my third speaking point on listening. In my mind, the rainbow was cascading down on the audience from the first-floor balcony while I spoke of the beautiful variety of English accents. Then, the colors turned into speech bubbles floating over everyone’s heads with all their different sounds as I talked about how accents work.
The bubbles popped and turned into music notes as I remembered to elaborate on tone and emphasis until a huge donkey showed up and started eating the music notes. That reminded me to tell everyone not to be an “ass” and not to make “ass”umptions about the way people speak (I didn’t use those words, of course, but that’s actually what I was thinking). Then, the donkey looked right at me and his eyes popped out of his head! He was wearing accented contact lenses, which reminded me to talk about how we need more contact with different varieties of accented English. Suddenly, it was incredibly easy to remember my talk!
Heather Hansen
Read the whole article at https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/memorization-trick-saved-my-tedx-talk-heather-hansen/
In the video How to Memorize and Give a Speech Without Notes, Jim Kwik gives a step-by-step tutorial to apply this to memorizing a speech.
Manuscript
There will be times when reading from a manuscript is helpful. When giving a eulogy you are likely to experience strong emotions. Having your words written out will be very helpful. Politicians often speak from manuscripts because there will be people weighing the meaning of each word. They often have speech writers who take their ideas and make them sound fancy and they likely have several people help them omit words that might offend.
The advantage to speaking with a manuscript is you have your speech in front of you giving you an opportunity to plan interesting wordplays and advanced language techniques. Another advantage to a manuscript is you can share your speech with others. For example, many people like to have written copies of the toast given to them at a special occasion or family members might want to keep a copy of the eulogy. Politically speaking, a manuscript can be helpful to help keep you on track and make sure you only say things you meant to say.
The disadvantage to a manuscript is if not done properly, your speech may feel like merely an “essay with legs.” Speaking from a manuscript is a skill. I would argue that it is one of the most difficult of all the delivery types because your goal is to read without appearing to read. It can be so tempting to lock your eyes on the page where it is safe and to never look up. Speakers who lack the skill of manuscript reading will have very little eye contact. It is usually sporadic and rarely long enough to lock eyes with anyone in the audience. Finally, it is very difficult for most people to make gestures when reading a manuscript. Many people run their hands down the page to keep their place and worse yet, many speakers clutch both hands over the podium and never let go.
There is an entire chapter written on how to use a manuscript
Group or Team Speech
Several years ago, I was on a charter bus headed to teaching camp. I often use that time to learn more about other teachers and their specialties. This time the person seated next to me was a professor from the Walton School of Business. I asked him, “In your opinion, in what area are students not properly prepared when it comes to communicating in a corporate environment.” He said, “Group presentations.” He went on to explain that the model in most speech classes is four people each prepare a speech on a similar topic and then one at a time, they stand up and give their speech. They may share slides and put them all together, but often there is not a lot of group in a group speech. He said, “That is not a group speech in the real world where each person plays to their strengths. In that setting, team members talk for different amounts of time. In the presentation, they tag team, they interact, and they are involved with the content from the other group members. The whole thing looks like a seamless presentation, not four speeches glued together by a shared slideshow.
Once I was working on a team presentation with another teacher. Originally, we had the typical I talk for five minutes and then she talks for five minutes set up, but then we decided there was no team in that model. We reworked the presentation where she might present a point, and then I might give some supplemental information on a point and one of us would introduce the next point. Since there was a lot of turn-takings, we coded our slides by putting a red dot or a blue dot in the corner of the slide to remind us of whose turn it was to present. One person held the clicker and we had practice signals to know when to advance. We even had it worked out where when one person would talk, the other person would walk around and be ready to give out handouts or to ask an interactive question to the audience. We worked as a unified team moving towards the goal of educating teachers about how to talk about difficult subjects in the college classroom.
Steps to Success in a Group Speech
1. Everyone Should Know All the Content. One of the big mistakes I see in college presentations, it that students put everything together last minute and each speaker is not aware of what the others are saying. They may use a shared document to make an outline, but each person adds the content so late the others do not have time to read and respond. Inevitably, two presenters have the same information. The second person who presents finds themselves in the awkward position of saying, “Like Joe already said, repeated fact.” For group speeches to work, group members must share content early and they need to, not only share the content in a document, but they also need to practice together.
2. Nonspeaking Group Members Can Be Distracting. You need to plan what the nonspeaking group members are doing when they are not speaking. Are they sitting, standing, walking around? Are they in view of the audience? During a group presentation at the university, I had the students unwisely decide to stand in front of the class in a line and then take turns speaking down the line. The third speaker got bored, so he grabbed a marker and started drawing a cartoon on the whiteboard while his group member was talking. I’ve also seen groups where they didn’t manage facial expressions and looked genuinely surprised by a fact the speaker said or looked very angry by the information that clearly was tacked on by one of their team members last minute.
3. Dead Air Kills. When I worked as a radio DJ, we had the phrase, “Dead air kills.” Which meant if the DJ didn’t properly time one song to lead into the next or if there was even a short pause before the commercial, the DJ would lose your audience. A brief pause might even lead to the listeners changing the channel. When working with groups, the time it takes for each speaker to stand, to speak, or to get their notes ready can result in dead air. Work towards a seamless presentation and practice the timing and logistics of how to get from one speaker to the next.
4. Transitions Keep Things Seamless. Each speaker should give a transition that clearly connects their speech to the next speaker, “I told you about the culture of Mexico, now Yazan will tell you about the food.”
5. Slides Should Be Consistent. They should be consistent in the background, headings, photos, and font. For example, one person has high-quality photos for the slides while the other group member has cheesy uncentered clip art. Make sure each person knows and has access to the whole slide show. Oftentimes, one person will be responsible for making the slides for the group. If that is the case, make sure the slide show is done before the deadline so each team member can proof the slides and practice with the slides.
6. Start and End Strong. There should be a grabber to get the attention of the topic and there should be a thesis/preview that includes all the subtopics of the speech. At the end of the speech, you should restate the thesis/review and give a strong closing statement.
In summary, there are many considerations when picking a way to deliver a speech. The context of the speech, the need for precision or flexibility, and the personal preference of the speaker will all influence which delivery method works best.
Key Takeaways
Remember This!
There are several ways to deliver speeches each with advantages and disadvantages. It is important to pick your delivery mode based on audience, occasion, and personal style preference.
• Impromptu
• Extemporaneous
• Memorize
• Manuscript
• Group Presentation
Please share your feedback, suggestions, corrections, and ideas
I want to hear from you.
Do you have an activity to include?
Did you notice a typo that I should correct?
Are you planning to use this as a resource and do you want me to know about it?
Do you want to tell me something that really helped you?
Click here to share your feedback.
References
Hansen, H. (2018). The memorization trick that saved my TEDx talk. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/memorization-trick-saved-my-tedx-talk-heather-hansen/
Jameson, S. (2005). Reading for college PowerPoint. Drew University. https://www.nwmissouri.edu/trio/pdf/sss/study/Reading-for-college.pdf
Madrigal, A. (2016). The weird, wonderful, sometimes awful world of bots. TED Talk. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uUosXSJf-9E Standard YouTube License.
Maguire, E.A., Valenrine, E.R., Wilding, J.M., & Kapur, N. (2002). Routes to remembering the brains behind superior memory. Nature Neuroscience. 6 (1): 90–95. doi: 10.1038/nn988. PMID: 12483214.
Memory Town System for Languages – Memory Techniques Wiki https://artofmemory.com/wiki/Main_Page
Raz, A., Packard, M.G., Alexander, G.M., Bulhe, J.T., Zhu, H, Yu, S. & Peterson, B.S. (2009). A slice of π An exploration neuroimaging study of digit encoding and retrieval in a superior memorist. Neurocase. 15 (5): 361–372. https://doi.org/10.1080/13554790902776896
Stout, S. Eulogy to Papa with the Theme of Dancing. Delivered in Lynn Meade’s Advanced Public Speaking Class at the University of Arkansas. Used with permission.
van As, T. Tribute to Nelson Mandela. Delivered in Lynn Meade’s Advanced Public Speaking Class at the University of Arkansas. Used with permission.
Winfrey, O. Eulogy to Rosa Parks. A slice of π An exploration neuroimaging study of digit encoding and retrieval https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5cfhtfNfIPE Standard YouTube License. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/Advanced_Public_Speaking_(Meade)/02%3A_Presenting_a_Speech/2.07%3A_Delivery_Methods-_Which_One_Should_I_Use.txt |
How to Write and Use Manuscripts
There will be times when reading from a manuscript is helpful. When giving a eulogy and you are likely to experience strong emotions, having your words written out and in front of you will be very helpful. Politicians often speak from manuscripts because there will be people weighing the meaning of each word. They often have speech writers who take their ideas and make them sound professional, and they likely have several people look it over for any offensive words or questionable phrases.
The advantage to speaking with a manuscript is you have your speech in front of you giving you an opportunity to plan interesting wordplays and advanced language techniques. By managing the exact wording, you can better control the emotional tone. Another advantage to a manuscript is you can share your speech with others both for proofing and for reference. For example, many people like to have written copies of the toast given to them at a special occasion or a copy of the eulogy to the loved one. Politically speaking, a manuscript can be helpful to help keep you on track and to help you say only the things that you mean to say.
The disadvantage to a manuscript is if not done properly, your speech may feel like merely an “essay with legs.” Speaking from a manuscript is a skill. I would argue that it is one of the most difficult of all types because your goal is to read without appearing to read. It can be so tempting to lock your eyes on the page where it is safe without ever looking up at the audience. Speakers who lack the skill of manuscript reading will have very little eye contact and when they look up it will be in only short bursts–rarely long enough to lock eyes with anyone in the audience. Finally, it is very difficult for most people to gesture when reading a manuscript. Many people run their hands down the page to keep their place while others clutch the podium and never let go.
Keys to Using a Manuscript
• Always write a manuscript in manuscript format and never in essay format.
• Practice with your manuscript at a podium so you can work on how to change pages.
• Learn the art of eye fixations.
• Practice with a friend so you can master eye contact.
• If you struggle with gestures, make a note on your manuscript to remind you to gesture.
• Practice, practice, practice–you should actually practice more than in a typical speech since it is a harder delivery method.
Formatting a Manuscript
• Do not start a sentence on one page and then finish it on another.
• Do not fold the manuscript–it won’t lay flat on the podium.
• Do not print on both sides of the page.
• Do not staple the manuscript
• Number your page.
• Write it in a large font and then make it one size larger than you need.
• It should look like poetry.
• Have extra spaces between every main idea.
• Bold the first word of every main section.
• Use /// or …. to indicate pauses in your speech.
• Bold or make the font larger when you want to emphasize a word.
• If you have a parallel construction where you repeat the same word bold or underline the repeated word.
• Pick an easy-to-read font.
• Make a note (SLIDE) when you need to change your slide.
• It is more important to write it like you will speak it than to include commas and periods.
• It is OK to omit punctuation.
• Do whatever formatting works best for you.
Sample manuscripts
Notice how this student formats her manuscript by making it spread out and easy to read:
Today // it is an honor for me to stand here before you
at the Freedom Banquet
and pay tribute to a man
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,that in his lifetime
………………………………….has touched
…………………..and changed
……………………………uncountable lives across the globe
Today /// we are here to honor
…………….a president,
………………………..a father,
………………………………a husband
…………………………………….and a true savior
in Mr. Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela
Tribute speech by Tanica van As delivered at the University of Arkansas
Manuscripte From History
Winston Churchill’s Speech in Response to German’s Invasion of Britain
Winston Churchill’s Speech in Response
to German’s Invasion of Britain and Finest Hour Speech
Sometimes referred to as the Psalms format or free verse format,
the speech is written like it will be spoken.
How to Present with a Manuscript
To best read a manuscript, we need to borrow some items from speed reading. When you were first learning to read, you learned to read each letter–D–O–G. You would look at the letter “D,” then your eyes would look at the letter “O, ” and finally, your eyes would move over to look at the letter “G.” You would fixate (or rest) your eyes on three different places. Eventually, you got better at reading and better at seeing, so you would now look at DOG in one eye fixation and your brain was able to take in the information–dog. Now, you no longer read one letter at a time, that would be way too slow, now you can take in the whole word at once.
Over time, you have even learned bigger words–like “communication” (13 letters). Now, consider this… the phase “The dog ran fast” contains 13 letters. Since you can see the word “communication” as one eye fixation and understand it then, in theory, your eyes should be able to see “the dog ran fast” as one eye fixation and understand it too. We have been trained to look at each word individually with separate eye fixations …the … dog… ran… fast… is four different eye fixations. With a little practice, you can train your eyes to see the whole phrase with one look. Here are some sentences, practice looking at each of the sentences with one eye fixation.
I ate the red apple
My car is green
My cat is moody
You tried it didn’t you? You can only learn if you try them out. With practice, you can look at an entire sentence as one thing (eye fixation). Your brain can understand all those words as one thought. Now, try this. Wherever you are right now, look up at the wall nearest you and then look back down. Write down all the things you can recall about what you saw–I saw a yellow wall with brown trim, two bookcases, a clock, a printer, a bird statue. Your brain is amazing; it can look up to a wall and in one eye fixation, it can take in all that it sees.
You can take in many sentences as well, try to look down at these next two sentences in one eye fixation and then look up and say them out loud.
The boy sang a song
The girl danced along
With a little practice, most people can see chunks of five words across and three lines down. Give it a try. Once again, try to look at the three sentences as one and then look up and say them.
The happy frog leaped
off the lily pad
and into the cool water
It takes practice, but you can do it. The bonus feature of doing the practice and learning this skill is you will learn to read faster. Since a lot of college work and professional preparation relies on reading the information, it would benefit you for the rest of your life to learn this valuable skill. While researching, I came across this excellent slide presentation by Sanda Jameson on Reading for College that goes into more depth about the process. I highly recommend you review it to help you with your manuscript reading and to help you become a better reader in your college classes.
https://www.nwmissouri.edu/trio/pdf/sss/study/Reading-for-college.pdf
By now, you have figured out that using chunking and working on eye fixations is going to help you read your manuscript easier. Arranging your manuscript where you have only five to seven words on a line will make it easier to see as one fixation. Organizing your manuscript where you can see several lines of text at once, can help you put a lot of information in one eye fixation.
Now, let’s look at a eulogy written by one of my students, Sydney Stout. She wrote this eulogy to her grandpa who loved dancing and encouraged her to do the same. First, notice the manuscript format where it is written like it will be spoken. It is chunked into lines that are usually 5-7 words long. The list of names is written like a stair step showing the stair step in the voice when the names are spoken. Try reading this except out loud focusing on eye fixations. Try to see one whole line at a time and then read it again trying to see two lines at a time.
Dancing is a delicate art
An activity many people love and enjoy
but someone that loves dancing
more than anyone I know
is my grandfather.
You all know my grandfather
Maybe you know him as James
….. Jack
………Dad
………….Papa Jack
…………………or in my case……………….. just Papa.
Papa // you have led me through life
like any great dance partner should
And I’ve memorized the steps you’ve taught me
……………………………………….….And they have allowed me to dance
…………………………………………………… gracefully
…………………………………………………………..through my own life
Tribute speech by Sydney Stout delivered at the University of Arkansas
Examples
Watch this eulogy speech to Rosa Parks by Oprah Winfrey. Notice how each word is carefully chosen and how if you notice closely, you can tell that she is using a manuscript. Notice how seamlessly she turns the pages and notice how she spends most of her time looking up at the audience.
Timing Your Manuscript
Be sure to practice using your manuscript at least 5 to 7 times. It is harder to speak with a manuscript than it is to give a speech with brief notes.
Use this chart as a reference for how long your speech will be and then time yourself on several of your run-throughs.
390 words in a 3- minute speech
650 words in a 5- minute speech
1300 words in a 10- minute speech
For More http://www.speechinminutes.com/
A Speech Saved the President's Life
The speech that saved Teddy Roosevelt
Teddy Roosevelt’s life was saved when an assassin’s bullet was slowed down by his 50 paged speech manuscript. The doctor on sight determined that while the bullet didn’t his lungs, he should still go to the hospital immediately. A determined Roosevelt balked and said, “You get me to that speech.” He delivered a 50-minute speech before going to the hospital. Doctors decided it was safer to leave the bullet in his chest and that his speech had indeed saved his life.
More on this story from the history channel:
Please share your feedback, suggestions, corrections, and ideas
I want to hear from you.
Do you have an activity to include?
Did you notice a typo that I should correct?
Are you planning to use this as a resource and do you want me to know about it?
Do you want to tell me something that really helped you?
Click here to share your feedback.
References
Klein, C. (2019). When Teddy Roosevelt was shot in 1912, a speech may have saved his life.
Speech in minutes.(n.d.). http://www.speechinminutes.com/
Stout, S. (n.d.). Eulogy to Papa with the theme of dancing. Delivered in Lynn Meade’s Advanced Public Speaking Class at the University of Arkansas. Used with permission.
Van As, T. (n.d.) Tribute to Nelson Mandela. Delivered in Lynn Meade’s Advanced Public Speaking Class at the University of Arkansas. Used with permission.
Winfrey, O. (2010). Eulogy to Rosa Parks. [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5cfhtfNfIPE Standard YouTube License. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/Advanced_Public_Speaking_(Meade)/02%3A_Presenting_a_Speech/2.08%3A_Speaking_from_a_Manuscript-_How_to_Read_and_not_Look_Like_You_Are_Reading.txt |
“Cooking Demo with Chef Maurice”
Why Use Props?
• To engage the audience
• To focus attention
• To make your message more memorable
• To retain the audience’s attention
• To emotionally impact the audience
• To break away from using slides
• To help the audience understand
• To demonstrate how to do things
Best Practices on How to Use Props
Select your props with care.
• Ensure they are large enough to be seen.
• Proofread/check for errors (often better to get a different set of eyes on them as you may gloss over the errors).
• Make sure your prop is not offensive.
• Consider how you will carry your prop to and from the speaking venue.
• Make sure your prop is not offensive.
• Consider set-up and take-down time (if working with food, glue, or other messy items, bring wipes and a trash bag).
Practice with your props.
• Work to seamlessly integrate the prop (it shouldn’t look like someone told you that you had to use a prop).
• Be able to smoothly show and put away your prop.
• Have a plan for how to hide the prop until you need it.
• Make eye contact with your audience while working with your prop.
• Place your prop where you can easily reach it.
• In demonstration speeches, make sure everything is opened (it is hard to open cream cheese while speaking).
• If working with food, glue, or other messy items, bring wipes and a trash bag.
• Put the prop away after using it.
Have a backup plan in case the prop does not work.
• Bring tape in case you have to hang something up.
• Have whiteboard markers in case you need to write on the board.
• Practice with a clicker and your prop so you know how to work them together.
Additional Thoughts on Props
• Include reminders on your notecards for when to use the prop.
• If your prop involves a volunteer, make sure they know what is expected.
• Do not pass items around for the audience to see, it is too distracting.
How and Why to Use Props
Props Enhance Your Message
Notice how Jill Bolte Taylor uses an actual human brain to enhance understanding and to engage the audience.
Time to watch: 2:20-4:00
Props Help Demonstrate How Something Works
It can be difficult to envision how things work with only an explanation. In this speech, Michael Pritchard not only tells us, but he also demonstrates for us how the water filter works. He starts by taking dirty water and makes it even dirtier. The dirty water causes some people to have a physical reaction. This makes it even more memorable when he finally cleans the water and then hands it to someone to drink.
Time to watch: 3:00-5:30
Props Can Be Used to Prove a Point
When writing this chapter on props, I asked public speaking teachers to give me their best examples of how students used props effectively and Mike Fleming shared this story.
When I first began teaching, I had to shadow someone who was currently teaching. One Saturday morning, one of the students had a large, 50-pound sack of dry dog food. When called, she went up, and put the bag on the corner of the desk, went around it, and began her speech. She started talking about her wedding. She explained how she was a newlywed. She told of the importance, to her, of fitting into her wedding dress, and of all she had gone through to make that happen. She spoke of having been chubby her entire life, etc. At the very end of her speech, after telling us that she had accomplished her goal, and had fit into her dress, she stepped around the desk, put her arm around the bag of dog food, hoisted it onto her hip, and told us that if she had stepped onto a scale just then, the scale would have showed what she had weighed, at the start of her journey. She put the bag back on the desk and said, “But not anymore! Mike Fleming.
Speaker Kenny Nguyen uses the prop of a sword and a shield to anchor his message.
Watch from 8.59 to the end. He doesn’t use the props right away but I wanted you to see the context so I backed up the video a little. Notice how he has the prop out of the way until he needs it to solidify his point.
Props Can Carry the Theme
In this graduation speech, Valedictorian Carl Aquino uses a Rubik’s cube to talk about high school. Watch how he uses it to show the difference between high school and college.
Props Can Be Used to Teach Complex Concepts
Dan Burns teaches other teachers how to demonstrate spacetime warping. Does this help you understand the scientific principles? I know I learned a lot from this. Notice how he talks as he demonstrates. He could improve by having some of these objects a little closer so there isn’t an awkward pause as he gets his balls.
Watch from the beginning
You Can Be the Prop
Lizzy Velasquez talks about a syndrome she has. In this speech, she is the prop. She draws attention to her eyes and then highlights the great things about her eyes.
Time to watch: 0-2:00
Props Can Help Tell a Story
Aimee Mullins engages the audience by telling a story of how children reacted to seeing all her prosthetic legs. As we look at the props on the stage, we can better imagine the reactions of the children.
Time to watch: 0-2:14
Props Can Enhance Persuasion
Watch as Mark Scarpitti illustrates the benefits of no-till soil. Notice how he engages his audience by asking them questions as he demonstrates; it really helps engage his audience. He has all of his props set up before he begins and they are set out in a way that they are easy to see. He wisely uses volunteers which further engages the group. By showing instead of just telling, he makes a convincing case for no till-soil.
Time to watch: 0:21- 4:15
Your Product Can Be Your Prop
Many of you will do a product demonstration as part of your job. In this video, Elon Musk, with the help of an assistant, illustrates the Cybertruck’s load mode.
Time to watch: 12:00-13:45
Props Can Illustrate Complex Concepts
Frances Chan, Christian Pastor, illustrates the concept of “eternity” to a church audience with, of all things, a rope.
Time to watch: 0-2:00
Props to Help the Audience Relate to Numbers and Think Deeply About a Concept
Jamie Oliver is not only passionate about food, he is passionate about teaching people to eat healthier. Watch as he illustrates how much sugar is in milk. As you watch the video, notice how he has a volunteer bring his prop on the stage at just the right time. As he dumps one cup at a time on the floor, we begin to see the problem. Finally, when he dumps the wheelbarrow of sugar on the floor and then dramatically tosses it in the air, we begin to sense the urgency of the problem.
Time to Watch: 12:00-14:00
Props Can Engage the Audience’s Attention
Andrea Schiefelbein uses humor and some creative poster usage at a High School National Speech and Debate Championship. Notice how she creatively uses the poster board in layers. Pay attention to how she has just plain black poster board when she doesn’t need us to see a picture. Finally, watch as she uses the genderbread man to draw us and she causes us to think as we watch her add pieces to the poster.
Watch from 0-4:00
Posters Can Be Used Instead of Slides to Draw the Audience’s Attention
Dave Lieber, a columnist for The Dallas Morning News, talks about trying to adapt to Texas culture while teaching the audience how to tell the story. Notice how effective his poster is as opposed to using a slide show. Ask yourself, would it have been as engaging if he would have shown us a slide of the dog?
Time to Watch: 12:50-14:00
Props Can Be Used With Slides to Draw the Audience’s Attention
Daniel Kraft demonstrates the Marrow Minor. He uses four props, slides, and a video in four minutes. Watch as he masterfully negotiates all his visuals while maintaining a conversational tone with the audience.
Check Out This Article on How Politicians Use Props
Business Insider Looked at 10 Wild Props Used by Congressional Members that I thought you would enjoy. (My personal favorite is Reagan riding a velociraptor–I included it here for your viewing pleasure) Watch this short video clip as Republican Senator Mike Lee makes fun of the Green New Deal using Reagan on a dinosaur, Star Wars, and Sharknado.
MIT Professor Patrick Winston gives a lecture on how to use props. He goes into detail about why he thinks props work. Watch for yourself, the answer might surprise you. Watch from 13 to 24 minutes.
Key Takeaways
Remember This!
• Props can help the audience pay attention, understand concepts, and remember your information.
• Props should enhance your message.
• The prop should be large enough to see.
• Practice with your props to seamlessly integrate them into your speech.
Please share your feedback, suggestions, corrections, and ideas
I want to hear from you.
Do you have an activity to include?
Did you notice a typo that I should correct?
Are you planning to use this as a resource and do you want me to know about it?
Do you want to tell me something that really helped you?
Click here to share your feedback.
Looking for More Information?
I didn’t want to overwhelm you with too many examples when you read the chapter, so I included some of the extra video clips, examples, and activities in a separate chapter.
Presentation Aids: Activities and Resources
References
Aquino, C. (2011). The Valedictorian Speech that will change your life. [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lCN6FjqDcHg Standard YouTube License.
Armour, C. Schneid, S.D., Brandl, K. (2016). Writing on the board as students’ preferred teaching modality in a physiology course. Physiology. https://doi.org/10.1152/advan.00130.2015
Burns, D. (2012). Gravity visualized. [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MTY1Kje0yLg Standard YouTube License.
Chan, F. (2010). Frances Chan-Rope illustration.[Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=86dsfBbZfWs Standard YouTube License.
Cnet. (2019). Watch Elon Musk announce the Tesla Cybertruck in 14 minutes. [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=464puoD09dM Standard YouTube License.
Dlugan, A. (2013). How to choose and use speech props: A speaker’s guide. http://sixminutes.dlugan.com/speech-props/ Standard YouTube License.
Gates, B. (2013). Mosquitos, malaria, and education. Ted. [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZLkbWUNQbgk Standard YouTube License.
Kraft, S. (2009). A better way to harvest bone marrow. [Video] YouTube. https://www.ted.com/talks/daniel_kraft_a_better_way_to_harvest_bone_marrow?utm_campaign=tedspread&utm_medium=referral&utm_source=tedcomshare Standard YouTube License.
Lieber, D. (2013). The power of storytelling to change the world. Ted. [Video] YouTube. https://youtu.be/6Bo3dpVb5jw Standard YouTube License.
Lineham, D. 9n.d.). How to use props in presentations. https://davelinehan.com/how-to-use-props-in-presentations/
Mullins, A. (2009). My 12 pair of legs. Ted. [Video] YouTube. https://www.ted.com/talks/aimee_mullins_my_12_pairs_of_legs?utm_campaign=tedspread&utm_medium=referral&utm_source=tedcomshare Standard YouTube License.
Nguyen, K. (2013). The art of saying no: Kenny Nguyen at TEDxLSU. [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FtPRrn5nwAo&t=563s Standard YouTube License.
Oliver, J. (2010). Teach every child about food. Ted. [Video] YouTube. https://www.ted.com/talks/jamie_oliver_teach_every_child_about_food?language=en Standard YouTube License.
Pritchard, M. (2009). [Video] YouTube. How to make filthy water drinkable. Ted. https://www.ted.com/talks/michael_pritchard_how_to_make_filthy_water_drinkable?utm_campaign=tedspread&utm_medium=referral&utm_source=tedcomshare Standard YouTube License.
Relman, E. (2019). A GOP senator brought a giant picture of Ronald Reagan riding a dinosaur to argue against Democrats’ Green New Deal. Here are 10 other wild props members have brought to the floor. Business Insider. [Video] https://www.businessinsider.com/ranked-10-best-props-congress-2017-8?fbclid=IwAR2XRZC0VnjxMu6NqnjCAMBoDuaX2WS5Z7rYNtCEzPGMATsJkWhxh0WyRiE Standard YouTube License.
Scarpitti, Ml (2011). Differences in tilled and no till soil.[Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q1aR5OLgcc0&feature=youtu.be Standard YouTube License.
Schiefelbein, A. (2020). Anderea Schiefelbein “beyond pink and blue”-Informative Speaking. Nationals 2019. [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rVBUarS1H7U Standard YouTube License.
Taylor, J.B. (2008). My stroke of insight. TedTalk [Video] YouTube. https://www.ted.com/talks/jill_bolte_taylor_my_stroke_of_insight Standard YouTube License.
Valasquez, L. (2014). How do you define yourself. Ted [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QzPbY9ufnQY Standard YouTube License.
Valentin, C. (2015). Craig Valentine Speaks About His Nametag.[Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e_KRqkmPmag&feature=youtu.be Standard YouTube License.
Winston, P. (2019). How to speak by Patrick Winston. [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Unzc731iCUY Standard YouTube License.
Zimmerman, J. (2017). How to “prop up” your next presentation. Presentation Guru. https://www.presentation-guru.com/how-to-prop-up-your-next-presentation/#:~:text=In%20a%20presentation%2C%20props%20are,be%20handled%20by%20the%20presenter.
Zimmer, J. (2011). Ten tips for using props in a presentation. Manner of speaking. https://mannerofspeaking.org/2011/09/29/ten-tips-for-using-props-in-a-presentation/ | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/Advanced_Public_Speaking_(Meade)/03%3A_Presentation_Aids_for_Speech/3.01%3A_Props-_It_is_More_Than_Just_Setting_Stuff_on_a_Table.txt |
The more strikingly visual your presentation is,
the more people will remember it.
And more importantly, they will remember you.
Paul Arden
Creative Director of Advertising Company Satchi and Satchi
The speaker was a master in his field which is why he was chosen to speak. He was brilliant, he was motivated to share his ideas, and he was great at conversation. The only problem was he was the most boring speaker I have ever heard. He stood at the front of the room and read presentation slides to us for two hours. He rarely looked at the audience. It was the longest two hours of any conference I have ever attended.
Chances are you have had a similar experience. A speaker has ridiculous amounts of text on a slide and then stands there and reads it to you. Unfortunately for all of us, a lot of college classes are that way. In fact, most of us learned about how to use slides by seeing our teachers use them–poorly.
The use of electronic slides–PowerPoint, Presenter, Google Slides, Prezi—is pervasive. Sixty-seven percent of college students reported that instructors used PowerPoint; and of these instructors, 95% used this software all or most of the time. Numerous articles chide that presentation slides might be the death of education.
Many successful speakers have shunned slides altogether. Chris Anderson, head of TED, the highly successful group that leads TED Talks, highlights at least of third of the most viewed TED talks do not use any slides whatsoever.
The Most Important Questions of All
1. Do I need slides?
2. If I need slides, what does the audience need to get from those slides?
I once made a presentation to NASA scientists who were preparing to talk about their research. I said, “If you sit at your computer and you open your presentation software and begin writing your speech on your slides, you are making a slide show, not a speech. A good speaker always considers what the audience needs to hear and then uses slides to offer visual support to help the audience understand. If you start with the slides, you’ve got it backward. ” Two years later, I was traveling out of state and saw a man who was smiling at me as he approached–it was one of the scientists from the NASA talk. He looked at me and said, “I remember you because you changed the way I do things. That piece of advice, about never starting with your slides changed everything for me. I really struggled as a speaker until you told us we are making a speech, not a slide show. Since I have changed, people seem to like my presentations more and more likely to come up and talk to me about my research.”
Slides are Good Because They…
• Can create credibility. (Many people expect you to use slides and meeting that expectation gives you credibility.
• Help focus the audience’s attention.
• Help the audience visualize concepts.
• Help people take organized notes of a talk.
• Helps the speaker stay on track.
• Provides aesthetic appeal.
• Show something that may be hard to describe.
Slides are Bad Because They…
• Can distract from what the speaker is saying.
• Can hurt the speaker’s credibility when poorly constructed.
• Can cause people to mindlessly take notes without thinking about the content.
• Can be boring…especially when a speaker stands up there and simply reads the slides to an audience.
• Can lead to passive listening when a teacher uses them in the classroom and give the students a copy of the slides.
Rules for Slides
Write Your Speech First
As mentioned in the introduction, one of the most important things you can do when preparing your speech is to get away from your slide software. Under no circumstance should you open your slide software (PowerPoint, Presenter, Google slides, Prezi, Keynote, etc.) until your speech is complete and you have made a plan for what visuals the audience needs to see.
Keep Text to A Minimum
No more than six words across and six words down. Chris Anderson of TED specifies,
Even when a text slide is simple, it may be indirectly stealing your thunder. Instead of a slide that reads: A black hole is an object so massive that no light can escape from it, you’d do better with one that reads: How black is a black hole? Then you’d give the information from that original slide in spoken form. That way, the slide teases the audience’s curiosity and makes your words more interesting, not less.
Offer One Idea to a Slide
You can keep text to a minimum by limiting ideas to one per slide. Audience members should be able to glance quickly–about 3 seconds–and get all the information. It is better to have a lot of slides where each has only one idea per slide than it is to have one slide with a list of ideas. Nancy Duarte, communication coach, reminds us that if you have too many words, it is no longer a visual aid but a teleprompter. Estimate approximately how long it will take an audience member to read your slide by timing yourself reading the slide backward.
Think of your slides as billboards. When people drive, they only briefly take their eyes off their main focus — the road — to process billboard information. Similarly, your audience should focus intently on what you’re saying, looking only briefly at your slides when you display them. Nancy Duarte
Get Rid of the Title (Most of the time)
Most of the time, a title on each slide is not needed. You, the speaker, will say what the content is about; no need to read it–it is just distracting.
Reduce Cognitive Load
It is better to help the audience focus on the main point in the slide. By keeping things simple, it reduces the audience’s cognitive resources. There are several ways you can reduce cognitive load.
• Avoid busy backgrounds they can drain mental energy.
• Eliminate unneeded titles.
• Use basic, easy-to-read font.
• Ask yourself if the company logo or school banner is needed on the slide or if it just becomes one more thing.
• Keep background colors consistent
• Format photos and illustrations in the same style.
Use Pictures Instead of Words When Possible
People retain more information when what they see on the screen supports the message they are hearing.
We are incredible at remembering pictures.
Hear a piece of information,
and three days later you’ll remember 10% of it. A
dd a picture and you’ll remember 65%.
John Medina, author of Brain Rules.
Learning Recall Related to Type of Presentation
Presentation Ability to Recall
after 3 hours after 3 days
Spoken lecture 25% 10-20%
Written (reading) 72% 10%
Visual and verbal (illustrated lecture) 80% 65%
Avoid Distracting Slide Transitions
There is rarely a time when you should use the transition feature of the software. Things that twirl, cube, swap, and swoosh rarely help the audience to focus on your idea. Most of the time, they are just cheesy and distracting. Three transitions that can be used with a level of professionalism are cut, fade, and dissolve. The easiest rule is if you do not have a reason for a transition, don’t do it.
Use Easy-to-Read, Plain Font
Use 28-point font and larger. Do not use more than three different sizes and make the size variants purposeful. It is best to stick with a plain, sans-serif font such as Helvetica, Arial, or Tahoma. There are two types of font, serif (with fancy tails) and san serif (without fancy tails). The Plain, san serif font is easiest to read when projected.
Go For High Contrast
Always go for the highest contrast. I recently attended a special event and the speaker projected his side and then looked back at it surprised and said, “Sorry, you can’t see the red letters.” The speaker had attempted to put red letters on a black ground–this is always a no-no because it rarely shows well. It is best to pick a dark blue or back background and put white or yellow letters on it. You can also use a white or yellow background with dark black or blue letters (While JP Philips in the video Death by PowerPoint -below- advises against it, it is still a professional standard).
Use Minimal Bullets
If you do have bullet points, make sure you have more than one point because let’s face it, bullet points are for making lists and one point does not make a list. In addition, you should never have more than six bullet points because then you would have too much stuff on your slide.
Bullets belong to the Godfather.
Avoid them at all costs.
Dashes belong at the Olympics,
not at the beginning of the text.
Chris Anderson, TED Talks
While I’m not sure I fully support eliminating all bullets, I do warn you to use them sparingly.
Use Blank Slides
You do not always have to have a slide behind you. Insert black, blank slides between points when you need to talk to the audience without the distraction of a visual.
Have a Backup Plan
Technology is evil and is the enemy of all that is good. It will crash on you. You should always have a backup plan and you should always be prepared to speak even if your slides do not work. You should always have notecards and I highly suggest printing out your slides to reference and then if the projector bulb goes out or the computer crashes, you can still make your presentation.
Test Your Slide Show, Videos, and Clicker/Remote
You should always practice using your slides. It is helpful to test out your presentation on your friends or trusted colleague and ask them to give you feedback. When you get to the place where you will give your presentation, it is a good idea to pull up your slides and make sure they work with the clicker/remote. It is a good idea to carry extra batteries with you too. Test the volume of your videos and make sure they play properly. Finally, make sure you know where the audio-visual person will be in case you have any problems. If you are a student, have a friend who can come up and fix your slides while you keep your speech going.
Avoid the Laser Pointer
A laser pointer highlights any shakiness you have in your hands. If you want to highlight something on a slide, use a graphic arrow.
Make Reminders on Your Notes to Change Your Slide
Many of my students will turn on their presentation slides and during the speech forget they are there. After they conclude their speech and we have applauded, they will look back at the projector and say, “Oh, here is my visual aid,” and then will rapidly click through the seven slides they should have shown us during the speech.
To avoid this, practice with your slides and mark on your notecards where to advance your slide. I usually draw an “S” in a circle and then color in the circle with a highlighter.
Point Your Body and Your Eyes Towards the Audience Not Towards the Slides
Your feet indicate where you want to go. If your feet are pointed towards the door, you are indicating you want to go out the door. Similarly, if your feet are pointed towards the back wall where your slides are located, it indicates you want to go towards your slides and not towards the audience. In short, you have turned your back on your audience. Point your feet, your hips, and your head towards the audience.
Keep your eyes on your audience and not your slides. Having brief slides helps. If you only have a few words or a nice photo on your slides, you are less tempted to stand there and read to the audience. In addition, having your notes in front of you as opposed to using your slides as your notes helps you keep pointed forward. Just remember, talk to your audience, not your slides.
Use Movement Minimally
These days, there are many different types of presentation slides. One of those is Prezi. For many (like me), the movement in Prezi creates a nauseous feeling. If you decide to use this tool, keep movement limited.
Here is a TED Talk that effectively uses Prezi.
Videos
Videos can be an amazing addition to your presentation. Rarely, do you want to use more than a one-minute clip. More likely, you will want about 30 seconds. In my experience, videos that work perfectly at your home computer have about a sixty percent chance of working at the venue where you speak. If you have a video file on your computer remember that the video file and the slide file have to go to the venue. The easiest way to do this is to create a file folder for your presentation and put the video file and the slideshow file in the folder. Save the file folder to the cloud or your thumb drive that you take to the venue. On the day of your presentation, go in ahead of time and make sure everything works and the volume on the video is set properly.
The most common mistake I see is someone will link their presentation to a video, and they bring a copy of the presentation with them but leave the video on their home computer. I usually upload videos to my personal YouTube account, and also have them in file format on a USB I always include a link to the video on my slide just in case it doesn’t work.
GIFS
Sometimes they work. Sometimes they don’t. GIF means graphic interchange format and is usually a short animation. If you decide that the GIF enhances your message and you decide to include it, make sure it works at the speech venue on the day you present. Be aware that a short GIF on a continual loop can be very annoying. A cartoon that waves once is cute, a cartoon that waves 20 times is distracting.
Give Credit for Visuals When Possible
When possible credit to the originator of the photo. Simply write “Photo credit: Name or originator of the photo.” Usually, 12-14-point font credit is centered under the photo or in the bottom right-hand corners. Be consistent in the way you do your citations. Citing your graphic may not look as nice as a plain slide, but it shows you have integrity, and that you give credit where it is due. Make sure you have a legal license to use the photo or they are listed as Creative Commons; better yet, do as a friend of mine does, always use your original photos.
Thoughts About Fair Use
The internet makes it easy to get photos, videos, and music that you can use in your presentation. Just because it is easy to get, doesn’t mean it is legal.
Chances are you are using this textbook because you are a college student. Because your presentations are of an educational nature, they are protected under Fair Use copyright laws which means you can use copyrighted material once for educational purposes if you give credit to the authors.
Once you graduate and work for a company, what was once considered free to use is now under a different system. For example, you may have to get permission to use someone’s photos or you may now have to pay to use a music clip.
Baylor University put together a checklist to help determine whether something would be considered fair use.
Fair list checklist.
Use Photos Wisely
When using photos, it is usually best to make them full screen if the picture is the point of the visual. If they are a decoration to the point, format them so they are visually pleasing and balanced with the words. If you do use a smaller photo, use a plain background. Always use pictures with the highest resolution possible and always give photo credit. In the college classroom, students prefer pictures and “visually rich” slides if they were relevant to the content of the lecture. In addition, they preferred minimal text and limited bullet-point lists.
Don’t Do This!
What’s Wrong With This Slide?
• The background is distracting.
• There are too many photos on the slide.
• The heading is not needed–the speaker should say it.
• The photo credit is too large.
Do This Instead!
What’s Right With This Slide?
• The picture is clear and takes up most of the slide.
• No unnecessarily distracting words
• The photo credit is balanced and an appropriate size.
• No caption is needed because the speaker will tell about what it is and where it is
Want to Take Your Slide Composition to the Next Level? Check out these Resources
To see a great explanation with examples of why certain slide layouts work.
https://www.presentation-process.com/powerpoint-slides.html
To see samples of good and bad use of photos on slides, check out Presentation Zen.
https://www.presentationzen.com/presentationzen/visuals/
To take your visual composition to the next level by using the rule of thirds to compose slides, check out the rule of thirds.
http://sixminutes.dlugan.com/rule-of-thirds-powerpoint/
To see the types of slides a professional designer makes.
https://www.nolanhaimscreative.com/presentation-design-portfolio
To see design principles
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/ivytech-comm101-master/chapter/chapter-13-design-principles/
Nancy Duarte: [For visuals], I think people tend to go with the easiest, fastest idea. Like, “I’m going to put a handshake in front of a globe to mean partnership!” Well, how many handshakes in front of a globe do we have to look at before we realize it’s a total cliche? Another common one — the arrow in the middle of a bullseye. Really? Everyone else is thinking that way. The slides themselves are supposed to be a mnemonic device for the audience so they can remember what you had to say. They’re not just a teleprompter for the speaker. A bullseye isn’t going to make anyone remember anything. Don’t go for the first idea. Think about the point you’re trying to make and brainstorm individual moments that you’re trying to emphasize. Think to the second, the third, the fourth idea — and by the time you get to about the tenth idea, those will be the more clever memorable things for the audience.
Watch Mac Stone as he shows photos that make “You want to save the Everglades.”
Be in the Image but Not on the Image
Stand near your slides but don’t stand where you will be a shadow on your slides. Sometimes a presenter will stand far away from their slide causing the audience to have to bounce back and forth with their attention. On the other hand, practice with your slides at the venue and have a friend let you know where you can and cannot stand. If it is easy to stand in front of the slides, I will sometimes put tape on the floor to indicate where to stand and put a tape boundary to remind myself where not to stand.
Should I Give Out My Slides As a Handout?
One BIG mistake novice speechmakers make is they use their slides as their notes, their visual aid, and their handout. In this model, a speaker opens up the presentation software and writes their speech on the slide. When the day of the presentation comes along, the speaker stands in front of the audience and reads the slides to the audience. Finally, the speaker gives the audience members a copy of the slides to take home.
Delivery Notes are what you look at during your presentation. They should have details about what you will say, they should have reminders for when to advance your slides, and they should have notes reminding you to project your voice or to look up.
Slides are the projection the audience sees. They should be purposeful, brief, and concise, and designed to help listeners understand.
Handouts are the items you give the audience to take home with them. It should provide only the information the audience needs to remember after your presentation is over.
Never, ever hand out copies of your slides, and certainly not before your presentation. That is the kiss of death. By definition since slides are “speaker support” material, they are there in support of the speaker…You. As such, they should be completely incapable of standing by themselves and are thus useless to give to your audience, where they will simply be guaranteed to be a distraction. The flip side of this is that if the slides can stand by themselves, why the heck are you up there in front of them? (David Rose as quoted in Presentation Zen)
With that said, when students spend their attention copying slides, they do not spend time listening to the lecture. Making the slides available to students to use during an educational lecture may reduce cognitive load and encourage learning. However, if the slides are so detailed the student can get all the information from the slide, then they may not attend class or they may not take any notes of their own which reduces learning. It is a delicate balance of structure but not all the content.
Watch the Video How to Avoid Death By PowerPoint
Okay, ladies and gentlemen, welcome. There is a question which has puzzled me for quite a while, and that is, why do our PowerPoints look the way they look? Or rather, how on earth, can we accept that they look the way they look? How can you do that?
And do you know what’s even more intellectually challenging for me to understand, is how can a person sit over here in this meeting room with ten others, observing this dismally bad PowerPoint filled with charts, graphical elements, page numbers, fading away five, seven minutes thinking of other things. You know the feeling, the boredom, the waste of time!? This person, after 40 minutes, he/she will stand up, a bit dazed, trotting off to his own office, coming to his own computer, flipping it up, going like: oh my god, I’ve got a presentation tomorrow, and I do have a PowerPoint to build. Now what is the chance that this person will build an equally bad PowerPoint as the one that he/she was by herself tortured by in the other conference room? Is that a big chance? Yeah. David JP Phillips, TED Speaker. How to Avoid Death By Power Point
David JP Phillip Provides This Solution
1. Only put one idea per slide.
2. Make spoken and projected content match. Don’t make an audience chose between listening to you or looking at your slide. Sweller and Mayer conclude there is something in our brain called the redundancy effect, and it works like this. If the audience has to pick between reading text on a slide or listening to you talk, they have a hard time focusing and cannot recall most of what was said.
3. Build slides with minimal distractions. We pay attention to moving objects, signaling colors, contrast-rich objects, big objects. Build your slides with this in mind. For example, only have a large title if it is the most important, otherwise, make it smaller.
4. Avoid using full sentences on slides.
5. Contrast controls your focus. If you use a white background, it draws attention away from the speaker.
6. Do not put too many objects on your slide. Go for six or less.
Watch These Creative Uses of Slides
Notice how Tim Urban uses slides to engage the audience. Instead of long lists of words, he uses funny drawings, which results in the audience hanging on his every word.
Do Slides Help or Hurt Student Learning?
A group of researchers set out to find out if there is a connection between the use of slides by teachers and student learning. They looked at all the studies that had been done on the topic and they made a chart to look at similarities and differences (it is called a meta-analysis). The results were interesting.
They found that students expected teachers to use slides in classes. Students self-reported that they liked when a teacher used slides. Students thought that slides helped them to learn and to pay attention. This was particularly true for STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math) fields, where many slides contain projected models and diagrams.
While students perceived it was helpful, research indicates there is little or no effect on either test scores or information retention. I would argue that there is increasingly an expectation that speakers use slides. Because of this, a speaker who chooses not to use slides may violate audience expectations resulting in lower credibility.
Here is a summary of various educational studies regarding slides in classroom learning:
• Students who downloaded class slides before class improved exam scores by 3.48%
• Students performed worse on recall and recognition tasks when slides included pictures that were not relevant.
• Slides that show positive pictures enhanced learning more than negative pictures.
• In an older study (2005), students said they preferred teachers to write on the board and use props rather than show slides.
• Students who preferred it when the teacher wrote on the board said that they liked it better because there was more active engagement, a more appropriate pace, and less extraneous material given.
• Students who preferred slides said they liked being able to have copies of slides in case they were absent or in case the notes they had were complete.
**Notice in this section, I did not mention each specific study and researcher. I did it so you could most easily get the information and think about it as it related to your own academic experiences. The studies referenced are below. When you give your speech, similarly, you should decide when it is best to include references at the bottom of each slide or to put them all at the end. Context should always guide you on how best to manage your sources. There is an entire chapter dedicated to thinking about how to manage research.
Baker, J. P., Goodboy, A.K., Bowman, N.D., Wright, A.A. (2018). Does teaching with PowerPoint increase students’ learning? A metanalysis. Computers and Education Science Direct, 126. 376-387 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.08.003
Bartsch, R.A. & Cobern, K.M. (2003). Effectiveness of PowerPoint presentations in lectures. Computers and Education 41(1), 77-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0360-1315(03)00027-7
Berk, R. A. (2012). Top 10 Evidence-based Best Practices for PowerPoint in the Classroom. Transformative Dialogues: Teaching & Learning Journal, 5(3), 1-7.
Chen, J. & Lin, Tsui-Fang (2008). Does downloading PowerPoint slides before the lecture leads to better student achievement. International Review of Economics Education, 7 (2), 9-18, https://doi.org/10.1016/S1477-3880(15)30092-X
Hill, A., Arford, T., Lubitow, A., & Smollin, L. M. (2012).“I’m ambivalent about it”: The dilemmas of PowerPoint. Teaching Sociology, 40, 242–256. https://doi.org/10.1177/0092055X12444071
Mantei, E. J. (2000). Using internet class notes and PowerPoint in the physical geology lecture. Journal of College Science Teaching, 29(5), 301–305. https://www.learntechlib.org/p/91984/.
Marsh, E. J., & Sink, H. E. (2010). Access to handouts of presentation slides during lecture: Consequences for learning. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24, 691–706. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1579.
Moulton ST, Türkay S, Kosslyn SM (2017) Does a presentation’s medium affect its message? PowerPoint, Prezi, and oral presentations. PLoS ONE 12(7): e0178774. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0178774
Nelson-Wong, E., Eigsti, H., Hammerich, A., & Ellison, N. (2013). Influence of presentation handout completeness on student learning in a physical therapy curriculum. The Journal of Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 13, 33–47. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1017035.pdf
Nouri, H., & Shahid, A. (2005). The effect of PowerPoint presentations on student learning and attitudes. Global Perspectives on Accounting Education, 2,53–73. (no doi).
Ogeyik, M. C. (2017). The effectiveness of PowerPoint presentation ad conventional lecture on pedagogical content knowledge attainment. Innovations in Education &Teaching International, 54, 503–510.https://doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2016.1250663.
Unique Rules for Academic Presentation Slides
Whether you are presenting in a graduate class or at a conference, there are certain expectations regarding slides that are much different than business or undergraduate class slides. Academic slides should be able to stand alone and provide a clear summary of your work.
1. Your slides should include academic references at the bottom of the slide.
2. Your slide should include details about the point being made. Someone who did not come to your presentation but got a copy of your slides should be able to understand the point.
3. Your slide should include a citation for photos. Academic integrity is important.
4. Your slides should include a reference page as the last page. This will not be shown to your audience at the presentation but is only included because of its handout value. Many conferences and graduate classes require you share your slides. Including your reference page as the last slide gives everyone access to your full list of references.
5. Include your name and contact information on the opening and closing slides. You want people to have your information in case they want to contact you with questions or want to work with you on future projects. In academic conferences, people are going from room to room to find the right place to go. Make it easy for them to know they are at the right location by having a slide with the title and name from the program.
6. You should name your talk something interesting that makes people want to attend. Oftentimes, academic titles are boring so label your talk something that draws in an audience. You can include a copy of your actual research paper in the uploaded materials, or you can reference the title of your paper in your talk. You are not obligated to name your talk after your journal article title.
7. Some academics are including Twitter handles and hashtags related to the conference so attendees can network.
8. Many conferences ask for the slides in advance and will put them on a website and make them downloadable for all participants. For this reason, your slides should be able to provide stand-alone information–meaning someone who did not attend your presentation could understand your talk.
9. Think about your slides as your business card. Some people may see these slides without ever meeting you. They will judge you based on your slides–make a good first impression, your future may depend on it.
How to Put Citations in Slides
When considering the how and when of citations, it is important to consider the context of your speech. Different contexts will require different types of citations. Many speakers have ended their presentation with, “And here’s my reference page.” That has got to be the most boring way to end a speech ever! Don’t do it. There is never any reason to project your reference page for your audience to see. Depending on the context, however, you may include your reference on your slide.
A student in a
public speaking class
A College Teacher
A Businessperson
Making a Formal Presentation:
In class, you should always verbally mention your research and you should turn in a complete reference page. Teachers will vary if they want you to include the full reference on the bottom of the slide. You should always ask the teacher.
Typically, in graduate-level classes, students and teachers are expected to offer full citations. These are likely to be in the form of a reference page given to the audience in paper or electronic form. Each discipline is different. When in doubt, include the full reference at the bottom of a slide.
You will have to read into the context of this one. You should always mention any research to give you credibility but whether you put a citation on the slide will vary from place to place. When in doubt, err on the side or including the citation. Business presentations rarely include citations on photos.
Key Takeaways
Remember This!
• Slides should always be used purposefully.
• Write your speech before making your slides.
• It is better to have many slides that each make only one point than it is to have few slides with many points.
• No more than six words across and six words down, use at least 28-point, plain (san-serif) font.
• Different contexts have different expectations for slide design.
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Bonus Feature
Watch a part of Sonaar Luthra’s speech for a great example of slide usage. The pictures help us to understand and remember and he avoids unnecessary words.
For those of you interested in Multi-Media Learning Principles, this chart explains how to each principle applies to good slide creation.
Multimedia Learning Moreno and Mayer
Learning the principles behind why and how it works can help you remember how to apply them. This chart shares with you some of the best practices from multimedia research on the principle and the application of visual media.
for your slides?
Multiple Representation Principle
For meaningful learning to occur, both channels (verbal and visual) should be used at the same time in a way learners can connect the information from each channel.
• Say it and show it on your slide to help people remember things.
• It is helpful to access the visual and auditory parts of the brain to help people connect.
Temporal Contiguity Principle
Don’t be talking about one thing and have a picture up of something else. Verbal and visual content should be presented together in contiguous time.
Putting words and pictures explaining the same content into working memory at the same time is beneficial.
If the information is out of synch, the brain is less able to connect the information from the two inputs.
• Make your words and pictures presented simultaneously.
• Don’t be talking about one thing and have a picture or graph of something different on your slide.
Split Attention Principles
and
Modality Principle
People learn best when their attention is not split between spoken and visual words.
• It is better to say things in your speech rather than write sentences on a screen.
• Keep text to a minimum.
• Better to use pictures instead of words.
Redundancy Principle
While two channels of content that support each other can be more effective, too much can cause cognitive overload.
• It is best to talk and show pictures rather than talk, have words, and show pictures.
• When you speak words and you project words and then you add a picture, it causes overload.
Coherence Principle
Background sounds and music can overload auditory channels and distract.
• Make sure everything on the slide is related to the message.
• Skip the distractions.
Image Principle
People do not learn better when the speaker’s image is on the screen.
• No need to show your headshot.
References
Anderson, C. (2016). TED talks: The official TED guide to Public Speaking. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Armour, C. Schneid, S.D., & Brandl, K. (2016). Writing on the board as students’ preferred teaching modality in a physiology course. Physiology. https://doi.org/10.1152/advan.00130.2015
Baker, J. P., Goodboy, A.K., Bowman, N.D., & Wright, A.A. (2018). Does teaching with PowerPoint increase students’ learning? A metanalysis. Computers and Education Science Direct, 126, 376-387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.08.003
Bartsch, R.A. & Cobern, K.M. (2003). Effectiveness of PowerPoint presentations in lectures. Computers and Education. 41(1), 77-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0360-1315(03)00027-7
Berk, R. A. (2012). Top 10 Evidence-based Best Practices for PowerPoint in the classroom. Transformative Dialogues: Teaching & Learning Journal, 5(3), 1-7.
Brandl, K., Scheid, S., & Armour, C. (2015). Writing on the board vs PowerPoint: What do students prefer and why? Pharmacology. 29(1). https://doi.org/10.1096/fasebj.29.1_supplement.lb465
Chen, J. & Lin, Tsui-Fang (2008). Does downloading PowerPoint slides before the lecture leads to better student achievement. International Review of Economics Education 7 (2), 9-18, https://doi.org/10.1016/S1477-3880(15)30092-X
Copyright and Fair Use: Common Scenarios from California State University. https://csulb.libguides.com/copyrightforfaculty/scenarios
Dale E. (1969). Cone of experience, in Educational Media: Theory into Practice. Wiman RV (ed). Charles Merrill.
Duarte, N. (2008). Slide:ology: The are and science of creating great presentations. O’Reilly.
Duarte, N. (2012). Do your slides pass the glance test? https://hbr.org/2012/10/do-your-slides-pass-the-glance-test
Duarte, N. (2010). Resonate Present visual stories that transform audiences. John Wiley & Sons.
Endestad, T., Magnussen, S., & Helstrup, T. (2003). Memory for Pictures and Words following Literal and Metaphorical Decisions. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 23(2), 209–216. https://doi.org/10.2190/PNXA-4078-M1H9-8BRJ
Garr, G. (2008). Presentationzen: Simple ideas on presentation design and delivery. New Riders.
Hill, A., Arford, T., Lubitow, A., & Smollin, L. M. (2012).“I’m ambivalent about it”: The dilemmas of PowerPoint. Teaching Sociology, 40, 242–256. https://doi.org/10.1177/0092055X12444071
Joyce, B. & Showers, B. (1981). Transfer of training: the contributions of coaching. Journal of Education 163(2): 163–172. https://doi.org/10.1177/002205748116300208
Kasperek, S. Design Principles. (2011). The Public Speaking Project. http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html
Kosslyn, S. M. (2007). Clear and to the point: Eight psychological principles for compelling PowerPoint presentations. Oxford University Press.
Lacey, S., Stilla, R., & Sathian, K. (2012). Metaphorically Feeling: Comprehending Textural Metaphors Activates Sensory Cortex. Brain and Language. 120, 3. 416–421. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2011.12.016
Malamed, C. (2009). Visual language for designers: Principles for creating graphics that people understand. Rockport Publishers
Luthra, S. (2012). Sonaar Luthra: Meet the water canary. [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/gv1ApCmctVQ?t=27 Standard YouTube License.
Mantei, E. J. (2000). Using internet class notes and PowerPoint in the physical geology lecture. Journal of College Science Teaching, 29(5), 301–305. https://www.learntechlib.org/p/91984/.
Marsh, E. J., & Sink, H. E. (2010). Access to handouts of presentation slides during lecture: Consequences for learning. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24, 691–706. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1579.
Mayer, R. E. (2001).Multimedia learning.New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2002). Animation as an aid to multimedia learning.Educational Psychology Review, 14,87–99. https://doi.org/10.40-726X/02/0300-0087/0.
Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2003). Nine ways to reduce cognitive load in multimedia learning. Educational Psychologist, 38,43–52. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3801
Medina, J. (2018). Brain rules. http://www.brainrules.net/vision
Miller, S. T., & James, R. C. (2011). The effect of animations within PowerPoint presentations on learning introductory astronomy. Astronomy Education Review, 10,1–13. https://doi.org/10.3847/AER2010041.
Moulton, S.T., Türkay, S. & Kosslyn, S.M. (2017). Does a presentation’s medium affect its message? PowerPoint, Prezi, and oral presentations. PLoS ONE 12(7): e0178774. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0178774
Nelson-Wong, E., Eigsti, H., Hammerich, A., & Ellison, N. (2013). Influence of presentation handout completeness on student learning in a physical therapy curriculum. The Journal of Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 13, 33–47. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1017035.pdf
Nouri, H., & Shahid, A. (2005). The effect of PowerPoint presentations on student learning and attitudes. Global Perspectives on Accounting Education, 2,53–73. (no doi).
Nowaczyk, R. H., Santos, L. T., & Patton, C. (1998). Student perception of multimedia in the undergraduate classroom. International Journal of Instructional Media, 25 (4), 367–382. (no doi).
Ogeyik, M. C. (2017). The effectiveness of PowerPoint presentation ad conventional lecture on pedagogical content knowledge attainment. Innovations in Education &Teaching International, 54, 503–510.https://doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2016.1250663.
Presentation aids Design Principles. Lumen Learning. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/ivytech-comm101-master/chapter/chapter-13-design-principles/#return-footnote-1129-36
Ramgopal & Arte. (n.d.). Presentation Ppocess. https://www.presentation-process.com/powerpoint-slides.html
Reynolds, G. (2008). Presentation Zen: Simple ideas on presentation design and delivery. New Riders.
Schneider, S., Nebel, S, & Rey, G.D. (2015). Decorative pictures and emotional design in multimedia learning. Learning and Instruction 44, 65-73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.03.002
Steinert, Y. & Snell, L.S. (2009). Interactive lecturing: Strategies for increasing participation in large group presentations. Medical Teacher. 21
Stenberg, G (2006). Conceptual and perceptual factors in the picture superiority effect. Europen Journal of Cognitive Psychology. 18. 813-847. https://doi.org/10.1080/09541440500412361
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Torgovnick May, K. (2012). How to give more persuasive presentations: A Q & A with Nancy Duarte. TED Blog. https://blog.ted.com/how-to-give-more-persuasive-presentations-a-qa-with-nancy-duarte/
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Using Statistics in Your Speech Can
• Increase your credibility. Using credible research in interesting ways will increase your credibility.
• Make your speech memorable. Effectively used statistics can give the audience something to think about long after the speech is over. Let me share with you a couple of examples from my experience. More than ten years ago, I had a student hand each of us a folded piece of paper. At a set time during his speech, he had us stand if we had an X on our paper. I stood and looked around at four others who were standing. We were then asked to open our paper and read it aloud. Mine said “chlamydia.” He went on to tell us for a class the size of ours, statistics suggest at least five of us had a sexually transmitted infection.
I also have a very vivid memory of a student who talked about the number of sex offenders who become repeat offenders. Throughout her presentation, she showed the mugshots of men serving a second term for sex offenses. Beside the first mugshot: 24% of rapists who get out will rape again. Beside another mugshot: 16% who molest girls will get out and molest again. Beside another mugshot–35% who molest young boys get out and molest again. I can still see those faces and statistics in my mind’s eye.
• Emotionally impact your audience. A properly applied statistic can make us feel something. For example, Telling your audience that according to UNESCO many children do not get to go to school is one thing, sharing with them that in sub-Saharan Africa, one in five children between the ages of six and eleven are not in school. In addition, of those youth ages 15-16, 60% are not in school. To really impact the listeners, a speaker might include a picture of a child. To help students apply the statistic, they might say, “Consider if over half of your high school class was denied access to school.
• Illuminate a subject. Statistics can help to shine a light on a problem. Scottish poet, Andrew Lang, said, “Most people use statistics like a drunk man uses a lamppost; more for support than illumination.” The good news is you don’t have to choose, you can use your statistic to both shine a light and support your argument. A student of mine attended a Passion Conference where Louie Giglio gave a speech that shined a spotlight on the 27 million human slaves who are trapped because of human trafficking. As a result of that speech, over three million dollars was raised and my student came back to Fayetteville, Arkansas, and started a campaign at the University of Arkansas to highlight the issue of modern-day slavery.
Tips for Using Numbers in Speech
Round large numbers off
Instead of saying the US national debt is 27,887,185,810,245, say 28 trillion. Better yet, help the audience understand by saying the US national debt is 28 billion– that represents is \$84,000 per citizen and \$222,000 per taxpayer. Round statistics to make them easier to remember. Better yet, help the audience apply them. For example, instead of just saying “more than a quarter (25%) of all traffic-related deaths are the direct result of alcohol impairment, you might say, “One in four.”
Help your audience visualize numbers by using comparisons
You can say Nik Wallenda walked the 1,400 feet on a wire over the Grand Canyon, but you can help us to understand it by adding a comparison, “He walked 1400 feet– that is the length of four football fields–on a wire.”
In 1961, Micky Mantel sent the ball flying 643 feet for the longest home run. To put it in perspective that is 1,257-dollar bills laid end to end.
One speech teacher said her student carried in a 50-pound bag of dog food and sat it on the table and then said, “This used to be me before I lost weight. I no longer carry this bag around with me everywhere I go.”
We humans are a smart bunch,
but we really suck when it comes to understanding
and handling excessively large numbers.
George Dvorsky, Writer and bioethicist
Check Out These Examples of Visualizing Large Numbers
• “To put a trillion dollars in context, if you spend a million dollars every day since Jesus was born, you still wouldn’t have spent a trillion.” Mitch McConnell
• Bill Gates has 56 billion dollars. He has earned over \$3000 per minute (\$50/second) since Microsoft was created. For perspective, Azad says, For Bill Gates, “spending 5 seconds to pick \$100 off the floor is literally not a good use of his time.”
• “The Mariana Trench reaches to a maximum depth of 36,000 feet, that’s tough to make sense of. It’s much easier for our brains to understand that as 6.8 miles (11 km), which is a distance we already have a pretty good intuition for.” Spencer Greenberg
• “If you go hang gliding, you have a roughly 1 in 116,000 chance of being killed during that flight. Is that a lot of risk? It’s very tough to tell. But here’s another way to think about it. If you’re a 30-year-old male in the U.S., you have about a 1 in 260,000 chance of dying tomorrow. So that means that tomorrow, by going hang gliding once, you’re taking on 3.2 times more risk than you usually do in a given day! So that gives a new way of thinking about hang gliding risk if you’re a 30-year-old male in the United States: You’re tripling your usual risk of death for each such flight you take.” Mathematician Spencer Greenberg.
• “So, let’s take a figure like \$400,000,000 dollars — which happens to be Powerball’s next jackpot amount. How much money is that, really? That’s tough to make sense of but if you live for 60 more years, that’s 525,600 hours remaining in your life, so if you win that jackpot — not taking into account time/value discounting and inflation considerations — that’s like getting paid \$761 per hour for each hour in the rest of your life (including when you’re asleep).” Mathematician Spencer Greenberg.
• “San Francisco’s metro area has about 4.3 million people. How many is that? Well, if you spoke to each person for one minute, and you did that eight hours a day, it would take you 24.5 years to speak to them all.” George Dorsky
• What does it mean to think about 400,000 people? One thing I like to do is break it down into something I’m familiar with and that I can kind of visualize: the crowd attending a sporting event. For example, hockey arenas seat about 20,000 people. So, you could envision 400,000 people as 20 hockey arenas worth of people.” George Dorsky
• Historian Gwynne Dyer compared the carnage of combined casualties between 72,000 and 73,000 at Borodino to “a fully-loaded 747 crashing, with no survivors, every 5 minutes for eight hours.”
Spread numbers throughout your speech
It is tempting to have the “numbers section” of your speech, it is much better to spread them out. If we hear too many numbers all at once, we stop paying attention. Help us to process the number by giving us time to think in between them.
Set up the statistic
Give verbal cues that what we are about to hear is important.
• I am going to give you a number, that will surprise you.
• Let me tell you about this interesting statistic I heard.
• This number may shock you as much as it does me.
• I was surprised to learn that…
Say the numbers clearly and with emphasis
• Speak slower when saying numbers
• Repeat the number when necessary
• Pause before saying the number to give the audience time to prepare to listen
• Pause after saying a number to let it sink in
Repeat important numbers
According to the National Center for Education Statistics, one in five use adults has low literacy skills. The survey defines literate as those who have the ability to the ability to “understand, evaluate, use and engage with written texts to participate in society, to achieve one’s goals, and to develop one’s knowledge and potential.”
If you are like me, you read the information, but it didn’t fully sink in. Now, consider the impact of that statistic when you repeat it:
According to the National Center for Education Statistics, one in five use adults has low literacy skills. One in five… let that sink in for a moment. That’s one in five adults who struggle to read a newspaper, a job application, a medical form. That’s one in five adults who lack the ability to achieve their goals and potential. That’s one in five adults who can’t read the voting form. That’s one in five adults who lack the ability to read things that would allow them to engage in society.
Literacy is defined as the ability to “understand, evaluate, use and engage with written texts to participate in society, to achieve one’s goals, and to develop one’s knowledge and potential” and one in five adults in the US, cannot do that.
Pair the number with a story
When you pair your number with a powerful graphic or story, it becomes even more moving.
When I think of the low literacy rate, I think of a man I know. He was the high school football star who was pushed through school so he could play on the team. He graduated with a letterman’s jacket and fame as a hometown hero. He graduated a star, a star who was unable to read. At eighteen years old, he was handed a diploma and sent out into the world unable to read a job application, unable to read a medical form at the doctor’s office, and unable to read his son a story before bed. When I think of one in five adults, I think of him and, all of a sudden, it is more than a number.
Tell them why it is important
Don’t just tell a story about your statistic, tell why it matters.
The illiterate football star went on to have four children of his own. When his daughter needed help with her reading, dad couldn’t help. When the children did learn to read, they would read for dad. They would read his mail, his paperwork, his government documents.
Statistics shouldn’t just hang there, they should be emphasized, make relatable, and applies. Speech coach Nancy Duarte reminds us that a number alone doesn’t mean anything– “Data slides aren’t really about the data. They’re about the meaning of the data. It’s up to you to make that meaning clear before you click away. Otherwise, the audience won’t process — let alone buy — your argument.”
Activate their other senses
Numbers will not cause us to see, hear, feel, or sense movement unless, the speaker helps us.
Take for example this classroom activity created by National Geographic as a resource for teachers to help students understand the distances of the planets. They encourage teachers to take students outside and count their steps as they mark the distance of the planets.
• Sun: stands at the edge of the area
• Mercury = 1 step from the sun
• Venus = 2 steps from the sun
• Earth = 2.5 steps from the sun
• Mars = 4 steps from the sun
• Jupiter = 13 steps from the sun
• Neptune = 76 steps from sun
You might not have your audience go outside (this is a speech, after all), but you could take steps along the stage to help them “see” and imagine. You could have a volunteer take the steps, or you could put up a picture of each planet one at a time and ask the audience to imagine walking to that planet. Why the emphasis on walking? Because even the act of imagining walking a distance activates the movement part of the brain. The more parts of the brain you can get involved in, the more memorable the concept.
Use charts to persuade your audience
In this D-News video, they tell you about what research says about the best way to convince someone they are wrong. Watch here:
Four Principles for Making a Memorable and Effective Pie Chart
• Make your pie chart as large as possible.
• Go for high contrast colors.
• Put the numbers on the chart as opposed to using a key.
• Have a clear title explaining the purpose of the chart (optional).
I learn best by example, so let me show you and not just tell. Watch how these speakers used their charts.
Watch how Tim Urban creatively uses charts at the beginning to make a big point.
Watch the first three minutes of this speech and how Alice Goffman brilliantly uses a graph. This video has to be watched on the TED YouTube channel.
Notice in the first two examples that the charts are simple and easy to read. They emphasize the point that is being made.
Sebastian Wernicke takes a tongue-in-cheek look at statistics regarding the most and least popular TED talks. This is a creative way to show data and statistics as he tells you how to create the “optimum TED Talk.”
He references his Tedpad in the speech, here is the link so you can see more for yourselves go to Tedpad.
I invited a professional colleague of mine to advise you on making data slides. I’ll let him tell you how to make data slides that captivate.
Data and Slides: Confuse Your Audience or Captivate Them?
Your Choice
by Robert “Bob” Kienzle
As a corporate communication consultant, I help bank and insurance employees improve their presentation skills and one of the top requests I get is to help financial analysts present their research, data and slides clearly. The problem I am most often called up on to fix: data-heavy presentations. I typically see three major problems:
1. Data dumps: Presentations that are 90% information, content, data, and research.
2. Speaker or slides: Presentations that rely on slides for delivering ideas, and the slides ultimately make the presenters obsolete.
3. Vexing visuals: Graphs and charts overflowing with numbers, lines, and text, making it hard to read and even harder to follow.
I tell my clients that it is easy to avoid these presentation errors by following three suggestions.
Suggestion #1: Analyze your audience and speak to their experience.
No matter what field you are in, stop showing your audiences how smart you are. Give them the information they will be able to understand and use in their jobs. This might mean making different versions of your core presentation for different audiences. Be sure to leave out technical language and jargon for non-experts. If the audience will need to look up the term or ask someone what it means, use a simpler word, or define the tech lingo right from the start.
Think about a financial researcher who knows all the numbers backward and forwards. When they create a chart for their fellow researchers, there are 10 rows and 10 columns of information with small charts and numbers. Their chart covers 5 years of data. Their fellow researchers have seen similar charts and data before: they can follow one column to the next because the patterns of information make sense. Now consider what happens when that chart is brought into the marketing department. The slides become the focus of the presentation instead of the presenter. The marketers try to read and figure out what all the data means. They don’t know the history of this data. They don’t use complex charts of financial research. They don’t know which sets of data to look at and, more importantly, they don’t care. They think, “What’s the takeaway the marketing team needs?” The financial researcher could easily make a simpler chart with 3 rows and columns. The researcher could show the overall trends of the last 5 years, not the details of each year. If the marketing team needs more detail, they can easily ask for more.
Suggestion #2: Use examples, stories, and easy-to-imagine explanations with your data.
Do you know what humans aren’t good at? Making sense of raw data. Remembering standalone facts. Visualizing statistics in their head.
Our brains don’t think in large numbers, especially when large numbers are first presented. Most of us have never physically been in a room with 1 billion US dollars. Even seeing the number written out as 1,000,000,000 takes people a moment to count the zeros and think, “ah, 1 billion, not 1 million.” Most of us have never had that many zeros in our personal bank accounts (if you have, I have some investment proposals I’d love to share with you)! Heck, my iPhone’s calculator only goes up to 100,000,000. So when we present large numbers, whether it’s dollars, people, or trees, why do we think these large statistics will make sense to our audience?
Give the audience some familiar examples and comparisons to make sense of large numbers.
• Example 1: “1,000,000,000 dollars is what it would cost 25,000 Arkansans to get a 4-year degree from the University of Arkansas with in-state tuition and fees.”
• Example 2: “1,000,000,000 people is the population of Arkansas 333 times over, or 3 times the entire US population. That’s like 11,018 Fayettevilles.”
• Example 3: “The US government wants to plant 1 billion trees. A line of 1 billion trees spaced 10 feet apart would stretch 18,939 miles or 76% of the way around the Earth’s equator.”
Storytelling is another great way to make sense of your data. In data-heavy presentations, tell a story. Audiences don’t visualize or remember numbers very well, but they do visualize and remember stories. Tell us the time period, the characters, the plot, and what happened, and along the way, drop in your statistics to serve as details.
Suggestion #3: Use headlines, highlights, and the most appropriate chart or graph.
There’s a fundamental rule about how audiences obtain information: humans rely on their eyes more than other senses. If you give them something to read, they will read it. If you give them something to read while you are talking at the same time, not only are they going to focus on reading and stop paying attention to the words coming out of your mouth, you are going to overload their short-term memory with too much stimuli. This stops long-term memories from being formed, and that’s why many business presentations (and one might argue college lectures) are forgotten.
Let me give you three recommendations on creating data slides, charts, graphs, and tables that will impact your audience.
1. Use headlines to start each slide with your key message and help the audience make sense of the data. Take a look at this slide and try to guess the speaker’s key message:
You have to analyze the data and numbers for yourself. Isn’t it the speaker’s job to tell you what’s important? Additionally, there may be information missing. Are those 50 jobs created in China or 50% of jobs? Is the speaker focused on the high number of jobs created in China, or are they focused on the fewer jobs created in Australia? I guess I’ll have to wait for the speaker to tell me.
Take a look at the slide with a headline:
Now the audience gets the key message right away even before the speaker has to say anything (or after they have explained their message and they want to back it up with visuals). Once we read the headline, the rest of the data makes sense, and we can spend time listening to the speaker instead of interpreting the data for ourselves.
1. Use highlights to show what’s important and to direct the audience’s eyes and attention. Look at this graph again:
Imagine the speaker wants to talk about the jobs in China first: what kind of jobs were created, which cities in China they were in, and how the jobs were performing. The problem is that audiences love to use their eyes, so they may drift over to the Japan section and think, “I wonder if the jobs in Japan are in Tokyo or Osaka.”
The speaker can use highlights like making a bar in red like this to control the focus on China:
When the speaker moves from China to Japan, the highlight can change with their transition.
1. Choose the right type of chart or graph for your data. Bar graphs, line graphs, pie charts, spider charts, box and whisker plots…the list of options goes on. While the dozens of choices can be overwhelming, there are resources to help you choose what works best for your data and your purpose.
In closing, if all these suggestions make sense, that’s awesome. Your next step is to start using them. Try one suggestion and see how your presentation and visuals improve. Once you’re comfortable with the improvement, use another. The ultimate goal isn’t simply clarity and understanding in your data presentations; the goal is getting the job offer, getting your boss to approve your new project, or getting your client to sign a contract. Being relatable and understandable especially with data makes you a great communicator, and people love working with great communicators.
Key Takeaways
Remember This!
• Effectively using, charts, data, and statistics can increase credibility, emotionally impact your audience, and make your speech memorable.
• Help the audience relate to numbers by rounding off large numbers, using comparisons, and pairing the number with a story.
• Spread statistics throughout your speech, set up the statistic, and repeat important numbers.
• Always tell the audience why the statistic is important.
• When using charts, make them large and easy to read.
For more information on this topic to include classroom activities and videos, go to the supplemental materials chapter https://uark.pressbooks.pub/speaking/chapter/charts-data-numbers-examples-and-resources/
References
Azad, K. (n.d.) How to develop a sense of scale. Better explained: Learn right not rote. https://betterexplained.com/articles/how-to-develop-a-sense-of-scale/
CDC. Sexually Transmitted Diseases. Data from the CDC. https://www.cdc.gov/std/statistics/default.htm
Covington, T. (2021). Drunk driving statistics. https://www.thezebra.com/resources/research/drunk-driving-statistics/.
Crime Victims Center, Statistics-Offenders. https://www.parentsformeganslaw.org/statistics-offenders/
DNews: (2014). How to convince someone they are wrong. https://youtu.be/sJ64h49gSwY
Dvorsky, G. (2014). How to understand incomprehensibly large numbers. https://io9.gizmodo.com/how-to-comprehend-incomprehensibly-large-numbers-1531604757
Dyer, G. (1988). War. Crown Publishing.
Duarte, N. (2019). Datestory: Explain date and inspire action through story. Ideapress Publishing.
Duarte, N. (2013). When presenting your date, get to the point fast. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2013/03/when-presenting-your-data-get.
Duarte, N. (2008). Slideology: The art and science of creating great presentations. Oreilly.
End it Movement. https://enditmovement.com/about/
Goffman, A. How we’re priming some kids for college—and others for prison. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.ted.com/talks/alice_goffman_how_we_re_priming_some_kids_for_college_ and_others_for_prison?language=en
Google News. Cases of COVID worldwide. https://news.google.com/covid19/map?hl=en-US&gl=US&ceid=US%3Aen
Grasping Large Numbers. (2015). The endowment to human growth. https://www.ehd.org/science_technology_largenumbers.php
Kienzle, B. (2020). Data and slides: Confuse your audience or captivate them? Your choice. Custom essay written for this text.
King, D. (2013). Six tips for using numbers in a speech. Kings Corners. http://donnellking.com/blog/2013/06/six-tips-for-using-numbers-in-a-speech/
The Mick. (n.d.). Mickey Mantle set the record for the longest home run of 643 feet in 1961.
http://www.themick.com/anniv06.htm
Mikaberidze, A. (2007). The battle of Borodino: Napolean against Kutuzov. Pen and Sword.
National Geographic. (n.d). Planetary size and distance comparison. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/activity/planetary-size-and-distance-comparison/
National Center for Education Statistics. (2019). Adult literacy in the United States. https://nces.ed.gov/datapoints/2019179.asp
Reynolds, G. (2008). Presentationzen. New Riders.
Romans, C. (2009). Numb and number: Is trillion the new billion? CNN. http://edition.cnn.com/2009/LIVING/02/04/trillion.dollars/
Truth in Accounting. (n.d.). Our Debt Clock https://www.truthinaccounting.org/about/our_national_debt?gclid=CjwKCAiA65iBBhB-EiwAW253W0c-SP83hbLCqB55eSq-jTvbqjhtZobz_SIKrygtTyvO2vUXCAoMfBoCtgEQAvD_BwE
Unesco Institue for Statistics. Education in Africa. http://uis.unesco.org/en/topic/education-africa
Urban, T. (2016). Inside the mind of a master procrastinator. [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=arj7oStGLkU
U.S. Debt Clock.org. https://www.usdebtclock.org/#
Wernicke, S. (2010). Lies, damned lies, and statistics (about TEDTalks). [Video] YouTube.https://youtu.be/1Totz8aa2Gg | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/Advanced_Public_Speaking_(Meade)/03%3A_Presentation_Aids_for_Speech/3.03%3A_Data_Visualization-_Using_Statistics_Numbers_and_Charts_Without_Boring_Your_Audience.txt |
Let me tell you about my persuasive journey.
Not long after I graduated high school, I found myself selling electronics. My favorite thing to sell was car stereos. In the salesperson role, I made pitches to individuals, to families, to corporations, and even pitches on the main stage at the trade show. What I learned firsthand is that people usually were there because they liked stereos, they needed stereos, or they were thinking of buying a stereo. I just needed to help them find the right fit stereo. What that meant for me was I needed to learn to read people.
I sold stereos back in the day when CDs were just becoming popular (I guess I’m old, huh?). In my CD bag, I had the best CD from each genre. I was ready to play MC Hammer’s Can’t Touch This, AC/DC Back in Black, The Cure’s Boys Don’t Cry. I had the top song and top CD from each genre. When someone came into the store, I would “read” the person to guess their musical preferences. I would put the matching CD in the player and crank it up. I would know instantly when I would get it right because the customer’s face would light up and they would nod to the music. Often, people would come to me and to the stereo that was playing and buy that unit. It was a valuable lesson. People were not buying the CD player as much as they were buying the song they liked and buying from a salesperson who got could relate to their interests. Yes, they would look at the features and the company name, but the fact that I knew their music was very persuasive.
Knowing your audience is like knowing the customer. You must get a good “read’ so you know the right way to pitch your idea. I cannot overemphasize the importance of audience analysis which leads me to my first main point.
Audience Needs are Key
University professor Clay Warren said, “The mistake of a novice persuader is saying what you want to say rather than what the audience needs to hear.” That does not mean pandering, but it does mean taking a lot of time to think about them–the audience. When I am asked to give a persuasive speech, I always gather all the details about the audience and then the event, and then I spend time thinking. Thinking about the audience. I imagine their faces and think about who they are. I think about their motivation for listening. I think about how what I have to say can in some way, make their life better. Only after I have a strong mental picture of my audience, do I then begin to write the speech.
There is an entire chapter to help you think about the audience and needs.
Consider these examples. A popular topic for persuasion speeches in college classes is persuading my classmates to donate blood. Most speakers will talk about the need for blood donations, the need created by a low blood supply, and the need to contribute to the community. When I ask my college students why they really donate blood, I get answers like, “Points for my sorority,” “To win the homecoming competition,” “To get a free T-shirt,” and “Because my friends were doing it.” The point here is that there are multiple layers to why people are persuaded.
I am currently pitching an idea to the upper administration. As I am carefully researching, someone close to the key administrator said, “Don’t just show him your ideas, show him what will be his return on investment? He is a numbers person, break down your main points in terms of numbers, dollars, and cents, increased enrollment, improves retention.” Information like this is key when analyzing the audience for a persuasive message.
My next story takes us to my time as the director of a not-for-profit. I spent my days making public appearances for publicity, fundraising, and volunteer recruitment. We had impressive numbers to share with funders, we had a large client base, a well-trained group of volunteers, and a good reputation. When I first began making presentations, I felt like while the audience was hearing about our organization and thinking it was a good place to volunteer or donate, many would agree but not act. If the organization was to keep serving the community, we needed more volunteers and more money.
I realized part of the problem was the way we had been “pitching” the organization. We overemphasized the hard data–the number of people served and the number of volunteers and the audience couldn’t visualize what we were doing. They couldn’t “see” the impact of their donation. They couldn’t “see” what they would be doing as a volunteer. I began collecting stories. Here is one such story.
Miss Sally lives out in a small rural city at the end of a long dirt road. She lives alone and her neighbors are just out of sight. One day when she went out back of her house to check how much propane was in her outdoor propane tank, she slipped and fell. She broke her hip. She laid outside for three days unable to get back to her house to call for help. Luckily, the mail carrier noticed her mail building up and looked around and found her. He called an ambulance and after hip surgery, she is on the road to recovery. Social services connected her to our group and now a volunteer calls her every day. If she doesn’t answer, someone goes out and checks on her. Once a week someone stops by at lunchtime and eats with her. They share stories, and laughter. If she needs an errand run, a volunteer picks up items and brings them. Sally is one of the 105 people that with just a little bit of help can remain independent.
As you can imagine, the responses to speeches that included stories were so much different. People were much more likely to give money or to volunteer once they were told a story because they could see, Ms. Sally. Some people even asked about her. They could imagine the pleasure they would get from calling someone to check on them. Donors thought of someone they know and how they want their loved ones cared for. “Seeing” a person instead of an organization made all the difference. This leads me to my second point; the audience needs to “see” to be persuaded.
The Audience Needs to “See” to be Persuaded
If you are persuading an audience to buy a product, they need to visualize how it works and how it fits into their life. If you are persuading an audience to make a social change, they need to visualize how the world will be better because of this change. If you are persuading an audience to donate to an organization, you need to help the audience visualize the impact of their donation.
Visualization can be achieved by literally showing visuals, by demonstrating the product, or by telling a story.
There is an entire chapter to help you work on incorporating a story into your speech.
Oftentimes a story will help awaken emotions in an audience. This is known as pathos. Pathos is the passion of the speaker and the types of things that the speaker talks about. Warren reminds us “facts go through your brain like water through a sieve. But a story creates an emotional connection. If you get the emotion, you will remember. It is harder to attach an emotion to a number.”
The Audience Needs to Be Given the Facts in a Way that They Can Understand, Relate, and Remember
Yes, you want to identify with an audience and help them feel something, but you also need facts in your speech. You need to do the research and you need to present the arguments. Keep in mind — facts alone are rarely persuasive. It is the way you present those facts that makes them persuasive. When giving your numbers, pair them with a story. When giving statistics, helped the audience to visualize them.
There is an entire chapter to help you work on representing stats, numbers, and charts.
Make sure you chose to talk about facts that match the audience. For some, the review of a social media influencer is more convincing than the reviews from a publication. For an academic audience, the names of the researchers and the names of the journals they publish in will garner attention, but for other audiences, the title of the person as “cardiologist at a top research institute” would be more persuasive.
One more story. I spent time as a manufacturer’s representative. I traveled to five states setting up distributorships for a “generic” brand of diesel engine parts. The parts we sold were made at the same factory as the name brand, they were just stamped with a different name and then put in different boxes. In that role, I made individual presentations and a lot of board room presentations. The hardest part seemed to be convincing people that our parts were as good as the name-brand ones. Our parts were more than 50% less in price which seems like a good thing. Unfortunately for us, ingrained in many people’s heads is the idea that expensive means good and name brand parts are of better quality. It took six months to get our first big account, but once we had one major account, sales became much easier. The perceived credibility of the product and the credibility of our sales team came, not from how good the product was or our credentials, but our credibility came from the status of a big-name company that was using our product.
This leads me to my last big point; the audience needs to trust you.
The Audience Needs to Trust You
Credibility is key to the success or failure of a presenter. The whole speech rests on credibility, if they don’t trust you, they won’t listen. You build your credibility by how you are dressed, how you are introduced, how you tell the audience why you are competent in this area helps the audience listen. In my story, our credibility came from the name of the big company that used our parts.
Your credibility helps create trust and trust is essential to persuasion.
Ethos: Credibility
Ethos (credibility) is all about your character, your intentions, your good judgment, as well as your respect for yourself, your speech, and your audience. Aristotle said there are three components of ethos and all three should be employed.
• Phronesis (froh-nee-sis) practical wisdom. Prudence. It implies good judgment and excellence of character and habits.
” To do the right thing in the right place, at the right time, in the right way.” -Carr
• Arete (ah-reh-‘tay) is the moral virtue of your argument. It refers to excellence of any kind but when applied to speech it means to persuade in a morally virtuous way.
• Eunoia (you-noh-iea) is the goodwill you establish. It is what happens when a speaker considers the audience and cultivates a relationship of trust with them.
Watch this short TED-Ed video that connects what we have just discussed on credibility and audience needs.
Now that I shared with you some of the foundational principles of persuasion, let me share a few more thoughts about persuasion that will help you as your build your speech.
Make it Do-Able
Persuasion needs to be doable. Be specific with what you want the audience to do. Are you wanting them to consider an opposing viewpoint? Are you wanting them to donate blood? Are you wanting them to give to a charity? Are you wanting them to see the value of a liberal arts education? Are you wanting them to buy your product? Tell them specifically what you want.
The other way to make it doable is to give them realistic goals. I recently took part in a health and fitness program at the university. The program was aimed at helping people engage in healthy practices. If the program told everyone to go and run five miles a day, it would have looked impossible to most of the participants. Instead, the program focused on things you could do at your desk like chair yoga. Instead of telling everyone to change their diet, they asked participants to add one more serving of fruit or vegetable to their diets this week. Having things that were doable increased participants’ motivation. The increased motivation increased success. Setting realistic goals was also key when I did sales. Instead of immediately asking groups to take on whole parts lines, we would encourage them to stock two of the most popular items and test out customer satisfaction with those items. When I worked with donors, we would ask some for a one-time donation of five thousand dollars while we would ask others for ten dollars a month based on what we knew about the audience’s financial means.
Finally, you should make the persuasion doable by telling them how to accomplish what you’ve asked. I had a student tell us to go to Mount Ida to dig crystals. I had no idea where that was. His speech was successful because he showed us on the map where it was located. He showed up pictures of what we would see when we got there, and he told us specific things we should pack. He made it easy to comply. Coincidently, I dug two duffle bags worth of crystals and they are sitting in my garden today. If you are making a sales pitch, you may be telling them how to use the order form or how to access the website. The more you show things, the more they visualize themselves doing it, the more likely it is that they will follow through.
Overcome Objections
Anyone who has been through advanced sales training knows a key part of any sales pitch is the part where you are overcoming objections. In a one-on-one sales pitch, a salesperson might say, “Are there any things standing in your way?” In a persuasive presentation, you do the same thing, just not as overtly. Let me tell you a little about a flu shot and how it relates here.
When you get a flu shot you are given a little dose of the flu so that your body can build immunity from future attackers. Basically, you get a little of the flu so you can become immune. Similarly, giving someone a little dose of an argument can help prepare them for future persuasive attacks. McGuire called this inoculation theory. In short, you can help prepare people to deal with objections. This can happen in several ways.
This can happen by forewarning. You warn someone they may hear things that disagree. “My opponent will say that…., but that simply isn’t true.” The simple suggestion that there are different points on the other side helps the individual think about how they might argue for their side. Maybe, I’m trying to persuade you why chiropractic treatment can be helpful for headaches. I might say, “You may hear that chiropractors are just bone crackers that get you addicted to treatment to get money out of you. I certainly heard that before I tried treatment, but my own experience has been…” You warned them of what they might hear (a little dose of the flu) and you helped them to gain immunity.
The other way this can happen is by counterarguments–called refutational preemption. You imagine what counterarguments your audience might have and then you address them in your speech. When I sold aftermarket diesel engine parts, I imagined they might object because our product wasn’t name-brand so they might think it was inferior. Because of this, I would say, “Let me tell you why the quality of our product is equal to the competition” and then I would show them a chart showing the metallurgical data and quality statistics. When persuading people to donate to the not for profit, I imagined they might object to giving money because they are already giving somewhere else so I would say, “There are many worthy causes to give your money and time to so let me tell you why this is a worthwhile cause….”
When making a good inoculation, make sure you don’t try to make the other side’s argument too strong, or they might end up agreeing with the other side. In addition, don’t distort what the other side represents. That would make it a strawman fallacy (and in my opinion, unethical). Worst of all, making distorted arguments hurts your credibility and you would risk losing the audience’s trust.
Try This
When working on a persuasive presentation ask several people, “Why might someone object to this?” or “Why might someone not want to try this?” When they answer. Resist the temptation to justify. Don’t be defensive, just listen and write down the things they say. Go back to your speech and see how you might preemptively deal with those objections in your presentation.
Look for Agreement
When someone says, “No.” Their whole body begins to disagree. They may lock their jaw, squint their eyes, or cross their arms. Keeping your speech positive and seeking agreement can draw an audience into your topic. Dale Carnegie in his famous book, How to Win Friends and Influence People suggested getting the audience to say, “Yes” multiple times. Even better if they nod yes as well. “Can we agree tuition is too high–yes. Can we agree it is hard to eat healthy as a college student–yes. Can we all agree…fill in the blank…yes?”
Begin with the End in Mind
When thinking about your persuasion speech, ask yourself how you will measure success? Success in speech class should always be more than the grade you earned. Earnestly try to persuade your classmates of something that will make their lives better.
Begin with the end in mind and ask yourself, what does success look like? I once had a group of students give a speech asking the city to add a traffic signal out front of the college–the city took it into consideration and added the light. Lives were saved because they gave a speech. That is measurable success. I had a student persuade us why we should go to Kansas City for a weekend trip, several students went and thanked the student for the recommendation. That is measurable success. I spoke before the Kiwanis asking them for a donation and they became a financial partner, because of their donation hundreds of homebound seniors received companions, yet again a measurable success.
What about those speeches that ask people to change attitudes? How will you know if your persuasion worked? If you pitched your product and no one bought it, did you succeed? Sometimes getting the word out is a success. Success will not always be tangible. Sometimes you won’t persuade the audience members listening, but they will talk to their associates who will be persuaded. Write down what you want to happen as a result of your speech.
Always begin with the end in mind.
At this point, I want to share with you some excellent persuasive speeches and draw your attention to a few key elements. This video has to be watched on the TED YouTube channel.
Persuasion to Change your Behavior
I’m not saying that we all need to live in 420 sq. ft. But consider the benefits of an edited life. Go from 3,000 to 2,000, from 1,500 to 1,000. Most of us, maybe all of us, are here pretty happily for a bunch of days with a couple of bags, maybe a small space, a hotel room. So when you go home and you walk through your front door, take a second and ask yourselves, “Could I do with a little life editing? Would that give me a little more freedom? Maybe a little more time?”
NOTICE
He tells you what he wants you to do, and he makes it do-able. Notice how he slows down and changes his voice and the ending as he delivers his last words–“Good stuff.”
Persuasion of Fact: The Power of Story
Most of society has been acting like race exists but it doesn’t matter.
Did you know that race doesn’t really exist in scientific terms? ‘We’ have known this for a while but for some reason we still act like skin color means something. In fact, race doesn’t exist, but in our society it does matter.
Notice
He uses stories to draw us in about the topic of race. In doing so, he helps us to avoid being defensive or guarded about the topic and we are more willing to listen.
Culture Makes a Difference
There are a lot of demographic differences that can influence how a person is persuaded, and an important one of those is culture. I want to focus on the biggest three cultural differences that can influence how you approach a persuasive speech.
Individualism vs Collectivism
• Individualistic cultures stress the value of “I.” People in individualist cultures typically value independence and uniqueness and are socialized to see themselves as separate and distant.
• Collectivistic cultures stress the value of “we.” People in collectivistic cultures value group membership. They tend to work towards the good of the group and are more compliant with authority.
• A speech that tells the audience how to be independent or how to stand out above the crowd would appeal more to an individualistic audience where a speech that tells the audience how they can fit in and be part of the group would appeal more to a collectivistic culture.
• One study showed the difference in detergent ads. “Cleans with a softness that you will love” was preferred by individualistic societies vs “Cleans with a softness your family will love” was preferred by collectivistic societies.
High vs Low Context
• Low context cultures tend to be direct and linear. There is an emphasis on facts as the most important.
• High context cultures tend to be indirect. Because of the indirectness, it may be harder to “read” the situation unless you have taken time to get to know the individual.
• Doctor recommended would appeal more to high context individuals where a focus on the features and advantages of the product would be more persuasive to low context individuals.
• A speech that is very specific and direct would appeal to a low context culture where a speech that implies or “hints” would appeal more to a high context culture.
Persuasive Speech Patterns
There are many patterns you can use as you create your speech. Here is a brief list of the most common ones.
Problem-Solution
State the problem
Tell us why it is a problem
Offer up a solution to the problem
Persuade us to do something based on the solution you offered
Problem-Cause-Solution
State the problem
Tell us why it is a problem
Tell us what caused the problem
Offer us a solution to the problem
Persuade us to do something in reaction to the solution offered
Comparative Advantages
Duh! Compare the advantages of one product or idea to another.
Monroe’s Motivated Sequence
This model, designed by Alan Monroe, was originally designed for policy speeches but has been expanded to other types. Sales presenters take note, this one may be for you. Participants in one study appreciated this format because of how organized it made presentations.
Monroe’s Motivated Sequence
Attention: Get the audience’s attention (This step usually includes a grabbing statement, a preview, and a credibility statement)
Need: You make the audience feel a need for a change. This is usually where you should evidence of a need.
Satisfaction: You satisfy the need. What is the solution or plan to take care of the need you demonstrated?
Visualization: Help your audience visualize the benefits How will they profit from enacting your plan.
Action: Tell the audience exactly what you want them to do or to feel. (This step usually includes a review, a call to action, and a closing statement)
In conclusion, words are powerful. When you are given the privilege of standing before a group of people, they have given you the gift of time. You owe it to them to give them something worthwhile. I have given you some powerful persuasive tools, use them wisely, apply them ethically.
I compiled a few of my favorite persuasive theories and put them in a chapter to help you fine-tune your persuasion. The Science of Persuasion
Key Takeaways
Remember This!
• Audience needs are key.
• The audience needs to “see” to be persuaded.
• Credibility is essential.
• Persuasion needs to be doable.
• Look for agreement.
• Overcoming objections.
• Consider how you will measure success.
• Consider cultural differences.
• Use the pattern that best fits your speech.
Bonus Feature
Watch these young voices make persuasion speeches at March for Our Lives
Guardian News. (2018). March for our lives: Five of the most powerful speeches. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wf5am4wQsc0 Standard YouTube License.
References
Allen, M. (2017). The sage encyclopedia of communication research methods (Vols. 1-4). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc doi: 10.4135/9781483381411
Aristotle. (1999). Nicomachean Ethics trans. Terence Irwin. Hackett.
Banas, J. A., & Rains, S. A. (2010). A meta-analysis of research on inoculation theory. Communication Monographs, 77(3), 281–311. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751003758193
Boundless (n.d). Types of Persuasive Speeches. Boundless Communications. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-communications/chapter/types-of-persuasive-speeches/
Carnegie, D. (2009). How to win friends and influence people. Simon and Schuster.
Clapp, C. (2019). How to persuade others. Learn about your listeners, tailor your speech to their needs, and brush up on your Aristotle. Toastmaster’s International. https://www.toastmasters.org/magazine/magazine-issues/2019/apr/how-to-persuade-others
Compton, J., Jackson, B., & Dimmock, J. A. (2016). Persuading others to avoid persuasion: Inoculation theory and resistant health attitudes. Frontiers in psychology, 7, 122. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00122
Guardian News. (2018). March for our lives: Five of the most powerful speeches. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wf5am4wQsc0 Standard YouTube License.
Hill, G. (2011). Less stuff, more happiness. [Video] YouTube. https://www.ted.com/talks/graham_hill_less_stuff_more_happiness/up-next?language=en Standard YouTube License.
Koo, M. & Shavitt, S. (2010). Cross-cultural psychology of consumer behavior. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444316568.wiem03041
Martin, S. (2010). Being persuasive across cultural divides. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2010/12/being-persuasive-across-cultur
Micciche, T., Pryor, B., & Butler, J. (2000). A test of Monroe’s Motivated Sequence for its effects on ratings of message organization and attitude change. Psychological Reports. 86(3 Pt 2), 1135–1138. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.2000.86.3c.1135
McGuire W. J. (1961). The effectiveness of supportive and refutational defenses in immunizing and restoring beliefs against persuasion. Sociometry 24, 184–197. https://doi.org/10.2307/2786067
McGuire, W. J. (1961). Resistance to persuasion conferred by active and passive prior refutation of the same and alternative counterarguments. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63(2), 326–332. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0048344
Peterson, A. (2014). What I am learning from my white grandchildren–truths about race. Anthony Peterson. TEDxAntioch. [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u5GCetbP7Fg Standard YouTube License.
Standup Speak Out. (2011). Types of persuasive speeches. https://open.lib.umn.edu/publicspeaking/chapter/17-2-types-of-persuasive-speeches/ Created commons attribution-NonCommercial SharewAlike license
Wilfred, C. (2005). What is the philosophy of education? The Routledge Falmer Reader in the Philosophy of Education. Routledge.
Wright, G. & Ferenczi, N. (2018). Cross-cultural dimensions impacting persuasion and influence in security contexts. Center for Research and Evidence on Security Threats. https://crestresearch.ac.uk/comment/cross-cultural-dimensions-impacting-persuasion-and-influence-in-security-contexts/ | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/Advanced_Public_Speaking_(Meade)/04%3A_Speeches/4.01%3A_Persuasive_Speechmaking-_Pitching_Your_Idea_and_Making_it_Stick.txt |
A very excited college senior came to me and said, “Dr. Meade, I have the opportunity of a lifetime, will you please help me?” She went on to tell me she was a finalist for a very prestigious internship with a major magazine in New York. They were flying her out at the end of the month where she and three other finalists would each make a 3-5 minute presentation. The prompt was, “Tell us about yourself.” Her dream internship hung on the outcome of her three-minute speech. That was a lot of pressure. There wasn’t a lot of information out there on how to succeed at such as speech, so I pulled resources from career centers, from persuasion theory, and from models of good speech practice and created a template for her. It worked– she got the internship! Since that time, more students have come with similar speech tasks, and each time we have applied this template with great success.
There are many ways employers determine which person is the right candidate for a particular position. You are likely familiar with the cover letters, resumes, and interviews, however, the concept of giving a speech as part of an interview may be new to you.
Let me share a few examples of what this speech “looks like.”
Example from a Student
E-MAIL FROM A STUDENT:
I learned a ton last semester and I have my first chance to put your teachings to work in a real-world situation. I recently interviewed with a company (XXX Oil Services) and what do you know I got called back for another interview! They are flying me out to Houston, and they will hold interviews over two days. Part of the requirements for the interview process is that I give a 5-7 minute speech. Here is a little sample of the e-mail they have sent me, and I have attached a short PowerPoint© guideline they have sent as well:
Student Presentations
As part of the interview process, you are required to do a 5 – 7 minute presentation about your life accomplishments. Please review the attached PowerPoint for details and bring your presentation on a flash drive to your interview.
Please prepare a presentation (5-7 minutes) in which you
• Summarize the accomplishments of your life so far,
• Explain what your goals are and
• Demonstrate that you are the ideal candidate for XXX Services
Example from a Human Resource Manager Regarding an Oral Resume
We give candidates 30 minutes to prepare for the exercise, but we have already informed the candidates that they should put together an oral resume presentation ahead of time. That is to say, a few weeks prior to the assessment center I meet with the candidates and tell them that they will have this exercise. They should put together a presentation of about 8 minutes in length that presents their qualifications for the job. I typically emphasize that a simple listing of every course they’ve ever taken or every certification they hold is not very effective. Instead, they should focus on how both their educational and experiential backgrounds have contributed to who they are, how they perform in their current position, and how they will perform in their promoted position. During the 30 minute preparation period, candidates are given the instructions that tell them they will have 8 minutes for their initial presentation on their resume (this time varies depending on the overall length of the exercise and maybe as long as 15 minutes), and the remaining 12 minutes (or longer depending on the overall length of the exercise) will be devoted to answering the interview questions which are presented to them on the next page. Typically, for a 12-minute answer period, we would provide them 4 interview questions. We inform them both during the candidate orientations and the instructions that the assessors will be asking follow-up questions. I believe this is an essential aspect of a good oral resume and a good assessment center. I encourage follow-up questions from the assessors. So often it is not the initial response that is revealing but rather the candidate’s rationale behind the decision that is so important in evaluating the candidate.
Example from a Career Services Specialist
I interviewed Renee Clay Director for Career Services and Students Programs, Walton Career Services and she said companies are asking students to give speeches at follow-up interviews. She said she has even encountered situations where they ask applicants to give a ten-minute speech on a topic of their choice.
What does this look like in the “Real World”?
• Companies are using career speech by asking applicants to give a speech with the prompt: Why are you a good fit for this company?
• Religious groups (Mostly, Christian Churches) are using career speeches by asking the applicants to give a speech with the prompt: What is your ministry philosophy?
• Educational groups are asking future teaches to give a career speech with the prompt: Show us a lesson plan and talk us through the pedagogy.
• Not for Profits are using this career speech by asking applicants to give a speech with a prompt: Tell us how your ideals align with our mission statement.
• Internships are using career speeches by asking applicants to give a career speech with prompts such as the following: What do you hope to get out of this internship?
This Speech Is Important
This may be one of the most important speeches you have to give. Most of you will spend four to six years in college and this is the speech that can make all that studying finally pay off. Resist the temptation to under prepare for this speech. Don’t put it off and don’t let the fear of failure or fear of success stop you from giving the best speech possible. You should put more work into this speech than the papers and tests you did in college. “Procrastination is the fear of success,” according to motivational speaker Denis Waitley. “People procrastinate because they are afraid of the success that they know will result if they move ahead now. Because success is heavy, carries a responsibility with it, it is much easier to procrastinate and live on the ‘someday I’ll’ philosophy.”
Let’s get started on building the speech.
Step One: Learn Everything You Can About the Company.
All good speeches begin with knowing your audience. Start with the job posting and write down the specific things they are looking for. What are the specific skills, what values are represented, what can you learn about the company from what they say about themselves in the job posting? Go to the company’s mission and values statement and add it to your research. If it is a larger company, look at the individual division and research its mission and purpose. If you are a college student, check with your career services office and see what information they know about the company. Many career service groups keep databases on major companies and what they look for in candidates, who they know are alums, and many even have lists of the most frequently asked items in their interviews.
If possible, find out who will be listening to your speech. Lauren Rivera, Associate Professor of Management and Organization conducted 120 interviews of hiring professionals and found interviewers are looking for people who are similar to themselves. She suggests there are three reasons for this: (1) interviewers believe the person will be the best fit, (2) interviewers look for people who define merit the same way that they do because it validates their own self-image, and (3) interviewers get excited about candidates that share their same passions. The more you know about those doing the interview, the more you can make connections.
You have three goals at this point:
1. Research the company so you can make direct references to it in your speech.
2. Familiarize yourself with the core competencies they are looking for so that you can match them to your skillset.
3. Learn enough about the company and interviewees so you can find similarities.
Step Two: Brainstorm What You Have to Offer
They liked your resume, they interviewed you, and now they are inviting you back to see if you are a good fit for the company. At this point, it does not benefit you to stand and reread your resume to them. You are qualified or they would not ask you back for another interview. They want to know you will pull your weight in the company, but they also want to know if you are someone they would want to spend time with at the office and after work. Now, they are trying to decide if they LIKE. You should pass the Airport, Holiday Party, and Convention Tests.
1. Would the interviewer want to be stranded in an airport in a snowstorm with you?
2. Would the interviewer want to introduce their family to you at the holiday party?
3. Would they want to have dinner with you at the three-day business convention?
Your goal is to be MEMORABLE, LIKABLE, and to DEMONSTRATE you have characteristics they NEED. In order to do that, you need to take a good, hard look at what you have to offer and I’m not talking about your previous jobs or even your GPA.
1. Take Personality, Leadership, and Career Assessment Tests
I suggest taking a version of the Myers-Briggs, Jung Typology. http://www.humanmetrics.com/personality. * Use the results to highlight some strengths you might not have thought of in your brainstorming. Once you get your results, cut and paste them into a document and highlight everything that applies to you that might be of value to the employer. For example, when I look up my type it says that I am creative and I like to come up with original solutions. Yes, that fits.
Let’s work with that for now. If I am trying to think of attributes that stand out about me, my creativity and ingenuity might be something that I want to highlight. I would check that attribute against what the company looks for and if it were something that the position would require, then I might decide to develop that. I will write that on my list of possible things to focus on–CREATIVITY and INGENUITY.
Take a variety of tests that you have access to. Consider taking a leadership test and a personality test. If you are a college student, your career center likely has paid for those tests so you can take them. If you have access to Strengths Quest©, Enneagram©, or the Myers-Briggs© Test, take them. . Use whatever test you can access to complete a worksheet of your strengths.
2. Ask Your Friends, Family, and Coworkers.
Find those who know you and ask them a series of questions. Resist the temptation to disagree or defend when they share, just listen, and write the responses.
What could I bring to ___ company?
Why would someone hire someone like me?
What would set me apart from other candidates?
What do you think is my strongest attribute?
3. Figure Out What Gets You Up in the Morning
A career advisor for the Walton College of Business asks students, “What gets you up in the morning?” and “What is your why?” Think about what really drives you and make it part of the story you tell.
Step Three: Match Your Strengths to What the Company Needs
Now comes the deep thinking. Look at some of the words that came out from your personality tests and from the words that your friends used to describe you. Look at what special qualities you have to offer. How can you match those with what the company is looking for? How do they relate to the core competencies that the company needs? Try to find three strengths about you that will be valuable to the company.
Most speech prompts (and interview questions) can be answered with “these are my three strengths.”
Question: Tell me about yourself.
Answer: These are the strengths that set me apart.
Question: Why should I give you the job over someone else?
Answer: These are the strengths that set me apart.
Question: Where do you see yourself in 5 years?
Answer: These are the strengths that set me apart and where they will take me.
Question: Why do you think you are a good fit for the company?
Answer: These are the strengths that make me a good fit.
Question: What is your leadership style?
Answer: These are the strengths that make me this type of leader.
Most of the time, you can develop your career speech by highlighting your three main strengths. It is worth mentioning that when colleges poll employers and ask them what they are looking for, they list problem-solving skills and the ability to work as a team at the top of the list. If these would be considered valuable where you are interviewing, you should talk about those.
Figure 1: Attributes Employers Seek on a Candidate’s Resume
ATTRIBUTE % OF RESPONDENTS
Problem-solving skills 91.2%
Ability to work in a team 86.3%
Strong work ethic 80.4%
Analytical/quantitative skills 79.4%
Communication skills (written) 77.5%
Leadership 72.5%
Communication skills (verbal) 69.6%
Initiative 69.6%
Detail-oriented 67.6%
Technical skills 65.7%
Flexibility/adaptability 62.7%
Interpersonal skills (relates well to others) 62.7%
Computer skills 54.9%
Organizational ability 47.1%
Strategic planning skills 45.1%
Friendly/outgoing personality 29.4%
Entrepreneurial skills/risk-taker 24.5%
Tactfulness 24.5%
Creativity 23.5%
Fluency in a foreign language 2.9%
Source: Job Outlook 2020, National Association of Colleges and Employers
Step Four: Develop Your Strengths into a Narrative
Let’s face it. Most of the time, the answers people give whether in an interview or speech are boring, they lack substance, and they sound like a form letter. “I am a people person who demonstrates good customer service. I believe in hard work and ….bla, bla, bla.” Meaningless words bounce off the ears. Nothing memorable.
If you want to be remembered, tell a story. First, start with your attribute. I had a student who said he was hard-working. He was worried because he didn’t have any “real” work experience they might not think of him as hard-working. Once we brainstormed, he realized that he spent every summer on his grandpa’s cattle farm. He was out mending fences before the sun rose and many days he would work until dark. He said, “Cows don’t care what day of the week it is.” He told a story about how his grandfather taught him to work hard and how it was a family legacy to take pride in the work that was done–hard work was a badge of honor. By the time he was done with his story, I would have hired him for just about anything. By storytelling, he convinced me that he would give it his all. He didn’t tell me he was a hard worker, he proved he was a hard worker. His story was detailed enough that we could see him in our mind’s eye. He told a story we could remember. The added benefit of storytelling is that stories make us feel something. When your story is done, the audience doesn’t just know something about you, they feel something about you.
Anytime you apply for a position, think about the people tasked with listening to interviews all day long. Get into their heads. The fact they need to hire someone means work is not getting done. Maybe, they are having to do extra work until you are hired. Maybe this is a new position, and they are hoping to make changes in the company once they get someone hired. The fact they are hiring often means they have a lot going on and they are eager to get it going, but they also may be feeling cautious because they need to find the right person. In addition, to meeting with you, they have to do their own job, answer their own emails, deal with customers or coworkers, and figure out what to make for dinner. They may even have to coach the soccer team or volunteer at the food bank. You get it– they are busy. They are busy, they may be stressed so do them a favor and make it easy for them to listen. Be interesting. Do not waste their time.
Imagine when you are writing this speech, that in addition to listening to you, they must listen to at least three other speeches. Imagine after hearing all these speeches that they are going to do their job, go home and do their home time, listen to the news on the way to work, and then come back 24 hours later to make their decision. After time and all those distractions, will they remember you and your strengths? If you only said, “I’m hardworking,” then probably not. If you told a story proving you are hardworking, they will remember your story; they will remember you, and they might even tell someone about this incredible presentation they heard.
When building this story, it can be one big story that hits on the three strengths that you want them to remember, or it can be three stories–one for each strength. I once had a student who took the three main ideas from the company’s mission statement and told one story of how she exemplified each of those. It was very direct and very audience-centered, and she used that speech to start a new career with her dream company right out of college.
If you are successful, any person listening should be able to repeat your main strengths and repeat your story. Most importantly, they should feel you are competent and motivated.
Step Five: Start Writing and Write it Bird by Bird
It is hard to write about yourself and you are going to have to summons the courage to do it well. Writer Anne Lamont writes about this struggle.
Every writer you know writes really terrible first drafts, but they keep their butt in the chair. That’s the secret of life. That’s probably the main difference between you and them. They just do it. They do it by prearrangement with themselves. They do it as a debt of honor. They tell stories that come through them one day at a time, little by little. When my older brother was in fourth grade, he had a term paper on birds due the next day, and he hadn’t started. So my dad sat down with him with an Audubon book, paper, pencils, and brads — for those of you who have gotten a little less young and remember brads — and he said to my brother, “Just take it bird by bird, buddy. Just read about pelicans and then write about pelicans in your own voice. And then find out about chickadees, and tell us about them in your own voice. And then geese.” So, the two most important things about writing are bird by bird and really god-awful first drafts. If you don’t know where to start, remember that every single thing that happened to you is yours, and you get to tell it.
You too should write your really terrible first draft and you should tell a story in your own voice. With all your research in front of you, you should start writing bird by bird, story by story.
Step Six: Begin Strong
The very first sentence of your speech should be powerful. You should pluck that sentence out and you should test it on a trusted mentor. Each word in that sentence should be intentional. Soon after that strong first sentence should be your name. You want them to link the strength of those words with your name. You should memorize your opening so you can deliver it with strength.
I didn’t choose teaching, teaching chose me. When I came home from kindergarten, I set up school in the back yard and taught the neighborhood kids their ABC’s. I guess you could say, I’ve always been a teacher. Good morning, my name is Frankie Lane, and I want to tell you why I am a good fit for the teaching position. As a teacher, I am enthusiastic, innovative, and encouraging and I would like to demonstrate those attributes to you today.
The regional manager flew into Northwest Arkansas to meet with me. He flew in so he could ask me face to face how my sales strategy resulted in 12% increase in computer sales. He brought with him a team that was ready to listen. My name is Bob Smith, and I would like to share with you what three things I shared with them that day.
If your actions inspire others to dream more, learn more, and become more, you are a leader. John Quincy Adams. I believe this quote summarize my leadership philosophy that I want to share with you today. Good morning my name is Frankie Lane, and I would like to tell you how this quote defines my leadership style and why I am a good fit for Amazing Example Company.
Not only should that first sentence be written to have an impact, but it should also be delivered well. Memorize your opening. Know it so well that you could recite it easily. Practice it in the car, practice it in the shower, practice it while talking to your pet. Resist the temptation to start with “ok so” or “um.” You have been working up to this speech all your adult life, you spent hours studying for tests, writing papers, and completing assignments so you could get to this moment. You owe it to yourself to put in the work and to make this speech work for you.
Step Seven: Refer to the Company Throughout
Remember, this is not really a speech about you, it is a speech about them and what they need. Because of this, it is important to talk about the company throughout your speech. “As I was researching your company, I came across a headline that said you were developing one of the largest interactive art displays in the area. As a consumer of outdoor art, I…” or “Your organization’s commitment to the environment is inspiring. I became active in environmental issues as part of a collegewide initiative…” A career services specialist suggests, “Don’t tell me who you are, tell me why you matter to me.”
A common mistake is when speakers act as if they are informing the audience instead of talking to an audience that is familiar. Let me explain. I had a student say, Walmart’s mission statement is “to save people money so they can live better.” This sounds like the speaker is informing the audience of something they should already know. Instead, they should say “as you already know…” or “we can agree on a key component of the mission statement.”
Step Eight: Practice Your Speech
You have researched the company and decided on how to present yourself. Make yourself brief notecards outlining your presentation and begin practicing. You need to practice your speech enough that you could say most of it without notes. Memorize the opening and the closing because those can be the most difficult parts and tend to be the places where the audience is most likely to build impressions of you. If you are required to use presentation slides, be sure to practice with your slides, and perfect the timing. ( For more help on slides refer to the chapter: Making Presentation Slides)
In addition to practicing by yourself, you should practice your speech in front of a trusted professional and ask them for honest and detailed feedback. You should also record your speech and watch it as if you were the hiring team. Oftentimes when I practice, I will draw a smiley face on a piece of paper and put a name under it President of the company, and then another with a smiley face and a name, future co-worker. It reminds me that I’m not delivering to a wall but to people. When you practice, tape your smiley audience around the room and speak to them directly, “The director of development will be happy to know that I have successfully…”
For more: Refer to the Chapter on Delivery Advice: Do Not Imagine the Audience Naked! Managing Eye Contact, Movement, and Gestures
Step Nine: End Strong
The very last sentence is where you “seal the deal.” Most of the time, this sentence will not come easily. I once read a book where the writer talked about sitting on the floor rocking back and forth wondering why she even bothered and why nothing good was coming to mind. Maybe writing the closing, is not quite that hard for you, but it will be for the rest of us. We will feel self-doubt and inadequacy and will even question why we are bothering in the first place. If that happens to you, walk away and do something you love, and remember your “Why.” Why are you pushing yourself? Remember how hard you worked to get here. Remember what gets you up in the morning. After you walked off the self-doubt, come back and write that perfect ending. Look at the last three words and make sure they are words with power.
Example from a Career Speech
SPEECH OPENING
A job isn’t just a job. It’s who you are. I’m Kelsey Gomez, and today, I’m not going to tell you why I think I’m best suited for this job—I know I am. Instead, I’m here to prove to you that this isn’t just a job to me, it’s a position that I feel best brings out what I was born to do in life. Company’s Name is working to make America a better place to be a child and raise a family. To do this, a person needs to have passion, strong communication skills, enthusiasm to learn and gain experience, and the flexibility to thrive in a dynamic, fast-paced environment—and here’s how I possess all of these qualities.
BODY
She told 3 stories to prove her attributes
SPEECH CLOSING
My whole life, I never dreamed of success—I worked for it. I did this by helping others, educating myself, and handling everything that came my way with poise and determination. A job isn’t just a job, it’s who you are. And, who I am is a passionate, flexible, and driven person who yearns to make a difference in people’s lives. The best way to predict the future is to create it. And I believe, if you hire me, Company’s Name and I can create something worthwhile.
Step Ten: Present the Total Package
Your speech begins the moment they see you. Your “speech” begins whether you are speaking or not. I once worked for a firm that would have candidates wait in a waiting room before the interview. The administrative assistant would offer them water while they waited. Little did the job candidates know that the assistant was taking notes on their behavior in the waiting room. Were they polite when offered a drink? Were they poised while in the waiting room? Were they prepared? Another strategy I have witnessed firsthand is a business that had applicants write something, if they had to borrow a pen, they clearly weren’t prepared. I’ve even heard of interviewers who watched the applicant pull up to see if the person’s car is clean. It does little good to say you pay attention to details and drive up in a dirty car.
Potential employers begin sizing you up immediately. Are you dressed properly? Are your shoes clean? Are you sitting attentively? Are you preoccupied with your phone in the waiting room? Are you walking with confidence? Are you picking your nails? Are you listening respectfully? Everything they see you do or say is part of the interview.
In nonverbal communication terms, trappings are those artifacts that enact stereotypes–a stethoscope around the neck means the person is a doctor or nurse, a briefcase means the person is a business professional. It will benefit you to consider trappings and what yours say about you. Think about the difference between a sports watch and a fancy watch and the message it sends. Depending on the job, one may be preferred. For example, I had a student who researched the group she was interviewing with and realized that high fashion handbags seemed to be important. She borrowed a friends’ name-brand bag and then was delighted when someone in the group commented about it in the interview meeting. She wrote me a message afterward that said, “They hired me over other candidates who had higher GPA’s and more experience and I think it is because I researched them so well that I knew what they were looking for. I really think my bag helped close the deal.”
It is worth noting that many career specialists suggest not carrying a bag–in this situation it was an intentional decision based on her research.
Dress the part. Research the standard dress for the organization. Be cautious, however, because they may wear athleisure wear to work each day, but they expect job candidates to wear a suit for interviews. As a college student, you have a big advantage because you likely have a career center that keeps records of the clothing suggestions for interviewing and many will even have places that will loan you professional clothing items for interviews. Pay close attention to your shoes–they are very important. If at all possible, buy new shoes. Yes, it may be an expensive item, but so was your education. Time and time again human resources directors and career specialists tell me that the way that people know whether you pay attention to important details is to look at their shoes.
Handshake Matters
In American business, you should shake hands with the interviewer and key members of the group. Several things go into a good handshake. First is the condition of your hand. You should have neatly manicured nails and clean hands. If you are prone to have sweaty hands, it is a good idea to keep a napkin in your pocket to wipe the sweat off your hand before you shake.
Next, have a firm but not overly aggressive grip. When you reach for someone’s hand, you should open your hand wide enough that the web of skin between your pointer finger and thumb is aiming for the web of their hand. Hands should be so neither person’s hand is on top. Pump your hand two to three times. When you shake hands, look them in the eye and try to say the person’s name and something nice. “Mr. Jackson, I am so glad to have the opportunity to talk with you today. ”
When you shake hands with someone that it gives them a positive feeling (if it is an appropriate handshake). When you attach that handshake with their name, you activate even more positive feelings. Research even suggests that other people in the room who see you give a nice handshake will get positive feelings about you. Before an interview, it is a good idea to practice your handshake with friends.
Finally, handshakes vary by culture, so if you are interviewing in a different culture, you should research greeting traditions.
Career speeches are always about you being the best version of yourself. I never have more self-doubt than when I’m doing a job search. I usually have to remind myself that I am smart enough and good enough to apply for this job.
I want you to know, you are good enough. You have worked hard to get here, you are ready. I give you permission to be powerful and confident–it’s time to shine.
Bonus Feature: Presenting Academic Research at Conferences or at Job Talks
MIT Professor, Patrick Winston talks about the basics of public speaking and then gives his students advice on how to give a research talk or job talk. If you are headed to a conference or if you are showing your research at a conference, watch this talk for some great advice.
Key Takeaways
Remember This!
• A career speech is not the place you recite your resume, but rather it is where you prove your strengths.
• Telling a story helps your audience remember you.
References
åström, J. (1994). Introductory greeting behavior: A laboratory investigation of approaching and closing salutation phases. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 79(2), 863–897. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1994.79.2.863
Barrick, M. R., Swider, B. W., & Stewart, G. L. (2010). Initial evaluations in the interview: Relationships with subsequent interviewer evaluations and employment offers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95, 1163–1172. doi:10.1037/a0019918
Chaplin, W. F., Phillips, J. B., Brown, J. D., Clanton, N. R., & Stein, J. L. (2000). Handshaking, gender, personality, and first impressions. Journal of personality and social psychology, 79(1), 110–117. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.79.1.110
Available online:https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/psp791110.pdf
Clay, R. Director for Career Services and Students Programs, Walton Career Services. (2020). Personal Interview.
Ellis, D. A., & Jenkins, R. (2015). Watch-wearing as a marker of conscientiousness. PeerJ, 3, e1210. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.1210
Renee Clay Director for Career Services and Students Programs, Walton Career Services. Personal Interview. November 22, 2020.
Dougherty, T. W., Turban, D. B., & Callender, J. C. (1994). Confirming first impressions in the employment interview: A field study of interviewer behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 659–665. DOI: 10.1037//0021-9010.79.5.659
Interviewing Skills. Walton College of Business Website. https://walton.uark.edu/career/students/interviewing.php
Lamont, Anne, Twelve truths I learned from life and writing. TED Talk Feb 12, 2019. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.dailygood.org/story/2187/12-truths-i-learned-from-life-and-writing-anne-lamott/
National Association of College and Employers. (2020). The top attributes employers want to see on resumes. https://www.naceweb.org/about-us/press/2020/the-top-attributes-employers-want-to-see-on-resumes/
Rivera, L. (2013). Hirable like me. https://insight.kellogg.northwestern.edu/article/hirable_like_me
Winston, P. (2019). How to speak by Patrick Winston. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Unzc731iCUY
* (I could write an entire chapter on how a test can never tell you who you are, and I could debate the validity of most of these tests, but that won’t be necessary, because the way that I have you use it, it will be valuable. I don’t want the tests to tell you who you are or who you can be. I want you to look at the results of these tests and look at what you think fits. ) | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/Advanced_Public_Speaking_(Meade)/04%3A_Speeches/4.02%3A_Career_Speech-_Tell_Them_Who_You_Are_and_Why_You_Matter_to_Them.txt |
You’ve got dreams of landing a perfect job if you could only catch a break. One day that break happens as you step on the elevator and there is the one person you need to talk to. This is the person who can launch your career, do you know what to say?
An elevator pitch is a short 30 second to one-minute persuasive speech that you always have ready. You can use your elevator pitch at a job fair, on your LinkedIn summary, at networking events, at conferences, and when you meet someone in the elevator. Most of this information is straightforward and doesn’t require a lot of writing from me, but it does require a lot of thought, careful preparation, and practice on your end.
Body Language Matters
Whether it is a chance meeting on an elevator or a deliberate meeting like a job fair, remember that your body language speaks volumes before you ever say a word.
• Have a confident posture.
• Practice so you always have a good handshake ready at a moment’s notice.
• Don’t rush. Speaking too fast makes you sound nervous.
• Keep an open body posture. Crossing your arms or legs looks like you are protecting yourself or hiding something.
• Make good eye contact.
• Breathe. I mean it, don’t forget to breathe!
• If this is a deliberate encounter, dress the part. Wear professional clothing and bring a notebook, pen, and copies of your resume.
Making Your Pitch
Introduce Yourself with a Smile
• Hi, I’m Frankie Lane and I’m pleased to meet you.”
• “Good morning, I’m Titus Smith and I’m glad to meet you.”
• “Hello, I’m Pedro Gonzales. It’s a pleasure to meet you.”
Remember GNAP
Indeed.com suggests remembering GNAP: Greeting name, affiliation purpose.
Hello (greeting) I’m Mary Moore (name) I’m a senior business major from the Walton College of Business (affiliation) and I’m interested in your marketing position (purpose).
Focus On What You Have to Offer or What You Are Looking For
• Hello, I’m Gabrielle Fowler. I’m a recent graduate with a degree in marketing and a minor in journalism. I create illustrations for websites and brands. My passion is coming up with creative ways to express a message, and drawing illustrations that people share on social media.
1. Hi, my name is Javonte Newsom. I recently graduated from college with a degree in communications. I worked on the college newspaper as a reporter, and eventually, as the editor of the arts section. I’m looking for a job that will put my skills as a journalist to work.
Examples from UpKey
• Here is a sample from a student with no experience
• My name is Sandra Engles and I am a freshman at the University of Illinois majoring in Apparel Merchandising and minoring in Marketing. I have always had an interest in fashion and enjoy reading fashion magazines and blogs. After completing a four-week-long school project where I created a styling tips guide, I sharpened my creativity skills while also learning how to use photoshop. I am looking for a summer internship in the fashion industry where I can help a marketing team by using my creativity and photoshop skills.
• Here is a sample from a student with experience
• Hi, my name is Sarina Jones and I am a recent graduate from the business school at the University of Wisconsin. I double-majored in Finance and Economics. After working at JLL Real Estate, I discovered I have a passion for corporate real estate. From being a Financial Analyst, I learned how to apply my finance knowledge when analyzing potential real estate investments to determine if the investment would yield positive returns and meet budget requirements. I am hoping to find a full-time job in the real estate industry that allows me to use financial and economic skills to guide strategic decision-making.
Career Fair
• Have copies of your resume ready to pass out.
• Research companies ahead of time and come ready with questions.
• Bring a notebook and a pen.
• Don’t bring along your excess baggage: No backpack, bulky purse, shopping bag.
• Practice your handshake before you go.
• Dress professionally.
• Approach booths alone. This is not time to hang out with friends.
• Stay off your phone. Be attentive to your surroundings even if you are in line waiting to talk to a recruiter.
• Take notes: It helps you remember, and it helps you look attentive.
• Always send a follow-up email.
Advice From a Sports Management Professional about the Elevator Pitch
I invited Craig Schmitt, a teaching assistant professor in the Recreation and Sport Management Program at the University of Arkansas to talk more about the elevator pitch. He has worked both on the university level and in the non-profit level teaching athletes, trainers, and sports professionals the art of the elevator pitch. Here is what he shared:
Elevator pitches are an introduction, a way to engage with someone with shared interests or experiences. An elevator pitch is not the conversation, but rather a tool to demonstrate relevance and spark a conversation. For job seekers, elevator pitches can also effectively be used as a response to the most common opening question in an interview, and the one question few interviewees seem to prepare for, “Tell me about yourself.”
Relevance and brevity should remain top of mind. Our lives are full of clutter that distracts an audience or listener from being present in the moment, and attention spans are only diminishing. Thus, we should strive to concisely deliver relevant content. It is helpful to approach an elevator pitch with a marketing orientation, or a recognition that it is much easier to “satisfy the consumer’s needs or wants” than it is to “sell them your product.” Thus, while the person delivering the elevator pitch inevitably will share information they believe is interesting, unless that information is relevant to the audience (or “satisfies the consumer’s needs or wants”), it is unlikely to be heard and retained.
Schmitt suggests using the following three (3) part structure for developing an elevator pitch is designed to spark a conversation.
THE HOOK – Effective presentations begin with a hook, or a way to create initial interest (and hopefully, but temporarily, removing clutter from the audience’s mind). For an elevator pitch, the hook is your passion. This should be a relatively brief, but specific statement. Focus on the impact you want to make on an industry or a group of people (not on a job title and/or organization). This impact should align with the impact your audience also strives to make. If there is an alignment, you will likely see an emotional response from the audience (a nod and a smile as they reflect on this shared passion).
THE EVIDENCE – Then, share evidence that you are pursuing that passion. This could come in the form of work experience, education, volunteer activities, or other efforts. But this should be a specific story, concisely told (the STAR method could help structure the story – Situation, Task, Action, Result).
YOUR NEXT STEP – Lastly, be sure to share your next step. In other words, what do you see as the next position or step in your career path? This helps demonstrate your understanding of your career trajectory, and your desire to continue to gain experience and learn skills (i.e., coachability) as you pursue your passion and strive to make impact.
Key Takeaways
Remember This!
• Always have an elevator speech ready.
• Be prepared and be concise.
• GNAP: Greeting name, affiliation purpose.
• Focus on what you have to offer and what you want.
Bonus Feature
How to Pitch Your Company
Elevator Pitch Formula
1. My name is_________ I am with ___________________ (insert name of company you work for)
2. We work with _________________ (Insert X)
3. Who __________________ (insert Y)
4. We help them ___________ (insert Z)
5. So that _____________ (insert W)
Example of the formula applied:
1. My name is Peter Khoury, I am the founder of Magnetic Speaking – A public speaking training company in San Francisco
2. We work with corporate professionals:
3. Who want to improve their public speaking skills.
4. We help them through one-on-one coaching and group training to communicate with confidence, clarity, and charisma!
5. So that they can excel at their jobs and take their careers to the next level.
How to Elevate Your Elevator Pitch: For Corporate Professionals
References
Doyle, A. (2021). How to create an elevator pitch with examples. https://www.thebalancecareers.com/elevator-speech-examples-and-writing-tips-2061976
Edwards, V. (2014). The best elevator pitch. [Video] YouTube. https://youtu.be/yi41U9ahyoE Standard YouTube License
Indeed.com (2021) How to introduce yourself at a job fair (with examples). https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/interviewing/how-to-introduce-yourself-at-a-job-fair
Tennesse Tech. (2013). The elevator speech. [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LDpe9StfGTA Standard YouTube License.
Upkey. Elevator pitch help for students with no experience. https://blog.upkey.com/elevator-pitch-help-for-students-with-no-experience/
Upkey. Elevator pitch examples that include relevant experience. https://blog.upkey.com/elevator-pitch-examples-that-include-relevant-experience/ | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/Advanced_Public_Speaking_(Meade)/04%3A_Speeches/4.03%3A_Elevator_and_Career_Fair_Pitch-_Standing_Out_While_Still_Fitting_In.txt |
Here’s to those that love us!
And for those that do not love us,
may God turn their hearts.
And if he cannot turn their hearts,
may he turn their ankles;
so that we may know them,
by their limping.
Irish Blessing/Curse
Cheers, slainte, skal, prost, and salud! A toast speech is a type of tribute speech meant to honor someone. Your goal as a speaker should be to make that person feel special and to allow others in the room to be included in the celebration.
Ceremonial Speaking Wheel
All ceremonial speeches should include the trio –narration, magnification, and identification.
Identification
You are not talking to an audience; you are sharing with an audience. You are celebrating with them and collectively celebrating shared values and shared appreciation for a person/persons and their accomplishments. Saying “we” are here to honor the recipient and reminding the audience of shared values helps the audience to be a part of the process. Say things that invite the audience in several times throughout the speech. This speech is for everyone present.
Wedding Toast
Instead of saying:
Amy and I played Barbie as children and always made sure that Barbie found her perfect soulmate.
Say: As many of you know, Amy and I played Barbie for hours as children. What you may not know is we always made sure that Barbie found her perfect soulmate.
———-
Graduation Toast
Instead of saying:
I wish you the best in your journey ahead as you graduate and start your new career.
Say: We here, your family and friends, all wish you the best in your journey ahead as you graduate and start your new career
———-
Retirement Toast
Instead of saying:
Dad, I was so happy you let me come and play in your office even if I ran your stapler out of staples by shooting them at the invisible villains that were hiding under your desk.
Say: As many of you here now, dad would sometimes let me come to work with him. And while most of you thought that I was the perfect little bosses’ kids, you may not have known that I was really a super hero executing the invisible villain that I found in dads desk. I killed it with all the staples from dad’s stapler.
Narration
The use of story helps the audience to be drawn in and want to listen. In short toasts, you can tell a series of one-sentence stories. In larger toasts, you can tell one long story or numerous little stories.
Magnification
Take a trait of the individual and magnify it. I’m not talking about superfluous embellishment; I’m talking about honest elaboration. For example, you might talk about
• Triumph over obstacles
• Unusual accomplishment
• Superior performance
• Unselfish motive
• Benefit to society
• The greatness of a simple thing
Now you know of the key elements that should be in your speech, let’s talk about the process of building a toast, writing a toast, and delivering a toast.
Gather the Details
What type of toast is it?
Always adapt your toast to the occasion: Wedding, graduation, retirement, business celebration, award celebration, birthday.
Who will attend?
You will give a different speech to your old college roommate on his birthday if it is just you and the gang versus if his conservative parents are in the room. It will be an even different speech if his new employer is present. Remember, a toast is not just about the person being celebrated but it is about others in the room. As you write your toast, keep imagining the key people present at the event.
Are there expectations about how long the toast will be? It is always good to ask. It can be awkward if there are several people toasting and each gives a five-minute toast and you have prepared only a two-minute toast. Typically wedding-type toasts, retirement toasts, and graduation toasts are longer speeches and people speak from notes. On the other, shorter toasts are usually memorized
Brainstorm
Sit down and just start jotting ideas. Start brainstorming ideas and memories one day and then give it a day or two to think about more memories. The next day after brainstorming, your brain will keep cranking out ideas …write them down immediately, put them on a notepad on your phone, or even call yourself and leave yourself a voicemail of the new ideas. Don’t lose them or let them get away.
Let’s think of your brain as a water faucet. You are not going to get any water until you turn the thing on. Many people complain they can’t think of ideas, but they never actually turn on the idea faucet. Think of brainstorming as turning those ideas on and getting your creative juices flowing.
When I turn off my faucet at home, there are usually a few drips that happen as the rest of the water gets out of the line. Think of your brain that way. Give it time to drip out the last ideas and be there to catch them. They just might be the best ideas of all. Some people find if they brainstorm before bed that they wake up with the best ideas. Always assume that you will forget your ideas, so write them down as soon as you think of them.
Sit Down and Write
At this point, just get your ideas down. Put down more ideas than you will use. Allow yourself to even write down some cheesy things—maybe you will use this somehow but probably not. Most importantly, the creative ideas are hiding in your brain behind the cheesy ones and if you don’t get the cheesy ideas out of the way, you will never get to the next level.
Now. Let’s think about that faucet again. Imagine there is something clogging it. You have to put some pressure on it so you can get it working. I like to think of cheesy ideas as that clog in the line. I have to get the cheesy clog out of the way by giving my mind permission to go there and once that line is clear. I need to be ready for all the great ideas that will come out in force after the clog comes out.
Taking It to The Professional Level
If you want to give your toast the professional edge, try using a theme and then adding in some parallel construction.
Use a Theme
Pick a theme for your toast and carry it throughout the whole toast. I like to think of the theme as the container that holds the speech together and the vehicle that helps ideas move from place to place.
For example, Drew gave a best man speech and used the theme of a road trip. He told stories of him and his best friend and their adventures (at least the adventures you the ones that you can tell when mom is in the room). He talked about fighting over the music, having to take bathroom breaks, and his friend always getting lost. These were fun stories that we could all imagine. In his speech, he told us that whoever was in the passenger seat was called the “roundtrip captain.” He gave the new bride advice on how to navigate the relationship since he knew so much about his friend from all these road trips. The speech wrapped up with Drew telling the bride that she was the map reader now and he passed to her the title of “road trip captain.”
Erin gave a graduation toast to her family members who supported her through college. She used the theme of climbing hills. It was the perfect theme since the University of Arkansas campus seems to be arranged so everything is uphill–both ways. She talked about walking the hills both physically and symbolically. In her speech, she talked about how beautiful the view is from the top. She wrapped up her speech by saying now that she is graduated how she has new hills to climb.
Keep in mind the theme is just the container. If you have only a container, it will seem cliché and sound like a cheap greeting card. The theme is not the speech, it is the container that holds your many stories. Make sure to fully develop those stories.
Use Parallel Construction
Parallel construction is where you take one sentence and you repeat it. It lets you tell a lot of little stories in a short period. Always have at least 3 sentences, keep them together, and try to give them rhythm.
Consider this format and how it might be used for the different toast types.
At a Wedding Toast
I remember when ___
I remember when ___
I remember when ___
I knew you were the “one” because…
I knew you were the “one” because…
I knew you were the “one” because…
At a Retirement Toast
Many of you know dad for selling insurance, but I know dad for selling me on the idea to go to college
Many of you know dad for working long hours at the office, but I know dad for working long hours on school projects that I only mentioned to him the night before they were due.
Many of you know dad as a business profession, but I know dad as my super hero.
Many of you know dad for …., but I know dad for ….
Many of you know dad for …., but I know dad for ….
Many of you know dad for …., but I know dad for ….
TOAST PATTERNS
When picking a speech pattern for the toast, consider the audience and occasion. Many toasts are just one to two minutes while others can be five to seven minutes.
Short Toasts Pattern
1. Let us raise our glass to… Today, I would like to recognize…
2. Make a list of attributes/accomplishments of the person. With each statement there is a building sensation –each statement you make is better than the next.
3. Build to a climax. Create a building sensation using parallel construction.
4. Raise your glass near the end.
5. End with a poem, quote, or wish them well. (I really think a well-chosen quote makes these speeches special…it is worth the time to look for one to make it really special)
Note: Typically short toasts are memorized and longer toasts are written as a manuscript.
Wedding Toasts Possible Patterns
Give Their New Spouse the Manual of How to Get Along with Them
1. Tell a story or two about your friendship with your friend
2. Tell a story about when your friend met the person they are marrying. What did they say about this person? What were your first impressions? Tell anything about the two of them together? What are they like as a couple? How do you know they are right for each other? Tell something you observe about them when they are together?
3. Give the person advice on how to navigate life with your friend since you know them so well. Think of this as passing on the manual.
Three Stories
Tell three stories about the couple.
• Maybe, how they met, the engagement, and a story they tell on themselves.
• Maybe, three ways you know they are in love
• Maybe, three things you noticed about how they care for each other.
I Knew It Was Love…
• Tell five ways that you knew it was love. Tell a story attached to each of the ways
• Tell what your friend was like before and how they are better now than they are with the one they love.
Note: Never mention old girlfriend/boyfriends, never give away secrets to clueless family members (they are living together, that you and your friend snuck out in high school), and keep it positive. You likely have inside information about the person you are toasting–their wedding is not the time to reveal it.
Retirement Toast Possible Patterns
If you are a work colleague:
• These are the three things that set this person apart.
• These are the three things that I learned from this person.
If you are the child or the spouse:
• Talk about what their career looked like from your position. How were they dedicated?
• How did it help you benefit from their job and friends? What did you learn from watching them work?
Note: It can be fun to use their job as the theme. For example, if the person is a coach make the whole speech in the theme of a game. If the person is in sales, use marketing terms to hold it together. If they collected something interesting that was displayed in the office, it lends itself to the theme.
Graduation Toast
Looking back, looking ahead
• Tell a few stories about them before graduation and tell what you expect to see in the future.
We’ve come through a lot together, Here’s some advice for your next step.
• Tell stories of your relationship, how that relationship talks about character attributes that led them to graduate.
• Give advice on how to navigate the next step.
Top Ten List
• Ten things you need to know about (surviving college, having your first real job, etc.).
• This can be especially fun coming from the sibling that is in college to the one headed to college.
• Top ten things you learned in school that you can use in life.
• Top ten things about you that will make you successful.
Let Us Not Forget
• A series of memories that you and most of the group present share. Great for a group of friends
• Find some great meaning to it all. What did it all mean? what did you learn?
Note: It can be fun to use their major, their future job, or their hobbies as the theme.
Anniversary Toast
Three Stories
• Tell three stories about the couple.
• Maybe how they met, the engagement, and a story they tell on themselves.
• Maybe, three ways you know they are in love.
I Knew It Was Love…
• Tell five ways that you knew it was love and tell a story attached to each of the ways.
Interview five of their friends and tell the five stories from their friends about love.
How They Taught You What Love Is
• What have you learned by watching them love each other well?
A Biography of Love
• Tell a story about their love when they met when they overcame when they did things together.
• Tell a timeline of love events and stories about every major milestone.
Ending a Toast Speech
Typically, a toast speech ends with a thoughtful saying, witty quote, or poem. There are many toast websites with great one-liners or short poems you can use to end a toast. If it is a longer toast, consider using a theme and connecting the ending with the theme.
“May misfortunes chase you all of your life and never catch up.”
“As you slide down the banister of life may the splinters never point the wrong way.”
Short, Short Toasts
There may be times you are called to give a quick, one to three-sentence toast. It is a good idea to have a few memorized quotes ready that can be woven into a short, short toast.
Here is to those who’ve seen us at our best and seen us at our worst and can’t tell the difference.
May you live for as long as you want, and never want for as long as you live!
May we get what we want, but never what we deserve.
May the best of your past be the worse of your future.
May you always lie, cheat, and steal. Lie beside the one you love, cheat the devil, and steal away from bad company.
Here’s to friends and family who know us well but love us just the same.
Let us drink to bread, for without bread, there would be no toast.
“Here’s to that long straight piece in Tetris.”
How Do You Hold the Glass?
Both wine and champagne glasses should be held by the stem, not by the bowl. “You should always hold the glass by the stem, no matter what the shape or size of the glass or the type of wine,” says Michael Greenlee, the sommelier and wine director of Gotham Bar and Grill, in New York City. “The most common mistake I see in restaurants and at dinner parties is people holding a wineglass by the bowl.”
Three reasons to hold the glass by the stem:
1. The glass is pretty; you don’t want your fingerprints to mess it up.
2. Putting your hand on the glass would block seeing the color of the wine or block your ability to watch the bubbles dance in the champagne.
3. White wine and champagne are chilled, and red wine is served a room temperature. The temperature influences the taste and your hands on the glass will warm up the beverage and change it from its optimal temperature.
What Do You Do When Listening to a Toast?
Those who are listening to someone being toasted should hold their glass when the toast is being made. At the end of the toast, listeners should raise their glasses, tilt the glass towards the person being toasted, and then take a sip.
What Do You Do If You Are the One Being Toasted?
When you are being toasted, you should sit and listen. Smile and nod to let the person toasting know you are listening. You should not hold or lift your glass. Once the toast is over and everyone has had a sip, then you may nod and/or say, “Thank You.” One of the more common questions I get is, “Do I drink to myself?” and the answer is no, you do not drink to yourself.
Should We Clink our Glasses?
Check five different etiquette specialists and you will get five different answers. Some groups clink and some groups don’t clink. It is best to take your lead from those with the highest power of those in the center of the event. For example, if you have dinner with your co-workers and your boss is present, see what the boss does. If you are at a wedding, see what the head table does and copy.
The larger the group, the less likely there will be glass touching because it is difficult to touch everyone’s glasses. If you are in a clinking group, when you touch the bowl of the glasses together, you should always look them in the eye and smile.
“As with many of our food traditions, the clinking of glasses traces its root to the health and safety of the drinker. In this case, it goes back to the tendency of nobles to kill each other off by poisoning their food! Wine was very commonly drunk during medieval days because it was one of the only safe liquids available. Water was often polluted, and milk was both useful for other things and thought to be for children only. As the wine was often full of sediment, a poison was easily introduced into it.
To prove that his wine was safe, the host would pour a bit of his guest’s wine into his own glass and drink it first, to prove it was safe. If the guest trusted his host, however, he would merely clink his flagon against that of his host’s when his host offered his cup for the sample. The ‘clink’ (or perhaps ‘clunk’ back then, since wood or metal was more common for drinking vessels) was a sign of trust and honesty.”
Text from Wineintro. Clinking of Wine Glasses and Toasts. Retrieved March 28, 2008, from http://www.wineintro.com/champagne/clinkglass.html
Toasting Rules
Hold up your glass while giving a toast.
Never toast with an empty glass, it is considered bad luck.
Always hold the glass by the stem.
Avoid getting the beautiful glasses smudged. That means, not touching the bowl. It also means sipping from the same place on the glass.
Always drink to the person being toasted. If you don’t take a sip then it means that you disagree with the nice things that were said about the person. If you are full of liquid or prefer not to sip the alcohol, just put your lips to the glass.
If you oversee the filling of the glasses, hold the wine bottle near the bottom and only fill glasses halfway up to give the wine room to breathe. Always offer wine to others before pouring your own wine.
In some regions, people will gently use a knife to tap the glass to bring the group to attention.
At some weddings, the quests may tap their glasses to mean the bride and groom should kiss.
Brainstorming About Your Person
Read through these questions and try to answer them about your person. Not all the questions will relate, and that is OK. That question may trigger an unrelated memory that you can use.
Story
What is the story of the two of you as children?
What is the first memory you have of this person?
How did you meet?
What is the story of the two of you as teens?
What is the story of the two of you as adults?
What is an adventure you had together?
When did you do something involving this person that didn’t work out as planned?
What is a story that is often told about this person?
What is a struggle this person has overcome of you overcame together?
What story will history remember about this person?
What story will you tell your kids one day?
Why is this person special to you in a way that no one else knows?
When did you and this person make a difficult situation fun?
How have you seen them grow?
Stuff
What do they collect?
What are their hobbies?
What types of things are important to them? (Pets, cars, shoes)
What are they known for having? (Name brand clothes, a great boat)
What does their house/car/backpack say about them?
What do you have of theirs that means a lot to you?
How is their favorite movie, favorite superhero, favorite song a reflection of them?
The Person
What are the physical characteristics that become part of their persona (Tall, big feet, curly hair)?
What are they known for emotionally (being kind, being passionate, being stubborn)?
What are the phrases they say often?
What are they famous for? (Cooking, getting lost)
Relationship
How did you meet?
What has kept your relationship with this person going?
What has been the highlight of the relationship?
What do their friends say about them?
Wedding Toast
When and how did they meet?
What were your first impressions of them as a couple?
What did your friend say about the first time they met?
If you were given three wishes for them as a couple, what would they be?
Toast Speech Samples from College Students Toasting Other College Students
To Blake who has taught us the importance of enjoying life to the fullest, whether fly fishing or spending time with loved ones.
You’re a man of great humor.
You’re a man who has brought us all to tears with your Tommy Boy impression.
You’re a man who embodies the word “chill”
Every time I would look over in class, you would be just sitting back and smiling.
You were always a great person to make a speech to, because even if the speech was bad, we could look over and you’d still be smiling.
Today, I would like to raise my glass (raise your glass) to by the far the most gifted athlete in our class. She showed us what it takes to be a student athlete at the University of Arkansas. She opened up her heart and shared the stories about her mother with us. I know we were all touched.
She taught us how to improve our puts and she taught us that golf can be fun.
We learned that even the best athletes get nervous sometimes.
In the words of Roy, tin cup, McEvoy, “I hit it again because that shot was a defining moment, and when a defining moment comes along, you define the moment… or the moment defines you.”
To Ana, may you always define the moment and not let it define you!
I ask students to toast their classmates and to give reference to things that student has said or done in class, consider the following speech ending that references three of the student’s former speeches.
Sean here this is to you for all you have given us.
May your bike never fail you (reference to speech on changing a tire),
May your sense of nature keep you wandering (reference to speech on camping)
and may your lessons live on, in this lifetime and the next (reference to speech on missionary work).
To someone who
Has opened her heart and mind to this class
With hopes that they too will join in her efforts to serve God and humanity
To someone who
Has made us all feel as if her papaw was our own
Pitching and swinging the bat
To someone who
Has made each person in this class believe
As if we can make a difference in the world
One Krispy Kreme doughnut at a time
Anne Frank said,
“How wonderful it is that nobody need wait a single moment
Before starting to improve the world. “
To Haley, we toast to you (raise glass)
For you have already begun improving the world.
Best Man Toasts the Couple by Joe Burlingame
Thank you all for gathering here tonight on the beautiful occasion to celebrate the love of Korey and Paola.
My name is Joe Burlingame and I know many of you have traveled from long distances to be here and we are so grateful that y’all came.
Since the lovely maid of honor spoke so highly of Paola I am going to try and make Korey seem like he is worthy.
When Korey told me that things were getting serious and that he was going to propose,
My initial reaction was woah Korey
I am flattered but I am perfectly content with being fraternity brothers, but everybody knew he was talking about Paola.
Korey and I’s relationship started about 5 years ago
And to this day I remember my first impression–it was like any first impression when we first meet an accounting major/// Aw—wk–kward.
Our friendship though took off like a rocket ship, and before we knew it we were roommates up to the time he betrayed me and found a permanent roommate.
I won’t say any names but she is in this room.
In the 4 years, I lived with Korey, I have found 3 things that make him the perfect roommate.
First, Korey loves spontaneous trips.
Korey and I went to 6-7 concerts one semester. We only bought tickets in advance for one and that was because it was the one band I wanted to go see. The others were concerts that Korey had caught wind of last-minute and persuaded me to go. One concert, in particular, was the night of Korey and Paola’s first date. They had gone and got coffee and macaroons I think it was maybe an hour-long date. When he got back Korey talked about it as if they had spent a year with each other. Paola I knew then that you had to be special if you had him talking about you for that long.
Second, Korey is a humble servant.
Korey if there is a characteristic that describes you it is being a humble servant. I would complain about how hot it was mowing our yard, but you would not only mow ours but our elderly neighbor’s yard as well. You thought you were invisible– I saw it all. Whether it be cleaning dishes, cooking, or constantly going to our neighbors to see if they needed anything done, you were a servant and I was thankful for you.
Paola I am jealous, I am now going to have to clean and cook for myself now. Nik Birchfield said it best “Korey doesn’t just talk the talk but walks the walk”
Lastly, Korey is someone who is thoughtful.
I remember when we first moved in Korey brought in this huge water jug of change and a little wooden chest, I asked what the heck is that for. He responded with “Man I plan on getting married and in order to get married you need a ring.” I was blown away– I never would have thought of that.
Paola I regret that we never really got to hang out. When I saw Korey take that jug of bills and came back with a ring and he started describing why he picked this specific ring out because it matched your characteristics I knew we would be friends.
Korey and I were roommates the night before he was going to pop the question.
He practiced a lot with what he was going to say. I know because he practiced on me.
I don’t know how many times we practiced the scenario
but I could tell you that the words he was going to say to you were heartfelt and genuine
Paola I was able to have the perfect roommate for a few years, but now you will have the perfect roommate for life.
To Paola and Korey!
Hilarious Father of the Bride Toast
This toast is a good example of how to tell a funny story in a speech. This father’s story is brilliant, and his long pauses are perfect for this speech. He goes from having you crying from laughter to tearing up with sentiment.
References
Atlasobscura. Raise a glass to our readers’ favorite drinking toasts. https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/best-drinking-toasts-and-cheers
Chidi-Ogbonna, K. (2018). Nine wine etiquette habits to know. https://thefinestitallianwine.com
Real Simple (n.d.). From how to hold a wine glass http://www.realsimple.com/realsimple/content/0,21770,712709,00.html
Revelations Video. The most hilarious father of the bride toast.[Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BOKduRf7o4k Standard YouTube License.
Wineintro. (2008). Clinking of wine glasses and toasts. http://www.wineintro.com/champagne/clinkglass.html | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/Advanced_Public_Speaking_(Meade)/04%3A_Speeches/4.04%3A_Toast_Speech.txt |
People in leadership have the privilege of recognizing the achievement of others by giving them awards. This is an important moment, and you want to help make it special. In this chapter, I will teach you the five-step process on how to give an award, I will share with you practical things to think about in terms of setup and execution, and finally, I will share with you ways to elevate this speech to a professional level.
Ceremonial Speaking Wheel
All ceremonial speeches should include the trio –narration, magnification, and identification.
Identification
You are not talking to an audience; you are sharing with an audience. You are celebrating with them and collectively celebrating shared values and shared appreciation for their accomplishments. Saying “we” are here to honor the recipient and reminding the audience of shared values helps the audience to be a part of the process.
Narration
The use of story helps the audience to be drawn in and want to listen. The narration can be about the organization, how the award was formed, or about the person receiving the award. It is better to tell a story of a complex problem they solved instead of saying “they are a good problem solver.”
Magnification
Take a trait of the individual and magnify it. I’m not talking about superfluous embellishment; I’m talking about honest elaboration. If they discovered an accounting mistake, talk about the difficulty of noticing such a mistake, and talk about the financial impact on the group because the correction was made. In short, find heroism in events where others might not notice. Magnification means finding the extraordinary which is often hidden: loyalty, work ethic, going the extra mile, and standing up under adversity. Let us truly see the person’s accomplishments with a bright spotlight, not just a little candlelight.
Now you know of the key elements that should be in your speech, let’s talk about the specific five-step structure of an award speech.
Five-Step Award Process
Greet the Audience
Welcome the audience to the event. Thank them for attending and address any special guests or sponsors.
Describe the Award
Open your speech with a greeting and then describe the award. Tell about the organization that is giving the award and why this award was created. Who founded this award? What’s the story behind the award? What makes this award unique? Describe the criteria for selecting a winner. Who decides? What are the criteria?
Tell Why They Deserved the Award
Describe the attributes of the person who will be receiving the award. If possible, tell a story about the person. The more details, the better. People who come to awards ceremonies like to be inspired and they like to feel included. The more you can make everyone feel like they are part of something special, the better your speech will be. This is the most important part of the award. Make the recipient feel special by telling stories of their achievements and calling out specific highlights of their achievements.
If there are multiple recipients for the same award, for example, awards for everyone who completed upper-level training, you can highlight the task they had to do to receive the recognition. You can tell a story about one part of the training that will be familiar to those who completed it.
Present the Award
Announce the person’s name who will be receiving the award. Consider writing yourself a note on how to pronounce the name. Find out in advance their preferred name and if you should use an honorific. As they approach to claim the award, be sure that they know where they are supposed to stand. If you didn’t tell them before the presentation, you should indicate in some way where they should go and what they should do. Do they stand beside you or somewhere else? Will there be a handshake? Do they hold the award? Do they grab the award and go or do they stay while you talk about them? This is their moment, and you don’t want to make them feel awkward because they don’t know what they are supposed to do.
Present the award to them with a handshake and a smile. Be sure to pause so the photographers can take a picture.
Wish Them Well
While they are still upfront, give a statement that wishes them well. This is done most effectively when it is connected to the theme of the award. If it is a sales award, make reference to sales, if it is a teaching award, make reference to teaching, if it is an academic award, make reference to how they will use their academics.
Practical Mechanics
You have your speech written and you are setting up the room where you will give the award. It is time to think of some very practical things like the location of the award, the location of the handshake, and the location of the photographer.
Location of the Award
Where are you going to set the award? If there are multiple awards, you will likely need to set up a table and have someone help pass out the awards. Before the event, you should have someone pretend to get an award to help you figure out any potential issues.
Location of the Handshake
Where are you going to do the handshake? When they come up and receive the award, are you going to shake their hand and give them the award or will another distinguished leader give the award and the handshake? If you are standing behind the podium, it is hard to shake hands and get a good photo, so it will be important that you step in front of the podium or off to the side for the handshake.
Location of the Photographer
Where are you going to have the photographer stand? In high-profile awards, there may be a professional photographer who requires a special setup. Always be mindful of where they will be located and make sure they don’t block the view from the other guests. In addition, most people will have family, friends, colleagues in the audience who will want a picture. Make sure you have an aisle clear, so photo takers have a clear view. Write yourself a note to pause and let the pictures be taken.
Handshake Matters
• Shake with the right hand.
• Hand the award with the left hand.
• The award or certificate goes on top.
• Pause, smile, and face the camera.
Handshake tips. When people get nervous, their hands may get sweaty. Keep a tissue in your pocket to wipe your hand on just in case. When you go in to shake someone’s hand open your hand wide and go in for the web of skin between the thumb and pointer finger. A typical handshake is two to three pumps, but an award handshake is typically two pumps and a long pause while pictures are being taken.
Taking it to the Next Level
To elevate the quality of your speech, add advanced language devices sometimes called colorful language. Let’s talk about the three main types that can make you sound like a speech professional–Theme, alliteration, and parallel construction.
More on using colorful language in a speech.
Alliteration: Repeat the same sound three times
• Jake is polished, practical, and professional
• LaShay’s got grit and goes after things that impact
Parallel Construction: Repeat the same phrase at least three times.
• Passionate about students…
• Passionate about learning…
• Passionate about teaching…
Theme: Pick a theme that fits the person and the award
• Accounting is his life.
• He can multiply his impact.
• The bottom line is…
• When you look at his character, it all adds up.
Remember, your award speech is not about you– it is about the recipient and people who care about them. It is about creating a celebratory atmosphere where the audience and the recipient can feel good. Doing the work it takes to write the speech well will make a big difference. The joy you will feel from making someone else feel special will be its own reward.
Key Takeaways
Remember this!
• The more details about why the person deserves this award the better.
• Include identification, narration, and magnification.
• Practice your handshake and how to hand the award to the recipient.
• Tell them what the award is, tell them why they deserve the award, give them the award, wish them well. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/Advanced_Public_Speaking_(Meade)/04%3A_Speeches/4.05%3A_Award_Speech-_And_the_Winner_is....txt |
Graduation is a big day for graduates, their families, and teachers. If you are called to give a graduation speech, you want to make it special. I want to share with you what makes a good graduation speech and give you tips on how to write one that will make an impact.
As we begin, you need to wrap your mind around two main things:
1. Most people do not remember the graduation speeches they hear, but they do remember the feeling they got in the moment–inspired, bored, challenged.
2. The more you tap into shared memories, the more meaningful the speech will be for those listening.
There are two main types of graduation speakers, the student speaker, and the headline speaker. At one college at our university, there is a speech contest to be the graduation speaker and at another college, it is someone who has been nominated by a faculty member. How you get there varies from place to place At the local high school, the valedictorian is often the speaker. I recently went to high school graduation and they had seven valedictorians so they had seven speakers–yes, it was as long as you can imagine.
When thinking about giving a graduation speech, you have to ask, “What does the audience need from me?” They need you to reflect on the past, celebrate the present, and focus on the future. This chapter will walk you through the essentials of giving a graduation speech and then give you several example speeches as samples of key elements.
Gather the Details
• How long will you speak?
• Who will be in attendance?
• Who will introduce you?
• Are you the only speaker?
• Will there be a microphone?
• Can you use speech notes?
Brainstorm with Friends
This is the fun part. Sit down with friends and make a list of all the things that come to mind about the college experience. When brainstorming, write down everything you think of and don’t try to judge whether it should be included, just go with it. There is an entire chapter on how to brainstorm here.
• Food, dining halls, local restaurants
• Hangouts on campus
• Social events
• Notable classes
• Significant memories
• Landmarks
• Current events
• Shared college experiences (on our campus it might be buying scantrons, hearing the bells of Old Main, and using Blackboard.
Organizational Format
Most all student graduation speeches include the past, present, and future format.
• Present: Opening statement and the thank you.
• Past: The shared memory.
• Future: The challenge and a closing statement.
Manuscript Format
Most student graduation speeches are in manuscript format. That helps you from getting overwhelmed at the moment and that also gives the school a chance to censor– I mean to approve of–your content. There is an entire chapter on writing a manuscript that you can refer to here.
Pick a Theme
Many graduation speeches use a theme. Here are some of the most common graduation themes.
• Tell a unique story
• Overcoming obstacles
• Perseverance
• Use the school song as a theme for the content
• Friends and friendship
• Looking back to the early years
• Shared memories
• Making a difference
• Mistakes learned the hard way
• Current events and how they shaped the class
• Cast a challenge
• Path
• Journey
• Instaworthy moments
• Use the school buildings as a theme
• Use the school mascot as a theme
• Taking responsibility
• Integrity
• Setting high expectations
It can be helpful to pick a theme and connect a metaphor to your theme. There is an entire chapter on how to do that here.
“There is no such thing as failure.
Failure is just life trying to push you in another direction.”
Oprah Winfrey, Harvard University Commencement Speech
Start Your Speech with an Introduction
Most introductions acknowledge the occasion, offer thanks, and lead into the main idea. Shutterfly suggests these as openings.
• “Thank you [person who introduced you]. And thank you to the students, teachers, parents, and staff who made these four years everything that they were.”
• “It’s my honor today to deliver the commencement address for this incredible student body.”
• “It is my pleasure to welcome students, families, and faculty to graduation day at [school’s name]. Every one of you has made an impact on the graduates who sit here today.”
• “I stand here before you, looking back on four years of legacy we’ve all made together.”
Use the Principles of Good Ceremonial Speaking
I have written a chapter on each component of ceremonial speaking and you can reference those you need:
Look for Stories that Celebrate Common Experiences
Notice how Jaclyn Marston reflects on specific classes and memories. (Watch starting at 54 seconds).
Watch how Lin Manuel Miranda references the familiar and the obscure in his address to the University of Pennsylvania (start watching at 1:12).
Use a Theme
Notice how she uses the theme–“What do you want to be” when you grow up and alters it to “What do you want to do?” She opens with this and wraps back around to this same idea at the end.
Be Vulnerable
Notice how this speaker admits his shortcomings. We feel like he is honest and vulnerable so we hang on his everyword.
Headline Speaker Sample Speeches
Headline speakers are usually someone famous or notable. Speeches by those individuals almost always include stories and challenges. I have included several here. Pick two of them to analyze.
Today I want to tell you three stories from my life. That’s it. No big deal. Just three stories. Steve Jobs
These highlights of Lou Holtz’s graduation speech is full of great challenges and life lessons.
Tim Minchin
“One: Be micro-ambitious. Put your head down and work with pride on whatever is in front of you. You never know where you might end up.
Two: Don’t seek happiness. Keep busy and aim to make someone else happy and you might find you get some as a side effect.
Three: Understanding that you can’t truly take credit for your successes nor truly blame others for their failures will humble you and make you more compassionate.
Four: Exercise. Take care of your body: you’re going to need it.
Five: Be hard on your opinions. Be intellectually rigorous. Identify your biases, your prejudices, your privileges.
Six: Even if you’re not a teacher, be a teacher. Share your ideas. Don’t take for granted your education.
Seven: Define yourself by what you love. Be demonstrative and generous in your praise of those you admire. Send thank you cards and give standing ovations. Be pro stuff not just anti stuff.
Eight: Respect people with less power than you.
Nine: Finally, don’t rush. You don’t need to know what you’re going to do with the rest of your life.”
As you can see, graduation speeches can be serious or lighthearted; they can be personal, motivational, and informative. The key thing is that the speech should be authentic. It should be as unique as the speaker.
Key Takeaways
Remember This!
• Graduation speeches should reflect on the past, celebrate the present, and inspire towards the future.
• Consider the needs of the audience and find commonalities.
• Tell a story.
• Use a manuscript.
Key Takeaways
Remember This!
• Graduation speeches should reflect on the past, celebrate the present, and inspire towards the future.
• Consider the needs of the audience and find commonalities.
• Tell a story.
• Use a manuscript.
Bonus Features
Jaclyn Marson describes the process of how she wrote her Graduation Speech.
References
Dunham, A. (2019). Valedictorian comes out as autistic during speech. [Video] YouTube. https://youtu.be/GtPGrLoU5Uk Standard YouTube License
Holtz, L. (2017). Lou Holtz’s inspirational speech. Commencement speech.[Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M3LOo_Ccyws Standard YouTube License
Jobs, S. (2008). Steve Jobs’ 2005 Stanford Commencement Address. [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UF8uR6Z6KLc Standard YouTube License.
Jostens, (n.d.). Celebrate high school memories. Inspire your grad community. https://www.jostens.com/resources/students-and-parents/graduation-guides/how-to-write-a-grad-speech
Marson, J. (2020). How to write an amazing graduation speech–Jaclyn Marson podcast Ep 1. [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t5CUSzp9SrM Standard YouTube License.
Marston, J. (2016). Beautiful and moving graduation speech 2016. [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_F3K3Z_5CEE Standard YouTube License.
Minchin, T. (2013). 9 life lessons-Time Minchin UWA Address. [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yoEezZD71sc Standard YouTube License.
Rosen, L. (2019). Leah Rosen: “The power of this place,” Duke University 2019 commencement student speaker. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p4N Standard YouTube License.
Shutterfly. (n.d) How to start a graduation speech. https://www.shutterfly.com/ideas/graduation-speech/
Stewart, M. (2020). Student speaker. Commencement 2020. University of Utah. [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AZFJnZvuQIo Standard YouTube License.
University of Pennsylvania. (2016). Penn’s 2016 commencement ceremony- Commencement speaker Lin-Manuel Miranda. [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ewHcsFlolz4&t=0s Standard YouTube License. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/Advanced_Public_Speaking_(Meade)/04%3A_Speeches/4.06%3A_Graduation_Speeches-_Speeches_You_Give_in_Pointy_Hats.txt |
Perhaps they are not stars
but rather openings in heaven
where the love of our lost ones
shines down to let us know they are happy.
– Eskimo legend
Most people will have to give at least one eulogy in their lifetime. Around 85% of those studied, performed individual rituals and at least 50% engaged in collective rituals following the death of a loved one. Whether it is a funeral, a remembrance ceremony, or a wake, most ceremonies include a speech. Because of that, it is helpful to have an understanding of how to build a meaningful eulogy. The word eulogy means, “good words” and it is designed to celebrate the life of someone who has passed.
According to Pastor John Meade, “Eulogies are not about death, they are about the things that live on. They give people a chance to remember, celebrate, and connect. Eulogies give mourners a way to reflect on someone they cared for in a way that helps them and others process the loss.” Block and Davies suggest that funeral rituals help the living adapt to the death. Some eulogies speak words against death and others celebrate life. Davies believes the best words are those that confront death with hope. “relinquish their custody of the deceased.” Eulogies are for the living.
Most people write their own eulogies. Your job as a speaker is to discover the things about them they left behind. What is their legacy? How did their life write the eulogy you will speak? It can be helpful to talk with others about the person. Sometimes talking about the person to a friend can not only be healing but can help you generate ideas. Talking to others who knew the person well, can also help you see sides of the person you hadn’t thought of.
Brainstorm
Reflect on the Person
Spend time reflecting, going through photos or old messages, talk to others as you prepare for the eulogy. Write down random things that come to mind as you think about the person. Here are some questions to help get you started.
• What are their outstanding physical features?
• What are one or two special memories you have of them?
• What three words best describe them?
• What is the funniest thing you remember?
• What is their song? their show? their thing?
• What is this person known for?
• What are some sayings—one-liners—they are known for?
• What is unique about their lifestyle or behavior?
• What did they do to let you know that they cared about you? about others?
• How did they meet challenges?
• What’s a story about their childhood?
• What smells remind you of this person?
• How did people “get them wrong” and think they were one thing when they were really another?
• What obstacles did they overcome?
• What helpful advice did they give you?
• What’s the first memory you remember of this person?
• What are some unique mannerisms or characteristics?
• How did their dress, shoes, jewelry, hair reflect who they were?
• Every time you see a ______, you’ll think of ____ because ———
• What is one story you will tell your kids (others, co-workers) about this person?
• What legacy did will they leave?
• What was their impact on others?
• What did they do–hobby, craft, job?
• Did they have a favorite scripture, poem, or quote?
• What did they do for fun?
• What did the two of you do together?
• What did you learn from how they lived their life?
Talk to Others
Part of the healing process is sharing stories with others. Castle and Philips found that sharing stories about the deceased was more helpful than professional counseling in helping individuals mourn the loss. Take time to listen to others tell their stories of the person. Ask questions. Look at photos. The more information you gather, the more personal your eulogy will be.
Research
If they were a gardener, look up gardening quotes. If they were a golfer, look up their golf hero and find quotes. If they were a religious person, find quotes from a sacred text. Look to see if they had any favorite quotes taped to their computer or hanging on the wall. Did they have a favorite song? Look up the lyrics to it and see if they might work into the eulogy. Research for a eulogy is much different than any other type of speech. The more information you have when you sit down to write, the more likely it is you will be able to say things that are affirming and healing.
Meghan McCain references a book at the opening of a eulogy to her father, John McCain.
“The world is a fine place and worth the fighting for, and I hate very much to leave it.” When Ernest Hemingway’s Robert Jordan, at the close For Whom the Bell Tolls lies wounded, waiting for his last fight, these are among his final thoughts. My father had every reason to think the world was an awful place. my father had every reason to think the world was not worth fighting for. My father had every reason to think the world was worth leaving. He did not think any of those things. Like the hero of his favorite book, John McCain took the opposite view: You had to have a lot of luck to have had such a good life.
Watch as Brook Shields ends her eulogy with one of Michael Jackson’s favorite songs.
Understanding the Context
As you are collecting memories, also gather information on the funeral and the logistics of how, when, and where your speech will occur.
• Is it at a church, someone’s home, a funeral home, or graveside?
• How many others are speaking?
• Will there be a podium where you can place my notes?
• Are there restrictions on how long or how short you should speak? Most eulogies are 3-7 minutes.
• Is there a microphone?
• Will I be speaking to family only or to a larger group?
Decide on the Emotion
There are so many emotions going through you with the passing of someone. You will need to sort through and decide which one you want to focus on. You get to decide the tone of your speech. Do you want it to be sweet? Humorous? Deeply reflective? Light-hearted? Work with an emotional tone that fits you, the person you are eulogizing, and those who will listen. Sometimes I will have someone ask me, “Do eulogies always have to be sad or warm and fuzzy because that doesn’t fit my family?” The right emotion is the one that fits your situation. Watch this short eulogy where she tells a humorous story of her mother and the answering machine.
Write Your Eulogy Out Word Per Word
Write your eulogy out word per word. It will be helpful to remind you of what to say. In emotional situations, people are likely to forget what to say so having the words in front of you may be helpful.
As you read through this chapter, I have included partial manuscripts from some of my student’s speeches. You will notice they look like poetry. For reference, I kept them in this manuscript format so you could read them in the rhythm they were written. It also helps you see how to format your eulogy.
Structure Your Eulogy
There are many ways to structure a eulogy. You might stand up at your chair and just tell one story, or you might go up front behind a podium and give a more formal eulogy. The structure will be determined by what you want to accomplish. Most eulogies include an introduction and at least one story.
An introduction is where you tell who you are and your relationship with the person. Oftentimes, you will invite the listeners in to remember with you in some way.
Grandma was my best friend. Many of you know her as Mamie, those of you who are close, know her as Babe. Whatever name you called her, you know, she would answer that call with a smile and a cookie.
There are four major structures common in eulogies.
1. Attributes: Tell who you are to the person and what attributes you remember about them.
2. Theme: Pick a theme and apply that to many parts of their life.
3. Story: Tell a story and how that story impacted you.
4. Biography: Tell a series of small stories within the timeline. Don’t just tell the facts, tell small stories from different parts of their life.
1. Attributes
I. Opening
A. Opening phrase
B. Who you are.
C. Who the person was to you.
II. First attribute of the person
A. A story that highlights the attribute of that person
B. Details
III. Second attribute of the person
A. A story that highlights the attribute of that person
B. Details
IV. Third attribute of the person
A. A story that highlights the attribute of that person
B. Details
V. What the person would want to be remembered for
or what you would want to say to the person if they were here
VI. Closing thoughts
2. Theme
Think of a theme that defines the person:
Grandma was always cooking, and she was the homemade bread that she baked. There were many ingredients in her life…. Tell families stories in terms of the things grandma cooked for them or tell of each person as an “ingredient” in her life.
Grandpa’s life was one big fishing trip: He hooked grandma (tell the story of their meeting), I “caught” more than fish I caught lessons on…
Hannah’s life was wrapped up in her horses. Tell several stories of her with horses and how that showed the important people and events in her life.
Tribute to Grandpa by Logan Dodd used the theme of flying for the eulogy to his grandpa who was a pilot.
While most people dream of being able to soar through the sky,
it was a reality to my grandfather, Leonard Wilhelm.
From the time that my mother was a little girl,
my grandpa was building and flying, his own aircraft.
As you all can imagine,
when I was a little boy
I was in heaven every time I went to his house and was able to watch him work on his airplanes.
But it wasn’t until after he was gone that I realized that my pilot’s lesson didn’t just start at the age of fourteen.
In fact, he was giving me pilot’s lessons when he would drive down the street in his airplane.
He was giving me pilot’s lessons when he would let me hang out with him and his flying buddies.
He was giving me pilot’s lessons when I would go to his house every day after school.
My grandpa was determined that I would become a pilot of an airplane, yes.
But he was also determined that I would become the pilot of my own life.
There is a chapter on Metaphor, Similie and Theme
More Examples of Theme
Let me show you an example of how others have used themes in their eulogies. In each case, I pulled only excerpts from the speech, and I left them in a manuscript format so you can see how they wrote the speech in manuscript form (/// means pause).
Read an excerpt of this eulogy about her father using the theme of navigation.
Sample Theme 1: Navigation Theme
Navigating the Way
Hanna Arambel, University of Arkansas Student
Dad and I were two of a kind.
My family drove to California every year
and when I was younger,
I would pretend to read the map while he drove,
but soon enough, ///
I was his co-pilot over the 4000 mile trip.
Eventually, I was old enough to drive on the trip,
but he never needed the map.
Dad could always navigate the way.
But every now and then…
Dad got a little over-ambitious when he was teaching me…
my mom always laughs at the time
we were out to eat at our favorite restaurant one evening
and my mother returned to the table
to see my father and I quibbling furiously.
“What now?” was all she could manage to say.
Before I had a chance to speak,
my father informed her,
“Betty, I just want to teach her this little thing
because it’s very important.
Everyone needs to know how to do long division.”
Needless to say, I was only 7 years old and had just started subtraction
Oh, to be the daughter of an engineer.
But still, he was always navigating the way.
In elementary plays, I was the kid who stuck out
with the most elaborate costume ……….and over-done acting…
because dad and I practiced …….. for endless……. hours.
While it embarrassed me then,
I realized later how many special memories it made
and how much it made me even more like him.
Dad could always navigate the way.
One of my favorite memories
from Dad and me
is when we were looking
at the stars one night on the back porch.
He pointed out the brightest star in the sky
and said that he always thought of me
as his brightest star.
And even though my dad is away from us now,
I can always look up and find the brightest star.
And that’s always where he’ll be.
Navigating the way
Sample Theme 2: Boating
Tribute to Papa D
Grant McQueen, University of Arkansas Student
It was in that old green boat the first time I ever caught a fish.
You were right there // behind me
With your hand on my head
It was in that old green boat I was playing with the fishing net //
I dropped it over the edge
And it sank // into the green depths below
It was in that old green boat we sat in the dark with flashlights
Waiting for a fish to bite the lines we had tied to milk jugs
The cold metal of that boat // will always and forever be the warmest place on earth to me.
Waking up at 4 am with you and my dad to put the rods in the truck
Mama D making us bologna sandwiches to eat on the water
You // buying me a biscuit at the bait shop
Me // falling asleep on your lap
The dull roar of the boat motor carrying us to your magic fishing spot
The cold water// the mist in the air
like nature’s reflection of you with your cold beer and cigarette smoke.
You never liked to talk much on those trips
You were afraid // our voices might wake the fish
Or so you told me
But the smile you gave //
when I would scream that I had a fish on //
spoke to me // more than words could have.
You see // you may have taught me to catch fish
But you also taught me to catch the special moments in life // and unlike fish, to not ever release them.
You were a legend in my eyes and you always will be.
(this is the first 1/3 of the speech.)
3. Story
Notice how Larissa Heatley tells a story about how her grandpa played a game that she made up. In our mind’s eye, we can see her playing with her grand-daddy.
More on how to build a story in a speech.
Include the Audience
Write the eulogy for the whole audience. Yes, you are sharing your memories and yes, you had a special relationship with the person, but the audience should feel included. Using words like “we” and “us” and phrases like “we all remember” invite the audience into your speech.
Use Colorful Language in a Eulogy
You can elevate your eulogy emotionally and structurally by using colorful language. What I mean by colorful (or figurative) language, is using a theme, metaphor, simile, alliteration, parallel construction, and antithesis. I have a couple of chapters on these for you to look over and I will review the general ideas here as well.
More resources on using metaphor and theme
More resources on using colorful language
Using Colorful Language
Theme Repeating one idea throughout the speech, usually tied to the metaphor.
Metaphor Comparing things
Simile Comparing things using like or as
Alliteration Repeating the same letter or sound
Parallel Construction Repeating the same sentence
Antithesis The pairing of opposite in parallel structure
Parallel Construction
The great thing about parallel construction is it allows the speaker to tell a lot of little stories in a short amount of time. Watch as Oren Katz tells a series of memorable events with his friend.
Watch the video (It is cued to the moment he begins his parallel)
Sometimes its the smallest things
that take up the most room in our hearts.
I’m gonna miss the way Adam shouted at me when we were the only two people in the room.
I’m gonna miss his classic pose he struck in every last picture.
I’m gonna miss him making fun of me for liking things like poetry and exercise.
I’m gonna miss us taking walks to the Sydney Opera house together
and sometimes falling asleep when we couldn’t keep up, we kept hanging out when we couldn’t keep our eyes open any longer
I’m gonna miss us talking about nothing for hours.
I’m gonna miss us being able to say a single word to each other and bursting out laughing knowing what the other was thinking,
it was never appropriate.
I’m gonna miss meals together.
I’m gonna miss his voice.
I’m gonna miss his laugh.
I’m gonna miss him always being there for me,
no matter what.
Most of all, I’m just gonna miss
one of my best friends.
Navigating the Way
As soon as I could walk…
I took up Dad’s competitive nature.
Mom would find us arguing over rules.
Mom would find us fighting about a card game.
Mom would find us making bets about the oddest things.
We were always competing.
Hanna Arambel, University of Arkansas Student
Tribute to Papa D
Because it was in that old green boat that I learned how to catch fish with you
And I learned how the simplest of things
Can hold on to you like a barbed hook
Because it was in that old green boat where I learned that sometimes
The coldest places
Can form the warmest memories
Because it was in that old green boat where I learned what love is
And what kind of person
I want to be.
Grant McQueen, University of Arkansas Student
Eulogy to Grandpa
The independence that made him who he was has caused me to be who I am.
He taught me that I don’t always have to be the same as the crowd.
He taught me that no matter what my passion is, I should follow it.
He taught me that you can’t wait for opportunities to fall into your lap,
you have to go get them.
Logan Dodd, University of Arkansas Student
Antithesis
The independence that made him who he was has caused me to be who I am.
Eulogy to Grandpa, Logan Dodd, University of Arkansas Student
A woman whose spirit was always soaring
Even when her feet were firmly planted on the ground
Eulogy for Grandmother who was a pilot, Kayla Cross, University of Arkansas Student
I realize that it was never about your flower garden
It was always about tending to things of the heart
Tribute to Grandma, Tasha Smith, University of Arkansas Student
But let us not wallow in our pity, because that is the last thing Bill Baker would want us to do. Let us instead celebrate the life of a great man finally achieving that eternal bliss that he spent his life working towards.
Eulogy to Grandpa who gave me this necktie, Dan Howry, University of Arkansas Student
Sometimes it is the smallest things
that take up the most room in our hearts.
Eulogy, Adam Levine
Alliteration
And his time showed me how life should be lived
Fearlessly.
Frequently.
Freely.
Simile
My grandpa Jack is like the wind. We can’t see him, but we can feel him.
He is always with us.
Eulogy to Grandpa Jack, Lily, University of Arkansas Student
I would tell him that I miss him like the windmill missed the wind.
He was a man of defiance
A man….of truth
And he came
And he went
Like the wind
Eulogy to Grandpa, Logan Dodd, University of Arkansas Student
Metaphor
Watch as Billy Crystal uses the metaphor of a star to eulogize Robin Williams
For almost 40 years he was the brightest star in a comedy galaxy. But while some of the brightest of our celestial bodies are actually extinct now, their energy long since cooled.
But miraculously, since because they float in the heavens so far away from us now, their beautiful light will continue to shine on us forever. And the glow will be so bright, it’ll warm your heart, it’ll make your eyes glisten and you’ll think to yourselves, ‘Robin Williams— what a concept.’ Billy Crystal’s Eulogy to Robin Williams
What If I Cry?
It is OK to cry when you are giving a eulogy. In fact, people expect it. If tears come to your eyes, don’t apologize, just pause, breathe, and continue.
Research on funerals shows that people respect those who speak with authenticity and they admire those who are willing to share their knowledge of the deceased even when that person falters.
It was hard in that funeral. I think that there was a huge sense of it being too soon for the deceased to part from us and a real sadness that here was someone who was so lovely and it was hard and painful, especially when his son spoke. I think that was when most of us felt really upset, it was mostly because he was so utterly brave and strong in saying what he was saying. We could all sense that he was in tremendous pain. I was full of admiration of his strength of character in being able to say what he did. I can’t remember the poem that he read or the verses. It was beautiful though. The elder brother got up to support his younger brother and that was also lovely to see.
If, however, you are not ready emotionally to speak about the loved one, it is best not to offer to speak at a real funeral or in an in-class eulogy speech.
The most admirable thing that I have seen at funerals is people who are brave enough to stand in front of their friends and family and speak. Speaking in public is something that most of us do not have much experience of and it can be very intimidating. Add to that the grief that you are feeling at a funeral, which makes it even harder to stand up and speak. I can offer nothing but praise to the people that are prepared to do this small but beautiful last act of kindness to the memory of a deceased friend or relative.
What do you, the audience member do if the speaker cries. Tears can make us feel empathy, they can make us feel sad, they can make us feel awkward. If someone is giving a eulogy and they cry, don’t look away. Show your support with a reassuring glance and a light smile if it feels right. Think of eye contact as a warm hug that helps them get through the moment.
(Quote from a research study on funerals)
In a research study about eulogies and funerals, researchers Bailey and Walter noted that the things mourners reported were the most important was accuracy, authenticity, and performance.
1. Accuracy: It is not your goal to tell everyone’s view of the deceased, but rather to tell your view in a way that honors the memory of that person for everyone.
2. Authenticity: An authentic eulogy is preferred to a professional one.
3. Performance: People admire you for being brave enough to stand up in a time of grief and speak out and do not expect a perfect performance.
Your eulogy will be as unique as the person you are celebrating. What an awesome opportunity you have to speak about someone you care about. Eulogies can be hard, but they are important to help everyone celebrate the life of someone that mattered to them.
Key Takeaways
Remember This!
• Spend a lot of time brainstorming, reflecting, researching, and talking to others before you begin to write.
• Write in a manuscript format.
• Use inclusive language
• Tells stories when possible.
• Try incorporating colorful language: Simile, metaphor, antithesis, alliteration, parallel construction.
• Consider using a theme that fits the person or the situation.
Bonus Feature
Real Answers to Tough Questions
• What if they died in a tragic way? What if it was a suicide? What if it was after a long illness?
It is important to remember a eulogy is about the life they lived not the way they died. Most people who are at the funeral know how they died so why mention it? Instead, spend your time sharing memories.
You may choose to talk about how they fought hard at the end or how they kept a positive attitude at the end. Just don’t let the end of their life be the only focus of their life.
• What if they had an unremarkable life?
I once helped write a eulogy of someone who never held a job, had no close family ties, had no hobbies except to sit and watch TV ten hours a day. After talking to four family members, the best thing they say about him was that he took out the trash without being asked. Most people write their own eulogies, and some people don’t write very much. Don’t apologize for their life or for your brevity, just tell the stories you have to tell. Tell about the dent in the sofa cushion and the funny sound he made when something funny came on TV.
References
Arabel, H. Navigating the way. University of Arkansas Advanced Public Speaking.
Bailey, T. & Walter, T. (2016) Funerals against death, Mortality, 21(2), 149-166,
Romanoff, B.D. (1998). Rituals and the grieving process. Death Studies, 22(8), 697-711,
Castle, J., & Phillips, W. L. (2003). Grief rituals: Aspects that facilitate adjustment to bereavement. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 8(1), 4171. doi:10.1080/15325020305876
Cross, K. Eulogy for Grandmother who was a pilot. University of Arkansas Advanced Public Speaking.
Crystal, B. (2014). Billy Crystal’s Emmy Awards 2014 Tribute to Robin Williams. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jUHV703ZRys Standard YouTube License.
(2017). Cremation. The Routledge Companion to Death and Dying.
Dodd, L. Eulogy to Grandpa. University of Arkansas Advanced Public Speaking.
Fripp, P.( 2012). Accepting an award with class,” Toastmasters International. http://www.toastmasters.org/Members/SpotlightArticles/AcceptAwardClass.aspx.
Giblin, P. & Hug, A. (2006). The psychology of funeral rituals, Liturgy, 21(1), 11-19,
Heathley, L. (2013). Dallas Willard’s memorial service-Granddaughter’s tribute. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s_tUflixuds Standard YouTube License.
Howry, D. Eulogy to Grandpa who gave me this necktie. University of Arkansas Advanced Public Speaking.
Huibertha B. Mitima-Verloop, Trudy T. M. Mooren & Paul A. Boelen (2019) Facilitating grief: An exploration of the function of funerals and rituals in relation to grief reactions, Death Studies,
Hubbard, L. (2018). Read the full transcript of Meghan McCain’s eulogy to her father John McCain. Town and Country. https://www.townandcountrymag.com/society/politics/a22892378/meghan-mccain-eulogy-for-john-mccain-full-transcript/
Katz, O. (2016). Adam Levine close friend eulogy. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wRCdTWtuwAk Standard YouTube License
Lustig, T., (2012). The most difficult speech: The Eulogy. Toastmasters International. http://www.toastmasters.org/ToastmastersMagazine/ToastmasterArchive/2009/December/Articles/The-Eulogy.aspx.
McQueen, G. Tribute to Papa D. University of Arkansas Advanced Public Speaking.
Shields, B. (2009). Michael Jackson Memorial-Brooke Shields Tribute. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2pxjujsW0v0 Standard YouTube License
Smith, T. Tribute to Grandma. University of Arkansas Advanced Public Speaking.
Toastmasters International (2012). Introducing a speaker: What should you say? http://www.toastmasters.org/MainMenuCategories/FreeResources/NeedHelpGivingaSpeech/BusinessPresentations/IntroducingaSpeaker.aspx.
Warren, J. T. & Fassett, D.L. (2011). Communication: A Critical/Cultural Introduction, 39.
WestsideToastmasters.com (2012). Presenting an award for maximum impact. http://westsidetoastmasters.com/article_reference/presenting_awards_for_maximum_impact_2005-01.html.
1. “This I Believe—Essay Writing Guidelines,” accessed March 17, 2012, http://thisibelieve.org/guidelines. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/Advanced_Public_Speaking_(Meade)/04%3A_Speeches/4.07%3A_Eulogy-Good_Words.txt |
“The purpose of the introduction is to make the speaker feel good and feel welcome before they speak.” This was the advice of a colleague of mine right before I had to introduce our university’s speaker. I took this advice and ran with it as I am tasked monthly with introducing speakers to our university faculty training sessions. You will likely be called upon to introduce a speaker at work or on campus so you should know the expectations of this type of speech.
Speech introductions have three main purposes
1. To build up the speaker’s ethos in the minds of the audience. You want your audience to feel like the speaker is credible to speak on the topic.
2. To introduce the topic to the audience. The more they hear the basics of the topic, the more they will be able to remember the topic.
3. To make the speaker feel welcome and to make them feel good before they speak.
Gather Your Information
Ask the speaker for biographical information you can share in their introduction.
Ask the speaker for the title of their speech.
“Google” the person, check their LinkedIn, ask people who know them for the information you might include.
Ask them what they want to be called. Some prefer Mr. and Ms. and others prefer their title. Some like to be called Professor while others may prefer Doctor.
Format for Speech Introductions
Most speech introductions are read off of manuscripts or detailed notes. There is a chapter on how to write and use a manuscript here.
4.09: Tribute Speech- Celebrate the Occasion the Person or the Monument
A tribute is a type of celebratory speech that honors a person, a monument, a holiday, or an event.
Tribute to a Person
A tribute to a person typically includes one of these items:
• Small descriptions so we can “see” the person in their element.
• Stories of their deeds.
• Stories of how the person affected others.
• Funny or emotional moments.
• The legacy that person is leaving.
Tribute to an Event or Occasion
Tributes to occasions can be any of the following:
• Milestone Birthday, Retirement, Anniversary
• Mother’s day, Father’s Day, Veteran’s Day, Memorial Day, D-Day
• Race for the Cure, We Day
• Family reunion, School reunion
Tributes to occasions typically include:
• Emphasis on shared values
• Appreciation for the people involved
• Origin and evolution of the event
• Stories of people related to the event
• The larger context surrounding the event
Gather all the information
• Who is the audience?
• Are there other speakers?
• What is the time limit?
• Is this formal or informal?
• Will there be a podium? microphone?
Brainstorming a Person
• What life lessons did they teach you?
• How are you different because of this person?
• What are some of their favorite things?
• What are their best qualities? Tell a story about that quality
• What three words best describe this person?
• What makes this person so great?
• What is the funniest thing that you remember?
• What is this person known for?
• What are some sayings—one-liners—they are known for?
• What is something simple that they do that demonstrates their character?
• What is unique about her lifestyle or behavior?
• What is a special gift that they gave you and why is it so special?
• What does this person do for fun?
• What does he do when he is stressed?
• What adventure have you shared with this person?
• What’s a story that everyone tells about this person?
• What helpful advice has this person given you?
• Every time you see a ______, you’ll think of ____ because ———
• Look through a photo album—what one or two pictures tell about them ?
• What smell do you associate with this person
Make Everyone Feel Included
Notice how this speaker invites all listeners to be part of the memorial.
I stand here today to pay tribute to the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building Bombing Memorial in Oklahoma City.
This memorial represents the honor and strength as well as all the pain of every person who remembers that historical day.
It has helped an immense number of people to cope with this national tragedy
It is a place of reflection, emotion, and healing.
In this excerpt, Drew speaks to all those who are present at the Doolittle Raider reunion (A reunion of men who in 1942 led the first attack after the bombing of Pearl Harbor)
Each of us in this room has our own memories of growing up with these men and the reasons why they are so special to us. For these men, it is an everyday occurrence that someone thanks them for their service to their country and what they did 65 years ago. So today is my pleasure to share with you the reason why these men are my heroes and why one of them impractically means the world to me.
I hope each of you will always remember the little things these men have done for you. L.M. Heroux once said “heroism is not just pulling a child from a burning house or a driver from an icy river or a kitten from a tall tree. Heroism is also holding the door for a frail elderly and driving courteously and cooperatively and listening with an attentive heart to a friend’s words. Small daily acts of love are as heroic as big once-in-a-lifetime acts of rescue.”
In this tribute to his teacher, “the greatest swing pusher” Hosea Born reminds the group of a common thing, finding your name on the desk.
Walking into a new teacher’s classroom is terrifying. We have all been there. You remember. Finding your desk with your name on it. My name tag was an apple. Tribute to the best swing pusher.
Magnify the Small Things
Caitlyn Steiner wrote a tribute speech about the love her grandparent have for each other. Notice how she uses the little things to demonstrate love.
Love appreciates the smallest details the most. My grandpa still puts the toothpaste on both their toothbrushes every morning. My grandma still hangs a towel on the rack for my grandpa every day after he gets in the shower. And they still slow dance together every night in the living room before they go to bed.
In this example, Fawn Kurtzo gives a birthday tribute to her brother Buck. As you read this manuscript excerpt, I want to draw your attention to the fact that each line is a story for those who know him.
We are gathered here today to celebrate another year in the life of Buck.
Congratulations Buck? Who am I kidding, CONGRATULATIONS US!
We all survived another year of
10,000 questions why,
mental duels,
being outshot with bullets and arrows,
countless times of side-splitting laughs as he carried the life of the party //
begin terribly humiliated in a game of dominoes //
and just flat being outlasted by this kid!
Celebrate Don’t Inform
People in the audience may not know the person you are celebrating. Resist the temptation to give an informative speech about your person, that is the equivalent of reading someone’s Wikipedia biography–boring. Instead, pick a few things about them to celebrate.
In this tribute to his hometown dirt roads, Nathan Brock’s speech is a good example. He tells us the facts without sounding like an informative speech, I kept this sample in a manuscript format so you could see the emphasis and the rhythm. When you see /// it means to pause.
So, here’s to you, dirt roads
the defining feature of my hometown.
Here’s to you, dirt roads, /// the place of my upbringing in middle-of-nowhere America.
Pawnee, Oklahoma is a town with many dirt roads
A town with a population of 2,136//
It felt like less.
When Googling “living in Pawnee, Oklahoma” one can find a list of pros and cons
Pros include “cost-of-living”
Cons include “unattractive setting
That is where you came in, dirt roads.
Let Us See
Describe the situation or person in vivid detail so we can see the person in their element. Jeremy Stuthard gave a tribute to his Grandma and said they were “Two peas in a pod.” Notice how in one sentence you get a sense of grandma’s humor and personality. from only one line, “I remember when you dumped a whole bucket of water on me, to wake me up, just to have me help you with your TV.” In another example, Patience Beard describes cooking with her grandma, “Nana ALWAYS let me lick the spoon. We would make icing all from scratch she would turn that mixer on and it would never fail– icing would fly everywhere and her laugh …….would echo through the whole room.” In each example, you can “see” the interaction in your mind. The speaker didn’t tell you that his grandma was a trickster, he showed you that. Patience didn’t tell you her grandma cooked for her, she “showed” you that she did.
Teach Little Lesson in the Small Things
In tribute speeches, the little things are often the big things. What I mean by that is you can tell a story that appears to be a simple story but it is really about something deeper. In this speech, Brittany Brunson is telling the story about riding in her dad’s lap, but really it is a metaphor for their relationship. I kept this in manuscript form so you couldn’t get a feel for how she intended it to be heard.
I don’t remember much from the age of 7//
But I do remember getting to sit on my dad’s lap and driving down the alley.
I couldn’t reach the pedals // so my dad was in charge of those//
Although I thought I was in charge of the wheel//
My dad had ultimate control because if I ever got to close to the wall of the alleyway //
my dad would steer me right back to the center.
Ironically, I never got in big trouble growing up
// except for maybe prank calling the police one time…………. but anyways//
I never got in big trouble growing up because if I ever got close to that barrier of bad choices /// my dad //steered me right back to the center.
Although I thought I had control of the wheel of my life
ultimately my dad guided me on to the right path //
that led me to hold myself to a higher standard // and stand firm in my beliefs.
Tell Stories
Watch How Kevin Durant turns his most valuable player award acceptance speech into a tribute to his mother calling her the real MVP. Telling stories that highlight personal stories with the person you are giving tributing can be very powerful.
In this tribute speech to her father, she tells a story of how a Jewish man and a Muslim man can transcend boundaries and become friends.
Yamani, N. (2015). A Tribute to My Father. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jdRCNuBcAWQ
Tribute Speech at We Day
We Day was an annual series of stadium-sized youth empowerment events organized by We Charity, a Canadian charity founded by brothers Marc and Craig Kielburger. WE Day events host tens of thousands of students and celebrate the effect they have made on local and global issues.
Sadhguru (2020). A Tribute to All Healthcare Workers
Notice how Tom Hanks makes specific references to parts from the Star Wars movie in his tribute to George Lucas. His references are things that everyone has in common.
American Film Institute. (2009). Tom Hanks Salutes George Lucas at the AFI Life Achievement Award.
Trump, D. (2018). President Donald Trump Full Speech: Honors 9/11 Victims at Shanksville Memorial. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=02YA6Nz70MA
Tribute to Famous Person
When giving a tribute to a famous person that you do not know personally, it is important to resist giving a biographical speech. Instead, you should talk about how that person influenced you in some way. The story of them becomes the story of you and them.
In his tribute to Stan Lee, David Lester wrote,
One of my earliest experiences with his work, is through his comics. When my mom would take forever shopping in Walmart, I would fly to the magazine section find those comic books and my time——– just——— evaporated.
Later he mentions the relationship again
The first Marvel movie I remember seeing saw was IRON MAN. I remember seeing Robert Downey Jr. beat up terrorists and change the way we see superheroes, not as just statues but as complex people like us.
In his conclusion, he brings it around to impact on all of us
BUT Do you wanna know who Stan thought the real superheroes were? It’s not the ones we talk about all the time. It’s not the ones that are played by Chris Evans, Chris Pratt, and Chris Hemsworth. NO! It’s us, the fans. We were the heroes all along. Looking out for each other. Supporting people around us who needed it the most. Protecting others from harm. Standing as examples for our community for what we can become. Doing more than the average man would do. That one person can make a difference. That you don’t need a cape just to be a hero. He brought us together. He did all of this.
Tribute to a Reunion by Drew
Today it is my honor to have been asked to speak at the Doolittle Raider of Reunion. As many we all know on April 18th 1942, 80 brave men flew on the first ever joint mission of the Navy and Air Force Reserves to give the United States its first attack on Japanese main land after Pearl Harbor. 600 miles off the shore of Japanese mainland the USS Hornet was spotted by a fishing boat. General Doolittle ordered the men to launch early causing the men not to have enough fuel to make it to unoccupied China as planned. All, but one of the 16 planes either crashed landed or the crew bailed out. Eight men were taken prisoners of war, but only four came home. These four men endured 40 months of being malnourished and tortured.
Of those four men, I have the greatest honor of calling my great-grandfather. For those who do not know these men on a personal level they are heroes for the actions taken on that day 65 years ago, but for those of us who have the honor on knowing these men personally they are heroes for so many other reason.
These men are our fathers, grandfathers and even great-grandfathers.
These men have been and will be apart of our lives in ways that go far beyond the Tokyo Raid.
These men are the crews that have made sure our families lives were on the right path.
Most of you know him as Lt. Col. Robert L Hite, but to me he is Bobby Hite. My great-grandfather is like the parachute he used to bail out of his plane that day. He has guided our family through the years making sure we reached the ground safely. He has done everything from slipping me a few dollars for a college student to taking us to lunch ever Saturday. As a child I can remember waiting on Saturdays for that special honk he had to inform us he was there.
I remember when my Uncle got married, I was so upset because I was going to ruin my perfect attendance record if I came to Fort Smith with my parents. Bobby Hite hating to see me so upset told my parents that he and nanny would wait for me to get out of school on Friday and drive me up because that’s what would make me happy.
The times he gave his “driving lessons”, told stories of when he managed the Camden Hotel and of course waiting every Christmas morning for nanny and him to arrive before we could see what Santa had brought are all memories that mean the world to me and my two brothers.
Each of us in this room has our own memories of growing up with these men and reasons why they are so special to us. For these men, it is an everyday occurrence that someone thanks them for their service to their country and what they did 65 years ago. So today is my pleasure to share with you the reason why these men are my heroes and why one of them impractically means the world to me.
I hope each of you will always remember the little things these men have done for you. L.M. Heroux once said “heroism is not just pulling a child from a burning house or a driver from an icy river or a kitten from a tall tree. Heroism is also holding the door for a frail elderly and driving courteously and cooperatively and listening with an attentive heart to a friend’s words. Small daily acts of love are as heroic as big once-in-a-lifetime acts of rescue.”
Key Takeaways
Remember This!
• Spend a lot of time brainstorming, reflecting, researching, and talking to others before you begin to write.
• Write in a manuscript format.
• Structure your speech so your audience feels like they are part of something.
• Celebrate the person’s accomplishments and don’t make it an informative speech about them.
• Tells stories when possible.
• Try incorporating colorful language: Simile, metaphor, antithesis, alliteration, parallel construction.
• Consider using a theme that fits the person or the situation.
References
Durant, K. (2014). 2013-14 NBA Most Valuable player acceptance speech. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6GTiCUPZ9kw&t=329s
Lester, D. Tribute to Stan Lee. University of Arkansas Advanced Public Speaking.
Waln, F. (2017). Inspirational Native American Grank Walkn tells his story at WE Day! https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-2SE-19WqS8 Standard YouTube License.
4.10: Informative Speech
An informative speech teaches so others can learn. It is a fact-based speech designed to convey knowledge and understanding. Typically these speeches define, explain, or describe.
Speeches About Objects and People
• Self-introduction
• Telling about a place
• Telling about historical events
• Biographical speech
Speeches About Processes
• Explain how something works
• How to make something
• How to apply for something
• How to do something
Speeches About Events
• Describing an event
• Telling what happened at an event
• Inform about the history of an event
Speeches About Concepts
• Tell what a group believes
• Define specific terms
• Explain theories
• Tell about political, religious, or economic concepts
Speeches About Awareness
• Public service announcements
• Teach about safety procedures
Orientation Speeches
• Business process orientation
• New employee orientation
• New product information
• College orientation
Lectures
• Classroom lectures
• Community lectures
Things to Think About When Giving an Informative Speech
Narrow Your Topic
It is better to talk in detail about a smaller aspect than to try to tell everything. For example, I once had a student try to teach us how to build a computer in seven minutes. There were many technical terms and we were overwhelmed. The next week, a student showed up how to replace one component in a computer. I went home and tried it, and because he explained it clearly, I could do it. Speech coach, Dale Ware says, “Too many people try to put too much information in one presentation, a big mistake; keep it simple.”
Define Terms
I attended a community lecture on wild edible plants in the Ozarks. The speaker said, “This plant has a cathartic effect” and “I like this for its astringent properties.” I thought I knew what these terms might mean but I wasn’t sure so I looked them up while he was talking. At least I had one of them right. The point is that I missed part of his lecture when I was looking up unclear terms.
Make it Personal
“I want to talk to you today about” is much more personal than saying, “I will explain how”
Use Stories When Possible
When possible, work stories into your speech. Make it personal by telling stories about how the topic relates to you.
There is an entire chapter on stories.
Key Takeaways
Remember This!
• An informative speech is a fact-based speech designed to convey knowledge and understanding.
• Always define terms.
• Include a story when possible. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/Advanced_Public_Speaking_(Meade)/04%3A_Speeches/4.08%3A_Introducing_a_Speaker.txt |
Sometimes big words can mean so little.
I’m so sorry. If you were my student the semester after I graduated from graduate school, I really need to apologize. I need to apologize for using my graduate student vocabulary in your freshman course. I need to apologize for telling you about the detailed educational philosophy behind everything I did. I am so sorry I used the words “pedagogy” and “learning objectives” in the lectures about how to give a good speech.
In my defense, most new teachers do this. I can remember having a teacher who was finishing up her dissertation–she baffled me with her brilliant vocabulary and impressed me with her cerebral lectures. I have no idea what she said, but at least she sounded smart while saying it.
In this chapter, I am going to talk about why you should avoid big words and specialty language. In fact, I am going to share with you many other things you should avoid in your speech as you seek to get your point across to your audience.
Beware of the Curse of Knowledge
When I was in graduate school I suffered from the curse of knowledge. Actor and communication expert, Alan Alda in his book, If I Understood You, Would I Have This Look on my Face says,
Once we know something, it’s hard to unknow it, to remember what it’s like to be a beginner. It keeps us from considering the listener. Using shorthand that is incomprehensible to the other person, or referring to a process they’re unfamiliar with, we lock them out, and we don’t even realize it because we can’t believe we are the only person who knows this stuff.
The problem is people are “unable to ignore the additional information they possess,” according to economists Camerer, Loewenstein, and Weber. These researchers questioned whether or not it was beneficial to know more when it came to sales. In short, their finding was that it is not beneficial. If you know too much information, it is hard not to use that information and too much information can be overwhelming. It is hard to remember what it was like before you had that knowledge. It is hard to put yourself in the mind of your audience who does not understand. Sometimes, knowledge is a curse.
Go to one of your friends and ask them to help you with a little experiment. Ask them to “guess this song” and then tap out the tune to the “Star-Spangled Banner” with your finger. Did they guess it? Chances are they can’t. Try another common song like “happy birthday.” Chances are that as the tapper, you are going to get frustrated because it is so obvious and so easy to guess but most people just won’t get it.
This is a mock-up of what a graduate student at Stanford did. Elizabeth Newton first asked how likely it would be that the person listening would guess the tapped song. They predicted the odds were about 50 percent. The guessers got it right only 2.5% of the time. What seemed obvious to the tapper was not obvious to the listener. You can see where this is going. To bring it back to the earlier study, a CEO who says she is “unlocking shareholder value” might just sound like random tapping to those unfamiliar with the phrase. Sometimes, knowledge is a curse.
In your speech, you must remember what it was like to not know and use your naivete in your speech. Part of this is to avoid big words, jargon, and slang. Let’s break these down one at a time.
Avoid Big Words (unless you need to impress people at an academic conference)
Why use a three-dollar word when a two-dollar word will do? Words like facetious, discombobulation, obfuscate, and cacophony make you sound smart, but they won’t make you understood. There is a time and place for your ‘big” vocabulary, but it is rarely in your speech.
As with all things, context is key. If you are a graduate student or faculty member at an academic conference, you should whip out all those “three-dollar words.” You should also use those big words if you are called to be an expert witness. Dr. Robert Cialdini, a persuasion researcher, says professional witnesses who use big words are more persuasive. Jurors think, “That witness said an important word that I don’t understand, he must be smart. I’ll trust what he said to be true.” Since most of the time, you are not at an academic conference, nor are you called to be an expert witness, you should stick with the simple words.
Side note: If you plan on using a big word you are not familiar with, look up the proper pronunciation of the word. Practice saying the word multiple times and put a pronunciation key in your notes. Nothing kills your credibility like stumbling over big words.
Avoid Bafflegab (Eschew Obfuscation)
According to Milton Smith, originator of the term bafflegab said,
Bafflegab is multiloquence characterized by consummate interfusion of circumlocution or periphrasis, inscrutability, incognizability, and other familiar manifestations of abstruse expatiation commonly used for promulgations implementing procrustean determinations by governmental bodies.
In short, it is using fancy words used to sound smart or to deliberately confuse your audience. William Lutz called it this inflated language. Most of the time, your audience is confused and not impressed. My dad used to tell me not to confuse my audience or I would be “up the proverbial tributary of deification without and adequate means of propulsion.”
Consider This When Speaking English to a Group of International People
National Public Radio shared a program about the challenges to non-American English speakers. Consider the scenario where speakers from Germany, South Korea, Nigeria, and France are having a productive conversation in English. An American enters the conversation and says, “let’s take a holistic approach” and “you hit it out of the park”. Suddenly, understanding goes down. Research indicates, when an American enters the conversation, understanding goes down because they tend to use simple words and phrases that can be challenging for nonnative speakers.
Prepone That! Your Accent Is Funny! Readers Share Their ESL Stories
Sergio Serrano is a professor of engineering science and applied mathematics at Temple University. Having lived in North America for 40 years after growing up in Bogotá, Colombia, Serrano shares his experience speaking English in academic settings and dealing with accent stereotypes.
Sergio Serrano has participated in many international scientific conferences across the globe. “In a typical situation, a group of foreign researchers are discussing a complex technical issue with very precise and elaborate formal English,” Serrano says, “until an American joins the group.”
In our previous article about speaking English, we discussed research that found understanding goes down in a room of nonnative speakers when a native English speaker joins the conversation. The research found that communication is inhibited in part due to native speakers’ use of language not held in common, like culturally specific idioms.
But this scenario doesn’t fit with Serrano’s experiences of English, where nonnative English speakers who learned the language in a classroom are often more educated on grammar rules and complex technical terms than American native speakers.
For Serrano, when an American joins in a conversation among nonnative speaking scientists, the conversation does falter, but not because the American’s language is too complex.
“On the contrary, communication ends because [the foreign researchers] cannot explain to the American, in simple language, the advanced topics they were discussing. Yet, the American takes over the conversation.”
Complete excerpt from:
McCusker, C. (2021). Prepone that! Your accent is funny! Readers share their ESL stories. https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2021/05/16/995963311/prepone-that-your-accent-is-funny-readers-share-their-esl-stories
Avoid Jargon (well, mostly)
Jargon is the specialized language of a group or profession. If you are part of the group and speaking to an audience made up of people from that group, then you should use jargon, in fact, it would be hard for you not to. If, however, there are outsiders in the audience, you should be sure to define unknown terms or exclude them altogether.
Just for fun, I asked my social circle to come up with jargon they might hear in their specialty, and here are a few of their replies.
• Contras open to double f at the end of that crescendo.
(Tubas get very loud after the buildup–Marching band directions)
• Make sure you maintain cover when that pinwheel crosses the yard line.
(Make sure the drumline is lined up front to back as it spins over the football field’s yard line–Drum Corp directions)
• Soon, you will ETS and will no longer eat MRE’s and wear BDU’s. (Soon you will get out of the military and no longer have to eat dehydrated food and wear soldier uniforms–US Army.)
• The scuttlebutt is we won’t endex until next week. (Rumor has it this operation won’t be over until next week–Marines)
Double Speak
William Lutz, the American linguist, coined the term doublespeak to mean language that deliberately obscures, disguises, distorts, or reverses the meaning of words.
“Doublespeak is a matter of intent. You can identify doublespeak by looking at who is saying what to whom, under what conditions and circumstances, with what intent, and what result. If a politician stands up and speaks to you and says, ‘I am giving you exactly what I believe,’ and then turns around and does the opposite, then you’ve got a pretty good yardstick. She was pretending to tell me something, and it turns out it wasn’t what she meant at all, she meant something different,” says Mr. Lutz.
Lutz claims doublespeak is distorting the language to the benefit of the speaker. Let’s talk about each of these in speechmaking: Jargon, euphemism, bureaucratese, and inflated language.
Jargon: We talked about that already as the special language of a group. If you are an insider, you should use it, but when you are not, you should avoid it altogether.
Euphemism: Words that are used in place of something offensive or unpleasant. When it comes to speechmaking, euphemisms aren’t always bad. For example, when giving a eulogy, most people prefer to say, “passed away” or “went on to a better place.” That type of euphemism is a form of politeness it moves on to be doublespeak when it is used to mislead. Lutz points to the pentagon using the phrase, “Incontinent ordinance” to mean bombs that fall on civilian targets, and “unlawful arbitrary detention” which means to be held without a trial. He also uses the example from when a bill was proposed asking for money for a “radiation enhancement device” it was talking about buying a neutron bomb.
Inflated Language: Inflated language is designed to make the simple seem complex or to give an air of importance to things, or situations. Instead of using the phrase invasion, the pentagon chose to say they had “predawn verticle insertion.” Sarcastic teachers will sometimes tell their students to “eschew obfuscation” (eshew=avoid; obfuscation-confusing and ambiguous language).
Bureaucratese: Lutz nicknames this “gobbledygook.” In short, it is piling on of words by either giving a bunch of large words or just a large quantity of words. Alan Greenspan testified before that Senate Committee, “It is a tricky problem to find the particular calibration in timing that would be appropriate to stem the acceleration in risk premiums created by falling incomes without prematurely aborting the decline in the inflation-generated risk premiums.”
Avoid Slang (Most of the time)
Slang is the informal language of a particular group. Because it is seen as “informal,” it should be avoided in formal speeches like career speeches, academic speeches, and professional speeches. In less formal speeches, slang can be useful. If you are an insider to the group, slang can build credibility. Studies found that it created a more supportive classroom climate when a teacher used positive slang such as “cool” and “awesome,”
Use slang sparingly and with intent. Slang that is doesn’t fit the audience and context may rob you of your credibility and muddle the message’s meaning. When it comes to slang when in doubt, don’t.
Avoid Cliches (Like the Plague)
Clichés are overused expressions that have lost their meaning over time. Cliches can make you seem too lazy to come up with concrete words and some people find them annoying. If you are writing a formal essay, all experts say to avoid cliches. If you are making a formal academic presentation, avoid cliches. In speeches, sometimes they work, but other times the meaning gets lost.
Cliches are culturally bound so they may be misunderstood. Let’s take the cliche, “The devil’s in the details.” Does that mean details are bad like the devil is bad? Or does it mean the reason there are details is that the devil makes us have them? If you don’t know the actual meaning of the cliche it can be really confusing.
(The devils in the details mean that the details may take more effort than you think or there may be hidden problems).
Like everything in this chapter, context and audience matter. Some cliches may be just right for an audience so that is why researching your audience is important.
Click here for the internet’s largest list of cliches.
Avoid Cusswords (Most of the d@#! time)
To cuss or not to cuss, that is the question?
If you would have asked me that question, ten years ago, I would have advised you that under no circumstances should you ever swear in a speech. I have to be honest here, however, some of my favorite speeches use swear words. Dr. Randy Pausch says curse words in the Last Lecture and Dr. Jerry Harvey’s lecture on Abilene Paradox just would not be the same without him telling you the cuss word spoken by his grandfather. When speakers say cuss words, they risk losing credibility points with the audience. When there are credibility points to spare, a well-placed swear word may actually make them seem more approachable. If, however, you are a speaker who is on the same level as your audience, you might not want to risk those credibility points.
Instead of thinking of swearing as uniformly harmful or morally wrong, more meaningful information about swearing can be obtained by asking what communication goals swearing achieves. Timothy Jay and Kristin Janschewitz, researchers who study taboo language.
If you want to swear in your speech, ask yourself “Why? What do I want to achieve?” Your goal as a speaker should be to get your message across to your audience. With that in mind, you should decide if there is someone in your audience who would be offended by your word and if that offense would cause them not to listen to your message. If that is the case, you should leave the swear word out.
What Do You Think of a College Teacher Who Swears
Researchers looked at what college students thought when their teachers said swear words. The impact on students was influenced by whether teachers were swearing to be funny, swearing at a person, or swearing about the class content. As you can imagine, students did not like a teacher to swear at students. The other types of swearing caused mixed reactions. When asked, students felt like classroom swearing, made them feel:
• Closer to course content.
• More alert.
• Slightly offended or uncomfortable.
• Like the teachers was trying too hard.
• Like teacher seemed less in control.
• No change in how they felt about the teacher.
Students thought that swearing was part of the instructor’s personality tended to cause them to perceive the teacher as verbally aggressive a trait associated with diminished student learning and student satisfaction.
Reflect on a college teacher you had that said curse words in class, did you like them more? Did they lose credibility points? Did you find them more approachable?
The Profanity President: Trump's Four-Letter Vocabulary
Read this excerpt from the New York Times about President Trump’s cusswords in speeches. As you read, ask yourself whether you think swearing hurt or helped his credibility. If you were his political advisor, what would you tell him to do?
In a single speech on Friday alone, he managed to throw out a “hell,” an “ass” and a couple of “bullshits” for good measure. In the course of just one rally in Panama City Beach, Fla., earlier this month, he tossed out 10 “hells,” three “damns” and a “crap.” The audiences did not seem to mind. They cheered and whooped and applauded.
“I’d say swearing is part of his appeal,” said Melissa Mohr, the author of “Holy Sh*t: A Brief History of Swearing,” published in 2013. “It helps create the impression that he is saying what he thinks, ‘telling it like it is.’ We tend to believe people when they swear, because we interpret these words as a sign of strong emotions. In his case, the emotion is often powerful anger, which his supporters seem to love.” New York Times
You are the political advisor, what would you advise him to do?
Can you think of other examples of swearing in political speeches?
How did reading those presidential swear words impact you?
Avoid the ISTS
Ists do not belong in your speech. Avoid racist, sexist, agist, heterosexist, ableist language. And while you are at it, make sure you know the preferred name for people groups.
The “right” word to use changes over time and changes based on context. When I started to write this chapter, I thought I would make a list of what words to say and what words not to say. It was going to be the definitive list of what to call people. I quickly realized that by the time this book was published, those words might change. So, now I am telling you that knowing the right term is an important part of your speech research.
As a speaker, it is your responsibility to use inclusive language and to choose your words in a way your audience feels included and respectful. It is your responsibility to research your subject and your audience and this includes how to use respectful language.
I found this guide from the University of South Carolina helpful: Inclusive Language Guide from University of South Carolina Aiken.
Words That Significantly Hurt Politicians
The wrong word at the wrong time to the wrong audience can be problematic for a speaker. For a politician, it can be career changing. Here are a few examples of times politicians got it wrong.
If you are easily offended, you might skip this section.
You People
“Good and decent people all over this country, and particularly you folks, have got bars on windows. Drug use is absolutely devastating to our country and absolutely devastating to you and your people.” Ross Perot, presidential candidate.
Basket of Deplorables
“You know, to just be grossly generalistic, you could put half of Trump’s supporters into what I call the basket of deplorables. Right? The racist, sexist, homophobic, xenophobic, Islamaphobic — you name it. And unfortunately, there are people like that. And he has lifted them up.” Hillary Clinton, Democratic candidate for the Presidency.
Legitimate Rape
In an interview for KTVI-TC, the question was posed “An abortion could be considered in the case of a tubal pregnancy, what about in the case of rape?” Politician Todd Akin replied. “If it’s a legitimate rape, the female body has ways to try to shut that whole thing down. But let’s assume that maybe that didn’t work or something: I think there should be some punishment, but the punishment ought to be of the rapist, and not attacking the child.” Todd Akin, Republican candidate for the Senate.
I’m Not a Witch
In an interview, Christina O’Donnel told Maher that she dabbled into witchcraft but never joined a coven. Later she made a campaign video: “I’m not a witch. I’m nothing you’ve heard. I’m you. None of us are perfect, but none of us can be happy with what we see all around us: politicians who think spending, trading favors, and back-room deals are the ways to stay in office. I’ll go to Washington and do what you’d do.” Republican Candadate, Christine McDonnell
(Fun fact, political coaches suggest you never repeat the accusation even to say I’m not because it reinforces it and makes it stick in the minds of listeners.)
Extremism
“I would remind you that extremism in the defense of liberty is no vice. And let me remind you also that moderation in the pursuit of justice is no virtue.” Senator Barry Goldwater. (To use the word extremist always carries negative connotations.)
You Ain’t Black
Joe Biden: “Well I tell you what, if you have a problem figuring out whether you’re for me or Trump, then you ain’t black.” Joe Biden, Democratic presidential candidate.
Crisis of Confidence
It is a crisis of confidence. It is a crisis that strikes at the very heart and soul and spirit of our national will. We can see this crisis in the growing doubt about the meaning of our own lives and in the loss of a unity of purpose for our nation. The erosion of our confidence in the future is threatening to destroy the social and the political fabric of America. The confidence that we have always had as a people is not simply some romantic dream or a proverb in a dusty book that we read just on the Fourth of July… Our people are losing that faith, not only in government itself but in the ability as citizens to serve as the ultimate rulers and shapers of our democracy. President Jimmy Carter (Carter thought he would be respected for the honesty but all the negative words, made people feel bad).
The Scream That Killed a Political Campaign
Anytime political mishaps come up, the Dean Scream is mentioned. It was the scream that seriously damaged his political campaign. This chapter is really about what words not to say, in this case, it is what sound not to make–beyond words.
Avoid Powerless Language (It really makes you sound smart, don’t you think?)
Powerless language consists of words or phrases that weaken the language and undermine credibility. Powerless language results in the speaker being seen as less persuasive, less attractive, and less credible.
It is true that in social settings, you should be willing to use powerless language for the sake of cooperation, but in speeches, you should stick with sounding confident and powerful.
Examples of Powerless Language
Hedges: Statements that make a phrase sound less forceful.
• I’m kinda surprised at the research I found.
• I guess I’d like to…
• I think this point is important because
Hesitations: Words or sounds that are pauses in the speech like uh, um, er.
• Uh, I’d like to talk about…
• W-w-w we can all agree.
• I wish everyone would, er, uh consider this idea.
Intensifiers: Words that do not add meaning but attempt to magnify the emotional content.
• I’m not very excited about…
The car is really expensive.
I’m super excited about this new…
“Substitute ‘damn’ every time you’re inclined to write ‘very’; your editor will delete it and the writing will be just as it should be.” Mark Twain
Taq questions: Adding questions to the end of the sentence to make an assertion sound like a question.
• I think this is a great idea, don’t you?
It is OK to ask the audience questions. It becomes powerless language when you tag the question on so you don’t sound certain of what you are saying.
Disclaimers: Information given before a statement that signals a problem, a lack of understanding, or anticipates doubts
• I’m not sure if I’m saying this right.
• I probably shouldn’t say this, but…
• Don’t get me wrong…
• I know this sounds crazy but…
• I’m no expert but…
Self Critical: Making negative statements about yourself
• Let me start by saying that I’m a terrible public speaker.
• PowerPoint is not my thing, but here is a slide I made to illustrate.
Uptalk: Making voice go up at the end of a sentence making it sound like a question
Powerless language is not always a bad thing, Dr. Fragale found that when doing group work, powerless language can make you appear more cooperative.
When people hear someone who is very confident and certain in the way that they speak, others think of that person as really dominant and ambitious and assertive, but they also think of that person as less warm, less collaborative and less cooperative. In groups that require a lot of teamwork, team members are looking for people who have good team skills, who care about other people. Those personality attributes are more important than how dominant or ambitious you are.
Oftentimes, you will have a group project that leads up to a speech. In this scenario, you should use your cooperative speech for working with the team and your assertive language in the speech.
At first glance, this whole chapter looks like it is dedicated to things to avoid. In reality, it is dedicated to getting you to think about one big thing–context. Context matters. Who makes up your audience, what the expectations of the occasion are, and who you are in relation to each will impact how you should design your speech. The most important thing in speechmaking is to figure out how to share your message in a way that the audience can listen to and receive your message.
Key Takeaways
Remember This!
• The goal of your speech is to get your message across to your audience, by knowing the context, the occasion, and the audience you can avoid things that will cause them to not want to listen.
• Your credibility can be positively or negatively affected by your choice of words.
• Always be intentional with slang, jargon, and big words. Using them or not using them by choice in a way that connects with your audience.
• Always use inclusive language and adapt your vocabulary in a way your audience will feel respected and included.
• Beware of the curse of knowledge and realize that what is easy for you to understand may not be easy for your audience so adjust your speech accordingly.
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References
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Baker, P. (2019). The profanity president: Trump’s four-letter vocabulary. The New York Times. https://search.proquest.com/newspapers/profanity-president-trump-s-four-letter/docview/2244183119/se-2?accountid=8361
BBC. (2012). US row over Congressman Todd Akin’s rape remark. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-19319240
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Cialdini, R. (1993). Influence: The psychology of persuasion. William Morrow.
Dean, H. (2004). The scream that doomed Howard Dean. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l6i-gYRAwM0
Generous, M. A., & Houser, M. L. (2019). “Oh, st! did I just swear in class?”: Using emotional response theory to understand the role of instructor swearing in the college classroom. Communication Quarterly, 67(2), 178-198. https://doi.org/10.1080/01463373.2019.1573200
Generous, M. & Frei, S. & Houser, M. (2014). When an instructor swears in class: Functions and targets of instructor swearing from college students’ retrospective accounts. Communication Reports. 28. https://doi.org/10.1080/08934215.2014.927518
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(1996) Student perceptions of teachers’ use of language: The effects of powerful and powerless language on impression formation and uncertainty. Communication Education 45(1), 16-28. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634529609379029
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Heyne, R. L. (2016). “Fired up about education”: A quantitative exploration of positive and negative slang. Theses and Dissertations. 572.
https://ir.library.illinoisstate.edu/etd/572 http://doi.org/10.30707/ETD2016.Heyne.R
Hogarth, R. M., & Reder, M.W., eds. (1986). The behavioral foundations of economic theory. Supplement to Journal of Business, 59(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/0739456X8800700214
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Pausch, R. (2007). Last lecture: Achieving your childhood dreams. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uFQ-ukyvAMk
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Character may almost be called
the most effective means of persuasion.
Aristotle
Any textbook on public speaking seems incomplete without shoutouts to the old dead Greek founders of the discipline. As a student, I felt like the history of rhetoric was irrelevant. I thought the historical information was placed in the book to give me words and dates to memorize.
Through the years, I’ve begun to look at these rhetoricians differently. I now see them as the bringers of interesting philosophical debates. Debates that are still argued today. To help you see this larger debate, I decided to take a different approach to this chapter. Imagine if you will, that I am a journalist sitting down at a coffee shop interviewing a couple of these famous rhetors. Read my interviews and decide which school of thought best fits what you believe and think about the function of speech. Reflect on the larger philosophical debate about society, education, and what it is to be a good citizen.
The Setting
In the early days of the Greek democratic city-states, citizens used speeches to defend themselves in court and to discuss public policy. Since a person’s future often rested on the outcome of these speeches, it was very important that people learn to speak well. Itinerant speech trainers known as Sophists would travel around teaching citizens. These Sophists were teachers for hire and there was not a manual they went by nor was there any consistency in what they taught. A few of the students from this sophist movement went on to create schools with more consistency, with a larger curriculum, and eventually with written texts. The schools of Isocrates, Plato, and Aristotle were the seedbed of today’s rhetoric.
Coffee with Isocrates
Now it’s time to grab a cup of coffee and sit down with the man who has been called the father of eloquence and the master of all rhetoricians, Isocrates.
Isocrates, thanks for coming out today to talk with me. Could you tell me a little about your early training?
Yes, I came from a family that had enough money to make sure I received training. The sophists were a group of itinerate teachers who would train young statesmen on how to be good citizens. They emphasized moral character and taught us how to give a good speech. I studied with Gordias, Prodicus, and Socrates.
Sophists have a few good ideas. For example, Gorgias felt strongly that a passive audience could be moved by language and Protagoras made some good points about training people to think about both sides of an argument.
For someone who was trained by sophists, I’ve heard you wrote some scathing things about them. Would you like to talk about that?
Sophists, what can I say about those guys? I put out a pamphlet about them called Against the Sophists. Did you know the name means “wisdom bearer?” For people who are supposed to share wisdom, they sure do spread lies. They deceive us with lies and they promise that their students will be happy and knowledgeable because of the knowledge that they teach, but they are making promises that they can’t fulfill. I’m with Plato when he said they “are paid hunters after the young and wealthy” and “purgers of souls.”
At the core, we are just philosophically different. I think that the sophists are using language to make the worse seem better. They love to show off in public assemblies and hold contests against each other for the sake of gaining praise. They make a public spectacle and in doing so they hurt their own cause. Most of the time, people despise them.
That is some strong talk.
You know it is. They think they are masters, but they revile and abuse each other. They use words like weapons– to abuse. What sophists sell is pure folly, one has to only look at how cheaply they sell their trade for. They teach lies and they don’t even charge a good price for it.
Is that why you started a new school, to contrast the sophists?
Yes. My new model is to establish a permanent academy of rhetoric at the Lyceum in Athens. There I can work with small groups of students, teach them a variety of subjects, and prepare them for public life. As the only teacher in my school, I can make sure they get a well-rounded and quality education. Unlike the sophists, I have stringent admission requirements, and I have high expectations for my students.
So, an academy of rhetoric sounds interesting. Just to be clear, what do you mean by rhetoric?
Rhetoric is the worker of persuasion. It is that outward feeling and inward thought of not merely expression, but reason, feeling, and imagination. It is the thing that raises us above animals and enables us to live a civilized life. It helps us to talk to others about areas of dispute and helps us to seek light for ourselves on things that are unknown.
It sounds like you have an elevated belief about what speech can do.
Yes. None of the things which are done with intelligence take place without the help of speech. Both our thoughts and our actions are guided by speech. And it is that understanding that is employed by those who have the most wisdom.
Well, I heard that the Roman Statesman, Cicero * is a big fan of your school. He has been quoted as saying Isocrates’s school is “like a Trojan horse where nothing but leaders come forth.” What do you say to that?
I am certainly proud of my students and the things they have been able to accomplish. My success comes in part from the selection process. I only pick students who already have a natural aptitude and are good debaters. I then take these students and I emphasize ability, practice, and training.
What is your philosophy of education?
Students need to be well educated in a variety of subjects to be good citizens. We are one of the first programs to promote a liberal arts education teaching them not just oratory but composition, history, citizenship, culture, and morality. We are training our students for public life so they can address practical problems.
I’ve heard you have a tailored approach to teaching.
Since I have small classes of 4 to 5 students–never more than nine. I can get to know my students and their strengths and weaknesses. For some students, I use the spur approach to spur them along and for others I use the bridle approach and pull them back. I may need to check the one’s exuberance and boldness of style and for another I need to press them towards more exuberance.
What are some of your other approaches to teaching?
Well, here in Athens, we have a lot of public speakers, so I encourage my students to wander around and observe speakers in public forums. I encourage them to learn through imitation.
I’ve heard kairos is important for you. Can you explain to me kairos?
Yes. Kairos is Greek for the “right time.” It is one of the most important characteristics of effective rhetorical discourse. When working with my students, there is a big emphasis on kairos or adapting to the timing and the needs of the occasion. Kairos is about more than just time, it also includes place, demands of the culture, the situation, and the nature of the audience.
Archers are familiar with kairos because it is used in archery. Kairos is reading the signs to know the moment to release the arrow so it will hit the target with sufficient force. I feel very strongly about teaching kairos. I want my students to compose and deliver speeches on various subjects and to know how to adapt those subjects to the audience, location, and occasion.
I’ve heard you use your skills as a speechwriter?
Yes, in the early days. I wrote speeches for others to give in the law courts. The craft is called logography and I took it up when my family’s wealth was lost due to the Peloponnesian War. While it was a lucrative profession, I tend to downplay it because some think it is disingenuous to have others write their speeches for them.
Speaking of criticism. Some have criticized you because you write speeches and you teach speech, but you don’t make public speeches.
Nature has placed me at a disadvantage. I wasn’t born with a strong enough voice to deal with the mob. I don’t have the strength to take the abuse. I don’t have the strength, but my students do.
It might help to add an illustration here. Are you familiar with a whetstone–that rock that is used to sharpen a sword of ax? Well, a whetstone cannot cut things by itself, but it can make other things sharp enough so that they can do so. I like to think that I am the stone used to sharpen my students.
Thank you so much Isocrates this has been very informative. Have a great day.
Let’s Talk About How Isocrates’ Ideas Relate to Today
• Isocrates believed someone had to have a natural talent for oratory before they could be taught. What do you think about this notion–is it a knack or an art?
• Isocrates was criticized for writing other people’s speeches. This practice still takes place today as politicians have professional speech writers. Is it ethical to use another’s words and present them as your own?
• One of Isocrates’ teaching methods was to have students practice speaking by imitation. Do you think this a helpful practice, why or why not?
• The school Isocrates began was the first step in moving towards what would become a liberal arts education. What are the pros and cons of a liberal arts education?
From the letter, you can easily see there were competing ways of thinking about rhetoric, how it should be taught, and what its role was in society. To better understand a different view of rhetoric, let’s look at Aristotle.
Coffee with Aristotle
Let’s grab another cup of coffee and sit down with one of Isocrates’ rivals. This man was nicknamed the “man who knows everything” and he literally wrote the book on rhetoric. Without further ado, let’s talk to the man himself, Aristotle.
Aristotle, thanks so much for meeting with me. It was a little hard to find you here in hiding. Would you like to tell me a little about that?
Yes, my student, Alexander became a great man and a strong warrior. They have nicknamed him “Alexander the Great.” While on a conquest in Babylon, he died of a mysterious illness. Shortly after that, a huge anti-Macedonian wave swept. I decided to flee and see how the whole thing plays out. Since my mother has an estate at Chalcis, it made sense to hang out here for a while.
In this climate, laying low is a good idea. You know what they did to Socrates right? Hemlock? Poison? I refuse to allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy.
Sounds like quite a story, let’s back up to find out how you got here. It is my understanding that as a young man, you went to the Academy.
At age 17, I moved from my hometown in Stagira to Athens to enroll in Plato’s Academy. It was a wonderful place of learning. Plato and I grew to be good friends in my time there. After I finished my studies, I began to teach there. I think I was at the Academy for a total of 20 years. After Plato passed, I decided to move on and further develop my ideas of philosophy, science, and rhetoric.
So tell me about your relationship with Alexander?
Sure. I was hired by King Philip II of Macedon to tutor to his 13-year-old son, Alexander. In exchange, Philip agreed to rebuild my hometown of Stageira, to free the slaves, and pardon the exiles. I tutored Alexander and many of his friends throughout their early teen years. I taught them medicine, philosophy, morals, religion, logic, and art.
When Alexander began his conquests, he took an annotated copy of the Iliad which I gave him along on his campaigns. That man loved Homer. Many people knew him as a fierce warrior, but I knew him as the foremost ambassador of Athenian culture to the world.
Eventually, you moved on and started your own school, is this correct?
Yeah, not long after Alexander conquered Athens, I began a school. As a nonresident in Athens, I couldn’t exactly own property, so I rented space at the gymnasium– the Lyceum and I set up a school. There I taught students knowledge, philosophy, and rhetoric. It is important to me to make the lectures open to the public and free of charge.
I’ve heard they call your pupils by an unusual name, Peripatetics?
Funny name, huh? Yes. Peripatetics are people who walk about. I like to take my students outside when I am teaching. We walk around from place to place as we learn our lessons. Because of that, some people refer to my school as the Peripatos.
Tell me about how your library fits with the larger philosophy of rhetoric.
I have been able to amass collections from all over. This collection is what I believe to be one of the world’s first great libraries. In addition to things I have gathered, I have added my own writings. This library is a great place where students can gain knowledge and learn to become well-rounded people and well-informed orators.
So, I’ve heard you differ from Isocrates in believing that rhetoric can be learned?
Yes, of course. Isocrates believed you were born with the knack to speak, and he only takes students who have the knack and the money. I differ with that and believe that it is not a knack, but an art. An art I freely teach to those who want to come listen. Like other arts, rhetoric can be learned.
I guess it makes sense then you would write your students a textbook on how to master that art.
Yes, it is called Rhetoric. It lays out my formulas for the structure of persuasion and for sound arguments.
So, let’s start with the title, Rhetoric. How do you define rhetoric and what do you think its purpose is?
Rhetoric is the process of discovering the available means of persuasion. First and foremost, rhetoric is about allowing truth to prevail. Rhetoric gives people the ability connect ideas and experiences. It allows us to teach others.
Another important function of rhetoric is that it gives us a means to defend ourselves. It bridges public and private and allows us to discuss political life.
You talk about that in your book. Could you lay out your major ideas?
I am happy to highlight a few things for you. I agree with Isocrates that at the heart of rhetoric is an understanding of occasions and audiences. When we break down rhetoric, it comes in three main types, each one deals with a different aspect of time, audience, and occasion. Forensic speech takes place in the courtroom and deals the timing of things that have already happened. We must decide if someone is innocent or guilty given the evidence–it is the rhetoric of accusation and defense. Deliberative speech takes place in the legislative session and is primarily concerned with the future. In other words, if we pass this law, how will it affect our citizens in the future? The last type of speech, epideictic, deals with how we celebrate the present. Celebrating holidays, victories, and shared values. It is the rhetoric of praise or blame.
Speaking of praise and blame, what do you think of the playwright Aristophanes making fun of rhetoricians in his play, The Clouds? Have you seen it? This comedy features a fictionalized sophist named Socrates who operates the Thinkery. A rich man sends his son, who has build up a huge gambling debt, to the Thinkery to learn how to turn inferior arguments into superior arguments so he can talk his way out of his debt in court.
Oh yeah, Aristophanes was funny saying rhetoricians are like the clouds that can take any shape they please to get what they want. I wrote about this in my book, Rhetoric. The problem is that we allow judges to decide the law on case-by-case basis. People have to use forensic rhetoric to convince the judge of their innocence. It is like measuring something with a crooked ruler. We created a system where people have to use excessive “cloudy” rhetoric because our ill-defined laws leave so much up to the whims of judges who can be bribed or persuaded. If we invested more time in the nobler task of deliberative rhetoric, we would have more well-defined laws. That would mean that there was less of a need for the type of rhetoric that Aristophanes so easily pokes fun of.
In your book, you talk about what is most essential to rhetoric–the proofs.
Yes, there are three main proofs or reasons to believe. The first and most authoritative is called ethos and it has to do with the credibility. People are more likely persuaded by a speaker they find possesses practical intelligence, a virtuous character, and goodwill. We believe good people more fully and more readily than others; this is true no matter what the topic is.
Next an audience is persuaded through pathos, an appeal to their emotions. A speaker proves their point by passion, for example righteous anger. They might use emotion, or they might rouse emotion in the audience. That emotion is what fuels listeners to modify judgments.
In my opinion, the most important proof is that of reason, logos. People are persuaded by facts, data, and reasoning. A rhetorician might prove his case through the cogency of his reasoning. These three–ethos, pathos, logos are inseparable. You can reason with passion and that passion reveals your character.
Would you say the highest purpose is politics?
Not really. I believe that the final purpose for human existence is to pursue happiness. This happiness comes from developing arete (personal excellence) and by maintaining a virtuous life. I part with my friend Plato who thinks that virtue is wrapped up in knowledge. Instead, I believe that virtue is about finding balance. Not to much and not too little. Rhetoric is a big part of finding that balance.
This has been very insightful, thank you so much for your time.
Let's Talk About How Aristotle's Ideas Relate Today
• Aristotle believed rhetoric was a skill that could be taught. He created a very detailed manual (Rhetoric) about how to learn to be a good orator. What do you think, are good orators born or made?
• Aristotle believed one of the primary purposes of rhetoric was to let truth prevail. What other purposes for rhetoric can you think of?
• The peripedics were students who walked around. Some professions are going to walking meetings. What are the advantages of a moving classroom?
• Aristotle suggests laws are poorly defined, and judges can be persuaded. He reasons that this is the reason that people must use over the top rhetoric in the courtroom. Would you say this is still an issue? What might be a better way?
• Aristotle says if we spent more time talking about how to make good laws, we would spend less time defending ourselves in court. What are your thoughts on this?
• Aristotle suggests ethos, pathos, logos are inseparable. Can you think of examples where you might exclude one of them?
• What is the meaning of life? The Greeks spent considerable time writing about this. Aristotle suggests it is to pursue well being and find balance. How does this compare with your own ideas? How is this tied to rhetoric?
From this letter, you can easily see there were competing ways of thinking about rhetoric, how it should be taught, and what its role was in society. To better understand a different view of rhetoric, let’s look at Aristotle.
Among the ancient manuscripts that have been uncovered is a letter from Isocrates to Alexander the Great. In this letter, Isocrates tells why he would be a better teacher for him instead of Aristotle. It is a great example of the larger debate between the major teachers and schools of thought.
To Alexander:
I know very well that you are surrounded by men who slander me as being
mentally decrepit and a babbler through old age. Just read this letter and you will see it is written with the ordinary vigor which I possessed as a young man.
Here is my advice to you. It is certainly all right to be a friend of mankind
in general and particularly to be on good terms politically with Athens. Further-more, it is certainly good to study philosophy. But, to begin with the latter point, by philosophy I mean what I call philosophy, not what is professed by contemptible sophists such as Aristotle, a worthy follower of other sophists like Plato whom I have been fighting from the very beginning of my activities.
In other words, take philosophy to be what sensible men think it to be, not
what fools make it out to be. As to the former points: you associate with the
wrong kind of Athenians, some bearing ill-will, some lacking common sense-it wouldn’t be surprising if they had evil designs, and I am afraid you will come to grief if you let them in on your plans. Those whom you admit to your company should be level-headed people who know how to take care of their affairs, men of experience.
Here is my own program of education. We should learn to speak – viz.
the kind of speeches which can be used in practical everyday affairs and those which will enable us to deliberate about public affairs. If you will pursue this kind of philosophy, you will be able to form a sound opinion about the future, you will be able to give proper orders to your subjects, you will be able to judge correctly what is good and just and what is not so, and you will know how to reward and punish.
Compare this program of education with what the sophists from the Aca-
demy have to offer. They will teach you to quibble and split hairs concerning problems of no practical value whatsoever. They will never enable you to cope with the actualities of daily life and politics. They will teach you to disdain opinion (common sense) in spite of the fact that common sense assumptions are the only basis for ordinary human affairs and they are sufficient to judge the course of future events. Instead of common sense opinions, they will make you chase after a phantom which they call true and precise knowledge, as distinct from mere opinion. Even if they could reach their ideal of precise and exact knowledge – it would be a knowledge of things entirely useless. Do not be deceived by their extravagant notions of goodness and justice or their opposites. These are just ordinary human notions not so very difficult to understand, and you need them only to help you to meet out rewards and punishments.
Sober up, therefore, give up your present studies under Aristotle and others
of his ilk, and study the way I told you to. Only in this way can you hope to
become another Philip (Alexander’s dad) in due time.
From,
Isocrates
Try this: Read this letter again making a list of all the insults Isocrates offers about Aristotle and sophists.
Try this: Read this out loud in your best political sarcasm voice.
Vocabulary
Ethos: Persuasion that comes from source credibility
Kairos –the timing and the occasion
Logos: Persuasion that comes from logical appeals.
Lyceum–The temple of Apollo used by Isocrates, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle as a place to meet students and teach them about philosophy and rhetoric.
Pathos: Persuasion that comes from emotional appeals.
Peripatetics–people who walk about while learning. The name for Aristotle’s followers
Sophist--itinerate teachers who trained people in public speaking. Means “wisdom bearing”
Here are two videos that anchor what we have just learned about Aristotle and Isocrates. Watch them as a helpful review.
Try Out a Greek Debate
Grab and friend and asked them to help you to practice your rhetoric as you work through the issue that Pericles and Protagoras spent a whole day discussing.
“In an athletic contest, a man had been accidentally hit and killed with a javelin. Was his death to be attributed to the javelin, to the man who threw it, or to the authorities responsible for the conduct of the games?”
*Yes, I realize that Cicero was 106-46 BCE and Isocrates was 438-338 BCE, I just really wanted to include that quote.
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References
Aristotle. (1926). The “Art” of Rhetoric. Trans. John Henry Freese. Cambridge: Harvard
University Press.
Aristotle (1926). Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics. Trans. H. Rackham. Cambridge: Harvard
University Press.
Aristotle. (2015). Rhetoric. Translated by Robers, W Rhys.
Benoit, W. (1990). Isocrates and Aristotle on rhetoric. Rhetoric Society Quarterly, 20(3), 251-259. Retrieved May 10, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3885845
Benoit, W.L. (1984). Isocrates on rhetorical education. Communication Education, 33:2, 109-119,
Burton, K. M. (1991) Formal Analysis of Plato’s Gorgias. Anthós. 1(2).
Cicero. (1942) De. Oratore. tr E.W. Sutoon and H. Rackham. Harvard University Press.
Foolish Musings. (2020). Isocrates and rhetoric. [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T4KgzME98ug Standard Youtube License.
Griffin, M. Boardman, J.; Griffin, J., and Murray, O. (2001). The Oxford Illustrated History of the Roman World. Oxford University Press.
Langston, C. (2016). How to use rhetoric to get what you want. [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3klMM9BkW5o Standard Youtube License.
Papillion, T. (2009). Isocrates’ techne and rhetorical pedagogy. Rhetorical Society Quarterly 25(1), 149-163. doi:10.1080/02773949509391038
The Sophists (2012). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/
Isocrates, Against the Sophist tr George Norlin.
Isocrates, Antidosis.
Isocrates, To Philip
Merlan, P. (1954). Isocrates, Aristotle and Alexander the Great. Historia: Zeitschrift Für Alte Geschichte, 3(1), 60-81. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4434381
Nichols, M. (1987). Aristotle’s Defense of Rhetoric. The Journal of Politics, 49(3), 657-677. doi:10.2307/2131273
Noël, M. (2011). Isocrates and the rhetoric to alexander: Meaning and uses of tekmerion. Rhetorica, 29(3), 319-0_5. DOI:10.1525/RH.2011.29.3.319
Phillips, D. D. (27 March 2003). Orator Biographies. www.stoa.org. The Stoa: a consortium for electronic publication in the humanities.
Plato in Twelve Volume (1921). Vol. 12 translated by Harold N. Fowler. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921.
Pseudo-Plutarch. Isocrates, Panagyricus.
Rapp, C. (2010) Aristotle’s Rhetoric. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy/ Edward N. Zalta (ed.), https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2010/entries/aristotle-rhetoric/
Rorty, A. O. (1996). Structuring Rhetoric. In Rorty, Amélie Oksenberg (ed.). Essays on Aristotle’s Rhetoric. University of California Press.
Senteniaeantiquae. (2018). Meme police: A collection of things Aristotle did not say. https://sententiaeantiquae.com/original-projects-and-translations/memes
Tierney, M. (1942). Aristotle and Alexander the Great. Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review, 31(122), 221-228. http://www.jstor.org/stable/30098049 | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/Advanced_Public_Speaking_(Meade)/05%3A_Considerations_for_Speech/5.02%3A_Rhetorical_History-_Interview_with_Two_Old_Dead_Greek_Guys.txt |
A fallacy is an error in reasoning. It is a weak argument. To be more specific, a fallacy is an “argument” in which the premises given for the conclusion do not provide the needed degree of support. By becoming aware of the most common fallacies, you can avoid them in your own speech and detect them when others use them. My goal here is to teach you to identify some of the most common fallacies and to make you a human fallacy detector.
I had someone ask me, “What’s wrong with fallacies, everyone uses them; in fact, it seems to help politicians get elected?” Let me tell you what is wrong with fallacies.
• They distract us from the real issue.
• They “trick” us into faulty reasoning.
• They deceive us into believing bad conclusions.
• They keep us from having a good discussion of the topic at hand.
The venerable tradition of respectful argumentation, based on evidence, conducted with courtesy, and leading to the greater exposition of truth is a precious part of our heritage in this land of freedom.
James Shannon, the youngest college president in the US.
There are many fallacies. Instead of overwhelming you with the large list, I decided to share with you the most common ones that occur in persuasive and political types of speeches.
Red Herring
A red herring fallacy gets its name from the sport of fox hunting. In foxhunting, riders on horses follow their dogs who are chasing a fox. Riders sometimes keep a fish, –a red herring–in their saddlebags. If they are ahead in the chase, they can stop and drag the fish across the fox’s scent and make the trail go a different direction. When the opponents’ dogs encounter the fishy smell, it distracts them from their mission of fox chasing.
A red herring fallacy occurs when a speaker distracts listeners with sensational, irrelevant material. Sometimes it happens when the speaker changes the subject and sometimes it happens when the speaker brings up irrelevant information to the topic. Why is this a problem? It is a problem because it sidetracks the argument at hand. It seeks to “win” an argument by diversion. Take this example, “We admit that voting to support school choice is a popular measure. But we also urge you to note that there are so many issues on this ballot that the whole thing is getting ridiculous.” The argument at hand is whether or not to vote for school choice but the speaker distracts us by bringing up the point that there are too many issues on the ballot. It may be true that there are too many issues on the ballot, but that doesn’t make the school choice something we should vote for or not.
In this video clip, notice how Senator Ted Lamar (R) distracts from the issue of background checks with the topic of video games.
The question: Can you envision a way of supporting the universal background checks bill?
Senator Lamar Alexander’s answer: Video games are a bigger problem than guns because video games affect people.
Yes, it may be true video games affect people but that doesn’t mean we should or should not have universal background checks. Bringing up video games is a way to divert the audience’s attention and to avoid the question. Smells fishy to me.
Trump Attempts to Draw Attention to ISIS
Here is another example of a red herring. Donald Trump was asked about making inappropriate remarks about women. He replied that “he wasn’t proud” and then quickly diverted the topic to ISIS.
Slippery Slope
Oftentimes a speaker will argue one bad thing will result in many other bad things. This is done without proving these negative things will happen. A slippery slope causes the discussion to get off track. If you are not careful, you will find yourself arguing the ending claim and miss the real debate. Consider this example. In talking about gay marriage, Republican candidate for Governor, Rebecca Kleefisch went down a slippery slope that led to tables and dogs. “At what point are we going to OK marrying inanimate objects? Can I marry this table, or this, you know, clock? Can we marry dogs?”
DirectTV made fun of the slippery slope fallacy in a commercial.
When talking about the removal of public statues, President Trump went down a slippery slope. “This week it’s Robert E. Lee. I notice that Stonewall Jackson’s coming down. I wonder; is it George Washington next week, and is it, Thomas Jefferson, the week after? You know, you really do have to ask yourself, where does it stop?”
In speaking about the Iraq threat, President George W. Bush said, “I’m not willing to stake one American life on trusting Saddam Hussein. Failure to act would embolden other tyrants, allow terrorists access to new weapons and new resources, and make blackmail a permanent feature of world events. The United Nations would betray the purpose of its founding and prove irrelevant to the problems of our time. And through its inaction, the United States would resign itself to a future of fear.”
Discuss This
“Can people be persuaded?’ is a very different question from ‘Can arguments be won?’ People change their minds about things all the time, but I’m not sure that anybody ever wins an argument. Persuasion is not a zero-sum game. It occurs when somebody moves, even slightly, away from one position and toward another. It is entirely possible for two (or more) people to move closer to each other’s positions during an argument without either one being able to claim victory over the other.
But we like to win, and we hate to lose, so the fact that people don’t usually win arguments doesn’t stop most of us from trying. And we all think we know what winning means: It means crushing opponents and making them cry. It means humiliating them in front of a crowd. And it means displaying our power and our rightness for all the world to see and acknowledge. And this means that we often end up trying to win by employing rhetorical strategies that are fundamentally incapable of persuading anybody of anything. And that looks a lot like losing.”
Austin, M. (2019). We must not be enemies: Restoring America’s civic tradition. Rowman & Littlefield.
1. Would you agree, ” I’m not sure that anybody ever wins an argument?” Why or why not?
2. How do fallacies interfere with the ability of one person to move closer to another?
3. Do you agree “we often end up trying to win by employing rhetorical strategies that are fundamentally incapable of persuading anybody of anything?”
4. When people resort to fallacies (attacks, diversions), is it “losing?”
Ad Hominem
We have a Congress
that spent money
like John Edwards
at a beauty shop.
Mike Huckabee (R)
Republican Presidential Candidate Debate
An Ad Hominem fallacy is one where the speaker attacks the person rather than the point. There are four major forms of attacking the person:
Ad hominem abusive: Instead of attacking a point, the argument attacks the person who made the assertion.
Democrat Alan Grayson described Republicans as “foot-dragging, knuckle-dragging Neanderthals who know nothing but ‘no.’”
Charley Reese from the Daily Iberian wrote, “That’s what abortion is – killing innocent humans for money. Abortionists are government licensed hit men.”
Ad hominem circumstantial: Instead of attacking the point, the person attacks the circumstances. They imply guilt by association.
Sara Palin, Republican Vice Presidential hopeful implied that Barak Obama was friends with terrorists. “Our opponent though is someone who sees America, it seems, as being so imperfect that he’s palling around with terrorists who would target their own country.”
Ad hominem tu quoque: The attacker suggests the person is a hypocrite and because they are a hypocrite, you can’t believe any point they make.
When Al Gore was traveling to speaking engagement on the topic of global warming, he was criticized for traveling by private jet. As President Obama was talking about gun control, speakers pointed out he was surrounded by secret service agents with guns. The argument itself should be discussed–gun control, climate change–the fact that the speaker may or may not be a hypocrite doesn’t mean the issue is right or wrong.
Poisoning the well: The speaker attacks the credibility of a person before they speak to bias listeners against the speaker. This fallacy is based on the belief that the enemy used to put tainted meat down into the town well so all the water that would come out of the well would be tainted and make people sick. The idea is that if a speaker taints a person’s credibility, then everything that comes out of their mouth is something harmful. Just because a person had poor judgment in one situation, doesn’t mean that they are incorrectly handling the topic at hand.
For a great overview of Ad Hominem, watch this short video.
The Great Lipstick War
Sarah Palin, Republican Vice-Presidential candidate ran with a persona of being feisty and tough In a speech, she made this statement to charge up her base: “You know they say the difference between a hockey mom and a pit bull–lipstick. ” Not long after, Obama said in a speech, “You can put lipstick on a pig. It’s still a pig.” Obama claimed it wasn’t a statement directed at Palin, what do you think? Watch these clips and see what you think.
Hillary Clinton or Donald Trump
Political researchers Tedesco and Dunn published a political analysis examining 136 political television advertisements from the 2016 US presidential election between Donald Trump and Hillary Clinton and this is what they found.
Despite Trump’s reputation for ad hominem attacks throughout the primary and general election phases of the presidential campaign, it was Clinton who waged more ad hominem attacks in her advertisements, mostly focused on labeling Trump as unfit for office. Trump and his supportive political action committee groups were more likely to run contrast ads to compare differences between his policies and Clinton’s policies, but Clinton’s campaign failed to use a full range of message strategies to contrast her policies with Trump’s and to bolster her own image through her campaign ads. Tedesco and Dunn
Tedesco, J. C., & Dunn, S. W. (2019). Political Advertising in the 2016 U.S. Presidential Election: Ad Hominem Ad Nauseam. American Behavioral Scientist, 63(7), 935–947. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764218756919
War Hero
Donald Trump attacked former prisoner of war and politician John McCain: “He’s a war hero. He was a war hero because he was captured. I like people who weren’t captured.”
Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc
Talking to cashiers at fast-food restaurants causes obesity
(the more I talk to fast food cashiers, the heavier I get).
Author unknown
The fallacy here is the assumption that one thing caused another without proof of the link. When you study statistics, you will learn the phrase “correlation does not mean causation” which means just because two things seem to happen together, doesn’t mean that the one actually caused the other. Post hoc ergo propter hoc = after this therefore because of this and is a fallacy of false cause. Just because two things are consecutive, doesn’t mean that one caused the other. I do still believe that it rains every time I wash my car.
Sports fans have a lot of these– “my team lost Friday because I forgot to wear my lucky hat.” Speaking of hats, watch this scene from the West Wing as the “president” educates his staff about cowboy hats and fallacies.
Autism in children is often detected at the same ages as they are getting immunizations leading to the incorrect assumption that one causes the other. “Just the other day, two years old, two and a half years old, a child, a beautiful child went to have the vaccine, and came back, and a week later got a tremendous fever, got very, very sick, now is autistic.” Donald Trump
That’s Latin for ’I’m old enough I should see a propterhoctologist”, right?
Mark Miller.
Faulty Analogy
Comparing things that are dissimilar in some important way
Former Arkansas Governor, Mike Huckabee (R) said at a Freedom Summit that he is beginning to believe there’s “More freedom in North Korea sometimes than there is in the United States. When I go to the airport, I have to get in the surrender position. People put hands all over me. And I have to provide a photo ID in a couple of different forms and prove that I really am not going to terrorize the airplane. But if I want to go vote, I don’t need a thing.” He was arguing why there needs to be government-required identification when voting but this comparison of airport inspection to a country with severe human rights violations is distracting and not a fair analogy.
“You know Obamacare is really I think the worst thing that has happened in this nation since slavery. And it is in a way, it is slavery in a way, because it is making all of us subservient to the government, and it was never about health care. It was about control.” Political candidate Ben Carson (R) at Values Voter Summit in Washington, D.C.
What do you think? Good metaphor or faulty analogy?
I grew up castrating hogs on an Iowa farm,
so when I come to Washington,
I’ll know how to cut pork.
Joni Ernst (R-IA)
Improperly used comparisons can be a problem. Andina Wise in an opinion piece in Scientific American highlights that discussing military metaphors to fight COVID-19 undermines the practice of medicine. She highlights the wartime rhetoric using words that: Doctors are fighting on the frontlines without sufficient ammunition. They are battling the enemy and doctors from every specialty have been redeployed. They are at war. She warns that using wartime rhetoric sends a “precarious message.”.
To adopt a wartime mentality is fundamentally to allow for an all-bets-are-off, anything-goes approach to emerging victorious. And while there may very well be a time for slapdash tactics in the course of weaponized encounters on the physical battlefield, this is never how one should endeavor to practice medicine.
Watch this video, it includes some powerful and relevant examples of false analogies.
Non sequitur
Non sequitur is reasoning in which principles and observations are unrelated to each other or to the conclusion drawn. Literally means “it does not follow.” If I mix red paint and green paint will never make blue paint, that’s not logical. Similarly, a non sequitur is not a logical conclusion of the ideas they are combining.
Snow in 50 states does not mean climate change is fake.
It is not a logical conclusion
“The liberals, the environmentalists, extremists, the Al Gores of the world
were wrong on science – and today we know it…
I’ve got a scoop shovel for you if you want to come any place
in the 50 states in America —
for the first time in the history of keeping records,
there’s snowfall on the ground in all 50 states.
It’s tough to make an argument
when the evidence is all around us
with the snowy white wonder and a crystal cathedral.”
Steve Kin, Republican from Iowa speaking at CPAC
Is Veggie Pizza Un-manly? Serving Up a Non-Sequitur
The more toppings a man has on his pizza,
I believe the more manly he is.
A manly man doesn’t want it piled high with vegetables.
He would call that a sissy pizza.
Herman Cain, former presidential nominee
and CEO of Godfather’s Pizza
“You know, education–if you make the most of it–you study hard, you do your homework, and you make an effort to be smart, you can do well. If you don’t, you get stuck in Iraq.” Democratic Senator John Kerry botching a joke about President Bush getting us stuck in Iraq
Are Males Really Piglets Who Hunt Giraffes?
Newt Gingrich (R), Speaker of the House, in a lecture on Renewing American Civilization argued against women in the military with this quote:
If combat means living in a ditch, females have biological problems staying in a ditch for thirty days because they get infections and they don’t have upper body strength. I mean, some do, but they’re relatively rare.
On the other hand, men are basically little piglets, you drop them in the ditch, they roll around in it, doesn’t matter, you know. These things are very real. On the other hand, if combat means being on an Aegis-class cruiser managing the computer controls for twelve ships and their rockets, a female may be again dramatically better than a male who gets very, very frustrated sitting in a chair all the time because males are biologically driven to go out and hunt giraffes.
(It is not logical that the reason women should not be in combat is because men are pigs who want to go hunt giraffes).
Hasty generalization
Drawing conclusions based on insufficient or non-representative observations.
People often commit hasty generalizations because of bias or prejudice. For example, someone who is a sexist might conclude that all women are unfit to fly jet fighters because one woman crashed one. People also commonly commit hasty generalizations because of laziness or sloppiness. It is very easy to simply leap to a conclusion and much harder to gather an adequate sample and draw a justified conclusion. Thus, avoiding this fallacy requires minimizing the influence of bias and taking care to select a sample that is large enough. Nizkor Project
Steve King assumes Mexicans are drug dealers: “For everyone who’s a valedictorian, there’s another 100 out there who weigh 130 pounds — and they’ve got calves the size of cantaloupes because they’re hauling 75 pounds of marijuana across the desert.” Representative Steve King, a Republican from Iowa making assumptions about immigrants from Mexico.
Herman Cain assumes Muslims are militants: “I would not be comfortable [with a Muslim in my administration] because you have peaceful Muslims and then you have militant Muslims, those that are trying to kill us. And so when I said I wouldn’t be comfortable, I was thinking about the ones that are trying to kill us, number one. Secondly, yes, I do not believe in sharia law in American courts. I believe in American laws in American courts. Period. There have been instances in New Jersey. There was an instance in Oklahoma where Muslims did try to influence court decisions with sharia law. I was simply saying very emphatically American laws in American courts.” Republican Tea Party Candidate, Herman Cain.
Either-or-thinking (Also Called False Dilemma)
Framing choices so that listeners think they have only two options and one of them is obviously preferred. I saw someone with a shirt on the other day that said, “America, love it or leave it.” It set up only two options. What if someone mostly loves America, but doesn’t like the health care system? What if they like America, but see that there is unfair distribution of wealth? What if they think another country has a better political system? Setting it up like there are only two choices when clearly most things have many shades of gray is creating a false dilemma.
Either Or Fallacy in The Simpsons
”So, it is with conviction that I support this resolution as being in the best interests of our nation. A vote for it is not a vote to rush to war; it is a vote that puts awesome responsibility in the hands of our President and we say to him – use these powers wisely and as a last resort. And it is a vote that says clearly to Saddam Hussein – this is your last chance – disarm or be disarmed.” Hillary Clinton (D)
“Every nation, in every region, now has a decision to make. Either you are with us, or you are with the terrorists.” George W. Bush (R) statement to Congress after 9/11.
We can either tax and regulate cannabis for adult use, reduce violence, and enrich our state, or we can continue a policy that enriches the cartels and has always has a racially biased pattern of enforcement. Ben Jealous candidate during a Democratic primary for Governor
“And the reason is because there really are only two alternatives here. Either the issue of Iran obtaining a nuclear weapon is resolved diplomatically through a negotiation or it’s resolved through a force, through war.” Barack Obama (D)
Strawman
“Another well known, and much used, device
is to misrepresent my position
and attack things I have never said.”
Rachel Carson
Strawman fallacy is where a speaker belittles or trivializes an argument to refute them easily. The speaker cannot defeat the real issue so they frame the issue as silly –they make a straw doll–a fake argument that looks a little like the real one that is easily defeated. Often the issue they attack has a semblance of the real issue but is different in significant ways.
Consider this example, President Obama introduced a provision that would allow Medicare to pay for counseling on end-of-life issues if the patient asked for it. Doctors could counsel patients about end-of-life care issues such as living wills and hospice care. Senator Chuck Grassley, Iowa Republican said in a town hall meeting. “In the House bill, there is counseling for end of life. You have every right to fear. You shouldn’t have counseling at the end of life, you should have done that 20 years before. Should not have a government-run plan to decide when to pull the plug on grandma.” Notice what happened, he changed counseling about end-of-life issues into pulling the plug on grandma. In this example, Grassly created the issue into something that sounds ridiculous and is easy to defeat.
1. So to say we’re going to basically outlaw coal, which is what this administration has done, is so self-defeating. it destroys jobs, it destroys communities, it’s not helping us, and it’s not helping global warming. Carly Fiorina (R) in an interview with Katie Couric. Why is this a strawman? Because this is not what the current administration has done, it is an exaggerated strawman that is easy to knock down. According to an article in VOX on this quote. “US coal has taken a beating from natural gas, renewables, and efficiency — the market, in other words — but it still provides more than a third of US electricity. And EPA expects that under the Clean Power Plan, that share will be at 27 percent in 2030. That estimate is probably high, given how uncompetitive coal has become, but even if it drops to 20 percent, that’s a fifth of US electricity and a long way from outlawed. “
I think it’s terrible if you go with what Hillary is saying in the ninth month you can take the baby and rip the baby out of the womb of the mother just prior to the birth of the baby. Now, you can say that that’s okay, and Hillary can say that that’s okay, but it’s not okay with me. Because based on what she’s saying and based on where she’s going and where she’s been, you can take the baby and rip the baby out of the womb in the ninth month, on the final day. And that’s not acceptable. Donald Trump said about Hillary Trump’s position on abortion at the final presidential debate. This mischaracterized her position.
Hitler Fallacy
There are few observations that have proven more durable than Godwin’s Law. Created in 1990 by attorney Mike Godwin, it is quite simple:
The more heated a political argument becomes, the higher the likelihood that one side will mention Adolf Hitler. Whoever mentions Hitler first, loses the argument. Danile Elbaum
In fact, comparing someone to Hitler to invalidate their point is so popular it’s been given its own fake Latin name, the reductio ad Hitlerum – a play on the very real logic term reductio ad absurdum. It’s mostly used to point out the fallacy of comparing almost anyone to Hitler.
Can You Find All the Fallacies?
We’ve been battling this socialist health care, the nationalization of health care, that is going to absolutely kill senior citizens. They’ll put them on lists and force them to die early because they won’t get the treatment as early as they need. […] I would rather stop this socialization of health care because once the government pays for your health care, they have every right to tell you what you eat, what you drink, how you exercise, where you live. […] But if we’re going to pay 700 million dollars like we voted last Friday to put condoms on wild horses, and I know it just says an un-permanent enhanced contraception whatever the heck that is. I guess it follows that they’re eventually get around to doing it to us. This is a statement by Representative Louie Gohmert (R-TX) from Texas in an interview with Alex Jones.
1. “Socialist health care” is a strawman
2. “Kill senior citizens” and “force them to die early” is a slippery slope and a Post hoc ergo propter hoc.
3. “One the government pays for your healthcare….tell you…eat, drink…live” is a Post hoc ergo propter hoc.
4. “Condoms on wild horses” is a red herring and a strawman
5. “They will get around to doing that to us” is a slippery slope and post hoc.
Can You Find All the Fallacies?
Fayetteville, Arkansas proposed to make sure that no one is denied employment, housing, or public accommodations. Michelle Duggar, wife of Jim Bob Duggar from the reality show 19 Kids and Counting read this script and it was sent as a robocall to local citizens.
“Hello, this is Michelle Duggar. I’m calling to inform you of some shocking news that would affect the safety of Northwest Arkansas women and children. The Fayetteville City Council is voting on an ordinance this Tuesday night that would allow men – yes I said men – to use womens and girls restrooms, locker rooms, showers, sleeping areas and other areas that are designated for females only. I don’t believe the citizens of Fayetteville would want males with past child predator convictions that claim they are female to have a legal right to enter private areas that are reserved for women and girls. I doubt that Fayetteville parents would stand for a law that would endanger their daughters or allow them to be traumatized by a man joining them in their private space. We should never place the preference of an adult over the safety and innocence of a child. Parents, who do you want undressing next to your daughter at the public swimming pool’s private changing area? I still believe that we are a society that puts women and children first. Women, young ladies and little girls deserve to use the restroom or any other facility in peace and safety.”
Listen to the robocall
Key Takeaways
Remember This!
• A fallacy is a weak argument in which the premises given do not provide needed support–it is a weak argument
• Red herring fallacy occurs when a speaker distracts listeners with sensational, irrelevant material.
• Slippery slope fallacy occurs when the speaker argues that one bad thing will result in many other bad things. This is done without proving that these negative things will happen.
• Ad Hominem fallacy here the speaker attacks the person rather than the point.
• A post hoc ero propter hoc fallacy is the assumption that one thing caused another without proof of the link.
• A faulty analogy is comparing things that are dissimilar in some important way.
• Non sequitur fallacy is reasoning in which principles and observations are unrelated to each other or to the conclusion drawn.
• Hasty generalization is drawing conclusions based on insufficient or non-representative observations.
• Either-or-thinking is framing choices so that listeners think they have only two options and one of them is obviously preferred.
• Strawman fallacy is where a speaker belittles or trivializes an argument to refute them easily
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Don’t raise your voice, improve your argument.
Desmond Tutu, human rights activist
I want to dive into some of the theories and models of persuasion to help you understand how people think. Knowing how to persuade is one thing, knowing the mechanics of persuasion is moving you to the advanced level. This information will guide you to form strong persuasive arguments. Knowledge is power and I am giving you the power to know how to persuade. I want to educate you to utilize the psychology of persuasion but also want to encourage you to do it ethically.
Elaboration Likelihood Model
When I was in graduate school, my computer got attacked with the Michelangelo virus. In short, when I turned on my computer on Michelangelo’s birthday, it wiped out everything on my computer. At least that’s what they told me at the computer repair store. I had spent a month of my life researching and writing my persuasion paper and it was gone in an instant. In a moment of what can best be described as a graduate school freak out, I went to the store to buy a new computer. I looked at the salesperson and said, “Quick, show me which computer to buy.” He pointed at one, I bought it, and went home and started writing.
Was I persuaded to buy a computer by the salesperson? I bought one so clearly, I was persuaded, right? Which persuasion technique did he use? Could this even count as an act of persuasion? Sometimes, we just want to decide without putting too much thought into it. You could argue that I didn’t put any thought into it. I didn’t have time to research; I didn’t have the mental capacity to think about which computer was best for me. I trusted the decision to the person in the computer store–he was the one in the red shirt after all. He worked there so he must know about computers.
The next time I bought a computer, I wasn’t in such a stressful situation. I took my time and shopped around. I talked to multiple salespeople, and I read reviews. I even made a spreadsheet of the features and the prices. I put a lot of thought into picking the right computer. Was I any more or less persuaded to buy? After all, in both cases, I bought a computer.
Petty and Cacioppo developed the Elaboration Likelihood Model as a way to explain how persuasion works in different scenarios–particularly, how sometimes we think a lot about our decisions and how sometimes we look for other ways to be persuaded. They said we go on different persuasion routes. When we are thinking (cognitive elaboration) about our decision, they would say, we are taking the central route. We take this thinking route when there is personal involvement and personal relevance. When we are not thinking–because of the situation, our mood, our inability to understand, or the fact that it is not a big decision for us– they would say we are taking the peripheral route. The peripheral route can be thought of as deciding based on anything other than deep thought. In my case, my decision was made based on the authority of the person.
Which of the computers do you think I would likely suggest to a friend–the one bought fast because it was recommended or the one bought after much research? Which computer did I think was the best computer? If you guessed the one that I shopped around for, you would be right. That is the computer I would most likely believe was the best one and that is the one I would most likely recommend to a friend. It makes sense. When we think about our decisions, persuasion is more long-lasting, we are more committed to the decision, and we are more likely to tell others.
What does any of this have to do with you writing a persuasion speech? Knowing that people are persuaded differently can help you design your persuasive arguments. Deciding whether you are going for thoughtful or peripheral persuasion is key.
I used to work for a non-profit and did a lot of fundraising speeches. If I wanted people to be persuaded to give money and have a long-term emotional and financial commitment to the organization, it made sense to persuade them via the central (thinking) route. That meant, I had to tell them what we did and give them facts and details about our organization. I had to build trust and I had to help them believe in the cause.
By contrast, my son was in marching band so there was always a fundraiser where we sold overpriced candy to our friends to support his upcoming trip. The persuasion I used was usually some version of, “My son is selling candy bars for his upcoming band trip, would you help support him.” There was not a lot of thinking when people were buying these candy bars. They were buying because they liked my son, they knew me, or because I bought cookies from their daughter for her fundraiser. This was peripheral persuasion one candy bar at a time.
Elaboration Likelihood Model - What's the Big Idea?
• If you want your persuasion to be long-lasting, persuade them via the central route. Offer facts, data, and solid information
• If you want a quick persuasion where they don’t put much thought into it or if your audience is not very knowledgeable, tired, or unmotivated, persuade them by the peripheral route.
Judgmental Heuristics
In Elaboration Likelihood Model, we find that people are persuaded in one of two ways– because they are thinking about it–the central route–or they are not thinking about it–peripheral. There is an entire chapter dedicated to how to research which is the central route so for now, I want to talk about the peripheral route.
Researcher and business speaker, Robert Cialdini, has spent a lot of time researching peripheral routes to persuasion. He suggests that we often take shortcuts in decision-making, he calls it judgmental heuristics. Heuristics is just a fancy way of saying shortcut. We often take shortcuts in making our judgments. For example, we might believe that expensive products are better products and use that to decide which item to buy. Cialdini has identified several different shortcuts that people use when making decisions.
• Authority
• Liking
• Commitment and Consistency
• Social Proof
• Scarcity
• Reciprocation
• Unity
Authority
When my doctor prescribes a medicine, I don’t ask if it’s the best, I just take it. He is the authority after all. When a man in a uniform in the computer store tells me which computer to buy, I believe him, he is the pro. It can be helpful to trust those who know more than you on a topic. The power of authority can be very persuasive.
As a speaker, you can capitalize on the persuasive power of authority by telling a story of your encounter with the product–in this case you have the authority of one who knows. I heard many speeches about the benefits of cold showers, but it was not until I had a student who told me his specific story that I was persuaded enough to try it for myself. Another way you can leverage authority is to cite credible people. You can enhance your own ethos by the way you research and handle your sources. Make sure that you use credible sources and make sure that you mention the title of your sources. For example, Say “Dr. Martin, a heart surgeon at the Mayo Clinic.”
Liking
People are persuaded by those they like–that is obvious. What is not so obvious are the ways that liking can be enhanced–similarity, compliments, and concern. People are more likely to like people who dress like them. If you are giving a speech to a group in ties, you should dress formally. If the group is more of a T-shirt and khakis type, you shouldn’t dress as formally. People like people who are similar. By researching your audience well, you can find ways to look for common ground.
Another way to enhance liking is with a sincere compliment. I’m not talking about a cheesy, overly flattering type. I am also not suggesting that you lie. I am saying that you can find something to like about them and let them know. In her TED Talk, Lizzie Valasquez had a very enthusiastic front row and she looked down and said, “You guys are like the best little section right here.” Finally, people like those who are passionately concerned about an issue. As a speaker, don’t aim to be perfect, aim to be passionate.
Commitment Consistency
Commitment/consistency has to do with finding something that people are already demonstrating a commitment to and then encouraging them to act in a consistent manner. If you see someone carrying a water bottle, you can say, “I see you are committed to health. I notice you take that bottle with you to all your classes. I would like you to think about one more thing that can influence your health.” In this example, you find something that a person is committed to and you encourage them to be consistent.
When you research your audience, find things that they care about and touch on those as you encourage them to be consistent. When I spoke to community groups as a fundraiser, I would look up their mission and it often involved something about helping people so I might say, “I see from your mission that you are community-minded. I would like to share with you one more way that you can carry your mission into this community by helping.”
Social Proof
People look to other people to know how to act. Every time, I buy things online, I look to see how others have evaluated the product first. I ask my friends if they have ever tried the product and what they think. I look to others to help me decide.
If you are doing a persuasive speech on a product, you can ethically persuade using social proof by showing how many stars a product has or you could read a poll about how many people support a measure. You can also interview those who are similar to your audience and then report back your findings. Talking about what Instagram and YouTube influencers believe can be powerful if it is someone the audience cares about.
Each of these judgmental heuristics carries with it the danger of abuse, so it is important to be ethical in your use of persuasion. I would be remiss if I didn’t mention to you that when it comes to social proof, it can become a bandwagon fallacy. Take for example fad diets. Just because they are popular, doesn’t mean they are healthy. Just because everyone thinks it is true, that doesn’t mean that it is true. When persuading using social proof, we want to ethically show why others like something and avoid the bandwagon fallacy which assumes that just because a lot of people like something that it must be good.
Scarcity
I am such a sucker for limited-time-only sales. I’m also a victim of buying something because it is the last one. People hate to miss out on things which is why scarcity as a persuasive tool is so powerful. Scarcity can happen because there is not very much of something, (limited numbers) or there is not very long to get it, (limited time) or the information is restricted (limited information). As a speaker, you can encourage your audience to act immediately because the deadline is coming soon or to buy a product because they are likely to sell out.
People hate to have their options limited. “Don’t tell me I can’t have it because then I want it.” Researchers talk about this in terms of psychological reactance. Psychological reactance is a heightened motivational state in reaction to having our freedoms restricted. This, in part, explains why ammunition sales skyrockets under the threat of gun control measures and why teenagers fall even more madly in love when parents forbid them to date. Leveraging psychological reactance ethically can be tricky, but it can de be done. “There are just 20 more days until the election to research your candidate” or “concert tickets usually sell out the first few hours so if you want to go you have to be ready.” These are honest statements that can encourage the audience to act.
Reciprocity
If you do something for me, I feel obligated to do something for you. This is why I always feel obligated to buy a gift for someone who buys me one or to say something nice to someone who compliments me. One of my students persuaded us to try making gifts instead of buying them. She demonstrated an easy-to-make and thoughtful gift and then she gave us a hand out of the steps and supplies. Attached to the handout was a coupon for the local craft store. The act of giving us a handout and the added free coupon enhanced the likelihood that we would comply. In case you are wondering, yes, I was persuaded. Yes, I took the coupon, bought the supplies, and made family and friends etched glasses for Christmas.
Jane McGonigal in her TED Talk, The Game that Can Give You 10 Extra Years of Life, said: So, here’s my special mission for this talk: I’m going to try to increase the life span of every single person in this room by seven and a half minutes. Literally, you will live seven and a half minutes longer than you would have otherwise, just because you watched this talk.” She is promising to give us something in exchange for our time so we feel the pressure to listen.
Unity
People want to feel a sense of unity with a group. This group can be everything from their favorite sports team to whether they or dog or cat lovers. Finding ways to help the audience feel like a special group or like they are part of something, can be important to persuasion. “Join the club,” “be one of us,” “as Razorback’s we all feel…” are examples of how that is used. Another way to activate the principle of unity is to use insider language (if you are part of the group if not, it comes off as sucking up or cheesy).
Cialdini called these seven the “weapons of influence.” To me, the idea of persuasion as a weapon assumes that it is used to attack or to defend. I prefer to use the metaphor of a tool instead of that of a weapon–allow me to illustrate. I am a gardener, so I use the shovel to dig holes to plant flowers–it works as a tool. If I see poison ivy, I might use the shovel to defend myself by removing the poison ivy. If I see a snake, I might hit it with my shovel, and then the shovel becomes a weapon. These persuasion principles can be that way as well. They can be tools or they can be weapons and it is up to the one holding the tool to decide which was to use this information.
Judgemental Heuristics - What's the Big Idea?
• People take shortcuts when making decisions: authority, liking, commitment and consistency, social proof, scarcity, reciprocation, unity.
• It is important to be ethical when you use shortcuts.
You cannot reason people out of a position
that they did not reason themselves into.
Ben Goldacre, Bad Science
Social Judgment Theory
I have a colleague that travels around the country speaking on college campuses and at farmer’s markets telling people why they should not eat meat. He finds the eating of meat completely unethical.
I’ve noticed that when it comes to meat-eating, people have strong opinions on either side. Think about it, would you eat a horse? dog? goat? rabbit? Some of you have grown up eating meat all your lives and consider it a tasty and healthy way to eat. For others of you, the very thought of eating any animal product seems cruel. Most reading this will fall somewhere in between. Look at the chart below and decide, which of the category best describes you.
Eats all meat—horse, goat, dog, lamb, beef, pork, chicken, rabbit, fish Carnivore
Technically Omnivore unless you only eat meat.
Eats many types of meat–goat, lamb, beef, pork, chicken, rabbit, fish
Eats many types of meat–deer, beef, pork, chicken, fish
Eats domestic meat— beef, pork, chicken, fish
Eats some meat–chicken, fish Flexitarian
Eats fish, eggs, and dairy Pescatarian
Eats eggs Ovo-vegetarians
Eats no meat or eggs but consume dairy Lacto-vegetarian
Eats no meat or eggs but consume honey Beegan
Eats no animal products at all Vegan
As you looked at the list there were some categories you found acceptable, and some you did not. In all honesty, most of you did not think that I was going to suggest eating dogs and horses. When you saw that on the list, most of you didn’t think of those as tasty options. Social Judgement Theory proposed by Sherif, Sherif, and Nebergall suggests that on any topic from diet to abortion and gun control to movie choices, we have an idea of what we like and are willing to accept and what is out of the question. The researchers studied human judgment to understand when persuasive messages are likely to succeed, and it comes down to how we fit into the ranges and how closely that message is to what we already believe. Each of us has a favorite position on any given topic, they call that the anchor position. As you looked on the chart and picked the category that best describes you, you found your anchor position. On the list, you likely found several categories that you would be willing to accept and maybe several categories you reject entirely.
Let’s go back to a colleague of mine, remember, the one who speaks on campuses about veganism. When he looks at this chart, the only position he is willing to accept is to eat no animal products at all. The researchers would say that he is ego-involved because he has a large group of ideas he rejects. How hard would it be to get him to try eating a dog? a goat? an egg? As you can imagine, if I suggest that he tries eating goat, he will think that position is too extreme and that as individuals we are far apart in what we believe. On the other hand, I might be able to nudge him up the continuum a little. Maybe, I could convince him to try honey. After all, no bees were harmed from making honey and it does not contain any meat. People with extreme views can be moved, but only in small increments. If I want the persuasion to work, I might be able to persuade him to try honey.
Now, think of a friend you might know who hunts, and fishes, and eats deer, rabbit, and squirrel. This friend of yours likes trying different types of jerky-like elk and moose. How hard would it be to convince him to try eating a dog? How about a goat? Since your friend has a large range of ideas he already accepts, adding one more animal to the list of things he eats might not be that hard. He would be much more likely to try a dog than would my vegan friend. It doesn’t matter how good we are at persuading as much as how close that persuasion is to what they already believe.
In any audience, you will have people all up and down the spectrum of beliefs. It is your responsibility to try to find out as much as you can about your audience before your speech, so you will know generally where they are. You will have more luck persuading people if you try to move them a little as opposed to move them a lot. Every semester, a vegan group comes to the University of Arkansas campus and passes out flyers promoting a vegan lifestyle. I’ve noticed their messages have slowly changed from meat is murder and you should never eat meat because production is hard on the environment to a more palatable message to try eliminating meat one day a week. Maybe these vegans learned about Social Judgement Theory or maybe they learned by trial and error that moving someone from one extreme to the next is an unlikely feat.
Alexander Edwards Coppock did his dissertation looking at small changes in political opinions, he found the following:
1. When confronted with persuasive messages, individuals update their views in the direction of information. This means, if you give them good information, they are likely to be persuaded by it.
2. People change their minds about political issues in small increments. Like mentioned before, they are more likely to move in small increments.
3. Persuasion in the direction of information occurs regardless of background characteristics, initial beliefs, or ideological position. Translation, good information can be very persuasive regardless of what they believed before.
4. These changes in political attitudes, in most cases, lasted at least 10 days. In other words, good facts help people to change their attitudes and that information can stick.
In summary, if you provide people information and attempt to persuade them in small increments regardless of their prior beliefs, they can change their political attitude and that change will stick.
Social Judgement Theory - What's the Big Idea?
• People have preexisting beliefs on topics. Some people have many variations they are willing to accept, and other people are very set in their ways and will only tolerate a narrow set of beliefs.
• It is nearly impossible to get people to move from one extreme to the next. It is better to get them to move their position a little.
• If you try to move people with narrow views, they will likely reject your ideas and think you are too extreme.
• People who have a wide variance of beliefs are more open-minded to change as long as you don’t try to move them too far from their anchor position.
Michael Austin Believes We Should Encourage Open Discussion
Small acts of persuasion matter, because there is much less distance between people’s beliefs than we often suppose. We easily confuse the distance between people’s political positions with the intensity of their convictions about them. It is entirely possible for people to become sharply divided, even hostile, over relatively minor disagreements. Americans have fought epic political battles over things like baking wedding cakes and kneeling during the national anthem. And we once fought a shooting war over a whiskey tax of ten cents per gallon. The ferocity of these battles has nothing to do with the actual distance between different positions, which, when compared to the entire range of opinions possible in the world, is almost negligible.
None of this means that we can persuade our opponents easily. Persuading people to change their minds is excruciatingly difficult. It doesn’t always work, and it rarely works the way we think it will. But it does work, and the fact that it works makes it possible for us to have a democracy.
Michael Austin, We Must Not Be Enemies: Restoring America’s Civic Tradition
Discuss This
When trying to persuade others. It is helpful to dress similar to the audience and adapt your speech to the audience and context. After all, you would not use a college-level vocabulary when speaking to third graders. When does adaptation, become manipulation? Some people noted that Hillary Clinton changed her accent to adapt to her role and her audience. Watch this video and discuss what you think–Is she adapting appropriately or over adapting in a manipulative manner.
Lawrence Rosenblum, a psychology professor at the University of California, studies speech imitation and he says “When people are imitated, they are more likely to like the person they’re interacting with — they’re more likely to rate the interaction as successful.” As mentioned before, we like people who are like us. Rosenblum also noted that people tend to naturally imitate others’ body language and speech when making a point. Particularly if it is a persuasive point. He would suggest that we don’t even think about it, we just adapt.
So what do you think about Hillary Clinton’s accent change? Would it make you like her more? Did it seem to be a natural adaptation? If you were a political speech coach, what would you suggest that she do?
To be persuasive we must be believable;
to be believable we must be creditable;
to be credible we must be truthful.
Edward R. Murrow, American Journalist
Ethics in Persuasion
You are given a lot of power when you have the platform and an audience. It is important that you use that power ethically. Researchers Baker and Martinson created the TARES test as a way to examine the ethics of persuasive messages. Read through these questions to see if your persuasive message meets the five principles for ethical persuasion.
TARES Test: Five Principles for Ethical Persuasion
Truthfulness (of the message)
“The Principle of Truthfulness requires the persuader’s intention not to deceive, the intention to provide
others with the truthful information they legitimately need to make good decisions about their lives.”
1. Is this communication factually accurate and true, and also truthful?
2. Does it deceive others either overtly or covertly?
3. Is this communication consistent with open, sincere, and honest communication?
4. Is it responsive to the persuadees’ human need to have truthful information to inform their life decisions?
5. If this message communicates only part of the truth, what are my justifications for disseminating this selective (incomplete) truth?
6. Will the people receiving this message feel they have been deceived if later they learn the whole truth?
7. Is this communication substantially complete?
8. Does it satisfy a reasonable person’s requirements for information in this situation?
9. Will people have reason to question my honesty and trustworthiness as a result of this communication?
10. What can I do to ensure that this persuasive message is truthful?
Authenticity (of the Persuader /Speaker)
The Principle of Authenticity “combines a cluster of related issues including integrity and personal virtue in action and motivation; genuineness and sincerity in promoting particular products and services to particular persuadees; loyalty to appropriate persons, causes, duties, and institutions; and moral independence and commitment to principle.”
1. Does this action compromise my integrity?
2. Does it conform to my highest principles?
3. Would I want others to follow the same rule in similar circumstances?
4. Does this action arise out of noble intentions and motivations?
5. Although I may have the right to do this, is it the right thing to do?
6. Would I ideally want to live in a world in which people routinely engaged in this type of action?
7. What good reasons and justifications do I have for advocating this product, service, or cause (other than purely self-serving reasons)?
8. Do I truly think and believe that the persuadees will benefit (or will be doing the right thing) if they are persuaded to act or think in the ways that this persuasive communication suggests they should?
9. What can I do to conduct myself as an authentic person in this situation?
Respect (for the Persuadee)
The Principle of Respect requires that professional persuaders “regard other human beings as worthy of dignity, that they do not violate their rights, interests, and well-being for raw self-interest or purely client-serving purposes. It assumes that no professional persuasion effort is justified if it demonstrates disrespect for those to whom it is directed.”
1. Is the persuasive appeal made to the decency in people?
2. Have I respected the receivers of this persuasive message by appealing to their higher inclinations and their basic goodness, by not pandering, exploiting, or appealing to their lower or baser inclinations?
3. Does this action or communication respect the persuadee as a human being worthy of dignity and respect?
4. Have I taken the rights, interests, and well-being of others into consideration as much as my own?
5. Does it facilitate persuadees’ capacity to reflect and to make responsible choices about their lives?
6. Is the quality of this information adequate to the information needs of the persuadees?
7. What ethical responsibility do I have for the people I am targeting with this persuasion?
8. Does this action promote raw self-interest at the unfair expense of or to the detriment of persuadees?
9. What can I do to be more respectful of and more responsible to the people I am persuading, and all others who will be affected by this persuasion?
10. Does this persuasive appeal contribute to understanding, consideration, reflection, and valid reasoning, and facilitate informed, free-will assent and consent?
Equity (of the Persuasive Appeal)
The Principle of Equity “requires that persuaders consider if both the content and the execution of the persuasive appeal are fair and equitable if persuaders have fairly used the power of persuasion in a given situation or if they have persuaded or manipulated unjustly.”
1. Is the context, nature, and execution of this persuasive act fair?
2. Is the power of persuasion used fairly and justly?
3. Would I feel that the persuasion in this situation was fair, just, ethical, and appropriate if it were communicated to me or to people I know and love?
4. Is this persuasive appeal sensitive to the needs, interests, concerns, and sensibilities of the persuadees?
5. Have I unfairly targeted specific (or vulnerable) audiences and made claims outside of their ability to understand the context and underlying claims of the communication?
6. Does it allow for both reflection and counterargument?
7. Do the receivers of the message know that they are being persuaded rather than informed?
8. What can I do to make this persuasive appeal fairer and more equitable?
Social Responsibility (for the Common Good)
The Principle of Social Responsibility ” focuses on the need for professional persuaders to be sensitive to and concerned about the wider public interest or the common good. It represents an appeal to responsibility, to the community over [raw] self-interest, profit, or careerism”
1. Does this action recognize the interdependency of persons in society, of persons as communal beings?
2. Is the action/ communication responsible to individuals, society, the public, and the public interest?
3. Does this action take responsibility to promote and create the kind of world and society in which persuaders themselves would like to live with their families and loved ones?
4. Will the product or issue I am promoting cause harm to individuals or to society?
5. Have I considered the responsibility to fairly represent issues and to allow and foster public consideration of alternative views?
6. Has this action’s potential negative impact on individuals and the common good been taken into account and responded to appropriately?
7. Does this persuasive communication promote (or strain) understanding and cooperation among constituent groups of
society?
8. Have I unfairly stereotyped constituent groups of society in this promotion/ communication campaign?
9. Will this action (or not having this information) cause disproportionate harm to any person, group, or interest?
10. Does this persuasive communication elucidate issues, dispel confusion and ignorance, and encourage public dialogue based on truthful information?
** The TARES test was originally developed to test advertising and public relations campaigns. It was applied here to persuasive speeches. For relevance and ease of use, the list of questions on the test was paired down. The original paper and full list of questions can be accessed here: http://www.communicationcache.com/uploads/1/0/8/8/10887248/the_tares_test-_five_principles_for_ethical_persuasion.pdf
We’ve talked about three major persuasive theories, Elaboration Likelihood Model, Judgmental Heuristics, and Social Judgement Theory. Each one offers insight into how people are persuaded. Woven in all of these is a thread of ethics. Thinking about persuasion as you build your speech and building your points based on proven models will help you to take your persuasive speaking to the next level.
Key Takeaways
Remember This!
• The Elaboration Likelihood Model assumes that people are persuaded via a thinking (central) or nonthinking (peripheral) route.
• Judgmental Heuristics is using shortcuts to decide. These shortcuts are authority, commitment/consistency, unity, reciprocity, liking, scarcity, social proof.
• Social Judgment Theory suggests that people are best persuaded when a message is not too far from what they already believe, and it is better to persuade people in small increments.
• The TARES test examines the ethics of a persuasive message: Truthfulness, authenticity, respect, equity, social responsibility.
References
Austin, M. (2019). We must not be enemies: Restoring America’s civic tradition. Rowman & Littlefield.
Baker, S. & Martinson, D.L. (2001). The Tares Test: Five principles for ethical persuasion. Journal of Mass Media Ethics. 16 (2&3). 148-175. http://www.communicationcache.com/uploads/1/0/8/8/10887248/the_tares_test-_five_principles_for_ethical_persuasion.pdf
Bloomberg Quicktake (2015). Hillary Clinton’s accent evolution (1983-2015). [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UCyvyyo6dtQ Standard YouTube License.
Brehm J. W. (1966). A theory of psychological reactance. Academic Press.
Brehm J. W. & Brehm S. S. (1981). Psychological reactance – a theory of freedom and control. Academic Press.
Cialdini, R.B. (2016). Pre-suasion: A revolutionary way to influence and persuade. Simon and Schuster.
Cialdini, R.B. (2009). Influence science and practice. Pearson.
Coppock, A. E. (2016). Positive, small, homogeneous, and durable: Political persuasion in response to information. [Doctoral Dissertation, Columbian University]. Proquest https://doi.org/10.7916/D8J966CS Available https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/D8J966CS
Festinger, L., & Carlsmith, J. M. (1959). Cognitive consequences of forced compliance. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 58, 203–210.
Gass, R.H. & Seiter, J.S. (2014). Persuasion, social influence, and compliance gaining. Pearson
Goldwater, B. Bad science quote. Goodreads.
Hogan, K. (1996). The psychology of persuasion: how to persuade others to your way of thinking. Pelican.
Hovland, C.I. & Sherif, M. (1980). Social judgment: Assimilation and contrast effects in communication and attitude change. Greenwood.
McGonigal, J. (2010). Gaming can make a better world TED Talk.[Video] YouTube. https://www.ted.com/talks/jane_mcgonigal_gaming_can_make_a_better_world?language=en Standard YouTube License.
Murrow, E. R. Quote. Goodreads.
O’Keefe, D. (2008). The international encyclopedia of communication. John Wiley and Sons.
Petty, R.E. & Cacioppo, J.T. (1984). Source factors and the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion. Advances in Consumer Research, 11, 668672.
Petty, R.E. and Cacioppo, J.T. (1986). Communication and persuasion: Central and peripheral routes to attitude change. Springer-Verlag.
Sherif, C. W. & Sherif, M. (1976). Attitude as the individuals’ own categories: The social judgment-involvement approach to attitude and attitude change. Attitude, ego-involvement, and change. Greenwood Press.
Steindl, C., Jonas, E., Sittenthaler, S., Traut-Mattausch, E., & Greenberg, J. (2015). Understanding Psychological Reactance: New Developments and Findings. Zeitschrift fur Psychologie, 223(4), 205–214. https://doi.org/10.1027/2151-2604/a000222
Tutu, D. (2004). Address at the Nelson Mandela Foundation in Houghton, Johannesburg, South Africa. Goodreads.
Tyson, J. (2021). Picture: eat what makes you happy. https://unsplash.com/photos/ZA9PHAnVP5g
Valasquez, L. (2013). How do you define yourself? TED Talk. [Video] YouTube. https://www.ted.com/talks/lizzie_velasquez_how_do_you_define_yourself?language=en Standard YouTube License. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/Advanced_Public_Speaking_(Meade)/05%3A_Considerations_for_Speech/5.04%3A_The_Science_of_Persuasion-_A_Little_Theory_Goes_a_Long_Way.txt |
Introductory Exercises
1. Think of five words that express what you want to do and where you want to be five years from now. Share your five words with your classmates and listen to their responses. What patterns do you observe in the responses? Write a paragraph that addresses at least one observation.
2. With the results of our introductory exercises #1 in mind, please list what you can do and where you could be in five years without support, interaction, or collaboration with anyone other than yourself. Share and compare your results with classmates.
3. Create a list of at least 10 groups to which you belong. Family, church, friends or clubs, online groups, and even this class count! Share and compare your results with classmates.
“Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed citizens can change the world; indeed, it's the only thing that ever has."
Margaret Mead
Getting Started
Communication is an activity, skill, and art that incorporates lessons learned across a wide spectrum of human knowledge. Perhaps the most time-honored form of communication is storytelling. We’ve told each other stories for ages to help make sense of our world, anticipate the future, and certainly to entertain ourselves. We gather around in groups and hear or see stories that say something about our world, our community, who we are. How did we learn the stories we tell each other? From each other. Groups and teams come together to create amazing movies. Artists gather together to produce songs that inspire us. People, effectively working together, can do the impossible.
Telling a story to your friends or peers draws on your understanding of yourself, your message, and how you communicate it to a group that is simultaneously communicating back to you. They respond to your story, perhaps tell a few of their own, and you feel like you are in a group. You are an individual, and a member of the group, at the same time. You are a member of many groups. Knowing how to communicate effectively as a member of a team or in a group is key to your success. You were not born knowing how to write, or even how to talk—but in the process of growing up you have probably learned something about how to tell, and how not tell, a story. When people stand around and want to know what comes next you know you have their attention. They are as much a part of the story as you are. When everyone is involved and listening or participating, it is a fun experience.
You didn’t learn to text in a day, and didn’t learn all the codes, from LOL (Laugh Out Loud) to BRB (Be Right Back), right away. In the same way, learning to communicate well requires you to read and study how others have expressed themselves, then to adapt what you have learned to your present task, whether it is texting a brief message to a friend, presenting your qualifications in a job interview, or making a sales presentation. You come to this text with skills and an understanding that will provide a valuable foundation as we explore group communication.
Effective communication, in all its many forms, takes preparation, practice, and persistence. There are many ways to learn communication skills; the school of experience, or “hard knocks,” is one of them. But in the real world, a “knock” (or lesson learned) may come at the expense of your credibility through a blown presentation to a client. The classroom environment, with a compilation of information and resources such as a text, can offer you a trial run where you get to try out new ideas and skills before you have to use them to communicate effectively to make a sale, motivate your team members, or form a new partnership. Listening to yourself, or perhaps the comments of others, may help you reflect on new ways to present or perceive, thoughts, ideas, and concepts. The net result is your growth; ultimately your ability to communicate in teams and groups will improve, opening more doors than you might anticipate.
As you learn the material in this text, each part will contribute to the whole. The degree to which you attend to each part will ultimately help give you the skills, confidence, and preparation to use communication in furthering your career. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/01%3A_Introducing_Group_Communication/1.00%3A_Chapter_Introduction.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Understand the importance of group communication
Communication is key to your success, in relationships, in the workplace, as a citizen of your country, and across your lifetime. Your ability to communicate comes from experience, which can be an effective teacher, but this text and the related group communication course will offer you a wealth of experiences gathered from professionals across their lifetimes. You can learn from the lessons they’ve learned and be a more effective team and group communicator right out of the gate. According to Ken Boughrum, Executive Vice President and Managing Director, and Tyler Durham, Vice President and Managing Consultant, Stromberg Consulting, “Great teams are distinguished from good teams by how effectively they communicate. Great team communication is more than the words that are said or written. Power is leveraged by the team’s ability to actively listen, clarify, understand, and live by the principle that “everything communicates.” The actions, the tone, the gestures, the infrastructure, the environment and the things that are no done or said speak and inform just as loudly as words.O’Rourke, J., and Yarbrough, B, (2008). Leading Groups and Teams. Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning, p. 2. Effective teams and groups start with effective communication.
Communication Influences Your Thinking about Yourself and Others
We all share a fundamental drive to communicate. Communication can be defined as the process of understanding and sharing meaning. Pearson, J., & Nelson, P. (2000). An Introduction to Human Communication: Understanding and Sharing. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. p. 6. You share meaning in what you say and how you say it, both in oral and written forms. If you could not communicate, what would life be like? A series of never-ending frustrations? Not being able to ask for what you need, or even to understand the needs of others?
Being unable to communicate might even mean losing a part of yourself, for you communicate your self-concept—your sense of self and awareness of who you are—in many ways. Do you like to write? Do you find it easy to make a phone call to a stranger, or to speak to a room full of people? Do you like to work in teams and groups? Perhaps someone told you that you don’t speak clearly, or your grammar needs improvement. Does that make you more or less likely to want to communicate? For some, it may be a positive challenge, while for others it may be discouraging, but in all cases, your ability to communicate is central to your self-concept.
Take a look at your clothes. What are the brands you are wearing? What do you think they say about you? Do you feel that certain styles of shoes, jewelry, tattoos, music, or even automobiles express who you are? Part of your self-concept may be that you express yourself through texting, or through writing longer documents like essays and research papers, or through the way you speak. Those labels and brands in some ways communicate with your group or community. They are recognized, and to some degree, are associated with you. Just as your words represent you in writing, how you present yourself with symbols and images influences how others perceive you.
On the other side of the coin, your communication skills help you to understand others—not just their words, but also their tone of voice, their nonverbal gestures, or the format of their written documents provide you with clues about who they are and what their values and priorities may be. Active listening and reading are also part of being a successful communicator.
Communication Influences How You Learn
When you were an infant, you learned to talk over a period of many months. There was a group of caregivers around you that talked to each other, and sometimes you, and you caught on that you could get something when you used a word correctly. Before you knew it you were speaking in sentences, with words, in a language you learned from your family or those around you. When you got older, you didn’t learn to ride a bike, drive a car, or even text a message on your cell phone in one brief moment. You need to begin the process of improving your communication skills with the frame of mind that it will require effort, persistence, and self-correction.
You learn to speak in public by first having conversations, then by answering questions and expressing your opinions in class, and finally by preparing and delivering a “stand-up” speech. Similarly, you learn to write by first learning to read, then by writing and learning to think critically. Your speaking and writing are reflections of your thoughts, experience, and education, and part of that combination is your level of experience listening to other speakers, reading documents and styles of writing, and studying formats similar to what you aim to produce. Speaking and writing are both key communication skills that you will use in teams and groups.
As you study group communication, you may receive suggestions for improvement and clarification from professionals more experienced than yourself. Take their suggestions as challenges to improve, don’t give up when your first speech or first draft does not communicate the message you intend. Stick with it until you get it right. Your success in communicating is a skill that applies to almost every field of work, and it makes a difference in your relationships with others.
Remember, luck is simply a combination of preparation and timing. You want to be prepared to communicate well when given the opportunity. Each time you do a good job, your success will bring more success.
Communication Represents You and Your Employer
You want to make a good first impression on your friends and family, on your instructors, and on your employer. They all want you to convey a positive image, as it reflects on them. In your career, you will represent your business or company in teams and groups, and your professionalism and attention to detail will reflect positively on you and set you up for success.
As an effective member of the team, you will benefit from having the ability to communicate clearly and with clarity. These are skills you will use for the rest of your life. Positive improvements in these skills will have a positive impact on your relationships, your prospects for employment, and your ability to make a difference in the world.
Communication Skills Are Desired by Business and Industry
Oral and written communication proficiencies are consistently ranked in the top ten desirable skills by employer surveys year after year. In fact, high-powered business executives sometimes hire consultants to coach them in sharpening their communication skills. According to the National Association of Colleges and Employers, the top five personal qualities/skills potential employers seek are (NACE, 2009):
1. Communication skills (verbal and written)
2. Strong work ethic
3. Teamwork skills (works well with others, group communication)
4. Initiative
5. Analytical Skills
Knowing this, you can see that one way for you to be successful and increase your promotion potential is to increase your abilities to speak and write effectively.
Teams and groups are almost universal across all fields because no one personal has all the skills, knowledge, or ability to do everything with an equal degree of excellence. Employees work with each other in manufacturing and service industries on a daily basis. An individual with excellent communication skills is an asset to every organization. No matter what career you plan to pursue, learning to interact, contribute, and excel in groups and teams will help you get there.
Key Takeaway
Communication helps you understand yourself and others, learn new things, and build your career.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Imagine that you have been hired to make “cold calls” to ask people whether they are familiar with a new restaurant that has just opened in your neighborhood. Write a script for the phone call, and focus on the climate, the environment, and the service. Ask a classmate to co-present as you deliver the script orally in class, as if you were making a phone call to the classmate. Discuss your experience with the rest of the class.
2. Imagine you have been assigned the task of creating a job description for a Social Media Manager. Search online and find at least two sample job descriptions, and create one. Make sure you pay attention to words like “effective in virtual teams” and other details that highlight the importance of communication skills. Please present the job description to the class and share what you learned on how communication skills play a role in the tasks or duties you have included. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/01%3A_Introducing_Group_Communication/1.01%3A_Why_Study_Group_Communication.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Define communication and describe communication as a process
2. Identify and describe the eight essential components of communication
3. Identify and describe two models of communication
Many theories have been proposed to describe, predict, and understand the behaviors and phenomena of which communication consists. When it comes to communicating in the workplace, we are often less interested in theory than in making sure our interactions generate the desired results. As a member of a group or team we are often collectively judged on what we produced, not what we individually contributed to the final product. Working in a team can be a challenge, but it can also produce results no individual member could have accomplished alone. Knowing what makes for a productive group starts with effective communication underscore how valuable it can be to understand what communication is and how it works.
Defining Communication
The root of the word “communication” in Latin is communicare, which means to share or to make common. Weekley, E. (1967). An Etymological Dictionary of Modern English (Vol. 1). New York: Dover Publications, p. 338. Communication is defined as the process of understanding and sharing meaning. Pearson, J., & Nelson, P. (2000). An Introduction to Human Communication: Understanding and Sharing. Boston: McGraw-Hill, p. 6.
At the center of our study of communication is the relationship that involves interaction between participants. This definition serves us well with its emphasis on the process, which we’ll examine in depth across this text, of coming to understand and share another’s point of view effectively.
The first keyword in this definition is the word "process". A process is a dynamic activity that is hard to describe because it changes. Pearson, J., & Nelson, P. (2000). An Introduction to Human Communication: Understanding And Sharing. Boston: McGraw-Hill. Imagine you are alone in your kitchen, thinking to yourself. Someone you know (say, your mother) enters the kitchen and you talk briefly. What has changed? Now imagine that your mother is joined by someone else, someone you haven’t met before—and that this stranger listens intently as you speak, almost as if you were giving a speech. What has changed? Your perspective might change, and you might watch your words more closely. The feedback or response from your mother and the stranger may cause you to re-evaluate what you are saying. When we interact, all of these factors and many more influence the process of communication.
The second keyword is "understanding". “To understand is to perceive, to interpret, and to relate our perception and interpretation to what we already know.” McLean, S. (2003). The basics of speech communication. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. If a friend tells you a story about falling off a bike, what image comes to mind? Now your friend points out the window and you see a motorcycle lying on the ground. Understanding the words and the concepts or objects they refer to is an important part of the communication process.
Next comes the word "sharing". Sharing means doing something together with one or more other people. You may share a joint activity, as when you share in compiling a report; or you may benefit jointly from a resource, as when you and several co-workers share a pizza. In communication, sharing occurs when you convey thoughts, feelings, ideas, or insights to others. You can also share with yourself—a process called intrapersonal communication—when you bring ideas to consciousness, ponder how you feel about something, or figure out the solution to a problem and have a classic “Aha!” moment where something becomes clear.
Finally, meaning is what we share through communication. The word “bike” represents both a bicycle and a short name for a motorcycle. By looking at the context the word is used in, and by asking questions, we can discover the shared meaning of the word and understand the message.
Eight Essential Components of Communication
In order to better understand the communication process and how it provides a foundation for group communication, let’s break it down into eight essential components. Each component serves an integral function in the overall process.
Source
The source imagines, creates, and sends the message. In a public speaking situation, the source is the person giving the speech. He or she conveys the message by sharing new information with the audience. The speaker also conveys a message through his or her tone of voice, body language, and choice of clothing. Taking a turn as a group member can sometimes feel like a speech as all eyes are on you. The speaker begins by first determining the message—what they want to say and how they want to say it. The next step involves encoding the message by choosing just the right order or the perfect words to convey the intended meaning. The third step is to present the information, sending the information to the receiver, audience, or group members. Finally, by watching for the audience’s reaction, the source perceives how well they received the message, and responds with clarification or supporting information.
Message
“The message is the stimulus or meaning produced by the source for the receiver or audience.” McLean, S. (2005). The Basics of Interpersonal Communication. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, p. 10. When you plan to give a speech or write a report, your message may seem to be only the words you choose that will convey your meaning. But that is just the beginning. The words are brought together with grammar and organization. You may choose to save your most important point for last. The message also consists of the way you say it—in a speech, with your tone of voice, your body language, and your appearance—and in a report, with your writing style, punctuation (!), and the headings and formatting you choose. In addition, part of the message may be the environment or context you present in and any noise which may make your message hard to hear or see.
Imagine, for example, that you are addressing a large audience of sales reps and are aware there is a World Series game tonight. Your sales team members might have a hard time settling down, but you may choose to open with, “I understand there is an important game tonight.” In this way, by expressing verbally something that most people in your audience are aware of and interested in, you might grasp and focus their attention.
Channel
“The channel is the way in which a message or messages travel between source and receiver.”McLean, S. (2005). The Basics of Interpersonal Communication. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, p.10. For example, think of your television. How many channels do you have on your television? Each channel takes up some space, even in a digital world, in the cable or in the signal that brings the message of each channel to your home. Television combines an audio signal you hear with a visual signal you see. Together they convey the message to the receiver or audience. Turn off the volume on your television. Can you still understand what is happening? Many times you can, because the body language conveys part of the message of the show. Now turn up the volume but turn around so that you cannot see the television. You can still hear the dialogue and follow the storyline.
Similarly, when you speak or write, you are using a channel to convey your message. Spoken channels include face-to-face conversations, speeches, telephone conversations and voice mail messages, radio, public address systems, and voice-over-internet protocol (VOIP). Written channels include letters, memorandums, purchase orders, invoices, newspaper and magazine articles, blogs, e-mail, text messages, tweets, and so forth.
Receiver
“The receiver receives the message from the source, analyzing and interpreting the message in ways both intended and unintended by the source.” McLean, S. (2005). The Basics of Interpersonal Communication. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, p.10. To better understand this component, think of a receiver on a football team. The quarterback throws the message (football) to a receiver, who must see and interpret where to catch the football. The quarterback may intend for the receiver to “catch” his message in one way, but the receiver may see things differently and miss the football (the intended meaning) altogether. When the quarterback and receiver, as well as the rest of the team, fail to communicate, an interception—like a miscommunication—is bound to occur.
As a receiver you listen, see, touch, smell, and/or taste to receive a message. Your team members “size you up,” much as you might check them out long before you open your mouth. The nonverbal responses of your listeners can serve as clues on how to adjust your opening. By imagining yourself in their place, you anticipate what you would look for if you were them. Just as a quarterback plans where the receiver will be in order to place the ball correctly, you too can recognize the interaction between source and receiver in a business communication context. All of this happens at the same time, illustrating why and how communication is always changing.
Feedback
When you respond to the source, intentionally or unintentionally, you are giving feedback. Feedback is composed of messages the receiver sends back to the source. Verbal or nonverbal, all of these feedback signals allow the source to see how well, how accurately (or how poorly and inaccurately) the message was received. Feedback also provides an opportunity for the receiver or audience to ask for clarification, to agree or disagree, or to indicate that the source could make the message more interesting. As the amount of feedback increases, the accuracy of communication also increases. Leavitt, & Mueller, R. (1951). some effects of feedback on communication. Human Relations, 4, 401–410.
For example, suppose you are a sales manager participating in a conference call with four sales reps. As the source, you want to tell the reps to take advantage of the fact that it is World Series season to close sales on baseball-related sports gear. You state your message, but you hear no replies from your listeners. You might assume that this means they understood and agreed with you—but later in the month, you might be disappointed to find that very few sales were made. If you followed up your message with a request for feedback (“Does this make sense? Do any of you have any questions?”) you might have an opportunity to clarify your message, and to find out whether any of the sales reps believed your suggestion would not work with their customers.
Environment
“The environment is the atmosphere, physical and psychological, where you send and receive messages.” McLean, S. (2005). The Basics of Interpersonal Communication. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, p. 11. The environment can include the tables, chairs, lighting, and sound equipment that are in the room. The room itself is an example of the environment. The environment can also include factors like formal dress, that may indicate whether a discussion is open and caring or more professional and formal. People may be more likely to have an intimate conversation when they are physically close to each other, and less likely when they can only see each other from across the room. In that case, they may text each other, itself an intimate form of communication. The choice to text is influenced by the environment. As a speaker, your environment will impact and play a role in your speech. It’s always a good idea to go check out where you’ll be speaking before the day of the actual presentation.
Context
“The context of the communication interaction involves the setting, scene, and expectations of the individuals involved.” McLean, S. (2005). The Basics of Interpersonal Communication. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, p.11. A professional communication context may involve business suits (environmental cues) that directly or indirectly influence expectations of language and behavior among the participants.
A meeting, presentation, or personal conversation does not take place as an isolated event. When you came to class, you came from somewhere. So did the person seated next to you, as did the instructor. The degree to which the environment is formal or informal depends on the contextual expectations for communication held by the participants. The person sitting next to you may be used to informal communication with instructors, but this particular instructor may be used to verbal and nonverbal displays of respect in the academic environment. You may be used to formal interactions with instructors as well, and find your classmate’s question of “Hey Teacher, do we have homework today?” as rude and inconsiderate when they see it as normal. The nonverbal response from the instructor will certainly give you a clue about how they perceive the interaction, both the word choices and how they were said.
Context is all about what people expect from each other, and we often create those expectations out of environmental cues. Traditional gatherings like weddings or quinceaneras are often formal events. There is a time for quiet social greetings, a time for silence as the bride walks down the aisle, or the father may have the first dance with his daughter as she transforms from a girl to womanhood in the eyes of her community. In either celebration, there may come a time for rambunctious celebration and dancing. You may be called upon to give a toast, and the wedding or quinceanera context will influence your presentation, timing, and effectiveness.
In a business meeting, who speaks first? That probably has some relation to the position and role each person has outside of the meeting. Context plays a very important role in communication, particularly across cultures.
Interference
Interference, also called noise, can come from any source. “Interference is anything that blocks or changes the source’s intended meaning of the message.” McLean, S. (2005). The Basics of Interpersonal Communication. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, p. 11. For example, if you drove a car to work or school, chances are you were surrounded by noise. Car horns, billboards, or perhaps the radio in your own car interrupted your thoughts or your conversation with a passenger.
Psychological noise is what happens when your own thoughts occupy your attention while you are hearing, or reading, a message. Imagine that it is 4:45 p.m. and your boss, who is at a meeting in another city, e-mails you asking for last month’s sales figures, an analysis of current sales projections, and the sales figures from the same month for the past five years. You may open the email, start to read, and think “Great—no problem—I have those figures and that analysis right here in my computer.” You fire off a reply with last month’s sales figures and the current projections attached. Then, at 5 o’clock, you turn off your computer and go home. The next morning, your boss calls on the phone to tell you he was inconvenienced because you neglected to include the sales figures from the previous years. What was the problem? Interference: by thinking about how you wanted to respond to your boss’s message, you prevented yourself from reading attentively enough to understand the whole message.
Interference can come from other sources, too. Perhaps you are hungry, and your attention to your own situation interferes with your ability to listen. Maybe the office is hot and stuffy. If you were a member of an audience listening to an executive speech, how could this impact your ability to listen and participate?
Noise interferes with normal encoding and decoding of the message carried by the channel between source and receiver. Not all noise is bad, but noise interferes with the communication process. For example, your cellphone ringtone may be a welcome noise to you, but it may interrupt the communication process in class and bother your classmates.
Two Models of Communication
Researchers have observed that when communication takes place, the source and the receiver may send messages at the same time, often overlapping. You, as the speaker, will often play both roles, as source and receiver. You’ll focus on the communication and the reception of your messages to the audience. The audience will respond in the form of feedback that will give you important clues. While there are many models of communication, here we will focus on two that offer perspectives and lessons for effective communicators.
Rather than looking at the source sending a message and someone receiving it as two distinct acts, researchers often view communication as a transactional process (Figure 1.2.2 "The Transactional Model of Communication"), with actions often happening at the same time. The distinction between source and receiver is blurred in conversational turn-taking, for example, where both participants play both roles simultaneously.
Researchers have also examined the idea that we all construct our own interpretations of the message. What I said (or wrote) and what you heard may be different. In the constructivist model (Figure 1.2.3 "The Constructivist Model of Communication"), we focus on the negotiated meaning, or common ground, when trying to describe communication. Pearce, W. B., & Cronen, V. (1980). Communication, Action, and Meaning: The Creating of Social Realities. New York: Praeger, Cronen, V., & Pearce, W. B. (1982). The coordinated management of meaning: a theory of communication. In F. E. Dance (Ed.), Human Communication Theory (pp. 61–89). New York: Harper & Row.
Imagine that you are visiting Atlanta, Georgia, and go to a restaurant for dinner. When asked if you want a “Coke,” you may reply, “sure.” The waiter may then ask you again, “what kind?” and you may reply, “Coke is fine.” The waiter then may ask a third time, “what kind of soft drink would you like?” The misunderstanding in this example is that in Atlanta, the home of The Coca-Cola Company, most soft drinks are generically referred to as “Coke.” When you order a soft drink, you need to specify what type, even if you wish to order a beverage that is not a cola or not even made by The Coca-Cola Company. To someone from other regions of the United States, the words “pop,” “soda pop,” or “soda” may be the familiar way to refer to a soft drink; not necessarily the brand “Coke.” In this example, both you and the waiter understand the word “Coke,” but you each understand it to mean something different. In order to communicate, you must each realize what the term means to the other person, and establish common ground, in order to fully understand the request and provide an answer.
Because we carry the multiple meanings of words, gestures, and ideas within us, we can use a dictionary to guide us, but we will still need to negotiate meaning.
Key Takeaway
The communication process involves understanding, sharing, and meaning, and it consists of 8 essential elements: source, message, channel, receiver, feedback, environment, context, and interference.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Draw what you think communication looks like. Share your drawing with your classmates.
2. List three environmental cues and indicate how they influence your expectations for communication. Please share your results with your classmates.
3. How does context influence your communication? If you could design the perfect date, what activities, places, and/or environmental cues would you include to set the mood? Please share your results with your classmates. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/01%3A_Introducing_Group_Communication/1.02%3A_What_Is_Communication.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Identify and describe five types of communication contexts
Now that we have examined the eight components of communication, let’s examine this in context. Is a quiet dinner conversation with someone you care about the same experience as a discussion in class or giving a speech? Is sending a text message to a friend the same experience as writing a professional project proposal or a purchase order? Is working in a team or group the same as working together as a family? Each context has an influence on the communication process. Contexts can overlap, creating an even more dynamic process. You have been communicating in many of these contexts across your lifetime, and you’ll be able to apply what you’ve learned through experience in each context to group communication.
Intrapersonal Communication
Have you ever listened to a speech or lecture and gotten caught up in your own thoughts so that, while the speaker continued, you were no longer listening? During a phone conversation, have you ever been thinking about what you are going to say, or what question you might ask, instead of listening to the other person? Finally, have you ever told yourself how you did after you wrote a document or gave a presentation? As you “talk with yourself” you are engaged in intrapersonal communication.
Intrapersonal communication involves one person; it is often called “self-talk.”Wood, J. (1997). Communication in Our Lives. Boston, MA: Wadsworth, p.22. Donna Vocate’sVocate, D. (Ed.). (1994). Intrapersonal Communication: Different Voices, Different Minds. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. book on intrapersonal communication explains how, as we use language to reflect on our own experiences, we talk ourselves through situations. For example, the voice within you that tells you, “Keep on Going! I can DO IT!” when you are putting your all into completing a five-mile race; or that says, “This report I’ve written is pretty good.” Your intrapersonal communication can be positive or negative, and directly influences how you perceive and react to situations and communication with others.
What you perceive in communication with others is also influenced by your culture, native language, and your world view. As the German philosopher Jürgen Habermas said, “Every process of reaching understanding takes place against the background of a culturally ingrained preunderstanding.” Habermas, J. (1984). The Theory of Communicative Action (Vol. 1). Boston: Beacon Press, p. 100.
For example, you may have certain expectations of time and punctuality. You weren’t born with them, so where did you learn them? From those around you as you grew up. You learned from your family or the group of people who raised you. What was normal for them became normal for you, but not everyone’s idea of normal, is the same.
When your supervisor invites you to a meeting and says it will start at 7 p.m., does that mean 7:00 sharp, 7-ish, or even 7:30? In the business context, when a meeting is supposed to start at 9 a.m., is it promptly a 9 a.m.? Variations in time expectations depend on regional and national culture as well as individual corporate cultures. In some companies, everyone may be expected to arrive 10-15 minutes before the announced start time to take their seats and be ready to commence business at 9:00 sharp. In other companies, “meeting and greeting” from about 9 to 9:05 or even 9:10 is the norm. When you are unfamiliar with the expectations for a business event, it is always wise to err on the side of being punctual, regardless of what your own internal assumptions about time and punctuality may be.
Interpersonal Communication
The second major context within the field of communication is interpersonal communication. Interpersonal communication normally involves two people, and can range from intimate and very personal to formal and impersonal. You may carry on a conversation with a loved one, sharing a serious concern. Later, at work, you may have a brief conversation about plans for the weekend with the security guard on your way home. What’s the difference? Both scenarios involve interpersonal communication but are different in levels of intimacy. The first example implies a trusting relationship established over time between two caring individuals. The second example level implies some previous familiarity, and is really more about acknowledging each other than any actual exchange of information, much like saying hello or goodbye.
Group Communication
Have you ever noticed how a small group of people in class sit near each other? Perhaps they are members of the same sports program or just friends, but no doubt they often engage in group communication.
“Group communication is a dynamic process where a small number of people engage in a conversation.” McLean, S. (2005). The Basics of Interpersonal Communication. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, p. 14. Group communication is generally defined as involving three to eight people. The larger the group, the more likely it is to break down into smaller groups.
To take a page from marketing, does your audience have segments or any points of convergence/divergence? We could consider factors like age, education, sex, and location to learn more about groups and their general preferences as well as dislikes. You may find several groups within the larger audience, such as specific areas of education, and use this knowledge to increase your effectiveness as a communicator.
Public Communication
In public communication, one person speaks to a group of people; the same is true of public written communication, where one person writes a message to be read by a small or large group. The speaker or writer may ask questions, and engage the audience in a discussion (in writing, examples are an email discussion or a point-counter-point series of letters to the editor), but the dynamics of the conversation are distinct from group communication, where different rules apply. In a public speaking situation, the group normally defers to the speaker. For example, the boss speaks to everyone, and the sales team quietly listens without interruption.
This generalization is changing as norms and expectations change, and many cultures have a tradition of “call-outs” or interjections that are not to be interpreted as interruptions or competition for the floor, but instead as affirmations. The boss may say, as part of a charged-up motivational speech, “Do you hear me?” and the sales team is expected to call back “Yes Sir!” The boss, as a public speaker, recognizes that intrapersonal communication (thoughts of the individual members) or interpersonal communication (communication between team members) may interfere with this classic public speaking dynamic of all to one, or the audience devoting all its attention to the speaker, and incorporate attention-getting and engagement strategies to keep the sales team focused on the message.
Mass Communication
How do you tell everyone on campus where and when all the classes are held? Would a speech from the front steps work? Perhaps it might meet the need if your school is a very small one. A written schedule that lists all classes would be a better alternative. How do you let everyone know there is a sale on in your store, or that your new product will meet their needs, or that your position on a political issue is the same as your constituents? You send a message to as many people as you can through mass communication. Does everyone receive mass communication the same way they might receive a personal phone call? Not likely. Some people who receive mass mailings assume that they are “junk mail” (i.e., that they do not meet the recipients’ needs) and throw them away unopened. People may tune out a television advertisement with a click of the mute button, delete tweets or ignore friend requests on Facebook by the hundreds, or send all unsolicited emails straight to the spam folder unread.
Mass media is a powerful force in modern society and our daily lives and is adapting rapidly to new technologies. Mass communication involves sending a single message to a group. It allows us to communicate our message to a large number of people, but we are limited in our ability to tailor our message to specific audiences, groups, or individuals. As a business communicator, you can use multimedia as a visual aid or reference common programs, films, or other images that your audience finds familiar yet engaging. You can tweet a picture that is worth far more than 140 characters and is just as likely to elicit a significant response. By choosing messages or references that many audience members will recognize or can identify with, you can develop common ground and increase the appeal of your message.
Key Takeaway
Communication contexts include intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, public, and mass communication.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Please recall a time when you gave a speech in front of a group. How did you feel? What was your experience? What did you learn from your experience? If given a second opportunity, how would you approach the group differently?
2. If you were asked to get the attention of your peers, what image or word would you choose and why?
3. If you were asked to get the attention of someone like yourself, what image or word would you choose and why?
4. Make a list of mass communication messages you observe for a one hour period of time. Share your list with classmates. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/01%3A_Introducing_Group_Communication/1.03%3A_Communication_in_Context.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Identify ways in which group communication differs from interpersonal communication
2. Identify relationship and task advantages and disadvantages of working in groups versus individually
“It used to be argued that slavery was abolished simply because it had ceased to be profitable, but all the evidence points the other way: in fact, it was abolished despite the fact that it was still profitable. What we need to understand, then, is a collective change of heart. Like all such great changes, it had small beginnings.”Ferguson, N. Empire: The Rise and Demise of the British Empire and the Lessons for Global Power, quoted in Steffen, A. (2006). Worldchanging: A User’s Guide for the 21st Century. New York: Harry N. Abrams.
Niall Ferguson
All human beings exist, spend time, and behave both individually and in groups. When you’re a student, you spend a great deal of your time in groups. In the working world, whether you’re already in it or not, you spend even more. O’Hair, D. & Wiemann, M.O. (2004). The Essential Guide to Group Communication. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, p. 7.
Of course, many times you have no choice whether you’ll work alone or in a group. You’re just told what to do. Still, you’re best apt to be prepared if you know what to expect of each status.
Differences between Group and Interpersonal Communication
The mere fact that groups include multiple people leads to at least four consequences. Whether these consequences prove to be advantageous or not depends on the skill level and knowledge of a group’s members.
First, since not everyone in a group can talk at the same time (at least, not if they intend to understand and be understood by each other), members have to seek permission to speak. They need to decide how to take turns. In this respect, a group is inherently more formal than a single individual or a dyad.
Second, members of a group have to share time together. The larger the group, the less average time per person is available and the fewer opportunities each member will likely have to contribute to discussions.
Third, communication in groups is generally less intimate than in interpersonal settings. Because there are so many personalities and levels of relationship to consider, people in groups are less inclined to share personal details or express controversial views.
Finally, group work is more time-consuming than individual or interpersonal effort. Why? For one thing, group members usually try to let everyone share information and views. Also, the more people are involved in a discussion, the more diverse opinions may need to be considered and allowed to compete.
As we’ve noted earlier, groups apply themselves toward reaching aims and accomplishing things. In addition to this task-oriented characteristic, however, they include and depend upon relationships among their members. Although these two elements are usually intertwined rather than discrete and separate, an overview of the pluses and minuses of each can help you make the most of your experience in a group.
Relationship Advantages
The columnist David Brooks interpreted research as indicating that human beings are “wired to cooperate and collaborate, just as much as we are to compete.” Galanes, G., & Adams, K. (2013). Effective Group Discussion: Theory and Practice. New York: McGraw-Hill, p. 5. What’s in it for you in terms of relationships, then, if you work in a group instead of alone? Well, you may have a number of your most important human needs satisfied. Here are some specifics:
• You may enjoy fellowship and companionship
• You may receive moral and emotional support for your views and objectives
• You may meet three important needs identified by William Schutz, which we’ll discuss more in Chapter 2: Galanes, G., & Adams, K. (2013). Effective Group Discussion: Theory and Practice. New York: McGraw-Hill, p. 5. inclusion, affection, and control.
• You may have your impulsiveness curbed or your reticence challenged
• You may cultivate ties that yield future personal or career advantages
In the next chapter, we’ll further explore the ideas William Schutz, who theorized about levels of basic human needs and how they may vary from person to person and according to people’s circumstances. We’ll also review Abraham Maslow’s model of human needs.
Relationship Disadvantages
Despite the advantages it offers, working in groups almost invariably presents challenges and disadvantages in the realm of relationships. These are some of the chief dangers you may encounter as part of a group:
• It will probably take a lot of time to create, maintain, and repair the human relationships involved in a group
• Your group may generate conflict which hurts people’s feelings and otherwise undermines their relationships
• You may misunderstand other group members’ intentions or messages
• Some group members may attempt to deceive, manipulate, or betray the trust of other members
Task Advantages
Anthropologists have asserted that a major feature of mainstream culture in the United States is a relentless pressure to do things—to accomplish things. Tom Peters is credited with first calling this cultural feature “a bias for action.” One best-selling business self-help book reinforced this national passion for dynamic behavior. Its title is A Bias for Action: How Effective Managers Harness Their Willpower, Achieve Results, and Stop Wasting Time. Bruch, H., & Ghoshal, S. (2004). A Bias for Action: How Effective Managers Harness Their Willpower, Achieve Results, and Stop Wasting Time. Boston: Harvard Business Review Press. Without a doubt, accomplishing tasks constitutes a central purpose of most human behavior in the modern world.
When you’re trying to get something done, working in a group promises many positive possibilities, among them being the following:
• The group will most likely have access to much more information than any member possesses.
• The group can focus multiple attentions and diverse energy on a topic.
• The group may be more thorough in dealing with a topic than any individual might be. This thoroughness may arise simply because of the number of perspectives represented in the group, but it also owes to the fact that members often “propel each other’s thinking.”Wood, J.T. (1997). Communication in Our Lives. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, p. 270.
• The group may harness and exploit conflict to generate new and better ideas than an individual could. When tension and disagreement are resolved constructively, the chances of achieving group goals increase.
• The group may attain deeper understanding of topics. One analysis of studies, for instance, indicated that students in group-based learning environments learned more, and remembered more of what they learned, than did counterparts exposed to more traditional methods. Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., & Smith, K.A. (1998, July/August). Cooperative learning returns to college. Change, 30 (4), 31.
• Synergy—a combined effect greater than the simple sum total of individual contributions—can arise. Sometimes synergy results through enhanced creativity as group members share and build upon each other’s strengths and perspectives. You can probably think of examples of an athletic squad or business group comprising members with modest individual strengths that performed superlatively together.
• The group may spur needed social change. Margaret Mead wrote, “Never doubt that a small group of committed people can change the world. Indeed, it is the only thing that ever has.” It may be reasonable to question whether the world always works the way Mead described, but many examples do exist of small groups that initiated changes that spread to larger and large parts of society. All other things being equal, a group of committed individuals will project more credibility and engender more support than will a solitary person.
Task Disadvantages
Groups aren’t always successful at reaching their goals. You’ve probably experienced many situations in which you became frustrated or angry because a group you were part of seemed to be taking two steps backward for every step forward—or perhaps you felt it was going only backward. Here are some features of group work which distinguish it in a potentially negative way from what you might be able to accomplish by yourself or with a single partner:
• In order to be successful, groups need broad, ongoing, time-consuming exchanges of messages. They need to invest in coordinating and monitoring what they’re doing. With people as busy as they are in the twenty-first century, “out of sight” is indeed often “out of mind.” If they don’t keep in touch frequently, group members may forget what they’ve most recently discussed or decided as a group. They also run the risk of losing track of the structures and processes they’ve put in place to help them move toward their goals.
• Some group members may engage in “social loafing.” When one or two people are assigned a task, they know they’re being watched and are apt to shoulder the burden. In a larger group, however, any given member will feel less personally responsible for what takes place in it. If too many members follow the natural tendency to observe rather than act, a group may lose its efficiency and thereby find it much more difficult to reach its aims.
• Groupthink may sap the creative potential of the members. Too much diversity in outlooks and work styles may act as a barrier to a group, but too little diversity also represents a threat to success. If they too easily adopt and hold onto one viewpoint or course of action, people may fall prey to two dangers. First, they may overlook flaws in their thinking. Second, they may fail to anticipate dangers that they might have been detected with closer scrutiny and longer reflection.
Key Takeaway
To accomplish tasks and relate effectively in a group, it’s important to know the advantages and disadvantages inherent in groups.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Identify two groups of which you’re a member. Describe the following:
1. How each group determined how to take turns in communicating—or, if you weren’t part of determining this process, how people take turns now;
2. The most controversial view you can recall being expressed in each group; and
3. A task which feel each group performed better than any of its individuals might have done alone.
2. Describe an experience in which you observed people cooperating or collaborating when they might instead have competed. What do you believe motivated them to cooperate?
3. Identify two examples of your personal or vocational growth which you feel you owe to participation in a group.
4. Identify a group you’ve been part of which contributed to positive social change. How did it establish its credibility and influence with other people and groups? | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/01%3A_Introducing_Group_Communication/1.04%3A_Advantages_and_Disadvantages_of_Working_in_Groups.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Identify the nature and types of social media
2. Identify ways in which social media can foster and endanger group communication
3. Identify safeguards that groups can adopt when communicating via social media
Progress might have been all right once, but it's gone too far.
Ogden Nash
I would trade all of my technology for an afternoon with Socrates.
Steve Jobs
You may disagree with the whimsical words of Ogden Nash and the more philosophical statement by Steve Jobs. Perhaps you feel that today’s electronic technologies are nothing but wonderful. Whatever your opinion, though, you’ll have a hard time arguing that the Internet is a small part of people’s lives in today’s world. Consider these facts about social media:
• Facebook was expected to register its one-billionth user sometime in 2012
• Ten hours of video recordings are uploaded to YouTube every minute
• Flickr provides access to more than three billion photographs
• More than three-quarters of everyone worldwide who uses the Internet takes part in social media. Hunter, C. (2012, January 23). Number of Facebook users could reach 1 billion by 2012. The Exponent Online Retrieved from www.purdueexponent.org/features/article_8815d757-8b7c-566f-8fbe-49528d4d8037.html; Kaplan, A.M., & Haenlein, M. (2010). Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of social media. Business Horizons, 53, 59–69.
Do you remember the first time you saw the ocean? Did it awe and overwhelm you, as it did the authors of this book? Did you feel small and insignificant?
The ocean can affect us emotionally, but it can also make an intellectual impression. Knowing its scientific side, we realize that people can interact with the ocean in sundry ways. We also know it’s not possible for us as individuals or groups to go everywhere on the ocean at once or to tap all its potential. So it is with social media in the Digital Age.
The vastness, breadth, and ease of access of social media are unprecedented in human history. But they resemble the ocean in other ways besides their size. When we go to sea, bad things can happen. We can fall prey to storms, find ourselves becalmed and bored, or discover that we don’t have the right gear to snag a particular kind of fish. We may also fall overboard and drown. Similar perils are associated with social media.
What Are Social Media?
A simple definition of social media is that they are Web-based and mobile technologies that enable interaction among people. Social media may be divided into six types: collaborative projects, such as Wikipedia; blogs and microblogs, such as Twitter; content communities, such as YouTube; social networking sites, such as Facebook; virtual game worlds; and virtual social worlds. Of these types, the first four are most likely to be valuable for serious and purposeful group communication.
How Social Media Help Groups
Until just a few generations ago, members of a group who wanted to communicate with each other at the same time needed to move themselves to a shared physical location to do so. Today, social media make it unnecessary for people to “transport their atoms” like this. These media also facilitate communication within groups in the several ways. First, they allow physically separated people to communicate in real-time. Such communication is called “synchronous,” whereas interchanges that don’t follow each other are referred to as “asynchronous.” Just the “wow” factor of seeing and hearing people simultaneously when they’re dispersed over hundreds or thousands of miles can propel a group forward.
Social media also allow people in different places to collaborate on projects. As information related to tasks emerges over time, people can sustain their focus and attention on individual and shared responsibilities.
Social media permit people to keep in contact with each other when they’re not meeting formally. Electronic availability makes it possible for people to enjoy a sense of proximity and familiarity with each other.
Social media enable group members to identify and collect information pertinent to their aims. Visiting forums, blogs, podcasts, and other Internet sites can make it possible for members to enlarge their understanding of the topics they deal with.
Finally, social media can benefit members by focusing attention primarily on messages instead of “status markers” such as titles, age, and attire.
Communicating through social media frees groups from the constraints of place and time that until recently used to apply to all human interactions. It can also save considerable money and time that people used to have to spend.
How Social Media Endanger Groups
If you’re using a butter knife and drop it on your foot, your foot will hurt. If you’re using a chain saw and drop it on your foot, you may become permanently disabled. When it comes to group communication, social media resemble chain saws much more than they do butter knives. People may fracture friendships, lose jobs, squander opportunities, and wreck reputations through their use and misuse of social media.
Groups may encounter many kinds of dangers when they use social media. For one thing, social media can constitute a huge time sink. Nearly half of all Facebook and Twitter users sign in to their accounts during the night or first thing in the morning.Is social media the new addiction? Marketing Profs. Retrieved from static.vizworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/Social-Network-Map3.png, 2010. Because these resources are so multifaceted and visually enticing, they may distract groups from both their task-related and group maintenance functions. Trying to select and learn to use social media can lead groups down blind alleys.
Social media also make it easy to distribute hurtful or dubious material. Misunderstandings can spread quickly and widely via electronic media, and they can be difficult to correct once people’s feelings have been hurt or inflamed. Even just a few intemperate words composed in haste, or comments intended to be taken in jest but open to multiple interpretations, can create lasting problems within a group.
Third, social media may drain the sense of “social presence” from interactions because they transmit people’s nonverbal messaging incompletely, if at all.
Last of all, groups using social media may leave dirty “digital tracks.” Nothing that members of a group post to the Internet should be considered private, and inappropriate messages or images can easily prompt criticism or even legal action.
Social media make it possible to transmit messages faster and more widely than face-to-face communication can. At the same time, reactions to messages exchanged via social media may vary dramatically because the media lack “personalness” and are processed by each individual according to that person’s circumstances and frame of mind.
Safeguards for Groups Using Social Media
To make the most of the convenience that social media offer while avoiding the pitfalls they may present, groups should be careful how they operate. As a general rule, it’s best not to say or do anything using social media that you wouldn’t do in a face-to-face setting. Here are some specific steps your group can take to best communicate via social media:
1. Set guidelines for how you intend to use social media. A full-blown “policy” may not be necessary for small and informal groups, but it never hurts to put something in writing that your group members can refer to as they work or that you can offer to new members as part of their orientation to the group. These guidelines should probably identify ways in which social media are to be used to support group members. In addition, a statement should probably be included which indicates that all group members are expected to behave professionally when using social media.
2. Check the privacy settings on the social media sites you use. Make sure you know how much of your communication is shared with which potential audiences. If you’re not sure whether a message or post will be accessible to the whole world, assume that it will be and act accordingly.
3. Monitor your group’s online “persona” regularly. Find out what other people see when they enter the group’s name or other details in a search engine.
4. Never divulge passwords from your group’s social media resources. Though the likelihood is slight, someone with access to such information could post objectionable content while posing as a group member.
5. Take care to share messages and information with only the individuals you mean them for. Pause, think, and look carefully before pressing any “send” or “share” button.
6. Be sure you know the copyright status of any materials you draw upon as you conduct your group’s business. If you’re not sure it’s legal or ethical to borrow or copy a particular item without asking, assume that it isn’t.
Real-time communication through social media makes it possible for group members to gauge each other’s attitudes and feelings with some accuracy. Responses to asynchronous messages transmitted via social media may not arrive in a timely fashion, however. As a result, using social media to explore topics and solve problems requires tact, patience, and flexibility.
Key Takeaway
Social media are pervasive and can facilitate the operation of groups, but they must be used carefully to avoid causing serious harm.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Identify two social media you or your friends have used regularly. Describe a problem you solved while using the media.
2. Describe a misunderstanding you’ve experienced while using social media. How might it have been avoided in a face-to-face setting?
3. Imagine that you and five classmates or work colleagues have established communication via a social medium. What rule or guideline would you adopt above all others to govern your activities?
Review Questions
1. Interpretive Questions:
1. What assumptions are present in the transactional model of communication?
2. How does our native language or culture influence our communication or style of presentation?
2. Application Questions:
1. Observe two people talking. Describe their communication. See if you can find all eight components and provide an example for each one.
2. Find an example of a model of communication where you work and provide an example for all eight components. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/01%3A_Introducing_Group_Communication/1.05%3A_Group_Communication_and_Social_Media.txt |
Introductory Exercises
1. List the family and social groups you belong to and interact with on a regular basis—for example, within a 24-hour period or within a typical week. Please also consider forums, online communities, and websites where you follow threads of discussion or post regularly. Discuss your results with your classmates.
2. List the professional (i.e., work-related) groups you interact with in order of frequency. Please also consider informal as well as formal groups (e.g., the 10:30 coffee club and the colleagues you often share your commute with). Compare your results with those of your classmates.
3. Identify one group to which you no longer belong. List at least one reason why you no longer belong to this group. Compare your results with those of your classmates.
“Teamwork is the ability to work together toward a common vision. The ability to direct individual accomplishments toward organizational objectives. It is the fuel that allows common people to attain uncommon results.”
Andrew Carnegie
Getting Started
As humans, we are social beings. We naturally form relationships with others. In fact, relationships are often noted as one of the most important aspects of a person’s life, and they exist in many forms. Interpersonal communication occurs between two people, but group communication may involve two or more individuals. Groups are a primary context for interaction within the business community. Groups may have heroes and enemies, sages alongside new members. Groups overlap, and may share common goals, but may also engage in conflict. Groups can be supportive or coercive and can exert powerful influences over individuals.
Within a group, individuals may behave in distinct ways, use unique or specialized terms, or display symbols that have meaning to that group. Those same terms or symbols may be confusing, meaningless, or even unacceptable to another group. An individual may belong to both groups, adapting his or her communication patterns to meet group normative expectations. Groups are increasingly important across social media venues, and there are many examples of successful business ventures on the web that value and promote group interaction.
Groups use words to exchange meaning, establish territory, and identify who is a stranger versus who is a trusted member. Are you familiar with the term “troll”? It is often used to identify someone who is not a member of an online group or community, who does not share the values and beliefs of the group, and who posts a message in an online discussion board to initiate flame wars, cause disruption, or otherwise challenge the group members. Members often use words to respond to the challenge that are not otherwise common in the discussions, and the less than flattering descriptions of the troll are a rallying point.
Groups have existed throughout human history, and continue to follow familiar patterns across emerging venues as we adapt to technology, computer-mediated interaction, suburban sprawl, and modern life. We need groups, and groups need us. Our relationship with groups warrants attention to this interdependence as we come to know ourselves, our communities, and our world.
2.01: What Is a Group
Learning Objectives
1. Define groups and teams
2. Discuss how primary and secondary groups meet our interpersonal needs
3. Discuss how groups tend to limit their own size and create group norms
Let’s get into a time machine and travel way, way back to join early humans in prehistoric times. Their needs are like ours today: they cannot exist or thrive without air, food, and water—and a sense of belonging. How did they meet these needs? Through cooperation and competition. If food scarcity was an issue, who got more and who got less? This serves as our first introduction to roles, status and power, and hierarchy within a group. When food scarcity becomes an issue, who gets to keep their spoon? In some Latin American cultures, having a job or earning a living is referred to by the slang term “cuchara,” which literally means “spoon” and figuratively implies food, safety, and security.
Now let’s return to the present and enter a modern office. Cubicles define territories, and corner offices denote status. In times of economic recession or slumping sales for the company, there is a greater need for cooperation, and there is competition for scarce resources. The loss of a “spoon”—or of one’s cubicle—may now come in the form of a pink slip of paper instead of no food around the fire, but it is no less devastating.
We form self-identities through our communication with others, and much of that interaction occurs in a group context. A group may be defined as three or more individuals who affiliate, interact, or cooperate in a familial, social, or work context. Group communication may be defined as the exchange of information with those who are alike culturally, linguistically, and/or geographically. Group members may be known by their symbols, such as patches and insignia on a military uniform. They may be known by their use of specialized language or jargon; for example, someone in information technology may use the term “server” in reference to the internet, whereas someone in the foodservice industry may use “server” to refer to the worker who takes customer orders in a restaurant. Group members may also be known by their proximity, as in gated communities. Regardless of how the group defines itself, and regardless of the extent to which its borders are porous or permeable, a group recognizes itself as a group. Humans naturally make groups a part of their context or environment.
Types of Groups in the Workplace
As a skilled communicator, learning more about groups, group dynamics, management, and leadership will serve you well. Mergers, forced sales, downsizing, and entering new markets all call upon individuals within a business or organization to become members of groups. In our second introductory exercise you were asked to list the professional (i.e., work-related) groups you interact with in order of frequency. What did your list include? Perhaps you noted your immediate co-workers, your supervisor and other leaders in your work situation, members of other departments with whom you communicate, and the colleagues who are also your personal friends during off-work times. Groups may be defined by function. They can also be defined, from a developmental viewpoint, by the relationships within them. Groups can also be discussed in terms of their relationship to the individual, and the degree to which they meet interpersonal needs.
Some groups may be assembled at work to solve problems, and once the challenge has been resolved, they dissolve into previous or yet to be determined groups. Functional groups like this may be immediately familiar to you. You take a class in sociology from a professor of sociology, who is a member of the discipline of sociology. To be a member of a discipline is to be a disciple, and adhere to a common framework to for viewing the world. Disciplines involve a common set of theories that explain the world around us, terms to explain those theories, and have grown to reflect the advance of human knowledge. Compared to your sociology instructor, your physics instructor may see the world from a completely different perspective. Still, both may be members of divisions or schools, dedicated to teaching or research, and come together under the large group heading we know as the university.
In business, we may have marketing experts who are members of the marketing department, who perceive their tasks differently from a member of the sales staff or someone in accounting. You may work in the mailroom, and the mailroom staff is a group in itself, both distinct from and interconnected with the larger organization.
Relationships are part of any group, and can be described in terms of status, power, control, as well as role, function, or viewpoint. Within a family, for example, the ties that bind you together may be common experiences, collaborative efforts, and even pain and suffering. The birth process may forge a relationship between mother and daughter, but it also may not. An adoption may transform a family. Relationships are formed through communication interaction across time, and often share a common history, values, and beliefs about the world around us.
In business, an idea may bring professionals together, and they may even refer to the new product or service as their “baby,” speaking in reverent tones about a project they have taken from the drawing board and “birthed” into the real world. As in family communication, workgroups or teams may have challenges, rivalries, and even “birthing pains” as a product is adjusted, adapted, and transformed. Struggles are a part of relationships, both in families and business, and form a common history of shared challenged overcome through effort and hard work.
Through conversations and a shared sense that you and your co-workers belong together, you meet many of your basic human needs, such as the need to feel included, the need for affection, and the need for control.Schutz, W. (1966). The Interpersonal Underworld. Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books. In a work context, “affection” may sound odd, but we all experience affection at work in the form of friendly comments like “good morning,” “have a nice weekend,” and “good job!” Our professional lives also fulfill more basic needs such as air, food, and water, as well as safety. While your workgroup may be gathered together with common goals, such as to deliver the mail in a timely fashion to the corresponding departments and individuals, your daily interactions may well go beyond this functional perspective.
In the same way, your family may provide a place for you at the table and meet your basic needs, but they also may not meet other needs. If you grow to understand yourself and your place in a way that challenges group norms, you will be able to choose which parts of your life to share and to withhold in different groups, and to choose where to seek acceptance, affection, and control.
Primary and Secondary Groups
There are fundamentally two types of groups that can be observed in many contexts, from church, to school, from family to work: primary and secondary groups. The hierarchy denotes the degree to which the group(s) meet your interpersonal needs. Primary groups meet most, if not all, of one’s needs. Groups that meet some, but not all, needs are called secondary groups. Secondary groups often include work groups, where the goal is to complete a task or solve a problem. If you are a member of the sales department, your purpose is to sell.
In terms of problem-solving, work groups can accomplish more than individuals. People, each of whom have specialized skills, talents, experience, or education come together in new combinations with new challenges, find new perspectives to create unique approaches that they themselves would not have formulated alone.
Secondary groups may meet your need for professional acceptance, and celebrate your success, but may not meet your need for understanding and sharing on a personal level. Family members may understand you in ways that your co-workers cannot, and vice versa.
If Two’s Company and Three’s a Crowd, What Is a Group?
This old cliché refers to the human tendency to form pairs. Pairing is the most basic form of relationship formation; it applies to childhood “best friends,” college roommates, romantic couples, business partners, and many other dyads (two-person relationships). A group, by definition, includes at least three people. We can categorize groups in terms of their size and complexity.
When we discuss demographic groups as part of a market study, we may focus on large numbers of individuals that share common characteristics. If you are the producer of an ecologically innovative car such as the Smart ForTwo, and know your customers have an average of four members in their family, you may discuss developing a new model with additional seats. While the target audience is a group, car customers don’t relate to each other as a unified whole. Even if they form car clubs and have regional gatherings, a newsletter, and competitions at their local race tracks each year, they still subdivide the overall community of car owners into smaller groups.
The larger the group grows, the more likely it is to subdivide. Analysis of these smaller, or microgroups, is increasingly a point of study as the internet allows individuals to join people of similar mind or habit to share across time and distance. A microgroup is a small, independent group that has a link, affiliation, or association with a larger group. With each additional group member the number of possible interactions increases. Harris, T., & Sherblom, J. (1999). Small Group and Team Communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.,McLean, S. (2003). The Basics Of Speech Communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Table 2.1 Possible Interaction in Groups
Number of Group Members 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Number of Possible Interactions 2 9 28 75 186 441 1,056
Small groups normally contain between three and eight people. One person may involve intrapersonal communication, while two may constitute interpersonal communication, and both may be present within a group communication context. You may think to yourself before taking a speech turn or writing your next post, and you may turn to your neighbor or co-worker and have a side conversation, but a group relationship normally involves three to eight people.
In Table 2.1, you can quickly see how the number of possible interactions grows according to how many people are in the group. At some point, we all find the possible and actual interactions overwhelming and subdivide into smaller groups. Forums may have hundreds or thousands of members, and you may have hundreds of friends on MySpace or Facebook, but how many do you regularly communicate with? You may be tempted to provide a number well north of eight, but if you exclude the “all to one” messages, such as a general Twitter to everyone (but no one person in particular), you’ll find the group norms will appear.
Group norms are customs, standards, and behavioral expectations that emerge as a group forms. If you blog every day on your FaceBook page, and your friends stop by to post on your wall and comment, and then stop for a week, you’ll violate a group norm. They will wonder if you are sick or in the hospital where you can’t access a computer to keep them updated. If, however, you only post once a week, the group will come to naturally expect your customary post. Norms involve expectations, self and group imposed, that often arise as groups form and develop.
If there are more than eight members, it becomes a challenge to have equal participation, where everyone has a chance to speak, be heard, listen, and respond. Some will dominate, others will recede, and smaller groups will form. Finding a natural balance within a group can also be a challenge. Small groups need to have enough members to generate a rich and stimulating exchange of ideas, information, and interaction, but not so many people that what each brings cannot be shared. Galanes, G., Adams, K., & Brilhart, J. (2000). Communication in Groups: Applications and Skills (4th ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
Key Takeaway
Forming groups fulfills many human needs, such as the need for affiliation, affection, and control; individuals also need to cooperate in groups to fulfill basic survival needs.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Think of the online groups you participate in. Forums may have hundreds or thousands of members, and you may have hundreds of friends on MySpace or Facebook, but how many do you regularly communicate with? Exclude the “all-to-one” messages, such as a general Twitter to everyone (but no one person in particular). Do you find that you gravitate toward the group norm of eight or fewer group members? Discuss your answer with your classmates.
2. What are some of the primary groups in your life? How do they compare with the secondary groups in your life? Write a 2–3 paragraph description of these groups and compare it with a classmate’s description.
3. What group is most important to people? Create a survey with at least two questions, identify a target sample size, and conduct your survey. Report how you completed the activity and your findings. Compare the results with those of your classmates.
4. Are there times when it is better to work alone rather than in a group? Why or why not? Discuss your opinion with a classmate. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/02%3A_Group_Communication_Theory/2.00%3A_Chapter_Introduction.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Identify the typical stages in the life cycle of a group
2. Describe different types of group members and group member roles
Groups are dynamic systems, in constant change. Groups grow together and eventually come apart. People join groups and others leave. This dynamic changes and transforms the very nature of the group. Group socialization involves how the group members interact with one another and form relationships. Just as you were once born, and changed your family, they changed you. You came to know a language and culture, a value system, and a set of beliefs that influence you to this day. You came to be socialized, to experience the process of learning to associate, communicate, or interact within a group. A group you belong to this year—perhaps a soccer team or the cast of a play—may not be part of your life next year. And those who are in leadership positions may ascend or descend the leadership hierarchy as the needs of the group, and other circumstances, change over time.
Group Life Cycle Patterns
Your life cycle is characterized by several steps, and while it doesn’t follow a prescribed path, there are universal stages we can all recognize. You were born. You didn’t choose your birth, your parents, your language, or your culture, but you came to know them through communication. You came to know yourself, learned skills, and discovered talents, and met other people. You worked, learned, lived, and loved, and as you aged, minor injuries took longer to heal. You competed in ever-increasing age groups in your favorite sport, and while your time for each performance may have increased as you aged, your experience allowed you to excel in other ways. Where you were once the novice, you have now learned something to share. You lived to see some of your friends pass before you, and the moment will arrive when you too must confront death.
In the same way, groups experience similar steps and stages and take on many of the characteristics we associate with life. Moreland, R., & Levine, J. (1982). Socialization in small groups: temporal changes in individual group relations. (L. Berkowitz, Ed.) Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 15, 153. They grow, overcome illness and dysfunction, and transform across time. No group, just as no individual, lives forever.
Your first day on the job may be comparable to the first day you went to school. At home you may have learned some of the basics, like how to write with a pencil, but knowledge of that skill and its application are two different things. People spoke in different ways at school than at home, and you came to understand the importance of recess, of raising your hand to get the teacher’s attention, and how to follow other school rules. At work, you may have trained for your profession, but the academic knowledge only serves as your foundation, much as your socialization at home served to guide you at school. On the job they use jargon terms, have schedules that may include coffee breaks (recess), have a supervisor (teacher), and have their own rules, explicit and understood. On the first day, it was all new, even if many of the elements were familiar.
In order to better understand group development and its life cycle, many researchers have described the universal stages and phases of groups. While there are modern interpretations of these stages, most draw from the model proposed by Tuckman. Tuckman, B. (1965). Developmental sequence in small groups. Psychological Bulletin, 63, 384–399. This model, shown in Table 2.2, specifies the usual order of the phases of group development, and allows us to predict several stages we can anticipate as we join a new group.
Tuckman begins with the forming stage as the initiation of group formation. This stage is also called the orientation stage because individual group members come to know each other. Group members who are new to each other and can’t predict each other’s behavior can be expected to experience the stress of uncertainty. Uncertainty theory states that we choose to know more about others with whom we have interactions in order to reduce or resolve the anxiety associated with the unknown. Berger, C., & Calabrese, R. (1975). Some explorations in initial interactions and beyond: toward a developmental theory of interpersonal communication. Human Communication Research, 1, 99–112.,Berger, C. (1986). Response uncertain outcome values in predicted relationships: uncertainty reduction theory then and now. Human Communication Research, 13, 34–38., Gudykunst, W. (1995). Anxiety/uncertainty management theory. In R. W. Wiseman (Ed.), Intercultural Communication Theory (pp. 8–58). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. The more we know about others, and become accustomed to how they communicate, the better we can predict how they will interact with us in future contexts. If you learn that Monday mornings are never a good time for your supervisor, you quickly learn to schedule meetings later in the week. Individuals are initially tentative and display caution as they begin to learn about the group and its members.
If you don’t someone very well, it is easy to offend. Each group member brings to the group a set of experiences, combined with education and a self-concept. You won’t be able to read this information on a name tag, you will only come to know it through time and interaction. Since the possibility of overlapping and competing viewpoints and perspectives exists, the group will experience a storming stage, a time of struggles as the members themselves sort out their differences. There may be more than one way to solve the problem or task at hand, and some group members may prefer one strategy over another. Some members of the group may be senior to the organization in comparison to you, and members may treat them differently. Some group members may be as new as you are and just as uncertain about everyone’s talents, skills, roles, and self-perceptions. The wise communicator will anticipate the storming stage and help facilitate opportunities for the members to resolve uncertainty before the work commences. There may be challenges for leadership and conflicting viewpoints. The sociology professor sees the world differently than the physics professor. The sales agent sees things differently than someone from accounting. A manager who understands and anticipates this normal challenge in the group’s life cycle can help the group become more productive.
A clear definition of the purpose and mission of the group can help the members focus their energies. Interaction prior to the first meeting can help reduce uncertainty. Coffee and calories can help bring a group together. Providing the group with what they need, and opportunities to know each other, prior to their task can increase efficiency.
Groups that make a successful transition from the storming stage will next experience the norming stage, where the group establishes norms, or informal rules, for behavior and interaction. Who speaks first? Who takes notes? Who is creative and visual, and who is detail-oriented? Sometimes our job titles and functions speak for themselves, but human beings are complex. We are not simply a list of job functions, and in the dynamic marketplace of today’s business environment you will often find that people have talents and skills well beyond their “official” role or task. Drawing on these strengths can make the group more effective.
The norming stage is marked by less division and more collaboration. The level of anxiety associated with interaction is generally reduced, making for a more positive work climate that promotes listening. When people feel less threatened, and their needs are met, they are more likely to focus their complete attention on the purpose of the group. If they are still concerned with who does what, and whether they will speak in error, the interaction framework will stay in the storming stage. Tensions are reduced when the normative expectations are known, and the degree to which a manager can describe these at the outset can reduce the amount of time the group remains in uncertainty. Group members generally express more satisfaction with clear expectations and are more inclined to participate.
Ultimately, the purpose of a workgroup is performance, and the preceding stages lead us to the performing stage, in which the group accomplishes its mandate, fulfills its purpose, and reaches its goals. To facilitate performance, group members can’t skip the initiation of getting to know each other, or the sorting out of roles and norms, but they can try to focus on performance with clear expectations from the moment the group is formed. Productivity is often how we measure success in business and industry, and the group has to produce. Outcome assessments may have been built into the system from the beginning and would serve as a benchmark for success. Wise managers know to celebrate success, as it brings more success, social cohesion, group participation, and a sense of job satisfaction. Incremental gains toward a benchmark may also be cause for celebration and support, and failure to reach a goal should be regarded as an opportunity for clarification.
It is generally wiser to focus on the performance of the group rather than individual contributions. Managers and group members will want to offer assistance to underperformers as well as congratulating members for their contributions. If the goal is to create a community where competition pushes each member to perform, individual highlights may serve your needs, but if you want a group to solve a problem or address a challenge as a group, you have to promote group cohesion. Members need to feel a sense of belonging, and praise (or the lack thereof) can be a sword with two edges. One stimulates and motivates, while the other demoralizes and divides.
Groups should be designed to produce and perform in ways and at levels that individuals cannot, or else you should consider compartmentalizing the tasks. The performing stage is where productivity occurs, and it is necessary to make sure the group has what it needs to perform. Missing pieces, parts, or information can stall the group, and reset the cycle to storming all over again. Loss of performance is inefficiency, and that carries a cost. Managers will be measured by the group’s productivity and performance, and their success reflects on the manager. Make sure the performing stage is one that is productive and healthy for its members.
Imagine that you are the manager of a group that has produced an award-winning design for an ecologically innovative four-seat car. Their success is your success. Their celebrations are yours, even if you are not the focus of them. A manager manages the process, while group members perform. If you were a member of the group, and you helped design the beltline, you made a fundamental contribution to the style of the car. Individual consumers may never consider the line from the front fender, across the doors, to the rear taillight as they make a purchase decision, but they will recognize beauty. You will know that you could not have achieved that fundamental part of car design without help from the engineers in the group, and if the number-crunching accountants had not seen the efficiency of the production process that produced it, it may never have survived the transition from prototype to production. The group came together and accomplished its goals with amazing results.
Now, as typically happens eventually with all groups, the time has come to move on to new assignments. In the adjourning stage, group members leave the group. The group may cease to exist, or it may be transformed with new members and a new set of goals. Your contributions may have caught the attention of management, and you may be assigned to the redesign of the flagship vehicle, the halo car of your marque or brand. It’s quite a professional honor, and it’s yours because of your successful work in a group. Others will be reassigned to tasks that require their talents and skills, and you may or may not collaborate with them in the future.
You may miss the interactions with the members, even the more cantankerous ones, and will experience both relief and a sense of loss. Like life, the group process is normal, and mixed emotions are to be expected. A wise manager anticipates this stage and facilitates the separation with skill and ease. We often close this process with a ritual marking its passing, though the ritual may be as formal as an award or as informal as a “thank you” or a verbal acknowledgment of a job well done over coffee and calories.
On a more sober note, it is important not to forget that groups can reach the adjourning stage without having achieved success. Some businesses go bankrupt, some departments are closed, and some individuals lose their positions after a group fails to perform. Adjournment can come suddenly and unexpectedly, or gradually and piece by piece. Either way, a skilled business communicator will be prepared and recognize it as part of the classic group life cycle.
Table 2.2 Tuckman’s Linear Model of Group Development. Tuckman, B. (1965). Developmental sequence in small groups. Psychological Bulletin, 63, 384–399.
Stages Activities
Forming Members come together, learn about each other, and determine the purpose of the group.
Storming Members engage in more direct communication and get to know each other. Conflicts between group members will often arise during this stage.
Norming Members establish spoken or unspoken rules about how they communicate and work. Status, rank and roles in the group are established.
Performing Members fulfill their purpose and reach their goal.
Adjourning Members leave the group.
The Life Cycle of Member Roles
Just as groups go through a life cycle when they form and eventually adjourn, so the members of groups fulfill different roles during this life cycle. These roles, proposed by Moreland and Levine, Moreland, R., & Levine, J. (1982). Socialization in small groups: temporal changes in individual group relations. (L. Berkowitz, Ed.) Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 15, 153. are summarized in Table 2.3.
Suppose you are about to graduate from school, and you are in the midst of an employment search. You’ve gathered extensive information on a couple of local businesses and are aware that they will be participating in the university job fair. You’ve explored their websites, talked to people currently employed at each company, and learned what you can from the public information available. At this stage, you are considered a potential member. You may have an electrical, chemical, or mechanical engineering degree soon, but you are not a member of an engineering team.
You show up at the job fair in professional attire and completely prepared. The representatives of each company are respectful, cordial, and give you contact information. One of them even calls a member of the organization on the spot and arranges an interview for you next week. You are excited at the prospect and want to learn more. You are still a potential member.
The interview goes well the following week. The day after the meeting you receive a call for a follow-up interview, which leads to a committee interview. A few weeks later, the company calls you with a job offer. However, in the meantime, you have also been interviewing with other potential employers, and you are waiting to hear back from two of them. You are still a potential member.
After careful consideration, you decide to take the job offer and start the next week. The projects look interesting, you’ll be gaining valuable experience, and the commute to work is reasonable. Your first day on the job is positive, and they’ve assigned you a mentor. The conversations are positive, but at times you feel lost, as if they are speaking a language you can’t quite grasp. As a new group member, your level of acceptance will increase as you begin learning the groups’ rules, spoken and unspoken. Fisher, B. A. (1970). Decision emergence: phases in group decision making. Speech Monographs, 37, 56–66. You will gradually move from the potential member role to the role of a new group member as you learn to fit into the group.
Over time and projects, you gradually increase your responsibilities. You are no longer looked at as the new person, and you can follow almost every conversation. You can’t quite say “I remember when” because your tenure hasn’t been that long, but you are a known quantity and know your way around. You are a full member of the group. Full members enjoy knowing the rules and customs, and can even create new rules. New group members look to full members for leadership and guidance. Full group members can control the agenda and have considerable influence on the agenda and activities.
Full members of a group, however, can and do come into conflict. When you were a new member, you may have remained silent when you felt you had something to say, but now you state your case. There is more than one way to get the job done. You may suggest new ways that emphasize efficiency over existing methods. Co-workers who have been working in the department for several years may be unwilling to adapt and change, and tension may result. Expressing different views can cause conflict and may even interfere with communication.
When this type of tension arises, divergent group members pull back, contribute less, and start to see themselves as separate from the group. Divergent group members have less eye contact, seek out each other’s opinions less frequently, and listen defensively. At the beginning of the process, you felt a sense of belonging, but now you don’t. Marginal group members start to look outside the group for their interpersonal needs.
After several months of trying to cope with these adjustments, you decide that you never really investigated the other two companies; that your job search process was incomplete. Perhaps you should take a second look at the options. You will report to work on Monday but will start the process of becoming an ex-member, one who no longer belongs. You may experience a sense of relief upon making this decision, given that you haven’t felt like you belonged to the group for a while. When you line up your next job and submit your resignation, you make it official.
Table 2.3 The Life Cycle of Member Roles. Moreland, R., & Levine, J. (1982). Socialization in small groups: temporal changes in individual group relations. (L. Berkowitz, Ed.) Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 15, 153.
1 Potential Member Curiosity and Interest
2 New Member Joined the group but still an outsider, and unknown
3 Full Member Knows the “rules” and is looked to for leadership
4 Divergent Member Focuses on differences
5 Marginal Member No longer involved
6 Ex-Member No longer considered a member
This process has no set timetable. Some people overcome differences and stay in the group for years. Others get promoted and leave the group only when they get transferred to regional headquarters. As a skilled communicator, you will recognize the signs of divergence, just like you anticipate the storming stage, and do your best to facilitate success.
Positive and Negative Member Roles
If someone in your group always makes everyone laugh, that can be a distinct asset when the news is less than positive. At times when you have to get work done, however, the class clown may become a distraction. Notions of positive and negative will often depend on the context when discussing groups. Table 2.4 and Table 2.5 list both positive and negative roles people sometimes play in a group setting.Beene, K., & Sheats, P. (1948). Functional roles of group members. Journal of Social Issues, 37, 41–49.,McLean, S. (2005). The Basics of Interpersonal Communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Table 2.4 Positive Roles. Beene, K., & Sheats, P. (1948). Functional roles of group members. Journal of Social Issues, 37, 41–49.,McLean, S. (2005). The Basics Of Interpersonal Communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Initiator-Coordinator Suggests new ideas or new ways of looking at the problem
Elaborator Builds on ideas and provides examples
Coordinator Brings ideas, information, and suggestions together
Evaluator-Critic Evaluates ideas and provides constructive criticism
Recorder Records ideas, examples, suggestions, and critiques
Table 2.5 Negative RolesBeene, K., & Sheats, P. (1948). Functional roles of group members. Journal of Social Issues, 37, 41–49.,McLean, S. (2005). The Basics of Interpersonal Communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Dominator Dominates discussion, not allowing others to take their turn
Recognition Seeker Relates discussion to their accomplishments, seeks attention
Special-Interest Pleader Relates discussion to special interest or personal agenda
Blocker Blocks attempts at consensus consistently
Joker or Clown Seeks attention through humor and distracts group members
Now that we’ve examined a classical view of positive and negative group member roles, let’s examine another perspective. While some personality traits and behaviors may negatively influence groups, some are positive or negative depending on the context.
Just as the class clown can have a positive effect in lifting spirits or a negative effect in distracting members, so a dominator may be exactly what is needed for quick action. An emergency physician doesn’t have time to ask all the group members in the emergency unit how they feel about a course of action; instead, a self-directed approach based on training and experience may be necessary. In contrast, the pastor of a church may have ample opportunity to ask members of the congregation their opinions about a change in the format of Sunday services; in this situation, the role of coordinator or elaborator is more appropriate than that of dominator.
The group is together because they have a purpose or goal, and normally they are capable of more than any one individual member could be on their own, so it would be inefficient to hinder that progress. But a blocker, who cuts off collaboration, does just that. If a group member interrupts another and presents a viewpoint or information that suggests a different course of action, the point may be well taken and serve the collaborative process. If that same group member repeatedly engages in blocking behavior, then the behavior becomes a problem. A skilled communicator will learn to recognize the difference, even when positive and negative aren’t completely clear.
Key Takeaway
Groups and their individual members come together and grow apart in predictable patterns.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Is it possible for an outsider (a non-group member) to help a group move from the storming stage to the norming stage? Explain your answer and present it to the class.
2. Think of a group of which you are a member and identify some roles played by group members, including yourself. Have your roles, and those of others, changed over time? Are some roles more positive than others? Discuss your answers with your classmates.
3. In the course where you are using this book, think of yourself and your classmates as a group. At what stage of group formation are you currently? What stage will you be at when the school year ends?
4. Think of a group you no longer belong to. At what point did you become an ex-member? Were you ever a marginal group member or a full member? Write a 2–3 paragraph description of the group, how and why you became a member, and how and why you left. Share your description with a classmate. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/02%3A_Group_Communication_Theory/2.02%3A_Group_Life_Cycles_and_Member_Roles.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Understand the role of interpersonal needs in group communication
“I love mankind. It’s people I can’t stand.”
Charles M. Schulz (through Charlie Brown)
“Communication is a continual balancing act, juggling the conflicting needs for intimacy and independence.”
Deborah Tannen
Munro Leaf wrote and illustrated a classic children’s book in 1936 called Manners Can Be Fun. Here are the drawings and text from its first few pages:
If you lived all by yourself out on a desert island, others would not care whether you had good manners or not. It wouldn’t bother them. But if someone else lived there with you, you would both have to learn to get along together pleasantly.
If you did not, you would probably quarrel and fight all the time, or—–
stay apart and be lonesome because you could not have a good time together. Neither would be much fun.
Although Leaf’s drawings and text are simple and plain, they convey important truths about human beings: we need to get along with other people, and to get along we need to communicate in groups.
If we ask ourselves, then, “What’s the point of communicating in groups instead of just sitting at home or in a workplace alone?” we’ll conclude that our group interactions and relationships help us meet basic human needs. We may also recognize that not all our needs are met by any one person, job, experience, or context; instead, we need to diversify our communication interactions in order to meet our needs.McLean, S. (2010). Business Communication for Success. Irvington, NY: Flat World Knowledge.
At first, you may be skeptical of the idea that we communicate to meet our basic needs. Let’s consider two theories on the subject, however, and see how well they predict, describe, and anticipate our tendency to interact.
Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, represented in Figure 2.3.3 may be familiar to you. Maslow, A. (1970). Motivation and Personality (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Harper & Row. We need the resources listed in level one (e.g., air, food, and water) to survive. If we have met those basic needs, we move to level two: safety. A job may represent this level of safety at its most basic level. Regardless of how much satisfaction you may receive from a job well done, a paycheck ultimately represents meeting the basic needs of many.
If we feel safe and secure, we are more likely to seek the companionship of others. Human beings tend to form groups naturally, and if basic needs are met, love and belonging occur in level three. Perhaps you’ve been new to a class, or a club, or at work and didn’t understand the first thing about what was going on. Conflict may have been part of that experience, but you were probably still eager to interact with the other people in the group rather than staying by yourself like the miserable stick figure in Leaf’s final drawing of the desert island.
As you came to know what was what and who was who, you learned how to negotiate the landscape and avoid landmines. Your self-esteem (level four) improved as you perceived that you belonged as part of the group.
Over time, you may have learned your job tasks and the strategies for succeeding in your class, your club, or your job. Perhaps you even came to be known as a reliable resource for others, as someone who would know how to respond helpfully if someone came to you with a problem. People may eventually have looked up to you within your role and have been impressed with your ability to make a difference. Maslow called this “self-actualization” (level five) and discussed how people come to perceive a sense of control or empowerment over their context and environment.
Beyond self-actualization, Maslow recognized our innate need to know (level six) that drives us to grow and learn, explore our environment, or engage in new experiences. We come to appreciate a sense of self that extends beyond our immediate experiences, beyond the function, and into the community and the representational. We can take in beauty for its own sake, and value aesthetics (level seven) that we previously ignored or had little time to consider.
Maslow’s theory is individualistic, focusing primarily on how one person at a time may meet his or her basic needs. The theory has been criticized in light of the fact that many cultures are not centered on the individual. It’s also been pointed out that even people whose physical resources are severely limited can enjoy rich interpersonal relationships and experience cultural, intellectual, and social treasures. Nevertheless, Maslow’s hierarchy serves as a good place from which to begin our discussion about group communication.
What do we need from our environment? Why do we communicate in groups? The answers to both questions are often related.
William Schutz’s Interpersonal Needs offered an alternate version of human interaction. Schutz, W. (1966). The Interpersonal Underworld. Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books. Like Maslow, he considered the universal aspects of our needs, but he contended that they operate within a range or continuum for each person.McLean, S. (2010). Business Communication for Success. Irvington, NY: Flat World Knowledge. According to Schutz, the need for affection, or appreciation, is basic to all humans. We all need to be recognized and feel like we belong, but some people need more interaction with groups than others. Schutz describes underpersonals as people who seek limited interaction. On the opposite end of the spectrum, you may know people in school or at work who continually seek attention and affirmation. Schutz refers to these people as overpersonals. The individual who strikes a healthy balance between meeting needs through solitary action and group interaction is referred to as a personal individual.
Humans also have a need for control, or the ability to influence people and events. But that need may vary according to the context, environment, and sense of security. If you act primarily autonomously to plan and organize your affairs as part of a group, Schutz would describe your efforts to control your situation as autocratic, or self-directed. Abdicrats, on the other hand, are people who according to Schutz shift the burden of responsibility from themselves to others and rely upon others for a sense of control. Democrats, finally, balance individual and group and are apt to gather and share information on the road to group progress.
Finally, Schutz echoed Maslow in his assertion that belonging is a basic interpersonal need, but he noted that it exists within a range or continuum and that some people need more and others less. Undersocials may be less likely to seek interaction, may prefer smaller groups, and will generally not be found on center stage. Oversocials, by contrast, crave attention and are highly motivated to seek belonging. A social person is one who strikes a healthy balance between being withdrawn and being the constant center of attention.
Schutz described these three interpersonal needs of affection, control, and belonging as interdependent and variable. In one context, an individual may have a high need for control, while in others he or she may not perceive the same level of motivation or compulsion to meet that need. Maslow and Schutz offer us two related versions of interpersonal needs that begin to address the central question: why communicate in groups?
We communicate with each other to meet our needs, regardless of how we define those needs. From the time you are a newborn infant crying for food or the time you are a toddler learning to say “please” when requesting a cup of milk, to the time you are an adult learning the rituals of a college classroom or a job interview, you learn to communicate in groups to gain a sense of self within the group or community, meeting your basic needs as you grow and learn.
Key Takeaway
Human beings communicate in groups in order to meet some of their most important basic needs.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Review the types of individuals from Schutz’s theory described in this section. Which types do you think fit you? Which types fit some of your coworkers or classmates? Why? Share your opinions with your classmates and compare your self-assessment with the types they believe describe you.
2. Think of two or more different situations and how you might express your personal needs differ from one situation to the other. Have you observed similar variations in personal needs in other people from one situation to another? Discuss your thoughts with a classmate. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/02%3A_Group_Communication_Theory/2.03%3A_Why_Communicate_in_Groups.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Define “theory”
2. Identify the functions of theories
3. Evaluate the practicality of using theories
“There is nothing so practical as a good theory.”
Kurt Lewin
“Reality is that which, when you stop believing in it, doesn't go away.”
Philip K. Dick
“Can I make it through that intersection before the light turns red?” “Will I have enough money left at the end of the month to take my honey out to dinner at a nice restaurant?” “Can I trust my office mate to keep a secret?” Every day we apply conceptions of how the world works to make decisions and answer questions like these.
Many of these conceptions are based on our own past experiences, what other people have told us, what we’ve read or viewed online, and so on. Sometimes the conceptions are clearly present in our minds as we act; other times they lie beneath our awareness. In reality, the conceptions may represent a hodgepodge of fact, fiction, hunches, conjectures, wishes, and assumptions. And they may change over time for reasons we may or may not even be able to identify.
We may informally refer to these kinds of conceptions as “theories.” For instance, we might say, “He made a big mistake when he did that. My theory is that he was under a lot of stress because of getting laid off from his job.” In studying communication, however, we make use of a more refined definition of the term “theory” which is anything but a hodgepodge.
Defining “Theory”
Hoover, Hoover, K. R. (1984). The Elements of Social Scientific Thinking (3rd ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press, p. 38. straightforwardly defined a theory as “a set of interrelated propositions that suggest why events occur in the manner that they do.” According to the National Academy of Sciences, Boss, J. (2010). Think; Critical Thinking for Everyday Life. New York: McGraw-Hill, p. 379. a scientific theory is “a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world that can incorporate facts, laws, inferences, and tested hypotheses.” Similar definitions have been put forth by other authorities. All the definitions, however, describe theories as products of intellectual activity and as sources of insight into interpreting phenomena.
Some theories are solid and universally accepted. Examples include the heliocentric theory and germ theory. It’s assumed that these theories require no further testing or evidence to continue to be accepted.
Other more provisional theories, such as string theory in physics or self-efficacy theory in psychology, require continual exploration and testing in order to be supported and retained. Theories are never to be regarded as factual, but rather as models which conform to facts as closely as possible.
Functions of Theory
So—what can theories do for us? Their main function is to help us make sense of phenomena, including human behavior. They help us answer “why” and “how” questions about the world. More specifically, they can fulfill three major functions.
The first function is explanation. Theories can help us understand why entities—physical objects, processes, or people—behave the way they do, individually or in interactions with each other.
The second function is “postdiction.” Theories can help us interpret specific past incidents and events and account for why they would be expected to happen as they did. Thus, they give us an assurance that order exists in at least part of the world.
The final function is prediction, whereby theories help us gain confidence in describing what is likely to take place in the future. Many physical phenomena occur with a degree of stability and consistency over time. Although human beings often surprise each other, psychologists have contended that someone’s past behavior is the best predictor of that person’s future behavior. Thus, if our theories have properly and accurately postdicted the way someone has acted, they should lead us to a clear picture of what future behavior that person will exhibit.
Before they had reasonable theories regarding physical science, our ancestors found events like eclipses and earthquakes to be inexplicable. They responded to such phenomena with dread or superstitious speculation. The same was true with respect to complex bodily functions and the spread of disease. Having theories about our natural world and our place in it gives us as human beings a comfortable, reliable foundation upon which to strengthen and enlarge our knowledge. Theories, in short, free us to spread our mental wings and fly into new territory.
Three other characteristics are associated with good theories. First, they exhibit parsimony; that is, they are as simple as possible. Second, they should be consistent with previous theories. Third, they also need to be deniable.
Deniability means that those who hold a theory should be able to describe evidence that would cause them to abandon it. If this weren’t the case, choosing among competing theories would be a matter only of who spoke loudest or fought hardest on behalf of their opinions.
What Theories Are Not
Many ingredients make up human inquiry. We’ve established that theories rank among the most important. Several others, however, are part of the landscape and need to be differentiated from theories.
First of all, theories are not laws. Laws specify uniform cause-and-effect relationships that hold true under limited, defined circumstances. Unlike theories, which are broader, they do not claim to explain why the relationships exist. Consider Newton’s First Law of Motion, for instance: “Every object in a state of uniform motion tends to remain in that state of motion unless an external force is applied to it.” The theory of gravity, in contrast, more broadly states that any two or more objects exert a force of attraction on one another.
Second, theories are not claims. Claims are contentions based on belief or opinion. They do not necessarily rely on empirical evidence—i.e., evidence acquired through conventional sense perceptions and assessed through scientific processes. Individuals and groups may continue to maintain their claims without regard to investigations and discoveries which counter their beliefs. Theories, in contrast, are developed—and modified, if contrary evidence arises—by careful, systematic observation and testing among members of a community.
Finally, theories are not arguments. In everyday language, an argument is simply a reason someone offers for accepting or stating a particular claim. More formally, a logician would say that an argument comprises a premise and a conclusion. A premise might be “We all know that gray clouds sometimes produce rain. I see gray clouds in the sky.” This would be followed with a conclusion, such as “There’s a possibility that it’s going to rain.” A theory about the weather, beyond its relevance to specific conditions in the sky at a particular time, encompasses all sorts of meteorological phenomena and is meant to apply universally.
Are Theories Practical?
There may be more than meets the eye to Kurt Lewin’s statement at the beginning of this section concerning theory and practice. Obviously, not all theories will be equally practical. Some can be applied with more assurance to broader domains than others, some occupy a tenuous place among many other competing theories, and some are simply bad. Whether theories successfully guide action depends on whether they’re properly developed, whether they correspond well to reality, and whether they’re sufficiently flexible to evolve as circumstances change and new information becomes available.
Furthermore, it’s been pointed out that knowing theories does not necessarily mean that we will act according to them. Sandelands, L.E. (1990). “What Is So Practical about Theory? Lewin Revisited.” Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior, 20 (3): 235–262. And other forms of communication can sometimes be as provocative and valuable to us as theory. Good poetry, essays, and fiction all may inspire us and help instill the kind of confidence we need to make decisions and cover new intellectual ground.
Still, it’s clear that theory can serve as an important contextual factor as individuals and groups refine and elaborate upon the practices they follow. As we’ll see in the next section, group communication theory constitutes just such a valuable contextual factor for us.
Key Takeaway
A good theory can help us explain and predict phenomena.
Exercise \(1\)
1. The theory of gravity tells us that all objects, in all situations and at all times, exert an attractive force upon each other. Can you think of any statements about human interaction that apply in all situations and at all times? What makes you confident in your answer?
2. What are one or two major assumptions you make about people in groups which guide your own behavior as part of those groups? | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/02%3A_Group_Communication_Theory/2.04%3A_What_Is_a_Theory.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Identify ways in which group communication theory can help groups
2. Understand how theories are properly developed
3. Identify prominent theoretical paradigms regarding communication
“[C]reating a new theory is not like destroying an old barn and erecting a skyscraper in its place. It is rather like climbing a mountain, gaining new and wider views, discovering unexpected connections between our starting point and its rich environment. But the point from which we started out still exists, and can be seen, although it appears smaller and forms a tiny part of our broad view gained by the mastery of the obstacles on our adventurous way up.”
Albert Einstein
“In making theories, always keep a window open so that you can throw one out if necessary.”Einstein, A., & Infeld, L. (1938). The Evolution of Physics. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Béla Schick
Functions of Group Communication Theory
Theory helps us to bear our ignorance of facts.
George Santayana in The Sense of Beauty
What can theories about group communication do for us? Like all theories, they can help us explain, postdict, and predict behavior. Specifically, theory can help us deal with group communication in four ways. Hahn, L.K., Lipper, L., & Paynton, S.T. (2011). Survey of Communication Study. http://bit.ly/ImokVO.
First, these theories can help us interpret and understand what happens when we communicate in groups. For example, a person from a culture such as Japan’s may be taken by surprise when someone from mainstream US culture expresses anger openly in a formal meeting. If we’re familiar with a theory which describes and identifies “high” versus “low-context” cultures, we can make better sense of interactions like this with people from cultures other than our own.
Second, the theories can help us choose what elements of our experience in groups to pay attention to. As Einstein wrote, “It is theory that decides what can be observed.” If we know that cultures can be “high-” or “low-context,” then when we interact with people from diverse cultural backgrounds we’ll watch for behaviors that we believe are associated with each of those categories. For example, if people are from high-context cultures they may tend to avoid explicit explanations and questions.
Third, the theories can enlarge our understanding. Theories strengthen as they’re examined and tested in the light of people’s experience. Students, scholars, and citizens can all broaden their knowledge by discussing and explaining theories. Reflecting on questions and other reactions they receive in response can also refine theories and make them more useful.
Fourth, the theories may impel us to challenge prevailing cultural, social, and political practices. Most of the ways that people behave in groups are products of habit, custom, and learning. They aren’t, in other words, innate. By applying theoretical perspectives to how groups operate, we may be able to identify fairer and more just approaches.
Where Group Communication Theories Come From
“It is a capital mistake to theorize before one has data.”
Arthur Conan Doyle (via Sherlock Holmes in “A Scandal in Bohemia,” 1891)
To develop group communication theories, people generally follow a three-step process that parallels what Western science calls “the scientific method.” Littlejohn, S. W., & Foss, K. A. (2005). Theories of Human Communication (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
1. Ask important questions. What stages should most groups expect to pass through as they form and adopt goals? How does the size of a group affect its ability to pursue its goals? What methods of group decision-making work best with which kinds of people? Which blend of individual personalities contributes most to the satisfaction of a group? All these questions are meaningful and significant to groups, and all of them have served as the foundation of theories about group communication.
2. Observe people’s behavior in groups. To be productive, this observation should proceed on the basis of well-defined terms and within clear boundaries. To find out which blend of individual personalities contributes most to group satisfaction, for instance, it’s necessary first to define “personality” and “satisfaction.” It is also important to decide which kinds of groups to observe under which circumstances.
3. Analyze the results of the observation process and base new theories upon them. The theories should fit the results of the observations as closely as possible.
You may want to go online and look at a journal devoted to group communication topics, such as “Small Group Research.” If you do, you’ll see that the titles of its articles refer often to existing theories and that the articles themselves describe experiments with groups that have tested and elaborated upon those theories.
Theoretical Paradigms for Group Communication
Groups of theories may compose theoretical paradigms, which are collections of concepts, values, assumptions, and practices that constitute a way of viewing reality for a community that shares them. Hahn, L.K., Lipper, L., & Paynton, S.T. (2011). Survey of Communication Study. http://bit.ly/ImokVO Group communication theories tend to cluster around the following five paradigms:
• The systems theory paradigm. Systems theory examines the inputs, processes, and outputs of systems as those systems strive toward balance, or homeostasis. This paradigm for group communication emphasizes that processes and relationships among components of a group are interdependent and goal-oriented. Thus, the adage that “it is impossible to do just one thing” is taken to be true by systems theorists. Focus is placed more on developing a complete picture of groups than upon examining their parts in isolation.
• The rhetorical theories paradigm. The field of rhetoric originated with the Greeks and Romans and is the study of how symbols affect human beings. For example, Aristotle’s three elements of persuasion—ethos (credibility), logos (logic), and pathos (appeal to emotion)—are still used today to describe and categorize people’s statements. Rhetorical analysis of group communication lays the greatest emphasis on describing messages, exploring their functions, and evaluating their effectiveness.
• The empirical laws paradigm. This paradigm, also known as the positivist approach, bases investigation of group communication on the assumption that universal laws govern human interaction in much the same way that gravity or magnetism act upon all physical objects. “If X, then Y” statements may be used to characterize communication behavior in this paradigm. For instance, you might claim that “If people in a group sit in a circle, a larger proportion of them will share in a conversation than if they are arranged in rows facing one direction.” The effects of empirical laws governing group communication are usually held to be highly likely rather than absolute.
• The human rules paradigm. Instead of contending that behavior by people in groups conforms to absolute and reliable laws, this paradigm holds that people construct and then follow rules for their interactions. Because these rules are subjective and arise out of social circumstances and cultural environments which may change, they can’t be pinned down the way that laws describing the physical world can be and are apt to evolve over time.
• The critical theories paradigm. Should we simply analyze and describe the ways in which groups communicate, or should we challenge those ways and propose others? The critical theories paradigm proposes that we should strive to understand how communication may be used to exert power and oppress people. Foss, K. A., & Foss, S. K. (1989). Incorporating the feminist perspective in communication scholarship: A research commentary. In C. Spitzack & K. Carter (Eds.), Doing Research on Women's Communication: Alternative Perspectives in Theory and Method (pp. 64–94). Norwood, NJ: Ablex. When we have determined how this oppression takes place, we should seek to remedy it. This combination of theory and action is defined as praxis.
No single theoretical paradigm is accepted by everyone who studies group communication. Whether a description or prediction concerning people’s behavior in groups is found to be accurate or not will depend on which viewpoint we come from and which kinds of groups we observe.
Key Takeaway
If they are properly developed, theories of group communication can help group members understand and influence group processes.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Identify a group that you’ve been part of at school or in the workplace. What aspects of its behavior do you feel you might have better understood if you’d had a grasp of group communication theory?
2. Think of another significant experience you’ve had recently as part of a group. Of the theoretical paradigms for group communication described in this section, which would you feel most comfortable in applying to the experience? Which paradigm, if any, do you feel it would be inappropriate to apply? Why?
2.06: Additional Resources
Read about groups and teams on the business website 1000 Ventures. http://www.1000ventures.com/business_guide/crosscuttings/team_main.html
Learn more about Tuckman’s Linear Model. http://www.infed.org/thinkers/tuckman.htm
Learn more about Dewey’s sequence of group problem solving on this site from Manatee Community College in Florida. faculty.mccfl.edu/frithl/SPC1600/handouts/Dewey.htm
Read a hands-on article about how to conduct productive meetings. www.articlesnatch.com/Article/How-To-Conduct-Productive-Meetings-/132050
Visit this WikiHow site to learn how to use VOIP. http://www.wikihow.com/Use-VoIP
Watch a YouTube video on cloud computing. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6PNuQHUiV3Q
Read about groups and teams, and contribute to a wiki about them, on Wikibooks. http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Managing_Groups_and_Teams
How did Twitter get started? Find out. http://twitter.com/about
Take a (nonscientific) quiz to identify your leadership style. psychologyabout.com/library/quiz/bl-leadershipquiz.htm | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/02%3A_Group_Communication_Theory/2.05%3A_Group_Communication_Theory.txt |
Introductory Exercises
1. Have you ever been in a group that seems stuck in endless loops of conflict, where nothing gets done, and all the energy was spent on interpersonal conflicts? Can you share an example? Share and compare your results with classmates.
2. Have you ever been in a group that gets things done, where everyone seems to know their role and responsibilities, where all members contribute and perform? Can you share an example? Share and compare your results with classmates.
The ratio of We’s to I’s is the best indicator of the development of a team.
Anonymous
Getting Started
A group is people doing something together. It can be a large group of thousand and we’ll call them a crowd. It can be a small group of just three members. People might be social, or work together, formal or informal with each other, they might be assigned or self-selected as members—the range is great and varied, and as the group grows so does the complexity.
In this section, we explore group development. Groups start out as a zero in our lives. They require no time, no thought, no energy, and no effort. Then we choose to be part of one or receive an assignment. Now the group is no longer a zero in our lives. It might have a number, like 10%, meaning we spend about 10% of our work time on a project with a group. It could be 100%, as in we work every day within the group. We could call it a 10 for the ten hours a week we invest in it. Regardless of what we call a group in our lives, we have to call it something because it now exists for us, where once it did not.
We can also anticipate conflicts in a group. At work, we may see people in terms, or between departments, conflict with each other. Even at home, we may observe the friction that occurs between family members even after years of interaction. Where there are groups there will be conflict.
We find norms and expectations within groups. Every group has a code of conduct, no matter how informal, of who does what when and how. Power, status, and even companionship all play a role in group expectations for its members.
Finally, all groups end. Families end, change, and transform. Work relationships change as well. Groups accept new members, lose former members, and they themselves become new groups, rising out of the ashes of the old.
All groups form, have conflicts, form norms, and dissolve. In this section we’ll explore three related theories on group development, comparing their similarities and differences. We’ll learn more about why we need groups, and why they need us. We will explore how it that we come to know each other, and how important groups are in our lives.
3.01: Group Life Cycles
Learning Objectives
1. Identify the typical stages in the life cycle of a group
Groups are dynamic systems, in constant change. Groups grow together and eventually come apart. People join groups and others leave. This dynamic changes and transforms the very nature of the group. Group socialization involves how the group members interact with one another and form relationships. Just as you were once born, and changed your family, they changed you. You came to know a language and culture, a value system, and a set of beliefs that influence you to this day. You came to be socialized, to experience the process of learning to associate, communicate, or interact within a group. A group you belong to this year—perhaps a soccer team or the cast of a play—may not be part of your life next year. And those who are in leadership positions may ascend or descend the leadership hierarchy as the needs of the group, and other circumstances, change over time.
Group Life Cycle Patterns
Your life cycle is characterized by several steps, and while it doesn’t follow a prescribed path, there are universal stages we can all recognize. You were born. You didn’t choose your birth, your parents, your language, or your culture, but you came to know them through communication. You came to know yourself, learned skills, discovered talents, and met other people. You worked, learned, lived, and loved, and as you aged, minor injuries took longer to heal. You competed in ever-increasing age groups in your favorite sport, and while your time for each performance may have increased as you aged, your experience allowed you to excel in other ways. Where you were once the novice, you have now learned something to share. You lived to see some of your friends pass before you, and the moment will arrive when you too must confront death.
In the same way, groups experience similar steps and stages and take on many of the characteristics we associate with life. Moreland, R., & Levine, J. (1982). Socialization in small groups: temporal changes in individual group relations. (L. Berkowitz, Ed.) Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 15, 153. They grow, overcome illness and dysfunction, and transform across time. No group, just as no individual, lives forever.
Your first day on the job may be comparable to the first day you went to school. At home, you may have learned some of the basics, like how to write with a pencil, but knowledge of that skill and its application are two different things. People spoke in different ways at school than at home, and you came to understand the importance of recess, of raising your hand to get the teacher’s attention, and how to follow other school rules. At work, you may have trained for your profession, but the academic knowledge only serves as your foundation, much as your socialization at home served to guide you at school. On the job they use jargon terms, have schedules that may include coffee breaks (recess), have a supervisor (teacher), and have their own rules, explicit and understood. On the first day, it was all new, even if many of the elements were familiar.
In order to better understand group development and its life cycle, many researchers have described the universal stages and phases of groups. While there are modern interpretations of these stages, most draw from the model proposed by Tuckman. Tuckman, B. (1965). Developmental sequence in small groups. Psychological Bulletin, 63, 384–399. This model, shown in Table 3.1, specifies the usual order of the phases of group development, and allows us to predict several stages we can anticipate as we join a new group.
Tuckman begins with the forming stage (also called the orientation stage or orientation phase) as the initiation of group formation. This stage is also called the orientation stage because individual group members come to know each other. Group members who are new to each other and can’t predict each other’s behavior can be expected to experience the stress of uncertainty. Uncertainty theory states that we choose to know more about others with whom we have interactions in order to reduce or resolve the anxiety associated with the unknown. Berger, C., & Calabrese, R. (1975). Some explorations in initial interactions and beyond: toward a developmental theory of interpersonal communication. Human Communication Research, 1, 99–112.,Berger, C. (1986). Response uncertain outcome values in predicted relationships: uncertainty reduction theory then and now. Human Communication Research, 13, 34–38., Gudykunst, W. (1995). Anxiety/uncertainty management theory. In R. W. Wiseman (Ed.), Intercultural communication theory (pp. 8–58). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. The more we know about others, and become accustomed to how they communicate, the better we can predict how they will interact with us in future contexts. If you learn that Monday mornings are never a good time for your supervisor, you quickly learn to schedule meetings later in the week. Individuals are initially tentative and display caution as they begin to learn about the group and its members.
If you don’t someone very well, it is easy to offend. Each group member brings to the group a set of experiences, combined with education and a self-concept. You won’t be able to read this information on a name tag, you will only come to know it through time and interaction. Since the possibility of overlapping and competing viewpoints and perspectives exists, the group will experience a storming stage, a time of struggles as the members themselves sort out their differences. There may be more than one way to solve the problem or task at hand, and some group members may prefer one strategy over another. Some members of the group may be senior to the organization in comparison to you, and members may treat them differently. Some group members may be as new as you are and just as uncertain about everyone’s talents, skills, roles, and self-perceptions. The wise communicator will anticipate the storming stage and help facilitate opportunities for the members to resolve uncertainty before the work commences. There may be challenges for leadership and conflicting viewpoints. The sociology professor sees the world differently than the physics professor. The sales agent sees things differently than someone from accounting. A manager who understands and anticipates this normal challenge in the group’s life cycle can help the group become more productive.
A clear definition of the purpose and mission of the group can help the members focus their energies. Interaction prior to the first meeting can help reduce uncertainty. Coffee and calories can help bring a group together. Providing the group with what they need, and opportunities to know each other, prior to their task can increase efficiency.
Groups that make a successful transition from the storming stage will next experience the norming stage, where the group establishes norms, or informal rules, for behavior and interaction. Who speaks first? Who takes notes? Who is creative and visual, and who is detail-oriented? Sometimes our job titles and functions speak for themselves, but human beings are complex. We are not simply a list of job functions, and in the dynamic marketplace of today’s business environment, you will often find that people have talents and skills well beyond their “official” role or task. Drawing on these strengths can make the group more effective.
The norming stage is marked by less division and more collaboration. The level of anxiety associated with interaction is generally reduced, making for a more positive work climate that promotes listening. When people feel less threatened, and their needs are met, they are more likely to focus their complete attention on the purpose of the group. If they are still concerned with who does what, and whether they will speak in error, the interaction framework will stay in the storming stage. Tensions are reduced when the normative expectations are known, and the degree to which a manager can describe these at the outset can reduce the amount of time the group remains in uncertainty. Group members generally express more satisfaction with clear expectations and are more inclined to participate.
Ultimately, the purpose of a workgroup is performance, and the preceding stages lead us to the performing stage, in which the group accomplishes its mandate, fulfills its purpose, and reaches its goals. To facilitate performance, group members can’t skip the initiation of getting to know each other, or the sorting out of roles and norms, but they can try to focus on performance with clear expectations from the moment the group is formed. Productivity is often how we measure success in business and industry, and the group has to produce. Outcome assessments may have been built into the system from the beginning and would serve as a benchmark for success. Wise managers know to celebrate success, as it brings more success, social cohesion, group participation, and a sense of job satisfaction. Incremental gains toward a benchmark may also be cause for celebration and support, and failure to reach a goal should be regarded as an opportunity for clarification.
It is generally wiser to focus on the performance of the group rather than individual contributions. Managers and group members will want to offer assistance to underperformers as well as congratulating members for their contributions. If the goal is to create a community where competition pushes each member to perform, individual highlights may serve your needs, but if you want a group to solve a problem or address a challenge as a group, you have to promote group cohesion. Members need to feel a sense of belonging, and praise (or the lack thereof) can be a sword with two edges. One stimulates and motivates, while the other demoralizes and divides.
Groups should be designed to produce and perform in ways and at levels that individuals cannot, or else you should consider compartmentalizing the tasks. The performing stage is where productivity occurs, and it is necessary to make sure the group has what it needs to perform. Missing pieces, parts, or information can stall the group, and reset the cycle to storming all over again. Loss of performance is inefficiency, and that carries a cost. Managers will be measured by the group’s productivity and performance, and their success reflects on the manager. Make sure the performing stage is one that is productive and healthy for its members.
Imagine that you are the manager of a group that has produced an award-winning design for an ecologically innovative four-seat car. Their success is your success. Their celebrations are yours, even if you are not the focus of them. A manager manages the process, while group members perform. If you were a member of the group, and you helped design the beltline, you made a fundamental contribution to the style of the car. Individual consumers may never consider the line from the front fender, across the doors, to the rear taillight as they make a purchase decision, but they will recognize beauty. You will know that you could not have achieved that fundamental part of car design without help from the engineers in the group, and if the number-crunching accountants had not seen the efficiency of the production process that produced it, it may never have survived the transition from prototype to production. The group came together and accomplished its goals with amazing results.
Now, as typically happens eventually with all groups, the time has come to move on to new assignments. In the adjourning stage, group members leave the group. Before you leave the group it may be time for a debriefing, a meeting to go over what worked, what didn’t, and ways to improve for next time, or if you are in the US military, to participate in the "After Action Review" or AAR. While it is important to focus on group progress throughout the cycle, closure brings perspective. The completion of any training, mission, task, or journey provides an opportunity to review what occurred with a bit of distance. This stage can provide an important opportunity for managers and group members alike to learn from failure and success.
The group may cease to exist, or it may be transformed with new members and a new set of goals. Your contributions may have caught the attention of management, and you may be assigned to the redesign of the flagship vehicle, the halo car of your marque or brand. It’s quite a professional honor, and it’s yours because of your successful work in a group. Others will be reassigned to tasks that require their talents and skills, and you may or may not collaborate with them in the future.
You may miss the interactions with the members, even the more cantankerous ones, and will experience both relief and a sense of loss. Like life, the group process is normal, and mixed emotions are to be expected. A wise manager anticipates this stage and facilitates the separation with skill and ease. We often close this process with a ritual marking its passing, though the ritual may be as formal as an award or as informal as a “thank you” or a verbal acknowledgment of a job well done over coffee and calories.
On a more sober note, it is important not to forget that groups can reach the adjourning stage without having achieved success. Some businesses go bankrupt, some departments are closed, and some individuals lose their positions after a group fails to perform. Adjournment can come suddenly and unexpectedly, or gradually and piece by piece. Either way, a skilled business communicator will be prepared and recognize it as part of the classic group life cycle.
Table 3.1 Tuckman’s Linear Model of Group Development. Tuckman, B. (1965). Developmental sequence in small groups. Psychological Bulletin, 63, 384–399.
Stages Activities
Forming Members come together, learn about each other, and determine the purpose of the group.
Storming Members engage in more direct communication and get to know each other. Conflicts between group members will often arise during this stage.
Norming Members establish spoken or unspoken rules about how they communicate and work. Status, rank, and roles in the group are established.
Performing Members fulfill their purpose and reach their goal.
Adjourning Members leave the group.
Let’s now turn our attention to two other model’s group lifecycles. While Tuckman’s model is familiar, both Tubbs and Fisher offer two distinct, though similar views. Each model provides an area of emphasis, and all follow a similar progression.
In Tubb’s Small Group Communication Theory (1995), the emphasis is on conflict vs. groupthink. As we’ve discussed, conflict is present in all groups, and we see the danger of groupthink raised in its absence. When the emphasis is on conformity, the group lacks diversity of viewpoints and the tendency to go along with the flow can produce disastrous results.
First Tubb’s (Tubbs, 1995)Tubbs, Stewart. (1995). A systems approach to small group interaction. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1995. asserts that we are involved in an orientation phase. We get to know each other, focus on limitations, opportunities, strengths, and weaknesses, and begin to discuss the task at hand. This stage is followed by the conflict stage, characterized by different viewpoints, disagreements, competing agendas, and debate. This stage is natural and in this model is viewed as necessary to inhibit conformity or groupthink. The consensus stage follows conflict, where group members select some ideas or actions over others and the group proceeds to get the task done. It is characterized by agreement and teamwork. Individual differences are not as apparent, having been sorted out during the previous conflict stage. All groups end, and once the task has been completed as a result of consensus and action, the group dissolves in the closure stage. This stage often features statements of agreement and support for the result, action, or outcome.
We can compare and contrast Tubb’s model of group development to Fisher’s (1970)Fisher, B. Aubrey. (1970). Decision emergence: Phases in group decision making. Speech Monographs, 37, 53–66. and view both overlap and divergence. Here the emphasis is on the group process of individuals becoming a functioning group that emerges successfully from conflict. The first stage is familiar: Orientation. It is characterized by awkward moments as individuals get to know each other, their backgrounds or special skill areas, and people size each other up. The group turns the corner to conflict where divergent points of view are presented, often characterized by struggles for power or a speech turn. As the group descends into conflict there can emerge allies and challengers, as members persuade each other and present alternatives. This process continues until one viewpoint, course of action, or path becomes the generally-agreed upon course for the group, and they emerge together in the emergence stage. Dissension and argument are no longer features of the conversation, and the emphasis is on action. The team acts and then progresses to the reinforcement stage, characterized by affirmations and statements of agreement or support for the task or actions. Group members often look to each other for support at this stage, and it sharply contrasts with the preceding conflict stage, where opposing viewpoints were aired. The emphasis is on group members to reinforce each other and the decision or outcome.
Finally, we can consider Poole’s (1989)Poole, Marshall Scott, & Roth, Jonelle. (1989). Decision development in small groups V: Test of a contigency model. Human Communication Research, 15, 549–589. approach to group development, itself a distinct and divergent model that provides additional insight into group dynamics. In the case of Tuckman, Tubbs, and Fisher, we can observe a step-by-step process from start to finish. Poole asserts group development is far more complex but offers three distinct, interdependent tracks or patterns of communication that overlap, start and stop, and go back and forth as the group wrestles with the challenges. Here the emphasis is on the transitions between the two main tracks: Topic and Relation. In the topic track, group members discuss the topic and all the relevant issues as they explore how to approach it, get a handle on it, or resolve it. In the relation track, group members also discuss themselves, self-disclosure information, and ask questions to learn more about each other. It relates to reducing uncertainty between group members, and sometimes the group shifts from the topic track to the relationship track as members sort out personal issues or work on relationships. In this moment where the group shifts between the two main tracks emerges a third track: breakpoints. The breakpoint stage is characterized by turns in the conversation that regulate interaction, from an actual break in the discussion like a coffee break to a shift in the conversation to something they all have in common, like participation in a softball league. Breakpoints can also include postponement, where decisions are delayed to allow for further research or consideration, regression in the conversation, where topics once considered and addressed are raised yet again, or even adjournment, where the group closes for a time, for the day, or disbands to address new tasks as members of new groups.
Finally, let’s turn our attention to assessing whether the group is working together, pulling apart, and ways to improve group interactions. An effective group can be recognized in several ways including:
• Group members are active, interested, and involved.
• Group members are comfortable; no obvious tensions.
• Group members understand and accept the task, goal, or activity.
• Disagreement is resolved amicably.
• Active listening behaviors can be frequently observed.
• Group members interact freely; no one member is in control.
• Group members openly discuss their progress.
• Criticism is present, accepted, and discussed openly.
These signs allow us insight into the group dynamics, and we can observe how they contribute to task completion as well as group health. Conversely, there are also several ways we can recognize when a group is ineffective:
• Some group members are not active, interested, or involved.
• Group member interactions include obvious tensions.
• Group members do not understand or accept the task, goal, or activity; passive/aggressive behaviors may be present.
• Disagreement is not resolved.
• Active listening behaviors cannot be frequently observed.
• Group members do not interact freely; one member is in control.
• Group members do not discuss their progress.
• Criticism is not present; groupthink is a significant risk.
With these telltale signs in mind, we can take an active part in promoting an active, effective, and healthy group:
• Encourage every member to contribute, speak, or share their thoughts.
• Encourage every member to understand their role, and everyone’s roles, and how they complement each other.
• Encourage interdependence and interaction.
• Encourage the group to build on their common strengths and skills, celebrating incremental success.
• Encourage active listing and refrain from interruptions.
• Encourage group members to assess their collective progress frequently.
In this section we have examined group development and several theories on how groups come together, complete their task, goal, or activity, and grow apart. Just like interpersonal relationships include signs of health and prosperity, so do groups. The effective group leader understands both group process and ways to make a positive difference.
• Individual members demonstrate interest and involvement.
• There are no obvious tensions.
• It is clear the group understands and accepts the task.
• Listen behaviors are clearly demonstrated.
• Difference of opinion or viewpoint doesn’t upset the group. Humor is a common characteristic, and tensions that may arise are quickly and amicably resolved.
• People feel free to express their viewpoints, thoughts, and feelings. Criticism is considered by group members and not considered as a personal attack.
• Consensus in decision-making is apparent.
• No one individual dominates the group.
• The group self-regulates, evaluating progress, regrouping, or advancing towards a common goal.
• Group member roles are clear and accepted.
An ineffective group can also be recognized in several ways:
• Some topics are not discussed and understood as off-limits.
• There is a sense of urgency, preferring advancement and task completion before consideration or consensus.
• One or more group members dominate the discussion.
• Individual members demonstrate a lack of interest and involvement.
• There are obvious tensions.
• It is clear the group does not understand or accepts the task. Group members are arguing in cycles, returning again and again to themes with no resolution.
• Listen behaviors are not clearly demonstrated.
• Difference of opinion or viewpoint upsets the group. Tensions rise with the expression of criticism.
• Criticism is not considered by group members and often interpreted as a personal attack.
• Consensus in decision-making is not apparent.
• The group does not self-regulate, and little discussion on group progress is present.
• Group member roles are not clear or accepted.
As we close our discussion on group development, let’s consider five action steps members can encourage to help a group become more effective:
• Group members take turns speaking and listening and do not interrupt.
• Group members acknowledge and combine their strengths.
• Group members separate the issues from personalities, the message from the messenger.
• Group members outline action steps and discuss progress periodically.
• Group members clearly understand their roles and responsibilities.
Key Takeaway
• Groups come together and grow apart in predictable patterns.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Is it possible for an outsider (a non-group member) to help a group move from the storming stage to the norming stage? Explain your answer and present it to the class.
2. Think of a group of which you are a member and identify some roles played by group members, including yourself. Have your roles, and those of others, changed over time? Are some roles more positive than others? Discuss your answers with your classmates.
3. In the course where you are using this book, think of yourself and your classmates as a group. At what stage of group formation are you currently? What stage will you be at when the school year ends? | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/03%3A_Group_Development/3.00%3A_Chapter_Introduction.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Describe different types of group members and group member roles
Just as groups go through a life cycle when they form and eventually adjourn, so the members of groups fulfill different roles during this life cycle. These roles, proposed by Moreland and Levine, Moreland, R., & Levine, J. (1982). Socialization in small groups: temporal changes in individual group relations. (L. Berkowitz, Ed.) Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 15, 153. are summarized in Table 3.2.
Suppose you are about to graduate from school, and you are in the midst of an employment search. You’ve gathered extensive information on a couple of local businesses and are aware that they will be participating in the university job fair. You’ve explored their websites, talked to people currently employed at each company, and learned what you can from the public information available. At this stage, you are considered a potential member. You may have an electrical, chemical, or mechanical engineering degree soon, but you are not a member of an engineering team.
You show up at the job fair in professional attire and completely prepared. The representatives of each company are respectful, cordial, and give you contact information. One of them even calls a member of the organization on the spot and arranges an interview for you next week. You are excited at the prospect and want to learn more. You are still a potential member.
The interview goes well the following week. The day after the meeting you receive a call for a follow-up interview, which leads to a committee interview. A few weeks later, the company calls you with a job offer. However, in the meantime, you have also been interviewing with other potential employers, and you are waiting to hear back from two of them. You are still a potential member.
After careful consideration, you decide to take the job offer and start the next week. The projects look interesting, you’ll be gaining valuable experience, and the commute to work is reasonable. Your first day on the job is positive, and they’ve assigned you a mentor. The conversations are positive, but at times you feel lost, as if they are speaking a language you can’t quite grasp. As a new group member, your level of acceptance will increase as you begin learning the groups’ rules, spoken and unspoken. Fisher, B. A. (1970). Decision emergence: phases in group decision making. Speech Monographs, 37, 56–66. You will gradually move from the potential member role to the role of a new group member as you learn to fit into the group.
Over time and projects, you gradually increase your responsibilities. You are no longer looked at as the new person, and you can follow almost every conversation. You can’t quite say “I remember when” because your tenure hasn’t been that long, but you are a known quantity and know your way around. You are a full member of the group. Full members enjoy knowing the rules and customs, and can even create new rules. New group members look to full members for leadership and guidance. Full group members can control the agenda and have considerable influence on the agenda and activities.
Full members of a group, however, can and do come into conflict. When you were a new member, you may have remained silent when you felt you had something to say, but now you state your case. There is more than one way to get the job done. You may suggest new ways that emphasize efficiency over existing methods. Co-workers who have been working in the department for several years may be unwilling to adapt and change, and tension may result. Expressing different views can cause conflict and may even interfere with communication.
When this type of tension arises, divergent group members pull back, contribute less, and start to see themselves as separate from the group. Divergent group members have less eye contact, seek out each other’s opinions less frequently, and listen defensively. At the beginning of the process, you felt a sense of belonging, but now you don’t. Marginal group members start to look outside the group for their interpersonal needs.
After several months of trying to cope with these adjustments, you decide that you never really investigated the other two companies; that your job search process was incomplete. Perhaps you should take a second look at the options. You will report to work on Monday but will start the process of becoming an ex-member, one who no longer belongs. You may experience a sense of relief upon making this decision, given that you haven’t felt like you belonged to the group for a while. When you line up your next job and submit your resignation, you make it official.
Table 3.2 The Life Cycle of Member Roles. Moreland, R., & Levine, J. (1982). Socialization in small groups: temporal changes in individual group relations. (L. Berkowitz, Ed.) Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 15, 153.
1 Potential Member Curiosity and Interest
2 New Member Joined the group but still an outsider, and unknown
3 Full Member Knows the “rules” and is looked to for leadership
4 Divergent Member Focuses on differences
5 Marginal Member No longer involved
6 Ex-Member No longer considered a member
This process has no set timetable. Some people overcome differences and stay in the group for years. Others get promoted and leave the group only when they get transferred to regional headquarters. As a skilled communicator, you will recognize the signs of divergence, just like you anticipate the storming stage, and do your best to facilitate success.
Key Takeaway
• Group membership follows a predictable pattern of stages.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Consider a time when you were exploring group members, but had not yet decided to join. It would be accepting a job or joining a church, for example. What points did you consider when deciding to become a member (or not). Share your results with your classmates.
2. You decided to be part of a group but quickly learned that there were members of the group, full members, who viewed you as the new person. How did you know they considered you a new person, and how did their language use reflect their full membership? Did they use terms that were unfamiliar? Did they discuss topics that made little sense to you? Share your results with classmates.
3. As a full member of a group, you may have been asked to train a new employee, help a new person find their way around, or otherwise help them learn about the group, organization, or company. Did you think about your own orientation process and did your experience guide your actions? What did you do to help this person? What would you do differently if the same situation presented itself again? Share your results with classmates.
4. As a full member of the group, you know the ins and outs. You know the strengths and weaknesses of the group members, their likes and dislikes, and at times, familiarity can breed contempt. Have you had conflicts arise because of this close familiarity and how was it resolved? Share and compare your results with classmates.
5. Think of a group you no longer belong to. At what point did you become an ex-member? Were you ever a marginal group member or a full member? Write a 2–3 paragraph description of the group, how and why you became a member, and how and why you left. Share your description with a classmate. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/03%3A_Group_Development/3.02%3A_The_Life_Cycle_of_Member_Roles.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Understand the role of interpersonal needs in the communication process
“What are you doing?” You may have had no problem answering the question, and simply pulled a couple of lines from yesterday’s Twitter or reviewed your BlackBerry calendar. But if you had to compose an entirely original answer, would it prove to be a challenge? Perhaps at first, this might appear to be a simple task. You have to work and your job required your participation in a meeting, or you care about someone and met him or her for lunch.
Both scenarios make sense on the surface, but we have to consider the "why" with more depth. Why that meeting, and why that partner? Why not another job, or a lunch date with someone else? If we consider the question long enough, we’ll come around to the conclusion that we communicate with others in order to meet basic needs, and our meetings, interactions, and relationships help us meet those needs. We may also recognize that not all of our needs are met by any one person, job, experience, or context; instead, we diversify our communication interactions in order to meet our needs. At first, you may be skeptical of the idea that we communicate to meet our basic needs, but let’s consider a theory on the subject and see how well it predicts, describes, and anticipate our tendency to interact.
William Schutz, Schutz, W. (1966). The interpersonal underworld. Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books. offers an alternate version of interpersonal needs. Like Maslow, he considers the universal aspects of our needs, but he outlines how they operate within a range or continuum for each person. According to Schutz, the need for affection, or appreciation, is basic to all humans. We all need to be recognized and feel like we belong but may have differing levels of expectations to meet that need. When part of the merger process is announced and the news of layoffs comes, those co-workers who have never been particularly outgoing and have largely kept to themselves may become even more withdrawn. Schutz describes underpersonals as people who seek limited interaction. On the opposite end of the spectrum, you may know people where you work that are often seeking attention and affirmation. Schutz describes overpersonals as people who have a strong need to be liked and constantly seek attention from others. The person who strikes a healthy balance is called a personal individual.
Humans also have a need for control, or the ability to influence people and events. But that need may vary by the context, environment, and sense of security. You may have already researched similar mergers, as well as the forecasts for the new organization, and come to realize that your position and your department are central to the current business model. You may have also of taken steps to prioritize your budget, assess your transferable skills, and look for opportunities beyond your current context. Schutz would describe your efforts to control your situation as autocratic, or self-directed. At the same time, there may be several employees who have not taken similar steps who look to you and others for leadership, in effect abdicating their responsibility. Abdicrats shift the burn of responsibility from themselves to others, looking to others for a sense of control. Democrats share the need between the individual and the group and may try to hold a departmental meeting to gather information and share.
Finally, Schutz echoes Maslow in his assertion that belonging is a basic interpersonal need, but notes that it exists within a range or continuum, where some need more and others less. Undersocials may be less likely to seek interaction, may prefer smaller groups, and will generally not be found on center stage. Oversocials, however, crave the spotlight of attention and are highly motivated to seek belonging. A social person is one who strikes a healthy balance between being withdrawn and being the constant center of attention.
Schutz describes these three interpersonal needs of affection, control, and belonging as interdependent and variable. In one context an individual may have a high need for control, while in others he or she may not perceive the same level of motivation or compulsion to meet that need. Both Maslow and Schutz offer us two related versions of interpersonal needs that begin to address the central question: why communicate?
We communicate with each other to meet our needs, regardless of how we define those needs. From the time you are a newborn infant crying for food or the time you are a toddler learning to say “please” when requesting a cup of milk, to the time you are an adult learning the rituals of the job interview and the conference room, you learn to communicate in order to gain a sense of self within the group or community, meeting your basic needs as you grow and learn.
Key Takeaway
• Through communication, we meet universal human needs.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Review the types of individuals from Schutz’s theory described in this section. Which types do you think fit you? Which types fit some of your co-workers or classmates? Why? Share your opinions with your classmates and compare your self-assessment with the types they believe describe you.
2. Think of two or more different situations and how you might express your personal needs differ from one situation to the other. Have you observed similar variations in personal needs in other people from one situation to another? Discuss your thoughts with a classmate. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/03%3A_Group_Development/3.03%3A_Why_People_Join_Groups.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Discuss social penetration theory, self-disclosure, and the principles of self-disclosure
2. Describe interpersonal relations
How do you get to know other people? If the answer springs immediately to mind, we’re getting somewhere: communication. Communication allows us to share experiences, come to know ourselves and others, and form relationships, but it requires time and effort. You don’t get to know someone in a day, a month, or even a year. At the same time, you are coming to know them, they are changing, adapting, and growing—and so are you. When groups come together people get to know each other and start the trust-building process. When we do not take the time to get to know each other, and focus simply on the task at hand, the group often suffers.
Altman and Taylor, Altman, I., & Taylor, D. (1973). Social penetration: The development of interpersonal relationships. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press. describe this progression from superficial to intimate levels of communication in social penetration theory, which is often called the Onion Theory because the model looks like an onion and involves layers that are peeled away. According to the social penetration theory, we fear that which we do not know. That includes people. Strangers go from being unknown to known through a series of steps that we can observe through conversational interactions. People come together in groups and teams and do amazing things.
If we didn’t have the weather to talk about, what would we say? People across cultures use a variety of signals to indicate neutral or submissive stances in relation to each other. A wave, a nod, or a spoken reference about a beautiful day can indicate an open, approachable stance rather than a guarded, defensive posture. At the outermost layer of the onion, in this model, there is only that which we can observe. We can observe the characteristics of each other and make judgments, but they are educated guesses at best. Our nonverbal displays of affiliation, like a team jacket, a uniform, or a badge, may communicate something about us, but we only peel away a layer when we engage in conversation, oral or written.
As we move from public to private information we make the transition from small talk to substantial, and eventually intimate, conversations. Communication requires trust and that often takes time. Beginnings are fragile times and when expectations, roles, and ways of communicating are not clear, misunderstandings can occur. Some relationships may never proceed past observations on the weather, while others may explore controversial topics like politics or religion. A married couple that has spent countless years together may be able to finish each other’s sentences, and as memory fades, the retelling of stories may serve to bond and reinforce the relationship. Increasingly intimate knowledge and levels of trust are achieved over time, involving frequency of interaction and well as length and quality. Positive interactions may lead to more positive interactions, while negative ones may lead to less overall interaction.
This may appear to be common sense at first, but let’s examine an example. You are new to a position and your supervisor has been in his or her role for a number of years. Some people at the same level as you within the organization enjoy a level of knowledge and ease of interaction with your supervisor that you lack. They may have had more time and interactions with the supervisor, but you can still use this theory to gain trust and build a healthy relationship. Recognize that you are unknown to your supervisor, and they to you. Start with superficial conversations that are neutral and non-threatening, but that demonstrate a willingness to engage in communication. Silence early in a relationship can be a sign of respect, but it can also send the message that you are fearful, shy, or lack confidence. It can be interpreted as an unwillingness to communicate, and may actually discourage interaction. If the supervisor picks up the conversation, keep your responses short and light. If not, keep an upbeat attitude and mention the weather.
Over time the conversations may gradually grow to cross topics beyond the scope of the office, and a relationship may form that involves trust. To a degree, you and your co-workers learn to predict one another’s responses and relax in the knowledge of mutual respect. If, however, you skip from superficial to intimate topics too quickly, you run the risk of violating normative expectations. Trust takes time, and with can come empathy and understanding, but if you share with your supervisor your personal struggles on day one, it may erode your credibility. According to the social penetration theory, people go from superficial to intimate conversations as trust develops through repeated, positive interactions. Self-disclosure is “information, thoughts, or feelings we tell others about ourselves that they would not otherwise know.”McLean, S. (2005). The basics of interpersonal communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. pp. 112 Taking it step by step, and not rushing to self-disclose or asking personal questions too soon, can help develop positive business relationships.
Principles of Self-Disclosure
Write down five terms that describe your personal self, and five terms that describe your professional self. Once you have completed your two lists, compare the results. They may have points that overlap or may have words that describe you in your distinct roles that are quite different. This difference can be easy to address, but at times it can be a challenge to maintain. How much of “you” do you share in the workplace? Our personal and professional lives don’t exist independently, and in many ways are interdependent.
How do people know more about us? We communicate information about ourselves, whether or not we are aware of it. You cannot not communicate. Watzlawick, P. (1993). The language of change: elements of therapeutic communication. New York, NY: Norton & Company. From your internal monologue and intrapersonal to communication, to verbal and nonverbal communication, communication is constantly occurring. What do you communicate about yourself by the clothes (or brands) you wear, the tattoos you display, or the piercing you remove before you enter the workplace? Self-disclosure is a process by which you intentionally communicate information to others, but can involve unintentional, but revealing slips. Beebe, Beebe, and RedmondBeebe, S., Beebe, S., & Redmond, M. (2002). Interpersonal communication relating to others (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. offer us five principles of self-disclosure that remind us that communication is an integral part of any business or organizational setting. Let’s discuss them one by one.
Self-Disclosure Usually Moves in Small Steps
Would you come to work on your first day wearing a large purple hat? If you knew that office attire was primarily brown and gray suits? Most people would say, “of course not!” as there is a normative expectation for dress, sometimes called a dress code. After you have worked within the organization, earned trust and established credibility, and earned your place in the community, the purple hat might be positively received with a sense of humor. But if you haven’t yet earned your place, your fashion statement may be poorly received. In the same way, personal information is normally reserved for those of confidence, and earned over time. Take small steps as you come to know your colleagues, taking care to make sure who you are does not speak louder than what you say.
Self-Disclosure Moves from Impersonal to Intimate Information
So you decided against wearing the purple hat to work on your first day, but after a successful first week you went out with friends from your college days. You shut down the bar late in the evening and paid for it on Sunday. At work on Monday, is it a wise strategy to share the finer tips of the drinking games you played on Saturday night? Again, most people would say, “of course not!” It has nothing to do with work and only makes you look immature. Some people have serious substance abuse issues, and your stories could sound insensitive, producing a negative impact. How would you know, as you don’t really know your co-workers yet? In the same way, it is not a wise strategy to post photos from the weekend’s escapades on your MySpace, Facebook, or similar social networking web page. Employers are increasingly aware of their employees’ web pages, and the picture of you looking stupid may come to mind when your supervisor is considering you for a promotion. You represent yourself, but you also represent your company and its reputation. If you don’t represent it well, you run the risk of not representing it at all.
Self-Disclosure Is Reciprocal
Monday morning brings the opportunity to tell all sorts of stories about the weekend, and since you’ve wisely decided to leave any references to the bar in the past, you may instead choose the wise conversational strategy of asking questions. You may ask your co-workers what they did, what it was like, who they met, and where they went, but eventually, all conversations form a circle that comes back to you. The dance between source and receiver isn’t linear, it’s transactional. After a couple of stories, sooner or later, you’ll hear the question “What did you do this weekend?” It’s now your turn. This aspect of conversation is universal. We expect when we reveal something about ourselves that others will reciprocate. The dyadic effect is the formal term for this process and is often thought to meet the need to reduce uncertainty about conversational partners. If you stay quiet or decline to answer after everyone else has taken a turn, what will happen? They may be put off at first, they may invent stories and let their imaginations run wild, or they may reject you. It may be subtle at first, but reciprocity is expected.
You have the choice of what to reveal, and when. You may choose to describe your weekend by describing friends and conversations while omitting any reference to the bar. You may choose to focus on your Sunday afternoon gardening activities. You may just say you read a good book and mention the title of the one you are reading. Regardless of what option you choose, you have the freedom and responsibility within the dyadic effect to reciprocate, but you have a degree of control. You can learn to anticipate when your turn will come and to give some thought to what you will say before the moment arrives.
Self-Disclosure Involves Risk
If you decided to go with the “good book” option, or perhaps mention that you watched a movie, you just ran the risk that whatever you are reading or watching may be criticized. If the book you are enjoying is controversial, you might anticipate a bit of a debate, but if you mentioned a romance novel or one that has a science fiction theme, you may have thought it wouldn’t generate criticism. Sometimes the most innocent reference or comment can produce conflict when the conversational partners have little prior history. At the same time, nothing ventured, nothing gained. How are you going to discover that the person you work with appreciates the same author or genre if you don’t share that information? Self-disclosure involves risk but can produce positive results.
Self-Disclosure Involves Trust
Before you mention the title of the book or movie you saw this weekend, you may consider your audience and what you know about them. If you’ve only known them for a week, your awareness of their habits, quirks, likes, and dislikes may be limited. At the same time, if you feel safe and relatively secure, you may test the waters with a reference to the genre but not the author. You may also decide that it is just a book, and they can take it or leave it.
“Trust is the ability to place confidence in or rely on the character or truth of someone.” McLean, S. (2005). The basics of interpersonal communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. pp 114 Trust is a process, not a badge to be earned. It takes time to develop and can be lost in a moment. Even if you don’t agree with your co-worker, understand that self-revelation communicates a measure of trust and confidence. Respect that confidence, and respect yourself.
Also, consider the nature of the information. Some information communicated in confidence must see the light of day. Sexual harassment, fraud, theft, and abuse are all issues in the workplace, and if you become aware of these behaviors you will have a responsibility to report them according to your organization’s procedures. A professional understands that trust is built over time and understands how valuable this intangible commodity can be to success.
Interpersonal Relationships
Interpersonal communication can be defined as communication between two people, but the definition fails to capture the essence of a relationship. This broad definition is useful when we compare it to intrapersonal communication, or communication with ourselves, as opposed to mass communication, or communication with a large audience, but it requires clarification. The developmental view of interpersonal communication places emphasis on the relationship, rather than the size of the audience, and draws a distinction between impersonal and personal interactions.
For example, one day your co-worker and best friend, Iris, whom you’ve come to know on a personal as well as a professional level, gets promoted to the position of manager. She didn’t tell you ahead of time because it wasn’t certain, and she didn’t know how to bring up the possible change of roles. Your relationship with Iris will change as your roles transform. Her perspective will change, and so will yours. You may stay friends, or she may not have as much time for after-hours activities as she once did. Over time you and Iris gradually grow apart, spending less time together. You eventually lose touch. What is the status of your relationship?
If you have ever had even a minor interpersonal transaction such as buying a cup of coffee from a clerk, you know that some people can be personable, but does that mean you’ve developed a relationship within the transaction process? For many people, the transaction is an impersonal experience, however pleasant. What is the difference between the brief interaction of a transaction and the interactions you periodically have with your colleague Iris who is now your manager?
The developmental view places an emphasis on the prior history but also focuses on the level of familiarity and trust. Over time and with increased frequency, we form bonds or relationships with people, and if that time and frequency are diminished, we lose that familiarity. The relationship with the clerk may be impersonal, but so can the relationship with the manager after time has passed and the familiarity is lost. From a developmental view, interpersonal communication can exist across this range of experience and interaction.
Review the lists you made for Introductory Exercise #3 at the beginning of this chapter. If you evaluate your list of what is important to you, will you find objects or relationships? You may value your home or vehicle, but for most people, relationships with friends and family are at the top of the list. Interpersonal relationships take time and effort to form, and they can be challenging. All relationships are dynamic, meaning that they transform and adapt to changes within the context and environment. They require effort and sacrifice, and at times give rise to the question: why bother? A short answer may be that we as humans are compelled to form bonds, but it still fails to answer the question, why?
Uncertainty theory states that we choose to know more about others with whom we have interactions in order to reduce or resolve the anxiety associated with the unknown. Berger, C., & Calabrese, R. (1975). Some explorations in initial interactions and beyond: toward a developmental theory of interpersonal communication. Human Communication Research, 1, 99–112.,Berger, C. (1986). Response uncertain outcome values in predicted relationships: uncertainty reduction theory then and now. Human Communication Research, 13, 34–38., Gudykunst, W.(1995) Anxiety/uncertainty management theory. In R. W. Wiseman (Ed.), Intercultural communication theory (pp. 8–58). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. The more we know about others, and become accustomed to how they communicate, the better we can predict how they will interact with us in future contexts. If you learn that Monday mornings are never a good time for your supervisor, you quickly learn to schedule meetings later in the week. The predicted outcome value theory asserts that not only do we want to reduce uncertainty, we also want to maximize our possible benefit from the association. Sunnafrank, M. (1986). Predicted outcome value during initial interactions: a reformulation of uncertainty reduction theory. Human Communication Research, 3–33., Sunnafrank, M. (1990). Predicted outcome value and uncertainty reduction theory: a test of competing perspective. Human Communication Theory, 17, 76–150., Kellerman, K., & Reynolds, R. (1990). when ignorance is bliss: the role of motivation to reduce uncertainty in uncertainty reduction theory. Human Communication Research, 17, 5–75. This theory would predict that you would choose Tuesday or later for a meeting in order to maximize the potential for positive interaction and any possible rewards that may result. One theory involves the avoidance of fear while the other focuses on the pursuit of a reward, and together they provide a point of reference as we continue our discussion on interpersonal relationships.
Regardless of whether we focus on collaboration or competition, we can see that interpersonal communication is necessary for the business environment. We want to know our place and role within the organization, accurately predict those within our proximity, and create a sense of safety and belonging. Family for many is the first experience in interpersonal relationships, but as we develop professionally, our relationships at work may take on many of the attributes we associate with family communication. We look to each other with similar sibling rivalries, competition for attention and resources, and support. The workplace and our peers can become as close, or closer, than our birth families, with similar challenges and rewards.
Key Takeaways
• Interpersonal relationships are an important part of the work environment.
• We come to know one another gradually.
• Self-disclosure involves risk and reward and is a normal part of communication.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Write down five terms that describe your personal self, and five terms that describe your professional self. Compare your results with a classmate.
2. Think of someone you trust and who trusts you. How did you come to have a mutually trusting relationship? Did it take effort on both people’s part? Discuss your thoughts with a classmate.
3. How important do you think self-disclosure is in business settings? Give some examples. Discuss your thoughts with a classmate. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/03%3A_Group_Development/3.04%3A_Social_Penetration_Theory.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Define group norms
2. Discuss the role and function of group norms
3. Discuss the effect of group norms on a group’s development
A new vice president came into an organization. At the end of her first weekly meeting with her staff members, she tossed a nerf ball to one of them and asked the person to say how she was feeling. When that person finished, the vice president asked her to toss the ball to someone else, and so on, until everyone had expressed himself or herself. This process soon became a regular feature of the group’s meetings.
In our earlier section on group life cycles, you learned about Bruce Tuckman’s model of forming, storming, norming, and performing. Along with roles, status, and trust, which we’ll encounter in the next chapter, norms are usually generated and adopted after a group’s “forming” and “storming” stages.
As a group moves from “forming” toward “performing,” then, norms help guide its members along the way. Whether we see them or not, norms are powerful predictors of a group’s behavior.
What Norms Are
Group norms are rules or guidelines that reflect expectations of how group members should act and interact. They define what behaviors are acceptable or not; good or not; right or not; or appropriate or not (O’Hair & Wieman, p. 19). O’Hair, D. & Wiemann, M.O. (2004). The essential guide to group communication. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s.
Norms may relate to how people look, behave, or communicate with each other. Tossing a nerf ball around a circle of workers is perhaps a peculiar way to start a meeting, and it probably doesn’t contribute directly to achieving substantive goals, but it did represent a norm in the vice president’s group we described—which, by the way, was a real group and not a product of imagination!
Some norms relate to how a group as a whole will act—e.g., when and how often it will meet, for instance. Others have to do with the behavior of individual group members and the roles those members play within the group.
By defining what social behavior lies within acceptable boundaries, norms can help a group function smoothly and face conflict without falling apart (Hayes, p. 31). Hayes, N. (2004). Managing teams: A strategy for success. London: Thomson. Thus, they can constitute a potent force to promote positive interaction among group members.
Origin of Norms
In a new group, norms may arise organically as members settle into their relationships and start to function together. Decisions need to be made and time needs to be taken for diverse activities such as identifying goals, determining tasks, and allocating human and tangible resources. Who will take the lead on these areas of the group’s behavior has to be determined.
Further questions need to be answered as the group gets off the ground. Here are some examples:
• What topics are and are not appropriate for the group to discuss?
• How and to what degree will members respect and attend to each other’s statements and viewpoints?
• How and when, if ever, will the group behave casually?
• What mechanisms will the group use to solve problems?
Any group eventually needs to deal with these questions, and the answers it reaches will become embodied as norms.
Implicit Norms
Whether a group is new or not, its norms aren’t always expressed or discussed. People may simply assume that certain norms exist and accept them “by unspoken consent” (Galanes & Adams, p. 162), Galanes, G., & Adams, K. (2013). Effective group discussion: Theory and practice. New York: McGraw-Hill. in which case they are implicit norms.
Consider “same seat syndrome,” for example. How often have you found that people in a college classroom seem to gravitate every day to exactly the same chairs they’ve always sat in? Nobody says, “Hey, I’ve decided that this will be my chair forever” or “I see that that’s your territory, so I’ll never sit there,” do they?
Often norms are difficult for group members to express in words. What topics are okay or not okay to talk about during informal “chit-chat” may be a matter of unstated intuition rather than something that people can readily describe. Nevertheless, implicit norms may be extremely powerful, and even large groups are apt to have at least some implicit norms.
The cultural background each member brings to a group may lie beneath conscious awareness, yet it may exert a powerful influence on both that person’s and the group’s behavior and expectations. Just as a fish is unaware that it lives in water, a person may easily go through life and participate in group interactions without perceiving that he or she is the product of a culture.
Explicit Norms
Sometimes group norms are stated outright, either orally or in writing; then they are explicit norms. Such explicit rules may be imposed by an authority figure such as an executive or designated team leader. They may be part of formal policies or regulations. Wearing a uniform or answering the telephone in a certain way, for instance, may be written requirements in a workplace group.
Manuals, and even books, have been composed to provide members of groups with norms of how to behave. A manager in one organization we know wrote a policy in response to almost every problem or difficulty his division experienced. Because the manager served for more than 15 years in his position, the collection of these incident-based policies eventually filled a large tabbed binder. The bigger the group, the more likely it is that its norms will be rigid and explicit like these (Lamberton, L., & Minor-Evans, L., 2002). Lamberton, L., & Minor-Evans, L. (2002). Human relations: Strategies for success (2nd ed.). New York: Glencoe McGraw-Hill.
Table 3.3 Implicit, Explicit, Individual, and Whole-Group Norms.
Individual Whole-Group
Explicit Each new member receives a copy of the group’s bylaws The group keeps minutes of all its meetings
Implicit A person should raise his/her hand to signal a desire to speak Someone brings doughnuts or other treats every time the group meets
Interaction, Procedure, Status, and Achievement Norms
Norms may relate to four aspects of a group’s identity: interaction, procedure, status, and achievement (Engleberg & Wynn, p. 37). Engleberg, I.N., & Wynn, D. R. (2013). Working in groups (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson. Let’s look at each of these kinds of norms.
Interaction norms specify how people communicate in the group. Is it expected that everyone in the group should have an opportunity to speak about any topic that the group deals with? How long is it okay for one person to speak?
Procedure-oriented norms identify how the group functions. Does it hold meetings according to an established schedule? Who speaks first when the group gets together? Does someone distribute a written record of what happened after every time the group gets together?
Status norms indicate the degree of influence that members possess and how that influence is obtained and expressed. Who decides when a group discussion has concluded? When and how are officers for the group elected?
Achievement norms relate to standards the group sets for the nature and amount of its work. Must members cite readings or the comments of authorities when they make presentations to the group? What happens to a group member who completes tasks late or fails to complete them at all?
As we’ll discover in the next chapter, enforcing and changing the norms of a group throughout its life cycle may present substantial challenges. Those challenges can best be overcome if members share a common understanding of their group’s norms.
Key Takeaway
• Group norms, whether explicit or implicit, underlie and affect almost all aspects of a group’s activities.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Think of an unusual norm you’ve encountered in a group you were part of. Do you know how and from whom it originated? If not, what is your speculation about its origin?
2. Identify an implicit norm in a group you were part of. Would it have been a good idea to make the norm explicit instead? Why or why not?
3. Describe a group norm you’ve experienced that dealt with either interaction, procedure, status, or achievement.
3.06: Summary
In this chapter, we have discussed group development and several theories. We have discussed group stages of development and their hallmark features. Working in a group can be challenging, but with insight and understanding into the group development process, the effective group communicator can make a positive difference.
Review Questions
1. Discuss storming as a stage, how to recognize it and the role it plays in group development.
2. Discuss adjournment as a stage, how to recognize it, and the role it plays in group development.
3. Select the least important group development stage and discuss why you selected it.
4. Select the most important group development stage and discuss why you selected it.
5. Conflict is present in all groups. Discuss one positive role of conflict in a group and provide an example.
3.07: Additional Resources
Read about groups and teams on the business website 1000 Ventures. http://www.1000ventures.com/business_guide/crosscuttings/team_main.html
Learn more about Tuckman’s Linear Model. http://www.infed.org/thinkers/tuckman.htm
Learn more about Dewey’s sequence of group problem solving on this site from Manatee Community College in Florida. faculty.mccfl.edu/frithl/SPC1600/handouts/Dewey.htm
Read a hands-on article about how to conduct productive meetings. www.articlesnatch.com/Article/How-To-Conduct-Productive-Meetings-/132050
Visit this WikiHow site to learn how to use VOIP. http://www.wikihow.com/Use-VoIP
Watch a YouTube video on cloud computing. www.youtube.com/watch?v=6PNuQHUiV3Q
Read about groups and teams, and contribute to a wiki about them, on Wikibooks. http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Managing_Groups_and_Teams
How did Twitter get started? Find out. http://twitter.com/about
Take a (nonscientific) quiz to identify your leadership style. http://psychology.about.com/library/quiz/bl-leadershipquiz.htm | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/03%3A_Group_Development/3.05%3A_Group_Norms.txt |
Introductory Exercises
1. Think of a group to which you belong. Make a list of the members and include one describing word for each one, focusing on what they do or contribute to the group. Share your results with classmates.
2. Think of a group to which you no longer belong. Make a list of the members and include one describing word for each one, focusing on what they do or contribute to the group. Share your results with classmates.
Individual commitment to a group effort—that is what makes a team work, a company work, a society work, a civilization work.
Vince Lombardi
Getting Started
If all the world is a stage, then we each play distinct roles, whether we know it or not, when we are members of a group, team, family, or community. If we are aware of our roles, then we can know our lines, our responsibilities, and perform. When we do not know what we are supposed to do it is awfully hard to get the right job done correctly the first time. In this chapter, we will explore the many facets to group membership.
4.01: Introducing Member Roles
Learning Objectives
1. Describe group member roles and their impact on group dynamics
The performance of a team or group is often influenced, if not determined, by its members’ roles.
We can start our analysis of member roles with the work of Benne and Sheats (1948). They focused on studying small discussion groups that engaged in problem-solving activities. From their observations, they proposed three distinct types of roles: task, building and maintenance, and self-centered. Task roles were identified by facilitating and co-coordinating behaviors such as suggesting new ideas or ways of solving problems. Building and maintenance roles involved encouragement, including praise, statements of agreement, or acceptance of others and their contributions nonverbally or verbally. Self-centered roles involved ego-centric behaviors that call attention to the individual, not the group, and distract or disrupt the group dynamic.
Table 4.1 Group Roles
Group Task Roles
Coordinator: facilitates order and progress
Evaluator-critic: analyzes suggestions for strengths and weaknesses
Orienter: focuses on group progress, recaps discussions
Recorder: takes notes on the group discussions, important decisions, and commitments to action
Group Building and Maintenance Roles
Supporter: Encourages everyone, making sure they have what they need to get the job done
Harmonizer: Helps manage conflict within the group, facilitating common ground, helping define terms, and contributing to consensus
Tension-releaser: Uses humor and light-hearted remarks, as well as nonverbal demonstrations (brings a plate of cookies to the group), to reduce tensions and work-related stress
Compromiser: Focuses on common ground, common points of agreement, and helps formulate an action plan that brings everyone together towards a common goal, task, or activity
Standard Setter: Sets the standard for conduct and helps influence the behavior of group members
Self-Centered Roles
Aggressor: Belittles other group members
Block: Frequently raises objections
Deserter: Abandons group or is very unreliable
Dominator: Demand control and attention
Recognition-seeker: Frequently seeks praise
Confessor: Uses the group to discuss personal problems
Joker or Clown: Frequent use of distracting humor, often attention-seeking behavior.
Bales (1950) built on their research and analyzed interaction from two categorical perspectives: task-orientation and socio-emotional. Belbin’s (1981) work on successful teams focused on the number of team members in a group and their respective roles. Imagine a baseball team, with each distinct team member with a clearly defined role and territory. Someone guards first base, and someone covers left field. Each person has both a role and a personality. The role, according to Belbin, was imposed. The team manager would assign a team member, or player in our example, to a position. Some people place first base better than others. Personality traits, talents, and relative skills are relatively stable over time (Pervin, 1989), and it was a challenge to match the best player to the most appropriate role. Get the combinations right across the whole team and you have a serious contender for the World Series. Get the combinations wrong and the manager will be looking for a job in short order.
Again the emphasis in this area of inquiry was the effectiveness of teams. It is all about the win, or the progress, or the degree of completion. This line of investigation does not explore what it means to be a healthy family, or a productive community, though each type of group is related to this discussion.
Belbin (1981, 1983) used a Self Perception Inventory that consists of seven sections to assess which group member would be best for his nine group roles:
Table 4.2 Belbin’s Role Characteristics
Title Description
1 Plant (PL) Creative, imaginative, unorthodox. Solves difficult tasks and problems.
2 Resource Investigator (RI) Extrovert, enthusiastic, communicative. Develops contacts, networks, and explores opportunities.
3 Co-Coordinator Mature, confident, effective chairperson. Promotes decision-making, delegates, and clarifies goals.
4 Shaper (SH) Challenging, dynamic, thrives on pressure. The drive and courage to overcome obstacles.
5 Monitor Evaluator (ME) Sober, strategic, and discerning. Makes accurate judgments. Perceives several options.
6 Team Worker (TW) Cooperative, perceptive, mild, and diplomatic. Avoids tension, listens, a consensus builder
7 Implementer (IMP) Reliable, disciplined, and efficient. Turns abstract ideas into practical actions
8 Completer-Finisher (CF) Anxious, detail-oriented, and conscientious. Searches out errors and omissions. Delivers on time.
9 Specialist (SP) Dedicated, self-motivated, and single-minded. Provides specific knowledge or skills
If someone in your group always makes everyone laugh, that can be a distinct asset when the news is less than positive. At times when you have to get work done, however, the class clown may become a distraction. Notions of positive and negative will often depend on the context when discussing groups. Table 4.3 and Table 4.4 list both positive and negative roles people sometimes play in a group setting. Beene, K., & Sheats, P. (1948). Functional roles of group members. Journal of Social Issues, 37, 41–49.,McLean, S. (2005). The basics of interpersonal communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Table 4.3 Positive Roles. Beene, K., & Sheats, P. (1948). Functional roles of group members. Journal of Social Issues, 37, 41–49.,McLean, S. (2005). The basics of interpersonal communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Initiator—Coordinator Suggests new ideas or new ways of looking at the problem
Elaborator Builds on ideas and provides examples
Coordinator Brings ideas, information, and suggestions together
Evaluator-Critic Evaluates ideas and provides constructive criticism
Recorder Records ideas, examples, suggestions, and critiques
Table 4.4 Negative Roles. Beene, K., & Sheats, P. (1948). Functional roles of group members. Journal of Social Issues, 37, 41–49.,McLean, S. (2005). The basics of interpersonal communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Dominator Dominates discussion, not allowing others to take their turn
Recognition Seeker Relates discussion to their accomplishments, seeks attention
Special-Interest Pleader Relates discussion to special interest or personal agenda
Blocker Blocks attempts at consensus consistently
Joker or Clown Seeks attention through humor and distracts group members
Now that we’ve examined a classical view of positive and negative group member roles, let’s examine another perspective. While some personality traits and behaviors may negatively influence groups, some are positive or negative depending on the context.
Just as the class clown can have a positive effect in lifting spirits or a negative effect in distracting members, so a dominator may be exactly what is needed for quick action. An emergency physician doesn’t have time to ask all the group members in the emergency unit how they feel about a course of action; instead, a self-directed approach based on training and experience may be necessary. In contrast, the pastor of a church may have ample opportunity to ask members of the congregation their opinions about a change in the format of Sunday services; in this situation, the role of coordinator or elaborator is more appropriate than that of dominator.
The group is together because they have a purpose or goal, and normally they are capable of more than any one individual member could be on their own, so it would be inefficient to hinder that progress. But a blocker, who cuts off collaboration, does just that. If a group member interrupts another and presents a viewpoint or information that suggests a different course of action, the point may be well taken and serve the collaborative process. If that same group member repeatedly engages in blocking behavior, then the behavior becomes a problem. A skilled communicator will learn to recognize the difference, even when positive and negative aren’t completely clear.
Key Takeaway
• Group members perform distinct roles that impact and influence the group in many ways.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Think of a group of which you are currently a member. Create a list of the members of your group and see if you can match them to group roles as discussed in this section. Use describing words to discuss each member. Share and compare with classmates.
2. Think of a group of which you are no longer a member. Create a list of the members of the group and see if you can match them to group roles as discussed in this section. Use describing words to discuss each member. Share and compare with classmates. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/04%3A_Group_Membership/4.00%3A_Chapter_Introduction.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Identify positive sentiments, as well as challenges, associated with group norms
2. Discuss ways in which group norms may be enforced
3. Identify processes for challenging and changing group norms
Knotty Norms
Before we had our daughter, my husband and I used to just take a couple of moments before dinner and hold hands, just to bring us to a still quiet place, before beginning the evening meal. So, when he had our little girl, really from the time she could sit in the high chair, we held hands together, just for a few moments of silence, and then we squeezed hands and released.
Well, we did this day in, day out, year in, year out, and then when she was old enough to count--I don’t know how old she was--but one evening we squeezed hands and she looked up and smiled and said, “I got to 35.”
And her dad and I both looked at her and said, “What?”
And she said, “I got to 35.” She said, “Usually I only get to 20 or 25.”
And simultaneously, my husband and I said, “You count?”
And she looked at us and said, “Well, what do you do?”
And here all these years, where we thought this was just this little almost a spiritual moment, we never explained to her what that was about or what we were doing, and she thought we were all counting.
A New Yorker cartoon shows a couple that’s apparently just left a large room filled with people partying. The woman is reaching to press the button of an elevator, while the man holds a tripod, a long pointer, and several large charts and graphs under his arm. The woman says, “Frankly, Benjamin, you’re beginning to bore everyone with your statistics.”
It’s important to identify a group’s norms if we’re to have a good shot at predicting what it will do under different circumstances. In the comments above, the mother whose daughter used the quiet time before dinner to count in her head thought her family’s mealtime norms were clear to all its members, but she was mistaken.
Do members of a group understand its norms, then? And if they understand them, do they accept and follow them? When and how do they change them? The answers to these questions play a large role in determining the effectiveness of the members and of the group as a whole.
Responding to Norms
What does it mean to you if you say something is “normal”? Probably it means that you feel it’s usual and right—correct? Part of your reaction to something you consider “normal,” therefore, is likely to be a sense of comfort and assurance. Furthermore, you wouldn’t want to intentionally engage in or be around someone who engages in behavior that you don’t consider to be normal. The term for such behavior is, after all, “abnormal.”
Shortly we’ll examine how groups enforce their norms, what happens when people violate them, and how we can best try to change them. Let’s recognize first, however, that considering something “normal” or “the norm” in the first place can lead to challenges. As we’ll be reminded later when we discuss conflict in groups, one such challenge arises from the fact that people’s opinions—about everything—differ.
In a large organization where one of the authors worked, a male colleague told a joke while he and some other employees waited for a staff meeting to start. In the joke, a man who thought he had cleverly avoided being executed found that he had been outsmarted and was going to be raped instead. The people who heard the joke laughed, work-related topics came up, and the staff meeting commenced.
Sometimes differences of opinion in groups deal with inconsequential topics or norms and therefore cause no difficulty for anyone. Who cares, for instance, whether people bring coffee with them to morning meetings or not, or whether they wear bright-colored articles of clothing?
Up to a certain point, furthermore, we all tend to accommodate differences between ourselves and others on a daily basis without giving it a second thought. We may even pride ourselves on our tolerance when we accept those differences.
On the other hand, we know that things which are customary aren’t always right. Slavery was once considered normal throughout the world, for instance, and so was child labor. Obviously, we may find it challenging to confront norms that differ significantly from our personal beliefs and values.
Enforcing Norms
Whether a group enforces a norm, and if so in what way, depends on several factors. These factors may include the level of formality of the group, the importance the group attaches to a particular norm, and the degree and frequency with which the norm is violated.
If a norm is of minor importance, and especially if it’s implicit, violating it may not provoke much of a response. Perhaps someone will just frown, shake a finger at the “violator,” or otherwise convey displeasure without using words. (Think about a time when someone’s cell phone went off in a large crowd at a speech or professional conference, for example).
On the other hand, explicit norms are often accompanied by explicit efforts to enforce them. A group may make it clear, either orally or in writing, what will happen if someone violates such a norm. The syllabus produced by one university professor we know, for instance, stipulated that anyone whose cell phone rings during a lesson must either write a 500-word essay or bring donuts to everyone else in class the next time they met.
Policy manuals and rule books comprise formal, clear expressions of norms both in and outside academe. So do city ordinances, state and federal laws, and IRS regulations. These manifestations of norms include statements of what consequences will be associated with violating them.
On the level of a small group, a team of college students preparing for a class presentation might decide to have its members sign an agreement indicating their willingness to meet at certain predetermined times or to contact each other regularly by phone or text messages. The agreement might also indicate that the group will report a teammate to their instructor if that person fails to observe its terms.
The example we’ve just considered involves a form of punishment, which can be one consequence of violating a norm. What else can happen if you violate a group norm? Galanes & Adams (p. 163) Galanes, G., & Adams, K. (2013). Effective group discussion: Theory and practice. New York: McGraw-Hill. identify these consequences:
• Loss of influence
• Ostracism
• Exclusion
Particularly within large organizations, groups can benefit from contemplating early in their “life cycle” just how they would expect to respond to various kinds of behavior that violate their norms. They may decide that punishment will be part of the picture for serious violations. If so, they should probably reflect on how members might rejoin the group or regain their stature within it after a punishment has been administered and an offense has been corrected.
Challenging and Changing Group Norms
Think back to the story about our colleague at the staff meeting. Evidently, he thought that the norms of the organization permitted him to tell his joke. When his fellow employees laughed, he probably also assumed that they found the joke to be amusing.
After the meeting, however, as four or five people lingered in the room, one of the female staffers spoke. “It’s really hard for me to say this,” she said, “but I’d appreciate it if you wouldn’t tell jokes about rape.”
The woman who expressed herself to the group made clear that she felt its norms needed to be changed if jokes about rape were considered acceptable. The woman was right in two respects. First, rape is no laughing matter, and a group norm that condones jokes about it ought to be rejected. Second, when she told her colleagues “It’s really hard for me to say this,” she illustrated that it’s difficult to confront other people to propose that they change the norms they operate under.
In this case, one group member submitted a polite request to her fellow group members. As it turned out, those members accepted her request. The man who told the joke apologized, and to our knowledge, no more jokes about rape were told in the group.
Things aren’t always this straightforward, though. Therefore, adopting a systematic approach may prepare you for the wide-ranging situations in which you or your fellow group members want to change your norms. What principles and behaviors, then, should you follow if you feel a group norm is ineffective, inappropriate, or wrong?
Lamberton and Minor-Evans (pp. 226–227) Lamberton, L., & Minor-Evans, L. (2002). Human relations: Strategies for success (2nd ed.). New York: Glencoe McGraw-Hill. recommend that you follow these steps:
1. Confirm whether everyone in the group agrees on the purpose of the group. Different norms will arise from different assumptions about the group’s purpose and will fit the different assumptions on which they are based. Misunderstandings or disagreements about the purpose of the group need to be identified and worked through.
2. See if other people’s understanding of the group’s current norms is the same as yours. Again, it’s important to know whether other members of the group agree on what norms the group actually has.
Remember the examples at the beginning of this section, in which a small daughter thought that holding hands before dinner was a time for silent counting and a man thought it was okay to bring charts and graphs to a social occasion? They illustrate that it’s possible to completely misconstrue a group norm even in close, ongoing relationships and at any age.
1. Explain to the group why you feel a particular norm ought to be changed.
2. Offer a plan for changing the norm, including a replacement for it which you feel will be better, drawing upon the full potential of each member.
3. If necessary, change the composition and role assignments of the group.
Key Takeaway
• Once they have been established, group norms are generally enforced in some way but can also be challenged and modified.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Identify two norms, one explicit and one implicit, that you’ve encountered in a group setting. Did you observe the norms being enforced in some way? If so, what kind of enforcement was employed, and by whom?
2. Describe a time when you were part of a group and believed that one of its norms needed to be changed. What made you feel that way? Was your view shared by anyone else in the group?
3. What steps have you taken to challenge a group norm? How did the other members of the group respond to your challenge? If you had a chance to go back and relive the situation, what if anything would you change about your actions? (If you don’t recall ever having challenged a group norm, describe a situation in which someone else did so). | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/04%3A_Group_Membership/4.02%3A_Norms_among_Group_Members.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Define status
2. Discuss behaviors associated with high status in a group
3. Identify dangers associated with status differentials
When E.F. Hutton talks, people listen.
Advertising slogan for a stock brokerage firm.
If you want to see your plays performed the way you wrote them, become President.
Vaclav Havel
The higher up you go, the more mistakes you are allowed. Right at the top, if you make enough of them, it’s considered to be your style.
Fred Astaire
Status can be defined as a person’s level of importance or significance within a particular environment. In a group, members with higher status are apt to command greater respect and possess more prestige than those with lower status.
Have you ever wanted to join a group partly because you knew other people would respect you a little more if they knew you were a member of it? Whether an informal group, a club, or any other kind of organization thrives or fades away may depend to some degree on whether belonging to it is perceived as being a sign of status. In fact, one of the major reasons why many of us enter groups is that we expect to gain status by doing so.
Understanding status, thus, can help both group members and the groups they join function smoothly and productively.
Origins of Status in a Group
Where does a group member’s status come from? Sometimes a person joins a group with a title that causes the other members to accord him or her status at their first encounter. In professional circles, for instance, having earned a “terminal” degree such as a Ph.D. or M.D. usually generates a degree of status. The same holds true for the documented outcomes of schooling or training in legal, engineering, or other professional fields. Likewise, people who’ve been honored for achievements in any number of areas may bring status to a group by virtue of that recognition if it relates to the nature and purpose of the group.
Some groups may confer status upon their members on the basis of age, wealth, physical stature, perceived intelligence, or other attributes. On one floor of a new college residence hall where one of the authors lived, for example, two men gained instant status. Why? Because they both took part in varsity athletics, and one of them was the son of an All-American football player.
Once a group has formed and begun to sort out its norms, it will also build upon the initial status that people bring to it by further allocating status according to its own internal processes and practices. For instance, choosing a member to serve as an officer in a group generally conveys status to that person.
The two athletes in the residence hall just mentioned were elected president and vice president of their floor, which simply reflected their original status. Meanwhile, other residents were chosen to fill additional roles in the group’s government, which did add to those individuals’ status.
What High Status Means
All right. Let’s say you’ve either come into a group with high status or have been granted high status by the other members. What does this mean to you, and how are you apt to behave? Here are some predictions based on research from several sources (Beebe, S.A., & Masterson, J.T., 2006, Borman, 1989; Brilhart & Galanes, 1997; and Homans, 1992): Beebe, S.A., & Masterson, J.T. (2006). Communicating in small groups: Principles and practices (8th ed.). Boston: Pearson., Borman, E.G. (1989). Discussion and group methods: Theory and practice (3rd ed.). New York: Harper and Row., Brilhart, J.K., & Galanes, G.J. (1997). Effective group discussion. Dubuque, IA: Brown., Homans, G.C. (1992). The human group. New York: Harcourt Brace & World.
First, the volume and direction of your speech will differ from those of others in the group. You’ll talk more than the low-status members do, and you’ll communicate more with other high-status members than you will with lower-status individuals. In addition, you’ll be more likely to speak to the whole group than will members with lower status.
Second, some indicators of your participation will be particularly positive. Your activity level and self-regard will surpass those of lower-status group members. So will your level of satisfaction with your position. Furthermore, the rest of the group is less likely to ignore your statements and proposals than it is to disregard what lower-status individuals say.
Finally, the content of your communication will probably be different from what your fellow members discuss. Because you may have access to special information about the group’s activities and may be expected to shoulder specific responsibilities because of your position, you’re apt to talk about topics that are relevant to the central purposes and direction of the group. Lower-status members, on the other hand, are likely to communicate more about other matters.
When group members’ status is clear to everyone, it becomes easier for all members to understand what they expect of each other. They’ll know, among other things, whom to approach when they’re wondering about how the group operates or are grappling with a problem that concerns them all.
If you’ve got high status, then, be prepared to have people approach you with questions and concerns that you’d otherwise not encounter. If it makes you feel good to help others in this way, having high status will probably enhance your self-respect and self-esteem. If it doesn’t, you may feel overwhelmed.
Dangers of Status
Having people with different status levels adds spice and diversity to a group. It can, however, also result in risks and challenges.
Here’s an example. In one large state, all the public and private college presidents have joined into an association to share information and promote their common interests. The executive director of the association is a woman we know well. She organizes the group’s meetings, distributes agendas and minutes, and provides other high-level support for the group. According to this woman, presidents in the group continuously jockey for position and status. In fact, they spend so much time trying to gain more status that they sometimes fail to contribute constructively to the work of the association.
At one annual conference of the presidents’ organization, a particularly prominent and nationally-known figure from the business world was on the schedule as an after-lunch speaker. Several of the most active and assertive presidents approached the executive director and asked her to seat them next to the visitor at lunch.
Our friend was in a quandary. She didn’t want to disappoint or displease any of the presidents. She knew, though, that no matter whom she allowed to sit next to the important visitor, all the other presidents who’d approached her would be disgruntled. We’ll explain in a later section of this book how she solved this vexing problem. The point, for now, is simply that competition among status seekers can disrupt a group’s progress.
“If you’re riding ahead of the herd, take a look back every now and then to make sure it’s still there.”
Will Rogers
A second peril associated with the inevitable status differences in a group is the possibility that status may not correspond to competence. We’d like to believe that groups are meritocracies—that is, that they recognize and reward talent. Sometimes, however, people’s talents may be submerged or suppressed instead.
People in groups sometimes gain status and its perks just by sticking around longer than anyone else. Being involved in a group for an extended period does not, however, necessarily lead to wisdom or the capability to handle new responsibilities. As someone once put it, “It’s possible to have 10 years of experience or one year of experience 10 times.” Lawrence Peter (Peter & Hull, 1969) Peter, L.J., & Hull, R.(1969). The Peter Principle: Why things always go wrong. New York: William Morrow and Company. made a case for what he called “The Peter Principle,” which stated that everyone in an organization rises to his or her level of incompetence and that eventually every role is performed by someone unfit to manage it.
Someone who gains status without possessing the skills or attributes required to use it well may cause real damage to other members of a group, or to a group as a whole. A high-status, low-ability person may develop an inflated self-image, begin to abuse power, or both. One of us worked for the new president of a college who acted as though his position entitled him to take whatever actions he wanted. In the process of interacting primarily with other high-status individuals who shared the majority of his viewpoints and goals, he overlooked or pooh-poohed concerns and complaints from people in other parts of the organization. Turmoil and dissension broke out. Morale plummeted. The president eventually suffered votes of no confidence from his college’s faculty, staff, and students and was forced to resign.
There’s no such thing as a “status neutral” group—one in which everyone always has the same status as everyone else. Some people are always going to have higher status than others. As we’ve noted in this section, a group can make positive use of status differentials if it first recognizes them and then
Key Takeaway
• Differences in status within a group are inevitable and can be dangerous if not recognized and managed.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Think of a time when you aspired to a new and higher status within a group. How did you demonstrate your desire? How did others in the group respond when you expressed what you hoped to achieve?
2. Recall a time when you gained status in a group. How, if at all, did the other members treat you differently after you acquired it? What new responsibilities or expectations did you face?
3. Consider a group that you’re part of. What advice would you offer to someone seeking to raise his or her status in that group?
4. Have you ever been part of a group in which all the members seemed to have the same status? How were the group’s activities affected by this equivalence? | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/04%3A_Group_Membership/4.03%3A_Status.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Define trust
2. Identify reasons why trust is difficult to establish and maintain in groups
3. Discuss qualities and behaviors which contribute to establishing trust
4. Describe how self-disclosure influences the level of trust in a group
To have faith is to trust yourself to the water. When you swim you don’t grab hold of the water, because if you do you will sink and drown. Instead you relax, and float.
Alan Watts
To be persuasive we must be believable; to be believable we must be credible; to be credible we must be truthful.
Edward R. Murrow
(T)he biggest problem we have in human society now is…our tribalism, our tendency to go beyond a natural pride in our group, whether it’s a racial or an ethnic or religious group…, to fear and distrust and dehumanization and violence against the other… So what we have got to learn to do is not just to tolerate each other, but to actually celebrate our differences. And the only way you can do that is to be secure in the knowledge that your common humanity is more important than your most significant differences.
Bill Clinton
Did you ever see the series of “Peanuts” cartoons by Charles Schulz in which Lucy Van Pelt held a football for Charlie Brown to kick? In each cartoon, Charlie would run toward the ball at full speed. Lucy would jerk it away at the last instant. Charlie would then fly into the air and fall on his back. Time after time the cycle would repeat itself. Somehow, Charlie trusted Lucy over and over again despite her deceptive behavior.
Now recall the Aesop’s fable, “The boy who cried wolf.” The first time or two that the shepherd boy in the fable falsely called out an alarm, as you remember, people came running because they believed him. Eventually, when a wolf actually did show up, the boy’s cries went unheeded.
The cartoon relationship between Charlie and Lucy may present an exaggerated view of human behavior. Likewise, most of us don’t get exposed to multiple false reports about wolves or other dangers. Charlie’s story amuses us, however, and the fable rings true. Why? Because we know that trust does play an important role in real human interactions and that it can be either rewarded or betrayed.
Building and maintaining trust can, in fact, be considered vital to the healthy functioning of a group. In his book The Five Dysfunctions of a Team, Patrick Lencioni contended that trusting one another is the foundation for any truly cohesive team (p. 189). Lencioni, P. (2002). The five dysfunctions of a team: A leadership fable. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. If trust is lacking, according to Lencioni, four other dysfunctions are almost sure to follow: fear of conflict, lack of commitment, avoidance of accountability, and inattention to results.
What, then, is trust? We can define it as reliance on the integrity, strength, ability, or dependability of a person or thing. Ideally, we trust people the way Alan Watts wrote that we should trust water when we’re swimming: we should relax and forget that we’re even performing an action called “trusting.” Unfortunately, sometimes the water we swim in as part of a group are sometimes murky, and occasionally they’re even infested with sharks.
Why Is It Hard to Trust?
Trusting ourselves is sometimes difficult. We’ve all made mistakes, so it’s natural that we might occasionally doubt our own reliability.
To trust a family member or a person in some other primary group may also present challenges from time to time. We may misunderstand each other, hurt each other’s feelings by behaving in unexpected ways, and so forth.
What about trusting people in secondary groups like the ones we join in school or work settings, then? Most likely it’s going to be harder still. Why? First, we usually don’t spend as much time over as long a period with secondary group members as we do with our families and other primary group members. In other words, we don’t have as much to go on as we decide whether we can trust these people.
Second, the dynamics and level of mutual reliability of a secondary group may vary over time as people enter and leave the group, change status within it, or experience new circumstances in their own lives. In an academic environment, for instance, a teacher who’s established a reputation for fairness and wisdom in that role may raise doubts or even suspicions among former peers about his or her trustworthiness upon accepting an administrative position in the same organization.
The more people are involved in a group, the more changes are apt to take place in it. Because trust rests in large part on constancy and predictability, such changes may endanger or weaken it. As Richard Reichert (1970) Reichert, R. (1970). Self-awareness through group dynamics. Dayton, OH: Fglaum wrote, “Trust is always a gamble.”
Cultivating and Reinforcing Trust
Charlie Brown kept letting Lucy hold the football for him because he was naively trusting. Even though she deceived him time and time again, he engaged in what the organizational theorist Robert Kharasch (1973) Kharasch, Robert N. (1973). The institutional imperative; How to understand the United States government and other bulky objects. New York: Charterhouse Books. called “regeneration of the organs of belief”: he forgot or overlooked her past behavior and allowed himself to be duped over and over.
Alternatives to Charlie’s approach certainly exist. In arms control dealings with Mikhail Gorbachev, for instance, Ronald Reagan used to quote a Russian saying—doveryay, no proveryay (Venditti, 2007). Venditti, P. (2007). Building business success: Write, speak, think, and get along well in the professional world. Centralia, WA: Gorham Printing. This meant “Trust, but verify.” Reagan insisted that promises made by the Soviet Union concerning its nuclear weapons program be substantiated through empirical means such as official visits to military sites.
What Charlie Brown apparently didn’t know, but Ronald Reagan evidently did, was that trust needs to be cultivated and reinforced—and occasionally even consciously tested—rather than taken for granted.
When we consciously decide we’ll trust someone, it’s best that we do so carefully and systematically. Gay and Donald Lumsden (2004)Lumsden, G., & Lumsden, D. (2004). Communicating in groups and teams; Sharing leadership (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson. wrote that trust can be created if and when people demonstrate most or all of these qualities and behaviors:
• Directness—In mainstream American culture, “getting to the point” is usually valued over subtle or vague communication.
• Openness to influence—If a person seems receptive to others’ ideas and preferences, he or she is likely to be seen as reliable and trustworthy.
• Commitment to others’ success—When we feel that a person is concerned about others, we tend to feel more comfortable relying on him or her.
• Personal accountability—We prefer working with people who display integrity, in the sense that they can accept individual blame as well as praise for their actions.
• A willingness to share responsibility for problems—Very few difficulties in a group are caused by just one person. When someone admits that he or she “owns” at least part of a problem, we tend to feel that we can rely on him or her.
Bill Clinton’s comments at the start of this section reflect the fact that trust can, indeed, be hard to establish. It can also be easy to lose, particularly in low-context cultures such as that of the United States which value explicit, comprehensive transmission of messages and feelings among people.
Self-Disclosure and Trust
Isn’t it marvelous that groups, composed of so many different people each with constantly changing perceptions and desires, can function as well as they do? As we discovered earlier, groups decide upon norms that guide and govern their internal interactions and their relationships with people outside their membership. Somehow, people in most groups also successfully decide how much information is appropriate to communicate about themselves to others at what times.
Self-disclosure, which is the deliberate communication of information about yourself to others (Beebe & Masterson, 2006), Beebe, S.A., & Masterson, J.T. (2006). Communicating in small groups: Principles and practices. Boston: Pearson. can be risky. It’s natural for us to want to play things safe in our lives. As the comedian Milton Berle said, “A worm has some things going for it. For instance, it can’t fall down.” No one wants to live like a worm, but revealing personal information opens us to “falling down” by being rejected.
We can share our feelings and concerns on many levels. These may range from superficial pleasantries—“Nice weather, isn’t it?”—to what John Powell (1990)Powell, J. (1990). Why am I afraid to tell you who I am? Niles, IL: Argus Communications. called “peak communication.” What level of self-disclosure the members of a group select will usually depend on the kind of situation or topic they’re dealing with and the expectations they’ve established for each other.
Self-disclosure generally deepens and expands as a group matures, but members should always be conscious of how their level of self-disclosure fits each other’s needs and desires. Like all other kinds of communication, self-disclosure needs to be reciprocal rather than one-sided if it is to grow healthfully. If one person discloses something personal and the second doesn’t respond in kind, trust between them can be strained or broken.
Self-disclosure can clearly contribute to trust, but we need to be discreet when employing it. Too much, too soon, can hinder rather than help a group. In Chapter 1 we drew a distinction between the task and relationship functions of groups. Although by its very nature self-disclosure engages people in considering personal material that may strengthen their relationship, it should also be relevant to whatever topic is being discussed at a particular time.
Key Takeaway
• Although it’s difficult to establish and maintain, trust among group members is vital if they are to function at the highest possible level.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Think of one of the groups you participate in. Which member of the group do you trust most? What has the person done or demonstrated to you that led you to trust him or her?
2. Describe a time when someone in a group of which you were apart betrayed or abused the group’s trust. What might have prevented that behavior?
3. Identify a time when you engaged in appropriate self-disclosure in a group. What were the results?
4. Recall a time when you or someone else in a group practiced self-disclosure in a way that was not helpful to the group. What happened, and why did the results turn out as they did? | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/04%3A_Group_Membership/4.04%3A_Trust.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Identify dangers involved in moving from one communication environment to another
2. Identify major features of digital groups and what they imply regarding their members’ behavior
Unlike you, Phil, I hate computers. So I’m writing this in full view of my computer in order to torture it.
A friend of one of the authors, in a letter written by hand in 2004
You think because you understand “one” you must understand “two,” because one and one make two. But you must also understand “and.”
Sufi Tradition
Different Strokes for Different Folks
The term “code-switching” is used by linguists to describe how bilingual speakers sometimes sprinkle expressions from one language into another. The title of a classic article about code-switching provides an example of the phenomenon: “Sometimes I start a sentence in English y termino en español” (Poplack, 1980). Poplack, S. (1980). Sometimes I’ll start a sentence in English y termino en español: Toward a typology of code-switching. In J. Amastea & L. Elías-Olivares (Eds.), Spanish in the United States: Sociolinguistic aspects, pp. 230–263. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Anyone who has come to command more than one language can attest that each of them transmits thoughts and emotions in unique and distinct ways. Code-switching can sometimes lead to serendipitous insights, but it can also bring about awkward moments. Combining two languages, as the Sufi adage above suggests, is not just a matter of adding one and one.
The slang expression “different strokes for different folks,” which was popular in the 1960s, indicated that it’s fine to have diverse opinions and styles in society. Today, just as half a century ago, different folks use different methods of communicating depending on the groups they’re members of. In the same way that mixing parts of whole languages may yield unexpected results, switching between sub-vocabularies within one language may produce happy surprises or difficulties. A story will illustrate how.
The father of one of the authors was raised in a traditional family in the American Midwest. Just after high school, as World War II was coming to a close, he was drafted into the army and sent to the Philippines. Almost all the people with whom he spent the next three years were other young American men like himself.
Part of army culture in those days was that soldiers of equal ranks routinely peppered their talk with profanity. Perhaps this shocked some new recruits, but most quickly overcame their initial reaction and got used to using blue language with everyone else. For virtually all the enlisted personnel, a “code” of foul language became habitual.
When the author’s father completed his tour of duty and returned to the U.S. in 1948, he spent some time at home before going off to college under the GI Bill. Just a few days after his joyous return to his hometown, he and his parents and younger sister were eating lunch in their dining room. Conversation was lively but routine. At some point, in a polite tone, he said, “Mom, please pass the f-ing butter.”
Nature and Implications of Social Media
In Chapter 1 we defined social media and considered how they may affect people’s interactions. Whether we employ them individually or with others as part of a group, such media generally permit or even encourage broad communication. They make it easy for us to spread information about our personalities, interests, and activities as broadly as we wish—even to total strangers.
Among the positive points of social media which we mentioned in Chapter 1 were that they 1) allow people in different places to collaborate on projects; 2) permit people to maintain contact with each other when they’re not meeting formally; 3) enable group members to identify and collect information pertinent to their aims; and 4) focus attention primarily on messages instead of “status markers.”
We noted that people using social media may commit unintentional or good-natured mistakes which lead to awkwardness or embarrassment. What we didn’t mention then is that some people may purposely employ techniques via social media to hurt others. Ivester (2011)Ivester, M. (2011). Lol…omg!: What every student needs to know about online reputation management, digital citizenship and cyberbullying. Reno, NV: Serra Knight Publishing. identified many examples of such intentionally harmful social media communication. Among others, these included “flaming,” which is sending abusive messages with an intent to enrage someone; impersonating another person; “outing” an individual’s personal or secret information; spamming, or sending large volumes of unwanted material; and mashups, which are alterations of digital content in such a way as to humiliate someone.
Social media, as we’ve seen, are wide-open spaces. Like the American “Wild West” 150 years ago, they can be unfettered and unpredictable territory.
Characteristics of Digital Groups
Now let’s put aside our discussion of social media and think about what it means to be a member of a group connected by older and perhaps tamer forms of computer-mediated communication. In particular, let’s consider digital groups that communicate solely or in large part via email, online discussion forums, or synchronous audio or video conferencing.
First, here are some notes about the nature of the kinds of digital groups we’ve just referred to:
Digital groups are pervasive. As of the end of 2011, nearly one of every three persons on Planet Earth had Internet access. In their guide to email, Shipley and Schwalbe (2007)Shipley, D., & Schwalbe W. (2007). Send; The essential guide to email for office and home. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. indicated that trillions of email messages are sent each week in the United States alone. At the Federal level, they noted, the National Archives was expected to receive more than 100 million email messages from the Bush administration when it left office.
Digital groups range widely in their formality level and longevity. Some are casual, whereas others are more official and rigorous. Like other secondary groups, they may also be temporary and directed toward short-term goals or permanent.
Digital groups are, at least at face value, egalitarian. Assuming they can access the Internet, all the members of a digital group have an equal chance to enter and communicate in its discussions.
Digital groups come in all sizes. Many, if not most, comprise more than the eight individuals that lots of authorities deem to be the upper limit of a “small group.” This can be deceiving, however, since once something gets shared within the group it may very well be sent outside it, either intentionally or not. Given that nothing on the Web is ever really “private,” it’s probably wise to assume that messages in digital groups are shared either with no one or with everyone.
Digital groups may communicate via either “rich” or “lean” media (Waldeck, Kearney, & Plax, 2013). Waldeck, J. H., Kearney, P., & Plax, T. (2013). Business & professional communication in a digital age. Boston: Wadsworth. Although it’s possible to be brusque or even rude in any digital medium, some media tend to be better able to convey signals of civility than others. Rich media, such as audio or video conferencing, tend to permit or facilitate understanding because they transmit non-verbal as well as verbal communication cues. Lean media such as email or text messaging, which depend on written communication, are by their nature less capable of doing so.
Asynchronous feedback sent in digital groups may be limited, untimely, or otherwise inadequate. Because group members who use email or discussion forums usually don’t see or hear each other immediately, “personalness” may be less than it would be if they were face to face. Without immediate cues to respond to, people sometimes shorten their messages or fail to include pleasantries that can promote easy understanding.
Regardless of the relatively intimate size of digital groups and the mutual familiarity among their members, the impact of asynchronous messages within them is always invisible. By this, we mean that someone who sends a message can’t see and hear how its recipient responds right when that person reads, sees, or hears it.
Unlike what happens in face-to-face groups, when individual members write to someone about something in a digital environment it’s possible that others may be doing so without their knowledge. Thus, the positive or negative impact of individually innocuous or mild messages may be magnified many times.
Advice for Members of Digital Groups
Even those of us who use computers all day long at work or school for serious purposes may participate in informal digital groups there or elsewhere. Usually, we move back and forth between these communication worlds easily and without causing ourselves or others any problems.
Still, we run the risk that, like the author’s father, we may accidentally transfer habits and practices that are appropriate in one environment to another in which they don’t fit. Here are some tips on how to minimize this kind of risk and others associated with communication in a digital group:
First, know your group’s norms. If you’re not sure about something, ask. When in doubt, don’t.
Second, be especially careful about sending or responding to any message if you’ve just been in a physical or digital location with different norms. Depending on your interests, you may be part of some social media in which most messages are snarky. In fact, digital forums exist in which participants try to outdo each other at being mean. Why? In order to attract attention--which is, after all, one of the chief purposes many people use social media in the first place.
Third, be aware of potential gender-related communication differences. According to research by Susan Herring, for instance, many men find using aggressive language to be amusing (Shipley and Schwalbe, 2007).Shipley, D., & Schwalbe W. (2007). Send; The essential guide to email for office and home. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Women, on the other hand, may take such communication at face value and be put off or feel threatened by it.
Fourth, try to empathize. The physical distance inherent in digital communication can make us less sensitive to other people’s feelings. Try to imagine the person(s) you’re writing to sitting in front of you.
Finally, think twice about using what you consider to be humor. Use what Matt Ivester (2011) Ivester, M. (2011). Lol…omg!: What every student needs to know about online reputation management, digital citizenship, and cyberbullying. Reno, NV: Serra Knight Publishing. calls “the ‘Get It?’ test” and ask whether your message might be misinterpreted. What seems clever or witty to you may come across very differently to those who read it. Be particularly wary of using sarcasm (a word which, incidentally, comes from a Greek term for rending or tearing flesh).
Because of their electronic foundations, digital groups offer their members convenience and efficiency. Being a successful member of a digital group, however, requires focus, patience, and attention to the results of one’s actions in a way that membership in a face-to-face group does not.
Key Takeaway
• Members of digital groups need to understand the nature and implications of those groups and act accordingly.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Discuss these questions with one or two classmates: When considering communication in digital groups, is it truly possible to distinguish between personal and professional communication? Why or why not?
2. Think of a permanent digital group you’re a member of and a temporary one. How, if at all, do the styles and contents of messages in the two groups differ?
3. Describe a misunderstanding you’ve experienced that resulted from the characteristics of a digital group using a “lean” rather than a “rich” medium.
4.06: Summary
In this chapter, we have introduced task, group building, maintenance, and self-centered group member roles. We have described nine role characteristics, as well as five positive and five negative roles of group members. We have defined group norms and considered how people respond to norms, how norms are enforced, and how they may be challenged and changed. We have defined status; analyzed its origins and meaning within a group; and identified risks associated with it. We have examined the features of trust in groups, including ways to cultivate and reinforce it through such measures as self-disclosure. Finally, we have discussed the nature and implications of social media for groups and their members and made recommendations for actions to be taken by members of digital groups.
Review Questions
1. Interpretive Questions
1. If a group member objects to the group’s norms, what responsibility do you feel the other members bear for responding to the objection? Under what circumstances might the other members be justified in dismissing the objections out of hand?
2. Competing for status in a group is considered by some people to be a healthy process which causes people to work hard and strive to excel. Given your experience in groups, do you endorse competition for status? Why or why not?
3. What changes do you foresee in the technologies that can be used by digital groups? Which of the changes do you feel most comfortable? Least comfortable? Why?
2. Application Questions
1. How do different types of member behaviors affect a group’s behavior according to circumstances? Talk to someone who’s part of a group you know something about. Ask for an example of how a dominator, a recognition seeker, or a self-interest pleader helped the group and have the person explain why this positive outcome took place.
2. What risks are associated with status in groups? Interview at least one individual from three groups that you’re not a member of yourself. Ask each person to recount a situation in which the status of an individual in the group caused misunderstandings, repressed communication, or brought about other negative outcomes within the group.
3. What are reasonable bounds of self-disclosure in a group? Ask four people to identify a group of which they are members and describe circumstances in which they have found or might find it appropriate to share information within that group about their financial, marital, religious, or political status.
4.07: Additional Resources
Belbin Self-Perception Inventory with scoring guide: executive.development.users.btopenworld.com/media/downloads/belbin_forms.pdf
Belbin’s Self-Peception Inventory with scoring guide: leadershippersonalities.wikispaces.com/file/detail/252727_BelbinSelfPerceptionInventory.doc
Belbin’s Team Analysis with scoring guide: leadershippersonalities.wikispaces.com/TEAM+Analysis
Belbin Test: freespace.virgin.net/richard.clifford/BelbinTest.doc
The Theory of the Leisure Class, written by Thorstein Veblen and first published in 1899, presented the concept of “conspicuous consumption” as one way for people to display and retain their status in society. Veblen’s viewpoint was somewhat acerbic, but much of what he wrote still rings true in today’s world and applies to group interactions.
Alain Botton’s Status Anxiety provides an entertaining and thought-provoking perspective on the quest for status in the 21st century. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/04%3A_Group_Membership/4.05%3A_Membership_in_Digital_Groups.txt |
Introductory Exercises
1. Find a film where one person overcomes all obstacles. Make notes of your observations on how he or she approaches the world, solves problems, and rises triumphant.
2. Find a film where a group of people overcome obstacles through joint effort. Make notes of your observations on how they approach the world, solve problems, and rise triumphant.
3. Consider a culture with which you have had little interaction. Write down at least five terms to describe that culture.
We should never denigrate any other culture but rather help people to understand the relationship between their own culture and the dominant culture. When you understand another culture or language, it does not mean that you have to lose your own culture.
Edward T. Hall
I’ve been traveling all over the world for 25 years, performing, talking to people, studying their cultures and musical instruments, and I always come away with more questions in my head than can be answered.
Yo-Yo Ma
Getting Started
As a professional in the modern community, you need to be aware that the very concept of community is undergoing a fundamental transformation. Throughout the world’s history—until recently—a community was defined by its geographic boundaries. A merchant supplied salt and sugar, and people made what they needed. The products the merchant sold were often produced locally because the cost of transportation was significant. A transcontinental railroad brought telegraph lines, shipping routes, and brought ports together from coast to coast. Shipping that once took months and years was now measured in days. A modern highway system and cheap oil products allowed for that measurement unit to be reduced to days and minutes. Just in time product delivery reduced storage costs, from renting a warehouse at the port to spoilage in transit. As products sold, bar code and RDIF tagged items instantly updated inventories and initiated orders at factories all over the world.
Communication, both oral and written, linked communities in ways that we failed to recognize until economic turmoil in one place led to job loss, in a matter of days and minutes, thousands of miles away. A system of trade and the circulation of capital and goods that once flowed relatively seamlessly has been challenged by change, misunderstanding, and conflict. People learn of political, economic, and military turmoil that is instantly translated into multiple market impacts. Integrated markets and global networks bind us together in ways we are just now learning to appreciate, anticipate, and understand. Intercultural and international communication are critical areas of study with readily apparent, real-world consequences.
Agrarian, industrial, and information ages gave way to global business, and brought the importance of communication across cultures to the forefront. The Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist Thomas FriedmanFriedman, T. (2005). The world is flat: a brief history of the twenty-first century. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. calls this new world “flat,” noting how the integration of markets and community had penetrated the daily lives of nearly everyone on the planet, regardless of language or culture. While the increasing ease of telecommunications and travel have transformed our individual and group interactions, Friedman. Friedman, T. (2009). Starred review. Retrieved April 29, 2009, from Publishers Weekly: http://www.thomaslfriedman.com/bookshelf/the-world-is-flat argues that “the dawning ‘flat world’ is a jungle pitting ‘lions’ and ‘gazelles,’ where ‘economic stability is not going to be a feature’ and ‘the weak will fall farther behind.’”Friedman, T. (2009). Starred review. Retrieved April 29, 2009, from Publishers Weekly: http://www.thomaslfriedman.com/bookshelf/the-world-is-flat Half of the world’s population, who earn less than \$2 U.S. a day, felt the impact of a reduction in trade and fluctuations in commodity prices even though they may not have known any of the details. Rice, for example, became an even more valuable commodity than ever, and to the individuals who could not find it, grow it, or earn enough to buy it, the hunger felt was personal and global. International trade took on a new level of importance.
Intercultural and international communication has taken on a new role for students as well as career professionals. Knowing when the European and Asian markets open has become mandatory; so has awareness of multiple time zones and their importance in relation to trade, shipping, and the production cycle. Managing production in China from an office in Chicago has become common. Receiving technical assistance for your computer often means connecting with a well-educated English speaker in New Delhi. We compete with each other via ELance.com or oDesk.com for contracts and projects, selecting the currency of choice for each bid as we can be located anywhere on the planet. Communities are no longer linked as simply “brother” and “sister” cities in symbolic partnerships. They are linked in the daily trade of goods and services.
In this chapter, we explore this dynamic aspect of communication. If the foundation of communication is important, its application in this context is critical. As Europe once formed intercontinental alliances for the trade of metals, leading to the development of a common currency, trade zone, and new concept of nation-state, now North and South America are following with increased integration. Major corporations are no longer affiliated with only one country, or one country’s interests, but perceive the integrated market as team members across global trade. “Made in X” is more of a relative statement as products, from cars to appliances to garments, now come with a list of where components were made, assembled, and what percentage corresponds to each nation.
Global business is more than trade between companies located in distinct countries; indeed, that concept is already outdated. Intercultural and international business focuses less on the borders that separate people and more on the communication that brings them together. Business communication values clear, concise interaction that promotes efficiency and effectiveness. Effective teams and groups are the core of this interaction. You may perceive your role as a communicator within a specific city, business or organization, but you need to be aware that your role crosses cultures, languages, value and legal systems, and borders. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/05%3A_Intercultural_and_International_Group_Communication/5.00%3A_Chapter_Introduction.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Define and discuss how to facilitate intercultural communication
2. Define and discuss the effects of ethnocentrism
Communication is the sharing of understanding and meaning, Pearson, J., & Nelson, P. (2000). An introduction to human communication: understanding and sharing. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. but what is intercultural communication? If you answered, “the sharing of understanding and meaning across cultures,” you’d be close, but the definition requires more attention. What is a culture? Where does one culture stop and another start? How are cultures created, maintained, and dissolved? Klopf. Klopf, D. (1991). Intercultural encounters: the fundamentals of intercultural communication (2nd ed.). Inglewood, CA: Morton Publishing Company. described culture as “that part of the environment made by humans.” From the building we erect that represents design values to the fences we install that delineate borders, our environment is a representation of culture, but it is not all that is culture.
Culture involves beliefs, attitudes, values, and traditions that are shared by a group of people. Thus, we must consider more than the clothes we wear, the movies we watch, or the video games we play, all representations of environment, as culture. Culture also involves the psychological aspects of our expectations of the communication context. For example, if we are raised in a culture where males speak while females are expected to remain silent, the context of the communication interaction governs behavior, itself a representation of culture. From the choice of words (message), to how we communicate (in person, or by email), to how we acknowledge understanding with a nod or a glance (nonverbal feedback), to the internal and external interference, all aspects of communication are influenced by culture.
In defining intercultural communication, we only have eight components of communication to work with, and yet we must bridge divergent cultures with distinct values across languages and time zones to exchange value, a representation of meaning. It may be tempting to consider only the source and receiver within a transaction as a representation of intercultural communication, but if we do that, we miss the other six components—the message, channel, feedback, context, environment, and interference—in every communicative act. Each component influences and is influenced by culture. Is culture context? Environment? Message? Culture is represented in all eight components every time we communicate. All communication is intercultural.
We may be tempted to think of intercultural communication as interaction between two people from different countries. While two distinct national passports may be artifacts, or nonverbal representations of communication, what happens when two people from two different parts of the same country communicate? From high and low Germanic dialects, to the perspective of a Southerner versus a Northerner in the United States, to the rural versus urban dynamic, our geographic, linguistic, educational, sociological, and psychological traits influence our communication.
It is not enough to say that someone from rural Southern Chile and the capital, Santiago, both speak Castellano (the Chilean word for the Spanish language), so that communication between them must be intracultural communication, or communication within the same culture. What is life like for the rural Southerner? For the city dweller? Were their educational experiences the same? Do they share the same vocabulary? Do they value the same things? To a city dweller, all the sheep look the same. To the rural Southerner, the sheep are distinct, with unique markings; they have value as a food source, a source of wool with which to create sweaters and socks that keep the cold winters at bay, and, in their numbers, they represent wealth. Even if both Chileans speak the same language, their socialization will influence how they communicate and what they value, and their vocabulary will reflect these differences.
Let’s take this intra-national comparison one step further. Within the same family, can there be intercultural communication? If all communication is intercultural, then the answer would be yes, but we still have to prove our case. Imagine a three-generation family living in one house. The grandparents may represent another time, and different values, from the grandchildren. The parents may have a different level of education and pursue different careers from the grandparents; the schooling the children are receiving may prepare them for yet another career. From music, to food preferences, to how work is done may vary across time; Elvis Presley may seem like ancient history to the children. The communication across generations represents intercultural communication, even if only to a limited degree.
But suppose we have a group of students who are all similar in age and educational level. Do gender and the societal expectations of roles influence interaction? Of course. And so we see that, among these students, the boys and girls not only communicate in distinct ways, but not all boys and girls are the same. With a group of sisters, there may be common characteristics, but they will still have differences, and these differences contribute to intercultural communication. We are each shaped by our upbringing and it influences our world view, what we value, and how we interact with each other. We create culture, and it creates us.
Rogers and Steinfatt. Rogers, E., & Steinfatt, T. (1999). Intercultural communication. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press. define intercultural communication as the exchange of information between individuals who are “unalike culturally.” If you follow our discussion and its implications, you may arrive at the idea that ultimately we are each a “culture of one”—we are simultaneously a part of community and its culture(s), and separate from it in the unique combination that represents us as an individual. All of us are separated by a matter of degrees from each other even if we were raised on the same street, by parents of similar educational background and profession, and have many other things in common.
Communication with yourself is called intrapersonal communication, and it may also be intracultural, as you may only represent one culture, but most people belong to many groups, each with their own culture. Within our imaginary intergenerational home, how many cultures do you think we might find? If we only consider the parents, and consider work one culture, and family another, we now have two. If we were to examine the options more closely, we would find many more groups, and the complexity would grow exponentially. Does a conversation with yourself ever involve competing goals, objectives, needs, wants, or values? How did you learn of those goals, or values? Through communication within and between individuals, they themselves representatives of many cultures. We struggle with the demands of each group, and their expectations, and could consider this internal struggle intercultural conflict, or simply intercultural communication.
Culture is part of the very fabric of our thought, and we cannot separate ourselves from it, even as we leave home, defining ourselves anew in work and achievement. Every business or organization has a culture, and within what may be considered a global culture, there are many subcultures or co-cultures. For example, consider the difference between the sales and accounting departments in a corporation: we can quickly see two distinct groups, with their own symbols, vocabulary, and values. Within each group there may also be smaller groups, and each member of each department comes from a distinct background that in itself influences behavior and interaction.
Intercultural communication is a fascinating area of study within group or organizational communication, and essential to your success. One idea to keep in mind as we examine this topic is the importance of considering multiple points of view. If you tend to dismiss ideas or views that are “unalike culturally,” you will find it challenging to learn about diverse cultures. If you cannot learn, how can you grow and be successful?
Ethnocentrism is the tendency to view other cultures as inferior to one’s own. Having pride in your culture can be healthy, but history has taught us that having a predisposition to discount other cultures simply because they are different can be hurtful, damaging, and dangerous. Ethnocentrism makes us far less likely to be able to bridge the gap with others and often increases intolerance of difference. Business and industry are no longer regional, and in your career, you will necessarily cross borders, languages, and cultures. You will need tolerance, understanding, patience, and openness to difference. A skilled communicator knows that the process of learning is never complete, and being open to new ideas is a key strategy for success.
Key Takeaways
• Intercultural communication is an aspect of all communicative interactions, and attention to your own perspective is key to your effectiveness.
• Ethnocentrism is a major obstacle to intercultural communication.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Please list five words to describe your dominant culture. Please list five words to describe a culture with which you are not a member, have little or no contact, or have limited knowledge. Now compare and contrast the terms noting their inherent value statements.
2. Identify a country you would like to visit. Research the country and find one interesting business fact and share it with the class.
3. Write a brief summary about a city, region, state, or country you have visited that is not like where you live. Share and compare with classmates. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/05%3A_Intercultural_and_International_Group_Communication/5.01%3A_Intercultural_Communication.txt |
Learning Objectives
• Describe strategies to understand intercultural communication, prejudice, and ethnocentrism
The American anthropologist Edward T. Hall is often cited as a pioneer in the field of intercultural communication. Chen, G., & Starosta, W. (2000). Foundations of intercultural communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Born in 1914, Hall spent much of his early adulthood in the multicultural setting of the American Southwest, where Native Americans, Spanish-speakers, and descendants of pioneers came together from diverse cultural perspectives. He then traveled the globe during World War II and later served as a State Department official. Where culture had once been viewed by anthropologists as a single, distinct way of living, Hall saw how the perspective of the individual influences interaction. By focusing on interactions, rather than cultures as separate from individuals, he asked us to evaluate the many cultures we ourselves belong to or are influenced by, as well as those with whom we interact. While his view makes the study of intercultural communication far more complex, it also brings a healthy dose of reality to the discussion. Hall is generally credited with eight contributions to our study of intercultural communication: Chen, G., & Starosta, W. (2000). Foundations of intercultural communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon., Leeds-Hurwitz, W. (1990). Notes in the history of intercultural communication: the foreign service institute and the mandate for intercultural training. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 76, 268–281.,McLean, S. (2005). The basics of interpersonal communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
1. Comparing cultures. Focus on the interactions versus general observations of culture.
2. Shift to local perspective. Local level versus global perspective.
3. You don’t have to know everything to know something. Time, space, gestures, and gender roles can be studied, even if we lack a larger understanding of the entire culture.
4. There are rules we can learn. People create rules for themselves in each community that we can learn from, compare, and contrast.
5. Experience counts. Personal experience has value in addition to more comprehensive studies of interaction and culture.
6. Differences in perspective. Descriptive linguistics serves as a model to understand cultures, and the US Foreign Service adopted it as a base for training.
7. Application to International Business. Foreign Service trainings yielded applications to trade and commerce, and became a point of study for business majors.
8. Integration of the disciplines. Culture and communication are intertwined, and bring together many academic disciplines.
Hall, Hall, E. (1966). The hidden dimension. N.Y., NY: Doubleday. shows us that emphasis on a culture as a whole, and how it operates, may lead us to neglect individual differences. Individuals may hold beliefs or practice customs that do not follow their own cultural norm. When we resort to the mental shortcut of a stereotype, we lose these unique differences. Stereotypes can be defined as a generalization about a group of people that oversimplifies their culture. Rogers, E., & Steinfatt, T. (1999). Intercultural communication. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.
The American psychologist Gordon Allport, Allport, G. (1958). The nature of prejudice. NY: Doubleday. explored how, when, and why we formulate or use stereotypes to characterize distinct groups. His results may not surprise you. Look back at Introductory Exercise #3 and examine the terms you used to describe a culture with which you are unfamiliar. Were the terms flattering, or pejorative? Did they reflect respect for the culture, or did they make unfavorable value judgments? Regardless of how you answered, you proved Allport’s main point. When we do not have enough contact with people or their cultures to understand them well, we tend to resort to stereotypes.Allport, G. (1958). The nature of prejudice. NY: Doubleday.
As Hall, Hall, E. (1966). The hidden dimension. N.Y., NY: Doubleday. notes, experience has value. If you do not know a culture, you should consider learning more about it firsthand if possible. The people you interact with may not be representative of the culture as a whole, that is not to say that what you learn lacks validity. Quite the contrary; Hall asserts that you can, in fact, learn something without understanding everything, and given the dynamic nature of communication and culture, who is to say that your lessons will not serve you well? Consider a study abroad experience if that is an option for you, or learn from a classmate who comes from a foreign country or an unfamiliar culture. Be open to new ideas and experiences, and start investigating. Many have gone before you, and today, unlike in generations past, much of the information is accessible. Your experiences will allow you to learn about another culture and yourself, and help you to avoid prejudice.
Prejudice involves a negative preconceived judgment or opinion that guides conduct or social behavior.McLean, S. (2005). The basics of interpersonal communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. As an example, imagine two people walking into a room for a job interview. You are tasked to interview both, and having read the previous section, you know that Allport rings true when he says we rely on stereotypes when encountering people or cultures with which we have had little contact. Will the way these candidates dress, their age, or gender influence your opinion of them? Will their race or ethnicity be a conscious or subconscious factor in your thinking process? Allport’s work would indicate that those factors and more will make you likely to use stereotypes to guide your expectations of them and your subsequent interactions with them.
People who treat others with prejudice often make assumptions or take preconceived ideas for granted without question, about the group or communities. As Gordon Allport illustrated for us, we often assume characteristics about groups with which we have little contact. Sometimes we also assume similarity, thinking that people are all basically similar. This denies cultural, racial, ethnic, socio-economic, and many other valuable, insightful differences.
Key Takeaway
• Ethnocentric tendencies, stereotyping, and assumptions of similarity can make it difficult to learn about cultural differences.
Exercise \(1\)
1. People sometimes assume that learning about other cultures is unnecessary if we simply treat others as we would like to be treated. To test this assumption, try answering the following questions.
1. When receiving a gift from a friend, should you open it immediately, or wait to open it in private?
2. When grocery shopping, should you touch fruits and vegetables to evaluate their freshness?
3. In a conversation with your instructor or your supervisor at work, should you maintain direct eye contact?
Write down your answers before reading further. Now let’s explore how these questions might be answered in various cultures.
1. In Chile, it is good manners to open a gift immediately and express delight and thanks. But in Japan it is a traditional custom to not open a gift in the giver’s presence.
2. In the United States, shoppers typically touch, hold, and even smell fruits and vegetables before buying them. But in northern Europe this is strongly frowned upon.
3. In mainstream North American culture, people are expected to look directly at each other when having a conversation. But a cultural norm for many Native Americans involves keeping one’s eyes lowered as a sign of respect when speaking to an instructor or supervisor.
No one can be expected to learn all the “dos and don’ts” of the world’s myriad cultures; instead, the key is to keep an open mind, be sensitive to other cultures, and remember that the way you’d like to be treated is not necessarily the way others would appreciate.
2. Please write a short paragraph where your perception of someone was changed once you got to know them. Share and compare with your classmates. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/05%3A_Intercultural_and_International_Group_Communication/5.02%3A_How_to_Understand_Intercultural_Communication.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Understand the concept of common cultural characteristics and list several examples of such characteristics in your own life
While we may be members of many different cultures, we tend to adhere to some more than others. Perhaps you have become friendly with several of your fellow students as you’ve pursued your studies in college. As you take many of the same classes and share many experiences on campus, you begin to have more and more in common, in effect forming a small group culture of your own. A similar cultural formation process may happen in the workplace, where coworkers spend many hours each week sharing work experiences and getting to know each other socially in the process.
Groups come together, form cultures, and grow apart across time. How does one become a member of a community, and how do you know when you are full member? What aspects of culture do we have in common and how do they relate to communication? Researchers who have studied cultures around the world have identified certain characteristics that define a culture. These characteristics are expressed in different ways, but they tend to be present in nearly all cultures. Let’s examine them.
Rites of Initiation
Cultures tend to have a ritual for becoming a new member. A newcomer starts out as a non-entity, a stranger, an unaffiliated person with no connection or even possibly awareness of the community. Later, newcomers who stay around and learn about the culture become members. Most cultures have a rite of initiation that marks the passage of the individual within the community; some of these rituals may be so informal as to be hardly noticed (e.g., the first time a coworker asks you to join the group to eat lunch together), while others may be highly formalized (e.g., the ordination of clergy in a religion). The non-member becomes a member, the new member becomes a full member, and individuals rise in terms of responsibility and influence.
Business communities are communities first because, without communication interaction, no business will occur. Even if sales and stock are processed by servers that link database platforms to flow, individuals are still involved in the maintenance, repair, and development of the system. Where there is communication, there is culture, and every business has several cultures.
Across the course of your life, you have no doubt passed several rites of initiation but may not have taken notice of them. Did you earn a driver’s license? Register to vote? The permission to purchase alcohol? In North American culture, these three common markers indicate the passing from a previous stage of life to a new one, with new rights and responsibilities. As a child, you were not allowed to have a driver’s license. At age 14–18, depending on your state and location (rural versus urban), you were allowed to drive a tractor, use farm equipment, operate a motor vehicle during daylight hours, or have full access to public roads. With the privilege of driving comes responsibility. It is your responsibility to learn what the signs and signals mean, and to obey traffic laws for the common safety. In order for stop signs to work, we all have to agree on the behavior associated with them and observe that behavior.
Sometimes people choose to ignore a stop sign, or accidentally miss one, and it places the public in danger. Law enforcement officials serve to help reinforce that common safety as representatives of the culture, empowered by the people themselves based on a common agreement of what a stop sign means, and what a driver is supposed to do when approaching one. Some people may argue that law enforcement serves some while prosecuting others, and this debate point may deserve consideration, but across cultures there are rules, signs, and symbols that we share.
Rites of initiation mark the transition of the role or status of the individual within the group. Your first day on the job may have been a challenge as you learned your way around the physical space, but the true challenge was to learn how the group members communicate with each other. If you graduate from college with a Master of Business Administration (MBA) degree, you will already have passed a series of tests, learned terms and theories, and possess a symbol of accomplishment in your diploma, but that only grants you the opportunity to look for a job—to seek access to a new culture.
In every business, there are groups, power struggles, and unspoken ways that members earn their way from the role of a “newbie” to that of a full member. The newbie may get the tough account, or the office without a window, or the cubicle next to the bathroom, denoting low status. As the new member learns to navigate the community and establish a track record of success, promotions, themselves a rite of initiation, bring new rights and responsibilities.
Over time, the person comes to be an important part of the business, a “keeper of the flame.” The “flame” may not exist in physical space or time, but it does exist in the minds of those members in the community who have invested time and effort in the business. It is not a flame to be trusted to a new person, and like trust, it can only be earned across time. Along the way there may be personality conflicts and power struggles over resources, and perceived scarcity (i.e., there is only one promotion and you want it). All of these challenges are to be expected in any culture.
Common History and Traditions
Think for a moment about the history of a business like Ford Motor Company—what are your associations with Henry Ford, the assembly line manufacturing system, or the Model T? Or the early days of McDonald’s? Do you have an emotional response to mental images of the “golden arches” logo, Ronald McDonald, or the Big Mac sandwich? Traditions form as the organization grows and expands, and many of the stories are told and retold, serving to educate new members on how business should be conducted. The history of every culture, of every corporation, influences the present. There are times when the phrase “we’ve tried that before” can become stumbling block for members of the organization as it grows and adapts to new market forces. There may be struggles between members who have weathered many storms and new members, who come armed with new educational perspectives, technological tools, or experiences that may contribute to growth.
Common Values and Principles
Cultures all hold values and principles that are shared in common and are communicated from older members to younger (or newer) ones. Time and length of commitment are associated with an awareness of these values and principles, so that new members, whether they are socialized at home, in school, or at work, may not have a thorough understanding of their importance. For example, time (fast customer service) and cleanliness are two cornerstone values of the McDonald’s corporation. A new employee may take these for granted, while a seasoned professional who inspects restaurants may see the continued need to reinforce these core values. Without reinforcement, norms may gradually change, and if this were the case it could fundamentally change the customer experience associated with McDonald’s.
Common Purpose and Sense of Mission
Cultures share a common sense of purpose and mission. Why are we here, and whom do we serve? These are fundamental questions of the human condition that philosophers and theologians the world over have pondered for centuries. In business, the answers to these questions often address purpose and mission, and they can be found in mission and vision statements of almost every organization. Individual members will be expected to acknowledge and share the mission and vision, and actualize them, or make them real through action. Without action, the mission and vision statements are simply an arrangement of words. As a guide to individual and group behavioral norms, they can serve as a powerful motivator and a call to action.
Common Symbols, Boundaries, Status, Language, and Rituals
Most of us learn early in life what a stop sign represents, but do we know what military stripes represent on a sleeve, or a 10-year service pin on a lapel, or a corner office with two windows? Cultures have common symbols that mark them as a group, and the knowledge of what a symbol stands for helps to reinforce who is a group member and who is not. You may have a brand on your arm from your fraternity, or wear a college ring—symbols that represent groups you affiliate with temporarily, while you are a student. They may or may not continue to hold meaning to you when your college experience is over. Cultural symbols include dress, such as the Western business suit and tie, the Scottish kilt, or the Islamic headscarf; symbols also include slogans or sayings, such as “You’re in good hands” or “You deserve a break today.” The slogan may serve a marketing purpose, but may also embrace a mission or purpose within the culture. Family crests and clan tartan patterns serve as symbols of affiliation, and symbols can be used to communicate rank and status within the group.
Space is another common cultural characteristic; it may be one nonverbal symbol that represents status and power. In most of the world’s cultures, a person occupying superior status is entitled to a physically elevated position—a throne, a dais, a podium from which to address subordinates. Subordinates may be expected to bow, curtsy, or lower their eyes as a sign of respect. In business, the corner office may offer the best view with the most space. Movement from a cubicle to a private office may also be a symbol of transition within an organization, involving increased responsibility as well as power. Parking spaces, what kind of vehicle you drive, and what your transportation allowance is may also serve to communicate symbolic meaning within an organization.
The office serves our discussion on the second point concerning boundaries. Would you sit on your boss’s desk, or sit in his or her chair with your feet up on the desk, in your boss’s presence? Most people indicate they would not, because to do so would communicate a lack of respect, violate normative space expectations, and invite retaliation. Still, subtle challenges to authority may arise in the workplace. A less than flattering photograph of the boss at the office party posted to the recreational room bulletin board communicates more than a lack of respect for authority. By placing the image anonymously in a public place, the prankster clearly communicates a challenge, even if it is a juvenile one. Movement from the cubicle to the broom closet may be the end result for someone who is found responsible for the prank. Again, there are no words used to communicate meaning, only symbols, but those symbols represent significant issues.
Communities have their own vocabulary and way in which they communicate. Consider the person who uses a sewing machine to create a dress and the accountant behind the desk; both are professionals and both have specialized jargon used in their field. If they were to change places, the lack of skills would present one obstacle, but the lack of understanding of terms, how they are used, and what they mean, would also severely limit their effectiveness. Those terms and how they are used are learned over time, through interaction, and while a textbook can help, it cannot demonstrate use in live interactions. Cultures are dynamic systems that reflect the communication process itself.
Cultures celebrate heroes, denigrate villains, and have specific ways of completing jobs and tasks. In business and industry the emphasis may be on effectiveness and efficiency, but the practice can often be “because that is the way we have always done it.” Rituals serve to guide our performance and behavior, and may be limited to small groups or celebrated across the entire company. A pink Cadillac has a special meaning for a Mary Kay cosmetics representative. How that car is received is ritualistic, in a public ceremony, recognizing current success while honoring past performances across the company.
Rituals can serve to bind a group together, or to constrain it. Institutions tend to formalize processes and then have a hard time adapting to new circumstances. While the core values or mission statement may hold true, the method of doing things that worked in the past may not be as successful as it once was. Adaptation and change can be difficult for individuals and companies, and yet all communities, cultures, and context of communication is dynamic, or always changing. As much as we might like things to stay the same, they will always change—and we will change with (and be changed by) them.
Key Takeaway
• All cultures have characteristics such as initiations, traditions, history, values and principles, purpose, symbols, and boundaries.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Compile a list, or group of pictures, of symbols that characterize some of the cultural groups you belong to. Share and discuss your list with your classmates.
2. Compile a list of pictures or symbols that your group or community finds offensive. Share and compare with classmates. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/05%3A_Intercultural_and_International_Group_Communication/5.03%3A_Common_Cultural_Characteristics.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Discuss divergent cultural characteristics and list several examples of such characteristics in the culture(s) you identify with
We are not created equal. We are born light or dark-skinned, to parents of education, or parents without access to education, and we grow up short or tall, and slender or stocky. Our life chances, or options, are in many ways determined by our birth. The Victorian “rags to riches” novels which Horatio Alger wrote promoted the idea that individuals can overcome all obstacles, raising themselves up by their bootstraps. Some people do have amazing stories, but even if you are quick to point out that Microsoft founder Bill Gates became fabulously successful despite his lack of a college education, know that his example is exception, not the rule. We all may use the advantages of our circumstances to improve our lives, but the type and extent of those advantages varies greatly across the planet.
Cultures reflect this inequality, this diversity, and the divergent range of values, symbols, and meanings across communities. Can you tie a knot? Perhaps you can tie your shoes, but what about a knot to secure a line to a boat, or to secure a heavy load on a cart or truck? To bundle a bale of hay? You may not be able to, but if you were raised in a culture that place a high value on knot-tying for specific purposes, you would learn that which your community values. We all have viewpoints, but they are shaped by our interactions with our communities. Let’s examine several points of divergence across cultures:
Individualistic versus Collectivist Cultures
People in individualistic cultures value individual freedom and personal independence, and cultures always have stories to reflect their values. You may recall the story of Superman, or John McLean in the Diehard series, and note how one person overcomes all obstacles. Through personal ingenuity, in spite of challenges, one person rises successfully to conquer or vanquish those obstacles. Sometimes there is an assist, as in basketball or football, where another person lends a hand, but still the story repeats itself again and again, reflecting the cultural viewpoint.
The Dutch researcher Geert Hofstede explored the concepts of individualism and collectivism across diverse cultures. Hofstede, G. (1982). Culture’s consequences (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage., Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences: comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage., Hofstede, G. (2005). Cultures and organizations: software of the mind (Revised and expanded 2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. He found that in individualistic cultures, like the United States, people perceived their world primarily from their own viewpoint. They perceived themselves as empowered individuals, capable of making their own decisions, and able to make an impact on their own lives.
Cultural viewpoint is not an either/or dichotomy, but rather a continuum or range. You may belong to some communities that express individualistic cultural values, while others place the focus on a collective viewpoint. Collectivist cultures, Hofstede, G. (1982). Culture’s consequences (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. including many in Asia and South America, focus on the needs of the nation, community, family, or group of workers. Ownership and private property is one way to examine this difference. In some cultures property is almost exclusively private, while others tend toward community ownership. The collectively owned resource returns benefits to the community. Water, for example, has long been viewed as a community resource, much like air, but that has been changing as business and organizations have purchased water rights and gained control over resources. Public lands, such as parks, are often considered public, and individual exploitation of them is restricted. Copper, a metal with a variety of industrial applications, is collectively owned in Chile, with profits deposited in the general government fund. While public/private initiatives exist, the cultural viewpoint is our topic. How does someone raised in a culture that emphasizes the community interact with someone raised in a primarily individualistic culture? How could tensions be expressed, and how might interactions be influenced by this point of divergence?
Explicit Rule Cultures versus Implicit Rule Cultures
Do you know the rules of your business or organization? Did you learn them from an employee manual or by observing the conduct of others? Your response may include both options, but not all cultures communicate rules in the same way. Carley DoddDodd, C. (1998). Dynamics of intercultural communication (5th ed.). New York, NY: Harper and Row. discusses this difference and has found quite a range of difference. In an explicit rule culture, where rules are clearly communicated so that everyone is aware of them, the guidelines and agenda for a meeting are announced prior to the gathering. In an implicit rule culture, where rules are often understood and communicated nonverbally, there may be no agenda. Everyone knows why they are gathered, what role each member plays, and the expectation may not be clearly stated. Power, status, and behavioral expectations may all be understood, and to the person from outside this culture it may prove a challenge to understand the rules of the context.
Outsiders often communicate their “otherness” but not knowing where to stand, when to sit, or how to initiate a conversation when the rules are not clearly stated. While it may help to know that implicit rule cultures are often more tolerant of deviation from the understood rules, the newcomer will be wise to learn by observing quietly—and to do as much research ahead of the event as possible.
Uncertainty-Accepting Cultures versus Uncertainty-Rejecting Cultures
When we meet each other for the first time, we often use what we have previously learned to understand our current context. We also do this to reduce our uncertainty. Some cultures, such as the U.S. and Britain, are highly tolerant of uncertainty, while others go to great lengths to reduce the element of surprise. Cultures in the Arab world, for example, are high in uncertainty avoidance; they tend to be resistant to change and reluctant to take risks. Whereas a U.S. business negotiator might enthusiastically agree to try a new procedure, the Egyptian counterpart would likely refuse to get involved until all the details are worked out.
Berger and Calabrese. Berger, C., & Calabrese, R. (1975). Some explorations in initial interactions and beyond: toward a developmental theory of interpersonal communication. Human Communication Research, 1, 99–112. developed uncertainty reduction theory to examine this dynamic aspect of communication. Here are seven axioms of uncertainty:
• There is a high level of uncertainty at first. As we get to know one another, our verbal communication increases and our uncertainty begins to decrease.
• Following verbal communication, as nonverbal communication increases, uncertainty will continue to decrease, and we will express more nonverbal displays of affiliation, like nodding one’s head to express agreement.
• When experiencing high levels of uncertainty, we tend to increase our information-seeking behavior, perhaps asking questions to gain more insight. As our understanding increases, uncertainty decreases, as does the information-seeking behavior.
• When experiencing high levels of uncertainty, the communication interaction is not as personal or intimate. As uncertainty is reduced, intimacy increases.
• When experiencing high levels of uncertainty, communication will feature more reciprocity, or displays of respect. As uncertainty decreases, reciprocity may diminish.
• Differences between people increase uncertainty, while similarities decrease it.
• Higher levels of uncertainty are associated with a decrease in the indication of liking the other person, while reductions in uncertainty are associated with liking the other person more.
Time Orientation
Edward T. Hall and Mildred Reed Hall, Hall, M. R., & Hall, E. T. (1987). Hidden differences: doing business with the Japanese. New York: Doubleday (Anchor Books). state that monochronic time-oriented cultures consider one thing at a time, whereas polychronic time-oriented cultures schedule many things at one time, and time is considered in a more fluid sense. In monochromatic time, interruptions are to be avoided, and everything has its own specific time. Even the multitasker from a monochromatic culture will, for example, recognize the value of work first before play or personal time. The United States, Germany, and Switzerland are often noted as countries that value a monochromatic time orientation.
Polychromatic time looks a little more complicated, with business and family mixing with dinner and dancing. Greece, Italy, Chile, and Saudi Arabia are countries where one can observe this perception of time, and while business meetings may be scheduled at a fixed time, when they actually begin may be another story. Also note that the dinner invitation for 8 p.m. may, in reality, be more like 9 p.m., and if you were to show up on time, you might be the first person to arrive and find that the hosts are not quite ready to receive you.
When in doubt, always ask before the event; many people from polychromatic cultures will be used to foreigner’s tendency to be punctual, even compulsive, about respecting established times for events. The skilled business communicator is aware of this difference and takes steps to anticipate it. The value of time in different cultures is expressed in many ways, and your understanding can help you communicate more effectively.
Short-Term versus Long-Term Orientation
Do you want your reward right now, or can you dedicate yourself to a long-term goal? You may work in a culture that values immediate results, and grow impatient when those results do not materialize. Hofstede, Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences: comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage., Hofstede, G. (2005). Cultures and organizations: software of the mind (Revised and expanded 2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. discusses this relationship of time orientation to a culture as a “time horizon,” and it underscores the perspective of the individual within a cultural context. Many countries in Asia, influenced by the teachings of Confucius, value a long-term orientation, whereas other countries, including the United States, have a more short-term approach to life and results. Native American cultures are known for holding a long-term orientation, as illustrated by the proverb attributed to the Iroquois that decisions require contemplation of their impact seven generations removed.
If you work within a culture that has a short-term orientation, you may need to place greater emphasis on reciprocation of greetings, gifts, and rewards. For example, if you send a thank-you note the morning after being treated to a business dinner, your host will appreciate your promptness. While there may be respect for tradition, there is also an emphasis on personal representation and honor, a reflection of identity and integrity. Personal stability and consistency are also valued in a short-term oriented culture, contributing to an overall sense of predictability and familiarity.
Long-term orientation is often marked by persistence, thrift and frugality, and an order to relationships based on age and status. A sense of shame, both personal and for the family and community, is also observed across generations. What an individual does reflects on the family, and is carried by immediate and extended family members.
Masculine versus Feminine Orientation
There was a time when many cultures and religions valued a female figurehead, and with the rise of Western cultures, we have observed a shift toward a masculine ideal. Each carries with it a set of cultural expectations and norms for gender behavior and gender roles across life, including business.
Hofstede, Hofstede, G. (2009). Gert Hofstede™ Cultural dimensions. Retrieved May 3, 2009, from www.geert-fofstede.com/ describes the masculine/feminine dichotomy not in terms of whether men or women hold the power in a given culture, but rather the extent to which that culture values certain traits that may be considered masculine or feminine. Thus, “the assertive pole has been called ‘masculine’ and the modest, caring pole ‘feminine.’ The women in feminine countries have the same modest, caring values as the men; in the masculine countries they are somewhat assertive and competitive, but not as much as the men, so that these countries show a gap between men’s values and women’s values.”
We can observe this difference in where people gather, how they interact, and how they dress. We can see it during business negotiations, where it may make an important difference in the success of the organizations involved. Cultural expectations precede the interaction, so someone who doesn’t match those expectations may experience tension. Business in the United States has a masculine orientation—assertiveness and competition are highly valued. In other cultures, such as Sweden, business values are more attuned to modesty (lack of self-promotion) and taking care of society’s weaker members. This range of difference is one aspect of intercultural communication that requires significant attention when the communicator enters a new environment.
Direct versus Indirect
In the United States, business correspondence is expected to be short and to the point. “What can I do for you?” is a common question when a business person receives a call from a stranger; it is an accepted way of asking the caller to state his or her business. In some cultures, it is quite appropriate to make a direct personal observation, such as “you’ve changed your hairstyle,” while in others it may be observed, but never spoken of in polite company. In indirect cultures, such as those in Latin America, business conversations may start with discussions of the weather, or family, or topics other than business as the partners gain a sense of each other, long before the topic of business is raised. Again, the skilled communicator researches the new environment before entering it, as a social faux pas, or error, can have a significant impact.
Materialism versus Relationships
Does the car someone drives say something about them? You may consider that many people across the planet do not own a vehicle and that a car or truck in and of itself is a statement of wealth, but beyond that, does the make and model reflect their personality? If you are from a materialistic culture, you may be inclined to say yes. If you are from a culture that values relationships rather than material objects, you may say no, or focus on how the vehicle serves the family. From rocks that display beauty and wealth—what we call jewelry—to what you eat—will it be lobster ravioli or prime rib?
Members of a materialistic culture place emphasis on external goods and services as a representation of self, of power, and social rank. If you consider the plate of food before you and consider the labor required to harvest the grain, butcher the animal, and cook the meal, you are focusing more on the relationships involved with its production rather than the foods themselves. Caviar may be a luxury, and it may communicate your ability to acquire and offer a delicacy, but it also represents an effort. Cultures differ in how they view material objects and their relationship to them, and some value people and relationships more than the objects themselves. The United States and Japan are often noted as materialistic cultures, while many Scandinavian nations feature cultures that place more emphasis on relationships.
Low versus High Power Distance
How comfortable are you with critiquing your boss’s decisions? If you are from a low power distance culture, your answer might be “no problem.” In low power distance cultures, according to Hofstede, Hofstede, G. (2009). Gert Hofstede™ Cultural dimensions. Retrieved May 3, 2009, from www.geert-fofstede.com/ people relate to one another more as equals and less as a reflection of dominant/subordinate roles, regardless of their actual formal roles as employee and manager, for example.
In a high power distance culture, you would probably be much less likely to challenge the decision, to provide an alternative, or to give input. If you are working with someone from a high power distance culture, you may need to take extra care to elicit feedback and involve them in the discussion because their cultural framework may preclude their participation. They may have learned that less powerful people must accept decisions without comment, even if they have a concern or know there is a significant problem. Unless you are sensitive to cultural orientation and power distance, you may lose valuable information.
Key Takeaway
• Cultures have distinct orientations when it comes to rules, uncertainty, time and time horizon, masculinity, directness, materialism, and power distance.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Take a business letter or a page of a business report from a U.S. organization and try rewriting it as someone from a highly indirect, relational culture might have written it. Share and discuss your result with your classmates.
2. Conduct an online search for translated movie titles. Share and compare your results with your classmates.
3. Consider the movie you noted in Introductory Exercise 1. In what ways does it exemplify this individualistic viewpoint? Share your observations with your classmates.
4. Think of a movie where one or more characters exemplify individualism. Write a brief statement and share it with classmates.
5. Think of a movie where one or more characters exemplify community-oriented values. Write a brief statement and share it with classmates. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/05%3A_Intercultural_and_International_Group_Communication/5.04%3A_Divergent_Cultural_Characteristics.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Describe international communication and the global marketplace, including political, legal, economic, and ethical systems
People create systems that reflect cultural values. These systems reduce uncertainty for the culture, creating and perpetuating the rules and customs, but may prove a significant challenge to the entrepreneur entering a new market. Political, legal, economic, and ethical systems vary from culture to culture, and may or may not reflect formal boundaries. For example, disputes over who controls what part of their shoreline are common and are still a matter of debate, interpretation, and negotiation in many countries.
To a large extent, a country’s culture is composed of formal systems. Formal systems often direct, guide, constrain, or promote some behaviors over others. A legal system, like taxation, may favor the first-time homebuyer in the United States, and as a consequence, homeownership may be pursued instead of other investment strategies. That same legal system, via tariffs, may levy import taxes on specific goods and services, and reduce their demand as the cost increases. Each of these systems reinforces, or discourages, actions based on cultural norms, creating regulations that reflect ways that each culture, through its constituents, views the world.
In this section, we’ll examine intercultural communication from the standpoint of international communication, itself a reflection of intercultural communication. International communication can be defined as communication between nations, but we recognize that nations do not exist independently of people. Inter-nation communication is typically government to government or, more accurately, governmental representatives to governmental representatives. It often involves topics and issues that relate to the nations as entities, broad issues of trade, and conflict resolution. People use political, legal, and economic systems to guide and regulate behavior, and diverse cultural viewpoints necessarily give rise to many variations. Ethical systems also guide behavior, but often in less formal, institutional ways. Together these areas form much of the basis of international communication and warrant closer examination.
Political Systems
You may be familiar with democracy, or rule by the people; and theocracy, or rule of God by his or her designates; but the world presents a diverse range of how people are governed. It is also important to note, as we examine political systems, that they are created, maintained, and changed by people. Just as people change over time, so do all systems that humans create. A political climate that was once closed to market forces, including direct and indirect investment, may change over time.
Centuries ago, China built a physical wall to keep out invaders. In the 20th century, it erected another kind of wall, a political wall that separated the country from the Western world, and its adherence to its interpretation of communism limited entrepreneurship. In the world of 2009, that closed market is now open for business. To what extent it is open may be a point of debate, but simple observation provides ample evidence of a country, and a culture, open to investment and trade. The opening and closing ceremonies for the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing symbolized this openness, with symbolic representations of culture combined with notable emphasis on welcoming the world. As the nature of global trade and change transforms business, so it also transforms political systems.
Political systems are often framed in terms of how people are governed, and the extent to which they may participate. Democracy is one form of government that promotes the involvement of the individual, but even here we can observe stark differences. In the United States, people are encouraged to vote, but it is not mandatory, and voter turnout is often so low that voting minorities have great influence on the larger political systems. In Chile, voting is mandatory, so that all individuals are expected to participate, with adverse consequences if they do not. This doesn’t mean there are not still voting minorities, or groups with disproportionate levels of influence and power, but it does underscore cultural values and their many representations.
Centralized rule of the people also comes in many forms. In a dictatorship, the dictator establishes and enforces the rules with few checks and balances, if any. In a totalitarian system, one party makes the rules. The Communist states of the 20th century, although egalitarian in theory, were ruled in practice by a small central committee. In a theocracy, one religion makes the rules based on their primary documents or interpretation of them, and religious leaders hold positions of political power. In each case, political power is centralized to a small group over the many.
A third type of political system is anarchy, in which there is no government. A few places in the world, notably Somalia, may be said to exist in a state of anarchy. But even in a state of anarchy, the lack of a central government means that local warlords, elders, and others exercise a certain amount of political, military, and economic power. The lack of an established governing system itself creates the need for informal power structures that regulate behavior and conduct, set and promote ideals, and engage in commerce and trade, even if that engagement involves non-standard strategies such as the appropriation of ships via piracy. In the absence of appointed or elected leaders, emergent leaders will rise as people attempt to meet their basic needs.
Legal Systems
Legal systems also vary across the planet and come in many forms. Some legal systems promote the rule of law while others promote the rule of culture, including customs, traditions, and religions. The two most common systems are civil and common law. Civil law draws from Roman history and common law from an English tradition. In civil law, the rules are spelled out in detail, and judges are responsible for applying the law to the given case. In common law, the judge interprets the law and considers the concept of precedent, or previous decisions. Common law naturally adapts to changes in technology and modern contexts as precedents accumulate, while civil law requires new rules to be written out to reflect the new context even as the context transforms and changes. Civil law is more predictable and is practiced in the majority of countries, while common law involves more interpretation that can produce conflict with multiple views on the application of the law in question. The third type of law draws its rules from a theological base rooted in religion. This system presents unique challenges to the outsider and warrants thorough research.
Economic Systems
Economic systems vary in similar ways across cultures and again reflect the norms and customs of people. Economies are often described in the relationship between people and their government. An economy with a high degree of government intervention may prove challenging for both internal and external businesses. An economy with relatively little government oversight may be said to reflect more of the market, or markets, and to be less restricted. Along these same lines, the government may perceive its role as a representative of the common good, to protect individual consumers, and to prevent fraud and exploitation.
This continuum or range, from high to low degrees of government involvement, reflects the concept of government itself. A government may be designed to give everyone access to the market, with little supervision, in the hope that people themselves will regulate transactions based on their own needs, wants, and desires; in essence, their own self-interest. If everyone operates in their own self-interest, and word gets out that one business produces a product that fails to work as advertised, it is often believed that the market will naturally gravitate away from this faulty product to a competing product that works properly. Individual consumers, however, may have a hard time knowing which product to have faith in and may look to the government to provide that measure of safety.
Government certification of food, for example, attempts to reduce disease. Meat from unknown sources would lack the seal of certification, alerting the consumer to evaluate the product closely, or choose another product. In terms of supervision, we can see an example of this when Japan restricts the sale of U.S. beef for fear of mad cow disease. The concern may be warranted from the consumer’s viewpoint, or it may be protectionist from a business standpoint, protecting the local producer over the importer.
From meat to financial products, we can see both the dangers and positive attributes of intervention, and can also acknowledge that its application may be less than consistent. Some cultures that value the community may naturally look to their government for leadership in economic areas, while those that represent an individualistic tendency may take a more “hands-off” approach.
Ethical Systems
Ethical systems, unlike political, legal, and economic systems, are generally not formally institutionalized. This does not imply, however, that they are less influential in interactions, trade, and commerce. Ethics refers to a set of norms and principles that relate to individual and group behavior, including businesses and organizations. They may be explicit, in the form of an organization’s code of conduct; may be represented in religion, as in the Ten Commandments; or may reflect cultural values in law. What is legal and what is ethical are at times quite distinct.
For example, the question of executive bonuses was hotly debated when several U.S. financial services companies accepted taxpayer money under the Troubled Assets Relief Program (TARP) in 2008. It was legal for TARP recipient firms to pay bonuses—indeed, some lawyers argued that failing to pay promised bonuses would violate contract law—but many taxpayers believed it was unethical.
Some cultures have systems of respect and honor that require tribute and compensation for service, while others may view payment as a form of bribe. It may be legal in one country to make a donation or support a public official in order to gain influence over a decision, but it may be unethical. In some countries, it may be both illegal and unethical. Given the complexity of human values, and their expression across behaviors, it is wise to research the legal and ethical norms of the place or community where you want to do business.
The Global Village
International trade has advantages and disadvantages, again based on your viewpoint and cultural reference. If you come from a traditional culture, with strong gender norms and codes of conduct, you may not appreciate the importation of some Western television programs that promote what you consider to be content that contradicts your cultural values. You may also take the viewpoint from a basic perspective and assert that basic goods and services that can only be obtained through trade pose a security risk. If you cannot obtain the product or service, it may put you, your business, or your community at risk.
Furthermore, “just in time” delivery methods may produce shortages when the systems break down due to weather, transportation delays, or conflict. People come to know each other through interactions, and transactions are fundamental to global trade, but cultural viewpoints may come into conflict. Some cultures may want a traditional framework to continue and will promote their traditional cultural values and norms at the expense of innovation and trade. Other cultures may come to embrace diverse cultures and trade, only to find that they have welcomed some who wish to do harm. In a modern world, transactions have a cultural dynamic that cannot be ignored.
Intercultural communication and business have been related since the first exchange of value. People, even from the same community, had to arrive at a common understanding of value. Symbols, gestures, and even language reflect these values, and attention to this central concept will enable the skilled intercultural communicator to look beyond his or her own viewpoint.
It was once the privilege of the wealthy to travel, and the merchant or explorer knew firsthand what many could only read about. Now we can take virtual tours of locations we may never travel to, and, as the cost of travel decreases, can increasingly see the world for ourselves. As global trade as developed, and time to market has decreased, the world has effectively grown smaller. While the size has not changed, our ability to navigate has been dramatically decreased. Time and distance are no longer the obstacles they once were. The Canadian philosopher Marshall McLuhan, a pioneer in the field of communication, predicted what we now know as the “global village.” The global village is characterized by information and transportation technologies that reduce the time and space required to interact.McLuhan, M. (1964). Understanding media: the extensions of man. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Key Takeaway
• People create political, legal, economic, and ethical systems to guide them in transacting business domestically and internationally.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Choose one country you would like to visit and explore its political system. How is it different from the system in your own country? What are the similarities? Share your findings with your classmates.
2. Think of an ethical aspect of the economic crisis of 2008 that involved you or your family. For example, did you or a relative get laid off at work, have difficulty making mortgage or rent payments, change your spending habits, or make donations to help those less fortunate? Is there more than one interpretation of the ethics of the situation? Write a short essay about it and discuss it with your classmates.
3. Choose one country you would like to visit and explore its economic system, including type of currency and its current value in relation to the U.S. dollar. Share and compare your results with classmates. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/05%3A_Intercultural_and_International_Group_Communication/5.05%3A_International_Communication_and_the_Global_Marketplace.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Understand and discuss how various styles of management, including Theory X, Y, and Z, influence workplace culture
People and their relationships to dominant and subordinate roles are a reflection of culture and cultural viewpoint. They are communicated through experience and create expectations for how and when managers interact with employees. The three most commonly discussed management theories are often called X, Y, and Z. In this section, we’ll briefly discuss them and their relationship to intercultural communication.
Theory X
In an influential book entitled The Human Side of Enterprise, M.I.T. management professor Douglas McGregor, McGregor, D. (1960). The human side of enterprise. New York: McGraw-Hill. described two contrasting perceptions on how and why people work, formulating Theory X and Theory Y; they are both based on Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Maslow, A. (1954). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper & Row., Maslow, A. (1970). Motivation and personality (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Harper & Row. According to this model, people are first concerned with physical needs (food, shelter) and secondly with safety. At the third level, people seek love, acceptance, and intimacy. Self-esteem, achievement, and respect are the fourth level, and finally, the fifth level embodies self-actualization.
McGregor’s Theory X asserts that workers are motivated by their basic (low-level) needs and have a general disposition against labor. In this viewpoint, workers are considered lazy and predicted to avoid work if they can, giving rise to the perceived need for constant, direct supervision. A Theory X manager may be described as authoritarian or autocratic, and does not seek input or feedback from employees. The view further holds that workers are motivated by personal interest, avoid discomfort, and seek pleasure. The Theory X manager uses control and incentive programs to provide punishment and rewards. Responsibility is the domain of the manager, and the view is that employees will avoid it if at all possible, to the extent that blame is always deflected or attributed to something other than personal responsibility. Lack of training, inferior machines, or failure to provide the necessary tools are all reasons to stop working, and it is up to the manager to fix these issues.
Theory Y
In contrast to Theory X, Theory Y views employees as ambitious, self-directed, and capable of self-motivation. Employees have a choice, and they prefer to do a good job as a representation of self-actualization. The pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain are part of being human, but work is also a reward in itself, and employees take pride in their efforts. Employees want to reach their fullest potential and define themselves by their profession. A job well done is a reward in and of itself, and the employee may be a valuable source of feedback. Collaboration is viewed as normal, and the worker may need little supervision.
Theory Z
Theory X and Y may seem like two extremes across the range of management styles, but in fact, they are often combined in actual work settings. William Ouchi’s Theory Z combines elements of both and draws from American and Japanese management style. It promotes worker participation and emphasizes job rotation, skills development, and loyalty to the company. Luthans, F. (1989). Organisational Behaviour. New York: McGraw-Hill. Workers are seen as having a high need for reinforcement, and belonging is emphasized. Theory Z workers are trusted to do their jobs with excellence and management is trusted to support them, looking out for their well-being. Massie, J., & Douglas, J. (1992). Managing: a contemporary introduction. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Each of these theories of management features a viewpoint with assumptions about people and why they do what they do. While each has been the subject of debate, and variations on each have been introduced across organizational communication and business, they serve as a foundation for understanding management in an intercultural context.
Key Takeaway
• Management Theories X, Y, and Z are examples of distinct and divergent views on worker motivation, need for supervision, and the possibility of collaboration.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Imagine that you are a manager in charge of approximately a dozen workers. Would you prefer to rely primarily on Theory X, Y, or Z as your management style? Why? Write a short essay defending your preference, giving some concrete examples of management decisions you would make. Discuss your essay with your classmates.
2. Describe your best boss and write a short analysis of what type of management style you perceive they used. Share and compare with classmates.
3. Describe your worst boss and write a short analysis of what type of management style you perceive they used. Share and compare with classmates. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/05%3A_Intercultural_and_International_Group_Communication/5.06%3A_Styles_of_Management.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Describe how to prepare for an international assignment
2. Discuss the acculturation process as an expatriate
3. Describe effective strategies for living and working abroad
Suppose you have the opportunity to work or study in a foreign country. You may find the prospect of an international assignment intriguing, or challenging, or even frightening; indeed, most professionals employed abroad will tell you they pass through all three stages at some point during the assignment. They may also share their sense of adjustment, even embrace of their host culture, and the challenges of reintegration into their native country.
An international assignment, whether as a student or a career professional, requires work and preparation, and should be given the time and consideration of any major life change. When you lose a loved one, it takes time to come to terms with the loss. When someone you love is diagnosed with a serious illness, the news may take some time to sink in. When a new baby enters your family, a period of adjustment is predictable and prolonged. All of these major life changes can stress an individual beyond their capacity to adjust. Similarly, in order to be a successful “expat,” or expatriate, one needs to prepare mentally and physically for the change.
International business assignments are a reflection of increased global trade, and as trade decreases, they may become an expensive luxury. As technology allows for instant face-to-face communication, and group collaboration on documents via cloud computing and storage, the need for physical travel may be reduced. But regardless of whether your assignment involves relocation abroad, supervision of managers in another country at a distance, or supervision by a foreign manager, you will need to learn more about the language, culture, and customs that are not your own. You will need to compare and contrast, and seek experiences that lend insight, in order to communicate more effectively.
An efficient, effective manager in any country is desirable, but one with international experience even more so. You will represent your company and they will represent you, including a considerable financial investment, either by your employer (in the case of a professional assignment) or by whoever is financing your education (in the case of studying abroad). That investment should not be taken lightly. As many as 40% of foreign-assigned employees terminate their assignments early (Tu, H., & Sullivan, S. (1994). Business horizons. Retrieved February 6, 2009, from FindArticles.com) at a considerable cost to their employers. Of those that remain, almost 50% are less than effective (Tu, H., & Sullivan, S. (1994). Business horizons. Retrieved February 6, 2009, from FindArticles.com).
Preparation
With this perspective in mind, let’s discuss how to prepare for the international assignment and strategies to make you a more effective professional as a stranger in a strange land. First, we’ll dispel a couple of myths associated with an idealized or romantic view of living abroad. Next, we’ll examine traits and skills of the successful expatriate. Finally, we’ll examine culture shock and the acculturation process.
Your experience with other cultures may have come first hand, but for most, a foreign location like Paris is an idea formed from exposure to images via the mass media. Paris may be known for its art, as a place for lovers, or a great place to buy bread, but if you have only ever known about a place through the lens of a camera, you have only seen the portraits designed and portrayed by others. You will lack the multi-dimensional view of one who lives and works in Paris, and even if you are aware of its history, its economic development, or its recent changes, these are all academic observations until the moment of experience.
That is not to say that research does not form a solid foundation in preparation for an international assignment, but it does reinforce the distinction between a media-fabricated ideal and real life. Awareness of this difference is an important step as you prepare yourself for life in a foreign culture.
If the decision is yours to make, take your time. If others are involved, and family is a consideration, you should take even more care with this important decision. Residence abroad requires some knowledge of the language, an ability to adapt, and an interest in learning about different cultures. If family members are not a part of the decision or lack the language skills or interest, the assignment may prove overwhelming and lead to failure. 64% of expatriate respondents who terminated their assignment early indicated that family concerns were the primary reason (Contreras, C. D. (2009). Chemical Engineering Progress. Retrieved February 06, 2009, from FindArticles.com)
Points to consider include the following:
• How flexible are you?
• Do you need everything spelled out or can you go with the flow?
• Can you adapt to new ways of doing business?
• Are you interested in the host culture, and willing to dedicate the time and put forth the effort to learn more about it?
• What has been your experience to date working with people from distinct cultures?
• What are your language skills at present, and are you interested in learning a new language?
• Is your family supportive of the assignment?
• How will it affect your children’s education? Your spouse’s career? Your own career?
• Will this assignment benefit your family?
• How long are you willing to commit to the assignment?
• What resources are available to help you prepare, move, and adjust?
• Can you stand being out of the loop, even if you are in daily written and oral communication with the home office?
• What is your relationship with your employer, and can it withstand the anticipated stress and tension that will result as not everything goes according to plan?
• Is the cultural framework of your assignment similar, or unlike, your own, and how ready are you to adapt to differences in such areas as time horizon, masculinity versus femininity, or direct versus indirect styles of communication?
This list of questions could continue, and feel free to add your own as you explore the idea of an international assignment. An international assignment is not like a domestic move or reassignment. Within the same country, even if there are significantly different local customs in place, similar rules, laws, and ways of doing business are present. In a foreign country, you will lose those familiar traditions and institutions and have to learn many new ways of accomplishing your given tasks. What once took a five-minute phone call may now take a dozen meetings and a month to achieve, and that may cause you some frustration. It may also cause your employer frustration as you try to communicate how things are done locally, and why results are not immediate, as they lack even your limited understanding of your current context. Your relationship with your employer will experience stress, and your ability to communicate your situation will require tact and finesse.
Successful expatriates are adaptable, open to learning new languages, cultures, and skilled at finding common ground for communication. Rather than responding with frustration, they learn the new customs and find the advantage to get the job done. They form relationships and are not afraid to ask for help when it is warranted or required. They feel secure in their place as explorer, and understand that mistakes are a given, even as they are unpredictable. Being a stranger is no easy task, but they welcome the challenge with energy and enthusiasm.
The Acculturation Process
Acculturation, or the transition to living abroad, is often described as an emotional rollercoaster (Steven Rhinesmith, Rhinesmith, S. (1984). Returning home. Ottawa: Canadian Bureau for International Education) provides ten steps that show the process of acculturation, including culture shock, that you may experience:
• Initial anxiety
• Initial elation
• Initial culture shock
• Superficial adjustment
• Depression-frustration
• Acceptance of host culture
• Return anxiety
• Return elation
• Re-entry shock
• Reintegration
Humans fear the unknown, and even if your tolerance for uncertainty is high, you may experience a degree of anxiety in anticipation of your arrival. At first the “honeymoon” period is observed, with a sense of elation at all the newfound wonders. You may adjust superficially at first, learning where to get familiar foods or new ways to meet your basic needs. As you live in the new culture, divergence will become a trend and you’ll notice many things that frustrate you. You won’t anticipate the need for two hours at a bank for a transaction that once took five minutes, or could be handled over the internet, and find that businesses close during the mid-day, preventing you from accomplishing your goals. At this stage, you will feel that living in this new culture is simply exhausting. Many expats advise that this is the time to tough it out—if you give in to the temptation to make a visit back home, you will only prolong your difficult adjustment.
Over time, if you persevere, you will come to accept and adjust to your host culture, and learn how to accomplish your goals with less frustration and ease. You may come to appreciate several cultural values or traits, and come to embrace some aspects of your host culture. At some point, you will need to return to your first, or home, culture, but that transition will, in itself, bring a sense of anxiety. People and places change, the familiar is no longer so familiar, and you too have changed. You may once again be elated at your return and the familiar, and experience a sense of comfort in home and family, but culture shock may again be part of your adjustment. You may look at your home culture in a new way, and question why things are done a particular way that you have always considered normal. You may hold onto some of the cultural traits you adopted while living abroad, and begin the process of reintegration.
You may also begin to feel that the “grass is greener” in your host country, and long to return. Expatriates are often noted for “going native,” or adopting the host culture’s way of life, but even the most confirmed expats still gather to hear the familiar sound of their first language, and find community in people like themselves who have blended cultural boundaries on a personal level.
Living and Working Abroad
In order to learn to swim, you have to get in the water, and all the research and preparation cannot take the place of direct experience. Your awareness of culture shock may help you adjust, and your preparation by learning some of the language will assist you, but know that living and working abroad take time and effort. Still, there are several guidelines that can serve you well as you start your new life in a strange land:
1. Be open and creative. People will eat foods that seem strange, or do things in a new way, and your openness and creativity can play a positive role in your adjustment. Staying close to your living quarters or surrounding yourself with similar expats can limit your exposure, and understanding, of the local cultures. While the familiar may be comfortable, and the new setting may be uncomfortable, you will learn much more about your host culture and yourself if you make the effort to be open to new experiences. Being open involves getting out of your comfort zone.
2. Self-reliance. Things that were once easy, or took little time, may now be challenging or consume your whole day. Focus on your own ability to resolve issues, learn new ways to get the job done, and be prepared to do new things.
3. Keep a balanced perspective. Your host culture isn’t perfect. Humans aren’t perfect, and neither was your home culture. Each location and cultural community has strengths you can learn from if you are open to them.
4. Patience is a virtue. Take your time and know a silent period is normal. The textbook language classes only provide a base from which you will learn how people who live in the host country actually communicate. You didn’t learn to walk in a day, and won’t learn to successfully navigate this culture overnight either.
5. Be the student and teacher. You are learning as a new member of the community, but as a full member of your own culture, you can share your experiences as well.
6. Be an explorer. Get out and go beyond your boundaries when you feel safe and secure. Traveling to surrounding villages, or across neighboring borders, can expand your perspective and help you learn.
7. Protect yourself. Always keep all your essential documents, money, and medicines close to you, or where you know they will be safe. Trying to source a medicine in a country where you are not fluent in the language, or the names of remedies are different, can be a challenge. Your passport is essential to your safety and you need to keep it safe. You may also consider vaccination records, birth certificates, or business documents in the same way, keeping them safe and accessible. You may want to consider a “bug-out bag,” with all the essentials you need, including food, water, keys, and small tools, as an essential part of planning in case of emergency.
Key Takeaways
• Preparation is key to a successful international assignment.
• Living and working abroad takes time, effort, and patience.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Research one organization in a business or industry that relates to your major and has an international presence. Find a job announcement or similar document that discusses the business and its international activities. Share and compare with classmates.
2. Conduct a search on expat networks including online forum. Briefly describe your findings and share them with classmates.
3. What would be the hardest part of an overseas assignment for you and why? What would be the easiest part of an overseas assignment for you and why?
4. Find an advertisement for an international assignment. Note the qualifications, and share them with classmates.
5. Find an article or other first-person account of someone’s experience on an international assignment. Share your results with your classmates.
5.08: Summary
In this chapter, we explored intercultural and international communication, observing the wide range of differences across economic, legal, and management areas. It is a distinct challenge to work abroad, and we’ve discussed the international assignment, culture shock, and tips for success. Learning to maneuver the day to day tasks as well as trade, business, and legal issues in another country is difficult, but an awareness of the importance of group communication and its impact on our interactions is an important first step.
Review Questions
1. How would you describe a theory x manager’s actions?
2. How would you describe a theory y manager’s actions?
3. How would you recognize culture shock?
4. What are three steps you can take to prepare for a trip or living abroad?
5. What are the two common legal systems in the world? Please describe them.
5.09: Additional Resources
Visit the website of culture scholar Edward T. Hall. http://www.edwardthall.com/index.html
Learn about intercultural awareness in the classroom by reading this article. Pedelty, Mark (2001). Self as other: An intercultural performance exercise. Multicultural Education, Spring. Accessed 5/2/09 at http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3935/is_200104/ai_n8937001/.
Visit these sites to explore the history and traditions of some famous American businesses. www.ford.com/about-ford/heritage and http://www.aboutmcdonalds.com/mcd/our_company/mcd_history.html
Learn more about Geert Hofstede’s research on culture by exploring his website. www.geert-hofstede.com/geert_hofstede_resources.shtml
Read advice from the U.S. Department of State on living abroad. http://travel.state.gov/travel/living/living_1243.html
Visit the blog of a young California woman who, after college graduation, accepted a job as an au pair in Germany. http://www.aupairingermany.blogspot.com/
Visit ExpatExchange: A World of Friends Abroad to learn about the opportunities, experiences, and emotions of people living and working in foreign countries and cultures worldwide. http://www.expatexchange.com/newsarchiveall.cfm | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/05%3A_Intercultural_and_International_Group_Communication/5.07%3A_The_International_Assignment.txt |
Introductory Exercises
___ 1. phat A. Weird, strange, unfair or not acceptable
___ 2. dis B. Something stupid or thoughtless, deserving correction
___ 3. wack C. Excellent, together, cool
___ 4. Smack D. Old car, generally in poor but serviceable condition
___ 5. down E. Insult, put down, to dishonor, to display disrespect
___ 6. hooptie F. Get out or leave quickly
___ 7. my bad G. Cool, very interesting, fantastic or amazing
___ 8. player H. To be in agreement
___ 9. tight I. Personal mistake
___ 10. jet J. Person dating with multiple partners, often unaware of each other
1. Can you match the words above to their meaning?
2. Do people use the same language in all settings and contexts? Your first answer might be “sure,” but try this test. For a couple of hours or even a day, pay attention to how you speak, and how others speak: the words you say, how you say them, the pacing and timing used in each context. For example, at home in the morning, in the coffee shop before work or class, during a break at work with peers or a break between classes with classmates all count as contexts. Observe how and what language is used in each context and to what degree they are the same or different.
3. It’s not just what you say but how you say it. Choose a speech to watch. Examples may include famous speeches by historical figures like Martin Luther King, Jr. or Winston Churchill, current elected officials, or perhaps candidates for local and state office that may be televised. Other examples could be from a poetry slam, a rap performance, or a movie. Watch the presentation without sound and see what you observe. Does the speaker seem comfortable and confident? Aggressive or timid? If possible, repeat the speech a second time with the sound on. Do your perceptions change? What patterns do you observe?
4. Invasion of space. When someone “invades” your space, how do you feel? Threatened, surprised, interested, or repulsed? When can learn a lot from each other as we come to be more aware of normative space expectations and boundaries. Set aside 10 minutes where you can “people watch” in a public setting. Make a conscious effort to notice how far apart they stand from people they communicate. Record your results. Your best estimate is fine and there is no need to interrupt people, just watch and record. Consider noting if they are male or female, or focus only on same-sex conversations. When you have approximate distances for at least 20 conversations or 10 minutes have passed, add up the results and look for a pattern. Compare your findings with those of a classmate.
Answer
Answers to #1:
1-C, 2-E, 3-A, 4-B, 5-H, 6-D, 7-I, 8-J, 9-G, 10-F
Good communication is as stimulating as black coffee and just as hard to sleep after.
Anne Morrow Lindbergh
The meanings of words are not in the words; they are in us.Hayakawa, S. I. (1978). Language in thought and action. Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, p. 212.
S. I. Hayakawa
The most important thing in communication is hearing what isn’t said.
Peter F. Drucker
Getting Started
Successful group communication is often associated with writing and speaking well, being articulate or proficient with words. Yet, in the quote above, the famous linguist S. I. Hayakawa wisely observes that meaning lies within us, not in the words we use. Indeed, communication in this text is defined as the process of understanding and sharing meaning. Pearson, J., & Nelson, P. (2000). An introduction to human communication: understanding and sharing. Boston: McGraw-Hill. When you communicate you are sharing meaning with one or more other people—this may include members of your family, your community, your work community, your school, or any group that considers itself a group.
How do you communicate? How do you think? We use language as a system to create and exchange meaning with one another, and the types of words we use influence both our perceptions and others interpretation of our meanings. What kinds of words would you use to describe your thoughts and feelings, your preferences in music, cars, food, or other things that matter to you?
Imagine that you are using written or spoken language to create a bridge over which you hope to transport meaning, much like a gift or package, to your receiver. You hope that your meaning arrives relatively intact, so that your receiver receives something like what you sent. Will the package look the same to them on the receiving end? Will they interpret the package, its wrapping and colors, the way you intended? That depends. What is certain is that they will interpret it based on their framework of experience. The package represents your words arranged in a pattern that both the source (you) and the receiver (your group) can interpret. The words as a package try to contain the meaning and deliver it intact, but they themselves are not the meaning. That lies within us. So is the package empty? Are the words we use empty? Without us to give them life and meaning, the answer is yes. Knowing what words will correspond to meanings that your group members hold within themselves will help you communicate more effectively. Professional jargon can be quite appropriate, even preferred, when everyone around the table understands the terminology. Knowing what meanings lie within you is your door to understanding yourself.
In this chapter’s third Introductory Exercise, we focus on how a person presents ideas, not the ideas themselves. Have you ever been in class and found it hard to listen to the professor, not because he or she wasn’t well informed or the topic wasn’t interesting or important to you, but because the style of presentation didn’t engage you as a listener? If your answer is yes, then you know that you want to avoid making the same mistake when you share information with your group or team. It’s not always what you say, but how you say it that makes a difference. We sometimes call this “body language,” or “nonverbal communication,” and it is a key aspect of effective group communication.
One common concern is when to present your idea within a group setting to make sure it gets considered. Timing is an important aspect of nonverbal communication, but trying to understand what a single example of timing means is challenging. Context may make a difference. For example, if you have known the group member for years and they have always responded positively to your input, you may not have reason for concern. If their behavior doesn’t match what you are familiar with, and this sudden, unexplained change in the established pattern may mean that you need to follow up. Group dynamics, like communication itself, is constantly changing.
This chapter discusses the importance of verbal and nonverbal communication. It examines how the characteristics of language interact in ways that can both improve and diminish effective group communication. We will examine how language plays a significant role in how you perceive and interact with the world, and how culture, language, education, gender, race, and ethnicity all influence this dynamic process. We will look at ways to avoid miscommunication and focus on constructive ways to improve effective group communication. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/06%3A_Improving_Verbal_and_Nonverbal_Group_Interactions/6.00%3A_Chapter_Introduction.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Identify and describe five key principles of verbal communication
Verbal communication is based on several basic principles. In this section, we’ll examine each principle and explore how it influences everyday communication. Whether it’s a simple conversation with a co-worker or a formal sales presentation to a board of directors, these principles apply to all contexts of communication.
Language Has Rules
Language is a code, a collection of symbols, letters, or words with arbitrary meanings that are arranged according to the rules of syntax and are used to communicate. Pearson, J., & Nelson, P. (2000). An introduction to human communication: understanding and sharing. Boston: McGraw-Hill, p. 54.
In this chapter’s Introductory Exercise #1, were you able to successfully match the terms to their meanings? Did you find that some of the definitions did not match your understanding of the terms? The words themselves have meaning within their specific context or language community. But without a grasp of that context, “my bad” may have just sounded odd. Your familiarity with the words and phrases may have made the exercise easy for you, but it isn’t an easy exercise for everyone. The words themselves only carry meaning if you know the understood meaning and have a grasp of their context to interpret them correctly.
There are three types of rules which govern or control our use of words. You may not be aware that they exist, or that they influence you, but from the moment you text a word or speak, these rules govern your communications. Think of a word that is all right to use in certain situations and not in others. Why? And how do you know?
Syntactic rules govern the order of words in a sentence. In some languages, such as German, syntax or word order is strictly prescribed. English syntax, in contrast, is relatively flexible and open to style. Still, there are definite combinations of words that are correct and incorrect in English. It is equally correct to say, “Please come to the meeting in the auditorium at 12 noon on Wednesday” or, “Please come to the meeting on Wednesday at 12 noon in the auditorium.” But it would be incorrect to say, “Please to the auditorium on Wednesday in the meeting at 12 noon come.”
Semantic rules govern the meaning of words and how to interpret them. Martinich, A. P. (ed.) (1996), The philosophy of language, 3rd edition. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press. Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It considers what words mean or are intended to mean, as opposed to their sound, spelling, grammatical function, and so on. Does a given statement refer to other statements already communicated? Is the statement true or false? Does it carry a certain intent? What does the sender or receiver need to know in order to understand its meaning? These are questions addressed by semantic rules.
Contextual rules govern meaning and word choice according to context and social custom. For example, suppose Greg is talking about his co-worker, Carol, and says, “She always meets her deadlines.” This may seem like a straightforward statement that would not vary according to context or social custom. But suppose another co-worker asked Greg, “How do you like working with Carol?” and, after a long pause, Greg answered, “She always meets her deadlines.” Are there factors in the context of the question, or social customs, that would influence the meaning of Greg’s statement?
Even when we follow these linguistic rules, miscommunication is possible, for our cultural context or community may hold different meanings for the words used than the source intended. Words attempt to represent the ideas we want to communicate, but they are sometimes limited by factors beyond our control. They often require us to negotiate their meaning, or to explain what we mean in more than one way, in order to create a common vocabulary. You may need to state a word, define it, and provide an example in order to come to an understanding with your team about the meaning of your message.
Our Reality Is Shaped by Our Language
What would your life be like if you had been raised in a country other than the one where you grew up? Malaysia, for example? Italy? Afghanistan? or Bolivia? Or suppose you had been born male instead of female, or vice versa. Or had been raised in the northeastern U.S. instead of the Southwest, the Midwest instead of the Southeast. In any of these cases, you would not have the same identity you have today. You would have learned another set of customs, values, traditions, other language patterns, and ways of communicating. You would be a different person who communicated in different ways.
You didn’t choose your birth, customs, values, traditions, or language. You didn’t even choose to learn to read this sentence or to speak with those of your community, but somehow you accomplished this challenging task. As an adult, you can choose to see things from a new or diverse perspective, but what language do you think with? It’s not just the words themselves, or even how they are organized, that makes communication such a challenge. Your language itself, ever-changing and growing, in many ways, determines your reality. Whorf, B. L. (1956). Science and linguistics. In J. B. Carroll (Ed.), Language, thought, and reality. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 207–219. You can’t escape your language or culture completely, and always see the world through a shade or tint of what you’ve been taught, learned, or experienced.
Suppose you were raised in a culture that values formality. At work, you pride yourself on being well dressed. It’s part of your expectation for yourself and, whether you admit it or not, for others. Many people in your organization, however, come from less formal cultures, and they prefer “business casual” attire. You may be able to recognize the difference, and because humans are highly adaptable, you may get used to a less formal dress expectation, but it won’t change your fundamental values.
Thomas Kuhn, Kuhn, T. (1996). The structure of scientific revolutions (3rd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. makes the point that “paradigms, or a clear point of view involving theories, laws, and/or generalizations that provide a framework for understanding, tend to form and become set around key validity claims, or statements of the way things work.”McLean, S. (2003). The basics of speech communication. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, p. 50. The paradigm, or worldview, may be individual or collective. And paradigm shifts are often painful. New ideas are always suspect and usually opposed, without any other reason than because they are not already common. Ackerman, B. A. (1980). Social justice in the liberal state. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
As an example, consider the earth-heavens paradigm. Medieval Europeans believed that the Earth was flat and that the edge was to be avoided, otherwise you might fall off. For centuries after the acceptance of a “round earth” belief, the earth was still believed to be the center of the universe, with the sun and all planets revolving around it. Eventually, someone challenged the accepted view. Over time, despite considerable resistance to protect the status quo, people came to better understand the earth and its relationship to the heavens.
In the same way, the makes of the Intel microprocessor once thought that a slight calculation error, unlikely to negatively impact 99.9% of users, was better left as is and hidden. Emery, V. (1996). The pentium chip story: A learning experience. Accessed at www.emery.com/1e/pentium.htm. Like many things in the information age, the error was discovered by a user of the product, became publicly known, and damaged Intel’s credibility and sales for years. Recalls and prompt, public communication in response to similar issues are now the industry-wide protocol.
Paradigms involve premises that are taken as fact. Of course, the Earth is the center of the universe, of course, no one will ever be impacted by a mathematical error so far removed from most people’s everyday use of computers, and of course, you never danced the macarena at a company party. We now can see how those facts, attitudes, beliefs, and ideas of “cool” are overturned.
How does this insight lends itself to your understanding of verbal communication? Do all people share the same paradigms, words, or ideas? Will you be presenting ideas outside of your group’s frame of reference? Outside of their worldview? Just as you look back at your macarena performance, get outside of your own frame of reference and consider how to best communicate your thoughts, ideas and points to a group that may not have your same experiences or understanding of the topic.
By taking into account your group’s background and experience, you can become more “other-oriented,” a successful strategy to narrow the gap between you and your group members. Our experiences are like sunglasses, tinting the way we see the world. Our challenge, perhaps, is to avoid letting them function as blinders, like those worn by working horses, which create tunnel vision and limit our perspective.
Language Is Arbitrary and Symbolic
As we have discussed previously, words, by themselves, do not have any inherent meaning. Humans give meaning to them, and their meanings change across time. The arbitrary symbols, including letters, numbers, and punctuation marks, stand for concepts in our experience. We have to negotiate the meaning of the word “home,” and define it, through visual images or dialogue, in order to communicate with our team or group.
Words have two types of meanings: denotative and connotative. Attention to both is necessary to reduce the possibility of misinterpretation. The denotative meaning is the common meaning, often found in the dictionary. The connotative meaning is often not found in the dictionary but in the community of users itself. It can involve an emotional association with a word, positive or negative, and can be individual or collective, but is not universal.
With a common vocabulary in both denotative and connotative terms, effective communication becomes a more distinct possibility. But what if we have to transfer meaning from one vocabulary to another? That is essentially what we are doing when we translate a message. In such cases, language and culture can sometimes make for interesting twists. The New York Times, Sterngold, J. (1998). Lost, and gained, in the translation. New York Times (November 15). noted that the title of the 1998 film There’s Something about Mary proved difficult to translate when it was released in foreign markets. The movie was renamed to capture the idea and to adapt to local groups’ frame of reference: In Poland, where blonde jokes are popular and common, the film title (translated back to English for our use) was For the Love of a Blonde. In France, Mary at All Costs communicated the idea, while in Thailand My True Love Will Stand All Outrageous Events dropped the reference to Mary altogether.
Capturing our ideas with words is a challenge when both conversational partners speak the same language, but across languages, cultures, and generations the complexity multiplies exponentially.
Language Is Abstract
Words represent aspects of our environment, and can play an important role in that environment. They may describe an important idea or concept, but the very act of labeling and invoking a word simplifies and distorts our concept of the thing itself. This ability to simplify concepts makes it easier to communicate, but it sometimes makes us lose track of the specific meaning we are trying to convey through abstraction. Let’s look at one important part of life in America: transportation.
Take the word “car” and consider what it represents. Freedom, status, or style? Does what you drive say something about you? To describe a car as a form of transportation is to consider one of its most basic, and universal aspects. This level of abstraction means we lose individual distinctions between cars until we impose another level of labeling. We could divide cars into sedans (or saloon) and coupe (or coupé) simply by counting the number of doors (i.e., four versus two). We could also examine cost, size, engine displacement, fuel economy, and style. We might arrive at an American classic, the Mustang, and consider it for all of these factors and its legacy as an accessible American sports car. To describe it in terms of transportation only is to lose the distinctiveness of what makes a Mustang a desirable American sports car.
We can see how, at the extreme level of abstraction, a car is like any other automobile. We can also see how, at the base level, the concept is most concrete. “Mustang,” the name given to one of the best selling American sports cars, is a specific make and model, with specific markings, size, shape and coloring and a relationship with a classic design. By focusing on concrete terms and examples, you help your group grasp your content.
Language Organizes and Classifies Reality
We use language to create and express some sense of order in our world. We often group words that represent concepts by their physical proximity or their similarity to one another. For example, in biology, animals with similar traits are classified together. An ostrich may be said to be related to an emu and a nandu, but you wouldn’t group an ostrich with an elephant or a salamander. Our ability to organize is useful but artificial. The systems of organization we use are not part of the natural world but an expression of our views about the natural world.
What is a doctor? A nurse? A teacher? If a male came to mind in the case of the word “doctor,” but a female came to mind in reference to “nurse” or “teacher,” then your habits of mind include a gender bias. There was once a time in the United States where that gender stereotype was more than just a stereotype, it was the general rule, the social custom, the norm. Now it no longer holds true. More and more men are training to serve as nurses, and Business Week noted in 2008 that one-third of the U.S. physician workforce was female. Arnst, C. (2005). Are there too many women doctors? As an MD shortage looms, female physicians and their flexible hours are taking some of the blame. Business Week (April 17).
We all use systems of classification to navigate through the world. Imagine how confusing life would be if we had no categories such as male/female, young/old, tall/short, doctor/nurse/teacher! These categories only become problematic when we use them to uphold biases and ingrained assumptions that are no longer valid. We may assume, through our biases, that elements are related when they have no relationship at all. As a result, our thinking is limited and our grasp of reality impaired. It is often easier to spot these biases in others, but it behooves us as communicators to become aware of them in ourselves. Holding them unconsciously will limit our thinking, our grasp of reality, and our ability to communicate successfully.
Key Takeaway
• Language is a system governed by rules of syntax, semantics, and context; and we use paradigms to understand the world and frame our communications.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Write at least five examples of English sentences with correct syntax. Then rewrite each sentence, using the same words in an order that displays incorrect syntax. Compare your results with those of your classmates.
2. Think of at least five words whose denotative meaning differs from their connotative meaning. Use each word in two sentences, one employing the denotative meaning and the other employing the connotative. Compare your results with those of your classmates.
3. Do you associate meaning with the car someone drives? Does it say something about them? List five cars you observe people you know driving and discuss each one, noting whether you perceive it says something about them or not. Share and compare with classmates. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/06%3A_Improving_Verbal_and_Nonverbal_Group_Interactions/6.01%3A_Principles_of_Verbal_Communication.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Demonstrate six ways in which language can be an obstacle to communication
As you use language to make sense of your experiences, As part of our discussion you no doubt came to see that language and verbal communication can work both for you and against you. Language allows you to communicate, but it also allows you to miscommunicate and misunderstand. The same system we use to express our most intimate thoughts can be frustrating when it fails to capture our thoughts, to represent what we want to express, and to reach our group. For all its faults, though, it is the best system we have, and part of improving the communication process is the clear identification of where it breaks down. Anticipate where a word or expression may need more clarification and you will be on your way to reducing errors and improving verbal communication.
In an article titled “The Miscommunication Gap,” Susan Washburn lists several undesirable results of poor communication in business: Washburn, S. (2008). The miscommunication gap. ESI Horizons 9:02 (February). Accessed at http://www.esi-intl.com/public/Library/html/200802HorizonsArticle1.asp?UnityID=8522516.1290.
• Damaged relationships
• Loss of productivity
• Inefficiency and rework
• Conflict
• Missed opportunities
• Schedule slippage
• Scope creep…or leap
• Wasted resources
• Unclear or unmet requirements
In this section, we discuss how words can serve either as a bridge, or a barrier, to understanding and communication of meaning. Our goals of effective and efficient group communication mean an inherent value of words and terms that keep the bridge clear and free of obstacles.
Cliché
A cliché is a once-clever word or phrase that has lost its impact through overuse. If you spoke or wrote in clichés, how would your group react? Let’s try it. How do you react when you read this sentence: “A cliché is something to avoid like the plague, for it is nothing but a tired old warhorse, and if the shoe were on the other foot you too would have an axe to grind”? As you can see, the problem with clichés is that they often sound silly or boring.
Clichés are sometimes a symptom of lazy communication—the person using the cliché hasn’t bothered to search for original words to convey the intended meaning. Clichés lose their impact because readers and listeners tend to gloss over them, assuming their common meaning while ignoring your specific use of them. As a result, they can be obstacles to successful communication.
Jargon
Let’s pretend you’ve been assigned to the task of preparing a short presentation on your company’s latest product for a group of potential customers. It’s a big responsibility. You only have one opportunity to get it right. You will need to do extensive planning and preparation, and your effort, if done well, will produce a presentation that is smooth and confident, looking simple to the casual group member.
What words do you use to communicate information about your product? Is your group of clients familiar with your field and its specialized terms? As potential customers, they are probably somewhat knowledgeable in the field, but not to the extent that you and your co-workers are; even less so compared to the “techies” who developed the product. For your presentation to succeed, your challenge is to walk a fine line between using too much profession-specific language on the one hand, and “talking down” to your group on the other hand.
While your potential customers may not understand all the engineering and schematic detail terms involved in the product, they do know what they and their organizations are looking for in considering a purchase. Your solution may be to focus on common ground—what you know of their past history in terms of contracting services or buying products from your company. What can you tell from their historical purchases? If your research shows that they place a high value on saving time, you can focus your presentation on the time-saving aspects of your new product and leave the technical terms to the user’s manual.
Jargon is an occupation-specific language used by people in a given profession. Jargon does not necessarily imply formal education, but instead focuses on the language people in a profession use to communicate with each other. Members of the information technology department have a distinct group of terms that refer to common aspects in their field. Members of the marketing department, or advertising, or engineering, research, and development also have sets of terms they use within their professional community. People who work with sewing machines, or in automobile factories, or in agriculture also have jargon in their profession, independent of formal education.
Whether or not to use jargon is often a judgment call, and one that is easier to make in speaking than in writing. In an oral context, we may be able to use a technical term and instantly know whether or not they “got it.” If they didn’t, we can define it on the spot. In written language, we lack that immediate response and must attend more to the context of receiver. The more we learn about our group, company, or corporation, the better we can tailor our chosen words. If we lack information or want our document to be understood by a variety of readers, it pays to use common words and avoid jargon.
Slang
Think for a moment about the words and expressions you use when you communicate with your best friends. If a co-worker was to hang out with you and your friends, would they understand all the words you use, the music you listen to, the stories you tell and the way you tell them? Probably not, because you and your friends probably use certain words and expressions in ways that have special meaning to you.
This special form of language, which in some ways resembles jargon, is slang. Slang is the use of existing or newly invented words to take the place of standard or traditional words with the intent of adding an unconventional, non-standard, humorous or rebellious effect. It differs from jargon in that it is used in informal contexts, among friends or members of a certain age group, rather than by professionals in a certain industry.
If you say something is “phat,” you may mean “cool,” which is now a commonly understood slang word, but your co-worker may not know this. As word “phat” moves into the mainstream, it will be replaced and adapted by the communities that use it.
Since our emphasis in group communication is on clarity, and a slang word runs the risk of creating misinterpretation, it is generally best to avoid slang. You may see the marketing department use a slang word to target a specific, well-researched group, but for our purposes of your general presentation introducing a product or service, we will stick to clear, common words that are easily understood.
Sexist and Racist Language
Some forms of slang involve put-downs of people belonging to various groups. This type of slang often crosses the line and becomes offensive, not only to the groups that are being put down, but also to others who may hear it. In today’s workplace, there is no place where sexist or racist language is appropriate. In fact, using such language can be a violation of company policies and in some cases anti-discrimination laws.
Sexist language uses gender as a discriminating factor. Referring to adult women as “girls” or using the word “man” to refer to humankind are examples of sexist language. In a more blatant example, several decades ago a woman was the first female sales representative in her company’s sales force. The men resented her and were certain they could outsell her, so they held a “Beat the Broad” sales contest. Today, a contest with a name like that would be out of the question.
Racist language discriminates against members of a given race or ethnic group. While it may be obvious that racial and ethnic slurs have no place in group communication, there can also be issues with more subtle references to “those people” or “you know how they are.” If race or ethnicity genuinely enters into the subject of your communication—in a drugstore, for example, there is often an aisle for black hair care products—then naturally it makes sense to mention customers belonging to that group. The key is that mentioning racial and ethnic groups should be done with the same respect you would desire if someone else were referring to groups you belong to.
Euphemisms
In seeking to avoid offensive slang, it is important not to assume that a euphemism is the solution. A euphemism involves substituting an acceptable word for an offensive, controversial, or unacceptable one that conveys the same or similar meaning. The problem is that the group still knows what the expression means, and understands that the communicator is choosing a euphemism for the purpose of sounding more educated or genteel.
Euphemisms can also be used sarcastically or humorously—“H-E-double-hockey-sticks,” for example, is a euphemism for “hell” that may be amusing in some contexts. If your friend has just gotten a new job as a janitor, you may jokingly ask, “How’s my favorite sanitation engineer this morning?” But such humor is not always appreciated and can convey disrespect even when none is intended.
Euphemistic words are not always disrespectful, however. For example, when referring to a death, it is considered polite in many parts of the U.S. to say that the person “passed” or “passed away,” rather than the relatively insensitive word, “died.” Similarly, people say, “I need to find a bathroom” when it is well understood they are not planning to take a bath.
Still, these polite euphemisms are exceptions to the rule. Euphemisms are generally more of a hindrance than a help to understanding. In group communication the goal is clarity, and the very purpose of euphemism is to be vague. To be clear, choose words that mean what you intend to convey.
Doublespeak
Doublespeak is the deliberate use of words to disguise, obscure, or change meaning. Doublespeak is often present in bureaucratic communication, where it can serve to cast a person or an organization in a less unfavorable light than plain language would do.
When you ask a friend, “How does it feel to be downsized?” you are using a euphemism to convey humor, possibly even dark humor. Your friend’s employer was likely not joking, though, when the action was announced as a “downsizing” rather than as a “layoff” or “dismissal.” In military communications, “collateral damage” is often used to refer to civilian deaths, but no mention of the dead is present. You may recall the “Bailout” of the U.S. economy in 2008, which quickly came to be called the “Rescue” and finally the “Buy In” as the U.S. bought interests in nine regional and national banks. The meaning changed from saving an economic system or its institutions to investing in them. This change of terms, and the attempt to change the meaning of the actions, became common in comedy routines across the nation.
Doublespeak can be quite dangerous when it is used deliberately to obscure meaning and the listener cannot anticipate or predict consequences based on the (in)effective communication. When a medical insurance company says “we insure companies with up to 20,000 lives,” is it possible to forget that those “lives” are people? Ethical issues quickly arise when humans are dehumanized and referred to as “objects” or “subjects.” When genocide is referred to as “ethnic cleansing,” is it any less deadly than when called by its true name?
If the meaning was successfully hidden from the group, one might argue that the doublespeak was in fact effective. But our goal continues to be clear and concise communication with a minimum of misinterpretation. Learn to recognize doublespeak by what it does not communicate as well as what it communicates.
Each of these six obstacles to communication contribute to misunderstanding and miscommunication, intentionally or unintentionally. If you recognize one of them, you can address it right away. You can redirect a question and get to essential meaning, rather than leaving with a misunderstanding that impacts the relationship. In group communication, our goal of clear and concise communication remains constant, but we can never forget that trust is the foundation for effective communication. Part of our effort must include reinforcing the relationship inherent between source and receiver, and one effective step towards that goal is to reduce obstacles to effective communication.
Key Takeaway
• To avoid obstacles to communication, avoid clichés, jargon, slang, sexist and racist language, euphemisms, and doublespeak.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Identify at least five common clichés and look up their origins. Try to understand how and when each phrase became a cliché. Share your findings with your classmates.
2. Using your library’s microfilm files or an online database, look through newspaper articles from the 1950s or earlier. Find at least one article that uses sexist or racist language. What makes it racist or sexist? How would a journalist convey the same information today? Share your findings with your class.
3. Identify one slang term and one euphemism you know is used in your community, among your friends, or where you work. Share and compare with classmates. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/06%3A_Improving_Verbal_and_Nonverbal_Group_Interactions/6.02%3A_Language_Can_Be_an_Obstacle_to_Communication.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Demonstrate six strategies for improving verbal communication
Throughout the chapter, we have visited examples and stories that highlight the importance of verbal communication. To end the chapter, we need to consider how language can be used to enlighten or deceive, encourage or discourage, empower or destroy. By defining the terms we use and choosing precise words, we will maximize our group’s understanding of our message. In addition, it is important to consider the group members, control your tone, check for understanding, and focus on results. Recognizing the power of verbal communication is the first step to understanding its role and impact on the communication process.
Define Your Terms
Even when you are careful to craft your message clearly and concisely, not everyone will understand every word you say or write. As an effective group communicator, you know it is your responsibility to give every group member every advantage in understanding your meaning. Yet your presentation would fall flat if you tried to define each and every term—you would end up sounding like a dictionary!
The solution is to be aware of any words you are using that may not be familiar to everyone in your group, and provide clues to meaning in the process of making and supporting your points. Give examples to illustrate each concept. Use parallels from everyday life. Rephrase unfamiliar terms in different words. In summary, keep your group members in mind and imagine yourself in their place. This will help you to adjust your writing level and style to their needs, maximizing the likelihood that your message will be understood.
Choose Precise Words
To increase understanding, choose precise words that paint as vivid and accurate a mental picture as possible for your group. If you use language that is vague or abstract, your meaning may be lost or misinterpreted. Your document or presentation will also be less dynamic and interesting than it could be.
Table 6.1 lists some examples of phrases that are imprecise and precise. Which one evokes a more dynamic image in your imagination?
Table 6.1 Precisely What Are You Saying?
The famous writer William Safire died in 2009; he was over 70.
The former Nixon speech writer, language authority, and New York Times columnist William Safire died of pancreatic cancer in 2009; he was 79.
Clumber spaniels are large dogs.
The Clumber Spaniel Club of America describes the breed as a “long, low, substantial dog,” standing 17 to 20 inches high and weighing 55 to 80 pounds.
It is important to eat a healthy diet during pregnancy.
Eating a diet rich in whole grains, fruits and vegetables, lean meats, low-fat dairy products can improve your health during pregnancy and boost your chances of having a healthy baby.
We are making good progress on the project.
In the two weeks since inception, our four-member team has achieved three of the six objectives we identified for project completion; we are on track to complete the project in another three to four weeks.
For the same amount of spend, we expected more value added.
We have examined several proposals in the \$10,000 range, and they all offer more features than what we see in the \$12,500 system ABC Corp. is offering.
Officers were called to the scene.
Responding to a 911 call, State Police Officers Arellano and Chavez sped to the intersection of County Route 53 and State Highway 21.
The victim went down the street.
The victim ran screaming to a neighbor’s house.
Several different colorways are available.
The silk jacquard fabric is available in ivory, moss, cinnamon, and topaz colorways.
This smartphone has more applications than customers can imagine.
At last count, the BlueBerry Tempest has more than 500 applications, many costing 99 cents or less; users can get real-time sports scores, upload videos to TwitVid, browse commuter train schedules, edit emails before forwarding, and find recipes—but so far, it doesn’t do the cooking for you!
A woman was heckled when she spoke at a health care event.
On August 25, 2009, Rep. Frank Pallone (Democrat of New Jersey’s 6th congressional district) hosted a “town hall” meeting on health care reform where many audience members heckled and booed a woman in a wheelchair as she spoke about the need for affordable health insurance and her fears that she might lose her home.
Consider Your Group Members
In addition to precise words and clear definitions, contextual clues are important to guide your group members as they read. If you use a jargon word, which may be appropriate for many people in your group, follow it by a common reference that clearly relates its essential meaning. With this positive strategy you will meet group member’s needs with diverse backgrounds. Internal summaries tell us what we’ve heard and forecast what is to come. It’s not just the words, but also how people hear them that counts.
If you say the magic words “in conclusion,” you set in motion a set of expectations that you are about to wrap it up. If, however, you introduce a new point and continue to speak, the group will perceive an expectancy violation and hold you accountable. You said the magic words but didn’t honor them. One of the best ways to display respect for your group is to not exceed the expected time in a presentation or length in a document. Your careful attention to contextual clues will demonstrate that you are clearly considering your group.
Take Control of Your Tone
Does your writing or speech sound pleasant and agreeable? Or does it come across as stuffy, formal, bloated, ironic, sarcastic, flowery, rude, or inconsiderate? Recognition may be simple, but getting a handle on how to influence tone and to make your voice match your intentions takes time and skill.
One useful tip is to read your document out loud before you deliver it, just as you would practice a presentation before you present it to your group. Sometimes hearing your own words can reveal their tone, helping you decide whether it is correct or appropriate. Another way is to listen or watch others’ presentations that have been described with terms associated with tone. Martin Luther King Jr. had one style while President Barack Obama has another. You can learn from both. Don’t just take the word of one critic but if several point to a speech as an example of pompous eloquence, and you don’t want to come across in your presentation as pompous, you may learn what to avoid.
Check for Understanding
When we talk to each other face to face, seeing if someone understood you isn’t all that difficult. Even if they really didn’t get it, you can see, ask questions, and clarify right away. That gives oral communication, particularly live interaction, a distinct advantage. Use this immediacy for feedback to your advantage. Make time for feedback and plan for it. Ask clarifying questions. Share your presentation with more than one person, and choose people that have similar characteristics to your anticipated group or team.
If you were going to present to a group that you knew in advance was of a certain age, sex, or professional background, it would only make sense to connect with someone from that group prior to your actual performance to check and see if what you have created and what they expect are similar. In oral communication, feedback is core component of the communication model and we can often see it, hear it, and it takes less effort to assess it.
Be Results Oriented
At the end of the day, the assignment has to be complete. It can be a challenge to balance the need for attention to detail with the need to arrive at the end product—and its due date. Stephen Covey, Covey, S. (1989). The seven habits of highly effective people. New York: Simon & Schuster. suggests beginning with the end in mind as one strategy for success. If you have done your preparation, know your assignment goals, desired results, have learned about your group members and tailored the message to their expectations, then you are well on your way to completing the task. No document or presentation is perfect, but the goal itself is worthy of your continued effort for improvement.
Here the key is to know when further revision will not benefit the presentation and to shift the focus to test marketing, asking for feedback, or simply sharing it with a mentor or co-worker for a quick review. Finding balance while engaging in an activity that requires a high level of attention to detail can be challenge for any communicator, but it is helpful to keep the end in mind.
Key Takeaway
• To improve communication, define your terms, choose precise words, consider your group members, control your tone, check for understanding, and aim for results.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Choose a piece of writing from a profession you are unfamiliar with. For example, if you are studying biology, choose an excerpt from a book on fashion design. Identify several terms you are unfamiliar with, terms that may be considered jargon. How does the writer help you understand the meaning of these terms? Could the writer make them easier to understand? Share your findings with your class.
2. In your chosen profession, identify ten jargon words, define them, and share them with the class.
3. Describe a simple process, from brushing your teeth to opening the top of a bottle, in as precise terms as possible. Present to the class. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/06%3A_Improving_Verbal_and_Nonverbal_Group_Interactions/6.03%3A_Improving_Verbal_Communication.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Demonstrate nonverbal communication and describe its role in the communication process
2. Understand and explain the principles of nonverbal communication
Nonverbal Communication Is Fluid
Chances are you have had many experiences where words were misunderstood, or where the meaning of words was unclear. When it comes to nonverbal communication, meaning is even harder to discern. We can sometimes tell what people are communicating through their nonverbal communication, but there is no foolproof “dictionary” of how to interpret nonverbal messages. Nonverbal communication is the process of conveying a message without the use of words. It can include gestures and facial expressions, tone of voice, timing, posture and where you stand as you communicate. It can help or hinder the clear understanding of your message, but it doesn’t reveal (and can even mask) what you are really thinking. Nonverbal communication is far from simple, and its complexity makes our study, and our understanding, a worthy but challenging goal.
Where does a wink start and a nod end? Nonverbal communication involves the entire body, the space it occupies and dominates, the time it interacts, and not only what is not said, but how it is not said. Confused? Try to focus on just on element of nonverbal communication and it will soon get lost among all the other stimuli. Let’s consider eye contact. What does it mean by itself without context, or chin position, or eyebrows to flag interest or signal a threat? Nonverbal action flows almost seamlessly from one to the next, making it a challenge to interpret one element, or even a series of elements.
We perceive time as linear, flowing along in a straight line. We did one task, we’re doing another task now, and we are planning on doing something else all the time. Sometimes we place more emphasis on the future, or the past, forgetting that we are actually living in the present moment whether we focus on “the now” or not. Nonverbal communication is always in motion, as long as we are, and is never the same twice.
Nonverbal communication is irreversible. In written communication you can write a clarification, correction, or retraction. While it never makes the original statement go completely away, it does allow for correction. Unlike written communication, oral communication may allow “do-overs” on the spot: you can explain and restate, hoping to clarify your point. You can also dig the hole you are in just a little bit deeper. The old sayings “When you find yourself in a hole, stop digging” and “Open mouth, insert foot” can sometimes apply to oral communications. We’ve all said something we would give anything to take back, but we all know we can’t. Oral communication, like written communication, allows for some correction, but it still doesn’t erase the original message or its impact. Nonverbal communication takes it one step further. You can’t separate one nonverbal action from the context of all the other verbal and nonverbal communication acts, and you can’t take it back.
In a speech, nonverbal communication is continuous in the sense that it is always occurring, and because it is so fluid, it can be hard to determine where one nonverbal message starts and another stops. Words can be easily identified and isolated, but if we try to single out agroup member’s gestures, smile, or stance without looking at how they all come together in context, we may miss the point and draw the wrong conclusion. You need to be conscious of this aspect of public speaking because, to quote another old saying, “Actions speak louder than words.” This is true in the sense that people often pay more attention to your nonverbal expressions more than your words. As a result, nonverbal communication is a powerful way to contribute to (or detract from) your success in communicating your message to the group.
Nonverbal Communication Is Fast
Let’s pretend you are at your computer at work. You see that an e-mail has arrived, but you are right in the middle of tallying a spreadsheet whose numbers just don’t add up. You see that the e-mail is from a co-worker and you click on it. The subject line reads “pink slips.” You could interpret this to mean a suggestion for a Halloween costume, or a challenge to race for each other’s car ownership, but in the context of the workplace you may assume it means layoffs.
Your emotional response is immediate. If the author of the e-mail could see your face, they would know that your response was one of disbelief and frustration, even anger, all via your nonverbal communication. Yes, when a tree falls in the forest it makes a sound, even if no one is there to hear it. In the same way, you express yourself via nonverbal communication all the time without much conscious thought at all. You may think about how to share the news with your partner, and try to display a smile and a sense of calm when you feel like anything but smiling.
Nonverbal communication gives our thoughts and feelings away before we are even aware of what we are thinking or how we feel. People may see and hear more than you ever anticipated. Your nonverbal communication includes both intentional and unintentional messages, but since it all happens so fast, the unintentional ones can contradict what you know you are supposed to say or how you are supposed to react.
Nonverbal Communication Can Add to or Replace Verbal Communication
People tend to pay more attention to how you say it than what you actually say. In presenting a speech this is particularly true. We communicate nonverbally more than we engage in verbal communication, and often use nonverbal expressions to add to, or even replace, words we might otherwise say. We use a nonverbal gesture called an illustrator to communicate our message effectively and reinforce our point. Your co-worker Andrew may ask you about “Barney’s Bar after work?” as he walks by, and you simply nod and say “yeah.” Andrew may respond with a nonverbal gesture, called an emblem, by signaling with the “OK” sign as he walks away.
In addition to illustrators or emblematic nonverbal communication, we also use regulators. “Regulators are nonverbal messages which control, maintain or discourage interaction.”McLean, S. (2003). The basics of speech communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. For example, if someone is telling you a message that is confusing or upsetting, you may hold up your hand, a commonly recognized regulator that asks the current speaker in a group to stop talking.
Let’s say you are in a meeting presenting a speech that introduces your company’s latest product. If your group members nod their heads in agreement on important points and maintain good eye contact, it is a good sign. Nonverbally, they are using regulators encouraging you to continue with your presentation. In contrast, if they look away, tap their feet, and begin drawing in the margins of their notebook, these are regulators suggesting that you had better think of a way to regain their interest or else wrap up your presentation quickly.
“Affect displays are nonverbal communication that express emotions or feelings.”McLean, S. (2003). The basics of speech communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. pp.77 An affect display that might accompany holding up your hand for silence would be to frown and shake your head from side to side. When you and Andrew are at Barney’s Bar, smiling and waving at co-workers who arrive lets them know where you are seated and welcomes them.
“Adaptors are displays of nonverbal communication that help you adapt to your environment and each context, helping you feel comfortable and secure.”McLean, S. (2003). The basics of speech communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. pp.77 A self-adaptor involves you meeting your need for security, by playing with your hair for example, by adapting something about yourself in way for which it was not designed or for no apparent purpose. Combing your hair would be an example of a purposeful action, unlike a self-adaptive behavior. An object-adaptor involves the use of an object in a way for which it was not designed. You may see group members tapping their pencils, chewing on them, or playing with them, while ignoring you and your presentation. Or perhaps someone pulls out a comb and repeatedly rubs a thumbnail against the comb’s teeth. They are using the comb or the pencil in a way other than its intended design, an object-adaptor that communicates a lack of engagement or enthusiasm in your speech.
Intentional nonverbal communication can complement, repeat, replace, mask or contradict what we say. When Andrew invited you to Barney’s, you said “yeah” and nodded, complementing and repeating the message. You could have simply nodded, effectively replacing the “yes” with a nonverbal response. You could also have decided to say no, but did not want to hurt Andrew’s feelings. Shaking your head “no” while pointing to your watch, communicating work and time issues, may mask your real thoughts or feelings. Masking involves the substitution of appropriate nonverbal communication for nonverbal communication you may want to display.McLean, S. (2003). The basics of speech communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. pp.77 Finally, nonverbal messages that conflict with verbal communication can confuse the listener. Table 6.2 summarizes these concepts.
Table 6.2 Some Nonverbal Expressions
Adaptors Help us feel comfortable or indicate emotions or moods
Affect displays Express emotions or feelings
Complementing Reinforcing verbal communication
Contradicting Contradicting verbal communication
Emblems Nonverbal gestures that carry a specific meaning, and can replace or reinforce words
Illustrators Reinforce a verbal message
Masking Substituting more appropriate displays for less appropriate displays
Object-adaptors Using an object for a purpose other than its intended design
Regulators Control, encourage or discourage interaction
Repeating Repeating verbal communication
Replacing Replacing verbal communication
Self-adaptors Adapting something about yourself in a way for which it was not designed or for no apparent purpose
Nonverbal Communication Is Universal
Consider the many contexts in which interaction occurs during your day. In the morning, at work, after work, at home, with friends, with family, and our list could go on for quite awhile. Now consider the differences in nonverbal communication across these many contexts. When you are at work, do you jump up and down and say whatever you want? Why or why not? You may not engage in that behavior because of expectations at work, but the fact remains that from the moment you wake until you sleep, you are surrounded by nonverbal communication.
If you had been born in a different country, to different parents, perhaps even as a member of the opposite sex, your whole world would be quite different. Yet nonverbal communication would remain a universal constant. It may not look the same, or get used in the same way, but it will still be nonverbal communication in its many functions and displays.
Nonverbal Communication Is Confusing and Contextual
Nonverbal communication can be confusing. We need contextual clues to help us understand, or begin to understand, what a movement, gesture, or lack of display means. Then we have to figure it all out based on our prior knowledge (or lack thereof) of the person and hope to get it right. Talk about a challenge. Nonverbal communication is everywhere, and we all use it, but that doesn’t make it simple or independent of when, where, why, or how we communicate.
Nonverbal Communication Can Be Intentional or Unintentional
Suppose you are working as a sales clerk in a retail store, and a customer communicated frustration to you. Would the nonverbal aspects of your response be intentional or unintentional? Your job is to be pleasant and courteous at all times, yet your wrinkled eyebrows or wide eyes may have been unintentional. They clearly communicate your negative feelings at that moment. Restating your wish to be helpful and displaying nonverbal gestures may communicate “No big deal,” but the stress of the moment is still “written” on your face.
Can we tell when people are intentionally or unintentionally communicating nonverbally? Ask ten people this question and compare their responses. You may be surprised. It is clearly a challenge to understand nonverbal communication in action. We often assign intentional motives to nonverbal communication when in fact their display is unintentional, and often hard to interpret.
Nonverbal Messages Communicate Feelings and Attitudes
Beebe, Beebe, and Redmond, Beebe, S., Beebe, S., & Redmond, M. (2002). Interpersonal communication relating to others (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. offer us three additional principals of interpersonal nonverbal communication that serve our discussion. One is that you often react faster than you think. Your nonverbal responses communicate your initial reaction before you can process it through language or formulate an appropriate response. If your appropriate, spoken response doesn’t match your nonverbal reaction, you may give away your true feelings and attitudes.
Albert Mehrabian, Mehrabian, A. (1972). Nonverbal communication. Chicago, IL: Aldine Atherton. asserts that we rarely communicate emotional messages through the spoken word. According to Mehrabian, 93% of the time we communicate our emotions nonverbally, with at least 55% associated with facial gestures. Vocal cues, body position and movement, and normative space between group members can also be clues to feelings and attitudes.
Is your first emotional response always an accurate and true representation of your feelings and attitudes, or does your emotional response change across time? We are all changing all the time, and sometimes a moment of frustration or a flash of anger can signal to the receiver a feeling or emotion that existed for a moment, but has since passed. Their response to your communication will be based on that perception, even though you might already be over the issue. This is where the spoken word serves us well. You may need to articulate clearly that you were frustrated, but not anymore. The words spoken out loud can serve to clarify and invite additional discussion.
We Believe Nonverbal Communication More Than Verbal
Building on the example of responding to a situation with facial gestures associated with frustration before you even have time to think of an appropriate verbal response, let’s ask the question: What would you believe, someone’s actions or their words? According to Seiler and Beall, Seiler, W., & Beall, M. (2000). Communication: making connections (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. most people tend to believe the nonverbal message over the verbal message. People will often answer “actions speak louder than words” and place a disproportionate emphasis on the nonverbal response. Humans aren’t logical all the time, and they do experience feelings and attitudes that change. Still, we place more confidence in nonverbal communication, particularly when it comes to lying behaviors. According to Zuckerman, DePaulo and Rosenthal, there are several behaviors people often display when they are being deceptive:Zuckerman, M., DePaulo, D., & Rosenthal, R. (1981). Verbal and nonverbal communication of deception. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 14, 1–59.
• Reduction in eye contact while engaged in a conversation
• Awkward pauses in conversation
• Higher pitch in voice
• Deliberate pronunciation and articulation of words
• Increased delay in response time to a question
• Increased body movements like changes in posture
• Decreased smiling
• Decreased rate of speech
If you notice one or more of the behaviors, you may want to take a closer look. Over time we learn people’s patterns of speech and behavior, and form a set of expectations. Variation from their established patterns, combined with the clues above, can serve to alert you to the possibility that something deserves closer attention.
Our nonverbal responses have a connection to our physiological responses to stress, such as heart rate, blood pressure, and skin conductivity. Polygraph machines (popularly referred to as “lie detectors”) focus on these physiological responses and demonstrate anomalies, or variations. While movies and TV crime shows may make polygraphs look foolproof, there is significant debate about whether they measure dishonesty with any degree of accuracy.
Can you train yourself to detect lies? It is unlikely. Our purpose in studying nonverbal communication is not to uncover dishonesty in others, but rather to help you understand how to use the nonverbal aspects of communication to increase understanding.
Nonverbal Communication Is Key in the Group Member Relationship
When we first see each other, before anyone says a word, we are already sizing each other up. Within the first few seconds, we have made judgments about each other based on what we wear, our physical characteristics, even our posture. Are these judgments accurate? That is hard to know without context, but we can say that nonverbal communication certainly affects first impressions, for better or worse. When group members first meet, nonverbal communication in terms of space, dress, and even personal characteristics can contribute to assumed expectations. The expectations might not be accurate or even fair, but it is important to recognize that they will be present. There is truth in the saying, “You never get a second chance to make a first impression.” Since beginnings are fragile times, your attention to aspects you can control, both verbal and nonverbal, will help contribute to the first step of forming a relationship with your group. Your eye contact with group members, use of space, and degree of formality will continue to contribute to that relationship.
As a professional, your nonverbal communication is part of the message and can contribute to, or detract from, your overall goals. By being aware of them, you can learn to control them.
Key Takeaway
• Nonverbal communication is the process of conveying a message without the use of words; it relates to the dynamic process of communication, the perception process and listening, and verbal communication.
• Nonverbal communication is fluid and fast, universal, confusing and contextual. It can add to or replace verbal communication, and can be intentional or unintentional.
• Nonverbal communication communicates feelings and attitudes, and people tend to believe nonverbal messages more than verbal ones.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Does it limit or enhance our understanding of communication to view nonverbal communication as that which is not verbal communication? Explain your answer and discuss with the class.
2. Choose a television personality you admire. What do you like about this person? Watch several minutes of this person with the sound turned off, and make notes of the nonverbal expressions you observe. Turn the sound back on and make notes of their tone of voice, timing, and other audible expressions. Discuss your results with a classmate.
3. Find a program that focuses on micro-expressions and write a brief summary of how they play a role in the program. Share and compare with classmates.
4. Create a survey that addresses the issue of which people trust more, nonverbal or verbal messages. Ask an equal number of men and women, and compare your results with those of your classmates.
5. Search for information on the reliability and admissibility of results from polygraph (“lie detector”) tests. Share your findings with classmates.
6. See how long and how much you can get done during the day without the use of verbal messages. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/06%3A_Improving_Verbal_and_Nonverbal_Group_Interactions/6.04%3A_Principles_of_Nonverbal_Communication.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Describe the similarities and differences among eight general types of nonverbal communication
Now that we have discussed the general principles that apply to nonverbal communication, let’s examine eight types of nonverbal communication to further understand this challenging aspect of communication:
1. Space
2. Time
3. Physical characteristics
4. Body movements
5. Touch
6. Paralanguage
7. Artifacts
8. Environment
Space
When we discuss space in a nonverbal context, we mean the space between objects and people. Space is often associated with social rank and is an important part of group communication. Who gets the corner office? Why is the head of the table important and who gets to sit there?
People from diverse cultures may have different normative space expectations. If you are from a large urban area, having people stand close to you may be normal. If you are from a rural area, or a culture where people expect more space, someone may be standing “too close” for comfort and not know it.
Edward T. Hall,Hall, E. T. (1963). Proxemics: the study of man’s spacial relations and boundaries. In Man’s image in medicine and anthropology (pp. 422–445). New York, NY: International Universities Press. serving in the European and South Pacific Regions in the Corps of Engineers during World War II, traveled around the globe. As he moved from one place to another, he noticed that people in different countries kept different distances from each other. In France, they stood closer to each other than they did in England. Hall wondered why that was and began to study what he called proxemics, or the study of the human use of space and distance in communication.
In The Hidden Dimension, he indicated there are two main aspects of space: territory and personal space. Hall drew on anthropology to address the concepts of dominance and submission, and noted that the more powerful person often claims more space. This plays an important role in modern society, from who gets the corner office to how we negotiate space between vehicles. Road rage is increasingly common where overcrowding occurs, and as more vehicles occupy the same roads, tensions over space are predictable.
Territory is related to control. As a way of establishing control over your own room, maybe you painted it your favorite color, or put up posters that represent your interests or things you consider unique about yourself. Families or households often mark their space by putting up fences or walls around their houses. This sense of a right to control your space is implicit in territory. Territory means the space you claim as your own, are responsible for, or are willing to defend.
The second aspect Hall highlight is personal space, or the “bubble” of space surrounding each individual. As you walk down a flight of stairs, which side do you choose? We may choose the right side because we’ve learned that is what is expected, and people coming up the same stair choose their right, or your left. The right choice insures that personal space is not compromised. But what happens when some comes up the wrong side? They violate the understood rules of movement and often self-correct. But what happens if they don’t change lanes as people move up and down the stairs? They may get dirty looks or even get bumped as people in the crowd handle the invasion of “their” space. There are no lane markers, and bubbles of space around each person move with them, allowing for the possibility of collision.
We recognize the basic need for personal space, but the normative expectations for space vary greatly by culture. You may perceive that in your home people sleep one to each bed, but in many cultures people sleep two or more to a bed and it is considered normal. If you were to share that bed you might feel uncomfortable, while someone raised with group sleeping norms might feel uncomfortable sleeping alone. From where you stand in an aerobics class in relation to others, to where you place your book bag in class, your personal expectations of space are often at variance with others.
As the context of a staircase has norms for nonverbal behavior, so group interactions. In North America, eye contact is expected. Big movements and gestures are not generally expected and can be distracting. The speaking group member occupies a space on the “stage,” when they have the “floor” (or it is their turn to speak), even if there are co-workers on either side. When you occupy that space, the group will expect to behave in certain ways. If you talk to the laptop screen in front of you, the group may perceive that you are not really paying attention to them. They also might think you need to read your own report, a less than confident position. Group members are expected to pay attention to, and interact with, each other, even if in the feedback is primarily nonverbal. Your movements should coordinate to tone, rhythm, and content of your message. Tapping your pen, keeping your hands in your pockets or your arms crossed may communicate nervousness, or even defensiveness, and detract from your message.
As a general rule, try to act naturally, as if you were telling a friend a story, and your body will relax and your nonverbal gestures will come more naturally. Practice is key to your level of comfort, and the more practice you get, the more comfortable and less intimidating it will seem to you.
Time
Do you know what time it is? How aware you are of time varies by culture and normative expectations of adherence (or ignorance) of time. Some people, and the communities and cultures they represent, are very time-oriented. The Eurorail Trains in Germany are famous for departing and arriving according to the schedule. In contrast, if you take the train in Argentina and you’ll find that the schedule is more of an approximation of when the train will leave or arrive.
“Time is money” is a common saying across many cultures, and reveals a high value for time. In social contexts, it often reveals social status and power. Who are you willing to wait for? A doctor for an office visit when you are sick? A potential employer for a job interview? Your significant other, or children? Sometimes we get impatient, and our impatience underscores our value for time.
When you give a presentation to your team or group, does your group have to wait for you? Time is a relevant factor in the communication process in your speech. The best way to show your group respect is to honor the time expectation associated with your speech. Always try to stop speaking before the group stops listening; if the members perceive that you have “gone over time,” they will be less willing to listen. This in turn will have a negative impact on your ability to communicate your message.
Suppose you are presenting a speech to your team that has three main points. Your group will look to you to regulate the time and attention to each point, but if you spend all your time on the first two points and rush through the third, your presentation won’t be balanced and will lose rhythm. The speaker occupies a position of some power, but it is the group that gives them that position. Your team is counting on you to make a difference, and to not waste their time. By displaying respect and maintaining balance, you will move through your points more effectively.
Chronemics is the study of how we refer to and perceive time. Tom Bruneau at Radford University has spent a lifetime investigating how time interacts in communication and culture.Bruneau, T. (1974). Time and nonverbal communication. Journal of Poplular Culture , 8, 658–666.,Bruneau, T. (1990). Chronemics: the study of time in human interaction. In J. DeVito, & M. Hecht (Eds.), The nonverbal reader (pp. 301–311). Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland press., Bruneau, T., & Ishii, S. (1988). Communicative silence: east and west. World Communication, 17, 1–33. As he notes, across western society, time is often considered the equivalent of money. The value of speed is highly prized in some societies.Schwartz, T. (1989, January/February). Acceleration syndrome: does everyone live in the fast lane? Utne Reader, 36–43. In others, there is a great respect for slowing down and taking a long-term view of time.
When you order a meal at a “fast food” restaurant, what are your expectations for how long you will have to wait? When you order a pizza online for delivery, when do you expect it will arrive? If you order cable service for your home, when do you expect it might be delivered? In the first case you might measure the delivery of a hamburger in a matter of seconds or minutes, and perhaps 30 minutes for pizza delivery, but you may measure the time from your order to working cable in days or even weeks. You may even have to be at your home from 8 A.M. to noon waiting for its installation. The expectations vary by context, and we often grow frustrated in a time-sensitive culture when the delivery does not match our expectations.
In the same way, how long should it take to respond to a customer’s request for assistance or information? If they call on the phone, how long should they wait on hold? How soon should they expect a response to an e-mail? As a skilled group communicator, you will know to anticipate normative expectations and do your best to meet those expectations more quickly than anticipated. Your prompt reply or offer of help in response to a request, even if you cannot solve the issue on the spot, is often regarded positively, contributing to the formation of positive communication interactions.
Across cultures the value of time may vary. Some Mexican-American friends may invite you to a barbecue at 8 P.M., but when you arrive you are the first guest, because it is understood that the gathering actually doesn’t start until after 9 P.M. In France, similarly, an 8 P.M. party invitation would be understood to indicate you should arrive around 8:30, but in Sweden 8 P.M. means 8 P.M., and latecomers may not be welcome. Some Native Americans, particularly elders, speak in well-measured phrases and take long pauses between phrases. They do not hurry their speech or compete for their turn, knowing no one will interrupt them.McLean, S. (1998). Turn-taking and the extended pause: a study of interpersonal communication styles across generations on the Warm Springs Indian reservation. In K. S. Sitaram, & M. Prosser (Eds.), Civic discourse: Multiculturalism, cultural diversity, and global communication (pp. 213–227). Stamford, CT: Ablex Publishing Company. Some Orthodox Jews observe religious days when they do not work, cook, drive, or use electricity. People around the world have different ways of expressing value for time.
Physical Characteristics
You didn’t choose your birth, your eye color, the natural color of your hair, or your height, but people spend millions every year trying to change their physical characteristics. You can get colored contacts, dye your hair, and, if you are shorter than you’d like to be, buy shoes to raise your stature a couple of inches. You won’t be able to change your birth, and no matter how much you stoop to appear shorter, you won’t change your height until time and age gradually makes itself apparent. If you are tall, you might find the correct shoe size, pant length, or even the length of mattress a challenge, but there are rewards. Have you ever heard that taller people get paid more? Burnham, T., & Phelan, J. (2000). Mean genes: from sex to money to food: taming our primal instincts. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing. There is some truth to that idea. There is also some truth to the notion that people prefer symmetrical faces (where both sides are equal) over asymmetrical faces (with unequal sides; like a crooked nose or having one eye or ear slightly higher than the other). Burnham, T., & Phelan, J. (2000). Mean genes: from sex to money to food: taming our primal instincts. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing.
We often make judgments about a person’s personality or behavior based on physical characteristics, and researchers are quick to note those judgments are often inaccurate. Wells, W., & Siegel, B. (1961). Stereotypes somatypes. Psychological Reports, 8, 77–78.,Cash, T., & Kilcullen, R. (1985). The eye of the beholder: susceptibility to sexism and beautyism in the evaluation of managerial applicants. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 15, 591–605. Regardless of your eye or hair color, or even how tall you are, being comfortable with yourself is an important part of your presentation. Act naturally and consider aspects of your presentation you can control in order to maximize a positive image for the group or team.
Body Movements
The study of body movements, called kinesics, is key to understanding nonverbal communication. Since your actions will significantly contribute to the effectiveness of your group interactions, let’s examine four distinct ways body movements that complement, repeat, regulate, or replace your verbal messages.
Body movements can complement the verbal message by reinforcing the main idea. For example, you may be providing an orientation presentation to a customer about a software program. As you say, “Click on this tab,” you may also initiate that action. Your verbal and nonverbal messages reinforce, or complement, each other. You can also reinforce the message by repeating it. If you first say “Click on the tab,” and then motion with your hand to the right, indicating that the customer should move the cursor arrow with the mouse to the tab, your repetition can help the listener understand the message.
In addition to repeating your message, body movements can also regulate conversations. Nodding your head to indicate that you are listening may encourage the customer to continue asking questions. Holding your hand up, palm out, may signal them to stop and provide a pause where you can start to answer.
Body movements also substitute or replace verbal messages. Ekman and Friesen, Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. (1967). Head and body cures in the judgment of emotions: a reformulation. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 24, 711–724. found facial features communicate to others our feelings, but our body movements often reveal how intensely we experience those feelings. For example, if the customer makes a face of frustration while trying to use the software program, they may need assistance. If they push away from the computer and separate themselves physically from interacting with it, they may be extremely frustrated. Learning to gauge feelings and their intensity as expressed by customers takes time and patience, and your attention to them will improve your ability to facilitate positive interactions.
Touch
Touch in communication interaction is called haptics, and Seiler and Beall, Seiler, W., & Beall, M. (2000). Communication: making connections (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. identify five distinct types of touch, from impersonal to intimate, as listed in Table 6.3.
Table 6.3 Types of Touch
1. Functional-professional touch Medical examination, physical therapy, sports coach, music teacher
2. Social-polite touch Handshake
3. Friendship-warmth touch Hug
4. Love-intimacy touch Kiss between family members or romantic partners
5. Sexual-arousal touch Sexual caressing and intercourse
Before giving your presentation, you may interact with people by shaking hands and making casual conversation. This interaction can help establish trust before you take the stage. While speaking in groups we do not often touch people on the team, but we do interact with visual aids, our note cards, and other objects. How we handle them can communicate our comfort level. It’s always a good idea to practice using the technology, visual aids or note cards we’ll use in a speech in a practice setting. Using the technology correctly by clicking the right button on the mouse or pressing the right switch on the overhead project can contribute to, or detract from, your credibility.
Paralanguage
Paralanguage is the exception to the definition of nonverbal communication. You may recall that we defined nonverbal communication as not involving words, but paralanguage exists when we are speaking, using words. Paralanguage involves verbal and nonverbal aspects of speech that influence meaning, including tone, intensity, pausing, and even silence.
Perhaps you’ve also heard of a pregnant pause, a silence between verbal messages that is full of meaning. The meaning itself may be hard to understand or decipher, but it is there nonetheless. For example, your co-worker Jan comes back from a sales meeting speechless with a ghost-white complexion. You may ask if the meeting went all right. “Well, ahh…” may be the only response you get. The pause speaks volumes. Something happened, though you may not know what. It could be personal if Jan’s report was not well received, or it could more systemic, like the news that sales figures are off by 40% and pink slips may not be far behind.
Silence or vocal pauses can communicate hesitation, indicate the need to gather thought, or serve as a sign of respect. Keith Basso, Basso, K. A. (1970). To give up on words: silence in western Apache culture. In Cultural communication and intercultural contact (pp. 301–318). Hillsdale, NJ: Laurence Erlbaum. quotes an anonymous source as stating, “it is not the case that a man who is silent says nothing.” Sometimes we learn just as much, or even more, from what a person does not say as what they do say. In addition, both Basso and Susan Philips, Philips, S. (1983). The invisible culture: communication in the classroom and community on the Warm Springs Indian Reservation. Chicago, IL: Waveland Press. found that traditional speech among Native Americans places a special emphasis on silence.
Artifacts
Do you cover your tattoos when you are at work? Do you know someone who does? Or perhaps you know someone who has a tattoo and does not need to cover it up on their job? Expectations vary a great deal, but body art or tattoos are still controversial in the workplace. According to the San Diego Union-Tribune: Kinsman, M. (2001, August 20). Tattoos and nose rings. San Diego Union-Tribune, p. C1.
• 20% of workers indicated their body art had been held against them on the job.
• 42% of employers said the presence of visible body art lowered their opinion of workers.
• 44% of managers surveyed have body art.
• 52% of workers surveyed have body art.
• 67% of workers who have body art or piercings cover or remove them during work hours.
In your line of work, a tattoo might be an important visual aid or might detract from your effectiveness. Piercings may express individuality, but you need to consider how they will be interpreted by employers and customers.
Artifacts are forms of decorative ornamentation that are chosen to represent self-concept. They can include rings and tattoos, but may also include brand names and logos. From clothes to cars, watches, briefcases, purses, and even eyeglasses, what we choose to surround ourselves with communicates something about our sense of self. They may project gender, role or position, class or status, personality and group membership or affiliation. Paying attention to a customer’s artifacts can give you a sense of the self they want to communicate, and may allow you to more accurately adapt your message to meet their needs.
Environment
Environment involves the physical and psychological aspects of the communication context. More than the tables and chairs in an office, environment is an important part of the dynamic communication process. The perception of one’s environment influences one’s reaction to it. For example, Google is famous for its work environment, with spaces created for physical activity and even in-house food service around the clock. The expense is no doubt considerable, but Google’s actions speak volumes. The results produced in the environment, designed to facilitate creativity, interaction, and collaboration, are worth the effort.
Key Takeaway
• Nonverbal communication can be categorized into eight types: space, time, physical characteristics, body movements, touch, paralanguage, artifacts, and environment.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Do a www.google.com search on space and culture. Share your findings with your classmates.
2. Note where people sit on the first day of class, and each class session thereafter. Do students return to the same seat? If they do not attend class, do the classmates leave their seat vacant? Compare your results.
3. What kind of value do you have for time? And what is truly important to you? Make a list of what you spend your time on, and what you value most. Do the lists match? Are you spending time on what is truly important to you? Relationships take time, and if you want them to succeed in a personal or business context you have to make them a priority.
4. To what degree is time a relevant factor in communication in the information age? Give some examples. Discuss your ideas with a classmate.
5. How many people do you know who have chosen tattoos or piercings as a representation of self and statement of individuality? Survey your friends and share your findings with your classmates.
6.06: Summary
In this chapter, we have defined language as a code that has rules of syntax, semantics, and context. We have examined how language influences our perception of the world and the verbal principles of communication. We have seen that a message has several parts and can be interpreted on different levels. Building on each of these principles, we examined how cliché, jargon, slang, sexist and racist language, euphemisms, and doublespeak can all be impediments to successful communication. We discussed four strategies for giving emphasis to your message: visuals, signposts, internal summaries and foreshadowing, and repetition. Finally, we discussed six ways to improve communication: defining your terms, choosing precise words, considering your group, controlling your tone, checking for understanding, and focusing on results.
Review Questions
1. Interpretive Questions
1. From your viewpoint, how do you think that thought influences the use of language?
2. Is there ever a justifiable use for doublespeak? Why or why not? Explain your response and give some examples.
3. What is meant by conditioned in the phrase “people in Western cultures do not realize the extent to which their racial attitudes have been conditioned since early childhood by the power of words to ennoble or condemn, augment or detract, glorify or demean?”Moore, R. (2003). Racism in the English language. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
2. Application Questions
1. How does language change over time? Interview someone older than you, and younger than you, and identify words that have changed. Pay special attention to jargon and slang words.
2. How does language affect self-concept? Explore and research your answer, finding examples that can serve as case studies.
3. Can people readily identify the barriers to communication? Survey ten individuals and see if they accurately identify at least one barrier, even if they use a different term or word.
6.07: Additional Resources
Benjamin Lee Whorf was one of the 20th century’s foremost linguists. Learn more about his theories of speech behavior by visiting this site. http://grail.cba.csuohio.edu/~somos/whorf.html
Visit InfoPlease to learn more about the eminent linguist (and U.S. senator) S. I. Hayakawa. http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0880739.html
Harvard psychology professor Steven Pinker is one of today’s most innovative authorities on language. Explore reviews of books about language Pinker has published. pinker.wjh.harvard.edu/books/index.html
Reference.com offers a wealth of definitions, synonym finders, and other guides to choosing the right words. http://dictionary.reference.com/
Visit Goodreads and learn about one of the best word usage guides, Bryan Garner’s Modern American Usage. http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/344643.Garner_s_Modern_American_Usage
Visit Goodreads and learn about one of the most widely used style manuals, the Chicago Manual of Style. http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/103362.The_Chicago_Manual_of_Style
The “I Have a Dream” speech by Martin Luther King Jr. is one of the most famous speeches of all time. View it on video and read the text. http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/mlkihaveadream.htm
The Religious Communication Association, an interfaith organization, seeks to promote honest, respectful dialogue reflecting diversity of religious beliefs. www.americanrhetoric.com/rca/index.html
To learn more about being results oriented, visit the web site of Stephen Covey, author of the best seller The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People. https://www.stephencovey.com/ | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/06%3A_Improving_Verbal_and_Nonverbal_Group_Interactions/6.05%3A_Types_of_Nonverbal_Communication.txt |
Introductory Exercises
1. In order to communicate with others, you need to know yourself. Please complete a personal inventory, a simple list of what comes to mind in these five areas:
1. Your knowledge. What is your favorite subject?
2. Your skills. What can you do?
3. Your experience. What has been your experience writing to date?
4. Your interests. What do you enjoy?
5. Your relationships. Who is important to you?
2. To be a successful communicator, it is helpful to be conscious of how you view yourself and others. Please consider what groups you belong to, particularly in terms of race, ethnicity or culture. Imagine that you had to communicate your perception of just one of these groups. Please choose five terms from the list below, and indicate the degree to which you agree or disagree that the term describes the group accurately.
Term Describes the Group Accurately = 1
Strongly Disagree = 2
Somewhat Disagree = 3
Neither Agree nor Disagree = 4
Somewhat Agree = 5
Strongly Agree = 6
Independent Dependent
Hard working Lazy
Progressive Traditional
Sophisticated Simple
Creative Practical
3. Now consider how you know someone is listening to you. Make a list of the behaviors you observe that indicate they are listening, and understand you. Share and compare the results with classmates.
Your mind is like a parachute. It works best when it’s open.
Anonymous
If speaking is silver then listening is gold.
Turkish Proverb
Getting Started
Communicating involves the translation of your thoughts and ideas to words. Speaking or writing involves sharing your perspective with others. Listening, therefore, involves making sense of what is shared with us, and can require all of our attention. A Cuban saying captures it best: “Listening looks easy, but it’s not simple. In every head is a world.” For us to understand each other we have to listen, and make sense of each other’s perspectives. In order for us to work effectively as a group or team, we need to listen to each other, not just hear each other or wait for our turn to deliver a monologue, make our point, or convince others that we are right. Each group member brings a valuable perspective, indeed a world, to contribute to the team.
When group members interact, do you find yourself getting lost in your own thoughts. While text messages and other distractions can be powerful, the most distracting voice by far is our own internal monologue. If you silently talk to yourself, the action is a reflection of the communication process, but you play the role of audience. In your own head, you may make sense of your words and their meaning. You may have rehearsed your “lines” or what you want to say, and completing miss the turns and contributions in the conversation. Then, when I hear what you said, what you meant may escape me. I might not “get it” because I don’t know you, your references, your perspectives, your word choices, your underlying meaning and motivation for speaking in the first place.
In this chapter we’ll discuss perspectives, and how people perceive information, as we learn how communication is an imperfect bridge to understanding each other. It requires our constant attention, maintenance, and effort. Listening is anything but simple or easy.
Sometimes people mistake hearing for listening. Hearing involves the physiological process of recognizing sounds. Your ears receive and transmit the information to your brain. Once your brain receives the signals, then it starts to make sense to you. This is the listening stage, where you create meaning based on previous experiences and contextual cues to make sense of the sounds.
Knowing your team involves understanding others, and their perspectives, to see if they understand your words, examples, or the frames of reference you use to communicate your experiences, points and conclusions. Ask yourself when was the last time you had a miscommunication with someone. No doubt it was fairly recently, as it is for most people. It’s not people’s fault that language, both verbal and nonverbal, is an imperfect system. We can, however, take responsibility for the utility and limitations of language to try to gain a better understanding of how we can communicate more effectively. We can choose to actively listen to each other, and ask clarifying questions instead of rushing to judgment or making statement.
As a communicator, consider both the role of the speaker and the group, and not only what and how you want to communicate but what and how your team needs you to communicate with them in order to present an effective message.
Take, for example, the word “love.” Yes, we recognize those four little letters all in a row, but what does it really mean? You can use it to describe the feelings and emotions associated with your mother, a partner, or perhaps your dog. Or you might say you love chocolate cake. Does your use of the word in any given context allow the audience to get any closer to what you mean by this word, “love?” The key here is context, which provides clues to how you mean the word, and what its use means to you. The context allows you to close the gap between your meaning of “love” and what the receiver, or group member, has in their range of understanding of the same word. Your experiences are certainly different, but through clues, contexts, and attempts to understand each other’s perspectives, we can often communicate more effectively.
Let’s first follow the advice given by the character Polonius in Shakespeare’s Hamlet: “to thine own self be true.” This relates to the notion that you need to know yourself, or your perspective, before you can explore ways to know others and communicate more effectively. You will examine how you perceive stimuli, choosing some information over others, organizing the information according to your frame of reference, and interpreting it, deciding what it means to you and whether you should remember it or just ignore it and move on. We can recognize that not everyone tunes into the same music, trends in clothing, or even classes, so experiences or stimuli can have different meanings. Still, we can find common ground and communicate effectively, if we only choose to listen to each other. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/07%3A_Listening_in_Groups/7.00%3A_Chapter_Introduction.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Explain the importance of becoming an active listener and reader
As the popular author and Hollywood entrepreneur Wilson Mizner said, “A good listener is not only popular everywhere, but after a while, he knows something.” Learning to listen to your conversational partner, customer, supplier, or supervisor is an important part of business communication. Too often, instead of listening we mentally rehearse what we want to say. Similarly, when we read, we are often trying to multitask and therefore cannot read with full attention. Inattentive listening can cause us to miss much of what the speaker is sharing with us.
Communication involves the sharing and understanding of meaning, To fully share and understand, practice active listening so that you are fully attentive, fully present in the moment of interaction. Pay attention to both the actual words and for other clues to meaning, such as tone of voice or writing style. Look for opportunities for clarification and feedback when the time comes for you to respond, not before. Remember we hear with our ears, but listen with our brain, and sometimes it is all too easy to tune out the messenger or their message.
Active Listening
You’ve probably experienced the odd sensation of driving somewhere and, having arrived, have realized you don’t remember driving. Your mind may have been filled with other issues and you drove on autopilot. It’s dangerous when you drive, and it is dangerous in communication. Choosing to listen or read attentively takes effort. People communicate with words, expressions, and even in silence, and your attention to them will make you a better communicator. From discussions on improving customer service to retaining customers in challenging economic times, the importance of listening comes up frequently as a success strategy.
Here are some tips to facilitate active listening:
• Maintain eye contact with the speaker
• Don’t interrupt
• Focus your attention on the message, not your own internal monologue
• Restate the message in your own words and ask if you understood correctly
• Ask clarifying questions to communicate interest and gain insight
When the Going Gets Tough
Our previous tips will serve you well in daily interactions, but suppose you have an especially difficult subject to discuss. In a difficult situation like this, it is worth taking extra effort to create an environment and context that will facilitate positive communication.
Here are some tips that may be helpful:
• Special time. To have the difficult conversation, set aside a special time when you will not be disturbed. Close the door and turn off the TV, music player, and instant messaging client.
• Don’t interrupt. Keep silence while you let the other person “speak their piece.” Make an effort to understand and digest the news without mental interruptions.
• Non-judgmental. Receive the message without judgment or criticism. Set aside your opinions, attitudes, and beliefs.
• Acceptance. Be open to the message being communicated, realizing that acceptance does not necessarily mean you agree with what is being said.
• Take turns. Wait until it is your turn to respond, then measure your response in proportion to the message that was delivered to you. Reciprocal turn-taking allows each person have their say.
• Acknowledge. Let the other person know that you have listened to the message or read it attentively.
• Understanding. Be certain that you understand what your partner is saying. If you don’t understand, ask for clarification. Restate the message in your own words.
• Keep your cool. Speak your truth without blaming. Use “I” statements (e.g., “I felt concerned when I learned that my department is going to have a layoff”) rather than “you” statements (e.g., “You want to get rid of some of our best people”).
Finally, recognize that mutual respect and understanding are built one conversation at a time. Trust is difficult to gain and easy to lose. Be patient and keep the channels of communication open, as a solution may develop slowly over the course of many small interactions. Recognize that it is more valuable to maintain the relationship over the long term than to “win” in an individual transaction.
Key Takeaway
Part of being an effective communicator is learning to practice active listening.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Pair up with a classmate and do a role-play exercise in which one person tries to deliver a message while the other person multitasks and interrupts. Then try it again while the listener practices active listening. How do the two communication experiences compare? Discuss your findings.
2. Select a news article and practice “active reading” by reading the article and summarizing each of its main points in your own words. Write a letter to the editor commenting on the article—you don’t have to send it, but you may if you wish.
3. In a half-hour period of time, see if you can count how many times you are interrupted. Share and compare with your classmates. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/07%3A_Listening_in_Groups/7.01%3A_Listening_to_Understand.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Identify four preferences and four purposes of listening
2. Distinguish among the components of the “HURIER model” of listening
3. Identify foundations for good learning, including the features of “dialogic listening”
4. Identify several kinds of negative listening
I’d invited my wife to accompany me to a professional conference in Portland. Since I was going to be making a presentation there, my colleague and co-presenter Sally was with us for the trip down and back.
Driving along the Interstate, Sally and I talked shop. What about our supervisor? Yak yak yak. What about our faculty union? Yak yak yak. And our plans for next year? Yak yak yak.
After 20 minutes of chatter with Sally, I realized that what we were discussing might not mean much to my wife. Being the considerate guy that I am, I paused and looked over at her.
“Sorry we’ve been talking so much about work. Thanks for listening.”
“I’m not listening,” she replied.
—Phil Venditti
Preferences, Purposes, and Types of Listening
People speak for various reasons and with various goals in mind. Likewise, the ways we listen vary according to our preferences and purposes. Several theorists have identified types of listening which can help us understand our own behavior and that of others.
Galanes and Adams, Galanes, G., & Adams, K. (2013). Effective group discussion: Theory and practice. New York: McGraw-Hill. wrote that people fall into four possible orientation categories as they listen to one another in groups. People-oriented listeners, also known as “relational listeners,” direct themselves toward detecting and preserving positive emotional features of a relationship. For instance, best friends are probably people who practice nonjudgmental listening in an effort to understand and support each other. In a group, people-oriented listeners may share their feelings openly and strive to defuse anger or frustration on the part of other members.
Action-oriented listeners, by comparison, prefer to focus on tasks that they and their fellow communicators have set for themselves. (Think back to chapter 1, where we differentiated between the “task” and “relationship” sides of group interaction). Action-oriented listeners will generally retain and share details and information which they believe will keep a group moving.
Content-oriented listeners are those who care particularly about the specifics of a group’s discussions. They tend to seek, provide, and analyze information that has been gathered through research. What they primarily choose to hear and to share with others, thus, is material that they consider to be factual.
Time-oriented listeners concern themselves above all with how a group’s activities fit into a calendar or schedule. They may listen and watch especially for signs that other group members want to accelerate the pace of the group’s activities. Their preference is usually for short, concise messages rather than extended ones.
In the real world, few people fit neatly and completely into a single category within Galanes and Adams’s typology of listeners. Instead, each of us embodies a mixture of the four preferences depending on the topic a group is dealing with, the developmental stage of the group, and other factors.
Like Galanes and Adams, Waldeck, Kearney, and PlaxWaldeck, J. H., Kearney, P., & Plax, T. (2013). Business & professional communication in a digital age. Boston: Wadsworth. proposed four purposes which they believe people have in mind as they listen to others. First, we may want to acquire information. Students listening to class lectures are pursuing this purpose. Second, we may listen in order to screen and evaluate what we hear. For instance, we may have the radio on continuously but listen especially for and to stories and comments which are relevant to our work or study. Third, we may listen recreationally, to relax and enjoy ourselves. Perhaps we listen to music or watch and listen to video images on a mobile device, or we might attend a concert of music we enjoy. Finally, just as Galanes and Adams indicated, we may listen because it helps other people or ourselves from the standpoint of our relationships. When we listen attentively to friends, classmates, or work colleagues, we demonstrate our interest in them and thereby develop positive feelings in them about us.
Beebe and Masterson, Beebe, S.A., & Masterson, J.T. (2006). Communicating in small groups; Principles and practices (8th ed.). Boston: Pearson. cited Allan Glatthorn and Herbert Adams, Glatthorn, A.A., & Adams, H.R. (1984). Listening your way to management success. (Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman). as identifying the following three types of listening:
Type one: hearing. This is the simple physical act of having sound waves enter our ears and be transmitted into neural impulses sent to our brain. In 1965, Paul Simon and Art Garfunkel sang in “The Sound of Silence” about “people hearing but not listening,” and this is really what Glatthorn and Adams were referring to.
Type two: analyzing. Beyond simply receiving sound waves, listeners may employ critical judgment to ascertain the purpose behind a speaker’s message(s). In so doing, they may consider not only the content of the message, but also its stated and unstated intent, its context, and what kind of persuasive strategy the speaker may be using it as part of.
Kelly, Kelly, M.S. (2006). Communication @ work: Ethical, effective, and expressive communication in the workplace. Boston: Pearson. offered a helpful elaboration on this type of listening. She suggested that “analyzing” may also involve discriminating—that is, distinguishing—between information and propaganda, research and personal experience, official business and small talk, and simple information and material which requires a listener to take action.
Type three: empathizing. Empathizing requires that a listener not only discern a speaker’s intention, but also withhold judgment about that person and see things from his or her perspective. Once this is accomplished, it may be possible to respond to the speaker with acceptance.
The Listening Process
Even though listening is a natural human process, and one in which we spend most of our communication time, it may not occur to us how complex the activity really is. Many authorities have proposed models that comprise what they consider to be steps in the process. We’ll consider one such model.
Engleberg & Wynn, Engleberg, I.N., & Wynn, D. R. (2013). Working in groups (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson. described the HURIER model, an acronym developed by Judi Brownell. Brownell, J. (2010). Listening: Attitudes, principles, and skills (4th ed.). Boston: Pearson Allyn & Bacon. That model proposed that, in listening, people first hear; then understand; next interpret (including the emotional grounds/status of the speaker); evaluate (including whether the message is meant to persuade, and if so whether it should do so); remember; and finally respond. Among the strengths of this model for application to group settings are that its steps take a group’s goals into account and that it recognizes both the task and relationship elements of communication.
Foundations for Good Listening
Each of us can probably think of a few people whom we consider to be outstanding listeners. What makes them that way, and what attitudes and behaviors do they display in their listening that we most appreciate? Let’s consider some answers that various theorists have offered concerning the strengths of good listeners.
First, the famous educator and philosopher John Dewey, Dewey, J. (1944). Democracy and education. New York: Macmillan. exhorted people to show what he called “intellectual hospitality.” By this, he meant “an active disposition to welcome points of view hitherto alien.” If a person is willing to entertain perspectives outside his or her previous experience, listening can proceed on favorable ground.
Objectivity represents a related initial ingredient in good listening. As Rohlander, Rohlander, D.G. (2000, February). The well-rounded IE. IIE Solutions, 32 (2), 22. wrote, people should be prepared to weigh facts and emotional elements in their listening “on imaginary balanced scales.”
Stewart and Thomas, Stewart, J., & Thomas, M. (1990). Dialogic listening: Sculpting mutual meanings. In J. Stewart (Ed.), Bridges not walls (5th ed.) (pp. 192–210). New York: McGraw-Hill. coined the term “dialogic listening” to identify what they considered to be ideal listening behavior. They characterized dialogic listeners in these ways:
1. They are “deeply in” the transaction with those with whom they communicate.
2. They deal with present topics and concerns.
3. They consider the speaking and listening process to be a shared enterprise—“ours” rather than “yours” or “mine.”
4. They see speaking and listening as being open-ended and playful.
Whatever models they propose, and whatever vocabulary they use, all the authorities who write about listening share the belief that listening needs to be active rather than passive. We’ll provide specific steps later in this chapter for how to engage in active, positive listening.
Negative Kinds of Listening
Now for some unfortunate news. There is a rich array of ways to be a bad listener.
Adler and Towne, Adler, R.B., & Towne, N. (2002). Looking out/looking in (10th ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace College Publishers. named and described several of these ways. The first is pseudo-listening. You’ve seen this many times in your own life, and probably you’ve even done it. It’s the act of seeming to be listening while your mind is actually somewhere else. When you’re pseudo-listening, you may nod your head and emit periodic sounds of approval, just as you would if you were really paying attention, but those actions are for show.
Then there’s “stage-hogging,” also known as “disruptive listening.” This is an active behavior—but the action isn’t good, since the listener attends only minimally to what the other person is saying and butts in persistently and repeatedly to insert views or express needs of his or her own.
The first panel of a “Far Side” cartoon by Gary Larson shows a man scolding his dog. He starts out by saying, “Okay, Ginger” and then goes on at length. Once or twice more in the harangue the man says Ginger’s name. In the second panel, the “speech balloon” of the master is altered to show what the dog hears: “Blah blah Ginger. Blah blah blah blah blah blah blah GINGER blah blah blah blah…” In this case, the fact that Ginger is a dog means that she can only detect the sound of her own name in her master’s speech. Selective listening among human beings, on the other hand, consists of listening only to the parts of someone else’s communication that are personally important to us—even though we could certainly understand and respond to the rest of it if we chose to.
Insulated listening is, in a way, the reverse of selective listening. In this self-protective behavior, the listener takes in and responds actively to everything the speaker says except what’s unpleasant to him or her.
Defensive listening is performed by a person when he or she interprets much or most of another person’s statements as being personal attacks. A defensive listener is apt to ignore, exclude, or fail to accurately interpret parts of a speaker’s comments.
Face-value listening can be described as aural nitpicking. That is to say, the face-value listener pays a great deal of attention to the terminology of someone else’s message and very little to the person’s intentions or feelings.
Davis, Paleg, & Fanning, Davis, M., Paleg, K., & Fanning, P. (2004). How to communicate workbook; Powerful strategies for effective communication at work and home. New York: MJF Books. identified three further ways to be a bad listener: rehearsing, identifying, and sparring. Rehearsing is the practice of planning a response to another person’s message while the message is still being delivered. Identifying takes place when a large portion of a speaker’s message triggers memories of the listener’s own experiences and makes the listener want to dive into a story of his or her own. Finally, a listener who engages in sparring attends to messages only long enough to find something to disagree with and then jabs back and forth with the speaker argumentatively.
Key Takeaway
To function well in a group, people should become familiar with both positive and negative purposes and types of listening.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Do you consider yourself to be primarily a people-oriented, action-oriented, or content-oriented listener? Describe a time when you found yourself listening with an orientation other than your primary one. What caused you to use that orientation? What was the result?
2. Think about a time when you tried unsuccessfully to share an important message with someone. How did the other person respond? What “bad kind(s)” of listening behaviors did the person display?
3. Stewart and Thomas believe that listening should be “open-ended and playful.” What does this mean to you? Describe a time when you listened “playfully” and how others around you reacted.
4. Imagine that you’re in a group that is assessing its members’ performance and that you expect to be criticized because of a mistake you’ve made. What will you do to avoid defensive listening, sparring, or other bad kinds of listening? | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/07%3A_Listening_in_Groups/7.02%3A_Types_of_Listening.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Identify seven challenges of listening in a group as opposed to listening to one person
2. Identify two advantages of group listening as opposed to listening to one person
3. Identify pros and cons of listening in digital groups
In the beginning, God made an individual—and then He made a pair. The pair formed a group, and together they begot others and thus the group grew. Unfortunately, working in a group led to friction, and the group disintegrated in conflict. And Cain settled in the land of Nod. There has been trouble with groups ever since. Sharp, D. (2004, February 24). Workgroups that actually work. Business Times, p. 10.
Davis Sharp
I remind myself every morning: Nothing I say this day will teach me anything. So if I’m going to learn, I must do it by listening.
Larry King
All listening takes energy, concentration, and fortitude. To a degree that will depend on the topic and the listener’s individual personality, it also requires self-sacrifice, since at least part of the time that we’re listening we may need to stifle the urge to question, correct, interrupt, or even silence a speaker.
Listening in a group is especially portentous. If you do it well, you can learn a great deal, present yourself in a favorable light, and contribute to a positive atmosphere and high level of productivity on the part of the group.
Poor listening in a group, on the other hand, can lead to serious negative consequences. Take the case of a group numbering six members. For every time it has to retrace its ground for five minutes and repeat things because of poor listening, that’s 30 minutes of time wasted. Furthermore, misunderstandings among group members can be spread and magnified outside the group to the point that its image and effectiveness are weakened. When we get to chapter 12 we’ll examine this danger and some of the other things that can go wrong when groups of people take part in formal meetings.
Challenges of Listening in a Group
Although all of us get practice at it for years as students and eventually as employees, listening in a group isn’t easy. It presents more of a challenge to each member, in fact, than does listening to one other person at a time. Why? We’ll consider seven reasons, all of which stem from the inherent differences between groups and pairs of people.
First, in a typical one-on-one conversation you’re probably going to listen about 50% of the time, right? Compare that to your participation in a group, in which you’re likely to spend between 65% and 90% of your time listening. Steil, L.K. (1997). Listening training: The key to success in today’s organizations. In M. Purdy & D. Borisoff (Eds.), Listening in everyday life (pp. 213–237). Landham, MD: University Press of America. If you listen with the same depth of energy and concentration in the group that you do with a single conversation partner, you’re going to get tired out a lot more quickly.
Second, unless you know each of the other members of a group very well, you may not adequately gauge their knowledge and perspectives on a given topic before it’s discussed. This may make you less likely to be receptive and responsive to their views on a topic, especially a contentious one. You may also have to work harder to understand their viewpoints.
Third, it may be difficult to keep up with changing levels of engagement on the part of other members of your group. People’s attention and involvement may fluctuate because they’re anxious about the circumstances of a discussion, about a particular message that’s being sent, or even about extraneous factors in their lives that come to mind. At some moments in a group’s activities, everyone may be attentive and actively involved; at others, they come and go both mentally and physically. Because all the members are rarely simultaneously “firing on all cylinders,” you’ll need to work particularly hard to distinguish between vital messages and routine, mundane, or irrelevant ones.
Fourth, in a group, you have less of an opportunity to influence others’ thoughts and actions than you do in one-on-one communication. Deciding when to cease listening and interject your viewpoints so that they’ll be most likely to be received positively by the largest possible proportion of group members is hard, especially if conversation is fast and free-wheeling.
Fifth, listening for long periods prevents you from releasing some of your own energy. Because you speak less in a group than in a one-on-one conversation, this build-up of energy may frustrate you and interfere with your ability to process what other people are saying.
Sixth, in a group, you have lots of time to daydream. People talk at about 100–150 words per minute, but your mind can process information at up to 600 words a minute. Wolvin, A., & Coakley, C.G. Listening (3rd ed.). Dubuque, IA: 1988. You may not be compelled or feel a need to listen actively all the time that a group is interacting, nor do you have to worry about other people’s assessment of your behavior if you’re not the one speaking at a particular time. Thus, you’ll be able to fill in the gap between other people’s talking speed and your own thinking speed with thoughts of your choice…or with thoughts that just float into and out of your consciousness. You may even be tempted to surreptitiously glance at reading material unrelated to the group’s activities, or to send or receive text messages.
Seventh, it may be harder to listen in a group because of the existence of social loafing. This is the tendency for each member to devote less energy to a task than she or he would alone because it’s possible to let others take responsibility for getting things done.
Advantages to Listening in a Group
Now that we’ve reviewed some of its challenges and pitfalls, we should note that listening in a group offers potential benefits as well. Let’s consider two major kinds.
The first big advantage to listening in a group is that it embodies the possibility of taking one of the characteristics that we earlier said could be used negatively—i.e., that you have time and opportunity to think about and react to what you hear—and using it in a positive way. Rather than using that surplus time to daydream or plan a rebuttal to other group members’ messages, you can try in your mind to empathetically interpret the messages and decide whether and how to respond in ways that promote the well-being of the speakers and the whole group. Here’s an illustration with a cross-cultural dimension (and with the person’s name changed):
Yukio Sakai was a young Japanese man enrolled in a college public speaking class. Whatever went on in class, Yukio watched and listened raptly…and silently. Often the instructor posed open-ended questions to the group as a whole, such as, “What do you think John did well in his persuasive speech?” When such questions were posed, almost anyone in class except Yukio would pipe up with an opinion. To a casual observer, Yukio would seem to be “just sitting there.”
If the instructor directly asked Yukio one of the questions, however, what usually happened was that he replied without the slightest hesitation. Furthermore, his answers conveyed insight, sound reasoning, and common sense. It would have been a mistake to take his apparent lack of activity at any given moment as a sign of incapacity.
As we discovered earlier in our chapter on intercultural and international group communication, someone from a high power distance culture such as Japan’s may not outwardly react to messages from an authority figure such as a college instructor. What appears to be the person’s inert passivity, however, could actually be thoughtful analysis and reflection. (Of course, you don’t have to be Japanese to practice those good habits).
The second advantage of listening in groups is a product of the fact that there will always be more diverse perspectives and more interaction in a group than in a dyad. People can be fascinating, can’t they? And many times the product of discussion among different people, with their different backgrounds and values, is something entirely unexpected. What this means, if you’re a curious person at all, is that you should find lots to keep you entertained and educated as you listen to people in a group setting.
Listening in Digital Groups
As we mentioned earlier, digital groups can communicate either synchronously or asynchronously; that is, in real-time or with delays between messages. If you use synchronous tools, such as Skype or some other form of audio or video conferencing, the same challenges and advantages apply to digital groups that we’ve already presented. The only difference may be that you and the other group participants aren’t physically in the same place.
On the other hand, group members who exchange oral messages asynchronously may confront more intense pros and cons. Davis, M., Paleg, K., & Fanning, P. (2004). How to communicate workbook; Powerful strategies for effective communication at work and home. New York: MJF Books. The good news is that you’ll have even more time than in a face-to-face group discussion to review and think about messages before reacting to them, which may yield wiser and calmer responses. The bad news is that the freshness and spontaneity of listening to each other’s comments in real-time will be lost, which could tend to homogenize people’s attitudes and make it less likely for “aha moments” to take place.
Furthermore, if other group members can’t actually see you when you’re communicating, you may feign attentiveness or behave in unorthodox ways. One of the authors remembers being part of a group that was conducting a phone interview with a candidate for a job at a university many years ago. When the person in charge of the interview started the exchange by saying, “We know it may be uncomfortable for you to have to do an interview without being able to see us,” one of the candidates said, “That’s all right. I’m sitting here on my couch naked, anyway.”
Key Takeaway
Listening in a group presents significant challenges but can also pay important dividends.
Exercise \(1\)
1. If you’re enrolled in college courses, do a little measuring in one of your next class sessions. Use a stopwatch to measure exactly how long you and one or two other students actually spend speaking during the class period. Ask a classmate to do the same for the instructor. Afterward, compare the measurements. What did you learn from the results?
2. Pick two groups of which you’re a member. How would you compare the level of participation of their members in group discussions? How do their members’ listening practices compare? In which group do you find it harder to function as a listener? Why?
3. The next time a group you’re part of meets, watch and listen for the person who says the least. Does the person appear to be listening? If you feel comfortable doing so, ask the person afterward how much of the time he or she was attending closely to the discussion. Does the person’s answer fit with how you’d assessed his or her behavior?
4. “To become a leader, you need to talk; to stay a leader, you need to listen.” Do you agree, or not? What examples can you give to support your viewpoint? | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/07%3A_Listening_in_Groups/7.03%3A_Group_Members_and_Listening.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Identify physical actions that contribute to good listening
2. Identify effective pre-listening behaviors
3. Identify what to do and what to avoid doing when listening in a group
The greatest compliment that was ever paid me was when one asked me what I thought, and attended to my answer.
Henry David Thoreau
Listening to people keeps them entertained.
Mason Cooley
First Things First
In the last few sections, we’ve established that listening is a vital skill in groups. Now let’s review two fundamental points before we discuss specific steps for doing it well.
The first point is that before you can listen, you have to stop talking. This might seem self-evident, but in a culture like that of the United States, in which talking is highly valued, we may tend to overlook it.
The second point, though less obvious, is just as important. It is that both senders and receivers—both speakers and listeners—are responsible for effective listening. Listening actually transcends the mere reception of messages by listeners and imposes obligations on both senders and receivers in what Waldeck, Kearney, and Plax, Waldeck, J. H., Kearney, P., & Plax, T. (2013). Business & professional communication in a digital age. Boston: Wadsworth. called “sender-receiver reciprocity.”
Senders should choose their messages according to the context or occasion. Furthermore, they should consider what media they will use to communicate them—for instance, face-to-face interaction or synchronous or asynchronous transmissions—and be mindful of the implications of their selection.
For their part, receivers must make an effort to listen, be prepared to provide feedback, and manage their responses to ensure relevance and civility. They should also practice what Beebe, Beebe, and IvyBeebe, S.A., Beebe, S.J., & Ivy, D.K. (2007). Communication: Principles for a lifetime (3rd ed.). Boston: Pearson. labeled “social decentering”—i.e., “stepping away from your own thoughts and attempting to experience the thoughts of others.”
The Physical Side of Listening
As we’ve already pointed out, good listening is an active process. As such, it requires energy. In fact, listening is work—and not just mental work, either. To do the work of listening, which generally consumes the majority of your time whenever you interact with a group, you should be sure you’re physically primed and ready to go. To confirm that your body is really prepared for high-quality listening, you should first check your posture. Assuming that you’re seated, sit up straight and lean slightly forward. Not only does good posture allow you to remain relaxed and alert, but it makes it more likely that other people will see you as competent and confident. Burgoon, J.K., & Saine, T.J. (1978). The unspoken dialogue: An introduction to nonverbal communication. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Next, notice your breathing. Be sure you’re inhaling and exhaling deeply. Also, identify any aches or pains that may interfere with your ability to take in other people’s messages. See if you can shift into a position that will allow you to remain comfortable and attentive throughout the communication process.
Pre-listening
How much time and effort you put into getting ready to listen will depend among other things on what kind of group you’re in, how well you and the other members know each other, and what topics you’re dealing with. Sometimes you’re talking about light or superficial matters—like “Where shall we get together after we complete our project?”—and you can just dive into a conversation without any particular thought to getting ready to listen.
There will be occasions, however, when you ought to stop, consider, and plan your listening carefully. Let’s say you’re in a student government group considering requests for activity fee money, for instance, or a screening committee involved in hiring a new person to join your business. In cases like these, when careful, accurate listening will be at a premium, you should probably take some or all of these preparatory steps:
Assign listening tasks to people. Because social loafing is more likely when members aren’t held accountable for their behavior, Thompson, L. (2008). Organizational behavior today. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. you may want to ask individuals to listen for different kinds of information or divide a long period of listening into segments, each of which has a designated “major listener.”
Confirm (or reconfirm) your group’s norms with respect to listening. Remind yourselves about how you plan to take turns speaking.
Identify any potential contextual barriers to listening. Kelly, M.S. (2006). Communication @ work: Ethical, effective, and expressive communication in the workplace. Boston: Pearson. Such barriers may include the location in which you’re communicating, the cultural identity of group members, and the mixture of genders represented in the group.
Remind the members of the group that they should recognize their own biases, including their tendency to interpret information in the light of their beliefs. Hybels, S., & Weaver, R.L. (1998). Communicating effectively (5th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. Perhaps note that each group members is tuned in to a special mental radio station, “WII-FM,” which stands for “What’s in it for me?”
Decide whether it’s all right for group members to take notes or make audio recordings during the upcoming communication. If it is, decide whether you’d like to name one or more members “primary note-takers” or recorders.
Determine how often and when you plan to take breaks. Remember that “the mind can absorb only what the seat can endure.” Even though parts of a lengthy discussion may be engrossing, when the time for a scheduled break comes your listening ability will probably be rejuvenated if you pause at least long enough for people to stand and stretch for 30–60 seconds before proceeding.
Listening Itself
All right. Let’s say the members of your group have physically and mentally readied themselves to listen, and you’ve begun a discussion. What do you need to do as the process unfolds? Here are some important dos and don’ts:
In listening, do…
1. Determine your purpose in listening, and keep it in mind. Thinking back to earlier in this chapter, are you listening to acquire information, to evaluate messages, to relax and enjoy ourselves, or to demonstrate empathy?
2. Identify the levels at which group members are communicating their messages—e.g., emotional, political, or intellectual.
3. Assess the relative significance of people’s comments and listen for main ideas rather than trying to take in everything on an equal plane. To help you do this, you may want from time to time to mentally summarize the message(s) you’re listening to.
4. When possible and appropriate, urge other members of the group to speak, especially those who are less dominant. Say things like “Please go on”; “Tell me more”; “Care to expand on that?” Remember that each person has a unique perspective that can add to the group’s ability to consider ideas and make decisions.
5. “Listen with your eyes.” Observe people’s body language and other nonverbal cues carefully, since those physical manifestations may add to or sometimes contradict their spoken words.
6. Show interest in others’ messages through your own nonverbal actions. Establish and maintain eye contact. Smile. Adopt an open posture. Avoid fidgeting or slouching.
7. Use “interactive questioning”.Lumsden, G., & Lumsden, D. (2004). Communicating in groups and teams; Sharing leadership (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson. Ask open-minded and open-ended questions to clarify ideas & information; to probe a speaker’s reasoning and evidence; and to expand incomplete information. Use and ask for examples so that the speaker can connect your questions with his or her own world of experiences.
8. Use tentative clarifying/confirming statements: e.g., “It sounds like…”; “You seem to think that…”; “As I get it, you…”
9. Make polite, “targeted” interruptionsLumsden, G., & Lumsden, D. (2004). Communicating in groups and teams; Sharing leadership (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson. to get answers to pressing questions, or if you’d like establish your place in line to speak next. Be judicious and infrequent with interruptions, however.
10. Paraphrase. Don’t just see if you can accurately reflect what a person is saying; see if you can determine if your understanding of the person’s “inner world” is accurate and whether you see things as the other person is experiencing them at the moment.
11. Respond after listening, sincerely and constructively. Focus on content, ideas, & analysis rather than on personal matters.
12. Allow for, and be careful how you interpret, silence. Keep in mind that people may have many reasons, positive or otherwise, for not speaking at a particular time.
In listening, don’t…
1. Let listening be a dead end, in which you receive messages and don’t react at all.
2. Allow the listening behavior of others to sway your own. If they’re inattentive, don’t lose your own focus; if they’re especially positive or negative, don’t lose your objectivity or critical ability.
3. Cut off or put down a speaker.
4. Interrupt excessively.
5. Pose “counterfeit questions”—belligerent statements masquerading as questions simply because they end with question marks.
6. Allow the tone of someone’s message, or how agreeable you find the person to be, to color your interpretation or reactions to it.
7. Express your interpretations of other people’s messages excessively. Why not? First of all, your interpretation may be wrong. Second, even if you’re right, you may arouse a defensive reaction that in turn leads to unproductive argumentation.
No matter how often you listen to people, and no matter how many groups you may be part of, each new listening situation will be unique. It’s your responsibility, shared with your fellow group members, to see that in each new conversation or discussion you exercise proper practices and skills in your listening.
Key Takeaway
To listen well in a group, it’s important to prepare properly and heed several dos and don’ts.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Observe a televised, recorded, or live group discussion. Identify the listening processes which furthered understanding and those which impeded it. What suggestions would you make to the members of the group to improve their listening? Which person in the discussion listened most effectively, and how did she or he accomplish that?
2. Visit the website of the International Listening Association (http://www.listen.org) and read an article in one of the Association’s online publications. What discoveries did you make in your reading? How will you apply the discoveries to your future group interactions?
3. Who’s the best listener you know? What does the person do (or not do) that makes him/her so effective? Give an example of how the person has listened well.
7.05: Summary
We discussed many ways to gain a better understanding of your group members. To begin, it is important to understand yourself: your attitudes, beliefs, and values. It is also helpful to understand the processes that influence perception and listening. There are many individual differences in the ways people perceive things. Demographic traits such as age, gender, and employment can determine people’s interests, needs, and goals. Effective communication involves recognizing these differences in perception and practicing fairness in delivering your message to your group or team. Finally, an important dimension of group communication is the ability to receive messages from others through active listening.
Chapter Review Questions
1. Interpretive Questions
1. How does listening limit or expand our view?
2. How does our internal monologue influence our listening?
3. In what ways, if any, are all group members the same?
2. Application Questions
1. What are some of the ways people demonstrate listening among people you know? Identify a target sample size (20 is a good number), and ask members of your family, friends, and peers about they know someone is listening to them. Compare your results with those of your classmates.
2. What impact does technology and specifically the cell phone have on listening? Investigate the issue and share your findings.
3. Investigate two ways to learn more about your group members and share them with your classmates.
7.06: Additional Resources
Explore the website of the National Association for Self-Esteem. www.self-esteem-nase.org/
Forum Network offers a wealth of audio and video files of speeches on various topics. Listen to a lecture titled “Selective Attention: Neuroscience and the Art Museum” by Barbara Stafford, Professor of Art History, University of Chicago. forum-network.org/lecture/selective-attention-neuroscience-and-art-museum
Explore the website of the journal Perception. www.perceptionweb.com/
Visit this About.com site to learn more about the Gestalt principles of perception. http://psychology.about.com/od/sensationandperception/ss/gestaltlaws_4.htm
Visit About.com to read an article by Kendra Van Wagner on the Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Organization. http://psychology.about.com/od/sensationandperception/ss/gestaltlaws.htm
Visit the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s site to read about demographic traits and their relationship to environmental issues. www.epa.gov/greenkit/traits.htm
Philosophe.com offers a collection of articles about understanding your audience when you design a website. http://philosophe.com/understanding_users/
Read more about active listening on this MindTools page. http://www.mindtools.com/CommSkll/ActiveListening.htm
Consider these academic survival tips provided by Chicago State University. www.csu.edu/engineeringstudies/acadsurvivaltips.htm
A collection of articles and other resources to assist in improving listening and other communication skills. http://conflict911.com/resources/Communication/Listening | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/07%3A_Listening_in_Groups/7.04%3A_Strategies_to_Improve_Listening_in_Groups.txt |
Introductory Exercises
1. Please indicate your favorite superhero, movie star, or inspirational leader that you perceive has qualities worthy of learning from to apply in your own life. What traits or behaviors to they possess or exhibit that inspire you and why? Please share your results with your classmates.
2. Please list five facts, points, or things about you that you would want an audience to know about you as a professional. Post your results and compare with classmates.
3. Leadership Interview
Name of Student: _________________________________________________________
Name of Person Interviewed: _________________________________________________________
What is leadership? Do you think leadership is the same now as in the past, or will change in the future?
Management is doing things right; leadership is doing the right things.
Peter Drucker, economist, management guru, author (1909–2005)
A good leader inspires others with confidence; a great leader inspires them with confidence in themselves.
Unknown
Getting Started
Leadership in groups and organization can be an opportunity and a challenge. How we approach it can make all the difference. In this chapter, we explore what leadership is, how we become leaders, the role of teamwork and interdependence in leadership, and finally diverse forms and representations of leadership in action.
Leadership is a complicated and mystery thing. Is it a behavior or set of actions? Is it a talent, that some are born with while others are not? Is it an ability to communicate clearly and effectively with contagious enthusiasm? These are some of the questions we’ll address in this chapter but first let’s be clear: There is no universal definition of leadership. Across cultures what we consider leadership varies greatly, and yet we know it when we see it. We are not born with it, but our experiences can influence our ability to act when the context demands action.
Communication is learned, not innate, and how we learn to follow, and to lead, is a reflection of that process. We can learn to lead in more effective ways. We can solve new challenges in collaborative ways. We can respond to a crisis with skill and expertise, learned from drill and practice. We can make a difference in the groups in which we participate, as leaders or followers. In this chapter, we explore the many fascinating aspects of leadership.
8.01: What is Leadership
Learning Objectives
1. Define and describe leadership
When you hear the word “leadership” what comes to mind? Is it Superman, with amazing abilities to overcome almost all obstacles combined with altruism and his concern for humanity? Is it Lara Croft, the fictional video game character who solves all her own problems and doesn’t need anyone to save her as she is no “damsel in distress?” Is it the action movie hero, alone against all odds, the rises from the ashes victorious? Is it the person who, observing that someone is choking and cannot breathes, performs the Heimlich maneuver, dislodging the obstruction and saving someone’s life? Or finally, is the person who gets up every morning, helps others at their tasks and on their way, who juggles two jobs and more responsibilities than they can count, and still remains accessible, helpful, and caring day after day? You might answer all of the above and to a certain extent you would be correct, but we need to examine these distinct expressions of leadership to learn from each one.
Superman represents the ideal hero for some, with a combination of strength and virtue. Natural born leaders have been discussed, explored, and investigated time and time again across history. It was once thought that a leader was born, not made, but the evidence indicates otherwise. What makes a leader is complicated and not easy to define. Across cultures leadership is considered many things, and requires many different, if not opposing, behaviors. There is no universal standard, trait, or quality that makes a leader, but still people sometimes look to a strong leader to solve their problems. Some cultures have embraced a single person’s leadership without checks or balances, like Stalin or Hitler, only to learn devastating lessons that cost millions of lives. There is no superman.
Therefore, what does make a leader? Is it a combination of talents (that you are born with) and skills (that you learn in life)? Ligon, Hunter, and MumfordLigon, G.S., Hunter, S.T. & Mumford, M.D. (2008). Development of outstanding leadership: A life narrative approach. The Leadership Quarterly, 19 (3) 312–334. explore exceptional leaders in Development of outstanding leadership: A life narrative approach. Their goal was to further understanding of how different childhood and young adult experiences may impact leadership, searching for identifiable patterns in predicting different types of leadership. Their conclusion may surprise you: what makes a leader across contexts are individuals who, in the presence of a crisis or challenge, can formulate and implement a plan of action. Leadership, therefore, is the ability to effectively formulate and implement a plan of action based on the context. The person who calls 911 when someone appears to have a heart attack has observed and assessed the situation, and creates a rational plan to address the current crisis. What might be normally considered a simple phone call, in this context, becomes of paramount importance. The ability to provide a location or street address, or describe observations, or even perform CPR while emergency services are in route are all examples of leadership in action. Even if the person doesn’t know CPR, the act of asking people in the area if anyone knows CPR and can help is matching needs to skill sets, an important aspect of leadership. Leadership can be demonstrated in your own life or can involve teams and groups.
There is no universal definition of leadership. Across cultures what we consider leadership varies greatly, and yet we know it when we see it. We are not born with it, but our experiences can influence our ability to act when the context demands action. To state that leadership is a mystery is an understatement. We cannot define it, and yet we can recognize it. So we start to use terms to describe what we observe and arrive at a definition, and then try to explain it, predict it, and develop it.
Throughout history, many people have speculated about leadership and its nature. Howe,Howe, W. (1996). Leadership vistas: From the constraints of the behavioral sciences to emancipation through the humanities. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 3(2), 32–69. for example, proposes the field of leadership is too narrowly viewed and challenges to be open to leadership in its many forms. This complexity makes it difficult for researchers, authors, or philosophers to arrive at a common definition of leadership. The behavioral sciences have been the home of many of these investigations, but as the field grows, leadership itself is increasingly considered a cross-disciplinary concept.
The study of leadership began with the focus on control and hierarchy, House, R. J., & Aditya, R. N. (1997). The social scientific study of leadership: Quo vadis? Journal of Management, 23 (3), 409–4 73. but that is changing. For example, Mendenhall, Osland, Bird, Oddou, and Maxneyski, Mendenhall, M., Osland, J., Bird, A., Oddou, G., & Mazneyski, M. (2008). Global leadership: Research, practice, and development. New York: NY: Routledge. explored global leadership and attempted to define a universal leader. They observed a shift from hierarchal leadership (the boss tells you what to do and how to do it) to a more participatory leadership (the boss discusses the task with the team as they formulate a plan). The ancient view of global leadership was one of domination, commanding followers, and clear demonstrations of the power of a leader. This reflected a more of authoritarian style than a participative style of leadership that we observe today. According to Rajah, Song and Arvey,Rajah, R., Song, Z. & Arvey, R., A., (2011). Emotionality and leadership: Taking stock of the past decade of research. Leadership Quarterly, 22, 1107–1119. there a current shift from the perceptive of a leaders’ controlling perspective to one of the followers’ participatory perspective. Across fields, leadership is increasing perceived as a dynamic relationship involving leader-follower behaviors. Today, issues such as diversity, gender, culture, and ethics are increasingly considered relevant, even critical, elements of leadership. Day and Antonakis, Day, D., & Antonakis, J. (2012) The nature of leadership: Second edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. suggest a new paradigm where leadership is, in fact, just starting to be understood as a hybrid approach that combines insights, frameworks, strategies, and approaches across disciplines.
As globalization increases and our interconnected world becomes smaller, there is a growing appreciation for the role of an effective leader in terms of vision, success, and overall organization effectiveness. Leaders are required to possess increasingly complex skill sets and are expected to effectively communicate with individuals, groups and teams, and within and between organizations. This gives rise to the central question: how best to prepare or develop effective leaders? Avolio, Walumbwa, & WeberAvolio, B., Walumbwa, F., & Weber, T. (2009) Leadership: Current Theories, Research, Future Direction Annual Review of Psychology 60 (2009), pp. 421–449; doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.16362 provide a developmental approach, conceptualizing authentic leadership as a pattern of leadership behavior that develops from a combination of positive psychological qualities and strong ethics. Avolio, Walumbwa, & Weber, Avolio, B., Walumbwa, F., & Weber, T. (2009) Leadership: Current Theories, Research, Future Direction Annual Review of Psychology 60 (2009), pp. 421–449; doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.16362 also suggest that leadership is composed of four distinct but related components; self-awareness, internalized moral perspectives, balanced processing, and relational transparency.
We can observe that leadership has been investigated, and that it has many factors, but we are still challenged to fully answer our central question: what is leadership? We’ll conclude with a term from the US Navy: deckplate leadership. Get out of the office and get on the deckplates. It means that, in order to get the job done an effective leader has to be on the deck of the ship, interacting and learning what are the challenges, strengths, weaknesses, and opportunities present, emphasizing both task orientation with relationship. That takes initiative, self-motivation, skills, and talent, all elements of effective leadership. You, as a student, are taking charge of your education. As we proceed in our exploration of leadership remember to get up, get out, and see the many examples of leadership all around you.
Key Takeaway
Leadership traits, situational leadership, functional leadership, and transformative leadership comprise four key approaches to leadership theory.
Exercise \(1\)
1. What has been your experience to date as a leader? Discuss your thoughts with your classmates.
2. Describe a leader that you know or have known in the past that you perceived as skilled or effective. How did they act and what did they do that was inspirational? Write a 2–3 paragraph discussion of your experience and share it with a classmate.
3. Think of a leader you were challenged to follow or perceived as ineffective. What did they do or say that was ineffective? How would you characterize this leader’s style (use descriptive terms) and why? Please share your observations with your classmates. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/08%3A_Group_Leadership/8.00%3A_Chapter_Introduction.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Define and describe traits, situational, context-based, and transformative leadership theories
There are many perspectives on leadership, but they generally fall into four main categories: leadership traits, situational or context-based leadership, functional leadership, and transformational leadership. Let’s examine each in turn.
The first approach we’ll consider is the oldest of all: universal leadership traits, or the view that there are inherent traits, that may be part of a person from birth as in talents, or acquired skills that express those in-born traits, that are somehow universal or constant across contexts and cultures. It is a significant challenge to even begin to consider the many contexts where leadership might be displayed, and so instead of focusing on the context, in this view, we focus on the individual and his or her traits. Some studies, Bass, B. (1981). Traits of Leadership: A follow-up to 1970. In R.M. Stogdill (ed.), Handbook of Leadership. New York: Free Press, pp. 73–96., Baker, D. (1990). A qualitative and quantitative analysis of verbal style and the elimination of potential leaders in small groups. Small Group Research, 38, pp. 13–26. have indicated that people in leadership possess the following ten traits as shown in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1 Universal Leadership Traits
Trait Explanation Example
1 Achievement Orientation A clear focus on achievement She consistently makes time in her busy schedule for her school work. She is focused on completing her degree.
2 Adaptability The ability to adapt to the context, including constraints or resources, to be successful She understands the challenges of running a household and raising children on a budget, and still makes her studies a priority.
3 Energy The ability to devote time, concentration, and effort to a challenge Even though she is tired in the evening she makes time, after the children have gone to bed, to complete her studies each night.
4 Intelligence The ability to perceive, understand, formulate a response to, and implement a plan of action to solve a challenge There are never enough hours in the day, but she understands the challenges, sets priorities, and consistently gets the job done.
5 Innovation The ability to perceive alternate plans of action to achieve similar or improved results She understands the challenge and finds a faster, more efficient way to get the job done.
6 Persistence The ability to persevere, or to stick with a challenge until it is solved. She consistently completes her work on time, has completed all of her classes to date successfully, and is on track to graduate as planned.
7 Responsibility The ability to respond and the awareness of duty, obligation, or commitment to solve a challenge She knows she has the ability to respond to the many challenges, recognizes the importance of a university degree to herself and her children, and completed her obligations.
8 Self-confidence The confidence in one’s ability to solve a challenge She knows she can do it.
9 Sociability The ability to interact with others effectively She can work in groups effectively, even with challenging members.
10 Verbal Communication Ability The ability to articulate effectively, or express one’s thoughts, ideas, or opinions in ways that others can understand them with minimal or no miscommunication She can express herself effectively. People understand her when she speaks.
As we review these terms we can observe many of them in ourselves and others in daily life. Are leaders those who possess all ten traits? Are these ten traits the only traits that represent leadership? No on both counts. Leaders may possess or exhibit some or all of these traits, but not all the time in every context. In addition, what we consider leadership in one context might be considered insubordination in another. Cultures vary as to their expectations for leaders and what traits they must possess, and we learn culture from each other. We are not born with it. We learn to communicate from and with each other. We are not built with an innate ability to communicate and our surroundings, including those who model behaviors for us, influence how we communicate with ourselves and others. If we are raised in a community where people take responsibility for their challenges and work together to solve them, we are more likely to model that behavior. If we are raised in a community that looks to an institution or an individual to solve problems for them, we are more likely to expect our problems to be solved for us. Since we can see that our environment influences our communication, our culture, and these traits, let’s examine alternatives as we continue to explore the concept of leadership.
Our second approach to leadership shifts the focus or attention from the individual to the context, or situation. As we discussed previously, this makes for a significant challenge. How can we assess the myriad of situation factors at any given moment in time? In reality, we cannot, but we can make the concerted effort to limit the factors we consider and explore the influence of context on our behaviors, including those associated with leadership within a specific cultural framework.
Situational leadership, or leadership in context, means that leadership itself depends on the situation at hand. In sharp contrast to the “natural born leader,” “universal leadership traits” model of leadership we previously discussed, this viewpoint is relativist. Leadership is relative or varies, based on the context. There is no one “universal trait” to which we can point or principle to which we can observe in action. There is no style of leadership that is more or less effective than another unless we consider the context. Then our challenge presents itself: how to match the most effective leadership strategy with the current context?
In order to match leadership strategies and context we first need to discuss the range of strategies as well as the range of contexts. While the strategies list may not be as long as we might imagine, the context list could go on forever. If we were able to accurately describe each context, and discuss each factor, we would quickly find the task led to more questions, more information, and the complexity would increase, making an accurate description or discussion impossible. Instead, we can focus our efforts on factors that each context contains and look for patterns, or common trends, that help us make generalizations about our observations.
For example, an emergency situation may require a leader to be direct, giving specific order to each person. Since each second counts the quick thinking and actions at the direction of a leader may be the most effective strategy. To stop and discuss, vote, or check everyone’s feelings on the current emergency situation may waste valuable time. That same approach applied to common governance or law-making may indicate a dictator is in charge, and that individuals and their vote are of no consequence. Instead an effective leader in a democratic process may ask questions, gather viewpoints, and seek common ground as lawmakers craft a law that applies to everyone equally.
Hersey and Blanchard, Hersey, P. and Blanchard, K. H. (1977). Management of Organizational Behavior 3rd Edition—Utilizing Human Resources. New Jersey/Prentice Hall. take the situational framework and apply to an organizational perspective that reflects our emphasis on group communication. They assert that, in order to be an effective manager, one needs to change their leadership style based on the context, including the maturity of the people they are leading and the task details. Hersey and BlanchardHersey, P. and Blanchard, K. H. (1977). Management of Organizational Behavior 3rd Edition—Utilizing Human Resources. New Jersey/Prentice Hall. focus on two key issues: tasks and relationships, and present the idea that we can to a greater or lesser degree focus on one or the other to achieve effective leadership in a given context. They offer four distinct leadership styles or strategies (abbreviated with an “S”):
1. Telling (S1). Leaders tell people what to do and how to do it.
2. Selling (S2). Leaders provide direction, information, and guidance, but sell their message to gain compliance among group members.
3. Participating (S3). Leaders focus on the relationships with group members and shares decision-making responsibilities with them.
4. Delegating (S4). Leaders focus on relationships, rely on professional expertise or group member skills, and monitor progress. They allow group members to more directly responsible for individual decisions but may still participate in the process.
Telling and selling strategies are all about getting the task done. Participating and delegating styles are about developing relationships and empowering group members to get the job done. Each style or approach is best suited, according to Hersey and Blanchard, Hersey, P. and Blanchard, K. H. (1977). Management of Organizational Behavior 3rd Edition—Utilizing Human Resources. New Jersey/Prentice Hall. to a specific context. Again, assessing a context can be a challenging task but they indicate the focus should be on the maturity of the group members. It is the responsibility of the leader to assess the group members and the degree to which they possess the maturity to work independently or together effective, including whether they have the right combination of skills and abilities that the task requires. Once again, they offer us four distinct levels (abbreviated with “M” for maturity):
1. M1, or level one. This is the most basic level where group members lack the skills, prior knowledge, skills, or self-confidence to accomplish the task effectively. They need specific directions, and systems of rewards and punishment (for failure) may be featured. They will need external motivation from the leader to accomplish the task.
2. M2, or level two. At this level the group members may possess the motivation, or the skills and abilities, but not both. They may need specific, additional instructions or may require external motivation to accomplish the task.
3. M3, or level three. In this level we can observe group members who are ready to accomplish the task, are willing to participate, but may lack confidence or direct experience, requiring external reinforcement and some supervision.
4. M4, or level four. Finally, we can observe group members that are ready, prepared, willing, and confident in their ability to solve the challenge or complete the task. They require little supervision.
Now it is our task to match the style or leadership strategy to the maturity level of the group members as shown in Table 8.2.
Table 8.2 Situational Leadership: Leadership Style and Maturity Level
Leadership Style (S) Maturity Level (M)
1 S1 M1
2 S2 M2
3 S3 M3
4 S4 M4
This is one approach to situational leadership that applies to our exploration of group communication, but it doesn’t represent all approaches. What other factors might you consider other than style and maturity? How might we assess diversity, for example, in this approach? We might have a skilled professional who speaks English as their second language, and who comes from a culture where constant supervision is viewed as controlling or domineering, and if a leader takes a S1 approach to provide leadership, we can anticipate miscommunication and even frustration. There is no “One Size Fits All” leadership approach that works for every context, but the situational leadership viewpoint reminds us of the importance of being in the moment and assessing our surroundings, including our group members and their relative strengths and areas of emerging skill. The effective group communicator recognizes the Hersey-Blanchard, Hersey, P. and Blanchard, K. H. (1977). Management of Organizational Behavior 3rd Edition—Utilizing Human Resources. New Jersey/Prentice Hall. approach provides insight and possible solutions to consider, but also keeps the complexity of the context in mind when considering a course of action.
Our third approach to consider is called functional leadership, or leadership that focused on behaviors that address needs and help the group achieve its goals. Hackman, J. R., & Walton, R. E. (1986). Leading groups in organizations. In P. S. Goodman (Ed.), Designing effective work groups (pp. 72–119). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass., McGrath, J. E. (1962). Leadership behavior: Some requirements for leadership training. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Civil Service Commission., Adair, J. (1988). Effective Leadership. London. Pan Books., Kouzes, J. M. and Posner, B. Z. (2002). The leadership challenge. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. The leader needs to assess needs, including task, team, and individual group member needs. Balance and performance are emphasized, and the time the leader spends on a specific approach varies based on their assessment of the area of need. The highest priority is completion of the task in this approach, but it is balanced against team and individual group member needs. Each activity or approach targets each area of need, and the leader focuses on it emphasize the area, alternating their time on any given activity based on the existing needs.
Table 8.3 Functional Leadership
Task Need Team Need Individual Need
1 Assessing the situation Training Training and Coaching
2 Understanding the task Building team spirit Recognizing individual skills and abilities; leveraging them on the task
3 Preparing the plan to address the task Focus on the mission; sense of purpose Focus on the mission; sense of purpose
4 Implementing the plan addressing the task Motivation, praise, and rewards Motivation, praise, and rewards
5 Allocating time and resources to the task Focus on the tempo or pace of performance Fostering interdependence while respecting individual performance, including roles and tasks
6 Re-evaluating the plan and making adjustments Status recognition or performance acknowledgement Status recognition or performance acknowledgement
7 Understanding Quality Standards Discipline, including sanctions and punishment Attending to personal problems
8 Quality control Quality Control Individual output
9 Evaluating outcomes Redirection, review of the action plan Individual role and task review
10 Sharing the outcomes (Communication) Facilitating group interactions (Communication) Individual interaction (Communication)
As we can see in Table 8.3, the functional leader focuses on the short and long term needs of the group. If the group is lost, perhaps time invested in re-evaluating the plan and making adjustments, meeting a task and a team need at the same time, might prove effective. If an individual group member is struggling, perhaps supportive coaching and even additional training might yield results. Based on the leader’s assessment of the needs, they will select the appropriate action and maintain a priority order. They will also be constantly attuned to change, ready to adapt and meet the ever-changing needs of the task, team, or individual.
Our final approach to consider, called transformational leadership, emphasizes the vision, mission, motivations, and goals of a group or team and motivates them to accomplish the task or achieve the result. This model of leadership asserts that people will follow a person who inspires them, who clearly communicates their vision with passion, and helps get things done with energy and enthusiasm.
James MacGregor Burns, a presidential biographer, first introduced the concept, discussing the dynamic relationship between the leader and the followers, as they together motivate and advance towards the goal or objective. Burns, J. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper and Row. Bernard Bass, Bass, B. (1985). Leadership and Performance. New York: Free Press. contributed to his theory, suggesting there are four key components of transformation leadership, as shown in Table 8.4.
Table 8.4 Four Key Components of Transformational Leadership
Component of Transformational Leadership Explanation
1 Intellectual Stimulation Transformational leaders encourage creativity and ingenuity, challenging the status quo and encouraging followers to explore new approaches and opportunities.
2 Individualized Consideration Transformational Leaders recognize and celebrate each follower’s unique contributions to the group.
3 Inspirational Motivation Transformational Leaders communicate a clear vision, helping followers understand the individual steps necessary to accomplish the task or objective while sharing in the anticipation of completion.
4 Idealized Influence Transformational Leaders serve as role models, demonstrating expertise, skills, and talent that others seek to emulate, inspiring positive actions while reinforcing trust and respect.
The leader conveys the group’s goals and aspirations, displays passion for the challenge that lies ahead, and demonstrates a contagious enthusiasm that motivates group members to succeed. This approach focuses on the positive changes that need to occur in order for the group to be successful, and requires the leader to be energetic and involved with the process, even helping individual members complete their respective roles or tasks.
In this section, we have discussed leadership traits, situational leadership, functional leadership, and finally transformative leadership theories. We can recognize that there are no universal traits associated with leadership, but there are traits that are associated with it that we develop across time through our experiences. We can also recognize that the context or situation makes a significant impact on leadership, and matching the situation to the leadership approach requires skill and expertise. Every challenge is unique in some way, and the effective leader can recognize that aligning their actions and support with the needs of the group makes sense. The functional perspective requires a leader to assess task needs, group needs, and individual needs, and then devote time, energy, and resources to them in priority order. Finally, a transformative leadership approach involves an articulate leader with a clear vision that is shared with energy and enthusiasm with followers, encouraging them to embrace the steps required as well as the end goal, objective, or mission result. Each approach offers us a viewpoint to consider as we approach leadership in teams, and all serve as important insights into how to better lead an effective group.
Key Takeaway
Leadership traits, situational leadership, functional leadership, and transformative leadership comprise four key approaches to leadership theory.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Do you think natural leaders exist? Why or why not? Discuss your thoughts with your classmates.
2. Describe a transformative leader that you know or have known in the past. How did they act and what did they do that was inspirational? Write a 2–3 paragraph discussion of your experience and share it with a classmate.
3. Think of a leader you admire and respect. Which approach do they best represent (traits, situational, functional, or transformative) and why? How would you characterize this leader’s style and why? Please share your observations with your classmates. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/08%3A_Group_Leadership/8.02%3A_Leadership_Theories.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Describe three ways group members become leaders
Whether or not there is a “natural leader,” born with a combination of talents and traits that enable a person to lead others, has been a subject of debate across time. In a modern context, we have come to recognize that leadership comes in many form and representations. Once it was thought that someone with presence of mind, innate intelligence, and an engaging personality was destined for leadership, but modern research and experience shows us otherwise. Just as a successful heart surgeon has a series of skill sets, so does a dynamic leader. A television producer must both direct and provide space for talent to create, balancing control with confidence and trust. This awareness of various leadership styles serves our discussion as groups and teams often have leaders, and they may not always be the person who holds the title, status, or role.
Leaders take on the role because they are appointed, elected, or emerge into the role. The group members play an important role in this process. An appointed leader is designated by an authority to serve in that capacity, irrespective of the thoughts or wishes of the group. They may serve as the leader and accomplish all the designated tasks, but if the group does not accept their role as leader, it can prove to be a challenge. As TuckmanTuckman, B. (1965). Developmental sequence in small groups. Psychological Bulletin, 63, 384–399. notes, “storming” occurs as group members come to know each other and communicate more freely, and an appointed leader who lacks the endorsement of the group may experience challenges to his or her authority.
A democratic leader is elected or chosen by the group, but may also face serious challenges. If individual group members or constituent groups feel neglected or ignored, they may assert that the democratic leader does not represent their interests. The democratic leader involves the group in the decision-making process, and insures group ownership of the resulting decisions and actions as a result. Open and free discussions are representative of this process, and the democratic leader acknowledges this diversity of opinion.
An emergent leader contrasts the first two paths to the role by growing into the role, often out of necessity. The appointed leader may know little about the topic or content, and group members will naturally look to the senior member with the most experience for leadership. If the democratic leader fails to bring the group together, or does not represent the whole group, subgroups may form, each with an informal leader serving as spokesperson.
So if we take for granted that you have been elected, appointed, or emerged as a leader in a group or team you may be interested in learning a bit about how to lead. While we’ve discussed several theories on what makes a leader, and even examined several common approaches, we still need to answer the all-important question: how does one become an effective leader? There is no easy answer, but we will also take for granted that you recognize that a title, a badge, or a corner office does not make one an effective leader. Just because the boss says you are the leader of your work group doesn’t mean those members of the workgroup regard you as a leader, look to you to solve problems, or rely on you to inform, persuade, motivate, or promote group success.
“Research on leadership indicates that 50–75% of organizations are currently managed by people sorely lacking in leadership competence. Hogan, R. (2003). Leadership in Organizations. Paper presented at The Second International Positive Psychology Summit, Washington, D.C. October 2–5. They are hired or promoted based on technical competence, business knowledge and politics—not on leadership skill. Such managers often manage by crisis, are poor communicators, are insensitive to moral issues, are mistrustful, over-controlling and micro-managing, fail to follow through on commitments they’ve made and are easily excitable and explosive. The result is low morale, alienated employees, and costly attrition.Ostrow, E. (2008). 20 ways to become an effective leader. Retrieved on September 9, 2012, at: www.emergingleader.com/article31.shtml
Deckplate leadership is a US Navy approach to leadership that is applied and practical, and effectively serves our discussion. It means you need to get out of the office and get on the deckplates, the deck of the ship, or where the action is occurring. If you are in manufacturing it might be on the assembly line floor. If you are in sales, it might mean out where sales actually occur. Deckplate leadership means that, in order to get the job done an effective leader has to be on the deck of the ship, interacting and learning what are the challenges, strengths, weaknesses, and opportunities present, emphasizing both task orientation with relationship. Jeff Wuorio, Wuorio, J. (2011). 8 tips for becoming a true leader. Microsoft Business for Small and Midsize Companies. Retrieved on September 9, 2012, from: www.microsoft.com/business/en-us/resources/management/leadership-training/8-tips-for-becoming-a-true-leader.aspx?fbid=L-7CgraXG7d of Microsoft Business for Small and Midsize Companies, offers an excellent list of suggestions, attributes, on how to become an effective leader that we’ve adapted in Table 8.5.
Table 8.5 How to Become an Effective Leader
Attributes Explanation
1 Real leadership means leading yourself This is where it all starts. People respect you when you respect yourself, and one way to address this attribute is to meet your personal goals. Get up early, learn the skills and procedures, and be the meaningful, contributing member of a team or group. People will naturally look to you for solutions when your self-discipline combined with your skills allows them to accomplish their tasks or goals.
2 No dictators allowed. Sitting on a throne will not improve your leadership skills, gain you new, useful information, or develop you as a leader. Get on the deckplate, the assembly line floor, our out with the customer service representative to learn what is happening right now and be a resource for team members to solve problems.
3 Be open to new ways of doing things. One size does not fit all. What motivates one team member may not motivate the rest. You will need to be open to new approaches to achieve similar, or improved, results. The status quo, or the way we have always done it, is not an effective approach to produce improvements. While we may want to stick with what works, we have to keep in mind that as conditions and contexts change, those who adapt, thrive. Those who do not adapt become obsolete.
4 Value diversity Diversity in its many forms means more than race, gender, or even class distinctions. It means diverse perspectives that bring unique and often promising approaches to a challenge. Take advantage of this important aspect of teams and groups to produce outstanding results for everyone.
5 Establish and display a genuine sense of commitment. To be an effective leader you need to be committed to the mission, vision, or goal, and you need to display it clearly, communicating contagious enthusiasm and energy to team or group members. Slogans and programs that lack commitment will only be seen as meaningless, empty words. Bring the vision to life in action and deed.
6 Be results-oriented Stephen Covey (1989)Covey, Stephen R. (1989) "The 7 Habits of Highly Successful People." New York: Fireside promotes the approach of “begin with the end in mind” and here it clearly applies. We need to achieve results, and celebrate incremental steps towards the goal, in order to achieve it. As a leader, you have to be results-oriented in today’s world, and be engaged with the process to observe, and highlight, incremental gains.
7 Demonstrate genuine appreciation A slap on the back or a handshake can be meaningful, but it is often not enough to celebrate success or motivate team members. Know your team well enough to know how each member prefers recognition and communicate it with respect. Your genuine efforts to acknowledge incremental progress will help your group members stay engaged, and help address fatigue or attrition.
8 Remember that leaders learn Once you have it all figured out, it is time to recognize that you’ve lost your way. Contexts and conditions are constantly changing, and as in any dynamic system, so are we. If you are not renewing as a leader, learning new skills that can make a positive difference, then you become stale, detached, and obsolete. Change is an ever-present part of group dynamics.
9 An effective leader has, and shares, a plan A plan of action, clearly communicated and embraced by team members, can make all the difference. Being proactive means the leader needs to identify potential problems before they happen and providing solutions before they escalate into a crisis. Being reactive means addressing the challenge after it is already an issue, hardly an effective plan. While the ability to respond to an emergency is key, the effective leader anticipates challenges, and shares that awareness and understanding with team members.
10 Leaders know roles and responsibilities, and share them with the team An effective leader knows team members, their roles and responsibilities, and shares them with the group, promoting interdependence and peer recognition while remaining alert to the need for individual coaching, training, or reinforcement.
As we consider these attributes we can see the importance of communication throughout each one. The effective leader is engaged, practices active listening, and is open to learn as well as to instruct, coach, or cheer.
Developing Virtual Leadership
In order to be most effective, groups or teams need a sense of community. A community can be defined as a physical or virtual space where people seeking interaction and shared interest come together to pursue their mutual goals, objectives, and shared values. Palloff, R. M., & Pratt, K. (1999). Building learning communities in Cyberspace: Effective strategies for the online classroom. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers. For our purposes, the setting or space can be anywhere, at any time, but includes group or team members and, as you might have guessed, a leader. The need for clear expectations is key to the effective community, and it is never more true than in an online environment where asynchronous communication is the norm and physical interaction is limited or non-existent. Increasingly we manage teams from a distance, outsource services to professionals across the country, and interact across video and voice chats on a daily basis. The effective leader understands this and leverages the tools and technology to maximize group and team performance.
Through interaction in groups and teams, we meet many of our basic human needs, including the need to feel included, and the need for love and appreciation. Shutz, W. (1966). The Interpersonal Underworld. Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books, pp. 13–20. From the opening post, welcome letter, or virtual meeting, the need to perceive acknowledgment and belonging is present, and the degree to which we can reinforce these messages will contribute to higher levels of interaction, better engagement across the project, retention throughout the mission, and successful completion of the goal or task. Online communities can have a positive effect by reducing the group member’s feeling of isolation through extending leader-to-team member and team member-to-team member interaction. Fostering and developing a positive group sense of community is a challenge, but the effective leader recognizes it as an important, if not critical, element of success.
Given the diversity of our teams and groups, there are many ways to design and implement task-oriented communities. Across this diversity, communication and the importance of positive interactions in each group is common ground. The following are five “best practices” for developing an effective online community as part of a support and interaction system for your team or group:
1. Clear expectations—The plan is the central guiding document for your project. It outlines the project information, expectations, deadlines, and often how communication will occur in the group. Much like a syllabus guides a course, a plan of action, from a business plan to a marketing plan, can serve as an important map for group or team members. With key benchmarks, quality standards, and proactive words of caution on anticipated challenges, the plan of action can be an important resource that contributes to team success.
2. Effective organization—Organization may first bring to mind the tasks, roles, and job assignments and their respective directions but consider: Where do we interact? What are the resources available? When do we collaborate? All these questions should be clearly spelled out to help team members know when and where to communicate.
3. Prompt and meaningful responses—Effective leaders are prompt. They understand that when Germans are waking up, the Chinese are tucking their children into bed. They know when people will be available and juggle time zones and contact information with ease. Same-day responses to team members are often the norm, and if you anticipate longer periods of time before responding, consider a brief email or text to that effect. The online community is fragile and requires a leader to help facilitate effective communication.
4. A positive tone in interaction and feedback—Constructive criticism will no doubt be a part of your communication with team members, but by demonstrating respect, offering praise as well as criticism, and by communicating in a positive tone, you’ll be contributing to a positive community. One simple rule of thumb is to offer two comments of praise for every one of criticism. Of course, you may adapt your message for your own needs, but as we’ve discussed previously, trust is the foundation of the relationship and the student needs to perceive you are supportive of their success.
How Do I Build an Effective Online Team?
In order for people to perceive a sense of community or feel like they belong to a team, they need group socialization. Group socialization is the development of interpersonal relationships within a group context. Group success is built on the foundation of the relationships that form as a part of group development. You can emphasize activities and environments that create a supportive group climate, paying attention to relationship messages as well as content messages. Palloff and Pratt, Palloff, R. M., & Pratt, K. (1999). Building learning communities in Cyberspace: Effective strategies for the online classroom. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers. recommend seven steps for building a successful team.
• Clearly define the purpose of the community
• Create a clear, distinct place for the group to gather
• Promote effective leadership from within the community
• Define norms and a clear code of conduct
• Allow for a range of member roles
• Allow for leadership and facilitating of subgroups
• Allow members to resolve their own disputes, while adhering to class established norms
Palloff and Pratt, Palloff, R. M., & Pratt, K. (1999). Building learning communities in Cyberspace: Effective strategies for the online classroom. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers. caution that it is possible to develop a community that has strong social connections between the team members but where very little performance actually takes place. Here is where the leader plays a central role. The leader needs to be visibly present and actively engaged in the process, encouraging learners focus their energies on the social aspect to the detriment of the learning goals of the project and the community. Palloff and Pratt, Palloff, R. M., & Pratt, K. (1999). Building learning communities in Cyberspace: Effective strategies for the online classroom. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers. suggest:
• Engaging team members with subject matter and related resources
• Visibly accounting for attendance and participation
• Working individually with team members who are struggling
• Understanding the signs that indicate that a team member is in trouble
• Building online communities that accommodate personal interaction
Palloff and Pratt, Palloff, R. M., & Pratt, K. (1999). Building learning communities in Cyberspace: Effective strategies for the online classroom. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers. further indicate that a leader can tell if the community is working when the following emerge:
• Active interaction
• Sharing of resources among team members rather than team member to leader
• Collaborative learning evidenced by comments directed primarily team member to team member
• Socially constructed meaning evidenced by agreement or questioning with the intent to achieve agreement on issues of meaning in order to achieve group goals or results
• Expression of support and encouragement exchanged between team members as well as willingness to critically evaluate the work of others
It is not easy to create and manage a team online, but recognizing a sense of community as well as the signs of positive interaction and productivity will help contribute to team success.
In this section, we discussed how to become a leader, from the election process, appointment, or emergence, and ways to develop our leadership skills. We discussed how leadership starts with the self, and self-discipline, and that group or team members will naturally turn to leader that can solve not only their own problems, but contribute to group member’s success. When team members see that a leader can help them get their job done right the first time, it only makes sense that they will be more likely to turn to them time and time again. Leadership is a dynamic process, and change is a constant. Developing yourself as a leader requires time and effort, and recognizing that team members want a sense of community, appreciate a proactive plan, and sometimes need reinforcement or recognition, can go a longs ways towards your goal.
Key Takeaway
Group members become leaders when they are elected to the role, they emerge into the role, or through appointment.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Do you prefer electing a leader or observing who emerges? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each process of becoming a leader? Discuss your thoughts with your classmates.
2. Describe an appointed leader that you know or have known in the past. How did they manage their new role? Were they well-received (why or why not)? Write a 2–3 paragraph discussion of your experience with an appointed leader and share it with a classmate.
3. Think of a leader you admire and respect. How did this individual become a leader—for example, by appointment, democratic selection, or emergence? How would you characterize this leader’s style—is the leader autocratic or laissez-faire; a technician or a coach? | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/08%3A_Group_Leadership/8.03%3A_Becoming_a_Leader.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Define teamwork and explain how to overcome various challenges to group success
2. Describe the process of leader development
3. Describe several different leadership styles and their likely influence on followers
Two important aspects of group communication, especially in the business environment, are teamwork and leadership. You will work in a team and at some point may be called on to lead. You may emerge to that role as the group recognizes your specific skill set in relation to the task, or you may be appointed to a position of responsibility for yourself and others. Your communication skills will be your foundation for success as a member, and as a leader. Listen and seek to understand both the task and your group members as you become involved with the new effort. Have confidence in yourself and inspire the trust of others. Know that leading and following are both integral aspects of effective teamwork.
Teamwork
Teamwork is a compound word, combining team and work. Teams are a form of group normally dedicated to production or problem-solving. That leaves us with the work. This is where our previous example of problem-solving can serve us well. Each member of the team has skills, talents, experience, and education. Each is expected to contribute. Work is the activity, and while it may be fun or engaging, it also requires effort and commitment, as there is a schedule for production with individual and group responsibilities. Each member must fulfill his or her own obligations for the team to succeed, and the team, like a chain, is only as strong as its weakest member. In this context, we don’t measure strength or weakness at the gym, but in terms of productivity.
Teams can often achieve higher levels of performance than individuals because of the combined energies and talents of the members. Collaboration can produce motivation and creativity that may not be present in single-contractor projects. Individuals also have a sense of belonging to the group, and the range of views and diversity can energize the process, helping address creative blocks and stalemates. By involving members of the team in decision-making, and calling upon each member’s area of contribution, teams can produce positive results.
Teamwork is not without its challenges. The work itself may prove a challenge as members juggle competing assignments and personal commitments. The work may also be compromised if team members are expected to conform, and pressured to go along with a procedure, plan, or product that they themselves have not developed. Groupthink, or the tendency to accept the group’s ideas and actions in spite of individual concerns, can also compromise the process and reduce efficiency. Personalities and competition can play a role in a team’s failure to produce.
We can recognize that people want to belong to a successful team, and celebrating incremental gain can focus the attention on the project and its goals. Members will be more willing to express thoughts and opinions, and follow through with actions, when they perceive that they are an important part of the team. By failing to include all of the team members, valuable insights may be lost in the rush to judgment or production. Making time for planning, and giving each member time to study, reflect, and contribute can allow them to gain valuable insights from each other, and may make them more likely to contribute information that challenges the status quo. Unconventional or “devil’s advocate” thinking may prove insightful and serve to challenge the process in a positive way, improving the production of the team. Respect for divergent views can encourage open discussion.
Thill and Bovee, Thill, J. V., & Bovee, C. L. (2002). Essentials of business communication. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. provide a valuable list to consider when setting up a team, which we have adapted here for our discussion:
• Select team members wisely
• Select a responsible leader
• Promote cooperation
• Clarify goals
• Elicit commitment
• Clarify responsibilities
• Instill prompt action
• Apply technology
• Ensure technological compatibility
• Provide prompt feedback
Group dynamics involve the interactions and processes of a team, and influence the degree to which members feel a part of the goal and mission. A team with a strong identity can prove to be a powerful force, but requires time and commitment. A team that exerts too much control over individual members can run the risk or reducing creative interactions and encourage tunnel vision. A team that exerts too little control, with attention to process and areas of specific responsibility, may not be productive. The balance between motivation and encouragement, and control and influence, is challenging as team members represent diverse viewpoints and approaches to the problem. A skilled business communicator creates a positive team by first selecting members based on their areas of skill and expertise, but attention to their style of communication is also warranted. Individuals that typically work alone, or tend to be introverted, may need additional encouragement to participate. Extroverts may need to be encouraged to listen to others and not dominate the conversation. Teamwork involves teams and work, and group dynamics play an integral role in their function and production.
Types of Leaders
We can see types of leaders in action and draw on common experience for examples. The heart surgeon does not involve everyone democratically, is typically appointed to the role through earned degrees and experience, and resembles a military sergeant more than a politician. The autocratic leader is self-directed and often establishes norms and conduct for the group. In some settings, we can see that this is quite advantageous, such as open-heart surgery or during a military exercise, but it does not apply equally to all leadership opportunities.
Contrasting the autocrat is the laissez-faire leader, or “live and let live” leader. In a professional setting, such as a university, professors may bristle at the thought of an autocratic leader telling them what to do. They have earned their role through time, effort, and experience and know their job. A wise laissez-faire leader recognizes this aspect of working with professionals and may choose to focus efforts on providing the professors with the tools they need to make a positive impact. Imagine that you are in the role of a television director, and you have a vision or idea of what the successful pilot program should look like. The script is set, the lighting correct, and the cameras are in the correct position. You may tell people what to do and where to stand, but you remember that your job is to facilitate the overall process. You work with talent, and creative people are interesting on camera. If you micromanage your actors, they may perform in ways that are not creative, and that will not draw audiences. If you let them run wild through improvisation, the program may not go well at all. Balancing the need for control with the need for space is the challenge of the laissez-faire leader.
Not all leaders are autocrats or laissez-faire leaders. Harris and Sherblom, Harris, T., & Sherblom, J. (1999). Small group and team communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. specifically, note three leadership styles that characterize the modern business or organization, and reflect our modern economy. We are not born leaders but may become them if the context or environment requires our skill set. A leader-as-technician role often occurs when we have skills that others do not. If you can fix the copy machine at the office, your leadership and ability to get it running again are prized and sought-after skills. You may instruct others on how to load the paper, or how to change the toner, and even though your pay grade may not reflect this leadership role, you are looked to by the group as a leader within that context. Technical skills, from Internet technology to facilities maintenance, may experience moments where their particular area of knowledge is required to solve a problem. Their leadership will be in demand.
The leader-as-conductor involves a central role of bringing people together for a common goal. In the common analogy, a conductor leads an orchestra and integrates the specialized skills, and sounds, of the various components the musical group comprises. In the same way, a leader who conducts may set a vision, create benchmarks, and creative collaborate with group as they interpret a set script. Whether it is a beautiful movement in music, or a group of teams that comes together to address a common challenge, the leader-as-conductor keeps the time and tempo of the group.
Coaches are often discussed in business-related books as models of leadership for good reason. A leader-as-coach combines many of the talents and skills we’ve discussed here, serving as a teacher, motivator, and keeper of the goals of the group. A coach may be autocratic at times and give pointed direction without input from the group, and they may stand on the sidelines while the players do what they’ve been trained to do and make the points. The coach may look out for the group and defend it against bad calls, and may motivate players with words of encouragement. We can recognize some of the behaviors of coaches, but what specific traits have a positive influence on the group? Peters and Austin, Peters, T., & Austin, N. (1985). A passion for excellence: the leadership difference. New York: Random House. identify five important traits that produce results:
• Orientation and education
• Nurturing and encouragement
• Assessment and correction
• Listening and counseling
• Establishing group emphasis
Coaches are teachers, motivators, and keepers of the goals of the group. There are times when members of the team forget that there is no “I” in the word “team.” At such times coaches serve to redirect the attention and energy of the individuals to the overall goals of the group. They conduct the group with a sense of timing and tempo, and at times relax and let the members demonstrate their talents. Through their listening skills and counseling, they come to know each member as an individual, but keep the team focus for all to see. They set an example. Coaches, however, are human and by definition are not perfect. They can and do prefer some players over others, and can display less than professional sideline behavior when they don’t agree with the referee, but the style of leadership is worthy of your consideration in its multidisciplinary approach. Coaches use more than one style of leadership and adapt to the context and environment. A skilled business communicator will recognize that this approach has its merits
Key Takeaway
Teamwork allows individuals to share their talents and energy to accomplish goals, and an effective leader facilitates this teamwork process.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Do you prefer working in a group or team environment, or working individually? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each? Discuss your thoughts with your classmates.
2. Imagine that you could choose anyone you wanted to be on a team with you. Who would you choose, and why? Write a 2–3 paragraph description and share it with a classmate.
3. Think of a leader you admire and respect. What leadership traits to they display or possess? How would you characterize this leader’s style—is the leader autocratic or laissez-faire; a technician or a coach? | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/08%3A_Group_Leadership/8.04%3A_Teamwork_and_Leadership.txt |
Learning Objectives
• Distinguish between laissez-faire, autocratic, and democratic leadership styles
• Describe differences between transactional and transformational leadership
• Identify examples and characteristics of matriarchal leadership
• Identify differences between leadership styles associated with males and females
President Harry Truman once said he didn’t want economists hedging by saying, “On the one hand” and then adding “but on the other hand.” Truman said: “Bring me a one-armed economist.”Godden, J. (2008, April 28). Send for a one-armed economist. Seattle Post Intelligencer. Retrieved from http://www.seattlepi.com/local/opinion/article/Send-for-a-one-armed-economist-1271762.php
Jean Godden
Leadership theory resembles economics in at least one respect. Despite the fact that leadership has been investigated intensively for decades, if not centuries, no one has come up with a definitive prescription for how to practice it in every situation. The major reasons for this failure are that every situation differs from every other situation, and every leader differs from every other leader. What is great leadership, then? It depends!
Gay and Donald Lumsden, Lumsden, G., & Lumsden, D. (2004). Communicating in groups and teams: Sharing leadership (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thompson Learning. described this situation succinctly: “This is one of those good-sense things. You can’t expect one approach to work in all situations.” Diverse people with diverse personalities in diverse situations call for diverse forms of leadership.
A “Goldilocks” Continuum of Leadership
Although it was perhaps simplistic even when it were proposed half a century ago, a continuum of three styles of leadership may seem at first glance to be logical. It’s soothing, isn’t it, to think that, like Goldilocks, we can consider and rule out possibilities that are “too this” and “too that” in favor of a choice that’s just right?
At one end of a leadership continuum proposed in the 1960s and 1970s, White, R.K., & Lippett, R.O. (1960). Autocracy and democracy. New York: Harper & Row., Likert, R. (1967). The human organization: Its management and value. New York: McGraw-Hill. lies laissez-faire leadership, whose main feature is a willingness to let people in a group behave as they wish. If a group comprises skilled and competent members who willingly share responsibilities and are already motivated to work hard, this kind of leadership may be appropriate—or, at least, it may not cause harm to the group. Most individuals and groups, however, are apt to have difficulty maintaining focus and productivity under laissez-faire leadership.
At the other end of the continuum would be autocratic leadership, also known as command and control management. Zak, M.W. (1994). “It’s like a prison in there”: Organizational fragmentation in a demographically diversified workplace. Journal of Business and Technical Communication, 8, 281–298. An autocratic leader uses coercive power or the dispensation or withholding of rewards to control how the group operates. Some group members may appreciate, or at least accept, autocratic leadership because of the structure and definitiveness it provides. In fact, when autocratic leadership is first imposed on a group, it can increase short-term productivity. Lumsden, G., & Lumsden, D. (2004). Communicating in groups and teams: Sharing leadership (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thompson Learning. Later, however, aggressive behavior may develop under an autocratic leader, and turnover rates are likely to rise.
In the middle of the continuum, in the place that Goldilocks would presumably have considered to be just right, is democratic leadership. Sometimes called “participative leadership,” this variety is characterized by distribution of responsibility among group members; empowerment of the members to determine their activities and express their opinions freely; and assistance with (but not domination of) the group’s decision-making. Under this kind of leadership, most or all of a group’s members are entrusted to perform important functions and may actually sometimes exchange the roles of leader and follower. Gastil, J. (1994). A definition and illustration of democratic leadership. Human Relations, 47, 953–975. Native-born Americans might consider democratic leadership to be the ideal kind, but it yields benefits in some situations more than in others. It is most advantageous when a group is first forming, and other factors that contribute to its success are breadth of talent and ideas among group members and lack of clarity about the group’s goals.
Transactional and Transformational Leadership
A new movement in leadership theory, known at the time as “new leadership,” first emerged in the 1980s and 1990s. Among other things, its adherents drew a distinction between transactional leadership and transformational leadership. Bryman, Bryman, A. (1992). Charisma and leadership in organizations. London: Sage. wrote that transactional leaders exchange rewards for performance. In other words, they employ what we will describe in our next chapter as a behaviorist approach to motivating group members.
Transformational leaders, by contrast, provide group members with a vision to which they can all aspire. They also work to develop a team spirit so that it becomes possible to achieve that vision.
Den Hartog, Van Muijen, & Kopman, Den Hartog, D.N., Van Muijen, J.J., & Kopman, P.L. (1997). Transactional versus transformational leadership: An analysis of the MLQ (Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire). Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 70, 19–35. distinguished clearly between these two kinds of leaders. They held that transactional leaders motivate group members to perform as expected, whereas transformational leaders inspire followers to achieve more than what is expected. Nanus, Nanus, D. (1992). Visionary leadership: Creating a compelling sense of direction for your organization. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. wrote that transformational leaders accomplish these tasks by instilling pride and generating respect and trust; by communicating high expectations and expressing important goals in straightforward language; by promoting rational, careful problem-solving; and by devoting personal attention to group members.
Matriarchal Leadership
We’ve discussed in other parts of this book how gender can affect interactions in small groups. We haven’t touched yet, however, on the implications of matriarchal leadership—leadership in which women exercise primary influence instead of men—on how whole societies and the groups within them function. Examples of such leadership from North America, Africa, and Europe will help us understand some of those implications.
In Native American society, women have long occupied major leadership roles. Anthony Day, Day, A. (2004, Jan 16). Book review: The worlds of Pocahontas; Pocahontas: Medicine woman, spy, entrepreneur, diplomat; Paula Gunn Allen; Harper San Francisco. Los Angeles Times, pp. 27–E.27. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/421887463?accountid=1611 noted that a book by Paula Gunn Allen made this point with reference to three Native American women known today for the guidance and support they provided to men exploring North America: Pocahontas, who saved John Smith in early Virginia and later wed Captain John Rolfe; Malinche, Hernán Cortés’s lover and the mother of his son; and Sacagawea, without whose help the Lewis and Clark expedition might have ended in disaster. According to Allen, each of these women was “doing the traditional work of highborn Native American women in a matriarchal society.” Furthermore, each occupied a leadership position among her own people which made it possible for her to enact change, bridge worlds, and bring about harmony among diverse groups.
Two other authorities, Tarrell Awe, A. P., & Michael, T. G. (2005). Beloved women: Nurturing the sacred fire of leadership from an American Indian perspective. Journal of Counseling and Development: JCD, 83(3), 284–291. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/219017519?accountid=1611 have had this to say about leadership in today’s Native American tribal groups: “American Indian governance is filled not with the romantic notion of male ‘chiefs’ … but with tribal councils or committees consisting of multiple leaders (male and female) holding positions of leadership, most often with a group of women holding the ultimate power for decisions that affect the entire tribe.” These same writers also quoted a Mohawk Woman, Lorraine Canoe, As cited in McFadden, S. (Ed.). (1994). The little book of Native American wisdom. Rockport, MA: Element. as saying, “We are a matriarchal society. Even our language honors the women. It is a female language. When we dance, the men dance on the outside of the circle. The inside of the circle is to honor the women.”
Ellen Sirleaf-Johnson, who in 2005 became the first elected female head of state in Africa and was awarded the 2011 Nobel Peace Prize with two other Third World women, noted that “at least 250 prominent African women leaders have made the ‘history books’ since Western historians took an interest in Africa, let alone those that passed unrecorded but live on in folk history.”Johnson-Sirleaf, E. (2010) Africa’s women have led in the past and will lead in the future. New African, 78–79. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/807485982?accountid=1611. According to Sirleaf-Johnson, these leaders have included chiefs, queens, ministers, prime ministers, and others. Liberia, where Sirleaf-Johnson is president, has six female cabinet ministers who hold strategic positions, including justice, foreign affairs, agriculture, and commerce.
In contemporary Europe, women occupy far fewer upper-level leadership positions in business than do men, but their numbers are greater in family-run corporations than in listed companies. According to Richard Milne, Milne, R. (2008, October 15). A matriarchal leadership. FT.Com. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/229232082?accountid=1611. women in European family-held businesses tend to be guided by four distinctive drives: a focus on long-term rather than short-term goals; a sense of empathy for co-workers, including subordinates; a desire to emulate their own mothers’ style of organizing a family; and a powerful commitment to support the business in times of challenge.
Asia covers a vast area encompassing many diverse cultures and sociological features. It is also a fast-changing region of the world, technologically, economically, and culturally. Recent writings indicate, however, that matriarchal leadership has existed there for centuries in at least parts of China and is established also as part of Philippine culture.
Among the approximately 50,000 members of the Mosuo ethnic group in remote southern China, until as recently as 15 years ago the women made all major decisions and held the purse strings. Property and names still pass from mothers to daughters in the area’s agrarian villages. One man interviewed by the author of an article about the area, Farley, M. (1998, Dec 26). Saturday journal; In Lugu Lake, marriage is a ticklish affair; females call the shots as men hand over matters of life and love in remote Chinese matriarchal society. Los Angeles Times, pp. 1–1. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/421475684?accountid=1611 said that in his small business transactions with outside visitors “I hand the money over to my wife’s mother. She gives me enough to buy cigarettes and a drink, and I do what she says.” The headman of another village informed the author that he made decisions outside the village but not inside. “If I want to do something,” he said, “I must get permission from my mother.”
A study of women in positions of business leadership in the Philippines revealed several features related to matriarchy. Roffey, B. (2002). Beyond culture-centric and gendered models of management: Perspectives on Filipina business leadership. Women in Management Review, 17(7), 352–363. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/213138203?accountid=1611. First, the businesses examined in the study displayed greater interconnectedness with the women’s families than is usually the case in Western male-led firms. Employees were in many instances treated as family members, even to the extent of being provided with food and accommodation. Second, the values which the women associated with effective leadership included several that are generally linked to women’s perceived strengths: diplomacy, tact, “grace,” “charm”, “humility,” and “integrity.”
Male vs. Female Leadership
The “nature versus nurture” debate continues to rage in the social sciences. Controversy still exists over how much of human behavior is caused by biology and how much of it results from social conditioning. The American political scientist Francis Fukuyama, Fukuyama, F. (1998). Women and the evolution of world politics. Foreign Affairs, 77 (5), 24–40. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/214292115?accountid=1611. however, has forcefully contended that “virtually all reputable evolutionary biologists today think there are profound differences between the sexes that are genetically rather than culturally rooted, and that these differences extend beyond the body into the realm of the mind.”
What might some of these differences be when it comes to leadership, and how persistent might they be? Fukuyama answered that “male tendencies to band together for competitive purposes, seek to dominate status hierarchies, and act out aggressive fantasies toward one another can be rechanneled but never eliminated.” According to him, boys have been shown in hundreds of studies to be more aggressive, both verbally and physically, in their dreams, words, and actions than girls.
With respect to international relations, Fukuyama wrote that women are less likely than men to see force as a legitimate tool for resolving conflicts. Ellen Sirleaf-Johnson added that “it is the skills of cooperation and collaboration that count in a new age of interconnectedness, qualities in which women excel.”Johnson-Sirleaf, E. (2010, Africa’s women have led in the past, and will lead in the future. New African, 78–79. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/807485982?accountid=1611 And in the Philippine businesses studied by Roffey, the women leaders were more frequently found to demonstrate nurturance and flexible risk-taking than traits often ascribed to male leaders, such as firmness and single-mindedness.
Key Takeaway
Leadership can take many forms, including nontraditional ones such as matriarchal leadership, and the results of various forms may differ substantially.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Think of the last several movies you’ve watched. Who took leadership in their stories, and how effectively? Assuming that the leadership was not matriarchal, how do you think the films would have come across differently if the leadership had featured women rather than men? How do you think men and women in the audience might have reacted differently?
2. If all their skills and authority were the same, and you were forced to choose between a woman and a man as the leader of a group you were part of, what choice would you make? Would it depend on what kind of group? If so, why? Explain your answers to a classmate.
3. Google “women heads of state” and determine how many countries in the world are currently led by women. Would you expect any common threads among the countries, or among their leaders? Why or why not? | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/08%3A_Group_Leadership/8.05%3A_Diverse_Forms_of_Leadership.txt |
In this chapter, we have discussed what leadership is, examining the amazing range of behaviors, actions and traits associated with leadership across contexts and cultures. We also explored how one becomes a leader, through a democratic election, by appointment, or through a process of emerging as a leader to meet a need, address an issue, or through experience or skill. When people turn to you to help them solve their problems it is a sure sign you’ve become, in some respect, a leader. We explored a range of theories associated with leadership, from the idea that there are born leaders with universal traits, to the recognition that the situation or context can make a significant impact. We also discussed transformative leadership, where the leader, through energy and enthusiasm, motivates the group or team to accomplish their goals with the conclusion: “We did it!” Leadership is an important part of teams and groups, and learning to listen, to recognize skills and talents, and how to facilitate a positive team environment can make all the difference. Leaders are an important part of groups, and they use their effective communication skills to get the job done.
Chapter Review Questions
1. Interpretive Question
1. Our world is changing rapidly in terms of technology, economics, political forces, and other features. Which of these changes, if any, do you feel may call upon outstanding leaders to behave differently than they might have in the past? What do you expect those differences to be?
2. Application Question
1. In a small group of students, identify a task or situation which requires leadership. Now have half the group think of a male leader whom they admire and the other half identify such a female leaders. Have each half of the group write a paragraph or two describing the key behaviors it feels the leader would be likely to exhibit under the circumstances you’ve set forth. Compare the paragraphs and discuss whether and to what degree the gender of the leader might account for differences between the descriptions.
8.07: Additional Resources
Read about groups and teams on the business website 1000 Ventures. http://www.1000ventures.com/business_guide/crosscuttings/team_main.html
Learn more about Tuckman’s Linear Model. http://www.infed.org/thinkers/tuckman.htm
Learn more about Dewey’s sequence of group problem solving on this site from Manatee Community College in Florida. http://faculty.mccfl.edu/frithl/SPC1600/handouts/Dewey.htm
Read a hands-on article about how to conduct productive meetings. http://www.articlesnatch.com/Article/How-To-Conduct-Productive-Meetings-/132050
Visit this WikiHow site to learn how to use VOIP. http://www.wikihow.com/Use-VoIP
Watch a YouTube video on cloud computing. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6PNuQHUiV3Q
Read about groups and teams, and contribute to a wiki about them, on Wikibooks. http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Managing_Groups_and_Teams
How did Twitter get started? Find out. http://twitter.com/about
Take a (nonscientific) quiz to identify your leadership style. http://psychology.about.com/library/quiz/bl-leadershipquiz.htm
A review of leadership qualities in a self-assessment format. http://www.nsba.org/sbot/toolkit/LeadSA.html
Leadership Self-Assessment Activity. http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/leader/survlead.html
The Trusted Leader Self-Assessment. http://www.thetrustedleader.com/self-assess-1.html
Personal Reflection, Hill Consulting Group Leadership Self-Assessment. http://www.hillconsultinggroup.org/assets/pdfs/leadership-assessment.pdf
The Leadership Motivation Assessment from MindTools. http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_01.htm
Leadership Self-Assessment Tool from the National Center for Infants, Toddlers, and Families. http://www.zerotothree.org/about-us/areas-of-expertise/reflective-practice-program-development/leadership-self-assessment-tool.html
Leadership Self-Assessment, Online Form and Scoring, from McGraw-Hill. http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0070876940/student_view0/chapter6/activity_6_4.html
WikiBooks: Managing Groups and Teams/Effective Team Leadership. https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Managing_Groups_and_Teams/Effective_Team_Leadership
Successful Small Team Leadership: Manage the Group, Not the Individuals. http://knowwpcarey.com/article.cfm?aid=229
TealTrust, What makes a good team leader? http://www.teal.org.uk/et/page5.htm
About.com: 10 Ways to Become a Better Leader. http://psychology.about.com/od/leadership/tp/become-a-better-leader.htm
12 Rules for Team Leadership (Transformative Model). http://www.legacee.com/Info/Leadership/TeamLeadership.html
Leadership Exercises and Tips from the University of Oregon. http://leadership.uoregon.edu/resources/exercises_tips | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/08%3A_Group_Leadership/8.06%3A_Summary.txt |
Introductory Exercises
1. Identify three things that you feel motivate you more than any others to work together with other people. Tell a classmate about a situation in which you benefited from those three things. Be as specific as you can about how each thing affected your attitude and behavior.
2. Think of a time interval during which your level of motivation to contribute to the work of a group increased or decreased dramatically. What caused the change? When you lost motivation, who or what might have prevented you from doing so?
3. What’s the most challenging goal that a group you were part of ever set for itself? Did you achieve it? List several factors that contributed to your reaching it or failing to do so.
4. Think of one of the most successful groups you’ve been a member of. What steps did the group take regularly, if any, to check the level of its effectiveness?
Gettin’ good players is easy. Gettin’ ’em to play together is the hard part.
Casey Stengel
Coming together is a beginning, staying together is progress, and working together is success.
Henry Ford
A football coach was attempting to motivate his players through a difficult season. They were discouraged. Finally, the coach gathered the team together roughly and bellowed, “Did Michael Jordan ever quit?” The team yelled back, “No!” The coach then shouted, “What about the Wright brothers? Did they ever give up?” “No way!” the team yelled. “How about John Elway?” They all responded, “No!” “What about Mother Teresa?” “No! No!” they screamed. “Did Elmer Smith ever quit?” There was a long silence. Finally, one player was bold enough to ask, “Gosh, Coach, who’s Elmer Smith? We never heard of him.” The coach snapped back, “Of course you never heard of him—he quit!”
Introduction
In this chapter, we’ll address four major questions. They are “Why do people take action at any given time, instead of remaining inert and inactive?”, “Why do people choose to act in the particular ways they do?”, “How can we get individuals, by themselves, to act in certain ways?”, and “Once people are acting properly as individuals, how can we get them to work together for the good of a group?”
These questions are short and simple, but their answers are not. Just think of some times in your own experience when you wished you had some way to get another person, or a group you were part of, to “get off the dime” and move in a direction you felt was the right way to go! The frustration you felt has echoed through the ages; the task of motivating people has challenged human beings since at least the dawn of history. Without motivation, we flounder or stagnate.
In the pages ahead, we’ll review a number of theories of motivation, ranging from complex to relatively straightforward ones, and consider factors that influence how susceptible people are to being motivated. Next, we’ll list and examine two kinds of strategies: first, those which can produce motivation in people, and second, those which can lead people, once motivated, to collaborate with one another.
No matter how people act, and whether they take any action at all, the process of determining and stating whether something happened or didn’t happen will always be crucial to understanding the past and preparing for the future. You can probably recall situations in your life when a person or a group seemed to be wandering about in circles, repeating statements and behaviors rather than building on them to move forward. Perhaps it was because, even though there was action going on, no one was examining what the action was leading to. To end our chapter, therefore, we’ll consider the vital role that feedback and assessment play in generating and maintaining group motivation. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/09%3A_Group_Motivation/9.00%3A_Chapter_Introduction.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Identify two fundamental questions related to group motivation and collaboration
2. Identify factors that affect the ability to exercise persuasion and influence toward motivating collaborative behavior in groups
Your corn is ripe today; mine will be so tomorrow. ‘Tis profitable for us both, that I should labour with you today, and that you should aid me tomorrow.
David Hume
“Let everyone sweep in front of his own door, and the whole world will be clean.”
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
“A dark night in a city that knows how to keep its secrets, but on the 12th floor of the Acme Building, one man is still trying to find the answers to life’s persistent questions: Guy Noir, Private Eye.” Since 1974, Garrison KeillorKeillor, G. (2012, May 26). Guy Noir, private eye. Retrieved from http://prairiehome.publicradio.org/programs/2012/05/26/scripts/noir.shtml has hosted a nationally-broadcast weekly radio program called “A Prairie Home Companion.” One regular feature of Keillor’s show, about a bumbling detective from Minnesota, has always begun with the words we’ve just quoted.
The fictitious detective may not know it, but among life’s persistent questions are those dealing with motivation and collaboration. As the theologian H.E. Luccock wrote, “No one can whistle a symphony. It takes a whole orchestra to play it.” The same goes for any other group of people: no individual can carry the whole load or produce the whole group’s required outcomes.
Before we analyze motivation and collaboration in detail, let’s first lay the groundwork by considering what we mean by the terms. Engleburg and Wynn, Engleberg, I.N., & Wynn, D. R. (2013). Working in groups (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson. wrote that motivation consists of giving a person “a cause, or reason, to act.” Collaboration, in turn, consists of joint expenditure of energy by two or more people in pursuit of a shared goal or aim.
Two Fundamental Questions
We can see that two fundamental questions need to be confronted by anyone who hopes to motivate a group to collaborate:
1. How can we induce any single individual to act in any particular way?
2. How can we induce many individuals to act together?
Society can function only if people are motivated to collaborate in groups. Getting people to do that, however, can be extremely difficult. As Garrison Keillor would put it, it’s a persistent question, and it’s one that can tire people out if they persist in trying to answer it. One of Keillor’s “Guy Noir” episodes illustrates this reality.
The episode describes a field trip by a middle school band class to Washington, D.C. Ostensibly, the purpose of the field trip is to have the students produce and perform music together while enjoying the experience of visiting the capital. Once the group reaches the National Mall however, its band director gives up on any attempt to herd his students from one destination to another—to collaborate. When Guy sweetly asks one of the girls in the band why she has shaved half her head and why a boy has tattoos on his ears, she calls him a freak and tells him to mind his own business. Soon the clarinet section moves off in six different directions and the percussion section disappears entirely.
In the middle of all this, the band director is wearing earplugs to avoid having to listen to his students. “Earplugs; they’re a blessing,” he claims, as a noisy motorcycle nearly flattens him. “I’m going to retire in two weeks to Wyoming,” he continues, where “the only horns are on the cattle and the only winds are in the trees.”
As far as musical performance is concerned, the band director lets his students play three-minute concerts because he can’t get them to concentrate any longer than that. (The idea of making things short by eliminating repetition is, Keillor writes, revolutionary in Washington).
People in the real world generally show better manners and are able to focus more readily than the characters in this fictional account. Still, motivating real people to collaborate is no simple matter. Garrison Keillor wrote this about the actual Washington, D.C.: “It occurred to me that most of the people I saw in Washington were special needs people, and the Congress is designed for verbally aggressive listening-impaired people, and that months go by and nothing gets done, and in an election year, less than nothing, and maybe that’s what the balance of powers means.”
Persuasion and Influence
Hybels & Weaver, Hybels, S., & Weaver, R.L. (1998). Communicating effectively (5th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. indicated that getting people to act in a certain way requires persuasion and influence. How and where to best direct the persuasion and influence, however, will vary with time. It may be possible to motivate people to work together at certain times on certain tasks, but not at other times on other tasks. Why? Think back to those middle school students. Many factors will vary from time to time, including these:
Individuals’ and groups’ level of receptiveness. Sometimes we’re open to suggestions and proposals; sometimes we’re not. Middle school students, for instance, might be more apt to collaborate right after a good lunch than first thing in the morning or in the late afternoon.
The surrounding circumstances. We’re more likely to focus our attention if we’re not distracted by external noise or other sensory inputs. Putting middle school students in the middle of a bustling urban center is not likely to help them focus on a joint task.
People’s physical condition. Obviously, if a group task is physically demanding, those who possess strength or stamina will be better able to participate than those who don’t. If the middle school students were hot or exhausted, they’d be less likely to cooperate in getting anything done together. The wise grandmother of one of the authors of this book always used to advise other parents, “If your kids aren’t cooperating, feed them.”
People’s attitudes toward a particular task. Getting people to do what they already want to do is no big deal; someone has written that an easy way to be a leader is to “watch where people are headed and just get out in front of them.” Middle school students might not need a lot of persuasion to eat a few boxes of pizza together out on the grass by the Washington Monument. To get them to walk quietly together through an exhibit of Renaissance porcelain in the National Gallery of Art, on the other hand, would not be easy.
Lest we conclude that motivating people to collaborate is a hopeless enterprise, we can look around us any day and see that, although it isn’t easy, it is possible. Tyler and Blader, Tyler, T.R., & Blader, S.L. (2000). Cooperation in groups. Philadelphia: Psychology Press. pointed out that intentional actions, policies, and practices can often influence people’s dispositions, and through them shape cooperation. We’ll consider some such actions, policies, and practices later in this chapter. Above all, we’ll see that adopting a flexible attitude can help us influence people to adopt the motivation to collaborate.
Key Takeaway
Motivating people to collaborate in groups is challenging because the effectiveness of persuasion and influence depend on changeable human factors.
Exercise \(1\)
1. If you were leading a middle-school field trip, what principles and practices would you follow to yield better results than the ones described by Garrison Keillor?
2. Think of a time when you or someone in a group with you successfully motivated the group to take action. What factors of the situation contributed favorably to the positive motivation? What factors made it difficult to motivate the group? | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/09%3A_Group_Motivation/9.01%3A_Group_Motivation_and_Collaboration.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Distinguish between content and process theories of motivation
2. Identify five content theories of motivation and four process theories
3. Identify three kinds of action that individuals or groups who are motivated may take
Nothing great was ever achieved without enthusiasm.
Ralph Waldo Emerson
Alone we can do so little; together we can do so much.
Helen Keller
The Latin term sine qua non literally means “without which, not” or “that without which, nothing.” In other words, if something is a sine qua non, it’s absolutely necessary. Emerson’s comment indicates that he considered enthusiasm to be the sine qua non of greatness. Our position in this book is that motivation is the sine qua non of effective group action.
As Hoy & Miskel, Hoy, W.K., & Miskel, C.G. (1982). Educational administration: Theory, research, and practice (2nd ed.). New York: Random House. noted, motivation comprises “complex forces that start and maintain voluntary activity directed to achieve personal goals.” In short, being motivated means having energy and wanting to put it to work.
Before we examine just what motivation accomplishes within an individual or in a group setting, we should first take a look at a number of views concerning where it comes from.
Theories of Motivation
Thinkers in business, education, psychology, and many other fields have long wondered about and performed research into the causes of motivation. Their theories fall into two major categories: content theories and process theories.
Content theories of motivation focus on the factors which motivate behavior by rewarding or reinforcing it. Process theories attempt instead to determine how factors that motivate behavior interact with each other.
Content Theories of Motivation
Several content theories of motivation were developed in the middle to late years of the 20th century. Probably the most well-known today is Maslow’s need hierarchy, with its five levels, which we reviewed earlier in this book.
Another content theory from this period is Clayton Alderfer’s “ERG” theory. Alderfer, C.P. (1972). Existence, relatedness, and growth: Human needs in organizational settings. New York: Free Press. According to Alderfer, people’s needs can be broken down into the categories of existence, relatedness, and growth. Like Maslow’s hierarchy, Alderfer’s model portrayed people’s needs in a hierarchical fashion. It differed from Maslow’s hierarchy, however, both in its nomenclature for the levels in the hierarchy and in its contention that development through the hierarchy takes place in a cycle between differentiation and integration. Differentiation is a broadening of people’s awareness through new and challenging experiences, whereas integration follows as an individual brings together diverse elements of his or her personality into a new and more unified form. When you decide to join a new club or organization, for instance, you first meet many people whose habits and behaviors may be new and perhaps disorienting to you. Later, however, you become more familiar with the way things work and feel consolidated and confident in your role within that group.
A third content theory is Frederick Herzberg’s two-factor theory. Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. (1959). The motivation to work. New York: Wiley. Herzberg classed rewards as either “motivators” or “hygienes.” He held that motivators—including achievement, recognition, responsibility, and the opportunity to advance within a group—are factors that contribute to satisfaction, but which when absent don’t cause dissatisfaction. In other words, we appreciate them but can do without them. Hygienes, on the other hand—such as money, status, and job security—don’t create satisfaction when they’re present, according to Herzberg, but do lead to dissatisfaction if they’re absent. In a sense, thus, they’re what people consider to be basic minimal needs and can go only as far as preventing dissatisfaction.
Two more content theories of motivation have been identified by more contemporary authorities. Kenneth ThomasThomas, K.W. (2000). Intrinsic motivation at work: Building energy and commitment. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler. drew a distinction between extrinsic rewards—those which come from the external environment—and intrinsic rewards, which come from within an individual or group.
Thomas believed that intrinsic rewards are more likely to motivate people and identified four kinds of intrinsic motivators. The first is a sense of meaningfulness, which is the idea that what a person or group is doing is worthwhile. The second is a sense of choice, which is the feeling that the person or group can make decisions about how to behave. The third is a sense of competence, which is the belief that the person or group is behaving capably. The fourth motivator is a sense of progress, which is the feeling that the person or group is actually accomplishing something.
A final content theory of motivation was put forth by Steven ReissReiss, S. (2000). Who am I? The 16 basic desires that motivate our behavior and define our personality. New York: Tarcher/Putnam and researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whoami.htm and developed as the outgrowth of a study involving more than 6,000 people. On the basis of statistical analysis of his results, Reiss contended that 16 basic desires motivate people’s behavior: power, independence, curiosity, acceptance, order, saving, honor, idealism, social contact, family, status, vengeance, romance, eating, physical exercise, and tranquility.
Interestingly, Reiss asserted that 14 of the 16 desires are similar to those found in animals and are likely to be genetically determined. He also suggested that people’s motivations differ substantially from individual to individual and group to group because each person’s ranking of the 16 desires is unique.
Process Theories of Motivation
Theorists who espouse process theories of motivation are more interested in what starts, sustains, and stops behavior than they are in the things that motivate the behavior in the first place. We’ll consider four kinds of process theories in this section.
Expectancy Theory
Expectancy theory was originated by Victor Vroom, Vroom, V. (1964). Work and motivation. New York: Wiley. and has been broadened and popularized since then by other authorities. Vroom’s theory is complex, but its central idea is straightforward: People are most likely to be motivated in a certain way if they believe 1) that they will receive a reward, 2) that the reward they expect to receive is something they value highly, and 3) that they can do what it takes to achieve the reward.
Here’s an example. If the members of a team of employees think they will receive praise from their boss if they produce a snappy PowerPoint presentation as part of a project they’ve been assigned, if they all care about receiving the boss’s praise, and if they think they have the skills to create the presentation, then they’re apt to work hard on the activity.
Attribution Theory
Attribution theory holds that people’s behavior is motivated by how they interpret the behavior of others around them. For instance, we may think that what’s causing others to act as they do is a combination of internal, personal factors. On the other hand, we may think that their behavior is a product of environmental variables.
According to attribution theory, people might actually be motivated to convey more significant rewards for someone’s failure than for success. Take the case of the team of employees working on the project. Let’s say that their PowerPoint presentation has several errors in it. If the boss observes it and thinks, “Wow—they must’ve put a lot of time into this,” he or she might be motivated to congratulate the team on its hard work and offer some kindly advice for improving the presentation. On the other hand, if the presentation is letter-perfect but the boss thinks, “I’ll bet the department head down the hall showed them exactly how to do that,” the boss may be motivated to offer only a routine acknowledgment that the assignment has been completed.
Goal Theory
Goal theory, Locke, E.A. (1968). Toward a theory of task motivation and incentives. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 3, 157–189. contends that people are motivated to behave in certain ways, and to keep behaving in those ways, primarily because they intend to achieve particular goals. This sounds simple and reasonable enough, but goal theorists believe that reaching a goal actually includes seven steps. The first five steps bring behavior about, whereas the last two maintain and regulate it.
Here’s what a goal-setter has to do in these seven steps: first, survey and understand his or her environment; second, evaluate which elements of the environment are of value to him or her; third, make an emotional assessment of possible courses of action; fourth, decide what is apt to happen if he or she behaves in a particular way; fifth, decide how likely it is that the results he or she desires can actually be produced; sixth, decide exactly how to behave; and seventh, take action. The authors of this book appreciate the intellectual elegance of goal theory but wonder if they, you, or anyone any of us know has ever deliberately followed all these steps!
Behaviorism
Behaviorism has probably received more attention and is better known throughout the public at large than any of the other three theories we’ve discussed. B.F. Skinner, Skinner, B.F. (1974). About behaviorism. New York: Knopf. the most prominent Western exponent of behaviorism in the last century, wrote that all human behavior is a lawful process determined and controlled in systematic and consistent ways. Furthermore, Skinner and his adherents contended that all behavior is a function of its consequences in the environment. What this means is that any action people take will depend completely on what happens afterward. If the action affects the environment in such a way that it afterward strengthens the behavior, the behavior will persist or reoccur. If what happens afterward does not strengthen the behavior, on the other hand, the behavior will eventually cease.
Unlike other theorists of motivation, behaviorists do not describe what happens inside people when they act in certain ways. They don’t deny that people have feelings and thoughts, but to the degree that they deal with such phenomena at all, they consider them to be effects rather than causes of behavior.
Fruits of Motivation
We’ve already established that motivation is a necessary condition to the functioning of any individual or group. If we have it, we possess the capacity to take action.
So, what action might we take? Three possibilities stand out, each of them either for better or worse. First of all, we may comply with other people’s wishes, rules, or expectations. We may be motivated, for instance, to obey traffic signals and “no trespassing” signs.
Second, we may produce outcomes or create resources for a group. Motivated members of a political party, for example, may prepare or distribute flyers or make phone calls supporting the party’s candidates.
Third, we may decide to sacrifice some of our own comfort or security for the sake of others. The classic example of this behavior is wartime military service.
Notice that motivation, wherever it comes from, provides a capacity for action but doesn’t guarantee it. In other words, it’s a necessary but not a sufficient condition for getting things done. In the next section, we’ll take a look at ways to both produce motivation and ensure that people take action based on it.
Key Takeaway
Content theories of motivation concentrate upon rewards and reinforcing factors, whereas process theories focus on what starts, sustains, and stops behavior in response to those rewards and reinforcers.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Frederick Herzberg wrote that people’s motivation can be maintained only if they are given responsibility and an opportunity to achieve something. Do you agree? Provide an example that supports your answer.
2. Name and rank your top five desires from Steven Reiss’s list of 16 desires. Share and compare your desires with a classmate. What do the results imply with respect to how you and the other person might best become motivated in a group?
3. Expectancy theory says that people will be motivated under three conditions: if they believe they will receive a reward for doing something, if they value the reward, and if they believe they can do what it takes to achieve the reward. Describe a situation in which you were motivated to do something and explain whether and how those three conditions were met. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/09%3A_Group_Motivation/9.02%3A_Role_of_Motivation.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Acknowledge the value of trust among group members
2. Identify four effective motivation strategies
No matter what accomplishments you make, somebody helped you.
Althea Gibson
In the first parts of this chapter, we’ve discussed several theories of motivation. Some of the theories laid greatest emphasis on identifying factors that attract people to become motivated, whereas others focused on how the factors interact to produce motivation. What we haven’t answered yet, however, is a very important question: “How can we get a person to acquire motivation and actually act on it?”
At first glance, we might think this is a very easy question to answer. After all, we see people acting in ways that other people want them to every day. What if getting a person motivated and having the person do something on the basis of that motivation is a really simple matter? What if all we need to do is follow a few steps, like these, which are based on the behaviorist concepts of B.F. Skinner that we touched on earlier?
1. Tell the person what you want him or her to do in measurable terms. Explain specifically what you have in mind.
2. Measure the person’s current level of performance. Determine whether and how well the person is doing the activity in question.
3. Let the person know what kind of reward he or she will receive if he or she does what you’ve asked. Be sure to make clear that the reward will follow if the performance goal is achieved.
4. When the person does what you’ve asked, give the person the reward you said you would.
In the world of business, some organizations have tried to follow exactly these four behaviorist steps to motivate employees. Burke, Burke, W.W. (2011). Organization change (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. and KelloKello, J.E. (2008). Reflections on I-O psychology and behaviorism. In N. K. Innis (ed.), Reflections on adaptive behavior: Essays in honor of J.E.R. Staddon (pp. 291–313). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. wrote that in the 1970s Emery Air Freight was one of the first and most publicized examples. As it turned out, Emery found that performance by its employees increased and that costs to the company declined by approximately \$3 million over a three-year period. Schulz, D., & Schulz, S.E. (2002). Psychology and work today (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
But things are more complicated than this in other places, aren’t they? Emery Air Freight was in the business of processing packages, and that’s a pretty cut-and-dried industrial procedure. College students and church members and people in community organizations or not-for-profit agencies are involved in broader, more complex activities than those that many air freight workers or other employees in commercial enterprises perform.
Requirements for Motivating Action
According to behaviorism, it’s unnecessary to pay attention to people’s interior states in order to motivate them to do things. Emery Air Freight’s approach, with its predetermined regimen of consequences for its employees’ behavior, was consistent with this belief.
Most theorists today, however, believe that people need to undergo certain mental processes and reach certain mental states in order to take any particular action. Specifically, for people to be motivated to act the way someone else wants them to, they first need to possess the skills and abilities required to accomplish the action. If they have those skills and abilities, they also need to know what the other person wants them to do, how to do it, and what will happen if they do it.
In a group, having a designated leader propose that people act in a certain way can often be helpful. This will depend on the structure and mood and purpose of the group, however.
If you’re part of a team of students that has been assigned a project, for instance, you might not decide to choose a leader. Instead, you and the other members may want to motivate each other by discussing your needs and options as equals to see what ideas and directions bubble up spontaneously.
No matter who is trying to motivate whom to act, one final consideration should be taken into account. Motivation, as we noted in chapter 4, is at least partly determined by whether people trust each other.
What if you think someone’s primary reason for asking you to do something in a group is that the person hopes to gain personally from what you do? If that’s the case, you’re not very apt to be motivated. If the person seems to care about you genuinely, on the other hand, you’re more likely to go along with his or her suggestions.
Motivation Strategies
Let’s take a look at four strategies for motivating people in groups. Three of the strategies are based in longstanding organizational research, whereas one is a broader approach to motivation in general.
Based on their study of research in groups, Hoy and Miskel, Hoy, W.K., & Miskel, C.G. (1982). Educational administration: Theory, research, and practice (2nd ed.). New York: Random House. contended that taking the following steps will lead people to be motivated:
1. Allow all members of the group to set goals together, rather than imposing goals upon them. Research indicates that people who get to participate in developing their own goals become more satisfied during the performance of their tasks than those who don’t. If your student group is supposed to deliver a presentation together, you should all meet at the start of your assignment and decide what you plan to accomplish.
2. Establish goals that are specific. Broad or unclear goals are unlikely to cause people in a group to focus their attention and energy well. Instead of saying, “Let’s all pitch in and give our presentation 10 days from now,” it’s better to decide which person will talk about which subjects in the presentation, for how many minutes, and with how many handouts or projected images.
3. Establish the highest possible goals. You’ve perhaps heard the adage “Shoot for the moon; even if you miss, at least you’ll hit the stars.” The saying isn’t astronomically accurate, of course, since the stars are a lot farther away than the moon. The principle is a good one, though, since research shows that the more difficult the goals, the more effort people will put into achieving them, as long as they accept the more difficult goals in the first place.
Hoy and Miskel contended that these three strategies tend to reinforce one another. In particular, they wrote, members of a group who are allowed to participate in setting its goals may not necessarily perform at a higher level than those who aren’t, but they’re likely to set higher goals for themselves than people who have goals imposed upon them. Thus, at least indirectly, the outcomes of their work may be better for the group.
In his book Intrinsic Motivation at Work, Kenneth Thomas wrote about a fourth strategy for motivating people: developing rewards tentatively and being prepared to change them as circumstances dictate. Personal goals and desires may shift with time, he contended, and people also sometimes have multiple and even conflicting goals. Sometimes a person who initially was enthusiastic about working on a task might say, “My get-up-and-go got up and went.”
Students working on a team project, for example, may go through a cycle of changing personal goals. When they first get together, they may want more than anything else to minimize the time they spend on the project. Later, they might start to care much more about receiving a good grade—or about building relationships among themselves, or about something else entirely. To motivate them requires flexibility.
Key Takeaway
Allowing group members to set specific, challenging goals and being willing to modify those goals as circumstances change is likely to motivate them to act in a desired manner.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Think of a group you’ve been a part of in which trust among its members was strong. How did you know that the trust existed? What caused it to develop? How did its presence affect the group’s motivation?
2. Some people might claim that part of leadership is to set goals for a group, not to ask people to set its goals together. If you were ever in a group whose leader established its goals, how do you feel that influenced the members’ attitudes and motivation?
3. In what ways do you feel a group’s motivation might benefit if its members operated without a designated leader? In what ways might its motivation suffer? | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/09%3A_Group_Motivation/9.03%3A_Effective_Motivation_Strategies.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Identify the nature and implications of theories that assume that people collaborate for instrumental reasons
2. Identify a theory of group collaboration that emphasizes social links among group members
3. Identify five strategies for fostering group collaboration
I maintain that cooperation is good, and competition is bad, that society does not flourish by the antagonism of its atoms, but by the mutual helpfulness of human beings.
Helen Keller
In the last section, we discussed ways to motivate individuals to act in certain ways. Now we turn to a harder question: How do we get them to work together?
A Prevalent Theory
In addition to setting goals that are specific, challenging, and jointly developed, how we try to get people to work together with others depends on our view of what makes people decide to do so. A prevalent theory, which Tom TylerTyler, T.R. (2011). Why people cooperate: The role of social motivations. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. contends has been especially influential in the past few decades throughout American society, has been that people collaborate for instrumental reasons. What this means is that they weigh costs and benefits and choose what they feel will be most advantageous to themselves. Their amount and quality of participation in a group then depends on “material exchanges”—transfers of rewards back and forth between the group’s members. Rusbult, C.E., & Van Lange, P.A.M. (1996). Interdependence processes. In E.T. Higgins & A.W. Kruglanski (eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (pp. 564–596). New York: Guilford. If these transfers don’t favor them as individuals, they will simply abandon the group.
If we operate according to this theory, there are many implications. First, we may want to spend considerable effort to decide on incentives to offer group members. Second, we may feel we need to be continually vigilant to make sure our incentives are working. Third, we may need to watch people carefully to see who is pitching in sufficiently. And fourth, we may want to create sanctions that we can impose upon people who don’t comply with the group’s rules and directions.
The Role of Social Links
An alternative theory, based on recent research by Tyler, Tyler, T.R. (2006). Why people obey the law (2nd ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. and others, suggests that people do take their self-interest into account when they participate in groups, but that they collaborate primarily for social reasons.
According to this alternative theory, people will be best motivated to collaborate on the basis of social links. These are defined as “long-term connections based on attitudes, emotional connections, shared identities, common values, trust in the motivation of others, & joint commitment to fairness.”Tyler, T.R. (2011). Why people cooperate: The role of social motivations. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Tyler’s book Why People Cooperate presents the results of his studies in business, legal settings, and political organizations as evidence that people are often willing to give up the opportunity for personal gain in order to contribute to the welfare of a group as a whole. Specifically, Tyler’s research with groups in more than 15 countries showed that “in none of the countries were people’s behaviors consistent with a narrow self-interest model.”Tyler, T.R. (2011). Why people cooperate: The role of social motivations. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
The proponents of this theory believe that using a combination of incentives or punishments—“carrots” and “sticks”—is not always going to produce collaborative behavior in a group. It’s very possible, for instance, for group members who are treated this way to do just enough to get exactly the incentives they’ve been promised rather than to go beyond the call of duty for the sake of the group as a whole.
Tyler pointed out that soldiers can be forced into the military in times of war. Neither money nor legislation nor a military draft nor even the threat of severe legal actions such as courts-martial, however, can actually make them willing to lay down their lives. Something else has to be part of the picture.
Strategies to Promote Collaboration
Indeed, fighting successfully in a war requires total and complete collaboration on the part of soldiers. In Shakespeare’s Henry V, prior to the Battle of Agincourt, King Henry rallies troops in the famous “St. Crispin’s Day Speech.” In the speech, he refers to “we few, we happy few, we band of brothers—for whoever sheds his blood with me today shall be my brother.” As a result of his speech, the English soldiers fight valiantly, and ultimately they defeat the French and win the battle.
What can we learn from Shakespeare’s account, as well as from the thoughts of modern theorists, to promote collaboration within a group? Here are several strategies which researchers now believe can be successful:
• Appeal to Members’ Social Links
Appeal explicitly to members’ social links, including their belief in and reliance on each other, rather than only to their narrow self-interest.
As Tyler and Blader, Tyler, T.R., & Blader, S.L. (2000). Cooperation in groups. Philadelphia: Psychology Press]. wrote, “Social motivations lead not only to compliance, but to voluntary deference to rules and to more general willing cooperation.” We don’t have to say that our fellow group members are brothers and sisters, even metaphorically, but we can remind them of their mutual reliance.
• Identify and Revisit Values and Goals
Ensure that the group identifies and periodically revisits its values and goals by means of full participation of its members. Heath and SiasHeath, R.G., & Sias, P.M. (1999). Communicating spirit in a collaborative alliance. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 27, 356–376. pointed out that leaving someone out of these processes at any time can weaken that person’s social links with the group and thereby make it less likely for the person to work on behalf of its purposes later on.
• Create Relational Contracts
Besides adopting formal written agreements, create “relational contracts.”Baker, G., Gibbons, R., & Murphy, K.J. (2002). Relational contracts and the theory of the firm. Quarterly journal of economics (117), 39–84 These are informal statements that rest on mutual trust and describe the knowledge and other strengths that various group members will bring to bear in conducting the group’s work. For instance, in a group planning a community bazaar, one person might pledge to prepare banners because he or she possesses artistic talent. This pledge would not be part of the group’s initial goal-setting process. Neither would it last beyond the completion of the bazaar. Still, it would help carry the group successfully through one of its important activities.
Because relational contracts are tied to particular situations and circumstances, they are more flexible than formal, permanent agreements. At the same time, it’s important to take into account that they are also harder to enforce because of their very informality.
• Think Big and Long Term
Ask group members to think big and think long-term. Burke, Burke, W.W. (2011). Organization change: Theory and practice (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. wrote that group members should engage in “systemic thinking.” He meant by this that they should regard their group as an enduring and organic totality, rather than simply as the sum of many individuals at a particular time.
King Henry said this when he told his soldiers of the lasting importance of their combined actions:
“This story shall the good man teach his son,
And Crispin Crispian shall ne’er go by
From this day to the ending of the world,
But we in it shall be remembered”
In the same spirit, Burke urged groups to build and maintain an organizational memory—a record, preferably in hard-copy or digital form, of the history of the group. Such a record will tend to promote cohesion and identity in a group. It should also help integrate new members into the group as they join it.
Celebrate Group Accomplishments
Celebrate the group’s accomplishments. People are busy, and members of groups may often feel rushed to accomplish their tasks and move on to other activities. Unless they pause from time to time and take stock of their accomplishments, therefore, they may lose focus and energy.
Once a group is on the road to collaboration, its strengths can be further ensured through feedback and assessment. In the last section of this chapter, we’ll consider those two final vital elements of effective motivational behavior.
Key Takeaway
Understanding the significance of social links in a group can provide the foundation for five strategies to promote collaboration.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Think of a group of which you’re a member. To what degree do you believe your fellow members are motivated to collaborate for instrumental reasons, including self-interest, and to what degree by what Tyler calls “social links”? Give examples which support your opinion.
2. When have you relinquished the opportunity to achieve personal gain in a group in order to contribute to the group as a whole? What made you do so? How did the other group members respond to your sacrifice?
3. Consider two academic groups of which you were once a part—perhaps your high school graduating class and a school club or athletic team. What efforts, if any, did each group make to maintain an organizational memory? Comparing the two groups, which one has experienced better collaboration among its members since you left it? | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/09%3A_Group_Motivation/9.04%3A_Effective_Collaboration_Strategies.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Differentiate between feedback and assessment
2. Identify the importance of feedback and assessment in motivating group members
3. Identify seven characteristics of feedback and assessment which motivate group members
4. Identify eight appropriate subjects of group feedback and assessment
Any old farmer in Vermont can tell you that you don’t fatten your lambs by weighing them.
Jonathan Kozol
To succeed as a team is to hold all of the members accountable for their expertise.
Mitchell Caplan
Jonathan Kozol’s point about lambs was that improving something requires that we do more than just check to see if it’s getting better. As we’ve noted in the past several sections with respect to motivation and collaboration in groups, such positive change also requires hard work, concentration, persistence, patience, and a willingness to invest personal energy and time on behalf of goals.
Although he said that weighing lambs by itself will not fatten them, Kozol didn’t say that weighing them isn’t important at all. If a farmer does nothing but feed and tend animals, after all, how will the farmer know if the feeding and tending are working? And the same thing goes for group communication: if members of a group do nothing but work hard and concentrate intensively on pursuing their goals, how will they know if they’re actually moving in the right direction?
Feeding and tending of animals are necessary for them to grow, just as tending a group is necessary for it to progress toward its goals. But for farmers, as well as for members of groups, so are feedback and assessment. As Thompson, Thompson, L. (2008). Organizational behavior today. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. wrote, “It is the feedback element that is the critical ingredient in producing change in behavior.” Motivation, in short, depends on both feedback and assessment.
How Feedback and Assessment Differ
Feedback is a general term that simply means communicating with someone in response to a message from that person or with respect to a perception you have about him or her. In day-to-day conversations, it may be a straightforward descriptive comment about facts that happen to catch your attention, like “It looks like you just got a haircut.” In a group, an example of feedback might be something like “You’ve completed your part of the project now.”
Assessment, on the other hand, is one variety of feedback. It is an expression of judgment about the value, significance, or merit of a person’s nature or behavior. Instead of just describing someone’s haircut or indicating that the person has finished a project, an assessment might be more like “Your haircut looks great” or “It’s about time you finished your part of the project.”
When you transmit any message to other people, and particularly if you share an impression or perception about them, you’re asking them to enter a communication transaction with you. They’re going to have to focus on your message and use mental energy to decide how to respond. When, then, should you ask people to make this kind of effort by giving them feedback? What kind should you give? And how much? Answering these questions constitutes a normal part of everyday human life with people with whom we interact routinely, but it’s a particularly challenging part of working in a group with people whom we may not know as well as we do our family or close friends. Offering assessment can be even more difficult, since it puts us at risk of making a mistake or upsetting other people.
One source of group motivation is a sense of movement and growth. Therefore, among the most useful tools in preparing to provide feedback and assessment are benchmarks. These are qualitative or quantitative descriptions of a group’s initial conditions to be used later for comparative purposes. For example, a newly-formed student group might make a list of how many and which books they have read by a particular author or on a particular assigned topic.
Effective Feedback and Assessment in a Group
Feedback and assessment should be planned and delivered carefully and intentionally. If they are to motivate people in a group, they should possess the following characteristics:
1. Relevance. The feedback or assessment should deal with actions the group has decided to take, values the group wants to embody, and especially goals the group has set for itself.
2. Frequency. People are busy and are bombarded with messages all day long, every day. In order to maintain a sense of purpose and focus with regard to their group’s activities, members need to be reminded regularly of what and how they’re doing.
3. Simplicity. The more direct and readily understandable the feedback and assessment, the better. In the 1960s, a whimsical bumper sticker said “Eschew obfuscation”—which means “avoid unclear communication.” Keep things simple.
4. Candor. People generally appreciate honesty. In order to improve what they’re doing in a group, give them forthright information about where they stand.
5. Civility. Too much candor can turn into rudeness. Politeness in feedback and assessment makes them easier to accept.
6. Specificity. Everyone in the group needs to understand the message as close to the same way as possible. Do your best, therefore, to be precise and to avoid ambiguity.
7. Eclecticism. Especially in large organizations such as schools and corporations, surveys and polls used as assessment tools can become tedious and burdensome. It’s a good idea to invest time in developing creative new ways to monitor a group’s stature and progress.
Subjects of Effective Feedback and Assessment
In order to assist and motivate group members, it’s important to select the proper items to collect and express feedback and assessment about. Here are some possible topics about which feedback can be given:
1. Group configuration/patterns. Are the boundaries of your group clear? Have those boundaries changed, or are they the same as when the group was formed? Hartley and Dawson, Hartley, P., & Dawson, M. (2010). Success in groupwork. New York: St. Martin’s Press. also suggested asking which members occupy positions of status at the center of the group and which members are on its edge.
2. Actions taken by the group. Does everyone agree on what the results of your group’s decisions are? Have you kept track of what you’ve done with lists or other records?
3. Relationship of actions to goals. Which of your group’s actions have been guided by its a priori goals, i.e., the ones it established intentionally and explicitly at the outset of its activities? What ad hoc actions, if any—that is, ones in response to specific unanticipated circumstances—have you taken since originating the group?
Other topics which your group should consider pertain to assessment, including the following:
1. Adequacy of communication processes. To what degree are your group’s members satisfied with the quantity and nature of communication among yourselves? What communication practices do you especially appreciate, and which would you prefer to change?
2. Adequacy of progress toward goals. To what degree are your group’s goals being met? If your group’s level of progress isn’t what you hoped for initially, are you nevertheless comfortable with the lesser results, perhaps because you encountered tougher-than-expected challenges along the way?
3. Group members’ individual satisfaction/mood. Unhappy or disgruntled members don’t add to the motivational spirit of a group. Try asking the simple question, “So, how are you feeling?” at the conclusion of every major group task. Probing individuals too often about how they’re feeling about your group’s activities can be distracting, and it can even cause doubts to expand. If you don’t check often enough, however, small areas of disagreement or dissatisfaction can grow to damaging proportions. A plan for frequent, regular assessment will help group members feel supported rather than importuned by assessment of their satisfaction.
4. The group’s satisfaction with itself. Does your group’s “self-portrait” change with time? This sort of question can be posed in efficient, uncomplicated ways. In addition to asking individual members, “So, how are you feeling?”, it’s possible also to ask, “So, how do you think our group’s doing?” Even fanciful questions like “What kind of animal are we?” or “What kind of plant?” can quickly help ascertain how positive your group’s climate and outlook may be.
5. External views about the group. To remain motivated to collaborate, groups can benefit from asking for perspectives on their activities from outsiders. A fresh view will often raise thoughtful new questions for your group itself to consider.
As Mitchell Caplan’s quotation at the beginning of this section indicated, success in groups does depend at least in part on drawing upon the strengths of their members. Feedback and assessment make it possible to determine whether those strengths are being properly exploited and maximized for the benefit of the group.
Key Takeaway
Feedback and assessment in groups should possess definite characteristics and deal with well-thought-out subjects.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Think of a group of which you’re a part which engages in regular, frequent assessment of its activities. Who conducts the assessments? How and when are details of the assessments shared with members of the group? What, if anything, would you do to enhance the assessment process in the group?
2. Consider this feedback: “The group is doing all right, but it could improve.” How would you change the message to make it more helpful in motivating members of the group? State a possible revision.
3. In some cultures, delivering direct negative feedback to others is avoided. If you worked in such a culture or with a representative of one, what measures would you take to ensure that the positive outcomes associated in mainstream American society with direct feedback and assessment could be achieved in other ways?
4. What is the most creative feedback or assessment technique you’ve ever seen used in a group? How effective was the technique? What might have made it even more helpful in motivating group members? | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/09%3A_Group_Motivation/9.05%3A_Feedback_and_Assessment.txt |
In this chapter, we first defined motivation and collaboration. We then considered the roles that motivation play in human behavior. We identified and explained the place of strategies for bringing about motivation and collaboration. Finally, we explored the crucial role played by feedback and assessment in motivating members of a group.
Chapter Review Questions
1. Interpretive Questions
1. What factors might cause a highly-motivated individual to lose his or her motivation abruptly?
2. Under what circumstances might collaboration be of minor importance to members of a group?
3. How would you rank the collaboration strategies described in section 4 of this chapter? On what basis do you feel your ranking is justified?
2. Application Questions
1. Do motivational speakers actually cause members of their audiences to be motivated? Identify a total of at least half a dozen members of your family, friends, and peers who have heard motivational speakers and ask them how, if at all, the speakers changed their behavior or outlook.
2. A commonly-held view of coaches in competitive sport is that they motivate athletes to achieve personal triumphs and develop productive collaboration with teammates. Investigate this issue and share your findings.
3. Some people feel that, despite its intended purpose of increasing achievement, “high-stakes” assessment of K-12 students entails more drawbacks than advantages. Do you agree? Locate writings by three supporters and three opponents of such assessment, share the documents with classmates, and explain why you endorse or disagree with any two of them.
9.07: Additional Resources
Many organizations employ professional speakers whose chief function is to motivate groups in business, education, and other areas of society. See what you can learn by visiting and assessing the opportunities offered by the following websites associated with organizations of this sort:
Warren Bennis and Patricia Biederman’s book Organizing Genius: The Secrets of Creative Collaboration, published in 1997 by Perseus Books, describes an impressive example of successful creative collaboration by a small group of employees in Lockheed Martin Corporation during World War II. Lockheed’s “skunkworks”—an unstructured, independent offshoot of the parent company—encouraged collaboration among engineers and others to produce innovative new products in a very short time.
The Evergreen State College in Olympia, Washington strives to provide its students with a fully collaborative learning environment built around “learning communities.” Visiting the college’s campus or its website (http://www.evergreen.edu) will reveal some of the principles and practices underlying Evergreen’s collaborative philosophy.
Many pairs of musicians have created famous and popular musical compositions. Read about these partnerships to see how well they were able to collaborate and what they felt made their collaboration successful:
• W.S. Gilbert and Sir Arthur Sullivan
• Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein
• Paul Simon and Art Garfunkel
• John Lennon and Paul McCartney
Carolyn Wiley of the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga published an article in the International Journal of Manpower, “What motivates employees according to over 40 years of motivation surveys” (1997—volume 18, issue 3), in which she claimed that employees overwhelmingly chose “good wages” as their top motivator. Although wages seem to be purely extrinsic, Wiley contended that they communicate what an organization values and that they affect employees’ emotional and psychological wellbeing. Reading Wiley’s article should give you a potentially new perspective on what motivates people to put forth effort in the business world.
Many theorists believe that what motivates people is culture-specific. Asians, in particular, are held to behave according to Confucian principles and collectivist motives. The chapter “The nature of achievement motivation in collectivist societies” in Individualism and collectivism: Theory, method, and applications (1994; Cross-cultural research and methodology series, Vol. 18; Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications) offers an explanation of this viewpoint. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/09%3A_Group_Motivation/9.06%3A_Summary.txt |
Introductory Exercises
1. If you could eliminate conflict from every group’s activities, would you? Why or why not?
2. Identify someone you know who is particularly skilled at operating in conflict situations. Based on your experience with the person, identify some of the person’s specific effective behaviors in such situations.
3. List the headlines of stories on the first five pages of a recent newspaper. Identify which of the items describe conflict of some kind and write a brief description of three of the conflicts. What approaches do the parties to the three conflicts seem to be taking? What prospects do you feel each conflict has of being resolved? What is it that makes you see the prospects as you do?
I exhort you also to take part in the great combat, which is the combat of life, and greater than every other earthly conflict.
Plato
Introduction
In this chapter, we’ll explore the nature, leadership implications, and prevalence of an enduring human reality: conflict in groups. We’ll also consider a variety of styles whereby people can engage in conflict and review some strategies for managing conflict effectively. You will learn how to deal with conflict in the workplace and how to create and implement a crisis communication plan.
10.01: What Is Conflict
Learning Objectives
1. Define conflict
2. Identify five subjects of conflict in groups
3. Acknowledge four major dangers of group conflict
My athletes are always willing to accept my advice as long as it doesn’t conflict with their views.
Lou Holtz (college and professional football coach)
Most people probably regard conflict as something to avoid, or at least not something we go looking for. Still, we’d all agree that it’s a familiar, perennial, and powerful part of human interaction. For these reasons, we need to know what it is, how to identify it, what it may deal with, and what damage it may cause if it isn’t handled wisely.
Definitions of Conflict
Hocker & Wilmot (2001) Hocker, J.L., & Wilmot, W.W. (2001). Interpersonal conflict (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. defined conflict as an expressed struggle between interdependent parties over goals which they perceive as incompatible or resources which they perceive to be insufficient. Let’s examine the ingredients in their definition.
First of all, conflict must be expressed. If two members of a group dislike each other or disagree with each other’s viewpoints but never show those sentiments, there’s no conflict.
Second, conflict takes place between or among parties who are interdependent—that is, who need each other to accomplish something. If they can get what they want without each other, they may differ in how they do so, but they won’t come into conflict.
Finally, conflict involves clashes over what people want or over the means for them to achieve it. Party A wants X, whereas party B wants Y. If they either can’t both have what they want at all, or they can’t each have what they want to the degree that they would prefer to, conflict will arise.
When it came to Lou Holtz and the players on his football teams, it’s obvious that Holtz’s views of who should take the field and what plays should be run were not always the same as his players’. In a football game it’s possible to attempt a pass or to execute a run, for instance, but not both on the same play. In this kind of situation, conflict is inevitable and is probably going to be constant.
Consider the case, likewise, of a small group assigned to complete a project in a biology class. One student in the group, Robin, may be a political science major with a new baby at home to attend to. Robin may be taking the course as an elective and want to devote as little time as possible to the project so as to be able to spend family time. Another member of the group, Terry, may be on the pre-med track and feel strong curiosity about the topic of the presentation. If Terry is determined to create a product which earns a high grade and helps get the professor’s recommendation for a summer research internship, then Robin and Terry will experience conflict over how, when, or how hard to work on their project.
As any conflict takes shape, each person brings a combination of perceptions, emotions, and behavior to bear on it. This combination will evolve and change with time, depending on how people interact with each other and with the forces in their environment.
We can’t stop perceiving things in our surroundings. How we perceive others—whether positively or negatively—influences both how we feel about them and how we behave toward them, and vice versa. The perceptions we experience of ourselves and of others affect our emotional states, which in turn create new perceptions in those around us.
At the beginning of the biology course we just mentioned, Robin may perceive Terry as intelligent and as someone who can pull most of the weight in their class project. Robin may compliment and praise Terry at this point, and Terry may glow with the satisfaction of being appreciated. Their mutual perceptions are then positive, and their emotional state is favorable.
When the first deadline in the project comes along and the portion of the group’s work assigned to Robin turns out to be mediocre, however, things will probably change. Terry is apt to start perceiving Robin as a laggard and as a threat to Terry’s own ambitions for the class and beyond. Robin, meanwhile, may feel angry and resist Terry’s pressure to put more energy into the remainder of their assigned work.
Subjects of Conflict
Beyond the setting of the biology class we’ve described, group conflicts may deal with many topics, needs, and elements. Marylin Kelly, Kelly, M.S. (2006). Communication @ work: Ethical, effective, and expressive communication in the workplace. Boston: Pearson. identified the following five subjects of conflict:
First, there are conflicts of substance. These conflicts, which relate to questions about what choices to make in a given situation, rest on differing views of the facts. If Terry thinks the biology assignment requires an annotated bibliography but Robin believes a simple list of readings will suffice, they’re in a conflict of substance. Another term for this kind of conflict is “intrinsic conflict.”
Conflicts of value are those in which various parties either hold totally different values or rank the same values in a significantly different order. The famous sociologist Milton RokeachRokeach, M. (1979). Understanding human values: Individual and societal. New York: The Free Press., for instance, found that freedom and equality constitute values in the four major political systems of the past 100 years—communism, fascism, socialism, and capitalism. What differentiated the systems, however, was the degree to which proponents of each system ranked those two key values. According to Rokeach’s analysis, socialism holds both values highly; fascism holds them in low regard; communism values equality over freedom, and capitalism values freedom over equality. As we all know, conflict among proponents of these four political systems preoccupied people and governments for the better part of the twentieth century.
Conflicts of process arise when people differ over how to reach goals or pursue values which they share. How closely should they stick to rules and timelines, for instance, and when should they let their hair down and simply brainstorm new ideas? What about when multiple topics and challenges are intertwined; how and when should the group deal with each one? Another term for these disputes is “task conflicts.”
Conflicts of misperceived differences come up when people interpret each other’s actions or emotions erroneously. You can probably think of several times in your life when you first thought you disagreed with other people but later found out that you’d just misunderstood something they said and that you actually shared a perspective with them. Or perhaps you attributed a different motive to them than what really underlay their actions. One misconception about conflict, however, is that it always arises from misunderstandings. This isn’t the case, however. Robert Doolittle, Doolittle, R.J. (1976). Orientations to communication and conflict. Chicago: Science Research Associates. noted that “some of the most serious conflicts occur among individuals and groups who understand each other very well but who strongly disagree.”
The first four kinds of conflict may interact with each other over time, either reinforcing or weakening each other’s impact. They may also ebb and flow according to the topics and conditions a group confronts. Even if they’re dealt with well, however, further emotional and personal kinds of conflict can occur in a group. Relationship conflicts, also known as personality clashes, often involve people’s egos and sense of self-worth. Relationship conflicts tend to be particularly difficult to cope with, since they frequently aren’t admitted for what they are. Many times, they arise in a struggle for superiority or status.
Dangers of Conflict
As we’ll see later in this chapter, conflict is a normal component of group interaction and can actually be beneficial if it is identified accurately and controlled properly. It can also be dangerous, however, in several major ways. Galanes & AdamsGalanes, G., & Adams, K. (2013). Effective group discussion: Theory and practice. New York: McGraw-Hill. identified three such ways.
The first danger is that individual group members may feel bad. Even when everyone’s intentions are good and they intend to be constructively critical, people who receive negative comments about their ideas or behavior may take those comments personally. If the people feel demeaned or mistreated, their level of trust in other members will probably dwindle.
The second danger is an outgrowth of the first. It is that the cohesiveness of the group can be diminished if its members have to nurse hurt feelings that have arisen through conflict. At the very least, someone who has to wonder whether he or she has the respect of someone else in the group may spend time mulling that question which could otherwise be used to contribute to the group’s work.
The third danger is that conflict can actually split a group apart. Although inertia can sustain a group for long periods of time if no threats or disruptions occur, intense conflict can cause members to decide to invest their energy somewhere else. Relationship conflicts, in particular, may lead to all kinds of unhelpful behavior: rumor-mongering; power plays; backing out on promises; playing favorites; ignoring problems or appeals for help; insulting others; innuendo; backstabbing; or dismissing suggestions without considering them seriously. You’re probably aware of at least a few groups and organizations whose origins were encouraging but which eventually disintegrated because of internal conflict.
A fourth danger is that conflict can deteriorate into physical violence. Some people in the heat of a conflict may forget this saying, which has been attributed to Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.: “The right to swing my fist ends where the other man's nose begins.”
In 1997, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and HealthNational Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. (1997). Violence in the workplace. Retrieved from www.cdc.gov/niosh/violfs.html. reported that more than one million workplace assaults occurred in the United States annually. More recent statistics from the Occupational Safety and Health AdministrationOccupational Safety and Health Administration. (2012). Workplace violence. Retrieved from www.osha.gov/SLTC/workplaceviolence/. suggest that twice that many workers may be subject to violence each year; that 506 workplace homicides were committed in 2010; and that homicide is the leading cause of death for women in American workplaces.
Key Takeaway
• Conflict, which is a struggle over goals or resources, may take many forms and lead to several kinds of harm if it is not skillfully dealt with.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Find news online of a conflict that erupted into violence. What factors in the situation do you feel contributed to that outcome?
2. Tell a fellow student about a values conflict you’ve experienced in a group. Describe how you concluded that the conflict dealt with values. Did the group make the same determination at the time?
3. Identify a personality clash you believe you have observed in a group. Write 4-6 pieces of advice you think might have helped each party to that conflict.
4. If a conflict has been brought about by a combination of incompatible goals and insufficient resources, what do you believe will happen if one of the two causes is eliminated? Give an example that substantiates your viewpoint. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/10%3A_Managing_Conflict/10.00%3A_Chapter_Introduction.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Describe four roles that a leader might play with respect to conflict
2. Assess the effectiveness of leadership behavior exhibited in an illustrative academic situation
“The hope of the world is that wisdom can arrest conflict between brothers. I believe that war is the deadly harvest of arrogant and unreasoning minds.”
Dwight Eisenhower
To lead a group successfully through conflict requires patience, goodwill, and determination. Robert Bolton, Bolton, R. (1979). People skills: How to assert yourself, listen to others, and resolve conflicts. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall noted that leaders with low levels of defensiveness tend to help people in their organizations avert unnecessary strife because they are able to focus on understanding and dealing with challenges rather than on saving face or overcoming resistance from others in their groups. Bolton also wrote that employing power judiciously, displaying charisma, and employing effective communication skills can positively affect the way conflict is handled. In this section, we will examine four general roles a leader may adopt with respect to preparing for inevitable instances of conflict. We will also provide an example of how one leader adopted the fourth role in a conflict situation.
The Leader as Motivator
Just as it takes more than one person to create conflict, it generally requires more than a single individual to resolve it. A leader should, therefore, try somehow to cause other members of a group to identify benefits to themselves of engaging in productive rather than destructive conflict. Randy Komisar, a prominent Silicon Valley executive who has worked with companies such as WebTV and TiVo and co-founded Claris Corporation, had this to say about the importance of this kind motivational role as his companies grew:
“I found that the art wasn’t in getting the numbers to foot, or figuring out a clever way to move something down the assembly line. It was in getting somebody else to do that and to do it better than I could ever do, in encouraging people to exceed their own expectations; in inspiring people to be great; and in getting them to do it all together, in harmony. That was the high art.”Komisar, R., & Lineback, K. (2000). The monk and the riddle: The education of a Silicon Valley entrepreneur. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business Press. We’ll talk later about specific strategies that leaders and other group members can employ to manage conflict by means of motivation and other strategies.
The Leader as Delegator
No leader, even the leader of a handful of other people in a small team, can handle all the challenges or do all the work of a group. In fact, you’ve probably encountered leaders throughout your life who either exhausted themselves or alienated other group members—or both!—because they tried to do just that. Beyond accepting the sheer impossibility of shouldering all of a group’s work, a leader can attempt to prevent or manage conflict by judiciously by acting as a delegator, turning over responsibility for various tasks to others.
Warren Bennis, a pioneer in the field of leadership, wrote that such delegation is a vital component of the leader’s role. When it is practiced skillfully, according to Bennis, delegation may confine conflicts to the levels at which they occur and free the leader to conduct higher-level undertakings Bennis, W. (1997). Why leaders can’t lead. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
The Leader as “Structuralist”
Michael Thomas, a professor for many years at the University of Texas, served as a respected consultant to numerous businesses and educational institutions. As he went from group to group, he tackled their problems primarily by reviewing their organizational charts and tinkering with their structure. As an admired organizational theorist and structuralist, he believed that nearly any problem, tension, or conflict in a group could be solved structurally Professor emeritus Thomas, Jr., dies at 76. (2008, Nov 14). US Fed News Service, Including US State News. Retrieved from ProQuest Database. How people behave, he said, is largely determined by where they sit in an organization and whom they report to and supervise. If Mike saw that people in two separate sections of a group were at odds, for instance, he would propose that the sections be consolidated so that both became responsible to the same supervisor. Mike certainly used further techniques in his consultant’s role, but his emphasis on structural changes stands as one kind of advice for leaders who hope to lessen the damaging effects of conflict in their groups.
Realistic Conflict Theory, or Realistic Group Conflict Theory (RGCT), likewise stresses the importance for leaders of configuring subgroups within a larger group so that they are required to meet common goals. A classic study by social psychologist Muzafer Sherif, Sherif, M., Harvey, O.J., White, B.J., Hood, W., & Sherif, C.W. (1961). Intergroup conflict and cooperation: The robbers cave experiment. Norman, OK: The University Book Exchange. with 22 twelve-year-old boys in a summer camp in Oklahoma exemplifies the nature of RGCT and illustrates the concept of “leader as structuralist.”
The boys were split into two groups at the start of the study, after which leaders quickly emerged in each group. The two groups were then required to compete in camp games and were rewarded on the basis of their performance. Soon conflict arose as negative attitudes and behavior developed within each group toward the other.
In the third part of the study, the structure of the camp was changed in such a way that the two antagonistic groups were called upon to share responsibility for accomplishing a variety of tasks. The outcome of this structural change was that attitudes within each group toward the other became favorable and conflict lessened dramatically. Sherif, Muzafer (1966). In common predicament: Social psychology of intergroup conflict and cooperation. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Paradoxically, a leader may also deal with conflict by separating people rather than bringing them together. If a team is experiencing internal conflict that seems to be related to intense personality differences between two individuals, for instance, the leader may decide to change the composition of the team so as to reduce their interaction. (Think about the third-grade teacher who finds two children pummeling each other during recess and sends them to opposite ends of the schoolyard).
The Leader as Promoter of “Constructive Deviation”
Civil disobedience. . . is not our problem. Our problem is civil obedience…The future is an infinite succession of presents, and to live now as we think human beings should live, in defiance of all that is bad around us, is itself a marvelous victory.
Howard Zinn
I was at a conference in Jackson Hole, talking with Peter McLaren and Donaldo Macedo and David Gabbard. This guy in a herring-bone suit, all prim and proper, came over and said, “Well, Dr. Macedo, very, very interesting talk. I enjoyed it very much. Dr. Gabbard, very interesting talk. I enjoyed it very much.”
He was going around being polite. And then he turned and looked at Peter McLaren, and he said, “Mr. Mclaren...”—not “doctor”—“your discourse stretches my comfort zone just a little too much.”
And before any of us could say anything, Donaldo turned to him and said, “There are millions of people born, live their entire lives, and die on this planet without ever knowing the luxury of a comfort zone.”
The guy was speechless. It was a very polite way for him to say, “You know, I’m tired of hearing white men tell me that they’re feeling a little oppressed by discourse.”
The guy walked away, and Peter McLaren turned to me and said, “F**k! Why didn’t I say that?” But that’s Macedo. Macedo is on his toes, all the time. He’s never caught tongue-tied. He knows exactly how to turn it around.
Roberto Bahruth
A deviate is someone who differs in some important way from the rest of a group. ResearchValentine, K.B., & Fisher, B.A. (1974). An interaction analysis of verbal innovative deviance in small groups. Speech Monographs, 41, 413–420. indicates that interaction with deviates may account for up to a quarter of many groups’ time and that such interaction may serve a positive function if it successfully causes people who hold a majority opinion to examine their views critically. In essence, dealing with deviates can keep group members on their toes and counteract the tendency to engage in groupthink. Encouraging deviates is one measure a leader can take to promote constructive conflict which brings a group to a higher level of understanding and harmony.
Of course, listening to a deviate may be disconcerting, since it may push us outside our comfort zone in the way that Peter McLaren did in the story told by Roberto Bahruth. In fact, deviates naturally have great difficulty influencing a group because of other people’s resistance. For this reason, part of a leader’s responsibility may sometimes consist in simply making sure that a deviate is not outright silenced by members of the majority. In other cases, it is the leader who at least at times assumes the role of deviate herself or himself.
Because deviates by their very nature call the members of the majority in a group to stop and seriously question their attitudes and behavior, which is usually disconcerting and uncomfortable, the most successful deviates are generally those who attempt to lead others in a cautious fashion and who demonstrate loyalty to their group and its goals. Thameling, C.L., & Andrews, P.H. (1992). Majority responses to opinion deviates: A communicative analysis. Small Group Research, 23, 475–502. Timing can also determine whether a deviate’s influence will be accepted. Waiting until a group has developed a sense of cohesiveness is most likely to be more effective, for instance, than jumping in with an unexpected or unconventional proposal during the group’s formative stages.
A Leadership Example
In early 1980 the brutal Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia had just been defeated at the end of many years of fighting, and several hundred thousand Cambodian refugees flooded hastily-constructed camps in eastern Thailand. Chandler, D.P. (1992). A history of Cambodia. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Many Americans became concerned about the suffering in the refugee camps, and a group of 25 graduate students in Vermont studying international administration nearly played a direct role in the situation because their program’s director was willing to speak out as a deviate.
The students were seated in a circle one morning, engaged in a discussion about human service agencies. One of them noticed that the director of the program, Walter Johnson, had been silent for some time and asked, “Walter, what do you think?”
Walter took a deep breath and replied, “I think what we’re talking about is all well and good, but what I’d really like to do is call a colleague of mine at the U.N. and see if we could help the Cambodian refugees in those horrible camps in Thailand.”
A stunned silence fell over the group. Someone asked, “Are you serious?”
Walter replied, “Yes, I am.”
Silence returned. Finally, one of the students said, “Walter, if you believe what you’re saying, go ahead and talk to your friend.”
Walter left the room and returned in half an hour to say that his U.N. colleague was willing to investigate humanitarian service options in Thailand for the students. The challenge, then, was to explore whether the students themselves would consider performing such service.
For the next two days, the whole group engaged in difficult, soul-searching discussions about what it would mean for them to go to Thailand. They quickly realized that if they made that choice they would have to abandon their curriculum at the school and might imperil their financial aid. Some of them would probably have to leave a spouse or children behind. And they might be putting themselves in danger of disease or violence. On the other hand, they could potentially be able to act according to their shared ideal of contributing to world peace in a personal, direct, and powerful manner.
Ultimately, the group realized that it was facing an “all or none” question: either every one of them would have to agree to travel to Thailand, or none of them should. Walter’s role as a constructive deviate in the Vermont group stimulated it to consider an option—the “go to Thailand option”—which in turn spurred earnest and productive conflict which most likely would not otherwise have taken place.
Key Takeaway
• To harness conflict in a positive manner and contribute to the healthy functioning of a group, a leader should play the roles of motivator, delegator, structuralist, and promoter of constructive deviation.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Think of someone you met in a group whom you would consider to be a “deviate.” On what basis did you make that determination? To what degree did others in the group share your assessment of the person?
2. Do you share the view that any conflict What examples from your own experience support your answer? Consider a group that you’re currently part of, imagine a change in its structure which you feel could reduce its conflict, and share the information with two fellow students.
3. All other things being equal, would you prefer to address a conflict by bringing the parties together or separating them? Explain your reasons and provide an example that you believe supports them. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/10%3A_Managing_Conflict/10.02%3A_Leadership_and_Conflict.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Describe the role of contradiction, negation, and rational unit in the thought of Friedrich Hegel
2. Identify two opposing models for characterizing conflict
3. List ways in which healthy conflict can benefit a group
That which is willed happens but rarely; in the majority of instances the numerous desired ends cross and conflict with one another, or these ends themselves are from the outset incapable of realization, or the means of attaining them are insufficient. Thus the conflicts of innumerable individual wills and individual actions in the domain of history produce a state of affairs entirely analogous to that prevailing in the realm of unconscious nature.
Friedrich Engels
I don't like that person. I'm going to have to get to know him better
Abraham Lincoln
A cartoon from the 1970s shows two women standing behind a couch where their husbands are sitting and watching a football game. One woman says to the other, “I thought they settled all that last year!” Do you suppose it would be nice if people could settle their differences once and for all, if conflict would just go away, and if everyone would just agree with each other and get along all the time?
Of course, those rosy developments aren’t going to take place. Conflict seems to stubbornly retain its position as part of the human landscape; you can hardly find a group of people who aren’t experiencing it right now or have never experienced it.
There’s reason to believe, too, that a moderate amount of conflict can actually be a healthy and necessary part of group life if it is handled productively and ethically. Amason, A. C. (1996). Distinguishing the effects of functional and dysfunctional conflict on strategic decision making: Resolving a paradox for top management teams. Academy of Management Journal, 39, 123–148. We may actually be better off, in other words, if we experience conflict than if we don’t, provided that we turn it to advantage.
The 19th-century German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel believed that contradiction and negation, which constitute both causes and ingredients of conflict, lead every domain of reality toward higher rational unity. He wrote that each level of interaction among human beings, including those which take place in larger social structures, preserves the contradictions of previous levels as phases and subparts Pelczynski, A.Z. (1984). ‘The significance of Hegel’s separation of the state and civil society. In A.Z. Pelczynski (Ed.), The State and Civil Society (pp. 1–13). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press..
Much more recently, research by Jehn and Mannix, Jehn, K. A., & Mannix, E. A. (2001). The dynamic nature of conflict: A longitudinal study of intergroup conflict and group performance. Academy of Management Journal, 44, 238–251. indicated that “effective teams over time are characterized by low but increasing levels of task conflict, low levels of relationship conflict with a rise toward the end of a project, and moderate levels of task conflict in the middle of the task timeline.”
Conflict and the Hope of Social Change
Many years ago one of the authors attended a multi-day workshop in New York City on how to promote international peace and reconciliation. After hearing a presentation at the workshop about nuclear proliferation and biological weapons, a participant asked, “Human history is full of violence, bloodshed, and cruelty. What hope do we have of ever saving ourselves?”
The presenter replied, “Yes, we’ve had violence and bloodshed and cruelty throughout history. And as long as there are differences between people and their opinions, the danger will exist that we’ll destroy ourselves, especially now that we have weapons that can wipe out our whole species. But the question isn’t, ‘Can we eliminate conflict?’ The question is really, ‘Can we accept conflict as part of the human condition and handle it so that we move forward instead of annihilating ourselves?’”
The presenter then offered what she said were signs of hope that groups of people can, indeed, work through even profound differences without descending into chaos or perpetual hatred. Slavery was once considered a normal part of society, she said, but no more. Child labor, too, used to be considered acceptable. And miscegenation laws existed in the United States until 1967. The presenter’s point here was that, with hard work, groups can overcome past evils and deficiencies if they’re willing to work through the conflict that invariably crops up when individuals are asked to change their behavior.
Two Models of Conflict
The presenter in New York went on to say that we can conceive conflict in terms of two models. The first is the cancer model, which portrays conflict as an insidious and incessantly expanding element which if left to itself will inevitably overwhelm and destroy a group. If we accept this model, conflict must either be prevented, if possible, or extirpated if it does manage to take root.
In the friction model, by contrast, conflict is seen as a natural by-product of human relations. Any machine generates waste heat simply through the interaction of its component parts, and this heat seldom threatens to halt the actions of the machine as long as people conduct preventive and ongoing maintenance—adding oil, greasing joints, and so forth. Likewise, according to this model, groups inevitably produce conflict through the interaction of their members and need not fear that it will destroy them as long as they handle it wisely. Saul Alinsky, a prominent 20th-century community organizer, wrote these words in support of the friction model of conflict: “Change means movement. Movement means friction. Only in the frictionless vacuum of a nonexistent abstract world can movement or change occur without that abrasive friction of conflict.”Alinsky, S. (1971). Rules for radicals: A pragmatic primer for realistic radicals. New York: Random House.
Benefits of Healthy Conflict
Without conflict, life in general can easily become stagnant and tedious. When conflict is absent in a group, it often means that people are silencing themselves and holding back their opinions. If group discussions are significant, rather than merely routine, then varying opinions about the best course of action should be expected to arise. If people suppress their opinions, on the other hand, groupthink may spread and the final result may not be the best solution.
One favorable feature of healthy conflict is that people engaged in it point out difficulties or weaknesses in proposed alternatives and work together to solve them. As noted in another section, a key to keeping conflict healthy is to make sure that discussion remains focused on the task rather than upon people’s personalities.
If it is properly guided and not allowed to deteriorate into damaging forms, conflict can benefit a group in several ways. Besides broadening the range of ideas which group members take into consideration, it can help people clarify their own views and those of others so that they have a better chance of sharing a common understanding of issues. It can also help group members unearth erroneous assumptions about one another. Finally, it can actually make a group more cohesive as members realize they are surmounting difficulties together. In short, conflict is indeed normal.
Key Takeaway
• Conflict may be viewed as a pernicious and destructive element of group interaction, but considering it as a normal by-product of human relationships is a more accurate perspective.
Exercise \(1\)
1. An adage says, “If you want an omelet, you have to break some eggs.” To what degree do you subscribe to this folk saying? What reservations, if any, do you have about how it has been or might be used with respect to social change?
2. Some conflict throughout history has spread perniciously, as the cancer model might suggest. Have you personally experienced such enlargement of conflict in a group? If so, what factors do you believe contributed to the situation? At what point did normal friction among the group’s members turn into a more harmful form of conflict?
3. Describe a situation in which you gained increased important understanding as a result of conflict in a group you were part of. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/10%3A_Managing_Conflict/10.03%3A_Conflict_is_Normal.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. List and describe a range of styles which people may use in cases of conflict
2. Distinguish between concern for self and concern for others as elements of conflict styles
3. Assess the nature and value of assertion as an ingredient in conflict
The hard and strong will fall. The soft and weak will overcome.
Lao-tzu
If you’re a member of a group, you most likely want to minimize futile conflict—conflict that is unlikely to be resolved no matter what you do to address it. You also probably prefer to avoid conflicts that might weaken your group, or those whose nature or outcome is irrelevant to your goals. Once you and the other members of a group recognize that you are involved in a significant conflict whose resolution may make it more likely that you can achieve your goals, you may engage in the conflict via several styles. In this section, we’ll consider “menus” of styles proposed by three groups of communication authorities.
Three Style “Menus”
All three style “menus” include a range of approaches, as represented in Table 10.1. The styles described by Linda Putnam and Charmaine Wilson, Putnam, L.L., & Wilson, C.E. (1982). Communicative strategies in organizational conflicts: Reliability and validity of a measurement scale, in M. Burgoon (Ed.), Communication yearbook 6 (pp. 629–652). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. range from nonconfrontational to controlling and cooperative. According to Putnam and Wilson, if you adopt a nonconfrontational style, you refrain from expressing your thoughts and opinions during a conflict. This may be because you’re shy or feel intimidated by the group environment or the behavior of some of its members. It may also be because you don’t know how to express viewpoints constructively under the time constraints of a conflict situation or lack information about the topic of the conflict. If you adopt a controlling style, by contrast, you’ll try to monopolize discussion during a conflict and make a serious effort to force others in the group to either agree with you or at least accept your proposals for how the group should act. The cooperative style of conflict, finally, involves active participation in the group’s conflicts in a spirit of give and take, with the group’s superordinate goals in mind.
Rahim, Antonioni, and Psenicka, Rahim, M.A., Antonioni, D., & Psenicka, C. (2001). A structural equations model of leader power, subordinates’ styles of handling conflict, and job performance. International Journal of Conflict Management, 12(3), 191–211. enlarged upon Putnam and Wilson’s three-style “menu” by adding two further options. They framed their conceptualization in terms of potential combinations of two dimensions, concern for self and concern for others. Here are the options resulting from the combinations:
High concern for self and others (integrating style): Openness; willingness to exchange information and resolve conflict in a manner acceptable to all parties.
Low concern for self and high concern for others (obliging style): A tendency to minimize points of difference among parties to a conflict and to try to satisfy other people’s needs.
High concern for self and low concern for others (dominating style): A win-lose orientation and a drive to compel others to accept one’s position.
Low concern for self and low concern for others (avoiding style): Sidestepping areas of conflict, passing the buck to others, or withdrawing entirely from the conflict situation.
Intermediate concern for self and for others (compromising style): Mutual sacrifice for the sake of achieving an outcome that all members of the group can accept.
Table \(1\) Individual Styles of Conflict in Groups
Putnam & Wilson Rahim, Antonioni, & Psenicka Adler & Rodman
Nonconfrontational Integrating Nonassertive
Obliging Directly Aggressive
Controlling Dominating Passive Aggressive
Avoiding Indirectly Communicating
Cooperative Compromising Assertive
Adler and Rodman, Adler, R.B., & Rodman, G. (2009). Understanding human communication (10th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. emphasized communication elements in their listing of five conflict styles. First of all, they designated nonassertion as a style of conflict in which the group member is unable or unwilling to express him- or herself. According to these theorists, this conflict style is widely used in intimate relationships such as marriages, in which the partners may disagree with each other frequently yet decide not to provoke or prolong conflicts by voicing their differences. People in groups can display a nonassertive style by either ignoring areas of conflict, trying to change the subject when a conflict appears to be arising, physically removing themselves from a place where a conflict is taking place, or simply giving in to someone else’s desires during a conflict.
Direct aggression is the second conflict style identified by Adler and Rodman. A group member who attacks someone else willfully—by saying “That’s ridiculous” or “That’s a crazy idea” or something else that attempts to demean the person—is engaging in direct aggression. Direct aggression need not be verbal; gestures, facial expressions, and posture can all be used to convey aggressive meaning.
Passive aggression, referred to as “crazymaking” by George Bach, Bach, G.R., & Goldberg, H. (1974). Creative aggression. Garden City, NY: Doubleday., is a subtle conflict style in which a person expresses hostility or resistance to others through stubbornness, resentment, procrastination, jokes with ambiguous meanings, petty annoyances, or persistent failure to fully meet expectations or responsibilities. Someone who displays this style of conflict may disavow any negative intent if confronted or questioned about his or her behavior.
Indirect communication is a style that avoids the unmistakable force of the aggressive style and which instead implies concern for the person or persons it is directed toward. Kellermann, K., & Shea, B.C. Threats, suggestions, hints, and promises: Gaining compliance efficiently and politely. Communication quarterly, 44, 145–165. Rather than bluntly saying, “I’d like you to get out of my office now” when a discussion is bogging down, for instance, you might yawn discreetly or comment on how much work you have to do on a big project. Indirect communication may comprise hints, suggestions, or other polite means of seeking someone else’s compliance with one’s desires. Sometimes it can be used to send “trial balloons” to group members—proposals that are tentative and provisional and don’t have a great deal of ego investment behind them.
Assertion is the final style of communication identified by Adler and Rodman, and it is also the one that we recommend in most cases. Group members who operate according to this style express their feelings and thoughts clearly but neither coerce nor judge others while doing so. If you choose to use what Adler and Towne, Adler, R.B., & Towne, N. (2002). Looking out/looking in (10th ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace College Publishers. called a “clear message format,” you can practice assertion by following five steps in a conflict situation.
The first step is to offer an objective description of behavior being exhibited by those with whom you are in conflict. Don’t interpret or assess the behavior; just describe it. For example, you might say, “Lee, you just rolled your eyes at me.”
The second step is to present your interpretation of the behavior, but without stating the interpretation as fact. For instance, “Lee, I get the impression that you may have dismissed my proposal, because you rolled your eyes at me.”
The third step is to express your feelings about the behavior you’ve described and interpreted. For example, “When you roll your eyes like that, I get the impression that you’ve dismissed my proposal, and I feel resentful.”
The next step is to identify the consequences of the behavior, your interpretation, and your feelings. For instance, “Lee, I see that you rolled your eyes at me when I made my proposal. I get the impression that you’ve dismissed it, and I’m resentful. I don’t feel like discussing the matter any further now.”
The final step is to state your intentions, based on the four preceding ingredients of the situation. For example, “Lee, you rolled your eyes at me when I made my proposal. I get the impression that you’ve dismissed it, and I’m resentful. I don’t feel like discussing the matter any further now, and if I see you act this way again I’ll probably just leave the room until I calm down.”
We admit that following a list of communication behaviors like one this can feel unfamiliar and perhaps overly complex. Fortunately, being responsibly assertive can sometimes be a very simple matter which immediately yields positive results. In fact, following just one or two steps from the five outlined here may be sufficient to prevent, defuse, or resolve a conflict.
A friend of ours named Gus told us about a time when he was part of an enthusiastic crowd watching a football game at Washington State University. A few rows below him in the stadium sat an elderly woman, and directly in front of her was a man many inches taller and substantially heavier than she was.
The first time the WSU team made a good play, the man leapt to his feet and screamed wildly, blocking the woman’s view of the field. As the widespread cheering subsided, but with the man still standing in front of her, the woman calmly but forcefully said, “Sorry sir, but I can’t see.”
The man grunted roughly in response and kept standing until the rest of the crowd quieted. The next couple of times that WSU managed an impressive play—and this was one of those rare contests in which they did so on several occasions—the man jumped up again, preventing the woman from seeing the action over and over again.
Every time this happened, the woman spoke up, saying “Sir, I really can’t see” or “You’re blocking my view.” According to Gus, the effect of the woman’s assertive statements was like a series of weights being placed on the man’s shoulders. Eventually, he succumbed to the cumulative weight of her statements—the power of her assertions—and moved to an empty nearby seat.
Of course, not everyone who behaves in ways that we find objectionable will respond as positively as the oafish gentleman did to the elderly woman. Some people in the heat of a disagreement may resist even the mildest and least judgmental statements of assertion. How to deal with people who resist even responsibly assertive communication, along with other strategies to manage conflict in general, will be the subjects of our next section.
Key Takeaway
• Theorists have identified a range of conflict styles available to members of groups, including a five-step assertion approach which may offer the greatest general applicability and prospects for effectiveness because it avoids coercing or judging others.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Consider the adage “Discretion is the better part of valor.” To what degree do you feel it corresponds to what Putnam and Wilson called a “nonconfrontational” style of conflict?
2. Think about a time when you experienced a conflict in a group that was eventually resolved. What style(s), from among those described in this section, did the parties to the conflict exhibit? Do you feel the people chose the best style for the circumstances? Why or why not?
3. What specific statements or questions would you use to attempt to communicate with someone who habitually employs passive aggression in conflicts? Provide examples of your past experiences with such behavior, if you have them.
4. Take another look at the cartoon in which the woman says “The remark you’ve just made has hurt me and I’m feeling anger toward you.” Does it seem funny to you? If so, what elements of the cartoon and its text amuse you? How would you change the drawing or the words to portray a healthful interaction between people based on responsible assertion? | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/10%3A_Managing_Conflict/10.04%3A_Conflict_Styles.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Understand evaluations and criticism in the workplace, and discuss several strategies for resolving workplace conflict
The word “conflict” produces a sense of anxiety for many people, but it is part of the human experience. Just because conflict is universal does not mean that we cannot improve how we handle disagreements, misunderstandings, and struggles to understand or make ourselves understood. Hocker and Wilmot, Hocker, J., & Wilmot, W. (1991). Interpersonal conflict. Dubuque, IA: Willam C. Brown. offer us several principles on conflict that have been adapted here for our discussion:
• Conflict is universal.
• Conflict is associated with incompatible goals
• Conflict is associated with scarce resources
• Conflict is associated with interference
• Conflict is not a sign of a poor relationship
• Conflict cannot be avoided
• Conflict cannot always be resolved
• Conflict is not always bad
Conflict is the physical or psychological struggle associated with the perception of opposing or incompatible goals, desires, demands, wants, or needs McLean, S. (2005). The basics of interpersonal communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.. When incompatible goals, scarce resources, or interference are present, conflict is a typical result, but it doesn’t mean the relationship is poor or failing. All relationships progress through times of conflict and collaboration. How we navigate and negotiate these challenges influences, reinforces, or destroys the relationship. Conflict is universal, but how and when it occurs is open to influence and interpretation. Rather than viewing conflict from a negative frame of reference, view it as an opportunity for clarification, growth, and even reinforcement of the relationship.
Conflict Management Strategies
As professional communicators, we can acknowledge and anticipate that conflict will be present in every context or environment where communication occurs, particularly in groups. To that end, we can predict, anticipate, and formulate strategies to address conflict successfully. How you choose to approach conflict influences its resolution. Joseph DeVitoDeVito, J. (2003). Messages: builing interpersoanl skills. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. offers us several conflict management strategies that we have adapted and expanded for our use.
Avoidance
You may choose to change the subject, leave the room, or not even enter the room in the first place, but the conflict will remain and resurface when you least expect it. Your reluctance to address the conflict directly is a normal response, and one which many cultures prize. In cultures where independence is highly valued, direct confrontation is more common. In cultures where the community is emphasized over the individual, indirect strategies may be more common. Avoidance allows for more time to resolve the problem, but can also increase costs associated with problem in the first place. Your organization or business will have policies and protocols to follow regarding conflict and redress, but it is always wise to consider the position of your conversational partner or opponent and to give them, as well as yourself, time to explore alternatives.
Defensiveness Versus Supportiveness
GibbGibb, J. (1961). Defensive and supportive communication. Journal of Communication, 11, 141–148. discussed defensive and supportive communication interactions as part of his analysis of conflict management. Defensive communication is characterized by control, evaluation, and judgments, while supportive communication focuses on the points and not personalities. When we feel judged or criticized, our ability to listen can be diminished, and we may only hear the negative message. By choosing to focus on the message instead of the messenger, we keep the discussion supportive and professional.
Face-Detracting and Face-Saving
Communication is not competition. Communication is the sharing of understanding and meaning, but does everyone always share equally? People struggle for control, limit access to resources and information as part of territorial displays, and otherwise use the process of communication to engage in competition. People also use communication for collaboration. Both competition and collaboration can be observed in group communication interactions, but there are two concepts central to both: face-detracting and face-saving strategies.
Face-detracting strategies involve messages or statements that take away from the respect, integrity, or credibility of a person. Face-saving strategies protect credibility and separate message from messenger. For example, you might say that “sales were down this quarter,” without specifically noting who was responsible. Sales were simply down. If, however, you ask, “How does the sales manager explain the decline in sales?” you have specifically connected an individual with the negative news. While we may want to specifically connect tasks and job responsibilities to individuals and departments, in terms of language each strategy has distinct results.
Face-detracting strategies often produce a defensive communication climate, inhibit listening, and allow for little room for collaboration. To save face is to raise the issue while preserving a supportive climate, allowing room in the conversation for constructive discussions and problem-solving. By using a face-saving strategy to shift the emphasis from the individual to the issue, we avoid power struggles and personalities, providing each other space to save faceDonohue, W., & Klot, R. (1992). Managing interpersonal conflict. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage..
In collectivist cultures, where the community well-being is promoted or valued above that of the individual, face-saving strategies are common communicative strategies. Groups are valued, and the role of the individual is de-emphasized. In Japan, for example, to confront someone directly is perceived as humiliation, a great insult. In the United States, greater emphasis is placed on individual performance, and responsibility may be more directly assessed. If our goal is to solve a problem, and preserve the relationship, then consideration of a face-saving strategy should be one option a skilled business communicator considers when addressing negative news or information.
Empathy
Communication involves not only the words we write or speak, but how and when we write or say them. The way we communicate also carries meaning, and empathy for the individual involves attending to this aspect of interaction. Empathetic listening involves listening to both the literal and implied meanings within a message. For example, the implied meaning might involve understand what has led this person to feel this way. By paying attention to feelings and emotions associated with content and information, we can build relationships and address conflict more constructively. In management, negotiating conflict is a common task and empathy is one strategy to consider when attempting to resolve issues. We can also observe that inherent in the group development process is the presence of conflict. It is not a sign of bad things to come, nor a reason to think something is wrong. Conflict is a normal part of communication in general, and group communication in particular. In fact, conflict can be the antidote to groupthink, and help the group members refrain from going along with the flow, even when reason or the available information indicated otherwise.
Gunnysacking
Bach and WydenBach, G., & Wyden, P. (1968). The intimacy enemy. New York, NY: Avon. discuss gunnysacking (or backpacking) as the imaginary bag we all carry, into which we place unresolved conflicts or grievances over time. If your organization has gone through a merger, and your business has transformed, there may have been conflicts that occurred during the transition. Holding onto the way things used to be can be like a stone in your gunnysack, and influence how you interpret your current context.
People may be aware of similar issues but might not know your history, and cannot see your backpack or its contents. For example, if your previous manager handled issues in one way, and your new manage handles them in a different way, this may cause you some degree of stress and frustration. Your new manager cannot see how the relationship existed in the past, but will still observe the tension. Bottling up your frustrations only hurts you and can cause your current relationships to suffer. By addressing, or unpacking, the stones you carry, you can better assess the current situation with the current patterns and variables.
We learn from experience, but can distinguish between old wounds and current challenges, and try to focus our energies where they will make the most positive impact.
Managing Your Emotions
Have you ever seen red, or perceived a situation through rage, anger, or frustration? Then you know that you cannot see or think clearly when you are experiencing strong emotions. There will be times in the work environment when emotions run high, and your awareness of them can help you clear your mind and choose to wait until the moment has passes to tackle the challenge.
“Never speak or make decision in anger” is one common saying that holds true, but not all emotions involve fear, anger, or frustration. A job loss can be a sort of professional death for many, and the sense of loss can be profound. The loss of a colleague to a layoff while retaining your position can bring pain as well as relief, and a sense of survivor’s guilt. Emotions can be contagious in the workplace, and fear of the unknown can influence people to act in irrational ways. The wise business communicator can recognize when emotions are on edge in themselves or others, and choose to wait to communicate, problem-solve, or negotiate until after the moment has passed.
Evaluations and Criticism in the Workplace
Guffey, Guffey, M. (2008). Essentials of business communication (7th ed.). Mason, OH: Thomson-Wadsworth. pp.320 wisely notes that Xenophon, a Greek philosopher, once said “The sweetest of all sounds is praise.” We have seen previously that appreciation, respect, inclusion, and belonging are all basic human needs across all contexts, and are particularly relevant in the workplace. Efficiency and morale are positively related, and recognition of good work is important. There may come a time, however, when evaluations involve criticism. Knowing how to approach this criticism can give you peace of mind to listen clearly, separating subjective, personal attacks from objective, constructive requests for improvement. Guffey offers us seven strategies for giving and receiving evaluations and criticism in the workplace that we have adapted here.
Listen Without Interrupting
If you are on the receiving end of an evaluation, start by listening without interruption. Interruptions can be internal and external, and warrant further discussion. If your supervisor starts to discuss a point and you immediately start debating the point in your mind, you are paying attention to yourself and what you think they said or are going to say, and not that which is actually communicated. This gives rise to misunderstandings and will cause you to lose valuable information you need to understand and address the issue at hand.
External interruptions may involve your attempt to get a word in edgewise, and may change the course of the conversation. Let them speak while you listen, and if you need to take notes to focus your thoughts, take clear notes of what is said, also noting points to revisit later. External interruptions can also take the form of a telephone ringing, a “text message has arrived” chime, or a co-worker dropping by in the middle of the conversation.
As an effective business communicator, you know all too well to consider the context and climate of the communication interaction when approaching the delicate subject of evaluations or criticism. Choose a time and place free from interruption. Choose one outside of the common space where there may be many observers. Turn off your cell phone. Choose face to face communication instead of an impersonal email. By providing a space free of interruption, you are displaying respect for the individual and the information.
Determine the Speaker’s Intent
We have discussed previews as a normal part of conversation, and in this context they play an important role. People want to know what is coming and generally dislike surprises, particularly when the context of an evaluation is present. If you are on the receiving end, you may need to ask a clarifying question if it doesn’t count as an interruption. You may also need to take notes, and write down questions that come to mind to address when it is your turn to speak. As a manager, be clear and positive in your opening and lead with praise. You can find one point, even if it is only that the employee consistently shows up to work on time, to highlight before transitioning to a performance issue.
Indicate You Are Listening
In mainstream U.S. culture, eye contact is a signal that you are listening and paying attention to the person speaking. Take notes, nod your head, or lean forward to display interest and listening. Regardless of whether you are the employee receiving the criticism or the supervisor delivering it, displaying of listening behavior engenders a positive climate that helps mitigate the challenge of negative news or constructive criticism.
Paraphrase
Restate the main points to paraphrase what has been discussed. This verbal display allows for clarification and acknowledges receipt of the message.
If you are the employee, summarize the main points and consider steps you will take to correct the situation. If none come to mind, or you are nervous and are having a hard time thinking clearly, state out loud the main point and ask if you can provide solution steps and strategies at a later date. You can request a follow-up meeting if appropriate, or indicate you will respond in writing via email to provide the additional information.
If you are the employer, restate the main points to ensure that the message was received, as not everyone hears everything that is said or discussed the first time it is presented. Stress can impair listening, and paraphrasing the main points can help address this common response.
If You Agree…
If an apology is well deserved, offer it. Communicate clearly what will change or indicate when you will respond with specific strategies to address the concern. As a manager you will want to formulate a plan that addresses the issue and outlines responsibilities as well as time frames for corrective action. As an employee, you will want specific steps you can both agree on that will serve to solve the problem. Clear communication and acceptance of responsibility demonstrates maturity and respect.
If You Disagree…
If you disagree, focus on the points or issue and not personalities. Do not bring up past issues and keep the conversation focused on the task at hand. You may want to suggest, now that you better understand their position, a follow-up meeting to give you time to reflect on the issues. You may want to consider involving a third party, investigating to learn more about the issue, or taking time to cool off.
Do not respond in anger or frustration; instead, always display professionalism. If the criticism is unwarranted, consider that the information they have may be flawed or biased, and consider ways to learn more about the case to share with them, searching for a mutually beneficial solution.
If other strategies to resolve the conflict fail, consider contacting your Human Resources department to learn more about due process procedures at your workplace. Display respect and never say anything that would reflect poorly on yourself or your organization. Words spoken in anger can have a lasting impact, and are impossible to retrieve or take back.
Learn from the Experience
Every communication interaction provides an opportunity for learning if you choose to see it. Sometimes the lessons are situational, and may not apply in future contexts. Other times the lessons learned may well serve you across your professional career. Taking notes for yourself to clarify your thoughts, much like a journal, serve to document and help you see the situation more clearly.
Recognize that some aspects of communication are intentional, and may communicate meaning, even if it is hard to understand. Also know that some aspects of communication are unintentional, and may not imply meaning or design. People make mistakes. They say things they should not have said. Emotions are revealed that are not always rational, and not always associated with the current context. A challenging morning at home can spill over into the workday and someone’s bad mood may have nothing to do with you. Team members aren’t always the same day to day, and the struggles outside of the work environment can impact the group.
Try to distinguish between what you can control and what you cannot, and always choose professionalism.
Key Takeaway
• Conflict is unavoidable and can be opportunity for clarification, growth, and even reinforcement of the relationship.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Write a description of a situation you recall where you came into conflict with someone else. It may be something that happened years ago, or a current issue that just arose. Using the principles and strategies in this section, describe how the conflict was resolved, or could have been resolved. Discuss your ideas with your classmates.
2. Of the strategies for managing conflict described in this section, which do you think are the most effective? Why? Discuss your opinions with a classmate.
3. Can you think of a time when a conflict led to a new opportunity, better understanding, or other positive result? If not, think of a past conflict and imagine a positive outcome. Write a 2–3 paragraph description of what happened, or what you imagine could happen. Share your results with a classmate. | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/10%3A_Managing_Conflict/10.05%3A_Conflict_in_the_Work_Environment.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. List four preventive steps that a group and its members may take to lessen the likelihood of experiencing damaging conflict
2. Identify measures related to space and time that a group may employ to mediate against potentially destructive conflict
3. Describe steps which members of a group may take to manage conflict when it arises
4. Explain the “SLACK” method of managing conflict
I've led a school whose faculty and students examine and discuss and debate every aspect of our law and legal system. And what I've learned most is that no one has a monopoly on truth or wisdom. I've learned that we make progress by listening to each other, across every apparent political or ideological divide.
Elena Kagan
In calm water, every ship has a good captain.
Swedish Proverb
To be peaceable is, by definition, to be peaceable in time of conflict.
Progressive magazine
If group members communicate effectively and show sensitivity to each other’s needs and styles, they can often prevent unproductive and destructive conflict from developing. Nevertheless, they should also be prepared to respond in situations when conflict does crop up.
Before considering some strategies for dealing with conflicts, it’s worth pointing out that the title of this section refers to “management” of conflict rather than to “resolution.” The reason for this choice of terminology is that not all conflict needs to be—or can be—resolved. Still, most conflict needs to be managed to keep it from side-tracking, slowing down, weakening, or eventually destroying a group.
First Things First
We’ve all heard that an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. Managing conflict is easiest if we’ve acquired some tools to prevent it from getting out of hand. One way to gain such tools is to undergo some actual formal training in conflict management. A Google search of educational sites related to “conflict management courses” yields several thousand results from around the United States and elsewhere, including numerous certificate and degree programs at the undergraduate and graduate level. Commercial entities offer hundreds more opportunities for professional development in this realm.
A second, more specific preventive measure is for members of a group to periodically review and reaffirm their commitment to the norms, policies, and procedures they’ve set for themselves. In more formal groups, it’s a good idea to assign one member to look over the bylaws or constitution every year to see if anything needs to be changed, clarified, or removed in light of altered circumstances. The danger in not paying attention to such details is represented in the story, told by Robert Townsend, Townsend, Robert (1970). Up the organization. New York: Alfred A. Knopf., of a British civil service job created in 1803 which called for a man to stand on the Cliffs of Dover with a spyglass. The man’s role was to ring a bell if he saw Napoleon coming. The job was not abolished until 1945.
A third measure which groups can take to lessen the possibility that damaging conflict will take place within them is to discuss and distinguish between detrimental and beneficial conflict—between that which promotes improvement and that which obstructs progress. The initial “forming” stage of a group, when people are apt to act tentative and be on their best behavior, is probably the best time to set aside some group time to let members share their views, experiences, and expectations with regard to “bad” and “good” conflict. It may be a good idea to ask members of the group to cite specific examples of conflict which they would accept or endorse, and also examples of conflict which they would hope to avoid.
A fourth preventive measure is for the group to explicitly remind its members that “deviates” are to be appreciated and respected for the diverse perspectives they can share and the unconventional opinions they may hold. This kind of statement may give creative members the impression that they have intellectual “free space” for generating and sharing ideas later in the evolution of the group.
Logistical Measures
Proponents of feng shui believe that configurations of furniture affect people’s moods and behavior. Employees at the National Observatory in Washington, DC, maintain an atomic clock that keeps precise universal time. You don’t need to belong to either of these groups to believe that how a group uses space and time can affect the level and nature of conflict it will experience.
With respect to proxemics, for instance, research has demonstrated that conflict between people who disagree with each other is more likely to flare up if they sit directly across from each other than if they are seated side by side. Gordon, J., Mondy, R. W., Sharplin, A., & Premeaux, S. R. (1990). Management and organizational behavior. New York: Simon & Schuster, p. 540. Why not, then, purposefully plan where people are going to sit and the angles from which they’ll see each other?
Decisions about when and for how long groups will gather can also affect their level of conflict. Research into human beings’ circadian rhythm—the 24-hour cycle of energy highs and lows-shows that 3 a.m. and 3 p.m. are the two lowest-energy times. www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2004/10/17/night-shift.html Depending on whether group members clash more or less when their energy level is low, it, therefore, may or may not be wise to meet at three o’clock in the afternoon.
Whenever people in a group get together, it’s natural that the mood and outlook they bring with them will be influenced in part by what’s happened to them earlier that day. For any individual, a touchy discussion, a disappointment, or an embarrassing episode might precede the group’s interactions. Unfortunate events like these—as well as other powerful experiences, whether positive or not—may consciously or unconsciously color the demeanor of group members at the start of their interaction.
Another time-related conflict management strategy, thus, is to begin a discussion with a “time out” for people to rest and loosen up. We know of college instructors who initiate each of their class sessions with two minutes of silence for this same purpose.
Once Conflict Occurs…
Numerous authorities have offered suggestions on how to manage conflict once it reaches a level where it should not or cannot be allowed to dissipate on its own. Hartley & Dawson, first of all, Hartley, P., & Dawson, M. (2010). Success in groupwork. New York: St. Martin’s Press. suggested taking the following steps:
1. Make sure the lines of communication are open. If they aren’t, open them.
2. Define the issues. Don’t allow a nebulous sense of overpowering disagreement to develop. Be specific about what the conflict pertains to.
3. Focus on the task, rather than on personalities. Discourage or deflect comments that question a group member’s motives or personal qualities.
4. Proceed according to your established ground rules, policies, procedures, and norms. After all, you established these components of your group’s identity precisely to deal with difficult circumstances.
In addition to following rules and procedures peculiar to its own history, a group that’s experiencing conflict should strive to maintain civilityMeyer, J.R. Effect of verbal aggressiveness on the perceived importance of secondary goals in messages. Communication Studies, 55, 168–184. and follow basic etiquette. As Georges Clemenceau wrote, “Etiquette is nothing but hot air, but that is what our automobiles ride on, and look how it smoothes out the bumps.”
Malcolm Gladwell’s popular book, The Tipping Point, describes how New York City’s subway system was revitalized by David Gunn and William Bratton in the 1980s and 90s Gladwell, M. (2000). The tipping point: How little things can make a big difference. New York: Little, Brown and Company.. Together, Gunn and Bratton launched a campaign to eliminate vandalism, including graffiti on the sides of train cars, and to prosecute “fare-beaters.” At the start of the campaign, doubters complained that more serious crime in the subways and streets needed to be attacked first. Gunn and Bratton insisted, however, that setting a broad example of civility would ultimately create an atmosphere in which potential criminals would be less likely to engage in serious criminal acts. After many years of relentlessly enforcing basic laws mandating public decency, not only did graffiti nearly disappear entirely from the subway system, but overall crime in the New York metropolitan area declined substantially.
Hopefully, you will never witness vandalism, much less felonious behavior, in a small group. Malicious verbal interchanges, nevertheless, can poison the atmosphere among people and should be prevented if at all possible. As an old Japanese saying puts it, “The one who raises his voice first loses the argument.” It doesn’t hurt to calmly and quietly ask that discussion of particularly contentious topics be postponed if comments seem to be in danger of overwhelming the group with negativity.
In addition to reminding people that they should exercise basic politeness, it may be wise at times for someone in the group to ask for a recess in a discussion. Calvin Coolidge said, “I have never been hurt by anything I didn’t say,” and it may be a good idea in irate moments to silence people briefly to prevent what Adler and Rodman, Adler, R.B., & Rodman, G. (2009). Understanding human communication (10th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. referred to as an “escalatory spiral” of hurtful conversation.
If the tone of a group discussion permits thoughtful reflection, it can be helpful to separate task and relationship goals and deal with conflict over each kind separately. Fisher, R., & Brown, S. (1988). Getting Together: Building a relationship that gets to yes. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin. Using indirect communication, rather than confronting another group member head-on, may also defuse extreme emotions and preserve other people’s faces.
Here are further techniques for managing conflict in group interactions:
1. “Test the waters” for new ideas without making it seem that you’re so attached to them that you’ll fight to impose them on others.
2. If an ego clash erupts, see if you can identify something that the disagreeing individuals can agree on. Perhaps this will be a superordinate goal. It could also be a common opposing force, since the idea that “my enemy’s enemy is my friend” can serve to bind people together.
3. Employ active listening. Strive to fully understand other people’s viewpoints before stating your own.
4. If people’s comments meander to topics that aren’t germane, steer the discussion back to the key issues under discussion.
5. Frame the situation as a problem to be solved, rather than as a struggle which must be won.
6. Treat everyone as partners on a common quest. Invite continued frank interchanges and assure group members that they may speak out without fear of reprisal.
7. Consider carefully how important it is for you to prevail in a particular conflict or even just to express your views. Ask yourself whether the potential negative consequences of your action will be worth it.
8. Unless a disagreement is over an essential point, consider whether it might be best to “agree to disagree” and move on.
“Going with the Flow”
As we’ve seen, there is no shortage of specific strategies and techniques for people to choose from when conflict occurs in a group. In fact, it may be overwhelming to try to decide which strategies and techniques to use, at which times and with which people, under which circumstances. Randy Fujishin, a therapist and writer from California, proposed an attitude that might help people deal both with conflict itself and with the feelings of stress it often engenders. He suggested that we regard conflict as neither a call to battle nor a warning to dissolve or disband a group. Instead, Fujishin proposed that people regard conflict as “an invitation to listen, learn, explore, and growFujishin, R. (1998). Gifts from the heart: 10 communication skills for developing more loving relationships. San Francisco: Acada Books..” His advice when conflict takes place is this: “Instead of tensing, relax. Instead of stiffening, bend. Instead of arguing, listen. Instead of pushing or running away, get closer. Flow with the disagreement, situation, or individual for a period to discover where it may lead.”
Fujishin also developed what he called the “SLACK” method of managing conflict. Although he intended it to be brought to bear primarily on disputes in one-on-one relationships, its components may apply also in group situations. “SLACK” is an acronym standing for “sit, listen, ask, compromise, and kiss.” Major emphasis in this method is placed on being receptive to what other parties in a conflict have to say, as well as to their emotional states. Fujishin really does suggest kissing or hugging as the final step in this method, but of course many groups will choose instead to celebrate the achievement of post-conflict reconciliation and progress through words.
Perhaps the central message we can derive from Fujishin’s writings on this topic is that, although we should respond to conflict earnestly, we should take a long view and avoid losing our composure in the process of managing it. Even at moments of extreme tension, we can remind ourselves of an ancient saying attributed first to Persian mystics and later cited by such notable figures as Abraham Lincoln: “This too shall pass.”Taylor, A. (1968). “This Too Will Pass (Jason 910Q)”. In F. Harkort, K.C. Peeters, & R. Wildhaber. Volksüberlieferung: Festschrift für Kurt Ranke (pp. 345–350). Göttingen, German: Schwartz.
Key Takeaway
• Conflict can be managed by implementing a combination of preventive, logistical, and procedural actions, as well as by maintaining composure and perspective.
Exercise \(1\)
1. What proportion of conflicts within small groups do you feel can actually be resolved rather than merely managed? Provide a rationale and example(s) for your answer.
2. Think about a conflict that you recently observed or took part in. What elements of its timing, location, or physical surroundings do you think contributed to its nature or severity? Which of those elements, if any, do you think someone might have been able to change to lessen the intensity of the conflict?
3. Labor negotiations sometimes include a mandated “cooling-off period.” Describe a conflict situation you’ve witnessed which you believe might have turned out better had such a cooling-off period been incorporated into it. Describe areas of conflict in your life, at school or elsewhere, in which you feel it would be helpful to make use of such a technique? | textbooks/socialsci/Communication/Public_Speaking/An_Introduction_to_Group_Communication_(LibreTexts)/10%3A_Managing_Conflict/10.06%3A_Effective_Conflict_Management_Strategies.txt |
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