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By Meagan Keith
Learning Objectives
• recognize and define Gardner's ten intelligences
• distinguish traditional views of intelligence (e.g., IQ) from Multiple Intelligences and Emotional Intelligence
• identify which kind of learning is best for them (e.g., visual, kinesthetic, etc.)
What is intelligence?
The traditional view of intelligence has always been that people are born with a fixed amount of intelligence in which that level does not change over a lifetime (Hampton, 2008). Under the traditional view of intelligence, intelligence consists of two abilities—logic and language. Short answer tests, such as the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test and the Scholastic Aptitude Test, are common ways of measuring intelligence.
However, in the past twenty years or so, a more modern view of intelligence has begun to replace existing traditional views. Extensive research has shown that it is, indeed, possible to have more than one intelligence and that the level of intelligence can change over a lifetime. This theory of intelligence is called Multiple Intelligences as created by Howard Gardner, Ph.D., a psychologist and professor of neuroscience from Harvard University.
According to Gardner, “Intelligence is the ability to respond successfully to new situations and the capacity to learn from one’s past experiences” (Hampton, 2008). Gardner believes that, “we all possess at least [seven] unique intelligences through which we are able to learn and teach new information” (Hampton, 2008). He believes that “we can all improve each of the intelligences, though some people will improve more readily in one intelligence area than the others” (Hampton, 2008).
Gardner does not believe in short-answer tests to measure intelligence because “short answer tests do not measure disciplinary mastery or deep understanding, rather they measure root memorization skills and only one’s ability to do well on short-answer tests” (Hampton, 2008). Assessments that value the process over the final answer, such as the Performance Assessment in Math (PAM) and the Performance Assessment in Language (PAL), are more accurate measures of intelligence in Gardner’s theory than short-answer tests.
Introduction to Multiple Intelligences
In 1983 Howard Gardner proposed his theory of multiple intelligences in the book Frames of the Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. In his book, Gardner proposes that there are seven possible intelligences—linguistic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, musical intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, visual-spatial intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, and intrapersonal intelligence. Gardner would go on to add three more intelligences to his list—naturalist intelligence, spiritual intelligence, and existential intelligence—in his later book Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligence for the 21st Century (1999).
According to the Educational Researcher, to arrive at Gardner’s first seven intelligences Gardner and his colleagues examined literature on the “development of cognitive capacities in normal individuals, the breakdown of cognitive capacities under various kinds of organic pathology, and the existence of abilities in ‘special populations,’ such as prodigies, autistic individuals, idiots savants, and learning disabled children” (Gardner & Hatch, 1989).
Gardner and his colleagues also examined literature on “forms of intellect that exist in different species, forms of intellect valued in different cultures, the evolution of cognition across the millennia, as well as two forms of psychological evidence—the results of factor-analytic studies of human cognitive capacities and the outcome of studies of transfer and generalization” (Gardner & Hatch, 1989).
Intelligences that appeared repeatedly in Gardner’s research were added to a provisional list, whilst intelligences only appearing once or twice were discarded. Gardner claimed that, “as a species, human beings have evolved over the millennia to carry out at least these seven forms of thinking” on his provisional list (Gardner & Hatch, 1989).
Multiple Intelligences Defined
Linguistic intelligence is the ability to learn languages and use language to express what is on one’s mind and to understand people. Those who have high linguistic intelligence are well-developed in verbal skills and have sensitivity to sounds, meanings and rhythms of words (Hampton, 2008). These kinds of people enjoy reading various kinds of literature, playing word games, making up poetry and stories, and getting into involved discussions with other people (Hampton, 2008).
Examples of people with high linguistic ability include poets, writers, public speakers, TV and radio newscasters, and journalists.
Logical-Mathematical intelligence is the ability to detect patterns, reason deductively, and think logically. Those who are “math smart” have the capacity to analyze problems logically, carry out mathematical operations, and investigate scientifically (Smith, 2008). Those with high Logical-Mathematical intelligence are highly capable of thinking conceptually and abstractly (Hampton, 2008). This kind of intelligence is often associated with scientific and mathematical thinking (Hampton, 2008).
Careers that “math smart” people tend to be employed in include computer technicians and programmers, accountants, poll takers, medical professionals, and math teachers (Smith, 2008).
Musical Intelligence is “the capacity to think in music, to be able to hear patterns, recognize them, and manipulate them” (Hampton, 2008). Those who are musically intelligent learn through sounds, rhythms, tones, beats, music produced by other people or present in the environment,” according to Gardner (Hampton, 2008). Musically intelligent people also have the ability to perform, compose, and appreciate music and music patterns (Smith, 2008).
Jobs in which musical intelligence is a desired aptitude include advertising, music studio directors and recorders, singers and songwriters, conductors, and music teachers (Hampton, 2008).
Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence is defined as “having the potential of using one’s whole body or parts of the body to solve problems” (Smith, 2008). Those with high kinesthetic intelligence communicate well through body language and like to be taught through physical activity, hands-on learning, acting out, and role playing (Lane, n.d.). These kinds of people have a keen sense of body awareness and have the ability to use mental abilities to coordinate bodily movements (Smith, 2008).
Gymnasts, physical therapists, mechanics, athletes, builders, dancers, doctors, surgeons, nurses, and crafts persons tend to be highly kinesthetic.
Spatial intelligence “involves the potential to recognize and use patterns of wide space and more confined areas,” according to Gardner (Smith, 2008). As well as, “the ability to manipulate and mentally rotate objects,” adds Gardner (Thompson, 1999). Graphic artists, architects, and mapmakers tend to be highly spatially intelligent. These people are very aware of their environments.
Interpersonal intelligence is the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations, and desires of other people (Smith, 2008). These kinds of people are “people smart” and work well with others. Examples of people with high interpersonal intelligence include educators, salespeople, and religious and political leaders. Interpersonally intelligent people learn through personal interactions.
“[People with high interpersonal intelligence] probably have a lot of friends, show a great deal of empathy for other people, and exhibit a deep understanding of other people’s viewpoints,” according to MI Indentified (Hampton, 2008).
Intrapersonal intelligence is the capacity to understand oneself, to appreciate one’s feelings, fears and motivations,” according to Gardner. “It involves have an effective working model of ourselves, and to be able to use such information to regulate our lives” according to The Encyclopedia of Informal Education (Smith, 2008). People who possess high intrapersonal intelligence are “self smart.” These people know who they are, what they are capable of doing, how to react to things, what to avoid, and what they gravitate to (Hampton, 2008).
Psychologists, philosophers, social workers, and counselors are all examples of “self smart” careers.
Naturalist intelligence is defined as the ability to recognize and categorize plants, animals and other objects in nature (Hampton, 2008). Those with high naturalist intelligence include gardeners, biologists, birdwatchers, florists, horticulturists and more.
According to EdWeb, “People who are sensitive to changes in weather patterns or are adept at distinguishing nuances between large numbers of similar objects may be expressing naturalist intelligence abilities” (Carvin, n.d.). Naturalist intelligence is the intelligence that presumably helped our ancestors survive—“to decide what to eat and what to run from” (Holmes, 2002).
Existential Intelligence is defined as the ability to be sensitive to, or having the capacity for, conceptualizing or tackling deeper or larger questions about human existence, such as what is the meaning of life? Why are we born? And why do we die (Wilson, 2005)? Existential intelligence is often called the “wondering smart” or the metaphysical intelligence.
The clearest definition of existential intelligence defined by Gardner is: “individuals who exhibit the proclivity to pose and ponder questions about life, death, and ultimate realities” (Wilson, 2005). However, Gardner has not fully committed himself to this ninth intelligence despite his book Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligence for the 21st Century in which he first mentions the possible existence of a ninth intelligence.
Spiritual Intelligence according to Dr. Cynthia Davis, clinical and corporate psychologist and emotional intelligence business coach, “is the ultimate intelligence in which we address and solve problems of meaning and value, in which we can place our actions and our lives in a wider, richer, meaning-giving context, and the intelligence with which we can assess that one course of action or one life path is more meaningful than another” (Mindwise Pty Ltd, 2004) .
“Spiritual intelligence is the intelligence that which makes us whole, integral and transformative,” according to Danah Zohar, author of Spiritual Capital: Wealth We Can Live By (Spiritual Intelligence and Spirtual Health, 2008). Spiritual intelligence is not necessarily religious nor is it dependent upon religion as a foundation (Mindwise Pty Ltd, 2004). Characteristics of spiritual intelligence include the capacity to face and use suffering, the capacity to face and transcend pain, the capacity to be flexible, actively and spontaneously adaptive, and high self-awareness (Mindwise Pty Ltd, 2004).
Note
GARDNER'S THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
Linguistic Intelligence
“Word Smart”
Logical-Mathematical Intelligence
“Number/Reasoning smart”
Spatial Intelligence
“Picture Smart”
Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
“Body Smart”
Musical Intelligence
“Music Smart”
Interpersonal Intelligence
“People Smart”
Intrapersonal Intelligence
“Self Smart”
Naturalist Intelligence
“Nature Smart”
Existential Intelligence
“Wondering Smart”
Spiritual Intelligence
“Spiritual Smart”
Conclusion to Multiple Intelligences
Note
"The single most important contribution education can make to a child's development is to help him towards a field where his talents best suit him, where he will be satisfied and competent."
-Howard Gardner
Since the publication of Gardner’s Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, Gardner’s theory has been put into practice in schools all over the world. Gardner’s theory teaches that teachers should not teach the same material to the entire class rather individualize instruction by identifying students’ strengths and weaknesses.
One way of identifying students’ strengths and weaknesses is to offer a multiple intelligence assessment. Multiple Intelligence assessments typically ask students/test takers to rank statements from 1-5 indicating how well that statement describes them ("5" being the statement describes you exactly, and "1" being the statement does not describe you at all). Statements might look like the ones below from Dr. Terry Armstrong’s online assessment of strengths (Armstrong, n.d.):
• I pride myself on having a large vocabulary.
• Using numbers and numerical symbols is easy for me.
• Music is very important to me in my daily life.
• I always know where I am in relation to my home.
• I consider myself an athlete.
• I feel like people of all ages like me.
• I often look for weaknesses in myself that I see in others.
• The world of plants and animals is important to me.
Teachers can use assessments like Armstrong's to take an inventory of learner’s skills so that they can tailor their teaching methods to their learner’s strengths.
Introduction to Emotional Intelligence
Emotion can be any number of things. It can be anger, sadness, fear, enjoyment, love, surprise, disgust, or shame (Goleman, 2005, p. 289). Author of Emotional Intelligence, Daniel Goleman, suggests that emotion refers to a “feeling and its distinctive thoughts, psychological and biological states, and range of propensities to act” (Goleman, 2005, p. 289). But, the most fascinating part about emotions is that they are universal. People from cultures around the world all recognize the same basic emotions, even peoples presumably untainted by exposure to cinema or television (Goleman, 2005, p. 290).
There are two basic definitions of emotional intelligence. One is the Mayer-Salovey definition and the other, the Goleman definition. There are numerous other definitions of emotional intelligence floating about, especially on the net. However, none are as academically or scientifically accepted as Goleman's and Mayer and Salovey's.
Emotional Intelligence Defined
Mayer-Salovey Definition
The first two people to suggest that emotional intelligence is a true form of intelligence were Jack Mayer and Peter Salovey. Mayer and Salovey are leading researchers in the field of emotional intelligence. They first published their findings in a 1990 seminal article where they defining emotional intelligence as “the subset of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s feelings and emotions," as well as, "the ability to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions” (Hein, 2007). Mayer and Salovey further described emotional intelligence as, “a set of skills hypothesized to contribute to the accurate appraisal and expression of emotion in oneself and in others, the effective regulation of emotion in self and others, and the use of feelings to motivate, plan, and achieve in one’s life” (Hein, 2007).
Along with their definition of emotional intelligence, Mayer and Salovey proposed that there were four branches of emotional intelligence. Here is a compiled list of details from Mayer and Salovey’s 1990 and 1997 articles on the four branches of emotional intelligence:
1. Perception Appraisal and Expression of Emotion
• Ability to identify emotions in faces, music, and stories (1990)
• Ability to identify emotion in one’s physical states, feelings, and thoughts (1997)
• Ability to identify emotions in other people, designs, artwork, etc. through language, sound, appearance, and behavior (1997)
• Ability to discriminate between accurate and inaccurate, or honest vs. dishonest expressions of feeling (1997)
2. Emotional Facilitation of Thinking
• Ability to relate emotions to other mental sensations such as taste and color (1990)
• Ability to use emotion in reasoning and problem solving (1990)
• Emotions prioritize thinking by directing attention to important information (1997)
• Emotions are sufficiently vivid and available that they can be generated as aids to judgement and memory concerning feelings (1997)
• Emotional states differentially encourage specific problem-solving approaches such as when happiness facilitates inductive reasoning and creativity (1997)
3. Understanding and Analyzing Emotions; Employing Emotional Knowledge
• Ability to solve emotional problems such as knowing which emotions are similar, or opposites, and what relations that convey (1990)
• Ability to label emotions and recognize relations among the words and the emotions themselves, such as the relation between liking and loving (1997)
• Ability to interpret the meanings that emotions convey regarding relationships, such as that sadness often accompanies a loss (1997)
• Ability to understand complex feelings: simultaneous feelings of love and hate or blends such as awe as a combination of fear and surprise (1997)
• Ability to recognize likely transitions among emotions, such as the transition from anger to satisfaction or from anger to shame (1997)
4. Reflective Regulation of Emotions to Promote Emotional and Intellectual Growth
• Ability to understand the implications of social acts on emotions and the regulation of emotion in self and others (1990)
• Ability to stay open to feelings, both those that are pleasant and those that are unpleasant (1997)
• Ability to reflectively engage or detach from an emotion depending upon its judged informativeness or utility (1997)
• Ability to reflectively monitor emotions in relation to oneself and others, such as recognizing how clear, typical, influential or reasonable they are (1997)
• Ability to manage emotion in oneself and others by moderating negative emotions and enhancing pleasant ones, without repressing or exaggerating information they may convey (1997)
Goleman Defintion
Daniel Goleman, Ph.D., is another important figure in the field of emotional intelligence. Goleman is the successful author of New York Times bestsellers, Emotional Intelligence and Social Intelligence, as well as an internationally known psychologist. Goleman is currently working as a science journalist and frequently lectures to professional groups, business audiences, and on college campuses (Bio, 2009). Goleman is one of the foremost experts in emotional intelligence. In his book, Emotional Intelligence, Goleman defines emotional intelligence as, “a set of skills, including control of one’s impulses, self-motivation, empathy and social competence in interpersonal relationships” (Goleman, 2005).
Goleman, like Mayer and Salovey, divided emotional intelligence into key components; three that pertained to oneself and two that pertained to how one relates to others (Gergen, 1999). Goleman's five key components of emotional intelligence are: Emotional self-awareness, managing emotions, motivating oneself, recognizing emotions in others, and handling relationships. Goleman, for the most part, agrees with Mayer and Salovey. However, in recent years, Goleman has favored a four component system as opposed to his original five components in 1995.
Five Key Components (Goleman, 2005, p. 43-44):
1. Knowing one's emotions
• Self-awareness—recognizing a feeling as it happens—is the keystone of emotional intelligence
• The ability to monitor feelings from moment to moment is crucial to psychological insight and self-understanding
• People who know their emotions have a surer sense of how they really feel about personal decisions from whom to marry to what job to take
2. Managing emotions
• Handling feelings so they are appropriate is an ability that builds on self-awareness
• People who are poor in this ability are constantly battling feelings of distress, while those who excel in it can bounce back far more quickly from life's setbacks and upsets
3. Motivating oneself
• Marshalling emotions in the service of a goal is essential for paying attention, for self-motivation and mastery, and for creativity
• People who have this skill tend to be more highly productive and effective in whatever they undertake
4. Recognizing emotions in others
• Empathy is the fundamental people skill
• People who are empathetic are more attuned to the subtle social signals that indicate what others need or want; this makes them better at callings such as caring professions, teaching, sales, and management
5. Handling relationships
• Skill in managing emotions in others
• These are the abilities that undergird popularity, leadership, and interpersonal effectiveness
• People who excel in these skills do well at anything that relies on interacting smoothly with others
Conclusion to Emotional Intelligence
In 1998, Goleman developed a set of guidelines for The Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations that could be applied in the workplace and in schools. This set of guidelines is divided into four parts: preparation, training, transfer and maintenance, and evaluation. Each phase is equally as important as the last.
Some of the first guidelines pertain to assessment. Teachers should assess the class and individuals and inform them of their strengths and weaknesses. In delivering the assessment the teacher should try to be accurate and clear. They should also allow plenty of time for the student to digest and integrate the information (Cherniss, 1998). The teacher should provide feedback in a safe and supportive environment and avoid making excuses or downplaying the seriousness of the deficiencies (Cherniss, 1998).
Other guidelines include: maximizing learner choice, encouraging people to participate, linking learning goals to personal values, adjusting expectations, and gauging readiness (Cherniss, 1998). Teachers should foster a positive relationship between their students and themselves. They should make change self-directed; tailoring a learning program that meets individual needs and circumstances.
Teachers should also set clear goals and make the steps towards those goals manageable, and not too overly ambitious (Cherniss, 1998). Teachers should provide opportunities to practice the new behaviors they have learned. Then, teachers should provide periodic feedback on the learners’ progress (Cherniss, 1998).
Teachers should rely on experiential methods of learning, such as activities that engage all the senses and that are dramatic and powerful, to aid learners in developing social and emotional competencies (Cherniss, 1998). Eventually, learners will develop a greater self-awareness. They should be able to understand how their thoughts, feelings, and behavior affect themselves and others at this point (Cherniss, 1998).
Note
The Self Science Curriculum
from Self Science: The Subject is Me by Karen F. Stone (Goleman, 2005, p. 305)
Main Components
Self-awareness:
obeserving yourself and recognizing your feelings; building a vocabulary for feelings; knowing the relationship between thoughts, feelings, and reactions
Personal Decision-making:
examining your actions and knowing their consequences; knowing if thought or feeling is ruling a decision; applying these insights to issues such a sex and drugs
Managing Feelings:
monitoring "self-talk" to catch negative messages such as internal put-downs; realizing what is behind a feeling (e.g., the hurt that underlies anger); finding ways to handle fears and anxieties, anger and sadness
Handling Stress:
learning the value of exercise, guided imagery, relaxation methods
Empathy:
understandign other peoples' feelings and concerns and taking their perspective; appreciating the differences in how people feel about things
Communications:
talking about feelings effectively; becoming a good listener and question-asker; distinguishing between what someone does or says and your own reactions or judgements about it; sending "I" messages instead of blame
Self-disclosure:
valuing openness and developing trust in a relationship; knowing when it is safe to risk talking about your private feelings
Insight:
identifing patterns in your emotional life and reactions; recognizing similar patterns in others
Self-acceptance:
feeling pride and seeing yourself in a positive light; recognizing your strengths and weaknesses; being able to laugh at yourself
Personal Responsibility:
taking responsibility; recognizing the consequences of your decisions and actions, accepting your feelings and moods, following through on commitments (e.g., studying)
Assertiveness:
stating your concerns and feelings without anger or passivity
Group dynamics:
cooperation; knowing when and how to lead, when to follow
Conflict resolution:
how to fight fair with other kids, with parents, with teachers; the win/win model for negotiating compromise
Exercise \(1\)
1. Who is author of the theory of multiple intelligences?
(a) Daniel Goleman
(b) Howard Gardner
(c) Mayer and Salovey
(d) Reuven Bar-On
2. Mary loves reading, writing, and telling stories. Her favorite course in school is Language arts. What kind of learning would be best for Mary?
(a) Interpersonal
(b) Kinesthetic
(c) Linguistic
(d) Spatial
3. According to Mayer and Salovey, emotional facilitation of thinking is the ability to__________.
(a) Label emotions and recognize relations among the words and the emotions themselves, such as the relation between liking and loving
(b) Relate emotions to other mental sensations such as taste and color
(c) Use emotion in reasoning and problem solving
(d) Both B and C
4. Mr. Conway likes to incorporate lots of hands-on activities into his curriculum. His often asks his students to role-play in class projects. What type of learner is Mr. Conway?
(a) Interpersonal
(b) Intrapersonal
(c) Kinesthetic
(d) Spatial
5. What might be a traditional view of intelligence?
(a) Intelligence is fixed at birth
(b) Standardized tests such as the Stanford-Binet tests accurately measure intelligence
(c) There is only one way to measure intelligence
(d) All of the above
Answer
1. B
2. C
3. D
4. C
5. D | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/10%3A_Effective_Teaching/10.04%3A_What_are_the_theories_of_multiple_intelligences_and_emotional_intelligence.txt |
by Aaron Burdon
Learning Objectives
• The definition of coopertive learning and how it differs from other styles of learning.
• Effective application of coopoertive learning in today's classroom, such as Jigsaw and Round Robin style learning.
• Advantages to coopertive learning.
• Possible challenges with coopertive learning, such as social anxiety, and possible methods to overcome them.
Overview
Our comprehension of our vast universe grows each day. With every new discovery and information gathered from researchers across the globe, we continue to come closer and closer to our understanding of the universe we live in. Not long ago, we believed that the world was flat; however, today we have access to real time pictures taken from satellites orbiting our world to prove its true form. What we teach our children today may be far advanced from what we learned as children ourselves. New discoveries may lead to future generations treating the knowledge of today as obsolete and outdated.
Perhaps equally as important to what we teach our students is also how we teach them to learn the material. As we grow in our understanding of how the human brain operates, we must also use this understanding to help us learn more efficiently. One of the more widely accepted methods of learning that is being applied in today's classroom is that of cooperative learning. This method differs in many ways to that of traditional lecture methods of learning. In this article, we will explore the many ways to effectively apply cooperative learning, the advantages, and the possible challenges of this method.
What Is Cooperative Learning?
The traditional classroom often consists of classes in which children of similar ability levels are taught together. Nearly all classrooms in the United States are taught by grade level specific to the age of the student rather than his or her ability. Many schools also group students according to their apparent ability levels, but this risks becoming a self-fulfilling prophecy for each respective group. By placing students into group in this way, we run the risk of those placed in low-level learning groups perceiving themselves as unintelligent or slow-witted. Grouping students together with varying levels of ability and backgrounds can help eliminate this threat. A very popular method of learning in this way is called cooperative learning.
Cooperative learning is defined as "the collaboration on a task by a small group of students who resolve differences of opinion, share responsibility, consider one another's ideas, and work toward common goals." (Berk, 2008) Unlike traditional methods, cooperative learning lets students enhance the weaknesses of their peers with their own strengths. Students feel a part of a team rather than isolated and students deemed as having low-ability can benefit from those considered higher. In a symbiotic relation, higher level students also tend to do better by teaching the learned material to their peers.
Note
Cooperative learning is the collaboration on a task by a small group of students who resolve differences of opinion, share responsibility, consider one another's ideas, and work toward common goals. (Berk, 2008)
According to Robert E. Slavin of Johns Hopkins University, there are four major perspectives on cooperative learning, which are motivational, social cohesion, cognitive development, and cognitive elaboration (Slavin, 1995). The motivational perspective focuses on the reward for the group in achieving their objective, and that the only way for the group to achieve this goal is to learn how to work together. The theory that students want each other to succeed is more in keeping with the social cohesion perspective, but is similar to the motivational perspective in that the members of the group are motivated to succeed, but instead of goal oriented, it is more motivated by compassion.
The cognitive development perspective takes a very different approach to cooperative learning in that it contends that the interaction of students with their peers stimulates the mind and increases the ability to learn. Unlike being motivated by a common goal or by compassion for their peers, those who follow the cognitive development perspective feel that the human brain simply learns better in a group environment than on its own.
A variation of this is the fourth theory of cognitive elaboration, which contends that the best way to enhance the knowledge already present in the brain is to in turn explain it to ones peers. This slightly differs from cognitive development perspective in that the members of the group must already have some knowledge of the material before entering the group.
Note
Four major perspectives on cooperative learning:
motivational - group focused on common goal
social cohesion - group wants each other to succeed
cognitive development - the human brain simply learns better in a group environment
cognitive elaboration - the best way to
What are some Cooperative Learning examples?
For almost a quarter of a century, Dr. Spenser Kagan has been developing teaching structures of learning based on cooperative learning, called Kagan Structures, to help in the classroom as well the business world. (Kagan, 2008)
One of Kagan's most widely used method of cooperative learning is that of RoundRobin, purposely spelled as one word to differentiate the term from the standard definition of round robins, a type of athletic tourneyment. In a RoundRobin group, each learner takes a turn orally presenting the material that they have learned, helping them to better organize their thoughts on the material. Kagan says that labeling methods of cooperative learning like RoundRobin are beneficial to the student because "students know exactly what to do" when instructed to use a specified method. According to Kagan, this is also helpful to instructors in that it helps facilitate communication among peers in learning from each other how to teach.
Another method that is fast becoming a popular form of cooperative classroom learning is that of the Jigsaw method. Elliot Aronson, Professor Emeritus at the University of California in Santa Cruz, first implemented his Jigsaw method in 1971 initially as a way to deal with the sudden desegregation of schools in Austin, Texas. By placing students into groups with various social and ethnic differences each with the same goal to succeed, the hostility became muted as the students were forced to work together to achieve success.
The Jigsaw method gets its name because each student is a vital piece of the overall puzzle that is the learning task. Students are first divided into groups and assigned various portions of the material to become an expert on. Then, each student meets with students from other group assigned to the same portion of the material and discuss what they have learned. This allows for the student to share what he or she learned on their own while also hearing other students perspectives. Eventually, these students return to their original groups and in turn teaches the members of their group the material that they learned.
Note
Examples of Cooperative Learning:
RoundRobin (Kagan) - the group takes turns orally presenting the material.
Jigsaw (Aronson) - learners are split up into groups, assigned portions of the material to learn, meet with learners from other groups assigned the same portion, and then return to their groups to teach the material they have learned.
Advantages and Possible Challenges of Cooperative Learning
As mentioned earlier, there are many advantages to cooperative learning supported by empirical evidence. Students who participate in cooperative learning programs have outperformed students in traditional learning programs at the elementary, secondary, and collage levels, as cited in Boling and Robinson's article on how cooperative learning is used in lecture-based distance learning. According to the journal article, students have been shown to increase social skills, perceptions of their own ability, and the relevance of the material they are learning (Boling 1999).
Although cooperative learning can be highly effective, there are also some possible challenges in this style. One of the major criticisms of cooperative learning is that it tends to hold back the learning potential of those students who are naturally gifted. Oftentimes, students who are prone to social anxiety and prefer to work alone may suffer a negative effect of cooperative learning. Instructors must understand that cooperative learning is not for everyone and must compliment or supplement some material to students who thrive in a less socially active environment.
Conclusion
In conclusion, cooperative learning is a very different style of learning than how traditional school systems have taught student. There are a number of theories behind why this method tends to be effective; however, there are still a number of unknown variables out there that make cooperative learning hardly the absolute best way to present material. Still, learning methods like Kagan's RoundRobin and Aronson's Jigsaw techniques have proven to be very helpful and have empirical evidence that supports the increase in participants learning ability.
Exercise \(1\)
Question 1: What is cooperative learning?
A) Collaboration on a task by a small group of students who resolve differences of opinion, share responsibility, consider one another's ideas, and work toward common goals.
B) A type of social interaction in which children orient toward a common goal, such as act out a make believe theme or working on a project together.
C) A style of learning that incorporates small groups of like minded students with similar backgrounds and learning styles in order to enhance their learning potential.
D) A small, diverse group of students goofing off on a project that they were supposed to turn in last week.
Question 2: Which of the following would be the best example of effective cooperative learning?
A) A group of students with similar interests in books forming a reading club to discuss their favorite books, and voting on which will be their club's official favorite each week.
B) A small group of students of different cultural backgrounds sharing their favorite foods from their native land with each other.
C) A large, diverse group of students assigned to each write a two page paper on their political party leanings, to be turned in and graded by the instructor.
D) A small group of students with differing political views tasked with a presentation comparing and contrasting where both Presidential Candidates in this year's election stand on issues related to education.
Question 3: Which of the following is not one of the four major theoretical perspectives of cooperative learning, according to Slavin?
A) Learners are motivated by a common goal and must work together to achieve this goal.
B) Learners want their peers to succeed and are fueled by compassion to help them learn.
C) Learners learn better when they have to repeat or teach the material that they have learned to their peers.
D) Learners have a higher ability to retain knowledge if they are seen as the leader of a cooperative learning group and assert themselves as such.
Question 4: Which of the following could one not use the Jigsaw or Round Robin techniques of learning?
A) A team of lawyers must find a precedent for their client's situation and convince the judge and jury to issue a verdict of "not guilty" in light of this information.
B) Students of an economics class must find a newspaper article that relates to their current lesson and present it to the class.
C) A basketball team faces their rival in the upcoming championship game and they must develop new plays to overcome their opponents notorious offense.
D) All of the above can take advantage of either Jigsaw or Round Robin techniques.
Answer
1) - A) According to Berk, the definition of cooperative learning is "collaboration on a task by a small group of students who resolve differences of opinion, share responsibility, consider one another's ideas, and work toward common goals." (Berk 470)
2) - D) The group with the Candidate comparison would be the best choice in that the students are given a task, must resolve differences of opinion, and work toward the common goal of the presentation.
3) - D) A cooperative learner taking charge as the leader sometimes can have an adverse effect on the rest of the group and is not one of the four perspectives mentioned by Slavin. The other three responses are motivational, social cohesion, and cognitive elaboration perspective.
4) - D) Jigsaw and Round Robin techniques are not exclusive to the classroom and can be used in a variety of circumstances, such as preparing for a legal case, an upcoming championship basketball game, or reading a newspaper article. | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/10%3A_Effective_Teaching/10.05%3A_What_is_the_nature_of_cooperative_learning.txt |
by Kathleen Crossin
Introduction
Most of us are guilty of forming opinions of people based on our first impressions. What happens when a teacher forms an opinion of a student based on first impressions, cognitive abilities, economic status, ethnicity, gender, or perceived achievement level? Are the teacher's expectations of the student likely to have an effect on student performance?
Pygmalion Effect and Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Researchers Rosenthal and Jacobson published a study of the effects of teacher expectations. The Pygmalion effect, also known as the "teacher expectancy effect" ("Pygmalion effect," 2008, para.1) explains that students will meet the expectations they feel the teacher has for them. If the student feels that the teacher expects them to do well, they will meet those expectations. Conversely, if a teacher has low expectations for a student, the teacher's behavior toward that student will ensure that the expectation was accurate (Tauber, 1998, para. 5). The Pygmalion effect is closely associated with the self-fulfilling prophecy ("Self-fulfilling prophecy, 2008). Robert Merton is credited with this term (Tauber, 1998). He explained the five points involved:
• "The teacher forms expectations."
• "Based upon these expectations, the teacher acts in a different manner."
• "The teacher's treatment tells each student (loud and clear) what behavior and what achievement the teacher expects."
• "If this treatment is consistent, it will tend to shape the student's behavior and achievement."
• "With time, the student's behavior and achievement will conform more and more closely to that expected of him or her."(Tauber, 1998, para. 8)
Note
“Whatever we expect with confidence becomes our own self-fulfilling prophecy”--- Brian Tracy
How Perceptive are Children to a Teacher's Expectations?
According to research studies (Rubie-Davies, 2006, para. 3), students are very attuned to the differences in which teachers teach and interact with students according to the teacher's expectations (Rubie-Davies, 2006). In a study (Rubie-Davies, 2006) fourth graders were asked how they knew if the teacher labeled them as smart. The students were able to discern this information from the type of instruction the teacher used, the teacher's style of assessment, and the teacher's use of non-verbal actions (Rubie-Davies, 2006, para. 3). A further research experiment (Rubie-Davies, 2006, para. 3) illustrated that fourth graders were able to merely watch a teacher's non-verbal cues and determine if the teacher was speaking to high or low expectation students (Rubie-Davies, 2006, para. 4). As we can see from these studies, children are very conscious of a teacher's expectations.
Is it Possible to Have High Expectations for all Students?
Note
"Treat a man as he is, he will remain so. Treat a man the way he can be and ought to be, and he will become as he can be and should be".---Goethe
Students with Cognitive Disabilities
So crucial is the need for high expectations that there are two laws that deal with ensuring high expectations for all children (Quenemoen & Thurlow, 2007). No Child Left Behind (NCLB) and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) both "require that all children count in school accountability measures so high expectations will result in high achievement for every child" (Quenemoen & Thurlow, 2007, para. 4). In a national survey (McGrew & Evans, 2003, para. 13), 84% of teachers questioned did not believe that children with special needs should be required to achieve the same goals as other students (McGrew & Evans, 2003, para. 13). These low expectations are communicated to students by the labels they receive in school. Labeling puts an emphasis on the student's shortcomings (McGrew & Evans, 2003, para. 50). While it may not be possible to meet the same standards as other children, a teacher with high expectations for students with cognitive disabilities can help establish an environment that is not conducive to further inhibiting a student's achievements (McGrew & Evans, 2003, para. 88).
Income and Racial Diversity
Do teachers have low expectations of students from low-income families? Do minority students face bias due to stereotypes? Alfinio Flores (2007) studied this topic in reference to the differences in math scores between low-income minority students and White students (Flores, 2007, para. 1). Flores (2007) states that the percentage of White teachers is 88%, while the minority students make up 33% of the student population (Flores, 2007, para. 15). Flores feels that many factors account for the differences in test scores. Teachers, who have low expectations of these minority students and as a result do not teach students more advanced math, are one of the problems (Flores, 2007, para. 16). Research (Flores, 2007) has shown that the achievement gap in poor and minority students is due to a lack of opportunity, not a lack of intelligence (Flores, 2007, para. 40). He concludes that “there is nothing intrinsic to the students’ backgrounds or cultures that would prevent them from achievement” (Flores, 2007, para. 28). Researcher, Richard Elmore, a researcher who studies schools with racial diversity and high poverty levels, found that schools that were successful, were schools in which teachers and administrators had high expectations for students (Elmore, 2006, para. 4). In a study (Brown & Medway, 2007) of a school (with 10 years of unsatisfactory student progress) with a high percentage of low-income students, 70% population of African-American students, and 34% of students in special education classes, a plan that focused on high expectations brought about national awards for their subsequent accomplishments(Brown & Medway, 2007, para. 9).
Gender
Are male and female students afforded the same opportunities for academic achievement? Society has clearly shown us that we expect different behaviors from males and females (Lindley & Keithley, 1991, para. 1). In the classroom, males benefit from high expectations and are encouraged to achieve their goals. Conversely, females are encouraged to be model students (Lindley & Keithley, 1991, para. 7, 8). Evidence of this bias is shown by males out-scoring females on college entrance standardized tests (Lindley & Keithley, 1991, para. 9). In an effort to address this inequality, the GESA (Gender/Ethnic/Racial Expectations and Student Achievement) Program was developed (Lindley & Keithley, 1991, para. 1). Results from this program showed an increase in classroom opportunities for females, increases in math and reading scores, and the teachers felt that the program was beneficial in raising their cognizance of the issues addressed (Lindley & Keithley, 1991, para. 20).
"Average" Students
Does the "average" student get left out? So much attention is paid to special needs students, but what about the average student (Gonder, 1993, para. 1)? A variety of methods have been successfully used to engage these students (Gonder, 1993, para. 3). One of the methods involves increasing expectations by changing the curriculum focus from basic recall to a curriculum focused on analysis and concepts. (Gonder, 1993, para. 13). This curriculum change lets the student know that you expect more from them and you feel them capable of succeeding (Gonder, 1993, para. 13). Another way some high schools are delivering the message of high expectations is through personalized attention (Gonder, 1993, para. 11). In these schools, once a semester "the adviser, student, and parent meet to discusss the student's educational goals and develop a plan to meet them" (Gonder, 1993, para. 11).
Gifted Students
Underachieving gifted students sounds like an oxymoron, when compared to the stereotypical views of gifted children (Kolb & Jussim, 1994, para. 18). For many teachers, the label of "gifted" means that the student is motivated to excel(Kolb & Jussim, 1994, para. 18). For some students, the lack of challenging work, causes them to behave poorly in class causing the teacher to lower their expectations of that student (Kolb & Jussim, 1994, para. 20). Some gifted children rise to the challenge of changing the teacher's new perception, but others may "fall victim to self-fulfilling prophecies" (Kolb & Jussim, 1994, para. 21). To prevent this cycle of low expectations leading to a negative self-fulfilling prophecy, teachers need to be aware of the ways in which gifted students react to boredom in the classroom (Kolb & Jussim, 1994, para. 28). If teachers realize these reactions for what they are, they will not lower their expectations (Kolb & Jussim, 1994, para. 21).
Do All Students Fall Victim to Low Expectations?
As a parent, I feel strongly that all teachers should hold high expectations for their students. I know that my children look up to their teachers and are influenced by what happens in the classroom. I cannot imagine a better feeling than someone telling you that you are full of potential and ability. As we have seen from various research experiments, teachers can convey these thoughts merely in the manner in which they teach. I also feel that it is my responsibility as a parent to help my child develop a strong sense of self efficacy. As we go through life, we are going to be faced with people who do not have high expectations of us. Should we fall victim to the self-fulfilling prophecy each time we meet someone who does not hold us in high regard? Fortunately, not everyone is susceptible to the expectancy effects (EE). Kolb & Jussim (1994) state that "it is important to realize that some vulnerable or 'at risk' students, nevertheless, are more resilient than others and seem impervious to the deleterious impact of negative EE" (Kolb & Jussim, 1994, para. 43).
Conclusion
While not all students are negatively impacted by low expectations, research (Mavi & Sharpe, 2000) clearly shows that students benefit from high expectations (Mavi & Sharpe, 2000, para. 15). We are all individuals with our own unique abilities. I will never be an impressive artist, but I can make progress to the best of my ability. Authors Hasan and Sharpe (2000) sum it up nicely, "Clearly defining success in terms of individual progress is one means to avoiding inappropriately placed standards; standards which may act to drive low expectancies placed on some students" (Hasan & Sharpe, 2000, para. 15). Having high expectations for all students does not mean that we expect all students to accomplish the same goals. We expect students to reach their own potential. Teachers can help students obtain their goals by maintaining high expectations for all.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Tom, a gifted student, in Mrs. Clark's class becomes bored and begins disrupting class during a basic skills review. Mrs. Clarke begins to change her high expectations of Tom based on his behavior. As a result,he begins to withdraw and lose interest in school. Tom is showing the effects of the:
a. Achievement gap
b. coopertive learning style
c. GESA program
d. self-fulfulling prophecy
2. A school is showing a large discrepancy in test scores between males and females. The male students are outscoring the females by large margins. Which program might benefit the school?
a. The GESA program
b. The IDEA program
c. The Paragon program
d. The Pygmalion program
3. Jenny has been performing within the average range on standardized test scores for the past three years. Jenny's sister, a highly motivated gifted student, excelled in Mrs. Smith's class last year. This year, Jenny is in Mrs. Smith's class. Mrs. Smith holds the same expectations for Jenny. Jenny meets these expectations and has her most successful year in school. Jenny's success could be a result of:
a. The gifted and talented program
b. The No Child Left Behind Act
c. The Pygmalion effect
d. The Technology Integration Act
4. A cognitively challenged student is enrolled in Shandy Hulk Elementary school. Her teacher is worried about this student's inferior academic progress. This student's right to an education, replete with high expectations, is based on :
a. The achievement right
b. The education exchange
c. The No Child Left Behind Act
d. the self-efficacy program
5. Having high expectations for all students means:
a. All students should get into their first choice college
b. expecting and encouraging all students to reach their own full potential
c. no student will have to repeat a grade or recieve educational assistance
d. standardized test scoresfor all students will be within 1%-2%
Answer
1. d
2. a
3. c
4. c
5. b | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/10%3A_Effective_Teaching/10.06%3A_What_is_the_effect_of_having_high_expectations_for_students.txt |
by Christa Portlock
“Give a man a fish, feed him for a day. Teach a man to fish; feed him for a lifetime.” The founder of Taoism, Lao Tzu, spoke these words over 2000 years ago. (Smith, xi) Education is similar to this principle. For centuries students were “fed” information and taught to memorize facts, in the hope they would retain a portion of what was taught. Today it isn’t enough just to feed information to students. Our world is changing so fast that new information becomes available faster than it can be taught. If a nation wants to keep pace with this ever-changing world, then learning can’t stop at graduation. Students as well as teachers must learn “how to fish” for knowledge by becoming life long learners. Teachers can become life-long learners by realizing and acknowledging that life long-learning is a necessity; by learning to keep up with changes through personal and professional development; and by teaching with passion, inspiring young minds to see learning as something wonderful.
Life-long Learning is a Necessity
The last century has brought about an explosion of inventions, new technologies and new information about our world and universe. Teachers have had to keep up with all the new information and knowledge. What would it be like if they hadn’t? Picture a classroom somewhere in America. The teacher has been teaching for many years; she might be in her 50’s. That means she started teaching during the 1970s. Think back about 30 years. What were American schools like then? What kind of things would you have found in her first classroom? Classrooms in those days had chalkboards and pull-down maps. Some schools had TVs, film-and overhead projectors that were shared between classes and could be rolled into the room. Calculators existed but were generally not used in the classroom. Now imagine for a minute what it would be like if this teacher had not adapted to change. What would it be like if she had buried herself in her classroom, not furthered her learning, not embraced all the new technologies, events and discoveries? If she had not been a life-long learner, what would she have missed? What would she not have learned, embraced, and passed on to students? Think of the things that have happened in the past 35 years. She would have missed, among other things, the hostage crisis in the late 70’s, Presidents coming and going, this country at war more than once, the attack of 9/11. She would not have seen the Soviet Union collapse, would not have heard of Aids or global warming. She would not have known much, if anything, about DNA. She wouldn’t know how to use a personal computer, the internet or cell phones. It is easy to see that if we stand still the world will pass us by. We live in a global society that is changing at breathtaking speed. We need to adapt and change. Life-long learning is a necessity for everyone.
Personal and Professional Development
In order to keep up with our changing environment and to stay informed, teachers make a conscious effort to continue learning. They will take part in professional training through the school district or through classes taken at universities. Most teachers read books and professional journals to keep up with the newest information about child development. They read magazines, newspapers, watch the news and surf the internet to keep up with changes that happen around the world. Teachers attend workshops to keep up with technology, the newest teaching strategies, and classroom management techniques. They are eager to take in new information about our world and look for ways to improve their teaching practices in the classroom. Another way a teacher can improve and move forward is to learn more about him or herself. In the book Those Who can, Teach by Ryan Cooper, a teacher is likened to a sculptor who “begins with a vision of what he or she wants to be and then sets to work transforming the vision into a reality… The process requires an understanding of … self … it takes long hours of chipping away and then smoothing the surfaces… To be a teacher, particularly a teacher who is continuously moving forward, is a lifelong commitment …” (Cooper, 473) A sculptor needs time, patience and the ability to see beyond what is easily visible on the surface to create his work of art. A teacher uses those same qualities, just like a sculptor, to patiently reflect and look deep within him- or herself to see where changes could be made. At the end of a day it is helpful for a teacher to think deeply about the events of that day, to analyze him- or herself and therefore better understand and react to situations in the future. It is good to take time to remember happy events, a chance to feel content about good things that may have happened. Reflection can help a person to learn and adjust to his or her environment. As previously discussed, teachers have to become life-long learners and have to adjust to keep up with our ever-changing world through personal and professional development. They are however, not the only ones who need to keep pace with new information and technology. One of the reasons it is so important for teachers to stay informed, is so they can pass this new knowledge and information on to students.
Teaching with Passion
Note
If we can have “students see our passions – it gives them proof that we enjoy learning.” (Thomas, 2007)
Children have a sense of wonder when they are young. “Keeping the joy in learning should be a priority of every school and every teacher.” (Warner, 2006)If children can keep their sense of excitement about the world, they will love to learn and that original excitement and love of learning will most likely stay with them for life. To help keep the excitement alive, teachers aim to inspire young minds. They want their students to see how much fun learning can be. In the article “A Return to Community: Inquiry in Action” Ann H. MacKenzie wrote: “Life-long learning implies a buy-in curiosity about life... an insatiable desire to be alive in ‘the now, the future,’ and immersed in the teeming life surrounding us every moment.” (Thomas, 2007) If we can have “students see our passions – it gives them proof that we enjoy learning.” (Thomas, 2007) It is wonderful to see the sparks when students understand a concept and take off excited with their new-found knowledge. “We must model that inquisitiveness in the classrooms. Our students must see us involved in our own life-long learning… Watch us passionately immerse ourselves in our own curiosities.” (MacKenzie)
When teachers model excitement about learning, students will see learning as something positive to be imitated. In turn they will hopefully become life-long learners themselves. Rafe Esquinth wrote an inspiring book entitled Teach Like Your Hair’s on Fire. He teaches in a “rough” Los Angeles neighborhood and found a way to inspire his students to learn, imagine, and eventually succeed in school. Esquinth relates a story about a day that didn’t start out well. In the course of that day he became so involved in teaching that unbeknownst to him, his hair caught on fire during an experiment. He was so involved in teaching, he didn’t even notice. That day he realized that the key to teaching was to become absorbed and excited about learning. He was determined from then on to make his goal to “teach like his hair is on fire”. (Esquinth, xii) If we can convey to students excitement about a subject, about learning, and about life we will teach as if our “hair is on fire”. That kind of excitement will inspire children to become life-long learners.
Note
“We must model that inquisitiveness in the classrooms. Our students must see us involved in our own life-long learning… Watch us passionately immerse ourselves in our own curiosities.” (MacKenzie)
Conclusion
As individuals and as citizens of a global economy we have to keep pace with our world. We must continue to learn and then pass our knowledge and love of learning on to the next generation. We have to inspire the next generation to find joy in continuous learning so that, even after leaving school, students will be prepared for this ever-changing world, ready to embrace a world filled with new, exciting things, ready to investigate and ready to keep learning, never giving up on their quest for knowledge. A fish is only one meal… we want to teach students to be excited about learning, excited about fishing for information; we want to give them the tools to become life-long fishermen for knowledge.
Exercise \(1\)
1)Does learning stop at graduation? Why?
a)Yes, because there are too many other things to do.
b)Yes, because learning makes hair catch on fire.
c)No, because it’s important to keep up with our ever-changing world.
d)Of course we stop learning at graduation! We’re done with school!
2)What is an example of professional development for teachers?
a)Reading articles about child development
b)Attending workshops
c)Keeping up with technology
d)All of the above
3)What is an important part of personal development for teachers?
a)Developing a seventh sense
b)Getting a pedicure
c)Practicing reflection
d)Joining a teacher’s organization
4)How does the practice of reflection help a teacher?
a)Reflection helps a teacher learn about him or herself.
b)Reflection can help a teacher to learn about and adjust to his or her environment.
c)It’s important for a teacher to see her own reflection to make sure she looks proper before entering the classroom.
d)Both a and b.
5)Why is it important to teach with passion?
a)It gives children proof that we enjoy learning.
b)It shows children that learning is something positive to be imitated.
c)It keeps excitement about learning alive.
d)All of the above.
Answer
1. c
2. d
3. c
4. d
5. d
Reaction Paper
My Thoughts About Life-long Learning
by Christa Portlock
Investigating life-long learning and what it means made me think about what it means to me as a student and as a prospective future teacher. To me the world has always been a very interesting, exciting, and beautiful place to investigate and to learn about. I can’t imagine what my life would be like without that wonder and appreciation about learning new things. Life is so much more stimulating, rich and pleasurable when we engage our minds, use our imagination and fill our hearts with the beauty that surrounds us. I would love to pass that excitement on to someone else. It would be exciting to spark the imagination of children and watch them find the same joy that I have always felt when learning something new. I know I have much to learn to be able to know how to best pass on knowledge, as well as excitement about learning. I am on a learning quest right now. I want to learn how to become that teacher who can create those sparks that light up a child’s eyes and light his or her path through life with inquisitiveness and excitement. I will spend the next few years in school learning all I can. I have spent much time in classrooms in the past, but from this time on I will be spending time in the classroom watching with different eyes. I will have chances to observe experienced teachers. I will spend time reading about teachers that were able to make sparks and even small miracles happen, like Helen Keller. I know, however, that this is just the beginning of my journey. Most of my learning about teaching will come through the time spent in the classroom. I want to venture and say that many of my most profound lessons will be taught to me by my future students without them even knowing they’ve been teaching me. I am looking forward to those lessons and am excited about what is to come. As a teacher I will continue to learn. I will take advantage of the training opportunities offered to me and learn individually as well. I hope I will have the opportunity to work with a mentor, learning through observation. I am excited about all the new things to learn and embrace. Life-long learning goes beyond the time spent at school; it goes beyond the classroom and beyond the teaching years. Life-long learning is an adventurous journey through life. Keeping the mind active has enormous health benefits, physically, mentally and spiritually. Life-long learning has the ability to shape, influence, and determine the future. It has the ability to influence mankind’s achievements, technologies, and ultimately our destination through individuals who never stand still and make life-long learning their quest that fuels their investigations. Who knows what sparks will fly when the imagination soars in our future classrooms? I am determined to find out!
Essay Question
How can a teacher be likened to a sculptor?
Bibliography
Cooper, Ryan (2007). Those Who Can, Teach. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company
Esquith, Rafe (2007). Teach like your hair is on fire. New York, NY: Penguin Group
MacKenzie, A. (2006, November). A Return to the Community: Inquiry in Action. American Biology Teacher, pp. 518, 519. Retrieved February 2, 2008, from Education Research Complete Database. search.ebscohost.com/login.aspc?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=23771678&site=ehost-live
Smith, Rick (2004). Conscious classroom management. San Rafael, CA: Conscious Teaching Publications.
Thomas, J. (2007, November). Teaching with Passion. Education Digest, 73(3), 63-65. Retrieved February 2, 2008, from Education Research Complete database. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=27518663&site=ehost-live
Warner, S. (2006, April 1). Keeping Joy in Technology Education. Technology Teacher, 65(7), 6. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ747900) Retrieved February 2, 2008,fromERICdatabase .http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.vccs.edu:2048/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ747900&site=ehost-live | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/10%3A_Effective_Teaching/10.07%3A_How_can_teachers_continue_to_learn_throughout_life.txt |
By Carol Halligan
Introduction
How did you learn in school? If your learning experience was like mine, the teacher lectured and I took notes. I didn’t look at or study my notes until the night before my test. My goal was to memorize, not learn. What could have been done differently to make my learning experience more effective? Confucius said “I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand” (Stalheim-Smith, 1998, p. 3). Emphasizing "I do and I understand," educational research writers Chickering and Gamson write, "Learning is not a spectator sport. Students do not learn much just by sitting in classes listening to teachers, memorizing pre-packaged assignments, and spitting out answers. They must talk about what they are learning, write about it, relate it to past experiences and apply it to their daily lives. They must make what they learn part of themselves" (Chickering & Gameson, 1987, paragraph 14).
What Chickering and Gamson are referring to is “active learning.” Active learning means “hands on” working on things, and “minds on” reflecting upon the work which engages the student in learning.
As future teachers, we owe it to our students to go beyond traditional methods of teaching which is lecturing and taking notes to more active learning methods that help students become involved in their own education.
Note
Confucius said “I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand.”
To add more insight to Confucius' wisdom, Lynn Schultz, Old Dominion University Educational Instructor writes, "We learn...(taken from an old proverb) 10% of what we read, 20% of what we hear, 30% of what we see, 50% of what we both see and hear, 70% of what we discuss with others, 80% of what we experience personally, and 95% of what we teach to someone else" (Schultz, n.d.).
Active Learning Strategies
In this article, we are going to look at the benefits of moving teachers away from lecturing which is “teacher-centered instruction” to facilitating or coaching which is “student-centered learning” (All, n.d., table). Below are six strategies to aid in this process.
Short Lecture, Class Exercise, and Review
In traditional learning, teachers often lecture for long periods of time and students take notes. Research has shown that students will learn more when lectures are broken down into small segments, followed by a class exercise. Class exercises help you as the teacher to know if the student understands what you have just taught them, and also fosters questions. Following the class exercise, provide a summary of what was learned (Calegari & Moulthrop, n.d.). For example, if the subject you are teaching is math, provide math problems to test the student’s understanding. If the subject is history or literature, have the students write what they learned from your discussion (University, 2001). After the students have completed the class exercise, review their answers as a group to ensure their understanding of the lesson, followed by a summation of what they learned highlighting important ideas and concepts. This strategy of a short lecture, class exercise, and review is a more active way of learning than the traditional method of long lecturers and note taking.
Peer Teaching
To make learning even more active, research indicates peer teaching (students teaching students) is a very effective way to learn. Lynn Schultz, Old Dominion University Educational Instructor writes, "We learn...(taken from an old proverb)...95% of what we teach to someone else" (Schultz, n.d.). From my own teaching experience, I think that this statement is very true. It is human nature to want to be prepared when speaking in front of a group of people. You create a lesson plan that you feel comfortable with, and become an expert in the process. You dive into the content of the material preparing for any type of question that may come your way. Peer teaching not only teaches content material, but communication skills as well. Peer teaching doesn’t have to be teaching to an entire class, but can be applied to small groups, or groups that include only two students (University, 2001). Publications written at the Center for Teaching and Learning indicate “Students are more willing to share their views in small groups and often develop deeper insights about the material than they would be working alone” (University, 2001, paragraph 3). Peer teaching can be applied in many content areas. It can be used to teach a complex problem, or as simple as teaching student’s spelling words, vocabulary, or math facts allowing each student to be the teacher as well as the student.
Cooperative Learning Groups, and Debate Teams
Another active learning strategy is Cooperative Learning. Cooperative Learning means grouping students together to learn from one another to achieve an educational goal. Success which is reaching the educational goal is based on how well the members work together and help each other. Failure from one of the members will have a negative impact on the group's success (Chapter, 2004). A good example of Cooperative Learning is this Wikibooks project we are working on. Each student explores a topic that falls under the umbrella of Foundations of Education and Instructional Assessment. The students are active in researching their topic, reflecting upon it, and writing about what they have learned. After the articles are written, peers review articles providing information on ways to improve an article’s content. After reviewing articles, the class as a whole will study all topics researched by the group. The entire Wikibooks project is a cooperative effort that engages the student in learning.
In addition to Cooperative Learning groups, another effective way to learn is to group students into teams that take different positions on a topic and debate them. Again this style of learning is cooperative and engaging as members of a group explore a topic to debate. In addition, there is an element of stress involved in a debate competition that can only put some pressure on the group to fully understand what they are debating.
Role Playing, Case Studies, and Simulations
To add real life experiences to a student's learning, role playing, case studies, and simulations are effective strategies to use. For example, role playing allows the student to put themselves in the shoes of another person, teaching them empathy and understanding of people’s differences or situations. Role playing can also be used to teach a process where the student goes through steps to learn a concept (Active, 1993).
Case studies also deal with real life. They are based on research of real life problems. Case studies examine a problem and leave out “analysis” and “conclusions” forcing the student to be the “decision maker” using his or her “analytical and problem solving skills” to come up with a solution to the problem (Active, 1993, page 2).
Simulations are another way to imitate real life. They are very similar to case studies where they put the student in the decision maker role. The student learns to problem solve using a simplified version of the real world problems. These simulations are a great way to bridge in-class examples with real life (Florida, 2008). There are many software applications on the web today that can be downloaded to educate the student in real life events. In addition, you can take these simulation examples and apply it to role playing, or case study activities.
Games
Games, another active learning strategy, are always a fun way to engage a student in learning. You can find many game ideas on the web to incorporate in your curriculum. For example, play the baseball game by splitting the class into two teams. Ask batters a question, and if he or she gets the answer right advance a base, but if answered wrong it’s an out. Play the game as if you are playing baseball and have students mark outs and runs on the chalkboard (Harrison, n.d.). Another fun game is classroom Jeopardy which is a lot like the television version of Jeopardy. This a good review game where the teacher provides the answer to a question and the student must write down the question. For example, if the teacher was reviewing multiplication math facts, the techer might say 27 and students who wrote 3X9 would win points. The student with the most points at the end of the game would win a prize like being the first student in the lunch line or the first student out at the playground for recess (Whiteboard, 2002).
Journals and Portfolios
Other active learning strategies include journals and portfolios. Journals and portfolios aid the student in tracking their learning progress (Florida, 2008). Journals and portfolios can be a compilation of the student’s work over time, perhaps in nine-week increments, or for the entire school year. It is a great way for tracking what a student came to the class knowing, how they progressed in their learning, and a reflection on what they have learned.
Traditional Learning versus Active Learning
Based on research it appears that applying active learning methods can really engage a student in learning so that more knowledge is retained and understood. But, one major concern of active learning is that it may be too time intensive and because of this, SOL requirements that test a vast amount of knowledge might not be met. Is it possible to implement active learning strategies and cover all necessary SOL material? I suppose the best way to answer this question, is to look at research. At Newsome Park Elementary School in Newport News Virginia, the school changed from a traditional learning program to an active learning program and their SOL test scores rose. Based on the schools statistics, “...between 1997 and 2000, the percentage of fifth graders passing the Virginia Standards of Learning test increased from 35 percent to 65 percent in math, 52 percent to 79 percent in science, and 53 percent to 65 percent in English” after active learning practices were implemented (Curtis, 2001, paragraph 15). To view a multimedia video on the active learning successes that took place at Newsome Park Elementary School go to http://www.edutopia.org/more-fun-barrel-worms.
Another concern of active learning is that it appears ideal only in small classrooms of fewer than 20 students, but when you get into teaching larger classes of greater than 20 students it may be impractical to use active learning strategies. There may be too much noise and confusion in large classes using active learning strategies. The traditional method of teaching would provide order. According to educators from North Carolina State University, they disagree and feel "the larger the class, the more essential it is to use active learning" (Felder & Brent, 1999, paragraph 9). They suggest that large classes be divided into small groups of 2 or 3 students. After a specific amount time has lapsed, stop the group's activity, and direct a question to one member of the group. Asking questions directed to one of the group's members will ensure everyone is on their toes, because any member can be asked at random to answer a question for the team (Felder & Brent, 1999).
Conclusion
Active learning is a change from the traditional education method of lecturing, taking notes, and testing. It enables the student to become an active participant in their learning process which makes a student’s quest for knowledge a more enlightening experience. As Confucius said, “I do and I understand.”
Exercise \(1\)
1. Beth and Mark are students in a classroom. Beth is showing Mark how to add 7+5 together by using the stringer method 5+5+2. What active learning strategy is being used here?
a. Debates
b. Lecture
c. Peer Teaching
d. Short lecture and exercise to follow
2. Mrs. Jones, a teacher in the 4th grade, gave a 10 minute lesson on dividing numbers. After the lesson, students were given division problems to solve. Mrs. Jones reviewed their answers, answered their questions, and summarized what they learned. What active learning strategy is being used here?
a. Case Studies
b. Lecture
c. Portfolio
d. Short Lecture, Exerice, Review
3. In the early 1900s, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania had major air pollution problems. The Pittsburgh sky always looked gray during the day. Each student is to research Pittsburgh's air pollution problems in the early 1900s and come up with solutions to clean Pittsburgh's air. What active learning strategy is being used here?
a. Case Studies
b. Debates
c. Cooperative Learning
d. Short Lecture, Exercise, Review
4. Mr. Smith, the 5th grade teacher divided his 20 students into 4 groups. Each group is to research Virginia's Civil War battles. Students may use their textbooks or the internet for research. Each group will present an oral and written report covering all battles. Fifty percent of each student's grade will come from the oral and written report. The other fifty percent of the student's grade will come from the student's individual work in the group's project. What active learning strategy is being used here?
a. Debates
b. Case Studies
c. Cooperative Learning
d. Role Playing
e. Simulations
5. After students in Mr. Smith's 4th grade class completed their group assignment on Civil War battles, each student wrote a personal paper reflecting on what they learned. What active learning strategy is being used here?
a. Case Studies
b. Cooperative Learning
c. Journals
d. Simulations
Answer
1. C. Peer Teaching
2. D. Short Lecture, Exercise, Review
3. A Case Studies
4. C. Cooperative Learning
5. C. Journals | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/11%3A_Classroom_Management/11.01%3A_What_is_the_importance_of_keeping_students_engaged_in_learning.txt |
by Mary Parker
Introduction
How should teachers, parents, and babysitters deal with children? Should they work as a team or should adults be on an entirely different level than their students? All children respond to authority in a unique way. Naturally, kids like to push their limits, test their boundaries, and see what they can and can not get away with. Discipline can be separated into two different categories: positive discipline or negative discipline. I have had a lot of experience working in classroom settings, not only as a student, but also as a volunteer, camp counselor, and as a teaching assistant. I have been exposed to many different personalities of teachers such as calm, stressed, easy-going, aggressive, and even frustrated teachers. Throughout my education, I was mainly taught using negative means of discipline. It is easy to recall students who, no matter how many times they had been sent to the principal's office, never seemed to correct their behavior. Could there be a better relationship between the adult and child that could have led to fewer trips to the office and better performance in the classroom? I am an avid believer in positive discipline because I have seen a classroom where it has been successful. Yet, I have also been exposed to classrooms where students get their work done because the teacher is strict and did not tolerate misbehavior. What is the solution? Should children constantly be praised for their good behavior or reprimanded when they act out? Are teachers required to punish in order to maintain respect as an authority figure. It is important to understand:
1. What positive discipline is, and how it compares to negative discipline.
2. How to apply positive reinforcement in the classroom.
3. Understand how Positive Reinforcement can work.
What is Positive Discipline?
Jane Nelson, who according to Alice Yand a publication manager for the Northeartern Foundation for Children, has written a very inspirational book on Positive Discipline and illustrates to her readers how to implicate it in and out of the classroom. Nelson states that, "Positive Discipline is based on the understanding that discipline must be taught and that discipline teaches" (Positive Discipline Associates). There are several different components that combine to define positive discipline. A few of these factors include: mutual respect between teacher and student, understanding the drive behind bad behavior, efficient correspondence, discipline that allows learning, focusing on improvement rather than reprimand, and encouragement (Positive Discipline Associates). Along with these aspects of guidance through positive reinforcement, consistency is also crucial in this method of teaching. When teachers use this type of reinforcement, children are acknowledged for the things they are doing right, rather than receiving attention for what they have done wrong.
What is Negative Discipline?
According to Dictionary.com, Negative Discipline can be described as punishment that denounces a child's behavior. Often, reprimands are given to the kids that act up and the child is punished in front of the class. Children crave attention, whether it is positive or negative, and will take extreme measures to be noticed by the adults in their lives. When a child is corrected in front of the other children, sent to the office, or even yelled at, they are receiving attention that they crave. Should students try and lash out to obtain negative attention from their teachers? The Institution of Educational Statistics states that some people believe that being stern is the way to get children to be corporative and respect authority. Also, it is understood that if there is a strong sense of power in the classroom, students will not test their limits. If children gain the understanding that they will not be chastised for their bad behavior, they may not comply with the rules. Negative Discipline has been in classrooms for decades, children have been exposed to referrals, suspension, time-out, and even spanking. There have been many schools that base their education on negative discipline and the results have been successful. Why is there a need to change now?
Note
Positive Discipline Phrases:
"Do the right thing."
"Gentle Hands."
"I'm sorry he knocked you down."
"Do you think that was a good choice?"
"Thank you for doing the right thing."
There is a new method of teaching called Positive Discipline. What components are involved in this new teaching method? S. Doescher and L. Burt of Oregon University, explain that there are many ways to incorporate positive reinforcement into the teaching curriculum. Some ways to apply this method of partnership include:
1. Making positive comments. When students do something desirable, instead of ignoring it. It is crucial for the instructor to address the good behavior. If children realize that others are being praised for their behavior, they may also try to receive encouraging feedback from his or her teacher.
2. Ask for children's input. Everyones opinion matters and even adults tend to pay attention to topics that they are interested in. When teachers inquire students' opinion, they are more likely to be entertained and participate.
3. Body language is essential. Even young people can sense approval through accepting gestures such as eye contact and smiling.
4. Getting on their level. Positive Discipline is defined as a partnership, therefore; children should feel as though they are an important part of the relationship. Some teachers feel as though, "bending, kneeling, or sitting at a children's level" (Doescher and Burt), makes a child feel involved and important.
5. Encourage children to redirect their negative behavior to a positive one. Children learn new things everyday, if students are made aware of positive behaviors they are more likely to want to try new things. An example of redirected a child's attention could be if he or she is trying to take someone else's toy, an instructor can present the idea of a different toy to play with.
6. Ignore actions that are not desirable. When children are performing inappropriate manners, adults should act like they do not see them behaving bad, therefore; they may loose interest in the behavior and do something positive to gain the teacher's attention.
7. Consistency is essential. If a teacher chooses to use Positive Discipline in his or her classroom, they must not change. Children crave structure and fluctuating between methods of discipline will only lead to confusion and frustration, two unhealthy attitudes to have in a classroom.
A Success Story and Conclusion
Katharine Kersey, a professor of Early Childhood Education at Old Dominion University, wrote a book dealing with the idea of Positive Discipline. It is titled The 101s: A Guide to Positive Discipline. In this book, Kersey addresses how to present children with a vigorous classroom experience by highlighting positive behaviors rather than negative. I have experienced many classroom environments as both a student and as an adult. Not only have I been in classrooms where Negative Discipline was the teaching approach being used, but also I have worked in Old Dominion's Early Childhood Development Center and the Old Dominion Day Care. Both centers are avid believers in the use of Positive Discipline. After viewing it first hand, it is obvious that some education institutes can succeed using Positive Reinforcement.
No matter what teaching method is going to be used in a classroom, the instructor must remain consistent and understanding. It is important to understand kids and how to deal with them appropriately. People have different opinions on what works and what does not work for them. Through personal experience, I have seen success stories on both sides of the spectrum. Finally, it all comes down to the idea that although Positive Discipline is a somewhat new teaching tactic, it can work. Whether or not one discipline method is better than the other depends on the teacher and the students. As a teacher, one must find what works for them and try to make their classroom the best environment for his or her students.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Which of the following is the best example of how to incorporate Positive Discipline in the classroom:
A.) Writing referrals.
B.) Separating kid's who misbehave from the others.
C.) Telling students exactly what they can and can not do.
D.) Giving children options on certain classroom activities.
2. What relationship best describes that relationship between a teacher and student in a classroom with Positive Discipline?
A.) Mutual Respect and Consistent Communication
B.) Adult Superiority
C.) Intimidation Over Students
D.) Consistent Reprimands
3. Students may get confused if a teacher is:
A.) Changing his or her mind on their teaching approach (positive or negative)
B.) Always using Positive Discipline
C.) Always using Negative Discipline
D.) Using the same teaching method with every student
4. Ms. Lorri is a gym teacher, she wants her students to interact in a sport that involves teams, she takes a vote on whether kids would like to play soccer or softball, this is an example of:
A.) Negative Discipline
B.) Choice Discipline
C.) Positive Discipline
D.) Responsibility Discipline
5. Which of the following is not a way to encourage Positive Discipline?
A.) Encouraging good behavior.
B.) Calling a student out on his bad behaviors.
C.) Smiling or nodding to express approval.
D.) Getting on the child's level.
Answer
1.) D
2.) A
3.) A
4.) C
5.) B | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/11%3A_Classroom_Management/11.02%3A_Is_positive_discipline_all_about_being_nice.txt |
by Valerie R. Singleton
Learning Objectives
1. The reader will be able to discuss the two main arguments for and against brain base education.
2. The reader will be able to understand recommended educational approaches from brain research and its effects on learning.
3. The reader will gain a base knowledge of how to apply lessons from brain-based learning research to classroom settings.
Introduction
The world of education is becoming more and more complex. Oftentimes the array of educational research and teaching models can be a bit daunting for the novice teacher. How can a new teacher be sure which strategies are the most effective when most teaching strategies have been backed by years and years of research? Most education models seem legitimate and useful and this can be overwhelming. With dropping graduation rates, poor test performance, stretched budgets and the stress of accountability teachers are hard pressed to keep classroom instruction interesting, meaningful and fun. Teachers are now more than ever being challenged with the task of keeping students engaged. There has been a paradigm shift to students becoming active learners and teachers taking on the role of guides to knowledge and learning independence. ( Erlauer, 2003 ) Brain research and its effects on learning is definitely not a new area of research. In the past there have been a variety of theories ranging from right brain vs. left brain learners, gender studies, and many other theories in between. ( Willingham, 2006 ) This article will review the core principles of brain based education, the implications for best teaching practices, and the twelve classroom design principles based on the mainstream research.
What is Brain Based Learning?
Brain-based learning is an instructional-design model based on the idea that learning activities are more effective if they occur in an atmosphere that is compatible with the way the brain learns. Brain based education centers around the principle that learning is more productive if the learner is in a natural, challenging, yet non-threatening environment. Learning is a natural condition of humans. However, humans do not learn to be more effective on the job, or to be more gifted with numbers than words. Humans learn to survive. The main tenet of brain based learning is that if the environment is conducive to natural learning then learning will not only take place, but flourish.
Brain Based Learning: Fact or Fiction
Most researchers of brain-based education would be the first to admit that many of the findings of brain-based learning research are still in the early stages. Two of the pioneer researchers in brain based learning, Renate Nummela Caine and Geoffrey Caine have published several books and articles on brain based research and have brought focus to the subject. The Caines came up with 12 principles based on brain based research which outlines its implications in the classroom. The 12 principles will be discussed in detail later in the article. But first, it is important to point out that there are some scientists who believe that although neuroscience has made great strides in finding out how the brain works, it is a bit premature to try and use those findings in the classroom. Neuroscience is a vast discipline filled with mystery, and only in the past 15 years have scientist been able to uncover some of those mysteries through use of MRI (Magnetic resonance imaging) and PET scan (Positron Emission Tomography). (Erlauer, 2003) Other scientist have cautioned educators from getting drawn in by all the research because many of the findings used to support classroom instructional models is not brain based at all. Most of the research is based mainly on already existing psychological theories based on cognitive research. (Bruer, 1999) Neuroscience and psychology are very similar. The main difference is that neuroscience is the science of the brain and how it functions, and psychology is the science of the mind and human behavior. (Bruer, 1999) Psychology has been considered to be a soft-science for many years. Neuroscience is a hard science. Hard sciences are generally grounded in rigorous methodology and hypothesis formation. Soft sciences are usually not as rigid and there is much room for speculation. John T. Bruer explores this dichotomy in a Phi Deltan Kappan journal article, In Search of…Brain Based Education. Bruer contends that most of the evidence available against traditional models of education can be supported by 30 years of research in constructivism and cognitive development not brain research. (Bruer, 1999 ) As mentioned previously some scientists will agree that brain research has accomplished much in the last decade. Daniel Willingham, a renowned cognitive scientist and professor, cautions educators to be aware of the different levels of analysis present when trying to bridge neuroscience and effective classroom practices.
Nonetheless despite skepticism many scientists have found enough validity in the research to press forward in changing the face of the American classroom. Eric Jensen, Renate Nummela Caine, Geoffrey Caine and Laura Erlauer have designed educational models which integrate brain based research into the classroom. The next section will survey some of the principles and implications their research has had on education.
Integrating Brain Based learning into the Classroom
With all the information out in the world about brain based learning how does a teacher successfully integrate the best teaching practices into their classroom. It is important for a teacher to know that they don’t have to reinvent the wheel. Whenever trying to implement a new strategy into the classroom it is always best to start small. When I first began teaching my aunt, who is also a teacher, told me to never stop learning. She advised me to attend conferences regularly, and pick two good strategies to incorporate into my classroom. I intend to incorporate some of the strategies I have read about in my research with caution. Renate Nummela Caine and Geoffrey Caine created the 12 mind/brain principles for integrating brain based research into the classroom. According to Renate Caine, “ These principles are not meant to represent the final word on learning. Collectively, they do, however, result in a fundamentally new, integrated view of the learning process and the learner. They move us away from seeing the learner as a blank slate and toward an appreciation of the fact that body, brain, and mind are a dynamic unity.” Following is the complete list of the twelve brain/mind learning principles, as defined by Caine and Caine:
Note
1. The brain is a complex adaptive system.
2. The brain is a social brain.
3. The search for meaning is innate.
4. The search for meaning occurs through patterning.
5. Emotions are critical to patterning.
6. Every brain simultaneously perceives and creates parts and wholes.
7. Learning involves both focused attention and peripheral attention.
8. Learning always involves conscious and unconscious processes.
9. We have at least two ways of organizing memory.
10. Learning is developmental.
11. Complex learning is enhanced by challenge and inhibited by threat.
12. Every brain is uniquely organized. (Caine and Caine 1997)
Each of these principles has specific implications for the classroom which are fully illustrated in their book Education on the Edge of Possibility. Eric Jensen took the principles base on the Caine research and developed a teaching model which breaks down teaching preparation to three distinct phases. The first phase is the preparation and planning stage, next phase focuses on the learning process and then finally the last stage is for reflection and processing of information. (Jensen, 2005) If a teacher uses Jensen’s teaching model and integrates the following three interactive elements Renate Caine writes about in her book Making Connections then setting up a classroom which takes a brain based approach would be a less challenging process.
• Teachers must immerse learners in complex, interactive experiences that are both rich and real. One excellent example is immersing students in a foreign culture to teach them a second language. Educators must take advantage of the brain’s ability to parallel process.
• Students must have a personally meaningful challenge. Such challenges stimulate a student’s mind to the desired state of alertness.
• In order for a student to gain insight about a problem, there must be intensive analysis of the different ways to approach it, and about learning in general. This is what’s known as the “active processing of experience.” (Caine, 1991)
Exercise
1. Which of the following is not a characteristic of brain based teaching?
A. The brain responds better in a natural environment.
B. Humans learn to survive.
C. Atmosphere has no bearing on learning.
D. The environment must be compatible to the way one learns.
2. Most scientist agree that brain based learning research
A. Is solid and conclusive research to integrate into the classroom.
B. Has no place in the classroom because it is just a fad.
C. Has made many strides but still in its early stages of development
D. Is the wave of the future and teachers need to learn all they can about it.
3. The three interactive elements in the last paragraph are most similar to which education model or theory?
A. Constructive theory
B. Bloom’s Taxonomy
C. Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory
D. Piaget theory of cognitive development.
4. Which of the following is the best educational implication for brain/mind principle #6
A. Design activities that require full brain interaction and communication.
B. Place materials (posters, art, bulletin boards) outside the learner’s immediate focus to influence learning.
C. Try to create an atmosphere of relaxed alertness that is low threat and high in challenge.
D. Incorporated facets of health into the learning process. (Caine, 1991)
Answer
1. C
2. C
3. A
4. A | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/11%3A_Classroom_Management/11.03%3A_How_can_brain_research_help_teachers_understand_their_students.txt |
By Wendy Belgrave
Learning Objectives
• To understand what positive reinforcement means
• Understand there can be drawbacks to any method
• To learn alternative ways of punishment
Introduction
"Great job on figuring out that problem! Way to analyze the data Sarah. And you Nathan! I want you to write me a 500 word essay on why it is important to pay attention and be quiet while class is in session. I'm tired of having to talk to you about this!" Does this seem fair to you? In an ideal world the students would walk into a classroom, and their soft murmurs would come to a halt once the bell rang. They would all take out their paper and pencils, take notes, raise their hand if they had a question or answer, and smile during the entire class period. But this is not fantasy land and we have children coming into our classrooms with all sorts of personalities and issues. A teacher might find it easy to praise their students when they do something good, but what if the students are having a “bad day”? Can you really catch more flies with honey than with vinegar?
Reinforcing A Desired Behavior
Note
“You can win people to your side more easily by gentle persuasion and flattery, than by hostile confrontation (Hirch 1988 p. 49),"
Growing up, receiving a sticker on a gold star at the end of the day was the ultimate feeling for me. The sticker meant a job well done throughout the day. I didn’t know it at the time but that was positive reinforcement at its best. The concept definition of positive reinforcement, according to the Centre of Psychology, occurs when 3 conditions have been met (Grant 1996).
• A consequence is presented dependent on a behavior.
• The behavior becomes more likely to occur.
• The behavior becomes more likely to occur because and only because the consequence is presented dependent on the behavior.
In my observations I have witnessed teachers praise their students. You do not hear the student say how this makes them feel, but you will see their demeanor change when a student is given accolades in front of his or her peers. This provokes a willingness to chime in more often regardless of right or wrong answers. A student named Lee Ray was recognized for his risk taking. His teacher wrote a summary of him saying, "He answers all the questions, correct or not (Lashaway-Bokina 2000 p. 225)." Positive feedback and recognition build self esteem and confidence.
Giving a student a “good job” for a correct answer is always good, but the learning of subject matter is not the only thing that deserves recognition. Rewarding desired behavior is easier than you may think. For instance, you are doing a class project that requires cutting pieces of paper, at the end of the project you notice a student picking up pieces of paper that fell off the desk and throwing them in the trash. This is a perfect opportunity to acknowledge a thoughtful gesture. This in turn tells the other students to do the same without you having to request it. This is much more effective than reminding the students that you are not their parent and won’t pick up after them. Acknowledging good attendance, a pat on the back for team work, and even recognizing special achievements even if they are not related to the class are great ways to build self esteem. Just as important, the recognition of improved behavior or grades is also a great confidence builder. Sending a post card home to the child’s parents is a great way to reinforce positive behavior.
Note
“You must systematically strengthen the behavior you want while systematically weakening the competing behaviors that you do not want. A discipline program, for example, should not only eliminate problem behavior, but it should also systematically build the positive behaviors that you want to replace the problems (Fred Jones).
When Rewarding By Incentives Goes Bad
Some teachers choose to pass out candy or give special privileges for good behavior or for doing certain tasks, but what if there is not an actual reward other than a “thank you”? Student Awards, Rewards, and Recognition says that you mustn’t use rewards as incentives because it sends this message, “if you do this, then you get this.” This may seem too much like bribing. Bloggers on An Unschooling Life, are not fans of the rewards for learning. They believe that the reward for studying is learning. One of the bloggers who is a homeschooling parent said, “If someone had to bribe me to do something, my first thought would be "It must be unpleasant if you have to bribe me to do it." She continued on to say that her daughter would only read if she was given candy while in school.
Peter Callaghan, a writer for The News Tribune, agrees with the home schooling parent about the damage that incentives create. He mentions a school in Washington that was giving a five week course to better scores on reading, writing, and mathematics for an upcoming standardized test. A \$79 free IPod Shuffle was offered to every student that signed up. Only 80 failing students had signed up for the test before the incentive was given. The incentive was enough to fill 270 additional slots. “Kids who goof off shouldn’t receive gifts while kids who try hard get nothing extra. Kids shouldn’t be bribed to try to learn something (Callaghan 207).”
Punishment As An Incentive
It would be easier to teach a classroom full of children if there were no children misbehaving. According to Student Teacher Advocate, one third of new teachers leave the teaching field within the first 3 years. The teachers questioned said that they spend an overwhelming amount of time doing other tasks (disciplining included), beyond actual instruction. Forty percent of those teachers surveyed said that they spend more time than expected on disciplining (Miller, Higgins).
Teachers sometimes find punishment to be effective as a classroom behavior management tool, especially as a short term solution. Because punishment tends to rapidly stop problem behaviors, the teacher in turn is positively reinforced for using it (What Every Teacher Should Know About Punishment 2008). Teachers may be tempted to use this technique over and over because of its quick response, but this very sort of punishment can have side effects. Students who are generally punished in this way can overtime develop negative attitudes toward school, can develop an uncomfortable relationship with their teachers, and perhaps feel apprehensive about participating in class activities (What Every Teacher Should Know About Punishment 2008). Discipline and punishment are important parts of rearing children not only at home but in school settings as well.
When people use the word “punish”, it is usually used to describe a negative consequences for a violation. In some schools around the United States punishment can mean physical punishment. Corporal punishment is still allowed in 21 out of 50 states, but is only practiced in 4 of those states; Alabama, Arkansas, Mississippi and Tennessee (Farrell). According to C. Farrell, a writer for School Corporal Punishment, paddlings were given in the classroom or right outside the door, but then only the principle had to do the paddling or it was done in front of his or her presence in a private room. Some of the people I spoke to remember being paddled or being hit on the palms with a ruler for horse playing. Educators must be careful and administer punishment with care, especially if it comes in the form of corporal punishment. "Punishments are an expression of violence of the more powerful adult against the weaker child (Cerney 2008 p.51)."
Note
“According to estimates from the federal Department of Education (Office of Civil Rights), there were about 272,000 paddlings of students in the 2004-05 school year -- down from 457,754 only eight years previously. This shows that the rapid decline of the 1980s and early 1990s, which had leveled off by the middle of the 1990s, has now resumed. Total paddlings were equivalent to only 0.6% of the total US school population (Farrell)."
Alternative Ways Of Punishment
Punishment can take on many forms; it can be a reprimand, or a type of punishment known as response cost. Response cost means that a student can have rewards, or privileges taken away when he or she demonstrates problem behavior even if it is only momentarily (What Every Teacher Should Know About Punishment 2008). An example would be that a student on time-out would not be able to join his or her classmates when it is time for playtime until their time-out was over.
Disciplining does not necessarily mean having the child sit in the corner with a dunce hat on, getting paddled, whacked on the hands, or writing sentences. Experienced teachers will say that remaining calm can diffuse an angry disposition more effectively than responding in an equal tone. One of the teachers that I interviewed, Kristin Gorsuch, a high school math teacher from Isle of Wight County, said that when she has a continually disruptive student, she simply asks them to step outside for a minute until she can go outside and discuss in private what she expects. The point is not to intimidate or belittle them in front of their peers. Disciplining does not have to be an aggressive act is what she believes.
You will see and hear what other teachers believe is a good way of “punishing” a student without it being demeaning or embarrassing. Visit this web site for the videos under “What Would You Do?” www.nea.org/classmanagement/discipline.html
Conclusion
Time changes everything. The material taught in schools, the thoughts on child creativity, and classroom management have all been revised over time. The question as to what is a better way to develop productive adults has perplexed people for ages. Should we pat our children on the back for a mediocre job and hope that next time they do better, or should we whoop them into shape, tell them what we expect and show no mercy since the “real world” won’t show them any? As educators we need to build up our children and young adults, evaluate what the problem really is, if any and make a decision based on each child. There is no cookie cutter solution.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Mary Beth has been put on time out right before craft time. You tell her that when all the other children are getting their crafts out, she has to wait out her 3 minute time out until she can go to collect her crafts. What is this an example of?
a. Association
b. Negative collection
c. Pay back
d. Response cost
2. You have just passed back homework papers and one of your students was extremely unhappy with his grade. He begins to speak very loudly and disrespectfully and becomes confrontational. What is the best way to respond to his actions?'
a. Ask him to step outside for a minute
b. Call him a name
c. Respond equally as angry
d. Try to restrain him
3. What is an example of positive reinforcement?
a. Invite the police to the school to scare the little children
b. Keep the child after school up against the wall in chair position
c. Stitch a compliment onto a child’s shirt
d. When a child puts back his or her toys on the shelf, say thank you and good job
4. Which one is not positive recognition?
a. Recognize that Joel has won 1st place in the Science Fair
b. Recognize that Joel has perfect attendance
c. Recognize that Joel has successfully completed a reading assignment
d. Recognize that Joel is falling asleep in class
5. Some parents to home schoolers say that they do not like the rewards incentive because...
a. They do not like their children eating candy.
b. They do not want their children to only do the work when there is an incentive.
c. The schools will spend too much money.
d. They want to give the incentives
Answer
1. D
2. A
3. D
4. D
5. B | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/11%3A_Classroom_Management/11.04%3A_When_should_students_be_rewarded_or_punished.txt |
By Pam Kennedy
Learning Objectives
The student will understand:
a.) the concept of reinforcement techniques.
b.) the locus of control.
The student will be able to:
a.) determine whether a reinforcer is positive or negative.
b.) apply knowledge of the control locus to situations to determine the motivating factor's origin.
Note
"An issue of prime concern to educators is how to use rewards...to promote
learning without disrupting students' intrinsic interest."—Cameron & Pierce, 1996, p. 40
Introduction
We have all heard that there can be too much of a good thing. In fact, we have most likely all experienced this type of good. For example, I love pizza! I do not eat it very often, because without a doubt, no matter when I last ate pizza, I will eat so much that I am absolutely miserable. Can the same thing be said about things that are less tangible? Specifically, can we offer someone, especially a child, so much praise that we negate the good?
Note
What is Praise?
Merriam-Webster defines praise as both a noun and a verb.
Noun: "An expression of approval. Verb: To offer a favorable judgement."—Merriam-Webster Online, 2005, n.p.
Traditional Behaviorism: A Reinforcement Theory
B. F. Skinner's (1904-1990) operant conditioning theory tells us that a behavior can be increased or decreased through reinforcers (Berk, 18). Reinforcers change the rate of a behavior's occurrence. Steve Booth-Butterfield (1996) expands on this by saying that positive reinforcers, rewards, increase the desired behavior, while negative reinforcers, punishers, are those that decrease the occurrence of an action. Additionally, he tells us to offer no attention at all in order to do away with something entirely (Booth-Butterfield, n.p.).
The Locus of Control
The Journal of Applied Social Psychology (2006) publishes, Icek Ajzen's (2002) concept that control over an individual's behavior depends both on internal and external factors that might change the intended or expected outcome. He theorizes that it is the individual's self-efficacy that determines the roll of external motivators (p. 678). In other words, external stimuli play only a small part when individuals strongly believe in their own inherent ability. However, people with low self-esteem feel they lack the ability to control their own lives, which, in turn, allows external factors to have greater influence over their actions.
The Debate
Controversy exists, not so much with the idea that reinforcement changes behavior, but instead, in how it changes it and for how long. Debate has also arisen over whether or not we inhibit an individual’s natural desire to achieve by offering a reward. Cameron and Pierce’s (1994) meta-analytical study reviewed twenty years of research into this debate. They concluded that rewards, such as praise and positive feedback, were successful motivators as long as performance quality was the basis for the reward (p. 391-395). In this scenario, it is not sufficient to complete a task; the job must be done well.
Critics of this study point out that even Cameron and Pierce’s own data verifies that intrinsic motivation decreases over time when incentives are used (Kohn, 3). For example, in his rebuttal, By All Available Means, Kohn (1996) tells us that only purely informational feedback is effective if one hopes to avoid adverse consequences to an individual’s internal motivation (p. 3). In other words, keep your opinion, good or bad, out of it.
Still others, such as Judge, Erez, Bono, and Thoresen (2002), believe that self-esteem, in conjunction with locus of control, self-efficacy, and neuroticism, is the key factor controlling whether or not extrinsic stimuli effect intrinsic behavior (p. 706-708). For example, praise will have little effect on the end result for a person with high self-esteem, largely, because the level of output produced by this individual is NOT dependent on your opinion, but rather on his/her own level of neuroticism. On the other side, someone who lacks confidence may work diligently for the sole purpose of seeking even some small amount of recognition.
Note
“What's going on is this: Reinforcement theory is a functional theory. That means all of its components are defined by their function (how they work) rather than by their structure (how they look). Thus, there is no Consequences Cookbook where a teacher can look in the chapter, "Rewards for Fifth Grade Boys," and find a long list of things to use as rewarding consequences. Think about this a minute.”
-- Steve Booth-Bloomfied, 1996, n.p.
Limitations
The limiting factor, or the variable, is that all people are different. As such, a particular reinforcer may serve as a reward or a punishment depending on the individual. For example, a mom sends her two children to their rooms as a negative consequence for cutting down her rosebush. The punishment works well with one child who shows appropriate remorse for her actions, while the other child is delighted with the opportunity to play indoors. Anthony Chelte (1998) argues that the reinforcement theory completely ignores an individual’s internal motivation. The implication is that people require the external stimuli. In his view, people seek to accomplish a set task, or reach a predetermined goal, simply because it feels good to know that a job has been done and done well (p.10). In other words, reaching the goal is the reward.
Conclusion
Behavioral scientists concur that reinforcement effects behavior. The above controversy is over proper application. In the educational setting the reinforcement theory’s effectiveness has been weakened by an inability to use it properly. In his article entitled Reinforcement Theory, Steve Booth-Bloomfield (n.d.) tells us that punishment can be a truly effective tool when it is “immediate, intense, and unavoidable." (Booth-Bloomfield, n.p.) He goes on to say that while this tool “has been taken away from the teacher…some teachers persist in using weakened forms of punishment, often with unsuccessful and frustrating effects.” (Booth-Bloomfield, n.p.). It is my opinion that the absence of a good negative consequence not only reduces the lesson’s value, but also takes away from the positive effectiveness of reward. It is simply a matter of expectations! Furthermore, I believe, that actions foster outcomes. As the adult, we must show respect. By respect, I refer to authoritative child rearing principles: We show children (truthfully, all people) a “high level of acceptance” (Berk, 2007, p. 279). This must be offered in conjunction with “firm, reasonable, control” (Berk, 2007, p. 279) that is reduced based on age-appropriate maturity and responsible behavior.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Praise is a positive reinforcer in which of the following situations?
a.) The student’s final draft improves following informational feedback from her teacher.
b.) The student’s final draft improves following positive verbal feedback from her teacher.
c.) The student’s final draft is a direct copy of the rough draft following positive verbal feedback from the teacher.
d.) The student’s neglects to turn in a final draft of the paper following positive verbal feedback from her teacher.
2. Suzy exhibits disruptive behavior at school this morning. Following her normal warning then consequences routine: her teacher first gives Suzy a warning, then gives her silent lunch, followed by walking laps during recess. Suzy’s behavior improves for the remainder of the day and is less disruptive for the remainder of the week. What has happened in this scenario?
a.) The teacher successfully applied negative reinforcement to achieve a negative outcome.
b.) The teacher successfully applied negative reinforcement to achieve a positive outcome.
c.) The teacher successfully applied positive reinforcement to achieve a negative outcome.
d.) The teacher successfully applied positive reinforcement to achieve a positive outcome.
3. Return to the scenario in Question #2, but in this case Suzy’s behavior digresses daily. This time the teacher gives the entire class silent lunch and requires Suzy to watch as her classmates walk laps during recess. A long term decrease in Suzy’s disruptive behavior is noted. Which answer best describes why this approach worked?
a.) A consequence is only effective if it serves its intended function.
b.) Peer pressure can be a powerful reinforcer.
c.) Suzy enjoyed being disruptive.
d.) Suzy was not internally motivated to behave in school.
4. According to Anthony Chelte, Ph.D. “The willingness to exert high levels of effort to obtain organizational goals, conditioned by the ability to satisfy some individual need” (Chelte, 1998, p. 4) best defines which concept?
a.) external motivation
b.) internal motivation
c.) locus of control
d.) motivation
Answer
1.) b
2.) b
3.) b
4.) d | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/11%3A_Classroom_Management/11.05%3A_Should_students_be_praised.txt |
by Christine Stanton
Learning Objectives
• Define, understand and give examples of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
• Understand opposing theories on motivation
• Describe Self Determinaton Theory and provide examples of how to meet students' needs
Defining Motivation: What makes you move?
mo•ti•va•tion: the act or process of motivating b: the condition of being motivated: a motivating force, stimulus, or influence : INCENTIVE , DRIVE ( Merriam Webster, 2008)
The subject of motivation has been researched and analyzed by countless scholars in various fields such as psychology, philosophy and education. What makes people behave in certain ways? What makes them “move”? In the 1940's, a pioneer of motivation theory, Abraham Maslow, described his own theory on human motivation. He proposed that people have a hierarchy of needs that motivate them to do all things (Maslow, 1946). These basic needs must be met in order of precedence, meaning that the needs at the bottom of the hierarchy must be met before the needs at the top of the list can be (Maslow, 1946).
In this model, certain needs must be met in order for a person to be motivated to learn. Later research expands on this idea, as noted in the following sections. In Educational Psychology, it is a common belief that teachers can “motivate” their students by providing an environment or situation that may enhance learning. Researchers have been studying motivation for several decades, attempting to understand how to use motivation to specifically benefit the learning process. Motivation has been classified into two generally accepted forms:
Intrinsic motivation is motivation that comes from within the student (e.g. contentment, enjoyment, pride, sense of accomplishment, responsibility)
Extrinsic motivation is motivation that comes from an external source (e.g. tangible rewards, trophies, stickers, gifts, applause, praise)
Instrinsic versus Extrinsic?
So, which is better for use in the classroom? Is one more effective than the other? Or can both be used?
On one hand, some could say that extrinsic rewards are more effective and reflective of the "real world" - people aren't motivated to work without paychecks. So does extrinsic motivation prepare students for the "real world"? Or are we just bribing them?
Because intrinsic motivation comes from within, it is considered by many to be the more effective of the two when it comes to learning. Intrinsic motivation can foster life long excitement for learning, resulting in students who are eager to learn new things. Their experience is more meaningful and they go deeper in their learning to fully understand it. It helps develop a student’s attitude towards education and ensures more lasting success. Of course, we all want our children to want to go to school and learn because they enjoy learning. But what about subjects that just don't interest them or that are difficult for them to master? Is it possibly to be intrinsically motivated for all things?
We're back at our question.....which works better? Intrinsic or Extrinsic Rewards? Let's look a little closer at each...
Extrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic motivation can take the form of anything that doesn't come from within a person. Examples range from a smiley face on a paper or a "great job" sticker to a hefty pay raise or bonus for an adult. It can be getting the approval of a teacher or being accepted by peers. Extrinsic motivation can also be negative in the form of punishment or taking rewards away.
Extrinsic motivation may be more effective when a student has a less-desirable task ahead of them. For example, the student who dislikes math, might be more motivated to do well on the math test to get a good grade. Many argue, however, that once the reward is gone, the student will not continue to be motivated (Vockell, 2008). The predominance of researchers seem to agree that intrinsic motivation is more desirable, encouraging a more lasting desire to learn; however, extrinsic motivation is sometimes more popular when the task is not as appealing or if the technique seems to be more effective for the task at hand and for certain types of learners. For example, if Susan hates her math homework and is simply not interested in doing it, it might give her incentive to do her homework if she knows she will get a good grade, a reward or praise from her teacher.
Intrinsic Rewards & Self Determination Theory
Many believe that motivation is the most powerful when it comes from within, rather than from outside forces. Some go farther to describe one or more factors that can promote intrinsic motivation. Some of these factors are challenge, curiosity, control, fantasy, competition, cooperation, or recognition (Vockell, 2008).
Self Determination Theory (SDT) started evolving over 30 years ago with the research of Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan. The basis of their theory is that people have three basic needs: the need for a sense of autonomy, the need for relatedness (or belonging), and the need for competence (Deci & Ryan. 1991). Many theories on teaching motivation have centered on meeting these three needs:
1. Sense of Autonomy - Students need to feel a sense of control and self-determination
2. Sense of Belonging – Students need to feel accepted by peers and teachers
3. Sense of Competence – Students need to feel capable of succeeding
SDT proposes that all individuals have a “seed” for learning and with the right nutrients or environment, they can be encouraged to be self motivated (or intrinsically motivated) (Deci & Ryan, 1991). This implies that if all these basic needs are met for our students, then their natural curiosity and thirst for learning can shine through.
Note
To be self determined is to endorse one's actions at the highest level of reflection. When self determined people experience a sense of freedom to do what is interesting, personally important, and vitalizing. - Edward L. Deci & Richard M. Ryan
Deci & Ryan went even further to claim that extrinsic motivation can undermine intrinsic motivation (Deci et al. 2001). In 1994, Cameron & Pierce challenged this theory saying that the effect of extrinsic rewards was "minimal and inconsequential." Deci and Ryan countered this claim with newer research in 1995 which proved that "tangible rewards do indeed have a substantial undermining effect" (Deci et al. 2001).
Need for Autonomy Need for Belonging Need for Competence
Encourage sense of personal control for successes and failures
Recognize and try to tap into students’ interests and reasons for valuing content
Giving choices and allowing self direction
De-emphasize extrinsic rewards as much as possible
Promote mutual respect
Allow social interaction
Provide recognition and feedback privately
Ensure equal participation and opportunities for all students
Promote “caring” for one another
Setting challenging but attainable goals for students
Provide effective feedback on goal attainment
Using appropriate models to build self-efficacy
Keep feedback confidential
(Adapted from Anderman & Leake, 2005)
An Argument Against Motivation Theories
On the opposite end of the educational motivation research field are some that believe that motivation theories are not valid, such as Steven Reiss. Reiss, a professor of pscyology at Ohio State University, claims that Deci & Ryan and other similarly minded researchers are "taking many diverse human needs and motivations, putting them into just two categories, and then saying one type of motivation is better than another. But there is no real evidence that intrinsic motivation even exists" (Reiss, 2008). Reiss believes that different people can be motivated in different ways and there is no right or wrong way to motivate. "Individuals differ enormously in what makes them happy - for some competition, winning and wealth are the greatest sources of happiness, but for others, feeling competent or socializing may be more satisfying. The point is that you can't say some motivations, like money (or other tangible rewards), are inherently inferior." While some children are "inherently curious", other children are not as much so, for which extrinsic rewards may be more effective. Reiss further argues that extrinsic rewards may encourage students to pursue activities that they would normally have shyed away from.
OVERVIEW
Your third grade class is very active today. The energy level is high as the kids get ready for an end-of-the-day holiday party. But before they can go, they need to finish an important history lesson which they will be quizzed on. You know getting their attention will be hard. What do you do? Do you offer them all a "homework-free" night as a reward for paying attention? You still have a bag of lollipops in your desk for halloween - would that be a good idea? Or if you make it a fun, interactive game will they all jump in and get the job done because they'll be enjoying themselves? Or perhaps giving them the choice of giving up some of their recess in order to spend more time on the history lesson would encourage them to make good choices?
People can be motivated differently for a variety of reasons, from age to culture to special needs. As teachers, we will each have various scenarious where one might work better than another or a combination of the two is a better approach. While many of our actions are motivated extrinsically, intrinsic motivation must be there as well to encourage long term interest and learning. Being aware of different theories (such as intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, self-determination theory) and being flexibile in our methods will be important in order to be the most effective teachers we can be.
Exercise \(1\)
1. According to the intrinsic motivation theories of Deci & Ryan, which of the following would be the least effective in a classroom setting:
a. Giving students the choice between two different learning activities
b. Providing a one-on-one feedback session
c. Making sure each student gets exactly 15 minutes for their presentation
d. Giving each student a letter grade based on a clearly comunicated rubric
2. According to the Self-Determination Theory, which of the following is NOT one of the basic needs:
a. The need to be part of a group
b. The need to express yourself
c. The need to have a certain amount of control
d. The need to feel competent
3. Mrs. Jenkins has noticed that Kevin is not participating in the classroom activities. He seems to prefer solitary activities and never raises his hands or talks to his classmates. She is concerned that he feels isolated or alone. Which basic need could be unmet in Kevin, according to the Self-Determination Theory?
a. Autonomy
b. Belonging
c. Communication
d. Competence
4. At the end of each student presentation, Mr. Oliver asks the entire class to cheer for the presenter. This could be an example of:
a. Intrinsic motivation
b. Extrinsic motivation
c. Neither
d. Both a & b
Answer
1. d
2. b
3. b
4. b | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/11%3A_Classroom_Management/11.06%3A_How_can_students_be_motivated_both_intrinsically_and_extrinsically.txt |
by: Anthony D. Richardson
INTRODUCTION
There are many avenues we can take toward equity in the school. We will discuss Culture, School Size, Gender, Learning, and Funding. Five important topics needed for equity in the classroom. Before you can fair assessment of anything a person faces, they must try to understand the what, when, why and how. Equity is what every Teacher, Principal, School Super Attendant, and Parent should strive for.
CULTURE
Year 2004 represented the 50th anniversary of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954), the Supreme Court decision outlawing racial segregation in schools. Brown v. Board has been called the defining legal decision of the 20th century, framing as it did the United States’ struggle with issues of race and racial equality. In that decision, the justices clearly state that they were striking down segregation in public schools both to increase educational equity and to eliminate the racial stigma associated with segregation.
Despite a wide range of efforts over the past 50 years, issues of racial and ethnic stigma and its relationship to identity and motivation remain central issues for those interested in creating racially equitable educational settings today. I argue that efforts to improve educational equity can only advance when a corresponding effort is made to reduce racial and ethnic stigma.
In the 50 years since the first Brown decision, we have learned a great deal about both the value of diverse learning environments for student development and how to create effective diverse learning environments. Nevertheless, as we come to understand that the racial and ethnic stigma discussed in Brown continues to play a central role in modern educational outcomes and inequities, we can direct our reform efforts in productive ways.
• First, teachers much acknowledge how deficit-based notions of diverse students continue to permeate traditional school thinking, practices, and placement, and critique their own thoughts and practices to ensure they do not reinforce prejudiced behavior.
• Second, culturally relevant pedagogy recognizes the explicit connection between culture and learning, and sees students’ cultural capital as an asset and not a detriment to their school success.
• Third, culturally relevant teaching is mindful of how traditional teaching practices reflect middle-class; European-American cultural values, and thus seeks to incorporate a wider range of dynamic and fluid teaching practices outcomes through the amelioration of stigma
Note
Culture ... impacts our lives by determining what is important and what is not,what makes sense and what does not. The culture then makes these constructions available to the young and to new initiates for appropriation and use in transforming their participation in that culture. Learning, then, becomes a matter of changes in one's relation to the culture(s) to which one is connected.
SCHOOL SIZE
A large-scale quantitative study using nationally representative and longitudinal data attempted to identify the ideal size of a high school, based on student learning. The study explored these issues for about 10,000 students in 800 public and private schools in the United States. Although most research on this topic has been framed within a "bigger versus smaller" mode, the objective here was to estimate an appropriate balance point between student learning and school size. Achievement gains in mathematics and reading over the course of high school were found to be largest in middle-sized high schools (600-900 students). Schools of this size were also favored in terms of social equity, in that they had weaker relationships between student socioeconomic status (SES) and achievement. Lee and Smith also found that even though the same "ideal size" was consistent across schools identified by their average SES and minority concentrations, school size was a more important factor in determining learning in schools enrolling more disadvantaged students.
Investigating the effects of school size in Chicago's (K-8) elementary schools, another study also found favorable effects for smaller schools in terms of student learning and teachers' willingness to take responsibility for their students' learning. Although without exception, teachers and students reported that social relations were more personal in the smaller high schools; this was not always seen as a benefit. A few students in the smaller high schools reported that they were unable to "live down" the negative reputations of their older siblings or even parents. Some teachers in such schools had to work hard to keep a modicum of privacy.
Sociological theory suggests that human interactions and ties become more formal as organizations grow. Organizational growth generates new bureaucratic structures, as connections between individuals become less personal. These structures can inhibit communal organization. This general theory has been confirmed in research identifying the organizational characteristics of effective schools. In school climate studies, for example, size operates as an ecological feature of the social structure, part of the physical environment that influences the nature of social interactions. In general, the sociological evidence about high schools suggests that social relations are generally more positive in smaller schools.
GENDER
As young people move into adolescence, they begin to explore gender roles. Finding their way through this potential minefield is complicated and challenging for middle school students. The process of determining the variations in masculinity and femininity is largely a social function, not a biological one. What it means to be a man, and what it means to be a woman, is communicated to children by all the adults in a child's life, including teachers.
Boys and girls create very distinct cultures; when they are in same-gender groups they act and play very differently. Girls are talkative and cooperative, boys are competitive and physical. Teachers need to understand these differences and be purposeful in the treatment of each so as to send the healthiest messages to adolescents.
In 1992 the American Association of University Women (AALUW) published a groundbreaking study about how schools were not meeting the needs of young girls. Their schools shortchanged girls in many ways: when questioned in class, girls were less likely to receive a prompt to clarify thinking if they answered incorrectly; boys were more regularly called on, and if not, they were just as likely to shout out an answer, leaving girls to sit quietly; and girls were not encouraged to take advanced math and science classes (AAUW 1992). Perhaps not surprisingly, then, in their middle school years, girls stopped being successful in math and science.
So what do we do? The first thing is to become aware of the differences between genders. Once these differences are explained and accepted, educators must be proactive in the way boys and girls are treated in schools. Indeed, there are distinct advantages to educating boys and girls together appropriately, for in doing so, each gender will begin to see how the other thinks, feels, responds, and reacts. Such understanding is in itself a major goal for gender-friendly classrooms.
We should also consider the nature of the differences between boys and girls. Creating a gender-friendly classroom does not mean that you create gender-specific activities, divide your classroom, or even insist on single-sex classes. Students should at some times have an opportunity to work in a gender-matched activity, while at other times they should learn to function in a more typical gender-mismatched one. This allows students to experience instructional times that are more comfortable for students when the activities are matched to their nature. But they also learn to function outside that comfort area when they are in a mismatched situation, and thus strengthen weaker areas.
For teachers the imperative is to learn about the differences in gender. Teachers need to accept that learning occurs differently for each gender, and to measure out activities and experiences that favor one some of the time, and the other some of the time. Keep in mind that although some girls may be more linguistically advanced than boys, some boys are just as advanced. Although some boys manipulate objects well and see patterns better than girls, some girls are headed toward engineering schools. When boys see girls appropriately modeling relationship behaviors, the boys learn how to be more sensitive and open. Likewise, when girls see the appropriate use of assertiveness that boys learn early, the girls see that this can be used to their advantage as well.
LEARNING
Human beings, in our conscious hours at least, are always learning. We cannot do otherwise; learning is an involuntary human activity. What varies among us is what we learn, how our learning is put to use and reinforced, and what learning is valued by a particular group of people at a particular time—our education. The result is that, while everyone learns, some learn to survive and some learn to thrive.
Unfortunately, access to the learning experiences that help people to thrive, though these depend on context, are not equally or equitably available to everyone. And although there may be value in all types of learning experiences, a deep understanding in the field of education of the range of learning experiences available to people who thrive is the first step toward ensuring adequate access to these experiences for all.
Schools, then, are only one of society's educative institutions. Although schools may be the most widely recognized of such institutions, a theory of education must encompass not just a theory of schooling but also a theory of the relation of various educative interactions and institutions with one another and to the members of the society at large. And a vision of educational equity must become a vision of providing access not just to schooling but also to these other resources.
Holistic approach to learning
• High quality early childhood education programs
• Rigorous and challenging curricula for all students
• High quality teaching
• Effective, sustained educational leadership
• Appropriate class sizes
• Mental and physical health care services
• Appropriate academic support for English language learners
• Appropriate academic support for special education students
• Appropriate academic support for children in areas of highly concentrated poverty
• Effective after-school, community, and summer programs
• Effective parental involvement and family support
• Policies that foster racially and economically diverse schools
FUNDING
Throughout the United States, wide performance gaps exist between poor and minority students and their peers in other groups. The inequities that result in those performance gaps carry enormous costs, not only for the children and families involved, but for the nation as a whole. The annual price tag of inadequately educating our young people is staggering, in the realm of \$250 billion per year in health and welfare costs, criminal justice expenses, and lost tax revenues. The heavy toll on the social and civic fabric of the nation is an additional, inestimable price that we all pay every year.
If we are to meet the global economic challenges of an increasingly "flat world," if we are to prepare our students to be capable civic participants in our democratic society, and if we are to fulfill the moral imperative of ensuring that a child's racial/ethnic, socioeconomic, or family background no longer predicts that child's educational attainment or level of achievement, we need a comprehensive approach to educational equity that attends to the full array of factors that affect educational opportunity.
Since late in the 20th century, there has been a burgeoning of initiatives, programs, projects, and activities that fall under the umbrella of what we are calling "comprehensive educational equity" by seeking to integrate education and supports and services in other areas that enhance students' abilities to succeed.
A wide range of institutions, from federal and state governments to national and local foundations, to individual schools, carries out some type of "comprehensive educational equity" effort. The delivery models employed include community, full-service, and extended schools; comprehensive early childhood programs; school-linked services projects; school-community partnerships; private interagency commissions; family support and education programs; integrated-services initiatives; comprehensive community initiatives; and state programs and broad national legislation.
Within these models, individual efforts have varying goals, rationales, methodologies, scopes, participants, scales, and time frames. The proliferation of these efforts provides a rich and complex field of study for potential models, best practices, and policy direction on which to build. Their many variations point to challenges for study, evaluation, and replication.
CONCLUSION
Equity in the class room is not an easy task, but a necessity. As we continue to create equity in our classrooms were contributing and enhancing peoples lives. We are better equipping students, parents, communities, America, and the World. We must recognize what is going on with our students by communicating with them in order to make the right assessment. We as educators must think outside the box. Times are changing so the way we educate must change as well.
Exercise \(1\)
1. What does not create effective diverse learning environments?
A. Teachers much acknowledge how deficit-based notions of diverse students continue to permeate traditional school thinking, practices, and placement, and critique their own thoughts and practices to ensure they do not reinforce prejudiced behavior.
B. Culturally relevant pedagogy recognizes the explicit connection between culture and learning, and sees students’ cultural capital as an asset and not a detriment to their school success.
C. Culturally relevant teaching is mindful of how traditional teaching practices reflect middle-class; European-American cultural values, and thus seeks to incorporate a wider range of dynamic and fluid teaching practices outcomes through the amelioration of stigma.
D. Disregard cultural differences and teach a rigid and structured class that focuses on passing the SOL's.
2. How does school size does effect the a classroom?
A. Estimates an appropriate balance point between student learning and school size.
B. Study found favorable effects for larger schools in terms of student learning and teachers' willingness to take responsibility for their students' learning.
C. Study found similar effects for larger schools in terms of student learning and teachers' willingness to take responsibility for their students' learning environment.
D. It does not effect the classroom and learning environment at all.
3. What is the differences between genders?
A. Girls are competitive and boys are talkative and cooperate.
B. Boys and girls create very distinct cultures; when they are in same-gender groups they act and play very differently.
C. Girls are talkative and cooperative, boys are competitive and physical.
D. The only difference is how they are raised in the home.
4. Why is learning not equal from school to school?
A. Access to the learning experiences that help people to thrive, though these depend on context, are not equally or equitably available to everyone becuause?
B. Everyone does not have the same access.
C. All the responsibility is on the schools.
D. Every can go to the public library.
5. What is the annual price tag of inadequately educating our young people?
A. Inestimable price that we all pay every year.
B. Whatever the amount of money we get from the lottery.
C. The annual price tag of inadequately educating our young people is staggering, in the realm of \$250 billion per year in health and welfare costs, criminal justice expenses, and lost tax revenues.
D. The annual price tag of inadequately educating our young people is only \$500 million per year.
Answer
1. ( D)
2. (B)
3. (C)
4. (A)
5. (C) | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/12%3A_Ethics_and_Law/12.01%3A_How_can_we_create_equity_in_the_classroom.txt |
By Hillary Childress
Note
" A good teacher is like a candle-it consumes itself to light the way for others" http://www.indianchild.com/teachers_quotes.htm
Learning Objectives
• Students should be able to detect signs of Child abuse and child neglect in a classroom.
• Students will know the proper procedure of reporting suspicions of child abuse or nelgect.
• Students will know the 3 types of Child abuse and the statistics on all 3.
Introduction
To a student a teacher can be seen as someone they can tell their deepest darkest secrets too. So what happens when a student tells a teacher some information that might suggest child abuse or neglect? Teachers need to know how to handle child abuse suspicions on the legal and ethical level and how to recognize it. Definitions The lines between child abuse and child neglect can get a little hazy sometimes. The Child Welfare Information Gateway has defined child abuse as “ Any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation; or an act or failure to act which presents an imminent risk or serious harm” ( Child Welfare Information Gateway,2008) There are 3 different types of Child abuse; physical, emotional, and sexual abuse. The Child Welfare Information Gateway also defines the three types of abuse
• Physical-“is non- accidental physical injury as a result of punching, beating, kicking, biting, shaking, throwing, stabbing, choking, hitting, burning, or otherwise harming the child.”(Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2008)
• Emotional- “pattern of behavior that impairs a child’s development of sense of self-worth” (Child Welfare Information Gateway,2008)
• Sexual-“activities by a parent or caregiver such as fondling a child’s genitals, penetration, incest, rape, sodomy, indecent exposure, and exploitation through prostitution or production of pornographic material”( Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2008)
Child abuse can bee seen as causing immediate harm to the child. While child neglect might not cause immediate harm to the child, overtime child neglect can cause physical and developmental harm. Child Neglect it defined as Child Neglect- “the failure of a parent, guardian or other caregiver to provide for a child’s basic needs.” (Child Welfare Information Gateway,2008) Those needs can be put into four catergories physical,medical,educational, and emotional.
Statistics
A teacher needs to know the statistics of child abuse and neglect, once they know the numbers they will see how dyer the situation is and how important it is to know how to respond to child abuse and neglect.The National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System is a federal organization that collects data and statistics on child abuse and neglect every year (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2008). In the year 2006 there was an estimated 3.3 million cases and of those cases over half of them were reported by professionals, such as teachers (U.S Department of Health and Human Services, 2008) in the year 2006 the data showed
• 905,000 victims of Child abuse or neglect
• 51.5% were girls an 48.2% were boys
• 48.8% were white,22.8% were African-America, and 18.4 were Hispanic
The data that was collected also showed the child neglect was more common than child abuse, in years past the NCANDs reported that child abuse was more prevalent that child neglect. In 2006 the data showed
• 64.1% were victims of neglect
• 16% were victims of physical abuse
• 8.8% were victims of sexual abuse
• 6.6% were victims of emotional abuse
Detecting Child Abuse or Neglect
As teachers we spend and average of 7 hours, 5 days a week with our students. So besides their parents, we are the people that the children spend most of their time with, this allows us to create a relationship of trust with our students.The relationship that is created is one that is so strong that a teacher will do anything to protect their students.So by knowing how to detect abuse and neglect teachers are better prepared to protect their students. We also get to know our students behavioral patterns, and if it changes occur. A dramatic change can in behavior can be a warning sign of child abuse or neglect (Coleman). According to Dr. Coleman, a child psychologist some other warning signs of child abuse or neglect both physical and emotional. They are as follows(Coleman).
• Bruises, lumps, welts
• Repeated broken bones
• Burns
• Shyness around adults
• Is often absent
• Frequent accidents-such as wetting their pants
• Lack of concentration
• Poor academic performance
• High aggression
• Early arrival to school and reluctance to leave
• Unsociable
When it comes to detecting the possibility of child neglect the warning signs can be a lot more apparent and can be easily seen by the outer appearance of the child. Some of the things to look for if a teacher suspects a child is being neglected are as follows (Duncan, 2001)
• Child appears to always be hungry
• Unorganized train of thought
• Child appears to suffer from medical and dental neglect
• Child comes to class in clothes that appear dirty and worn
Reporting Suspicions of Child Abuse or Neglect
When teachers suspect child abuse or neglect they sometimes hesitate to report it, this may be because of a fear that the parents of the child may retaliate against the child, or they feel that even if it is reported nothing will be done. As teachers those we are mandated to report any suspicions of child abuse or neglect. This is stated in the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act(CAPTA) if a teacher fails to report any suspicions they can face disciplinary action up to and including termination and criminal liabilities(Smith, 2007). When a teacher suspects that a child is being abused in most school the teacher will file a report for the principal once the report is filled it is normally given to the guidance counselor who will be the one to contact the local depart of Child Protective Services(CPS)(Citizens Information). The website also states that if a child confides in a child that the teacher should record the conversations. The teacher also needs to have the child’s basic information such as; name , address, phone number, details about the suspected abuse, and information about the potential perpetrator(Duncan, 2001). The CPS will determine in the information is substantial enough for an investigation. The CPS will normally send the mandated reporter a letter, but a family’s right to privacy is still of importance. So a mandated reporter might know that the CPS investigated but may not know the findings or results of the investigation (Duncan, 2001).
Conclusion
So in conclusion teachers have not only a legal responsibility but an ethical responsibility to protect their students. Teachers should pay attention to students’ behavior and create strong relationships with their students. If this happens, I feel that we will see a huge drop in numbers of children dying from child abuse and neglect. Every child deserves a happy and safe childhood and as educators we can help ensure that they are happy and healthy.
Exercise \(1\)
1. What percentage of abuse/neglect victims are white
A. 49.5
B. 48.8
C. 30.3
D. 29.8
2. What percentage of victims of abuse are victims of sexual abuse
A. 2.3
B. 45.5
C. 19.2
D. 8.8
3. Mrs. Smith has a student that comes into class with dirty clothes and seems to always be hungry. The teacher suspects child neglect. What should the teacher do?
A. The teacher is overacting and judt forget about it
B. The teacher should punish the child for coming into her classrroom looking dirty
C. The teacher should go talk to the principal
D. The teacher should give the child a cracker and tell him/her to stop complaining
4. Henry is 5 and tells his teacher that his bottom hurts and lately Henry has been coming into school with bruises all over his arm. What should the teacher do?
A. Just forget it, Henry must be telling a story.
B. Record the conversation and go to the principal.
C. Go have a talk with Henry's parents.
D. Go tell the principal.
Answer
1.B
2.D
3.C
4.B
Reference
Child Welfare Information Gateway.(2008).What is child abuse and neglect?.Retrieved February 7, 2009, From Child Welfare Inofrmation Gateway. Web site: www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/factsheets/whatiscan.cfm
Children’s Bureau.(2008).NCANDS Survey Instrument.Retri ved February 7, 2009, from Department of Health and Human Services. Web site: www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/cb/systems/ncands/survey.htm
Coleman, M. What should you do when you suspect child abuse. Retrived February 7, 2009, from Scholastic.com. Web site: content.scholastic.com/browse/aticle.jsp?id=4435
Duncan,N. When should teachers report abuse? Retrived February 7, 2009,from Children’s Voice Article.Web site: www.cwla.org/articles/cv0111teachers.htm
Smith,S.(2007). Mandatory reporting of child abuse and neglect. Retrived February 7, 2009, from Smith Law firm. Web site: www.smith-lawfirm.com/mandatory_reporting.htm
(2008).Reporting child abuse are primary and post primary leve. Retrived February 7, 2009, from Citizens Information.Web site: http://www.citizensinformation.ie/categories/education/primary-and-post-primary-education/attendance-and-discipline-in-schools/child_abuse
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by Alec Bauserman
Note
"The vigilant protection of constitutional freedoms is nowhere more vital than in the community of American schools." Shelton v. Tucker, 364 U.S. 479 (1960)
Lawsuits have become increasingly common in our society and many Americans act and speak out of the fear of being taken to court. In any environment, one must be conscious of how their words and actions will affect others. A thoughtless statement or inappropriate physical contact might land you in court. This is especially true in schools, where daily contact, high emotions and stressful circumstances can all come together at the wrong moment. As such, it is good to understand the rights of students trying to express themselves and the rights of teachers trying to keep a safe, orderly learning environment. Few people know their constitutional rights, and even fewer teachers & students know how their constitutional rights change once they enter the ‘semi-public/semi-private” classroom.
This paper will examine some of the rights guaranteed to all Americans and how those rights change once they enter school. It will also seek to answer some of the most common questions held by students. What is free speech? Is it protected in school? How safe am I in my possessions? Do I have any expectation of privacy when it comes to my things? A good understanding of students’ rights benefits everyone: the students who exercise them, the teachers who challenge them, and the democratic society which lives by them.
Learning Objectives
• identify and understand the basic philosophy of the courts when determining the extent of student’s rights
• recognize similarities and differences between Constitutional rights held in school and life out side it.
• recognize the major court case which set the groundwork for all future Supreme Court cases involving student’s rights
• make informed decisions in real-life situations based on the knowledge presented here
• inform colleagues and students of the information contained in this article
Students Rights
The founding fathers deliberated for days on end when writing the first draft of our nation’s Constitution and later the Bill of Rights. They agonized over wording; argued over semantics. It is likely they had no idea just how successful this “great experiment in democracy” would turn out to be. Equally likely is this: they never once considered how these rights would pertain to young students in the classroom. The landmark case of Tinker v. Des Moines School District clearly defined the benchmark for how rights may be exercised and when they may be curtailed:
Note
“It can hardly be argued that either students or teachers shed their constitutional rights to freedom of speech or expression at the schoolhouse gate.
… On the other hand, the Court has repeatedly emphasized the need for affirming the comprehensive authority of the States and of school officials, consistent with fundamental constitutional safeguards, to prescribe and control conduct in the schools.
... Our problem lies in the area where students in the exercise of [their] rights collide with the rules of the school authorities."
In other words, one doesn’t surrender his or her constitutional rights by attending school. However the courts have recognized that the unique nature of the school environment requires that certain liberties be suppressed in the interest of maintaining a safe, orderly learning environment. According to the doctrine of “in loco parentis” school officials are more than government officials; they are, in a legal sense, the temporary parents of their students. Just what exactly that allows them to do and say is a matter of debate and has led to numerous legal challenges, many involving the Supreme Court. This paper will examine some of those court decisions and explore their impact on student’s rights.
Summary - The balancing act between the free expression of rights and the desire to maintain order in school serves as a good example of the struggle faced by our democratic society.
The 1st Amendment
Freedom of Speech, Expression & Religion
Perhaps the most quoted court decision on the subject, Tinker v. Des Moines was a battle over students’ 1st amendment rights, specifically the right to free speech. High school students John Tinker, 15, and Christopher Eckhardt, 16, decided to show their opposition to the Vietnam War by wearing black armbands to school. Administrators countered by banning armbands and threatened disciplinary actions for any students violating the rule. Tinker and Eckhardt wore their armbands and were suspended, not allowed back until they agreed to stop violating school rules. Tinker’s father subsequently sued and lost in District Court. The Appellate Court was unable to reach a decision and the case was passed up to the Supreme Court, who overturned the District Court’s decision and ruled in favor of the plaintiffs. The court stated that if the student’s actions did not disrupt the learning environment, or advocate or cause harm to themselves or others, it was permissible. This has been the rationale in virtually every other opinion held by the court regarding student’s constitutional rights.
While a student’s right to free speech is protected, it is not a blanket protection covering any form of protest. A recent example of this is Morse v. Frederick, also known as the “Bong Hits 4 Jesus” case. This case is particularly eye-opening in that the offense occurred off school grounds. Frederick, a high school student, displayed a banner at a local parade featuring the phrase “Bong Hits 4 Jesus,” a reference to marijuana use. Morse, a school official, noticed the banner and instructed the student to take it down. When Frederick refused, he was suspended by Morse and the decision was upheld by the school board. Frederick sued, claiming protection under his 1st amendment rights. This time the Supreme Court sided with the school board, noting “ … schools may take steps to safeguard those entrusted to their care from speech that can reasonably be regarded as encouraging illegal drug use, [therefore] the school officials in this case did not violate the First Amendment…” This fits with the consistent message of the courts – a student’s Constitutional rights will be protected only as long as their exercise does not endanger the health or academic progress of others.
Other cases regarding the Rights of Free Speech & Expression:
West Virginia v. Barnette, 1943 – The court ruled that is unconstitutional to require students to salute the American flag. The 1st amendment not only protects freedom "of" expression but also freedom "from" expression.
Bethel School District v. Fraser, 1986 - Washington high school student Matthew Fraser was suspended for using sexually explicit language in a speech given on school grounds. The court sided with the school, affirming that schools can prohibit “lewd, indecent or plainly offensive” language.
Guiles v. Marineau, 2004 – A 14- year old student in Vermont was suspended for repeatedly wearing a T-shirt depicting President George W Bush as an alcoholic and a cocaine addict. The shirt contained both written and visual depictions of banned substances. The court sided with the student, citing two factors: 1) the shirt did not advocate the use of illegal drugs and 2) the shirt did not cause significant disruptions to the learning environment.
Summary – A student’s exercise of speech or expression is legal and constitutionally protected so long as it doesn’t:
1. endanger the public
2. disrupt the learning environment
3. advocate the use of illegal substances or other violations of the law
4th Amendment
Unreasonable Search & Seizure
The student’s desire for freedom of speech can only be matched by their desire for privacy and for security of their possessions. The right of school officials to search a student’s belongings is a contentious issue, and few teachers know the limits of their authority and few students understand the extent of their rights. Just as Tinker v. Des Moines set the standard for the protection of 1st Amendment rights, so did another case set the precedent for search & seizure: New Jersey v. T. L. O., 469 U.S. 325 (1985).
Two female high school students were caught smoking in the restroom and assistant principal Theodore Choplick confronted them. One of the two admitted her wrongdoing but the other student (T.L.O.) denied it. Choplick searched T.L.O.’s purse and discovered cigarettes, drugs and drug paraphernalia, along with a large amount of money. T.L.O. was tried and convicted in court on charges of delinquency. The student countered that the school had violated her 4th amendment rights, depriving her of protection against unreasonable search and seizure (i.e. searching without a warrant) and the evidence should be inadmissible. The Supreme Court disagreed, stating: “a school official may properly conduct a search of a student's person if the official has a reasonable suspicion that a crime has been or is in the process of being committed, or reasonable cause to believe that the search is necessary to maintain school discipline or enforce school policies."
This is a departure from the court’s usual position requiring “probable cause” for government officials to search someone without a warrant. This change, although appearing slight, has enormous ramifications. School officials may search someone based solely upon a well-grounded suspicion, not iron-clad evidence of wrongdoing. This is analogous to the difference between “reasonable doubt” and “beyond a shadow of a doubt.” This threshold however applies only to school personnel and NOT to law enforcement officials on school grounds. The court has been careful not to slide down that slippery slope. In the court’s decision, they state that a teacher’s right to protect him- or herself and the safety of their students is on par with the rights of firefighters, EMS, OSHA officials, etc. The right to privacy must be balanced against the publics right to safety. In a school, the balance is tilted toward protecting safety and maintaining order, even if it is at the expense of student rights.
The issue of locker searches has not come to the Supreme Court. As the locker is school property and therefore “public space” it is not afforded the same protections as a student’s personal possessions.
State of Iowa v. Marzel Jones (2003) - A student whose locker was cleaned out by school personnel. Finding a small amount of marijuana, the student was charged. Marzel claimed 4th amendment protection against unreasonable search & seizure but was denied by the State Supreme Court who “noted that the search occurred on school grounds, ‘where the State is responsible for maintaining discipline, health, and safety.’(Bd. of Ed. of Indep. Sch. Dist. 92 v. Earls, 536 U.S. 822)”
Another issue of concern has been the constitutionality of drug screenings for student-athletes.
Vernonia School District v. Acton (1995) – 7th grade Oregon student James Acton signed up to play football but refused to take a mandatory urine test. Drug testing was administered to athletes after a recent ‘explosion’ in drug-use and the related discipline problems which arose. Citing public health concerns and noting the prevalence of student-athletes involved in drug-related incidents, the school board deemed urinalysis a necessary requirement for participation in sports. The Supreme Court agreed and upheld their decision. Once again, the desire to protect public health overrode student’s desire for privacy.
Summary – School personnel may search a student and their belongings if the health & welfare of the public is at risk or they have a ‘reasonable suspicion’ that a crime has been, is being, or will be committed
5th & 14th Amendment
The Right to Due Process
These amendments protect an individual’s right to a fair trial and must be considered whenever “a person's good name, reputation, honor, or integrity is at stake because of what the government is doing to him..." (Wisconsin v. Constantineau, 1971). This includes the enforcement of disciplinary actions such as suspension or expulsion. The expectations of a fair trial are very different however, depending on the circumstances. Disciplinary expulsion is treated differently than an ‘academic dismissal.’ Claire La Roche makes the point by citing Barnard v. Inhabitants of Shelburne: “Misconduct is a very different matter from failure to attain a standard of excellence in studies.... A public hearing may be regarded as helpful to the ascertainment of misconduct and useless or harmful in finding out the truth as to scholarship." (emphasis added)
According to La Roche’s interpretation of the courts, the following are necessary in the expulsion of a student on disciplinary grounds:
1. a timely & formal hearing
2. a detailed explanation of the charges
3. a strict adherence to the schools stated policy
4. a ‘punishment that fits the crime’
She goes on: “To ensure fundamental fairness, decisions must be based on the facts and supported by the evidence. Moreover, punishment should be commensurate with the severity of the offense. Consequently, it is important for schools to establish guidelines and be consistent with sanctions.”
This matter has come before the Supreme Court as well, who ruled that the rights of due process vary depending on the reason for expulsion. An academic dismissal does not have the same requirements as the stricter guidelines set down for a disciplinary expulsion. This is illustrated by the case of University of Missouri v. Horowitz (1977). A student was expelled for poor academics and lack of good hygiene after being notified in writing and in person. The student countered with the fact that she had never been given a hearing to dispute the charges. The Supreme Court denied her appeal. As La Roche reiterates, “Ultimately, the Supreme Court of the United States held that procedural due process did not require a formal hearing when the school dismisses a student for academic reasons.”
Summary – students are guaranteed the right to a fair trial and due process, although their rights are dependent upon the nature of their dismissal.
Note
How are college students affected by these decisions?
• "Since 1970, officers on the Seattle campus have regularly patrolled the hallways of dormitories of the University of Washington."
• "[T]he state's Court of Appeals ruled that students have the same right to privacy in dormitory hallways as they do in their rooms."
• "Therefore ... campus police officers lack the legal authority to randomly patrol residence halls."
"Although the closely watched ruling bears on only one state, it reveals the tension between privacy and security in dormitories everywhere. Residence halls are legally complex spaces, where crime often creeps in and where residents, perhaps more than ever, expect administrators and police officers to ensure their safety."
Hoover, Eric. (July, 2008). Police in the Dorms: Student Safety or Privacy Infringement? Chronicle of Higher Education, v54 n46 pA15. (link)
Other Miscellaneous Cases
The following are other judgements handed down by the Supreme Court:
- School uniforms and dress codes are intended to stop disruptions to the learning process by banning lewd, obscene or offensive clothing. As such, the courts have ruled them constitutional despite students pleading for “the freedom of expression” and the lesser-known “freedom to see skin.”
- Corporal punishment (physically disciplining a student) barely passed a constitutional challenge in 1977 with a divided court ruling 5-4 that it is neither “cruel and unusual punishment” nor a denial of due process. (Ingraham v. Wright, 430 U.S. 651)
- The censorship of school newspapers was upheld with the understanding that the school is not a “forum of public expression.” Further, the justices declared that a school “need not tolerate student speech that is inconsistent with its basic educational mission.” (Hazelwood v. Kuhlmeier, 484 U.S. 260 [1988])
Conclusion
The Supreme Court has changed greatly through the years, sometimes leaning left, sometimes right. Throughout it all, it has remained remarkably consistent on the issue of student’s constitutional rights in school. In summary, the opinion held by the court might best be summarized by the following: “An ye harm none, do what ye will.” If a student’s speech or actions do not cause physical, emotional or academic harm to others, they will receive the fullest protection offered by the Constitution. By extending these rights to students, teachers offer them the greatest benefit of our democracy and in doing so, invite them to become full members of society.
Exercise \(1\)
1) Which of these was a landmark case which set the precedent for all Supreme Court decisions regarding student's rights?
• a) Balboa v. Creed
• b) Tinker v. Des Moines
• c) Mothra v. Godzilla
• d) Good v. Evil
2) What is the Latin term referring to teachers status as the 'temporary parents' of their students?
• a) vene vidi vici
• b) in vino veritas
• c) in loco parentis
• d) cogito ergo sum
3) Which of these situations is least likely to be protected under the Constitution by the Supreme Court?
• a) A student wears a T-shirt depicting the principal of the school with the words "This is not a cool person" written underneath
• b) Two students put duct tape over their mouth to protest the unfair treatment of homosexuals
• c) A group of FFA members release two dozen cows into the hallway during class change
• d) An athlete turns his back to the flag during the singing of the national anthem
4) Which of these government employees may search a student based on a 'reasonable suspicion' of criminal activity?
• a) a teacher
• b) a police officer
• c) an FBI agent
• d) all of the above
Answer
1. B
2. C
3. C
4. A
Author Response
Hello! This article was originally going to be written about "Students' Rights & Responsibilities" but I chose to focus solely on the legal aspect for several reasons, but mainly because its so important. Lawsuits are a real possibility and knowing your rights as teachers, and the students rights as well, can only be a good thing. I think the deserves its own article so more information can be presented on the topic. I certainly learned a lot by writing this. The knowledge I gained has made me more confident in what I can and cannot do in my role as a teacher. While the risk of a lawsuit is still there (and very likely always will be) having a good understanding of teacher's and student's rights has made me more relaxed in the hallways where discipline is the number-one concern. I hope you found this article as helpful as I did. | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/12%3A_Ethics_and_Law/12.03%3A_What_are_students%27_rights_and_responsibilities.txt |
By: T. Burrell
Introduction
“In teaching, as in life more generally, core principles relating to virtues such as honesty, justice, fairness, care, empathy, integrity, courage, respect and responsibility should guide conduct and interpersonal relations” (Campbell, 2006, p. 32). These virtues are a good description of what an ethical teacher should be, but the use of these virtues can be a difficult task when a teacher is faced with so many unpredictable situations in the classroom and in the school system. The teacher’s knowledge of what ethics is and the practice of it, will aid the teacher in making the best decision when ethical predicaments arise in their daily teaching lives.
Knowledge
Ethical knowledge is an intrinsic feature of awareness between moral and ethical principles. A teacher’s possession of these principles will allow teachers to display moral and ethical values, which includes a sense of right and wrong, treating others with respect, being objective, patient and compassionate. Embodying ethical knowledge gives the teacher the ability to practice their teaching skills with morals and ethics and not just viewing their job as being teaching only. It goes beyond the curriculum, assessment and technical conditions of the profession. The practicing of ethical knowledge by the teacher can be modeled by returning graded papers to the student in a timely manner, by being sensitive to the use of classroom materials that may offend some students, using precaution when displaying a student’s work or by selecting student achievement without bias. The use of ethical knowledge by a teacher can be expressed by the way a teacher projects the tone of his/her voice towards the student, by avoiding student embarrassment and by reminding students of how their behavior can affect other classmates. There are many ways to show how a teacher can demonstrate their ethical knowledge, but a teacher can only do but so much to implement moral and ethical behavior on a daily basis. As we may know, teaching can be a very demanding profession, with moments of chaos, frustration and unexpected events of the day. This tells us that a teacher’s reaction to these situations cannot be choreographed and why the practice of ethical knowledge can help teachers become aware of their “ethical” behavior when such events occur (Campbell).
Personal
The personal ethics for each individual teacher varies according to the teacher’s belief of what is ethical. Each teacher may believe that their interpretation of ethics is being practiced in their behavior and in their personal lives and if this is true, then he/she is demonstrating “ethical principles” and “virtues” of a “moral person” and a “moral professional (Covaleskie,2005,p. 134).” By demonstrating the characteristics of ethics and virtue in the classroom with the use of actions, attitudes and words will make a positive impact on the many students that the teacher will come into contact with throughout their teaching career. This demonstration of ethics will also let the student know, “that if I respect you, then you can respect me” (Campbell).
Classroom
Classroom ethics involve issues the teacher comes into contact with on daily basis concerning their students within the classroom. A teacher is placed in the position of deciding what is the ethical thing to do when issues such as student consideration, content coverage and assessment arises. The assessment issue or better “known as grading” should have “fair standards” that shows the student’s knowledge of the curricula. The teacher has to decide what impact the grade given, will have on the student’s future career choices, the school’s reputation and the parents of the student. The teacher also has to decide the best way to explain to a student why they received an unsatisfactory grade on a specific assignment. The explanation may not be an easy one, but it is only to help improve the student’s academic performance. The content the teacher brings into the classroom questions the teacher’s ethics of what “subject matter” they want to include in their instructions. The teacher has to decide whether there will be enough time to cover each skill of the content area and if there is, “Should some critical thinking skills be included even though my school does not require its coverage? Or, should I just leave out the difficult parts of the course content, even though the students will need it (Kienzler)?” The teacher also has to decide which actions to take, especially when considering the emotional needs of the student. Content of a subject matter that is being discussed in the classroom may reflect upon the home-life of a student whose mother and father maybe going through a divorce or the loss of a parent. How does a teacher deal with these issues in the classroom? And how certain subject matter is taught? Each of these questions requires “that one is not only doing the right thing, but doing it in the right way, at the right time and for the right reasons” (Covaleskie, 2005, p. 134).
School
The ethics of the school may not agree with the ethics of a teacher. A teacher may be faced with numerous moral problems when it concerns the school’s leadership practice of disciplining students. The teacher may question the reason behind the discipline and whether or not it will deter or increase future student behavior (Colnerud,2006,p. 378). Ethical tensions do exist within schools among individual teachers (Allison,2003,p. 124). A teacher may see a colleague mistreating a student and try to make a decision of whether or not to intervene in the situation. “The teacher cannot bring himself/herself to intervene; the teacher says that fear is the reason for their silence and that intervening is considered to be a breach of loyalty (Colnerud, 2006, p.378).” This is a clear example of what teachers deal with on a daily basis in relation to the ethics of their colleagues.
"The Educator, believing in the worth and dignity of each human being, recognizes the supreme importance of the pursuit of truth, devotion to excellence and nurture of the democratic principles. Essential to these goals is the protection of freedom to learn and to teach and the guarantee of equal educational opportunity for all. The educatior accepts the responsibility to adhere to the highest ethical standards." -The National Education Association's preamble for its code of ethics.
Dilemmas
Teachers encounter ethical dilemmas throughout their teaching careers. This brings up the question, “How do teachers deal with deciding what is the right or wrong thing to do when such dilemmas arise?” When a teacher is faced with ethical and moral dilemmas concerning their students and profession, they use specific codes of ethics written by many educational organizations to help them make ethical decisions. Teachers do need a guide when they are faced with the decisions of what to do if a child has a learning disability, what content matter should be taught, what should be done in defense of a student and a number of other events that will require ethical decisions. The National Education Association (NEA) has created a code of ethics for the different occupational needs of the teaching profession. The NEA created their code of ethics in 1975, which is divided into two sections. The first section lists eight ethical commitments the teacher has to the student and the second section also lists eight ethical commitments the teacher has to his/her profession(Brady, Buchotz and Keller).
Commitment to the Student
• Restraint of individual action and pursuit of learning
• Access to varying points of view
• Do not distort subject matter
• Protect students from harm
• Do not embarrass or disparage
• Do not discriminate
• Do not use professional relationship for private advantage
• Do not disclose confidential information
Commitment to the Profession
• Do not make false statements in application of a position
• Do not misrepresent qualifications
• Do not assist someone unqualified gain entry into the profession
• Do not make false statements concerning a candidate’s qualifications
• Do not assist a noneducator in the unauthorized practice of teaching
• Do not disclose personal information about a colleague unless required by law
• Do not knowingly make false statements about a colleague
• Do not accept any gift or favor that might influence professional decisions
Conclusion
Possessing what it takes to be an ethical teacher can be a difficult task for many teachers, especially when he/she encounters unsuspecting events on a daily basis that will require an ethical decision, which may not be the exact right answer. Hopefully, it will be the ethical answer. This decision making is a great responsibility placed on the teacher, no matter how long one has been in the profession. One can only hope that the years or months of teaching has taught you enough to know what to do when ethical dilemmas occur in the classroom or within the school system.
Application Questions
1. What is ethical knowledge?
Choose the best answer.
A. Intrinsic features of awareness between moral and ethical principles.
B. Knowing what is good or evil
C. Practicing ethics
D. The practice of common sense
2. When a teacher demonstrates characteristics of ethics in the classroom it causes what to occur?
Choose the best answer.
A. Behavioral change of students
B. Depletion of student interest
C. Lack of class participation
D. Positive impact on many students
3. What should teacher assessment practice include?
Choose the best answer
A. Bias factors
B. Fair standards
C. Instructional objectives
D. Opinions of the teacher
4. Many teachers do not intervene whey they see their colleague mistreating a student due to what factor?
Choose the best answer.
A. Confidentiality
B. Embarrassment
C. Fear
D. Respect
5. What do teachers use as a guide or reference, when they need to make an ethical decision?
Choose the best answer.
A. Code of ethics for educators
B. Law books
C. School policies
D. Teacher's code of ethics
Answer Key:
1. A
2. D
3. B
4. C
5. A | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/12%3A_Ethics_and_Law/12.04%3A_What_does_it_mean_to_be_an_ethical_teacher.txt |
by J. Kovalcik
Learning Objectives
• Students will be able to define ethics and character education.
• Students will be able to identify the various ways ethics are integrated into schools and classrooms, and various ways of teaching ethics in the classroom.
• Students will be able to identify how parents can participate in their children’s learning of ethics in school.
Note
Ethics: “the discipline dealing with what is good and bad and with moral duty and obligation” (Merriam-Webster, 2008).
Introduction
While parents are their children’s first and most important teachers, as children enter school, teachers join in the process of shaping children’s minds, attitudes, and behaviors (Brannon, 2008). Children, after all, spend a huge chunk of time in school, away from their parents and guardians and in close proximity of their teachers and fellow students. Shouldn’t it seem obvious then that teachers have a role in contributing to the ethical teaching of today’s students? In this article I will explain the different thoughts and ideas of incorporating ethics education in classrooms, and programs that are happening now to teach ethics in schools.
Character Education…A new term for ethics?
What does ethics education mean? In a survey, when asked this question, the majority of teachers said, “character education” (Zubay, 2007). So, what is character education? The results of Zubay’s surveys show that character education and ethics education are used interchangeably in the context of solving social conflicts over issues such as bullying, diversity, and sexuality (Zubay, 2007).
Note
“Throughout history and in cultures around the world, education rightly conceived has had two great goals: helping students become smart and helping them become good. They need character for both” (Davidson, M., Lickona, T., Khmelkov, V., 2007, p. 30).
When exploring character education it should be noted which personal qualities are involved. The “six pillars of character” are trustworthiness, respect, responsibility, fairness, caring, and citizenship (Zubay, 2007). Character education doesn’t just produce an honest and kind child; it can also produce a child who wants to work hard and do his or her best (Davidson, M. et al., 2007).The “six pillars” are qualities that teachers can exhibit themselves and incorporate in their curriculum as well. Teaching itself is considered a moral responsibility and thus can have a direct impact on the attitudes, behaviors, and achievements of students (Falkenberg, 2007).
Approaches to Teaching Ethics/Character Education
In the school setting, teachers have the most influence on a student’s ethical learning (Zubay, 2007). It is teachers who are around the student during most of the day and have to deal with issues that come up with the students and among the students, thus lending them to more opportunities to teach ethics. How schools are incorporating ethics in their curriculums can be broken down into two categories: informal and formal programs. Informal programs include no formal statement as to how ethics education should be implemented; it is left up to the individual teachers to fit ethics education into the curriculum, whereas a formal program would include a definitive, age-appropriate curriculum with a mission statement, and would include such programs as honor code seminars, monthly ethics themes, or student/faculty ethics committees (Zubay, 2007). In Zubay’s surveys, most of the schools fell into the “informal” category.
Incorporating Ethics/Character Education in the Classroom
The two most popular strategies for teaching students about character are modeling and taking advantage of teachable moments (Brannon, 2008). We’ve all heard the expression, “treat others the way you would want to be treated.” This is exactly what modeling is all about. It is well known that children learn from watching others. They learn from one another and they learn from adults. This is why it is so important for teachers to set good examples for their students and to point out good examples when they are seen (Brannon, 2008).
When volunteering in a kindergarten class at a nearby elementary school one day, I noticed that a child (with the help of his mother) had brought in an aquarium of tadpoles. The tadpoles had nothing to do with the teacher’s current unit, but she took advantage of this new and unexpected teaching tool and turned it into a lesson about caring for animals. The children watched the tadpoles grow and took care of them until they became frogs.
Other ways to incorporate ethics in the classroom include getting students to help write class rules, role playing, songs, and projects. According to Thomas Lickona (1997), teachers can also create a classroom that provides a supportive moral community, use discipline as a way to teach about moral reasoning, encourage democracy in the classroom, teach character across the curriculum, utilize cooperative learning when teaching, provide opportunities for moral reflection, teach students abut conflict resolution, and encourage students to take pride in their work (as cited in Brannon, 2008).
In my six year old son’s first grade class, the students are expected like in all schools, to follow the rules. The first week of school, his teacher asked the class to come up with the classroom rules. In doing this, she made it their responsibility to think of what good behavior encompasses. She then organized the rules and gave each rule a color. Whenever a student breaks one of these rules, he or she has to take the appropriate colored card and place it in his or her rule folder. At the end of the week, every student with less than five cards gets to participate in “good citizenship day”. This involves a special activity which the children normally are not allowed to do, like climbing on the rock climbing wall on the playground. Those children who received five or more cards get a note sent home and do not get to participate in the activity. In addition to the rule cards, his teacher hands out “good behavior” tickets whenever she sees a student performing a good act. Once a child has seven red tickets, he or she may trade them in for a prize from the treasure box. It doesn’t matter how many rule cards the child may have; he or she will still be recognized when doing something good.
Caring
Baron (2007) stated, “Developing and maintaining concern for the welfare of those who are less fortunate is achieved through the development of the habit of using one’s heart well” (p. 51). How do teachers show students they care and why is this important in teaching ethics in the classroom? When middle school students were asked how they know when a teacher cares about them, the response was when the teacher teaches well and the teacher treats them well (Davidson, M. et al., 2007). A survey of teachers, teacher candidates, and college faculty showed that the top seven qualities of caring teachers are: offering help, showing compassion, showing interest, caring about the individual, giving time, listening, and getting to know students (McBee, 2007). When children feel that their thoughts and ideas are heard and matter, they are more inclined to participate and behave better. In her article, Robin McBee (2007) states, “To care deeply and to demonstrate that care, teachers must know their students’ needs and interests” (p. 34). A teacher that is sensitive to the individual needs of his or her students will be considered more caring than one who is not. By showing care the teacher not only boosts the child’s self-confidence and drive, he or she models a behavior worthy of the child repeating.
Parental Involvement
Studies show that many teachers think ethics education is a joint responsibility between parents and teachers (Brannon, 2008). While parents have their own ways of teaching ethics to their children outside of school, there are ways to be involved in their ethics teachings at school as well. Some ideas on how to include parents in character education programs are:
• family participation with homework assignments specifically about character education
• sharing class information in newsletters to parents
• informing parents of class rules and consequences
• inviting parents to volunteer in the classroom
• planning events related to character education (Brannon, 2008).
Roots of Empathy
Roots of Empathy is a nonprofit group who brings ethics education to the classroom in a unique way. According to an article in the Wall Street Journal, it is “a decade-old program designed to reduce bullying by exposing classrooms to “empathy babies” for a whole school year” (Wingfield, 2008). In the program, founded by Mary Gordon, the babies are brought into the classrooms to help children, grades K – eighth grade, learn by observing the emotional connection between the babies and their parents and it is designed to boost the “emotional literacy” of children by getting them to recognize and talk about their feelings instead of acting out aggressively (Wingfield, 2008). According to the article, studies have shown that there has been a drop in aggressive behavior among students who were in classrooms with empathy babies, while there were increases in aggressiveness in groups that did not experience the empathy babies (Wingfield, 2008).
Making Ethics/Character Education a School-Wide Effort
While teachers can incorporate teaching ethics in their classrooms, it doesn’t have to be just a classroom occurrence. Schools as a whole can support their teachers by implementing plans and ideas for teaching ethics. In a recent study, Brannon (2008) interviewed teachers who came up with five elements schools can use to positively influence students:
• Reach out to the community. (i.e. Hold parent education nights.)
• Provide materials to help teachers teach character education.
• Allow time each day or at least several days a week, for character education to be addressed.
• Set consistent school-wide expectations regarding character and values.
• Value character education as important as other academics and test scores (p. 64).
Problems with Teaching Ethics
Teachers in schools that do not have ethics-based curriculums stand to face problems with some parents and even administrators. While most people would agree that ethics/character education should be taught in schools, some parents are uncomfortable with teachers doing this. They don’t like the idea of teachers using their roles as authority figures to influence their children’s character development (Brannon, 2008). Likewise, some administrators have a problem with teachers incorporating ethics in their curriculum as they feel it may take away from core subject areas (Brannon, 2008). While teachers may encounter this type of opposition, it should not discourage them. Author Dinana Brannon conducted a survey (Brannon, 2008) in which most teachers said they faced problems with time, materials, parents, and the curriculum, but they all felt that character education is important and helpful to their students and society.
Conclusion
In my opinion, no matter how a teacher decides to do it, ethics education should be incorporated in the classroom for those children who do not get it at home and to reinforce it to those who do get it at home. I feel that regardless of whether they get support from their school or whether or not their school has an ethics education program implemented, teachers should always, at least, incorporate it in the classroom by setting good examples and be caring and nurturing.
Exercise \(1\)
1. What is the difference between the terms “ethics education” and “character education”?
a) “character education” is a term used only to refer to moral responsibilities
b) “ethics education” is a term used to describe only what is taught in schools
c) “ethics education” is used only when talking about colleges
d) nothing; the 2 terms are used interchangeably
2. What type of ethics education program would include a definitive, age-appropriate curriculum?
a) formal
b) informal
c) modeling
d) role playing
3. Which is an example of an informal approach to teaching ethics?
a) Mrs. Apple’s kindergarten class reviews a list of written rules about the school’s honor code.
b) Fox Grove Middle School’s ethics education committee chooses the theme of good citizenship for the month of March.
c) Mr. Smith points out to Joey how nice it was of him to hold the door for George.
d) Miss Talbot’s 6 grade class attends a weekly seminar about good citizenship.
4. Which is not one of the "six pillars of character"?
a) anger
b) citizenship
c) respect
d) trustworthiness
5. Which of the following would be considered modeling?
a) Mrs. Albert asks her students to draw a picture of someone doing something helpful.
b) Mr. Jones teaches his class a song about being nice.
c) Tom makes a clay statue of a police officer.
d) When Zach picks up the pencil Miss Wells drops, she smiles and thanks him in front of the class.
Answer
1. d
2. a
3. c
4. a
5. d | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/12%3A_Ethics_and_Law/12.05%3A_How_should_teachers_teach_ethics.txt |
By: Lisa-Marie Marconi
Learning Objectives
• Readers will be able to identify different types of technology that are used in classrooms today.
• Readers will understand the advantages and disadvantages of classroom technology for both students and teachers.
Introduction
When a person pictures a classroom, usually he or she would think of a black or green chalkboard that comes with different colored chalk. Within the last decade or so, chalk has turned into a keyboard and chalkboards have turned into drop-down screens known as “SMART boards.” Pencils have been replaced with stylus, paper with Ipads, Ipods, laptops, and Alphasmarts. Today technology is infiltrating classrooms everywhere; the traditional classroom setting that we have come to know is now becoming obsolete. However the question is: Are the new state-of-the-art classrooms really beneficial for teachers and students, or are they obstructing lessons?
What's New in Classrooms?
The first thing that is noticeable about a state-of-the-art classroom is the teacher’s desk. Over the years that has changed quite a bit; there used to be just books on it or maybe a desk calendar. Now, a computer can be seen on almost every teacher’s desk in each classroom. Each teacher's computer comes with a few things such as: a SMART Board, and a projector that is connected to the computer to show images on the SMART Board. The images that are shown on the SMART board can range from Microsoft PowerPoint presentations to videos of the content being taught. For example in a college philosophy class, the teacher may use a PowerPoint presentation as a way to summarize point-by-point what he or she is lecturing while students will copy down notes, or sometimes the teacher may show a historical video about Socrates. So not only are the students receiving their lesson, they are also watching a historical reenactment of something that Socrates did, and all of this is done through the computer. Not only does the computer play a role in teaching a lesson, but it also helps teachers take attendance and calculate grades. In fact, some college teachers post their grades on what is known as “Blackboard,” which is a website that helps students keep in touch with their teachers on what is happening in class. Another way technology is used is through computer laboratories, where each student can sit with a computer to do research, or perhaps work on an in-class assignment.
Some classrooms are still basic in some ways, yet these classrooms are still using some form of technology. This primitive form is usually known as the textbook-and-lecture lesson, and some teachers still use this form, but with new technology in it. For example, in a 5th grade lesson on science the students might learn about electricity through a textbook, but they will also have a chance to watch a video on how electricity works, or maybe they will go to a computer laboratory to research information on that topic. Sometimes teachers may find online or interactive games to show their students and to help them get involved in the lesson. For example, in a high school biology class, a teacher could use what is called “Click and Clone,” or an interactive game that has the students clone an animal through step-by-step instructions. The game teaches the student about cloning while providing fun animations to watch as they clone the animal. Teachers can lecture with a textbook if they choose to do so, but they can also use technology as part of a lesson- this depends on how each teacher wants to present his or her lesson. The technology may often be available to teachers, but that does not mean they will need to use it every time.
Note
Blackboard: http://www.blackboard.com/
Advantages
Several advantages come with this new classroom, but the first advantage is that it promotes a whole different way of learning: project- based learning (Lohr, 2008). This allows students to take a hands-on approach to learning. Instead of learning from a textbook, the students can almost experience what is written in the textbook. For example if students were learning about a current issue with rising oil prices, then they would have to make a new energy policy (Lohr, 2008). This kind of assignment promotes leadership, organizational skills, and computer skills which leads up to another advantage of educational technology: students will have a greater chance of getting hired for a job someday. Leadership and organizational skills are two main characteristics that employers look for when hiring. Aside from achieving those skills, students can also get hired for simply knowing how to use a computer because according to the U.S. Department of Education, about 60% of jobs require computer skills (2003). Educational technology also helps students produce a better quality work, especially in their writing. When students work with word processors they tend to feel more comfortable because it takes less time to write what they are thinking, and gives their writing a professional feel once they have printed their work (Dorricott & Peck, 1994). One last important advantage of using technology in the classroom is that it motivates students to go to school everyday. Schools that use more technology show better attendance rates and lower dropout rates compared to past reports (U.S. Department of Education, 2003).
Note
The U.S. Department of Education reports that students who use technology in school did better than their peers on standardized tests of basic skills by 30% (2003).
Disadvantages
While educational technology may have its advantages, it also has its disadvantages. First, teachers are struggling to grasp the concept of the different technologies available. Many teachers do not know how to use the computer or have few computer skills. Some teachers even feel scared because they fear that this will make them feel embarrassed if they make mistakes with using the computer while teaching. Many teachers are also fearful of technology because they feel that it will change their way of teaching; they will have to use unfamiliar things in their lessons. A very good way to solve this is to have the teachers take computer classes to help motivate them to get used to this change (J. Bitner, 2002; N. Bitner 2002). Another disadvantage could be the use of PowerPoint. Some teachers use PowerPoint so much that it actually makes the student bored, and it does not help the student memorize the content due to lack of interaction (Klemm, 2007). If a teacher shows a PowerPoint but does not stop to elaborate and get the class involved, then students will not feel motivated to learn what is being taught. One last disadvantage is that sometimes computers can have problems, which may cause a disturbance in a lesson. If the computer freezes while a teacher is presenting a slideshow then the lesson will be delayed until it is fixed.
Note
Research shows that slide-shows can actually be less effective than the traditional learning when a teacher uses a blackboard(Klemm, 2007). This is due to lack of interaction with students as the computer screen becomes their new source of notes.
Conclusion and Thoughts
Classrooms certainly have changed over the years, but what counts the most is their efficiency. Educational technology has its moments, but at the same time it can open students’ minds and help them to achieve great things that will help them in the future. The only way technology can be effective is if the teacher becomes educated in what tools are available, and learns how to use the tools appropriately. If the teacher relies on just the technology as their way of teaching, then it will not get through to the students. A teacher should still be a little old-fashioned, even in this new age. Teachers can lecture and use textbooks, but they should still show important videos and allow students to participate in interactive games. Students will gain knowledge from textbooks, but gain experience through technology.
Exercise \(1\)
1. What is project- based learning?
a. A way of learning through hands-on assignments.
b. Learning through powerpoints given in class.
c. Taking many field trips to promote learning.
d. The textbook-and-lecture style of learning.
2. What percentage of jobs require computer skills today?
a. 90%
b. 80%
c. 70%
d. 60%
3. Mrs. Jones is teaching her history class about Supreme Court trials, and tells her class to get into groups. She assigns a trial to each group and tells them to research their assigned trial, write a short paper on it, and that starting on the due date each group will act out their trial. What kind of learning does this assignment promote?
a. Textbook-and-lecture learning
b. Historical learning
c. Project based learning
d. Experience learning
4. Mr. Smith uses PowerPoint presentations everyday in his biology classes and says strictly what is written on each slide. What is wrong with his way of teaching?
a. He is allowing his class to have too much fun.
b. He is not interacting enough with his class.
c. He is leaving out certain facts when he speaks.
d. He does not seem enthusiastic about what he is teaching.
5. Student pencils and paper have been replaced with:
a. Crayons and portfolios
b. stylus and i-pods
c. Brushes and easels
d. Laptops and cellphones
e. Both b & d
Answer
1) A
2) D
3) C
4) B
5) E | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/13%3A_Technology/13.01%3A_Is_technology_in_education_a_help_or_hindrance.txt |
by Darby Christian
Overview
This article intends to address what Web 2.0 Tools are and what "Web 2.0" refers to, specifically in an educational realm. This article also addresses why educators are talking about the issue of Web 2.0 tools and why there is debate about the usefulness of these tools or lack thereof. The article will briefly discuss the different viewpoints from both sides of the fence regarding using Web 2.0 in the classroom. As we develop deeper into this idea of Web 2.0 we will learn how we can use Web 2.0 in the classroom.
What is Web 2.0?
The term Web 2.0 was coined and popularized by Tim O’Reily (Voithofer, 2007), it refers to an evolution of usability of Internet applications by way of collaboration technologies for social uses in different arenas such as business and education. These technologies include, but are not limited to blogs, podcasts and, wikipages (Alexander 2006), that became extremely easy to produce due to the fact that to use them one no longer needs to understand intense html coding (Geraci 2007). Barsky describes, Web 2.0 is ultimately a social phenomenon of users’ experiences of the Web and is characterized by open communication, decentralization of authority, and freedom to share and re-use Web content (2006). This as changed view so that people and collaboration has became the biggest factor of the Internet (O'Reilly 2005).
The previous version, of the Web, referred to as Web 1.0, was best summed as the software, browsers and other applications, being the most important part of the Internet (O'Reilly 2005). Web 2.0 is collaborative in nature, and is a mindset that we are the integral part of these technologies, not the html, coding, and machines (Geraci, 2007). Its collaborative nature also creates the concept of micro content and the idea that now we can access many different items from one single source due to an open sharing among domains, and servers (Alexander 2006). Web 2.0 is a term that encases an idea of using internet technologies for socioeconomic concerns. I mention Blogs, Podcasts, and Wikis, however we can become more creative and apply this idea to other technologies. Some of those could be online chats, a digital television recording device, and even RSS feeds (really simple syndication).
Note
According to Dan Fost, O'Reilly lists seven key components to web 2.0:
-- Using the Web as a platform, where anyone can write software that anyone else can use, instead of having to use Microsoft's Windows platform;
-- Harnessing collective intelligence, such as the way Google links to the most-popular pages and Amazon offers popular books, and the way Wikipedia and blogs use "the wisdom of crowds" to come up with information;
-- Enriching data for a deeper online experience, as seen in mashups like www.housing maps.com, which combines Craigslist apartment data with Google maps;
-- Software as a service, which gets constantly updated online rather than sold in shrink-wrapped packages;
-- Software such as Apple's iTunes, which works seamlessly online, on PCs and on iPods;
-- Rich user experiences, so that Web sites often feel like the software that runs on a PC. (2006)
Why Web 2.0?
Why is there a push towards Web 2.0 in the classroom? Remember that web 2.0 is an idea, not just one thing (Alexander 2006). Web 2.0 refers to all of us and how we access our internet, our world. The idea now is to use Web 2.0 to our advantage, specifically in school systems. The school of thought that is for the usage of Web 2.0 in the classroom believes that it is an asset to education. Web 2.0 is how “millennials [1]” are accessing the majority of their social world already (Voithofer, 2007). Another idea behind the push for usage in the classroom, is the fact that Web 2.0 tools are what we use everyday to access our world (Voithofer 2007). The thought is that students need to be aware of these tools, and knowledgeable of how to use them correctly and responsibly. We use Web 2.0 tools everyday, and we probably don’t even notice. When we express ourselves on our blog pages, when listening to RSS feeds, when we upload photos to a Flickr account we are accessing Web 2.0 . Our world is changing. We are becoming more collaborative and more creative due to the enlarging capabilities of the technology around us.
According to the Digital Media and Learning Fact Sheet published by the MacArthur Foundation, which sponsors a \$50 million program study focused on the successful integration of digital technologies into the nation’s education system, 87% of America’s teens have home access to the Internet, and most spend up to 8.5 hours daily involved with some form of digital technology. The sheet also sites information gathered from 2005 Kaisor Family Foundation survey that states “the typical 8-18 year-old lives in a home with 3.6 CD or tape players, 3.5 TVs, 3.3 radios, 2.9 VCRs/DVD players, 2.1 video game consoles, and 1.5 computers” Giving further proof to the inundation of digital media in the lives of U.S. youngsters, MacArthur cites that suggests that 64% of 8-18 year-olds are download music online, 32% have their own Webpage, 66% instant message; 39% own cell phones; 18% MP3 players; and 13% possess handheld technology with Internet connectivity, and 80% of youth participate in online gaming.
Criticism
There has been some debate about employing Web 2.0 tools in the classroom. Some feel that Web 2.0 is merely a scheme to market “hot web-start ups” (Geraci, 2007). Corporate businesses use the term "Web 2.0" to target millennials to help publicize new web domains. Alexander notes,(web 2.0 tools) They are the creations of enthusiasts or business enterprises and do not necessarily embrace the culture of higher education (2006). Another problem presented by Web 2.0 is maintaining intellectual integrity as information is more easily shifted and moved from domain to domain (Alexander 2006).
In the Classroom
We need to embrace these technologies in our classroom, so that we can enhance our students’ access of knowledge, and teach them evaluation skills that will be crucial when using these new applications. Dodge defines, A WebQuest is an inquiry-oriented activity in which some or all of the information that learners interact with comes from resources on the internet, optionally supplemented with videoconferencing (1997). Webquests [2] are a great way to involve Web 2.0 in the classroom and keep students on task with the content. Webquests can use several different web 2.0 tools to demonstrate knowledge of content. For example, the unit being studied could be the lifespan of a butterfly for third-grade science. The Webquest assigns specific tasks to the students using applications found on the internet. One task may be to observe a video of the life-span of a monarch butterfly on that was downloaded from unitedstreaming [3]. Another quest after the video could be posting a blog about one’s interests in the life-span of the monarch butterfly.
Finding Web 2.0 Tools You Can Use in the Classroom
Dr. Bernie Dodge who works for the San Diego State University, Department of Educational Technology has created a Webquest.Org site that teaches how to create Webquests. In addition, the site provides a search engine to find pre-designed Webquests you can use in your classroom that are grade level and subject specific (Dodge, 2007). Click on http://webquest.org/index.php to view the site.
In addition to Webquests, another cooperative Web 2.0 tool that you can use in your classroom is a blog. The classroom blog is a service created by David Warlick and the Landmark Project. It is free to all teachers working in an Educational Institution. It designed to let a teacher create a classroom blog that is completely secluded from the outside world. You will be able to enter your students’ names, and have the students write articles and reports that are posted for you and their peers to review and comment on (21st, 2008). To access the Landmark site, click on http://classblogmeister.com/index.php.
Another fun idea for using Web 2.0 is video sharing. You and your students can download and uploading educational video from Google video (21st, 2008). Your class could create a video science project on the Monarch butterfly that could be uploaded to Google video. Producing something that a world-wide audience could view could be a huge motivator for your students.
Final Thoughts
Web 2.0 is best described as a new version of the internet that focuses on the web as a platform of usability; it also refers to viewing people and the partnership between them as the important part of the web, not machines and codes (O'Reilly 2005). The world is evolving and we are entering a new frontier where Web 2.0 tools allow us to become more collaborative, communicative and creative. We are embarking on a new era in which many social formalities are completed online. Education of responsible and appropriate use of these tools is a needed area in the classroom. The children of today and tomorrow will and are becoming more technology saturated. As educators it is our duty to teach our students integrity and make them accountable for themselves. We need to adapt to students learning capabilities, and using web 2.0 tools in our classrooms as teaching strategies is the best way to do this. | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/13%3A_Technology/13.02%3A_What_are_the_educational_applications_of_Web_2.0.txt |
By Pauline Thorson
Learning Targets
To learn more about Student Written Text Material.
To understand that the student written material can be considered credible material.
To understand the effects of students writing their own textbooks.
Introduction
As technology advances, so does the way we learn. Now students on the university level, in a more technologically advanced age have the chance to write our own textbooks. Not only is this affordable,but it can also be used in the future. One may think we have been thrown into the deep end however with this class we have the chance to walk through the steps of writing our own textbook for future teachers to use as a reference. Individually we are responsible for one article and critiquing our fellow classmates. As a group we have the responsibility of informing the future educators.
A student-written text material is formed by a group of students in grade school, high school, or even at the university level. Students, teachers or professors collaborate to produce a text from which others can learn.
History
The start of the written language can be traced back to cavemen. These cavemen would write on the walls of caves with rocks, clay, and sometimes blood. They did this to teach others where to find food.
The Ancient Egyptians were among the first to develop a formal language, hieroglyphics, and writing utensils, which included papyrus and a primitive ink. They would also use scrolls to record information. These scrolls could be considered one of the first textbooks. However, according to John Wakefield, University of North Alabama, textbooks were invented by Aelius Donatus, in 4 A.D. in a catechism style. Student would answer a question posed by the teacher (Wakefield, 2008 p 5).
Civilization used the quill and ink on parchment for almost a thousand years.
Jumping forward in history, the use of modern style pen and paper, typewriters and most recently computers are used compose our thoughts. There is not much of a jump to make from composing thoughts on a computer to a group of students publishing a textbook.
Student Work
The students write articles within the textbook as part of a course in which they are enrolled. This is usually under the guidance of a teacher or professor. Most teachers and students eventually find that they learn best from teaching others.
As for the process, the students choose an article or two to write with other classmates and get guidance from peers. Then they try to get current and relevant information out to better educate themselves and their fellow classmates.
But if you wish to know more about the authors, you can look their information up in the About the Authors section of the book.
Credible Information
You may think, what would students know about writing a textbook? They are just learning the basics. You would be surprised, because when one person becomes a master of some idea or profession they also have to go through a trial in which they learn a great bit and in turn can teach what they have learned. How many times does a child fall before he or she learns to walk? How many of us still stumble or stub a toe every now and then? With these analogies one could say that we are learning all the time. It is with this continual learning process that we eventually do become masters of what we are learning thus, being able to teach others through our own experiences.
Also the students get to learn with their fellow students and provide peer reviews. Peer reviews are the chance for students to advise, suggest and guide their classmates into producing the best work they can.
We as a class get to learn and critique our peers in order to help them learn things about themselves as well as ourselves. This is a new way to get ourselves and fellow students thinking and exercising our minds (Nodding 2008).
Effects
There is no cost to the college student in purchasing a text for a course that employs this method of learning. This is a big plus for most students considering that most students have a budget and really do not want to have to shell out 100's to 1000's of dollars if they do not have to. The Washington Post recently reported that "Sales of used textbooks last year grew 15 percent to \$2 billion, with double-digit growth expected through 2011, according to Simba Information, a market research group. Meanwhile, sales of new textbooks have grown by 4 to 5 percent annually, with the market this year expected to reach \$3.6 billion."(Mui & Kinzie 2008, para 120). This can be quite the daunting figure for the students of the future.
"Of course, the most immediate benefit of classroom teaching and textbook writing is that they allow you to mold the minds of students."(Mankiw 2007) Mankiw, a Harvard Professor, continues to say that as one writes a textbook one can begin to understand their weaknesses and how to strengthen them with the correct information (Mankiw 2007).
This textbook will also give future pre-service teachers, students learning to teach, an up to date reference, in which to learn how we all can teach each other and some of the stumbling blocks along the way. Which Kevin Hunter found that in a NEA survey that "39 percent of teachers said they do not have enough textbooks to assign homework to their students, and 32 percent reported their oldest textbook was more than 10 years old." (Hunter, 2006).
After it is all written, the student (with fellow classmates) get the honor of being able to say they wrote a textbook, which will look good on a resume'.
As with this modern age of technology we do have cheaper ways of getting books online but, why pay for something when you can learn so much more by writing it?
Future Classes
There is a debate that if students start writing their own books then the textbook companies will lose money. However, the publishers make money from republishing the same information year after year. The future of student written textbooks is a definite possibility of the future.
Conclusion
Textbooks have been around for a great deal of time. As time has changed, humans have evolved the way of learning to fit the surroundings that have been created. Scientists developed ideas that led to the invention of the computer. It is the computer that people now use to compose a textbook for future teachers to read. The computer and classes allow us to develop the techniques and forgo the cost of buying another book and in turn to learn a great deal from fellow classmates! | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/13%3A_Technology/13.03%3A_Are_student-written_textbooks_credible.txt |
by Sherelle Coppedge
Learning Objectives
• Reader will get a brief overview of virtual schools and online learning.
• Reader will be able to identify the characteristics of virtual schools.
• Reader will explore background of virtual schools.
• Reader will be able to distinguish between a virtual school and online learning.
Introduction
In our current "Age of Information" we consistently see and experience technological advances everyday. It has been no surprise to see the onset of these advances in the education of our children. With so many questions swirling around regarding technology in the classroom, we must first uncover the types of learning experienced. Let us begin with online learning and virtual schools. What does it all mean? Is there even a difference among them?
Online Learning
Online Learning has become a commonly used means of instruction. Online learning, also referred to as Electronic Learning, “is a type of education where the medium of instruction is computer technology” (Electronic Learning, 2008). Electronic Learning, or E-learning for short, is naturally suited to distance learning and flexible learning (Eletronic Learning). "Learning and teaching in an online environment are, in many ways, much like teaching and learning in any other formal educational context: learners' needs are assessed; content is negotiated or prescribed; learning activities are orchestrated; and learning is assessed" (Anderson, 2004). Institutions can use online learning to shape the learning ‘space’ and influence learner use. Some of the earliest critics recognized the need to create an online culture which replaces the face to face and other cultures in which we feel confident about speaking and contributing (Thorpe, p 11). This fairly new style of instruction can be found in most classrooms, from elementary to institutions of higher learning. This phenomenon has been growing exponentially since its onset. "By 2006, nearly 3.5 million students were participating in on-line learning at institutions of higher education" (Electronic Learning). These statistics change everyday, but they illustrate the impact online learning has on education in society.
Electronic learning began to surface around 1993. Graziadi, W.D described an online computer-delivered lecture, tutorial and assessment project using electronic Mail (more commonly known as Email), two VAX Notes (server computer) conferences and Gopher/Lynx (programming languages) together with several software programs that allowed students and instructor to create a Virtual Instructional Classroom Environment in Science(VICES) in Research, Education, Service & Teaching, or REST (Electronic Learning).
There has been much improvement in the way of online learning, but as technology advances, so must the topic of online learning. Progress will continue to be made. As we add to our ever-increasing knowledge, online learning will also advance.
Virtual Schools
"A virtual school or cyberschool describes an institution that teaches courses entirely or primarily through online methods. Though there are tens of thousands of commercial and non-accredited courses available online, the term "virtual school" is generally reserved for accredited schools that teach a full-time (or nearly full-time) course of instruction designed to lead to a degree. At the primary and secondary level, accreditation means that virtual schools tend to receive public funding; some publicly funded and private universities also provide accredited online degrees" (Virtual School). "Private secondary schools are also participaing in the virtual schools program, although most are intended for home-schoolers" (Clark, p 7).
"Many of today's virtual schools are descendants of correspondence schools. Sometimes referred to as "distance learning," correspondence schools offered students an alternative to the traditional brick and mortar meetings within a schoolhouse. These schools utilized the postal service for student-teacher interaction, or used two-way radio transmissions, sometimes with pre-recorded television broadcasts. Modern virtual schools provide similar alternatives to students with a more ubiquitous and, often, interactive approach" (Virtual School). Although, virtual schools have become more mainstream over years, there are still obstacles that must be met. "Access to appropriate technology is needed for participation in virtual schooling. According to the United States Department of Education (2001a), about 98 percent of U.S. schools had Internet access in 2000, compared to 35 percent in 1994. This rapid rise can be attributed in part to the Education rate (E-rate) program, a federal program to develop Internet infrastructure in schools and libraries. Established in 1996, by 2001 it had provided \$5.8 billion in support to E-rate applicants" (Clark, p 28).
"The virtual school differ/contrasts from the traditional school through the physical media that links administrators, teachers and students and is an alliance of public distance learning schools. Many states in the United States have their own virtual school, and many of them have students numbering in the thousands" (Virtual School). Virtual schools are not unlike any other public school. There are standards, requirements, and curriculum guides that must be met. Electronic avenues are used to meet these guidelines. "They includes delivery methods such as independent or correspondence study, as well as videoconferencing and other instructional technologies" (Clark, p 7).
Though in cyberspace, virtual schools have also a community of support and influence. "Parents play an important role in determining K-12 student participation in distance and virtual learning. A Phi Delta Kappa poll of 1108 adults (Rose and Gallup, 2001) showed that 30 percent of respondents approved of allowing students to earn high school credits over the Internet without attending a regular school, compared with 41 percent who approved of homes schooling. The authors felt that this showed that the public “is less willing to embrace cyberspace instruction” (p. 42) than home schooling. However, those surveyed were not asked about students earning credits over the Internet while attending a regular school, which appears to be at least as common an arrangement in practice" (Clark, p 27).
Furthermore, the author stated "Virtual Schools now exist all around the world. Some of these virtual schools have been integrated into public schools (particularly in the United States), where students sit in computer labs and do their work online. In other situations, students can be completely home schooled, or they can take any combination of public/private/home schooling and online classes" (Virtual School).
Closing
Online learning obviously goes hand in hand with virtual schools. Virtual schools are becoming more popular in today's society and in turn, online learning will also become a more common mode of learning. Virtual schools are a new phenomenon that not only promote an individually-driven education, but also allow students to practice and apply computer-based skills in today's electronically-based world. Regardless of personal views and beliefs of online learning and virtual schools, society should be prepared for various modes of education to begin popping up in the virtual and online world. Online learning and virtual schools are becoming an important part of the future. Eventually, education could become completely electronic, eliminating the need for classrooms, learning materials, and teachers.
Exercise \(1\)
1) In what year did Graziadi begin research for Online Learning?
a) 1977
b) 1985
c) 1993
d) 1997
2) What federal program supports virtual schools by encouraging Internet resources in schools?
a) Education Rate
b) Internet Plus
c) virtual Resources
d) Cyberspace Instruction
3) When Tommy goes to his school site, he views his teacher and lessons online. Is this online learning or virtual school?
a) Online Learning
b) Virtual School
c) Both a and b
d) Neither
4)Besides the student, who else is involved with virtual schools?
a) Educators
b) Parents
c) Friends
d) both a and b
Answer
1. c
2. a
3. c
4. d | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/13%3A_Technology/13.04%3A_What_are_the_advantages_and_disadvantages_of_online_learning_and_virtual_schools.txt |
by Lindsay K Simmons
Learning Objectives
• Be able to differentiate between the "digital immigrant" and the “digital native”
• Ability to name common tools used by the "digital native"
• Ability to discuss in detail current and future issues with Educating the digital native
Experience with Technology
As a typical 80's child, I understand better than most how to find almost anything, on the Internet. Many people throughout the world have even resorted to Christmas and grocery shopping via the World Wide Web. I check my personal email more than ten times a day. Like many other employees today, my work depends on email communication. Not only are office based businesses accessing their email multiple times throughout the work day, educators are using email for accessing information involving students, parents and school activities on a regular basis. As a parent you can now communicate directly with your child’s teacher in two or three clicks of your mouse. Each teacher has their own website, which includes homework assignments, the class schedule, syllabus, test dates and other pertinent information. Parents and students can now sign up to receive school updates via the text message feature on their personal cell phone. At the college level, students are required to sign up for this service in case of emergencies, i.e., school closings or in extreme cases a shooting.
Note
“The first generation of 'Digital Natives' children who were born into and raised in the digital world- are coming of age, and soon our world will be reshaped in their image. Our economy, our politics, our culture and even the shape of our family life will be forever transformed." (John Palfrey & Urs Gasser, 2008)
An example of our generation’s transformation into "digital natives" is the news coverage of the 2007 Virginia Tech Shootings. Local news agencies used student video footage from their cell phones to update viewers with the events. One student caught others fleeing from a building via his cell phone and others took pictures of themselves and classmates while waiting inside the building. This is just one example of where technology has taken us. Another more obvious example is we are writing the curriculum for our class, i.e., articles etc. via Wikibooks, an online technology newly developed in the last couple of years.
In elementary school, my generation gained the ability to learn fractions and multiplication through computer programs like Mathblaster. Mathblaster ran on the now obsolete MS-DOS system, the Microsoft operating system used in the 80's. In middle school, my parents signed up for the infamous dial-up Internet connectivity, which didn't allow us to use the Internet and the phone at the same time. In high school, my generation gained the ability to go wireless. We used the computer for all of our library research, began communicating with friends in the same classroom, sitting in the seat next to you via chat rooms. Librarians informed us about popular search engines like Yahoo, Google and Dogpile to find sources for our papers. College professors suddenly started giving lectures about how to find "legitimate" information on the Internet for research purposes. They anticipated our use of the Internet as a source, but there was always a maximum placed on the amount that could be found from there. I strongly believe educators are worried students will not be able to do "normal" research without the aid of the Internet. Many of our jobs now depend on the Internet for communication and knowledge. One large field that has resorted to a wide amount of Internet use is journalism and other media related fields. In journalism, the Internet is used to find information on previous articles concerning topics, statistics on government, test scores on school websites and general background information on sources before an interview. It's now an understood requirement for journalists to understand how to blog and use the web for distributing their stories. Not only are they printed in a newspaper, but they are also posted online, which brings along the necessity of pictures and video.
Note
Are You a Digital Immigrant?
• If you answer yes to any of these questions then you are a digital immigrant:
1. Do you remember when telephones had a dial on them (after all, we still “dial” a phone number don’t we?) and were actually connected to the wall by a wire?
2. Do you remember TV test patterns and antennas on the roof?
3. Do you remember the electric typewriter?
4. Do you remember carbon paper?
5. Do you remember the Apple II, The TRS 80?
6. Do you remember the IBM PC and the black and white Macintosh?
7. Do you remember America Online, The Source, CompuServe or other online services, i.e., Mosaic or Netscape?
8. Do you remember getting broadband in your home?
9. Do you remember the Compact Disc (CD)? (Riedl, 2007)
Defining "Digital Native"
A “digital native” is typically categorized as someone from Generation Y, a person born between the late 70's and early 90's. They are considered “native speakers” of common technological advances like the computer, IPod, cell phone, computer programs like Adobe Photoshop and gaming systems like Xbox 360, (Prensky, 2001). Blogs like MySpace and Facebook and video sites like YouTube are the digital natives’ best friend and common means of gathering and disseminating information. Additionally, digital natives are more in tune with web resources such as scholarly articles, academic journals, an a host of information search engines, which include Google, Yahoo, AskJeeves, EBSCO Host, Dogpile, and MasUltra. The other common categorization for someone in tune with the digital world is the term “digital immigrant”. A digital immigrant is someone who is familiar with everyday technology, but they weren’t born in the 1980’s, an example would be parents and grandparents who are tech savvy, (Prensky, 2001). Prensky clarifies the difference between the digital native and the digital immigrant by referring to the “digital immigrant accent,” which basically informs us that a digital immigrant will hold onto their past way of doing things, (2001).
Note
"They have spent their entire lives surrounded by and using computers, videogames, digital music players, video cams, cell phones, and all the other toys and tools of the digital age. Today's average college grads have spent less than 5,000 hours of their lives reading, but over 10,000 hours playing video games (not to mention 20,000 hours watching TV). Computer games, email, the Internet, cell phones and instant messaging are integral parts of their lives." (Marc Prensky, 2001)
“The 'digital immigrant accent' can be seen in such things as turning to the Internet for information second rather than first, or in reading the manual for a program rather than assuming that the program itself will teach us to use it. Today’s older folk were 'socialized' differently from their kids, and are now in the process of learning a new language,” (Prensky 2001). Today, teenagers, children and even adults have resorted to other means of entertainment, technological means specifically. Elementary age children are now indoors playing Halo with a foe from Australia or China on their new Xbox 360 through an international network called Xbox Live. My church uses video footage from YouTube to relate to younger attendees. I can update all of my friends and family with pictures of my daughter via email and Facebook with a click. The ability to Photoshop a person or object into a photo and modify it to make it look like a photo someone took is a piece of cake for my younger brother. In the article, What makes a digital native different, Marta Strickland said, "The digital natives of today have been born into an always-on culture. For many children that are growing up with early adopters for parents, they have never known a time without cell phones, they have never known a time without wireless internet buzzing through the walls of their home. Connectivity flows in the air." This statement is true of all of us in the digital era. What would we do without our technological advances? Apple education, Digital tools for digital
students states:
1. Digital students are hypercommunicators: they are in contact with their peers and technological world via multiple venues
2. Digital students are multitaskers: it's not unusual for a digital student to watch TV, surf the internet, talk on their cell phone, complete homework and download music onto their MP3 player all at the same time
3. Digital students are goal oriented: with the aid of their multitasking, they complete multiple tasking with no issue, they want to succeed and they expect to. (http://www.apple.com, 2008)
Issues & Problems involving Education
One of the largest issues teachers and instructors are coming in contact with in the classroom is plagiarism and cheating. The digital native is so comfortable with the "copy and paste" function that the amount of plagiarism cases in schools and universities has gone up noticeably, (McNeely, 2005). "Plagiarism is the academic infraction of choice. How can it not be, though? Information is easily available from the Internet, especially from sites like Wikipedia [and] old term papers are being sold online," (McNeely, 2005). Another issue that education will be facing in the very near future coincides with how digital native's learn; "interactivity" in the classroom between the student and the teacher (McNeely 2005). Another large issue schools are facing today is a miscommunication in translation between teachers, the digital immigrants and students, the digital natives. “Our Digital Immigrant instructors, who speak an outdated language (that of the pre-digital age), are struggling to teach a population that speaks an entirely new language” (Prensky, 2001).
Note
"Our students have changed radically. Today’s students are no longer the people our educational system was designed to teach.," (Prensky, 2001)
Ben McNeely, a contributing author in the book, Educating the Net Generation, tells us that the digital native generation learns differently than past generations, i.e., through, social interaction, teamwork, peer engagement and action and visual aids, (2005). "Traditional lectures are not fulfilling the learning potential of typical students today. Distance education and online courses don’t work well with Net Geners—the social component of learning is required," (McNeely, 2005). Along with evolving technology comes how students learn, which in this generation is through contact and social interaction. The overall environment in the classroom will need to adapt to this onslaught of new learning and reasoning. Technology is going so far that it’s designing children’s toys that mimic advance everyday technology, such as the cell phone. Texting made easy for your tot: At least new LeapFrog toy will keep 'em off your cell!, said, “Toddlers can soon obsessively text and type like their parents on a pint-sized personal digital assistant made by LeapFrog,” (Melago, 2009). As disturbing as this is, it’s true. I’m constantly pulling my cell phone out of the hands of my sixteen-month-old toddler. Not only is the education industry starting to cater to the digital native, but even the toy industry. Two large, intertwining issues that have an effect on technology in the classroom are computer access and available funds. Access to the Internet coincides directly with funding. Not everyone can afford a computer or the monthly bill to obtain Internet access. The classroom teacher I am currently observing informed his students that if they needed to stay after class to type their business letter on his computer, they could do it that afternoon. "The inability to move between platforms—and the lack of accelerated fundamental skills—is a major hindrance to learning technology" (McNeely 2005).
Conclusion
Technology in the classroom will always be growing and changing. Educators and students alike will need the ability to adjust to current and future changes in the digital world. The digital native population is growing every year, along with the digital immigrant population. Working together to move forward in this ever changing relationship and environment will not only aid the student, but education as a whole. Digital natives are now integrating into the school systems, so another change will happen soon. Original digital natives will educate the new generation of the "digital native". As an original digital native, I will be educating new digital natives; students that understand information and technology that I am currently adjusting to. It's a never-ending circle that requires finesse, understanding, and the willingness to learn.
Exercise \(1\)
1. What is one main difference between the digital native and the digital immigrant?
A. The digital immigrant uses technology second rather than first.
B. The digital native is a child of the 80's typically.
C. The digital native thrives on receiving information fast.
D. All of the above.
2. What is a common everyday tool used by the digital native?
A. Email
B. A and C
C. blackberry
D. the Library
3. Two large issues education will be facing in the future?
A. Internet chat rooms and computer games
B. Students inability to research properly and express themselves
C. Plagiarism in schools and funding for technology
D. B and C
4. How many hours have today's average college grad spent reading?
A. 5,000
B. 1500
C. 10,000
D. 800
Answer
1. D
2. A and C
3. C
4. A | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/13%3A_Technology/13.05%3A_How_can_we_teach_digital_natives.txt |
Learning Objectives
• Define a traditional classroom and technology integration
• Distinguish the difference between traditional classrooms and technology integration
• Explain why some reserved teachers are so reluctant to learn the trades of technology
• Recall at least one Pro and Con of a traditional and technology integrated classroom
• Form their own opinion on whether the Future of Education is the best approach for the kids of tomorrow
Introduction
Education is evolving so rapidly in the way of technology which makes it hard for the world to keep up. J. Johnson, C. Chapman and J. Dyer (2006) state, “The past three decades have seen the rapid development of new and emerging technologies revolutionizing the way we live, work, and learn” (J. Johnson, C. Chapman and J. Dyer, 2006, P.1). Education started off as a traditional classroom and is now integrating more toward technology based learning.
Traditional Classrooms
Traditional classrooms have teachers set in their ways and who have a system. These teachers have their own way of thinking and like to teach things a certain way. The classroom is set a certain way, the students read from the book, and there is little or no technology. Perhaps this does not have to be a bad thing. There are a few subjects that are difficult to learn through the computer, like math for example. Patrick Suppes, a great educator, gives his expert opinion on traditional classrooms: “Hearing lectures and listening to someone else’s talk seem to be almost psychologically essential to learning complex subjects, at least as far as ordinary learners are concerned” (Suppes, 1969, par. 4). Also a traditional classroom seems to be more regulated. Some teachers are not willing to change the way they teach, perhaps some students do not want to change the way they are taught by learning new technology.
On the other hand, traditional classrooms often lack the technological aspect of education. Certain students need individual attention to learn or understand the material. In a traditional classroom, students who require more individual attention may be left behind. The opportunity for a customized learning experience is not as possible as it is in a technologically integrated classroom. The use of technology allows students to learn at a comfortable pace while integrating more collaborative learning tools, like group projects, that better simulate a real world environment. This classroom also frees the teacher to give more personalized attention to those who need it. “We need to continue moving teacher education away from the traditional sink-or-swim model of field experience…” (Zeichner, 2006, P.9).
Note
Click the link below to see a picture of kids in a traditional classroom before technology integration. http://www.flickr.com/photos/90772160@N00/248876814/
Technology Integration
"Across the nation, on the Web and in the home, classrooms are evolving beyond the traditional learning environment with alternatives that are no longer bound by geography and customary modes of operation" (Coxx, 2004). This integration of technology makes it possible for teachers to grow and more importantly, possible for students to grow. What is technology integration? “Technology integration is using computers effectively and efficiently in the general content areas to allow students to learn how to apply computer skills in meaningful ways” (Dockstader, 1999, P.1). Incorporating technology into the curriculum does not mean just teaching the students how to use the programs, but how to apply these software to real-world situations. Technology integration is having instruction drive technology, not technology drive instruction. In other words, technology should be used as a tool for teaching, not the focus of the lesson. Holland (2005) explained how a third grade teacher needed to teach her students to distinguish between fact and opinion according to the core curriculum (Holland, 2005, par.4). She taught the concept using a digital camera and a simple processing activity. The students took pictures of them, printed them out, and wrote five facts and five opinions about the picture. Her students got so much out of the lesson, like using analytical skills to decipher the difference between what fact is and what opinion is. This is a necessary real work tool they were taught in an entertaining way.
Note
Click the link below: The following picture displays a technology integrated classroom whereas the teacher had one of his/her students come to the front of the class to work out a problem on the smart board to better her understanding in a subject. A smart board is a computerized screen that functions just like a computer and allows you to touch the pull-down screen and write on it. http://cobbcast.cobbk12.org/wp-content/uploads/2007/11/mtb_21cc_2.jpg
Some people however, not just teachers, find it harder to adapt to the new technology. “For many adults, all this digital activity is a source of high anxiety” (Tapscott, 1999, P.7). For the younger generation who grew up with the technology, it is easier for them to make this transition. According to Holland’s article, some teachers that have been teaching in the traditional fashion for most of their career refuse to learn advanced technology. Not because these teachers do not want to prepare their students for the future, but because they find it difficult to incorporate technology into the curriculum. One teacher in Holland’s (2005) article writes, “I am not a computer person.” Then Holland goes on to say,”Well maybe you’re not, but face it-we live in a digital age-an age for which we must prepare our students. We weren’t all born knowing to double-click a mouse any more than we exited the womb reciting multiplication facts. We all learn in baby steps” (Holland, 2005, P.3). To some degree, people focus too much on the debate of how the student should be taught. The teachers are forgetting why they are here and are taking time away from the students learning by fighting the integration.
Note
The link below is from TeacherTube. It is a video on integrating smartboards into the classroom. The gentleman in the video is a music theory and technology teacher who expresses how helpful smartboards can be and insists every teacher have one in their classroom. The video also shows his class working on the smartboard. Check it out: www.teachertube.com/view_video.php?viewkey=ca2695d62525505dd80e
Author's Opinion
The intergration of technology into the classroom and using it the fullest potential will have a positive impact of increasing the engagement of the students in our classroom. I remember trying to keep myself awake in class because the teacher did nothing to keep me engaged in the material. I will incorporate much technology into my classroom so that my students will be able to experience hands-on and will be inspired to collaborate with other classmates. I think Suppes (1969) expressed it best when he said, “I would claim that the wise use of technology and science, particularly in education, presents a major opportunity and challenge” (Suppes, 1969, par. 1). However, just because I feel so strongly towards the use of technology and think it is the future of education, does not mean there is not more to be done. Technology is growing so quickly, there is still much we do not know and bugs to be worked out.
Conclusion
Education has progressed immensely over the last fifteen years. It has gone from lectures and textbooks to digital cameras and computers in the classroom. Everybody is working together to make this transition from a traditional-centered classroom to a technology-integrated classroom. The future of education is the key to our children’s learning process and their opportunities ahead. “It is difficult to predict how education will change over the next decade let alone the next century, but there will most certainly be changes in pedagogies which more readily recognize the way young people learn with new technologies” (J. Johnson, C. Chapman and J. Dyer, 2006).
Exercise \(1\)
1. Using computers effectively and efficiently to allow students to learn how to apply computer skills in meaningful ways. What is this?
A. Computer-based classrooms
B. Traditional-centered classrooms
C. Technology integration
D. Student-based classrooms
2. The use of technology allows for students to_______________ while integrating more collaborative learning tools, like group projects, that better simulate a real world environment.
A. surf the web
B. self teach
C. get frustrated
D. learn at a comfortable pace
3. A great educator once quoted, "Hearing lectures and listening to someone else’s talk seem to be almost psychologically essential to learning complex subjects, at least as far as ordinary learners are concerned." Which type of classroom setting was he referring to?
A. Teacher-centered classroom
B. Traditional-centered classroom
C. Technology Integrated classroom
D. Student-centered classroom
4. Moving away from a traditional classroom toward a technology integrated environment for the students will do what for the future of education?
A. It will present the student with great opportunity, challenge his/her future and allow them to experience hands-on through technology integration.
B. It will raise taxes and make learning harder for the students.
C. It will allow the students to play on the computer all the time and do all their homework and projects using technology.
D. The future of education will remain how it is today except there will be a little more technology.
Answer
1. c
2. d
3. b
4. a | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/13%3A_Technology/13.06%3A_What_is_the_future_of_education.txt |
by Lucyna Russell
Learning Objectives
1. Readers will be able to understand what is locus of control.
2. Readers will know the difference between an internal and external locus of control.
3. Readers will learn how locus of control can affect student achievement.
4. Readers will learn what attribution training can do to help an external locus of control.
What is Locus of Control?
Do you believe that you are responsible for your fate or that fate is something that is determined. Depending on your answer can tell you what type of locus of control you may have. Locus of control is a psychological term that was developed by Julian B. Rotter in the 1950's (Neill,2006). Locus of control refers to an individuals beliefs about what determines their rewards or outcomes in life. Individuals locus of control can be classified along a specteum from internal to external (Mearns, 2006).
Note
"Julian B. Rotter has been cited as one of the 100 most eminent psychologist of the 20th centrury. Rotter was 18th in frequency of citations in journal articles and 64th in overall eminence." (Haggbloom, 2002)
What are the Differences Between Internal and External Locus of Control?
A person who has an internal locus of control believes that their rewards in life are guided by their own decisions and efforts (Neill,2006). If they do not succeed at something, they believe it is due to their own lack of effort. For example, a student with an internal locus of control doesn't receive a good grade on his exam. He, therefore, concludes that he did not study enough for the exam. He realizes his efforts are what caused the grade and will have to try harder next time (Grantz, 2006).
A person who has an external locus of control believes that rewards or outcomes in life are determined by "luck, chance, or powerful others" (Mearns, 2008). If they do not succeed at something they believe that their lack of success is due to forces beyond their control. For example, a student with an external locus of control doesn't receive a good grade on his exam. He concludes that the test was written poorly and the teacher was incompetent. He blames the grade on external factors that were out of his control and doesn't see the need to try harder (Grantz, 2006).
Note
• "Males tend to be more internal than females"
• "As people get older they tend to become more internal"
• "People higher up in organizational structures tend to be more internal"
(Neill, 2006)
How does Locus of Control Affect Student Achievement?
There have been a number of studies that conclude that there is a correlation between locus of control and academic achievement. These studies concluded that students with an internal locus of control had higher academic achievement than students with an external locus of control (Uget, 2007). The reason for the internals performing better academically comes from their belief that if they work hard and study, they will receive good grades. Therefore, they tend to study longer and spend more time on their homework (Grantz, 2006). On the other hand, externals believe they have no control over what grade they get. This belief may have been caused by many attempted school assignments that they failed, leading them to have low expectations of studying and school (Grantz, 2006). Any success that they might experience will be rationalized as luck or that the task was too easy. They have come to expect low success and whatever goals they do set are unrealistic (Uget, 2007).
Can an External Locus of Contol be Changed?
When there is a student in the classroom that seems to be having a hard time with his grades and shows no motivation for improvement that student may have an external locus of control. (Grantz, 2006). What can be done to help this student? Is there a way to motivate him? "Attribution training which concentrates on strenghthening the student's internal locus of control, may be helpful in increasing motivation" (Grantz, 2006). Part of attribution training is having say positive things about themselves. Some examples are, "I can do this" or "This can be done with hard work". Students train themselves into believing that they do have the control to change things (Grantz, 2006). Students should be encouraged to associate their academic hardships with the cause of their difficulties as they are being guided to see the effect of their actions (Uget, Habibah, Jegak 2007).
Conclusion
It seems that a persons locus of control can greatly affect their academic achievemnet. The way they perceive themselves and the world around them affects how well they will do in school. It only makes sense that if you work hard and study, then you will do well. However, students with an external locus of control do not feel that way and feel there is no need to try. This, of course, will greatly affect their academic achievement. Although there are ways of trying to change their thinking process, it may not be successful every time. It is important that we encourage our children at an early age and show them that hard work and diligence does make a difference.
Exercise \(1\)
1. A student that believes he will get good grades if he works hard and studies has an/a
a. internal locus of conrol
b. external locus of control
c. locus of control
d. strong self esteem
2. A student that fails a test and says it was the teachers fault is said to have an/a
a. internal locus of control
b. external locus of control
c. locus of control
d. low self esteem
3. Caleb is a third grade student who constantly says he cannot do the work, that it is too hard, and refuses to complete his tests would most likely have an/a. locus of control
a. locus of control
b. internal locus of control
c. low self esteem
d. external locus of control
4. Andrea is a fifth grade student who just failed a test. Andrea says to herself that she has to study more next time and try harder. Andrea has an/a. locus of control
a. locus of control
b. external locus of control
c. internal locus of control
d. high self esteem
Answer
1. a
2. b
3. d
4. c | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/14%3A_Instructional_Assessment-_Involving_Students_in_the_Assessment_Process/14.01%3A_What_is_locus_of_control.txt |
By: Jessica Coleman
Learning Objectives
1. Students should be able to identify processes that classify self-regulated learning.
2. Students should be able to recognize the effective strategies of becoming a self-regulated learner.
3. Students should be able to classify the six dimensions of being a self-regulated learner.
Introduction
Technology has brought our society a long way. College students use to attended regular classes on campus in classrooms with the teacher lecturing right in front of them. Technology has brought us so far that college students these days are able to sit at home in their pajamas and take their college classes at online. There are more and more Distance Learning Programs being offered each year from a wide variety of colleges. Many students are choosing to take online courses these days because it allows them more time to complete other tasks, while still working on their education. Online classes is an excellent way for students to obtain their degree. Students that decided to pursue online class must be self-regulated learners. When students are taking online classes there is no teacher in front of them stressing how important it is to stay on target and complete task on time. Students must be organized and motivated to complete their class work on time, therefore students must be self-regulated learners. Self-regulated learning refers to the processes by which individual learners attempt to observe and organize their own learning (Motivation: Self-Regulated Learning, 2009).
Students as Self-Regulated Learners
When we hear the word self-regulated learners we automatically think of students. Did you know that students at almost any age are capable of taking charge of their own learning. The fact that almost all people are capable of self-regulation does not mean that they actually take effective charge of their own learning (Self-Regulation of Learning, 1992). Students have the choice of being a self-regulated learner or not. When taking a distance learning course students can organize a schedule so that they know they will complete their assignments on time. Students can also but their assignments off and be procrastinators instead of self-regulated learners. Students that are self-regulated learners develop more effective strategies to help them with their learning task (Self-Regulation of Learning, 1992).
Note
When faced with a learning task, self-regulated learners typically do the following:
1. They begin by analyzing the task and interpreting task requirements in terms of their current knowledge and beliefs.
2. They set task-specific goals, which they use as a basis for selecting, adapting, and possibly inventing strategies that will help them accomplish their objectives.
3. After implementing strategies, they monitor their progress toward goals, thereby generating internal feedback about the success of their efforts.
4. They adjust their strategies and efforts based on their perception of ongoing progress.
5. They use motivational strategies to keep themselves on task when they become discouraged or encounter difficulties.
Six Dimensions to being a Self-Regulated Learner
There are many other points of views on self-regulated learning and how it relates to students using technology. One view is that students who are active and take control of their own learning at any age level or in any learning situation perform better and achieve better results. Students that already use these tactics must nurture them. Students who have the skills must develop them to be more successful (Self Regulated Learners and Distance Education Theory, 1997). Students in the distance education program will be more successful if they have developed this style because they are more involved in the decision-making that occurs. Technology allows students to take control of their own learning (Self Regulated Learners and Distance Education Theory, 1997). There are six dimensions to being a self-regulated learner which include:
1. Epistemological beliefs: a person's own understanding of their system of knowing. Knowing about this gives a person the ability to see where they fit into learning or how it influences them. It also influences confidence. The more the learner understands about a particular situation the more success they will experience. Pre-tests or pre-instruction discussion can heighten this awareness.
2. Motivation: The will to learn or get better at learning has to come from internal or external motivation. In the case of the self-regulated learner this motivation comes from recognizing the importance of the task at hand and through personal development.
3. Metacognition: Knowledge about cognition and awareness of one's own thinking and learning. This fits with the use of learning strategies. The student must know what tools they have in the toll box and how well they use them. This creates a more active involvement on the part of the learner as they have to asses the situation based on their own abilities and use the learning skills that they see as appropriate or successful.
4. Learning strategies: Strategies the learner is aware of and how they utilize them. Students need the skills to handle various learning situations. This means a shift from content. To skill development. Giving the student a system of strategies and helping to develop them is a major step towards creating self-regulated learners.
5. Contextual sensitivity: The ability to understand a particular learning situation and how to identify the problem and solve it. This skill can be developed by shoeing the learner how to identify problems. Learners who do not know what they are being asked to solve will never achieve success. They may not know To look for clues or important information contained in the question. Working through examples will build this skill. Have part of the solution to each problem be the identification of what is being asked for.
6. Environmental utilization/control: Use of external resources to achieve solutions. Personal experience and knowledge can add to a person's ability to reach a solution, Learners should be taught to broaden their view of learning to include other resources. Oftentimes events or items we see are not being related provide us with valuable assistance.
Self-Regulation Learning Example
Self-regulation involves developing key processes, setting goals, time management, learning strategies, self-evaluation, self-attributions, seeking information, and important self-motivational beliefs (Becoming a Self-Regulated Learner, 2002). I will provide an example of self-regulated learning to help everyone understand how it effects students in everyday life. The link listed below gives a descriptive example of a self-regulated learning experience.
This link that provides a vivid example of how to become a self-regulated learner: http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0NQM/is_2_41/ai_90190493/?tag=content;col1
In the example that was presented in this link we are told about a high school student named Tracy who is obsessed with MTV. We are told that she has a very important mid-term math exam coming up in the next two weeks. In this example we are told that she has begun to study for mid-term while she relaxes herself by listening to popular music. Tracy has not set any study goals, she just tells herself to do as well as she can on the test and she will be pleased with that. She uses no specific learning strategies for condensing and memorizing important material and does not plan out her study time. By not having a specific learning strategy Tracy ends up cramming before the test for a few hours. Tracy attributes her learning difficulties to an intrinsic lack of mathematical ability and is very defensive about her poor study methods. She does not ask for any help from others because she is afraid of “looking stupid” in front or her peers. She finds studying to be anxiety-provoking, has little self-confidence in achieving success, and sees little intrinsic value in acquiring mathematical skill (Becoming a Self-Regulated Learner: an overview, 2002).
This example shows us what happens when students are not self-regulated learners. This is an example of what happens when students do not take the time to organize their materials and set goals in order for them to succeed in their studies. This is a perfect example of a procrastinator. Tracy put off studying for her mid-term and she ended up cramming right before the big test and did not do so well. We find that when we put things off, such as studying we do not do so well when it comes time to take the test. This is a perfect example of what happens when students are not self-regulated learners. By reading this example students should learn from Tracy’s mistake and learn how to become a self-regulated learner. If students would become self-regulated learners, cramming before a test would never happen. This is a ideal example for students to read before taking any course. They should realize that they have to be self-regulated learners in able for them to succeed.
Conclusion
After reading all of this important information on self-regulated learners in the distance learning program we should now realize how important it is to be a self-regulated learner. In able for every person to achieve in school they need to be self-regulated learners. Students need to realize that in order to do well in their college classes they need to set goals, maintain time management, develop learning strategies, seek information, and the most important have self-motivational beliefs. If students are self-regulated learners they will exceed in anything they put their mind too. I believe that distance learning programs are great for self-regulated learners and I hope that these programs will encourage more students to be self-regulated learners. Always remember, “Learning is not attained by chance, it must be sought for with ardor and attended to with diligence” (Learning Quotes, 2009).
Exercise \(1\)
1. There are six dimensions of being a self-regulated learner. Here are five dimensions: Epistemological Beliefs, Metacognition, Learning Strategies, Contextual Sensitivity, Environmental Utilization/Control. Which dimension is the missing?
A. Time Management
B. Motivation
C. Self-Evaluation
D. Setting Goals
2. The first step self-regulated learners typically do when faced with a learning task is
A. They begin by analyzing the task and interpreting task requirements in terms of their current knowledge and beliefs
B. They monitor their progress toward goals, thereby generating internal feedback about the success of their efforts
C. They set task-specific goals, which they use us a basis for selecting, adapting, and possibly inventing strategies that will help them accomplish their objectives
D. They use motivational strategies to keep themselves on task when they become discouraged or encounter difficulties
3. Matthew is studying for his final exam in English which is two weeks away. What skills should he use to make a good grade on his final exam?
A. Set goals for himself
B. Study with other classmates
C. Time management
D. All of the above
4. Ashley has a Science test coming up in five days. Ashley is not doing so well in her Science class. Which choice would not help Ashley do well on her Science test?
A. Ask her peers to help her study
B. Motivate herself by setting attainable goals
C. Manage her time each day so she will have adequate time to study
D. Watch her favorite TV program every night
Answer
1. B. Motivation
2. A. They begin by analyzing the task and interpreting task requirements in terms of their current knowledge and beliefs
3. D. All of the above
4. D. Watch her favorite TV program every night | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/14%3A_Instructional_Assessment-_Involving_Students_in_the_Assessment_Process/14.02%3A_What_are_the_benefits_of.txt |
by Elizabeth Donoghue
Learning Objectives
• The reader will be able to explain the benefits for students who set goals and monitor their learning.
• The reader will be able to list strategies to help students set goals and monitor their learning.
Introduction
It’s a teacher’s dream: curious students, motivated to learn, are each reveling in their own progress. Rewind to a common scene where students are daydreaming, heads on desks, while a teacher is expounding on the importance of knowing the dates of Civil War battles. How can a teacher avoid inactive students and create a dream classroom with students involved in their learning? This article will describe ways to involve students in setting their own learning goals and monitoring their own progress.
The Active Learner
Rick Stiggins and Jan Chappuis (2005) from the Assessment Training Institute in Portland, Oregon, have emphasized the importance of involving students in setting their own learning goals and monitoring their own progress. “When [students] are involved in collecting evidence of their achievement, charting their growth, and setting goals for future learning, students develop insight into themselves as learners. In addition, both the achievement and their commitment to learning increase” (Stiggens & Chappuis, 2004, in Condition #4 section).
In order to begin to set personal learning goals, Chappuis suggests having students ask themselves, “Where am I going? Where am I now? and How can I close the gap?” (Chappuis, 2005, p39). Chappuis (2005) suggests seven strategies to help teachers create assessments that help students learn:
• 1. "Provide a clear and understandable vision of the learning target.
• 2. Use examples of strong and weak work.
• 3. Offer regular descriptive feedback.
• 4. Teach students to self-assess and set goals.
• 5. Design lessons to focus on one aspect or quality at a time.
• 6. Teach students focused revision.
• 7. Engage students in self-reflection and let them document and share their learning."
(Chappuis, 2005, pp. 40 – 42)
Setting Goals
Having students set their own goals is easier said than done. In fact, many students find it difficult to set their own goals. McDevitt et al. (2008) found that middle school students wanted help setting goals that were not too easy and not too challenging. Schleomer and Brenan (2006) also found that college professors needed to guide college freshmen in setting goals that contained the right amount of challenge.
Rather than assume that students know how to set goals, Rader (2005) suggested that schools teach students exactly how to set goals. “Schools are labeling record numbers of students as attention deficit disordered (ADD), because those students are unable to focus, and yet the schools spend virtually no time teaching those students how to focus. Because goal setting is a crucial skill for success, it needs to be introduced” (Rader, 2005, p. 123).
Note
"Goal Setting for Students and Teachers: Six Steps to Success"
• 1. "Choose a specific goal and write it down.
• 2. Decide a time when your goal will be achieved.
• 3. Develop a plan to achieve your goal.
• 4. Visualize yourself accomplishing your goal.
• 5. Work hard and never give up.
• 6. Self-evaluate."
(Rader, 2005, pp. 124 – 125)
Tips and Ideas for Goal Setting and Self-Monitoring
Here are a few ideas which may help teachers guide students in setting goals and monitoring their learning:
• Give the students a list of the school’s established learning targets, so each can choose one as his or her own current goal. (Schloemer, 2006)
• Use a traffic light concept to let students indicate how much help they need. Green = I’m going along fine … Yellow = I’m a little confused … Red = I’m stuck. (Chappuis, 2005).
• Have the students list their strengths and what they need further work on before they turn in an assignment, so that they will be monitoring their own learning (Chappuis, 2005).
• Well before a test, have students list what they will be tested on, what they know well already, what they still feel uncertain about, and a plan for preparing for the test (Stiggins & Chappuis, 2005).
• Have students set a classroom goal, such as reading a certain number of books per month, and monitor it, in order to demonstrate goal setting (Rader, 2005).
Note
Making Math a Winning Event
“Gail is a 5th grader who gets her math test back with ‘60%’ marked at the top. So her losing streak continues, she thinks. She’s ready to give up on ever connecting with math.
… But then her teacher distributes another paper – a worksheet the students will use to learn from their performance on the math test. … Column one lists the 20 test items by number. Column tow lists what math proficiency each item tested. The teacher calls the class’s attention to the next two columns: Right and Wrong. She asks the student to fill in those columns with checks for each item to indicate their performance on the test. Gail checks 12 right and 8 wrong.
The teacher then asks the students to evaluate … if they made a simple mistake … or if they really don’t understand what went wrong. Gail discovers that four of her eight incorrect answers were caused by careless mistakes that she knows how to fix. But four were math problems she really doesn’t understand how to solve.
Gail discovers that all of her wrong answers that reflect a true lack of understanding arise from the same gap in her problem-solving ability: subtracting 3-digit numbers with regrouping.
The teacher then provides differentiated instruction to the groups focused on their conceptual misunderstandings. Together the class also plans strategies that everyone can use to avoid simple mistakes.
When that work is complete, the teacher gives students a second form of the same math test. When Gail gets the test back with a grade of 100%, she jumps from her seat with arms held high. Her winning streak begins”
(Stiggins, 2007, “Scenario 2” from Stiggins, Arter, Chappuis, & Chappuis, 2004).
Explanation
In this scenario, Gail initially received only a letter grade as feedback for her test. However, the teacher has Gail evaluate her performance on the test, and categorize the type of math concepts she understands well and those she needs more help with. She then sets a goal based on the results of this test, and determines the concept she needs more help with and also that she needs to beware of careless errors. Focused teaching then helps Gail to get the extra instruction she needs. On the next test, Gail shows that she has met her learning goals.
Evaluation
Gail’s experience with math testing and instruction is a good example of helping students to set goals and monitor their own learning. The teacher has guided her to evaluate her test so she knows which skills she has mastered and which she still needs work on. She has set a goal for learning a math concept based on this evaluation, and she has focused her learning, with the teacher’s guidance, on her weak areas. The second test allows for a new assessment of skills. Hopefully, as the year goes on, Gail will be able to evaluate her performance with less guidance from the teacher and will continue to set goals on her own.
To improve this scenario, the teacher could include a chart of some kind to help Gail monitor her learning over time. In addition, starting the year out with Rader’s (2005) goal setting skills training would help the students understand the process of goal setting more completely.
Conclusion
By including goal setting and self-monitoring in the daily classroom routine, a teacher can create a learning environment that increases student involvement and motivation. (Stiggins & Chappuis, 2005) It is interesting to note that throughout this process, students continue to set new goals frequently as they monitor their own learning. Teachers and administrators need to be familiarized with student goal setting and self-monitoring so that they can use it and intentionally teach it to their students (Stiggins, 2007). Once students begin to use this method, they will become more in charge of their own learning.
Exercise \(1\)
1. What is NOT an expected benefit to students who set goals and monitor their own learning?
a. The students will achieve more.
b. The students will be more motivated.
c. The students will get A’s on all tests.
d. The students will understand their learning needs.
2. Which is a strategy will help students to understand what their learning goal is.
a. Give the students a report card each semester.
b. Provide examples of strong and weak work.
c. Remind the students about the test at the end of the chapter.
d. Tell the students what mistakes they made.
3. Mrs. Tiggs teaches 1st grade. She notices that the students are not remembering new reading words she has taught. She wants to motivate them to practice their new reading words so they will retain them better. What can she do to motivate them to work hard on the goal of learning the new words?
a. Give A’s on the report card to students who learn their words.
b. Keep reading the same stories until they learn the words.
c Let students add their words to a poster when they can read them to the teacher 5 times.
d. Send home letters to the parents of students who are not learning their words.
4. Ms. Nelson is the principal of a middle school who wants to motivate her students to learn. Her teachers complain that the students seem to do fine on homework, but do not seem to master the material for the test. What strategy would she NOT suggest to the teachers.
a. Guide the students to list what topics they need more study on.
b. Have the students chart their progress on practice tests.
c. Keep students after school if they fail the final test.
d. Teach the students to set goals.
Answer
1. c
2. b
3. c
4. c | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/14%3A_Instructional_Assessment-_Involving_Students_in_the_Assessment_Process/14.03%3A_How_can_we_help_students.txt |
by Courtney Townsend
Note
• Be able to clearly define assessment.
• Explain how student-involvement is beneficial towards the assessment process.
Introduction
As aspiring teachers, it can be a bit unnerving to determine the best way of evaluating and testing our students adequately. With student involvement, the assessment process can be geared towards meeting the needs of students. In early elementary school, input from younger children helps teachers form assessments that help to evaluate their student's strengths and weaknesses in order to adjust their teaching methods for their class.
What is assessment?
Assessment is an evaluation that can test what students have retained not only after they were introduced to the information but also while they are learning the information. The University of Northern Iowa's Higher Learning Commission explains assessment in a more in-depth manner:
“Assessment of student learning is a participatory, iterative process that:
• Provides data/information you need on your students’ learning
• Engages you and others in analyzing and using this data/information to confirm and improve teaching and learning
• Produces evidence that students are learning the outcomes you intended
• Guides you in making educational and institutional improvements
• Evaluates whether changes made improve/impact student learning, and documents the learning and your efforts" (UNI, 2006).
All of these key points influence what it takes to form a well-devised and efficient learning assessment.
How should teachers integrate assessment into the classroom?
Choosing the best way to evaluate students and choose an assessment FOR learning can sometimes take a lot of trial and error. It can be challenging at times to devise a way of testing a student's application of knowledge and not just test knowledge itself. This can be avoided using performance-based testing which, according to the online-journal, Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, "require individuals to apply their knowledge and skills in context, not merely completing a task on cue" (Brualdi, 1998). Some teachers get nervous about using performance-based assessment because they are nervous about the affects of letting students do activities while they are learning, rather than waiting at the end of a lesson to do testing. For those who are skeptical, this advice is given: "The key for the instructors is to understand how the process works, take some precautionary steps to smooth out the bumps, and wait out the inevitable setbacks until the payoffs start emerging" (Brent & Felder, 2006). In order to try integrating assessment, it is best to consider how well you think your students will react and choose an activity that will best suit their needs as a whole.
Note
There are some things that you must take into account before you choose the activity: time constraints, availability of resources in the classroom, and how much data is necessary in order to make an informed decision about the quality of a student's performance (Brualdi, 1998).
How can student-involvement be used in Elementary School?
For young elementary school students, using tests that assess only their knowledge of what they have learned can sometimes cause students to memorize what they have learned rather than use what they have learned in a task. It can be very rewarding to have their input when it comes to devising an appropriate performance-based assessment. Teachers can gain input of what their students wish to try for an assessment by taking surveys of their opinions or simply having them raise their hands and vote on different options for assessment. Especially for young elementary-age students, it is important for them to have clear and concise instructions so that they will know what is expected of them and be able to participate appropriately.
Assessments can be formal or informal. Getting a students input concerning rubrics can be a great way for them to know ahead of time what they need know or pay attention to if they participate in the rubric-making process. According to Amy Brualdi, "You can engage students in this process by showing them examples of the same task performed/project completed at different levels and discuss to what degree the different elements of the criteria were displayed" (Brualdi, 1998).
Conclusion
When it comes to assessments for elementary school students, it is always best to experiment with different ways in order to find the best one for you and your students. It is always helpful and beneficial to get your students' opinions in order to hear their desires for their ideal performance-based assessment. Letting students be a part of your work is a rewarding way of getting to know them better in addition to seeing them shine throughout tasks that they are given.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Which of the following do assessments NOT achieve?
A. Engages you and others in analyzing and using this data/information to confirm and improve teaching and learning.
B. Provides data/information you need on your students’ learning.
C. Critique every mistake a student makes.
D. Produces evidence that students are learning the outcomes you intended.
2. What factors help a teacher choose an appropriate activity for an assessment?
A. time constraints
B. availability of resources in the classroom
C. how much data is necessary to evaluate a student's progress
D. all of the above
3. A student who is completing an activity that shows what they have learned is doing which of the following?
A. performance-based assessment
B. formal assessment
C. informal assessment
D. summative assessment
4. Involving students in the assessment process is beneficial to their learning.
A. true
B. false
Answer
1. C
2. D
3. A
4. A | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/14%3A_Instructional_Assessment-_Involving_Students_in_the_Assessment_Process/14.04%3A_How_can_early_elementary.txt |
By: Erica Corbett
Learning Objectives
• Readers should be able to identify the differences between a formative assessment and a summative assessment.
• Readers should be able to discuss the effects of different techniques of formative assessment used for assessing middle school students in a diverse environment.
Introduction
When most people hear of assessments, the first kind of exams they would think of is those that will test a student’s knowledge of a subject. However, that is not always the case. Assessments are used not only to test one’s knowledge of a subject, but to track how far along a student is, how far they need to go, and how to get to their optimal destination. In this article one will identify different assessment types and different assessment techniques used for children at the middle school or upper elementary level.
Summative vs. Formative Assessments
There are two major types of assessments, summative and formative. According to Creating Literacy Instruction for All Students, “Summative assessment summarizes students' progress at the end of a unit or a semester or at some other point in time”. Statewide exams such as the SOLs are considered summative exams because it assesses the student’s knowledge and occurs after the student has learned the required materials. This kind of exam is used for accountability purposes. This holds the student, teacher, and even the state accountable for progress of the student. An example of a summative exam can be found here http://www.virginiasol.com/test/1861.htm.
Formative is the other type of assessment. Formative assessments occur while learning is still going on. According to Creating Literacy Instruction for All Students, “Formative assessments can be powerful and is especially helpful for struggling learners.” This kind of exam helps the student and teacher prepare for summative exams. Examples of formative exams include, practice quizzes, essays, and rough drafts. This allows the student and teacher to track progress and to correct mistakes. One major difference between summative and formative assessments is the notion of feedback. Feedback, which is very vital for formative assessments, is very important concerning student growth. This is very important because, it allows the student to become more aware of where they are, how far they need to go and what it takes to get there.
Formative Assessment Techniques for Middle School Students
Note
The increased diversity in the nation's classroom has prompted much attention to the challenges associated with educating multicultural, multilingual student population
- D. Darling and H. Hodges
As the country becomes more diverse, the types and the deliverance of assessments have become very important for instructors, especially at the middle school level. The teacher would not only have to focus on how to deliver the lesson to English speaking students from similar backgrounds, but also to those who do not speak English from very different backgrounds as well.
Barbara Allison and Marsha Rehm, both conducted a study within the Florida school system to determine what kinds of assessments are highly effective in diverse middle school classrooms. The state of Florida was chosen as the model for diversity within the school system because, 50% of students within the school system are members of an ethnic minority group(www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/36/29/23.pdf) According to the study, visuals, cooperative learning, and peer tutoring were considered highly effective methods of formative assessments for the Floridian teachers. Visuals are considered highly effective because it is a “universal language” regardless of background or language. Anyone can understand what an apple looks like or what numbers can entail. This is a perfect example of how formative assessment is universal for all students regardless of background.
According to Saravia-Shore and Garcia, Snowman and Bieler, the peer tutoring strategy within a diverse setting is “very effective when two students from different backgrounds are paired together” . This and the cooperative learning strategy are very effective because the students have to depend on each other to get ahead. This will entail the students to understand their differences and for non English speaking learners, to break the language barrier.
Conclusion
Formative Assessment techniques are very important within the classroom. As the country becomes more diverse, these kinds of assessments have accommodate every student in the classroom regardless of background or English level capacity.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Which of the following is considered a summative assessment source?
a) Rough Drafts
b) Statewide Exams
c) Practice Quizzes
d) Essays
2. What is the use of a Formative Assessment?
a) to track the progress of the student
b) to assess what the student has learned at the end of the year
c) to prepare for the summative exam
d) both a and c
3. Ms. Thompson decides to use the method of peer reviewing to emphasize the notion of correct grammar in her class. According to the article, which pairing would be most effective?
a) an English student with another English student
b) a non speaking English student with an English student
c) a non speaking English student with a non speaking English student
4. After the peer review exercise, Ms. Thompson decides to use a technique that is "universal" to every student regardless of their background? Which technique should she use?
a) peer review
b) cooperative learning
c) visual aids
Answer
1. b
2. d
3. b
4. c | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/14%3A_Instructional_Assessment-_Involving_Students_in_the_Assessment_Process/14.05%3A_How_can_upper_elementary.txt |
by: Dbrod001
Note
Effective instruction depends on sound instructional decision-making, which, in turn, depends on reliable data regarding students’ strengths, weaknesses, and progress in learning content...
(National Institute for Literacy, 2007, p. 35)
Learning Objectives
• The reader will be able to identify different forms of assessment in a high school setting.
Introduction
One of the biggest tasks high school teachers undertake is to successfully assess their students in a manner that is helpful to both students and professionals. The problems with achieving this goal include differing opinions on what kinds of assessments offer better feedback for students and teachers, and which forms of assessments more accurately test students. The main focus of the argument is the two different forms of assessment: summative and formative.
Assessing the Student
Summative vs. Formative
One side of the argument is summative assessment, with the focus being mainly on formal tests such as standardized tests, final exams, chapter tests, etc. These types of tests are usually given at the end of a certain period, and the student is given a final grade.
A major drawback to this type of assessment is that “…they do not inform daily instructional decision-making, nor do they provide information on individual student progress” (Hall & Adams, 2007).
The other form of assessment is formative – a more informal way of testing student knowledge by means of peer reviewing, practice quizzes, class surveys, etc. Formal assessments are usually given so student progress can be monitored by both teachers and students before formal tests are taken.
One flaw with formative assessment is whether or not it accurately depicts what the student is retaining in the classroom. As Hall & Adams argue, “…there is still a need in our case for continued test development to determine if the high pretest scores were the result of test questions that were too easy, testing common knowledge, or testing material students have learned in a previous course” (2007)
Involving the Student
There are many different ways to involve students in the assessment process. One is peer-to-peer assessment, which is when students review and critique their classmate’s work. An example of peer-to-peer assessment would be in a group setting. The class grades each other based on performance, involvement, and helpfulness, thus contributing to each other’s individual grade. In this setting, students depend on each other for their grades. A drawback might be that some students will grade with a bias, or will not be honest in their assessments.
Another way to involve students is to have them assess their own individual works. This technique allows students to see what areas they need to improve in and where their strengths lie. Again, the issue of honesty pops up when students are left to grade their own work. One way for a teacher to counter this would be to review the student's assessment and provide a reward based on their honesty.
Example
Example
The example above is a rubric used in public schools in San Bernardino County, California. It can be used both for the teacher and the students to grade each other for group presentations. The rubric assesses how well the student is prepared for the presentation, and how effective the presentation is.
Based on my research, I think this is a good example of an assessment rubric if the class were a public speaking class. Because the rubric does not specifically grade the student on how well he or she knows the course material, I do not think it is providing proper assessment and feedback for any other class.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Which of the following is NOT a form of assessment?
A. Formative
B. Instruction
C. Performance
D. Summative
2. Ms. Smith had assigned her students an essay, and offered a rubric that the essay will be graded against. When the time comes to turn in the essays, Ms. Smith informs her students that they will be grading their own work based on the rubric previously given. What form of assessment is Ms. Smith executing?
A. Formative
B. Peer-to-peer
C. Performance
D. Solo/Individual
3. What is "performance assessment"?
A. A nation-wide test that students must take
B. Students grading their own work individually
C. When students assess each other's work
D. When students are assigned group work
4. Which of the following gives the BEST example of involving students in the assessment process?
A. Collaborating with the teacher to create fun activities
B. Evaluating each other's individual effort in a group project
C. Playing games that help reaffirm the learning targets
D. Taking a cumulative exam at the end of each chapter or unit
Answer
1. (B)
2. (D)
3. (C)
4. (B) | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/14%3A_Instructional_Assessment-_Involving_Students_in_the_Assessment_Process/14.06%3A_How_can_secondary_studen.txt |
By: Brittney DeShazo
Learning Objectives
• Students should be able to identity the positive effects of peer review
• Students should be able to identify the criticisms of peer review
• Students should be able to determine a situation where peer reviews would be appropriate
Introduction
Think of all of the different ways to assess students. How many are the students actually involved in the process? Peer reviewing allows student assessment of their peer’s work. If used correctly, it can benefit the student who is being assessed, as well as the one who is doing the assessing. It is a way to provide feedback that is more reliable to the students. Students will be able to interact with one another as well a judge if an assignment meets the appropriate criteria.
Who Uses Peer Reviews?
Peer reviewing can be a way to judge students on the quality of their work. However, peer reviewing as a variety of uses in many different areas of study besides education. Many scientists and other professional use peer reviewing as a tool to help them create high quality work. According to an article published in Nature ,a weekly science journal, peer reviewing acts a filter (Nature, 2006). It can be a way to help eliminate bias, and other distracting information from a report. Even though we regularly might not think about it but, the United States Government also uses different forms of peer reviewing in many of their legislation procedures. For example, the Department of Education uses peer reviews to help identify if certain school programs are meeting the requirements of the NCLD (Standards and Assessments Peer Review Guidance, 2007). The secretary of Elementary Education reviews various plans for the improvement of educational practices in many different school systems. Sate records, test administration manuals, and school board resolutions are reviewed to make sure they meet the requirements. A board of qualified people actually sits down and reviews the results, the final results are then used for improvements in the educational system. Peer reviewing in being used in a variety of different fields as way to make sure the product is on track with the overall goal. Essentially the students who use the peer review process are doing the exact same thing as the officials who are leading our country, just on a smaller scale.
Benefits of Peer Reviews
How does peer reviewing help assessment? Well for starters, peer reviewing encourages interaction between students. It allows students to communicate and share their opinions with their peers. Secondly, more than one person benefits from the process of peer previewing. Think about it. The student, who does the assessing, learns what characteristics will make the final product successful. The one being assesses learns how to make improvements. It can essentially be a win-win situation for both parties if done correctly (Bostock, 2002). In an article by Brown, Rust, and Gibbs, provides a very nice list of all of the potential advantages of peer reviewing ( Brown, Rust and Gibbs, 1994).
Note
Potential Advantages of Peer Reviewing
• Giving a sense of ownership, improving motivation
• Encouraging students to take responsibility of their own learning, developing them into autonomous learners
• Treating assessment as part of learning, so that mistakes are opportunities rather than failures
• Practicing transferable skills needed for life-long learning, and evaluation skills
• Using external evaluation to provide a model for internal self-assessment of a student’s own learning
• Encouraging deep rather than surface learning.
All of these skills and techniques that could be learned during the peer review process are important in student development. The student will become more comfortable in dealing with criticisms. The student also has the potential to become more effective at delivering criticisms to a peer or future co-worker. Not all peer reviewing is done in the exact same way. Some peer reviewing is done on a more individual level, while others are on a more group level. Whatever method is used peer reviewing can be used an effective way of assessment.
Please click on the link provided for an example of a peer review assessment sheet that could be used in a classroom. [1]
Evaluation: This type of peer reviewing assignment would be used in a science class. I think it would be best used with middle school aged children. By that age they can handle the requirements of assessing a peer’s report. This peer review makes the student who is doing the assessing really become aware of more than just that topic of the report. He or she will also have to make sure the report meets grammatical standards. This model of how peer reviewing can be use effectively in a classroom really combines more than one subject area, which is important.
Criticism of Peer Review
Like with all things, there are two sides to this story. Just as peer reviewing has its’ supporters it also has its’ critics. As mentioned by the Nature article, peer reviewing can produce only a minimal source of quality (Nature, 2006). There is really no way making something 100%. One can find all of the errors in a particular piece or work but, there is no way it can be perfect. The same article also brings up the issue of time. The peer reviewing process can be very time consuming (Nature, 2006). One of the major criticism with this method of assessment is favoritism. It is very hard to prevent the assessor from having some skewed judgments. If the assessor knows the person who he or she is assessing, then it can lead to some misleading results (Nature, 2006). What this ultimately does is create biased results (Bostock, 2002). A study done in 1993 suggested that if the students do not have any knowledge or connection to the article they are assessing, they are more likely to score that article more honestly (Bostock, 2002).
Conclusion
Peer Review is a way to assess students, as well as to get them involved in the assessment process. Although there are some criticisms there are also some positive aspects that are helpful in the assessment process. Peer review is an innovative form of assessment. Students gain insight about their own work, while looking at examples provided by other students. If used correctly, peer reviewing can be a very reliable type of assessment.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Which of the following is not an advantage of peer reviews?
a. Encourages students to take responsibility for their own work.
b. It is easy, and does not require a lot of time.
c. Mistakes are looked at as opportunities rather than failures
d. Practicing life long evaluation skills
2. How do peer reviews act as a "filter?"
a. Allows the article to be concise and to the point
b. Allows the project being assessed to include some of the author's opinion
c. Allows the article to be filled with statistics
d. Allows the article to be read quickly.
3. Mrs. Smith decided to allow her fifth grade class to use reviews as a way of assessing her students for a history report. Sandy and James were paired together to review each others' work. James is good at grammar. Sandy is strong at determining the organization of the report. How will peer reviewing be beneficial for both partners?
a. James gets to practice hi grammar skills
b. Sandy will get a higher grade because James is able to help her with her grammar.
c. Sandy learns how to improve her grammar skills, and James gets to work on the organization of his report.
d. They do not benefit at all from using peer review as an assessment.
4. Why is it important to consider peer reviewing as a way as assessment?
a. Important issues are addressed in the reports, articles, etc.
b. To make sure that the article or assignment meets the requirements.
c. To reduce the amount of bias in a published or graded work.
d. All of the above
Answer
1. b
2. a
3. c
4. d | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/14%3A_Instructional_Assessment-_Involving_Students_in_the_Assessment_Process/14.07%3A_When_is_peer_reviewing_e.txt |
By Brittany Bowman
Learning Objectives
1. Understand what peer assessment is.
2. Understand the pros and cons of peer assessment.
Introduction
Teachers across the United States have been progressively been using more and more cooperative learning strategies. Of the many cooperative learning techniques and strategies being put to use within the classroom, teachers seem to favor one in particular: peer assessment. Peer assessment is when students evaluate the work of their fellow classmates with the best of their ability to provide helpful solutions or hints and to correct mistakes. Also, by doing so, the students are ultimately receiving an insight into their own work.
Note
"Learning is a social process that occurs through interpersonal interaction within a cooperative context. Individuals, working together, construct shared understandings and knowledge." (Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 2004)
Although students benefit from getting their work evaluated by their peers and being able to correct it before finally receiving a grade from the teacher, there is one question that still remains: can and should students grade each other's work?
Pros
There is good reasoning for those who believe that students should be able to assess one another's work. The process of peer assessment shows that it can be very beneficial and it shows that there are many advantages in allowing students to evaluate each other's school assignments.
• One of the biggest benefits to peer assessments is the fact that the students are given the chance to edit and correct all errors from the feedback given by the peer reviewer before the teacher gives the assignment a final grade (Froyd, 2002). Allowing students to 'perfect' their paper or assignment, gives the student a better chance at receiving a better grade.
• As students review their peers works, they begin to see insight into their own work. Peer editing or reviewing gives the students guided practice, which in turn, sharpens their comprehension of the material (Froyd, 2002). Also, by reading other peers' work, it could inspire new thoughts or ideas that could be used to improve their personal performance.
• To some degree, the students within the classroom gain communication skills with one another through this experience of peer assessment. Through this process, students learn how to clearly give feedback and how to effectively use and incorporate the feedback they receive (Froyd 2002).
• Time is valuable to both the teacher and the student. Grading assignments can be very time consuming for one teacher to handle. Using the peer assessment process can act as a solution to this problem. "Peer assessment affords students much more immediate and frequent feedback than one instructor can possibly provide" (Nilson, 2003). Having enough time to correct the mistakes is key and the whole reason why peer review or assessment exists in the first place.
Cons
Those with opposing viewpoints have an entirely different perspective on how ineffective peer assessment could potentially be for the students. There are many reasons how this cooperative learning strategy could work against itself and not give the students the proper feedback necessary for improvement.
• Emotions and loyalties play an immense role in how peer assessment, which seems to be a perfectly suited process, can worsen or even fail. Students assigned to evaluate a close or faithful classmate, might be very hesitant or cautious to provide essential feedback needed to fix the mistakes, in fear of hurting their friend's feelings. On the other hand, students assigned to evaluate a classmate that they dislike, might cause the peer reviewer to be more harsh than helpful (Nilson, 2003). In this case, the peer assessment process would backfire and would ultimately cause more work for the teacher.
• Students acquire knowledge at different rates and process the knowledge on different ability levels. Students that are at lower ability levels may not be able to contribute proper feedback that could be used beneficially (Nilson, 2003).
• Other students might not put forth enough effort or as much effort as their fellow classmates, which would put the work being evaluated at a disadvantage (Nilson, 2003). These students could make careless mistakes while trying to fix the current mistakes.
Conclusion
Peer assessment can be very beneficial for both the teacher and the student when the proper guidelines are provided. If the students evaluate each other's work with their best ability, then the students are able to get the feedback that they need with enough time to fix the errors before the assignment is given a final grade by the teacher.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Which of the following is not considered a benefit of using the peer assessment process?
a. Peer assessment gives the students enough time to fix the errors.
b. Peer editing gives the students practice which can sharpen their comprehension.
c. Students learn at different ability levels.
d. Students see insight into their own work.
2. Why do emotions and loyalties play an important role?
a. Students assigned to evaluate a classmate that they dislike, might cause the peer reviewer to be more harsh than helpful.
b. Students assigned to evaluate a close or faithful classmate, might be very hesitant or cautious to provide essential feedback needed to fix the mistakes.
c. The students do not put forth enough effort.
d. Both a and b
3. Grading papers can be very time consuming and Mr. Fuller recently assigned his class a research paper, where the students have to choose a battle taken place during the civil war. The assignment is worth 40% of the students' overall grade, and the students are expected to do their absolute best. How should Mr. Fuller go about to make sure the students get proper feedback before submitting their paper in for a final grade?
a. He should only give the students a rubric and let them figure the rest out on their own, hoping for the best.
b. Mr. Fuller should give all the students A's, which reduces time and the students will benefit by getting a good grade.
c. Peer assessment can be used being very beneficial for both the teacher, which reduces the time needed and to the student when the proper guidelines are provided.
d. Since time is so valuable, instead of taking the time to give the students grades, Mr. Fuller decides to grade based on the grades given to the students on past assignments.
4. Billy's mom is a single parent that works two jobs to make ends meet. As a result she spends most of her time trying to make enough money to pay the bills and little time at home. Billy has been doing all his work, but because he lacks a parent to review over it before submitting it, errors are not found or fixed. Billy's teacher, Mrs. Powell, has noticed that his grade is suffering and wants to try to help. What should Mrs. Powell do?
a. By allowing time in class for students to assess each other's work, Billy would be able to fix the errors before submitting it for a final grade.
b. Call Billy's mom and complain about how she is being a bad parent.
c. Ignore Billy's situation because she thinks that it is rude to intrude in his home life when it is none of her business.
d. Mrs. Powell should do nothing, which could result in Billy failing the class and end up having to take it over again.
Answer
1. C
2. D
3. C
4. A | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/14%3A_Instructional_Assessment-_Involving_Students_in_the_Assessment_Process/14.08%3A_Can_and_should_students_.txt |
BY: JENNIFER SCARCE
Learning Objectives
• Readers will be able to identify why grades benefit students.
• Readers will be able to identify why grades benefit teachers.
• Readers will be able to identify negative impacts of grades.
SAMPLE ASSESSMENT IN READING FOR GRADE 3
Link to sample assessment www.mdk12.org/instruction/assessment/sample_grade3_reading.html (Assessment Resources 2008) This is an example of a grade 3 reading assessment. There are selected response multiple choice questions and brief constructed response samples. There is also information on the question's scoring evaluation. It summarizes score, ojective of the question, what the answer should be, topic, and what type of assessment the question is. This is a great example of an effective assessment. This site has answers for any question that you may have with data analysis, user guides, instruction, and school improvement(Assessment Resources 2008).
WHERE DID GRADES COME FROM?
William Farish, a tutor at Cambridge University in England in 1792, came up with a method of teaching which would allow him to process more students in a shorter period of time. He invented grades (Hartmann, 2005). This grading system had originated earlier in the factories as a way of determining if the shoes made on the assembly line were "up to grade." It was used as a benchmark to determine if the workers should be paid and if the shoes could be sold (Hartmann, 2005). This grading method increased the salary of William Farish, while at the same time, lessened his workload and reduced the hours he needed to spend in the classroom(Hartmann, 2005). He no longer needed to burrow into his students' minds to know if they understood a topic, his grading system would do it for him. And, it would do it just as efficiently for twenty children as it would for two hundred. Farish brought grades to the classroom, and the transformation was both sudden and startling. Within a generation, the lecture-hall/classroom shifted from a place where one heard the occasional speech by a famous thinker to the place of ordinary daily instruction (Hartmann, 2005).
HOW DO GRADES BENEFIT STUDENTS?
Grades benefit students in many ways. Upon entering a new grade each year, teachers distribute their expectations and grading procedures to each student. These guidelines let students know upfront what is expected of them academically and behaviorally. Most teachers also post bad behavior consequences in their classrooms and how repeated offenses can effect their grades. This information equipts the students with the knowledge to excel or to fail. There is also an understood grading scale that is in place that remains the same from kindergarten through highschool. Assessments of skill and learning are promoted through quizzes, tests, projects, and verbal communication.
HOW DO GRADES BENEFIT PARENTS?
Grades benefit parents because it gives them an opportunity to evaluate their children's behavior and performance at school. This gives parents an opportunity to intervene if necessary to support their children and make sure that they are given every available resource if needed to succeed. A child may have learning disabilities that need to be addressed or may need extra tutoring in a subject that doesn't come as easy to them as another. Parent involvement is key to their child's success rate in school. If a child does not get the proper support from home, they will have a very hard time excelling in their education.
POINTS TO CONSIDER WHEN DEVELOPING A GRADING SCALE
1. What is the purpose for grades? (class rank, sorting, motivation)
2. What is the audience for the grades? (student, parents, colleges,employers)
3. What criteria are considered? (tests, projects, effort, attitude, homework)
4. What is the system used for grades on report cards? (letter, number, narrative)
5. How to define terminology of grading? ( an A = ?, 4.0 = ?) 6. How to communicate the system to stake holders? (conferences, meetings)
7. Is the grading system grounded in sound measurement principles? (research based)
8. Does the grading system provide valid measurement of student achievement?
9. Do the teachers need staff development on grading practices?
10. What does the grade a student receives on the report card really indicate?
(Guskey, 16)
DIFFERENT WAYS OF GRADING
Letter grades are a simple indication of learning progress (Frisbie & Waltman, 35). Their use requires abstracting a great deal of information into a single symbol. The more detailed methods also have their drawbacks. Narratives and checklists of learning outcomes offer specific information for documenting progress, but good narratives take time to prepare, and comments become standardized. Regardless of the method used, grading and reporting remain inherently subjective. The more detailed the reporting method and more analytic the process, the more likely subjectivity will influence the results (Frisbie & Waltman, 35). This principle is critical to an understanding of all grading methods because many teachers, parents, and students believe that more complicated methods are more objective than less complicated methods (40). A simple checklist describing what the student knows and is able to do is inherently more objective than a score on a standard test arrived at through a complicated method (11). Teachers often report that grades determined from their own performance testing are not as objective as grades determined from commercial tests. This assumption continues to be debated. The teacher’s determination of a student’s grade from teacher-made tests and performance checklists based on the curriculum are more reliable (11).
NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF GRADING
Many researchers, educators and parents are now questioning the purpose and effectiveness of grades. Certainly parents deserve to know how their children are doing in school, and students benefit from understanding how they are performing, but how that progress is communicated can have a great impact on how a child learns (Kohn, 1999). Alfie Kohn, author of The Schools Our Children Deserve: Moving Beyond Traditional Classrooms and “Tougher Standards” and Punished by Rewards, writes extensively about the influence of grades on learning. The research suggests three consistent effects of giving students grades or leading them to focus on what grade they’ll get (Kohn, 1999). First, their interest in the learning itself is diminished. Second, they come to prefer easier tasks, not because they’re lazy, but because they’re rational. After all, if the point is to get an A, your odds are better if you avoid taking intellectual risks. Third, students tend to think in a more superficial fashion and to forget what they learned more quickly when grades are involved (Kohn, 2000). To put it positively, students who are lucky enough to be in schools or classrooms where they don’t get letter or number grades are more likely to want to continue exploring whatever they’re learning, more likely to want to challenge themselves, and more likely to think deeply. The evidence on all of these effects is very clear, and it seems to apply to students of all ages (Kohn, 2000).
ALTERNATIVE GRADING SYSTEM
Just as you don’t need tests to learn how well each student is doing, you don’t need grades to communicate an evaluation back to the students and their parents (Kohn, 1999). You can use narrative reports, such as qualitative summaries of progress in written form, or, you can have conferences with students and their parents to discuss how things are going (Kohn, 2000). Many schools have abolished grades entirely, and these tend to be places where students are far more engaged with what they’re learning. Some high schools have done this, and their students don’t appear to be at any disadvantage when it comes to college admission. We all know that changing the education system is a long process (Kohn, 2000). While this issue of grades plays out, what can teachers do to minimize the potentially negative impact that grades have? Here are two concrete things teachers can do. First, even if they’re forced to give students a grade at the end of the term, they should avoid putting a number or letter on individual assignments. This helps to make grades as invisible as possible for as long as possible and therefore minimizes the harm they do when students are thinking about them. Second, teachers can help neutralize the destructive effects of grades and support students’ autonomy at the time same by allowing students to participate in deciding what grade they’ll get at the end (Kohn, 2000).
Exercise \(1\)
1. Who is the inventor of grades?
A. William Farish
B. Carol Stanley
C. Michael Buchannon
D. Victor Smith
2. What is considered an alternative grading system?
A. Report Card
B. Narrative Report
C. General Rubic
D. SOL
3. Johnny was assigned a science project on the life cycle of a plant. He did a diagram and turned it in to his teacher. What are some ways this project could be graded?
A. By using a general Rubic
B. By using the Standards of Learning
C. By using an outline
D. By looking it up on the internet
4. Who should decide what type of grading system should be used?
A. The teacher
B. The principle
C. The state government
D. The federal government
Answer
1. A
2. B
3. A
4. A
RESOURCES
Frisbie, D., & Waltman, K. (1992). Developing a personal grading plan. Educational Measurement: Issues, 11, 35-42.
Guskey, T. (1994). Making the grade: What benefits students? Educational Leadership, 52, 14-20
Hartmann, Tom. (2005). The World's Most Famous Lazy Teacher. www.readingrockets.org/article/5981
Kohn, Alfie. (1999) Punished By Rewards: The Trouble with Gold Stars, Incentive Plans, A's, Praise, and Other Bribes
Kohn, Alfie. (2000) The Schools Our Children Deserve: Moving Beyond Traditional Classrooms and "Tougher Standards"
School Improvement in Maryland. Assessment Resources (2008)www.mdk12.org/instruction/curriculum/reading/assessments_msa.html | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/15%3A_Instructional_Assessment-Grading/15.01%3A_Should_we_even_give_grades_What_kind.txt |
By: jroer001
Note
1. Students should be able to describe the reasons for and against allowing students to make up work or giving them zeros
2. Students should be able to identify the effect zeros have on the grades of students.
Introduction
One of the difficult decisions that a teacher must make is to determine whether they will give students zeroes for any work they are missing or allow them to make it up for at least partial credit. The purpose of this article is to examine the issues surrounding this decision to help new teachers determine which approach they will decide to take.
For Zeroes: “I’m not accepting late work”
Dana Camp, a high school chemistry teacher, says, “Every year, when the leaves turn and the coats come out of storage, the barrage of phone calls, e-mails, and parent conferences start. Although grades have been communicated numerous times during the semester, all now want to know, “What can my student do to pass the class””(Barlow & Camp, 2005)?
As a teacher myself, I have seen this same scenario take place at the end of each nine weeks at my school. There will be students who have not completed a few or many assignments who would like to have the opportunity to make up the missing work for at least partial credit versus having a zero for the assignments.
I have met many teachers at the school I work at who do not believe in accepting late work and who feel that students should not be rewarded with partial credit for turning in late work. These teachers say that even though a zero will dramatically affect a student’s average in class, that the zero is what they earned by not performing the work which was expected of them on time. I spoke with one of these teachers, David Baer, who feels that these students actually earned a zero. David Baer said, “In the real world, if you do not turn in a project done well and on time, it could cost you your job. It is important for the students to learn this lesson now rather than in the future where their livelihood is at stake” (personal communication, July 13, 2008).
David Baer also mentioned that he already “drops a couple of the lowest assignment grades, so the students who typically do their work will not be hit hard in their grade if they only miss a couple assignments”(personal communication, July 13, 2008). Due to the fact that he already drops some assignments, David feels that by “giving all students a 60% instead of a zero for missed assignments will allow students who don’t do any work to have a really good chance of passing instead of getting the F they deserve”(personal communication, July 13, 2008).
Against Zeroes: “I accept work late for some credit”
There are many teachers who believe in accepting late work from students and more importantly, they feel that teachers should not give zeroes to students.
Elderine Wyrick says, “It is common for instructors to give zeros for late or incomplete assignments. Unfortunately, few educators or parents question the validity or usefulness of the practice, and students continue to reap the consequences without benefit. Giving zeros as an academic measurement is inequitable and produces failure rather than performance.” (Wyrick, 2005)
Elderine also states that, “Grades should measure academic learning”(Wyrick, 2005). She said that getting a zero for “failing to do a homework does not reflect a student’s lack of knowledge. Such issues are behavior responses not academic. Zeros promote failure rather that the student gaining more knowledge” (Wyrick, 2005). Finally, she says, “The zero forces failure and is not an evenhanded measurement of learning”(Wyrick, 2005).
Rick Wormeli, a middle school teacher, consultant, and author, believes teachers should give students 60s instead of zeros. He says, “When we turn students’ zeroes into 60s in our gradebooks, we are not giving students something for doing nothing. We’re adjusting the grade intervals so that any averaging we do is mathematically justified. More important, in the overall pattern of grades, it presents a more accurate picture of the student’s ability”(Wormeli, 2006).
Wormeli states that “A zero has am undeserved and devastating effect on students and their grades – so much so that no matter what the student does, the grade distorts the final grade as a true indicator of mastery. Mathematically and ethically this is unacceptable”(Wormeli, 2006). To further make his point, Wormeli used a quote from Virginia Beach School Board member Emma L. Davis from the June 29, 2006 issue of The Virginian-Pilot where she said, “Consider trying to find the average temperature over five days and recording 85, 82, 83, and 86, then forgetting a day and recording a zero. The average temperature would be 67, a figure that does not accurately show the weather from that week. If those temperatures were grades, a student would fail after consistently earning Bs and Cs”(Wormeli, 2006).
Finally, Wormeli says, “At this year’s NMSA conference in Philadelphia, assessment expert Rick Stiggins made the point with his insightful reminder that we should assess for learning, not just do assessments of learning. It’s not enough to measure and report student’s mastery of standards. We have to use assessment data in ways that motivate students to learn and grow”(Wormeli, 2006).
Example
The example I have chosen to show you is a table showing the effect of a zero on a student’s grade versus giving them a 60. This example comes from Rick Wormeli’s article, “Teaching in the Middle”.
www.nmsa.org/Publications/MiddleGround/Articles/February2006/Article14/tabid/809/Default.aspx
As you can see, the table shows test scores for six tests where one test grade is a zero and the remaining five were 100%. When those are averaged together, you get an 83%. The next row shows the effect of putting a 60% in for the zero on the test average. The average with the 60% in for the zero with the five 100% is a 93%. In the Newport News Public School grading scale, this would be a difference in the student receiving a B- versus an A-.
Based on the research I have done, this is a good example because it does show the significant effect that a zero has on a student’s grades. The question is not whether a zero has a great effect on a student’s grades though, but whether or not a teacher or school system believes that this is a fair portrayal of the student’s grade due to the student not completing the work that was expected of them.
Exercise \(1\)
1. In the article “Teaching in the Middle,” Rick Wormeli states that you should replace ____________ with _______________.
a. A’s with F’s
b. F’s with A’s
c. Sixties with zeros
d. Zeros with sixties
2. According to Elderine Wyrick in the article “Is giving zeros as an academic measurement ethical,” she says that zeros promote ___________________.
a. Competitiveness
b. Failure
c. Learning
d. Success
3. One reason David Baer gave for assigning students zeroes is
a. It is easier for the teacher to grade
b. It will not really affect their grade
c. It will prepare them for the real world
d. The students were going to do bad anyway
4. A student received a 0 on one test and an 84, 92, 97, 99, and a 95 on other tests, what would their test average be?
a. 75.5%
b. 77.8%
c. 79%
d. 93.4%
5. A student received a 60 on one test and an 84, 92, 97, 99, and a 95 on other tests, what would their test average be?
a. 82.3%
b. 85.5%
c. 87.8%
d. 91.2%
Answer
1. d.
2. b.
3. c.
4. b.
5. c. | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/15%3A_Instructional_Assessment-Grading/15.02%3A_What_should_a_teacher_do_about_zeroes_and_missing_work.txt |
By: Lindsey Layne
Note
"I cannot teach anybody anything, I can only make them think.-Socrates
Learning Objectives
• The reader should be able to understand reasons why teachers allow extra credit -The reader should be able to understand different types of extra credit
Introduction
In today’s schools teachers are skeptic about whether or not to provide extra credit opportunities to their students. It is at the teachers discretion to implement this practice in their classroom. Some teachers oppose giving their students the chance to increase their grade with this option while others believe it is necessary.
What is extra Credit and how is it used?
Extra credit is an optional assignment of some sort that a student can do to boost his/her grade. Teachers can present an extra credit assignment in many ways. It could be a presentation, a paper, a book report, a visual aid and so much more. It serves more than one purpose when also used as a review for a test or lesson. Sometimes the points earned will only be added to a test or other assignment and other times teachers choose to put it towards a final grade. Usually these assignments are worth no more than 20 points, except for in rare cases. An example of an extra credit assignment could be related to a test. The teacher may not take up homework for an entire lesson on Rational equations. Completing the homework will be at the students discretion and on the day of test they can turn it in for 5 extra credit points on the test.
Optimistic view of Extra Credit
Teachers choose the route of extra credit assignments for many different reasons. Everyone has unpredictable things happen within their lives and sometimes it can impact sleep, time to study, or even being able to attend school. Extra credit can ease this stress and fill the gap.Usually teachers who believe this option is a positive thing, do it because they believe it allows for less stress on the students. If a student was just having a bad day and did not get the grade they hoped for on a test, they know that they can complete the extra credit assignment to boost their grade a little. Another reason may be for the simple experience of what the assignment entails. For example, if the option is to create a video or a power point presentation on the civil war, it would give the students some personal interaction with the subject matter. This knowledge could be beneficial when completing other assignments that involve the civil war. Lastly, a teacher may implement extra credit opportunity to benefit themselves. Some teachers believe that the grades the students receive is a direct reflection of how the teacher is doing their job. If most of a class bombs a test, the extra credit will hopefully relieve some of the worries that their teacher may have.
Pessimistic view of extra credit
On the opposing side of the extra credit issue, teachers can view this educational option as a negative thing. “Some teachers have a policy of no extra credit work. They feel that every student has the opportunity to do what's necessary and if they don't, they should experience the consequences.” (The English Teacher) They may think it gives the students an excuse not to do their best on a test or assignment. "The existence, or the hope of extra credit may induce students to prepare less carefully for exams and papers with the expectation that additional points can be earned on future assignments," (Wilson 2002.) If not all of the students choose to take advantage of the extra credit, the grade outcome can contain too much of a gap. The grading of additional assignments that only few students completed can also get very confusing and cause issues for the teacher. The “no extra credit” route can teach students the responsibility of planning for their test without hesitation. (The English Teacher.)
Closing the gap
When a teacher feels skeptic not to allow extra credit but still wanting their students to do well, they may try to result to something different to make it seem fair. Teachers may not like to allow extra credit to boost any grades but they could have a rule where if more than 70 percent of a class fails or receives below a 65 on an test, the teacher will implement a curve. This could be only for tests so that way students will not count on extra credit points and still do their best. The curve could be added in any way to try to make the class average within the passing zone.
Exercise \(1\)
1. What is the term for an optional assignment that can boost a student’s grade?
a. Curve
b. Extra credit
c. Homework
d. Test
2. If a teacher wants to implement a different route other than extra credit to boost their students grades on a test, that has stipulations and the students would be unaware until after they took the test, what would the teacher do?
a. Allow a presentation to earn 5 points
b. Throw out the test and put a 100 in grade book
c. Implement a curve to put class average above passing
d. Allow for a retake to only few students
3. According to the article which example best describes a situation that could cause a student stress
a. Parents divorce
b. at the hospital all night
c. not enough sleep
d. all of the above
4. According to article which option best describes a reason for a teacher opposing extra credit?
a. teacher doesnt feel like grading extra assignments
b. students should learn that planning ahead and studying is very important without hope of extra credit
c. the test was easy enough without offering extra credit
d. all of the above
Answer
1.b
2.c
3.d
4.b | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/15%3A_Instructional_Assessment-Grading/15.03%3A_Should_teachers_allow_extra_credit.txt |
By: Kerri May
Learning Objectives
• Understand the positives and the negatives for grading on effort.
• Understand the risks for grading on effort
• Decide for themselves what the best option is
Introduction
Envision this scenario: A young boy in elementary school struggles to keep up with his peers. He lags behind in reading, math, and writing. He tries his hardest, but he can never seem to close the gap. His teacher watches him struggle. She sees how hard he works and how much effort he puts into all of his assignments. She wishes that grading was more arbitrary and less competitive- you either pass or you fail. It breaks her heart to watch her students work so hard, only to be disappointed. And sure enough, when report cards come, she watches as his smile fades and apprehension sets in.
Not all children are equal. They learn in different ways. They think differently. Their skills and talents vary. So, then, should they all be graded on the same scale? What kind of scale? And what is fair? These are all questions that one must think about when considering the positives and the negatives of grading on effort.
The positives
Have you ever tried your best on an assignment, really gave it your all, only to get a lower grade? Have you ever studied tirelessly for a test, only to bomb it? Sure, we all have. It is inevitable. Children have varying degrees of intelligence and skills. Some are brilliant, others are just average. As teachers, it is our job to try our hardest to never classify students based on intelligence, or any other stereotypical characteristic. But we see it. We see the students that struggle to keep up, and the students who barely try and still succeed with flying colors. And it's not fair.
Therefore, some people believe that students should be graded on effort alone. Not on the quality of their work, but on the effort they put into it. Others believe that a certain percent of the grade should be effort-based. A prime example of an effort-based grading scale is the scale used at the predominantly African American Benedict College of South Carolina. According to the Office of Academic Affairs at Benedict College, the grading scale for freshmen is 60 percent effort, and 40 percent knowledge. Sophomores have a 60 percent knowledge and 40 percent effort (Swinton, D., 2004). The idea of the college's policy, called Success Equals Effort(SEE), is to "provide our students with a strong and immediate incentive to adopt the behaviors and habits that are most likely to bring academic success" (Swinton, D., 2004). They believe that in their unique setting, students are able to receive more feeback than they would in a traditional college setting, and therefore have more room to improve on their skills (Swinton, D., 2004).
Note
Check out this link for a better understanding of the way that grades are calculated for freshmen and sophomore students at Benedict College: http://www.vanderbilt.edu/AEA/CSMGEP/pipeline/06conference_files/Omari_Swinton_Presentation.pdf.
In response to an increased amount of negative press, which is discussed below, Benedict College has been forced to defend what some consider questionable practices. With so much opposition to one college, whose grading scale is not based on effort alone, it is easy to see why many public schools might fear a change. Most would not even think of challenging the grading system that has been in practice for so many years. However, many others believe that an effort-based grading scale would be very beneficial for all students.
The Negatives
Fairness and equality for all sound nice, but is it a realistic goal? Many believe that it is not. Michael Covington, a professor at the University of Georgia, strongly believes in assigning a fair letter grading scale. He reasons that the main function of grades is to act as a system of communication between the teacher and the student and between different teachers and educational institutions (Covington, 2004). The teacher assigns the student a grade that he or she earned, based on his or her performance. Everything is clear-cut and straightforward. He believes that students should understand the grading scale, know what is expected of them, and work to achieve that goal to the best of their abilities.
His second principle is very simple: "Grades measure results, not effort" (Covington, 2004). While this may sound harsh, he maintains that in many instances, we do not know how hard our students work. Observing classwork is one thing, but knowing whether students worked hard outside of the classroom is impossible. Furthermore, he adds that "grading on effort can conceal incompetence or, at best, send students into advanced courses for which they are not prepared" (Covington, 2004). Not only that, but students are given degrees based on talent, not on hard work. He reminds us that we would not want a surgeon operating on us that tried his best in college and was graded "on effort" (Covington, 2004).
Covington's Grading Scale Explanation of letter grade
A The student did as well as could reasonably be expected.
B The student’s mastery of the material has noticeable flaws but is well above the minimum standard.
C The student met the minimum requirements for the course.
D The student learned some of the material but did not meet minimum requirements.
F The student learned little or none of the material.
Walter Williams, a well-known writer with a doctorate in economics from the University of California at Los Angeles, shares a similar view. He provides his opinion regarding the unique grading scale of Benedict College in Columbia, S.C., which grades freshmen and sophomore students on a scale in which effort is weighted greater than or equal to knowledge. He reminds us that "60 percent of a freshman's grade is based on effort and the rest on academic performance" (Williams, 2004). This means that a student could receive an A grade in effort, and an F in knowledge and still pass the class with a C. The reason for this is the SEE Policy, or "Success Equals Effort" policy, advocated by the college. In fact, the school takes this policy so seriously that teachers who fail to comply with it can be fired (Williams, 2004). This is precisely what Williams discusses in article. He believes that a student without the necessary talent that is graded on effort will "fall further and further behind because he hasn't grasped the material from the earlier courses. He'll graduate only if the fraudulent grading continues" (Williams, 2004)). Basically what Williams is trying to say is that students graded on effort, especially at a college level, is completely unrealistic. It does not prepare students for the real world, where knowledge reins supreme. He belives that students attending this college will be in for a rude awakening when they graduate from college and get a real job. Furthermore, Williams believes that degrees from Benedict College may become obsolete, as employers discover the means by which their employees earned their degrees (Williams, 2004).
The Risks
Grades based on effort are nice, in theory. However, even with good intentions we have seen that it produces negative effects. Perhaps in the future, things will change. But for right now, there are too many risks involved. Here are some things that we must consider: What happens to the students who are not challenged? What if they lose interest in school, because it is just too easy? What if students who have special needs, or students who need further instruction are overlooked because they try their best? There are too many factors, in my mind at least, that prevent effort-based grading from being successful.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Which is a description of effort-based grading?
A. Students are graded using traditional letter grades A-F.
B. Students are graded using traditional letter grades A-F, with pluses and minuses.
C. Students are graded based on how hard they work, sometimes in combination with their knowledge.
D. Students are graded on knowledge, using a number scale of 1-5.
2. Which is a benefit for effort-based grading?
A. Students that may not be as gifted but try their hardest may receive good grades.
B. Students that are extremely bright are able to use their skills to help other students.
C. Inclusion students will be given opportunities to broaden their knowledge.
D. Students that do not do their work can still receive good grades.
3. Mrs. Smith's elementary school wants to implement a effort-based grading program. She is afraid that her students will suffer from this change in policy. What statement most effectively argues against effort-based grading?
A. Gifted students may not feel challenged, and lose interest in school.
B. Average students will not be able to work to the best of their abilities.
C. Inclusion students will face a disadvantage.
D. Gifted students will become much more advanced than the rest of the class, creating animosity between students.
4. Jimmy works very hard in school. He does all of his homework, studies hard for tests, and listens attentively in school. His grades are excellent. However, Jimmy does not always grasp the material as quickly as the other students, and is usually struggling. He attends a school that employs an effort-based grading scale. Jimmy's deficiencies are not noticed by his teacher. What is the most likely reason?
A. Jimmy hides his confusion and still manages to do well by copying his classmates' work.
B. Jimmy tries his best and receives an A for effort, which is most important in their school.
C. Jimmy's teacher is too busy with paperwork to notice.
D. Jimmy's classmates are all on the same level that he is.
Answer
1. C
2. A
3. A
4. B | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/15%3A_Instructional_Assessment-Grading/15.04%3A_Should_students_be_graded_on_effort.txt |
By Jsmit219
Learning Objectives
• Be able to differentiate between criterion-referenced and norm-referenced grading system
• Be able to list fair grading recommendations
• Be able to discuss varying uses of portfolios
Introduction
With the introduction and federal legislation of Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), schools now are mandated and funded to educate students with varying disabilities in a least restrictive setting possible. This requires administrators and teachers to develop appropriate grading systems to monitor students' progress in the schools. Students classified with various disabilities will more likely have an Individual Education Plan (IEP) with a set of goals for these students to achieve. In a particular class, can students with disabilities compete with other students who do not have such disabilities? Perhaps, if the grading system can be developed to account for differences and varying levels of abilities disabilites while promoting a set of goals which promote desired outcomes and habits.
Grading Systems
Svinicki (1999) discussed the two main grading systems and philosophies that are in use today. One is the norm-referenced systems in which the grades per class, for example, is distributed throughout as a bell curve with mean or average grades making up the majority of the students’ performance and few individuals performing very high or very low. In the criterion-referenced systems, there is a set amount of points or absolute quantity and the grades reflect the amount of points that students earned. The points in turn, can be translated into percentages and/or letter grades such as A for 90% or greater or F for <60%. Another form of criterion-referenced system is measured by mastery or pass/fail. In this case, a minimum standard is pre-set to measure achievement or performance. I would think some point system is still required for this type of system to calculate the performance or students' progress over time. A rubric may also be used to break down the different kinds of abilities used in the performance or activity. A rubric can be designed to work for all students of varying individual abilities.
Recommendations for Fair and Accurate Grading
University of Oregon's Teaching Effectiveness Program (TEP, 2006) recommend the following when grading fairly and accurately:
• State clear grading policies in your syllabus and go over them on the first few days of class.
• Keep accurate, numerical grades when possible.
• Give many opportunities for assessment to allow for mistakes and discourage undue pressure or stress.
• Inform students of their progress periodically.
• Give choices in terms of topics or format.
Note
"Do not overemphasize grades. Emphasize learning over grades" (TEP, 2006).
Portfolio Assessment
Due to the demand for alternative assessments, educators and critics have researched the notion of using a body of student's work or portfolio to "capture a richer array of what students know and can do... current goals for students go beyond knowledge of facts and include such things as problem solving, critical thinking, ... goals also include dispositions such as persistence, flexibility, motivation, and self-confidence" (Arter & Spandel, 2008, p. 1). Assessments should then align with these goals or "what we consider to be important outcomes for students" (ibid, p. 1). A portfolio can encourage self-reflection, especially when it is discussed verbally as a form of "oral report", thus making it instructional as well (ibid, p. 2-3). A portfolio can also be a "story-telling device", communicating a larger context of the students as represented by the works in the portfolio (ibid. p. 4).
Personal Experience and Sample Grading/Assessment
As an art therapist, I modify the program of studies (POS) of high school art curriculum to cater to the needs of my students who receive special education services for emotional disabilities. In addition, they can also have a variety of learning disabilities, ADD/ADHD, autism, Asperger's Syndrome, etc. They vary greatly in their cognitive and emotional intelligence. In their IEP's, I concentrate on their social-emotional goals such as low-frustration tolerance, minimization of impulsive behavior, appropriate language and behavior, assessment of depression, mania, etc. In any given class, I can have a mixture of students who are enrolled in Art 1, 2, 3, and Portfolio. They also vary greatly in their individual artistic abilities. My grading has to be simple yet encompass the important outcomes such as promoting a safe learning environment, creative self-expression through artmaking, mastery of techniques, risk-taking, choice-making, even house-keeping, and positive social-interactions, to name a few. Our school has a behavioral system in place called Positive Behavior System (PBS), and it emphasizes the important outcomes of respect, responsibility, and positive attitude. These outcomes emphasize the importance of characteristics like respect for self, others, and property; responsibility of their actions and ownership of their learning; and promotion of positive attitude via cooperation and positive outlook.
For these reasons, 70% of my art students' quarterly grade is based on class-participation. Every day, students can earn up to 10 points for their class participation grade. The 10 points are based on factors such as being on time to class, setting up work in a timely manner, focus on work/task, productiveness, PBS behavior as described above, and cleaning-up after themselves. Within a quarter, there are about 23 days to earn daily class participation points.
At interim and at end of the quarter, students and their artwork are also assessed on the following important outcomes or IIPP's worth 25 points each for a total of 100 points, x 2 (interim & end of quarter) for a total of 200 points per quarter. IIPP's account for 20% of quarter grades and stand for the following components:
• Initiative in starting work, which can include brainstorming ideas via thumbnail sketches or listing words in their journal-sketchbook;
• Investment or attitude and focus in their creative process;
• Problem-Solving skills - are they willing and able to explore what they don't like about their project and work in a manner to fix the problem? Or do they give up due to their low-frustration tolerance or other reasons?;
• Progress - were they able to complete or make sufficient progress on their work? Did they persevere despite some difficulties? What did they learn as a result of this?
10% of their quarterly grade, then, is based on portfolio review. For my classes, portfolio review is a way to show off all their work, to talk about their work, story-telling and summarizing their creative processes or insights about their work. Are there any particular conceptual ideas that are common in their work? Did they think their rendering was successful in trying to express their ideas and subject matter? However, if they have not been successful in the IIPP's and class participation, or are stuck in their creative process, a portfolio review can be used as a formative assessment - to examine where they have been and decide where they want to go in terms of ideas and appropriate use of materials. It is also a way to assess what "important outcomes" are lacking and to set new goals to achieve. I do not grade them on their artistic ability because this is too varying and this population is too sensitive to criticism or artistic "critique". If I thought the student was mature and confident in skills and self-esteem, I will provide oral feedback or suggestions. Otherwise, they earn total amount of points for simply participating and risk-taking, which can be a huge step for some of these students.
If attendance is an issue, including extended suspensions, they may be assigned "homework", otherwise I do not give outside assignments as this would set them up for failure. They are encouraged to do research, but this rarely happens with this group of students. This is another reason why I emphasize class participation and using studio/classtime wisely.
It seems that the research provided here does support my grading system for students I work with who possess varying levels of disabilities and abilities. I always try to give students choices in their work, whether it is the topic (subject matter for their artmaking) and format (materials used). I keep track of grades after each period or day, giving numeric grades. It is calculated using points and for my class, weighted 70/20/10. 70% for class participation works because it does not matter if my students draw like 5-year-olds or 15-year-olds. They are given clear expectations for working safely and productively in the environment of the art studio. 20% for IIPP's work, again, because it does not discrimate their level of artistic ability, but promote "important outcomes" through the creative process of artmaking and gives them some systematic feedback of their progress as well as point out their strengths and weaknesses, and help set goals for improvement. 10% for portfolio review is used both as a formative assessment and summative assessment, and gives further opportunities for self-expression.
Total earned points are turned into percentages, and then turned into letter grades for report cards according to my county's policies. I have had to fail one student last year enrolled in Art 2 due to the fact that he produced very little and he did not seem to have any interest or motivation in using the art materials. Though it was recommended that he does not pursue art for the second year, he re-enrolled into my class, having barely passed his first year. He was seemingly not upset about the grade, nor his mother, for that matter. But could I have a better grade system or perhaps a better structure of class for students like him to succeed in my class? Did my class provide him with too many choices and open-ended format? This year, he continues to pop into the art studio stating that he wishes to stay instead of going to his next class. He sits for a minute and verbalizes what (little) he did last year with fond memories. Perhaps for him, he was not interested in art so much as the positive environment within it. He was able to gain positive relationships with his peers and me, and perhaps that's what he needed the most, a sense of belonging.
Exercise \(1\)
Question #1: Which is NOT a recommendation for fair and accurate grading?
A. Emphasize learning over grades
B. Give at least 5 easy tasks to do every day
C. Give choices in terms of topics or format
D. Keep accurate, numerical grades when possible
Question #2: Which is NOT a reason for portfolio use as described in this article?
A. for comparing work with others' body of work
B. for formative and summative assessments
C. to capture a richer array of what students know and can do
D. to set goals for future work
Question #3: The grade system described above for an art studio is based on
A. assessing students for their artistic abilities
B. assessing students for their production abilities
C. a criterion-referenced grading system
D. a norm-referenced grading system
Question #4: A teacher gives her class a final exam. With the results, she sets her grades according to a bell-curve. Which grading system is she using?
A. art studio grading system
B. a criterion-referenced grading system
C. a norm-referenced grading system
D. a portfolio review grading system
Answer
1. B
2. A
3. C
4. C | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/15%3A_Instructional_Assessment-Grading/15.05%3A_Can_teachers_grade_students_of_varying_abilities_fairly.txt |
by Jennifer Peace
Learning Objectives
• To understand the definition of praise
• To understand the pros and cons of using praise
• To understand how to use praise effectively in the classroom
Introduction: What is praise?
Many teachers may concur that a productive classroom is one filled with encouragement, positivity, and praise. However, many educators are unaware of the negative effects of praise or are unskilled at praising students effectively.
Praise is defined as the "expression of approval, commendation, or admiration" (The Freedictionary). Usually, praise is given to a student upon completion of a task (Driscoll and Hitz 3). Praise goes beyond telling a student if they are right or wrong by expressing "positive teacher affect (surprise, delight, excitement) and/or placing the students behavior in context by giving information about its value or its implications about the students status" (Brophy 5). For example, it a student answers a question correctly, instead of simply telling the student they are correct, the teacher may say "Nice!" or "Yes, smart!" Essentially, a praise statement is a value judgement the teacher makes of the student.
Pros and Cons of Using Praise
Using rewards, both tangible and verbal, is a common practice in classrooms, and teachers have found success using praise as a reinforcer. In his article, "Teacher's Praise: A Functional Analysis," Jere Brophy states that "praise allows a direct statement of the contingency between the behavior and the reinforcement...in the very act of praising, teachers can identify the specific behaviors they are trying to reinforce" (7). Essentially, praise is valuable because the teacher is able to explicitly highlight the specific desired behavior.
Additionally, praise has been deemed more effective than tangible rewards when the goal is to encourage motivation. In fact, "the more abstract and symbolic forms of reward are, the more powerful they are" (Marzano, et al. 57). While it is still unclear why praise works better than tanglible rewards, it is apparent that praise can be useful in the classroom. However, according to Brophy, "the fact that praise can function as a reinforcer does not mean that it always or usually does" (Brophy 7).
Researchers are now suggesting that there are many weaknesses with praise, and that it sometimes can be more detrimental than beneficial. While the purpose of praise is to increase self esteem, often it can deplete it. When a teacher praises a student for a mundane task, the student may feel as though the teacher did not think he/she was capable of performing successfully. Also, praises like, "Great!" and "Nice!" make students feel as though they must always live up to that standard. Thus, praise discourages students from taking risks and speaking out because they fear failure (Driscoll & Hitz).
Additionally, praise is not always productive. According to Driscoll and Hitz, praise is only useful when the student cares what the teacher thinks of him. While at a young age a student might crave a teacher's approval, as the child ages this becomes less and less the case. Therefore, praises like, "Smart answer!" and "You're a genius!" only work for students who need their intelligence to be affirmed (1989). Along a related vein, when teachers use "empty" praises, or praise all students using the exact same phrase for every task completed, the praise becomes worthless; the student does not feel special or significant because the praise is general or universal and not unique (Driscoll & Hitz).
Finally, using praise as a classroom management strategy can in fact be counterproductive because it is based on manipulation. Many teachers use the behavior of a student to redirect those who are off task. For example, a teacher may say, "I like how Billy is reading his book!" or "Look how nicely Sara is sitting on the carpet with her legs criss crossed." These statements encourage conformity and will undoubtedly be met with defiance (Driscoll and Hitz). In the end, no one likes being controlled and manipulated.
Effective Praise: A How-to Guide
Despite the research suggesting that praise can be detrimental, when used effectively, praise can be advantageous. The key, according to Driscoll and Hitz in their article, "Praise in the Classroom", is to replace empty or overblown praise with statements of encouragement which "refers to a positive acknowledgement response that focuses on student's efforts or specific attributes of work completed. Unlike praise, encouragement does not place judgement on student work or give information regarding its value or implications of student status" (2009).
Effecive praise statements are those that are not exaggerated or insincere, but allow the teacher to acknowledge a student's answer and show appreciation for the student's level of effort. For example, if a student answers correctly or incorrectly, a simple "Yes, thank you" or "No, the answer is B" works to "inform the student without adding distracting emotions" (Hermin & Toth). Also, a more effective form of praise is to take the focus off of judging the student and instead place it on showing appreciation. According to Hermin and Toth in "Responding to Student Comments and Using Praise Effectively," in many situations, "I" statements work better than "you" statements. For example, instead of saying, "Awsome answer Jay! Your answer was really genius!" which "carries the tone of one person judging another," the teacher could say, "I really appreciate how well you answered that question, Jay!" This allows the teacher to "merely communicate honest, personal appreciation. It is an honest statement, not a mechanical platitude, certainly not an empty exaggeration" (2009).
Note
"I was amazed at how empty my praise had become. So often I felt vaguely dishonest. Yet, I, too was addicted to praise. It wasn't easy to break the habit. I'm getting a non praise habit, but slowly. I mainly ask opinion questions and respond with thank you's. I'm surprised how easy the shift was on students. I put the following list on my desk, and that is helping me
• Honest Appreciatives: Thank you.
• Plain corrects: Yes.
• Plain incorrects: No, the answer is...
• Spontaneous Delights: Truly felt compliments
• Praise and Rewards for All: The group did well today.
-Tom Clarence, High School History Teacher extracted from Inspiring Active Learning (Harmin & Toth)
Example Analysis
A teacher is preparing her students for the final benchmark before SOL tests. She is really trying to concentrate on getting those students who are below average and afraid of participating to speak up. She singles out one of these students to answer a question, and he gives the incorrect response. The teacher says, "The correct answer is internal conflict but that was a good risk to take on your part" and continues on to the next review question.
This is an example of an informal assessment in a classroom where the teacher is trying to determine what concepts have been mastered and which need more review time. It shows a teacher using effective praise to maintain confidence among students and encourage participation.
This is an example of effective praise because, when the student answers incorrecly, the teacher provides the correct answer and shows her appreciation for the student's bravery. The teacher has managed to take the focus off of the incorrect answer and place it on the students risk taking. Therefore, the student does not dwell on the incorrect answer, but is instead left with the confidence to try again. The student is not made to feel foolish for giving an answer that was incorrect, inferior by having another student answer the question when he could not, or weak by having the teacher give him hint after hint until the teacher practically provides the answer for him.
Conclusion: My thoughts
As with any other classroom strategy, the use of praise has its benefits as well as its weaknesses. However, if teachers use praise appropriately, there can be a positive response from the students.
Today's youth are starving for attention and will engage in positive or even negative behavior to attain it. I feel it is important for teachers to recognize the diligence and worth of their students on a consistent basis. Students must feel as though they are important and appreciated in order to constructively contribute to the classroom. To send this message, teachers should not simply dole out praise over any minimal achievement or use the same statement of praise for every task. This cookie cutter form of recognition fails to focalize on the individual worth and uniqueness of each student.
Instead, it is important for teachers to praise students by encouraging them to continue working hard and doing their best. For example, teachers should make an effort to recognize when students are working on a difficult task and commend their perseverance. Everything a child does should not be "Great!" or "Nice!" because eventually the phrase becomes monotonous and is not task specific. Essentially, praise should encourage the student to feel competent and appreciative of their own effort.
Exercise \(1\)
1. What is praise?
a. an expression of approval or admiration
b. a phrase used only when students pass a test
c. a phrase used by teachers to let students know they are upset
d. a tangible reward
2. What is one argument against using praise?
a. It can hurt students' feelings.
b. It can lower self esteem.
c. It only works when students like the teacher.
d. It only encourages motivation.
3. Mrs. Lease notices that several students are not on task and, in order to get them on task, says, "I really like how Sam is working on the problems and not talking to his neighbor." Based on what you know about using praise effectively, how do you think Sam's classmates will react?
a. They will immediately stop talking and work on their problems.
b. They will feel resentment towards Sam and continue talking.
c. They will ask for forgiveness from Mrs. Lease.
d. They will give Sam a high five on the playground.
4. A student provides the correct answer and the teacher responds with, "Yes, thank you. That was the answer I was looking for." Is this an example of effective praise?
a. No, the teacher is not specific enough.
b. No, the teacher does not tell the student how he feels about her level of intelligence.
c. Yes, the teacher judges the answer without judging the student.
d. Yes, the teacher makes the student feel smarter than the rest of the class.
Answer
1. a
2. b
3. b
4. c | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/15%3A_Instructional_Assessment-Grading/15.06%3A_Should_praise_be_given_to_students_or_not.txt |
By:Whitney Chambers
Note
"One of the great things about being recognized is that you receive this feedback from people. It is easy to see how sincere people are. It's nothing fake or jive. They're giving sincere appreciation. And it's not that easy to express.
-John Austin-
Learning Objectives
• Readers should be able to differentiate between effective feedback and ineffective feedback.
• Readers should be able to understand the importance of feedback.
• Readers should be able to identify different ways to give feedback.
INTRODUCTION
Praising a student for his or her progress, achievements, and milestones is something that often is overlooked in the classroom by teachers. Often teachers forget or do not have the time to stop and reward students with feedback that is positive and beneficial. Feedback is fundamental to learning, but opportunities to receive it are often scarce in classrooms. (Carr, 2008) Most of the time students are presented with feedback in the form of punishment. For example when a student is being disruptive, that student is the one who receives the teachers attention. This is not wrong, but the teacher should give praise to the students who are following the directions as well. Feedback is not about the praise or blame, approval or disapproval. It describes what the student did and did not do (Providing Students with Effective Feedback, 2008). As long as feedback is effective and not ineffective and teachers differentiate the two then the bridge between students and the teacher can come together.
COMMON FEEDBACK
Praising and expressing pleasure enhance the faculty-student relationship (Smith, 2008). If the student feels that he or she has a personal relationship with their teacher they will continually do what it takes to maintain that relationship. Very often, students receive grades as a feedback at the end. Along with grades teachers give effective feedback to explain why the student earned that particular grade. Often to do this teachers use rubrics and this prevents bias grading and allows students to see how he or she was graded. One study showed students preferred a rubric to paragraph-style comments to provide summary evaluations of their essays. They wanted to know both positive and negative aspects of their work. (Smith, 2008). However students need to stay on track and know that they are doing what is expected of them. Proper feedback can be done a number of ways such as teacher to student, student to student, or student to themselves.
METHODS OF FEEDBACK
Most commonly when thinking of feedback in the classroom, teachers are assumed the only ones who can give feedback. However, teachers are not the only ones who can give effective feedback. Students give themselves feedback thru self evaluations along with receiving feedback from their peers thru peer reviews. Students need to feel successful, and the feedback that they receive through both self-evaluation and peer evaluation can help them see their growth on specific task.
Students are not only the ones who benefit from feedback. Feedback is not only beneficial to students but teachers as well. One way this is done by having students evaluate their performance and thru peer review. According to author, Sonya Carr this feedback gives useful information about the quality of instruction and can guide teachers’ instructional planning and decision making (Carr, 2008). If the majority of the students feel as though the lesson taught was not as beneficial or was not clearly taught, the teacher can use the feedback to improve. Not only does it give teachers negative feedback it can show teachers what lesson students really enjoyed and found most beneficial to their learning (Carr, 2008). Teachers can gain important insights about students’ perceptions of themselves and their learning. Often students are their worst critic and this allows teachers to promote and encourage his or her students.
INEFFECTIVE FEEDBACK
Along with effective feedback students encounter ineffective feedback which hinders the learning process and cause students to “withdrawal” from the whole learning process. For instance some teachers show favoritism causing other students not to try as hard because they feel it will not matter. The student who gets all of the teachers attention often gets the sense he or she can do no wrong. Another example of ineffective feedback is teachers being too general for example “good job,” or “well done.” Teachers should be specific as to what the student has done well. This prevents the student thinking the teachers is just saying it. Teachers must understand that comments such as “good work” are not specific enough and that students need fair and honest feedback (Carr, 2008). When a teacher gives feedback at the end of a lesson, unit or activity this can be considered ineffective feedback. When feedback is done at the conclusion students cannot improve, whereas feedback given throughout the lesson the student can adjust their progress resulting in them achieving a better score. According to Academic Leadership, an online journal, not only must feedback provide a mirror to the student in terms of how his or her performance relates to the learning goal, it must also provide strategies and tips on how to achieve that goal, as well the opportunity to apply the feedback (Providing Students with Effective Feedback, 2007). If teachers clearly communicate their expectations an criteria for success from the beginning through the end to his or her students, students can begin to view the evaluations as part of the learning process (Carr, 2008).
MOST EFFECTIVE FEEDBACK
According to Professors Paul Black and Dylan William, three essential elements enhance feedback. The first element is recognition of the desired goal, secondly evidence about the present position, and lastly some understanding of a way to close the gap between the two previous essentials (Black, 1998). If teachers give criticism it needs to be constructive rather than having the student feel persecuted. Here are some examples that constitute effective feedback:
Example of clear, complete feedback: "You tie in the opening and the conclusion very nicely here by showing how the main character matured between the beginning and end of the novel."
Example of supportive feedback: "Excellent job! You really understand why the protagonist did what he did." Or, if criticism is necessary, make it constructive; i.e., "I think you might have misunderstood the protagonist's role in the story. Why not go back and re-read Chapters 3-5, and I'm sure you'll see why he made the choices he did."
Examples of poor feedback: Too-brief comments, such as "This is good." (Why?) or "You need improvement here." (Why? What kind of improvement?) Negative comments, such as "You obviously haven't grasped the material." or "My third-grader can write better than this."
Pennsylvania State University 2004
courses.worldcampus.psu.edu/facdev101/content/lesson15/lesson15_02.shtml#top
CONCLUSION
A student knows his or her potential, and has the power to make decisions as to take what is being taught and applying it. It is a greater feeling for students to know that the teacher sees their potential as well thru effective feedback. In the classroom students should be able to communicate with their teacher about his or her progress, what the student may not be doing correctly as well as praise when they do something positive. If teachers used feedback to evaluate their progress teachers can also see the progress and the difference they are making on their students.
Exercise \(1\)
1. If Ms. Smith tell tells Little Johnny that the report he turned in was good, but ask Johnny to revise his grammar mistakes, this type of feedback would be considered?
A.) Ineffective Feedback
B.) Effective Feedback
C.) Rubric
D.) Beneficial
2. An example of Effective Feedback is _____________.
A.) “The paper is to short”
B.) “Please include why you think you agree with the author, but great job with explaining the authors point of view”
C.) “Great Job”
D.) “There are many grammatical errors, please re-write this paper”
3. When should students receive effective feedback?
A.) In the beginning
B.) Throughout the assignment
C.) Towards the end of an assignment
D.) Only in a rubric after the assignment is graded
4. According to Black and Williams the third essential element to enhance feedback is ________________.
A.) Some understanding of a way to close the gap between the desired goal and present position.
B.) Some understanding of a way to close the gap between what the teacher says and what the student says.
C.) Some understanding of a way to close the gap between how the student is expected to perform and what the teacher knows about the student.
D.) Some understanding of a way to close the gap between how the teacher grades the assignment and how the rubric reads.
Answer
1. A
2. B
3. B
4. A
REFERENCES
Black, Paul and William, Dylan (1998) Inside the black box: raising standards through classroom assessment, Phi Delta Kappan. Retrieved March 20, 1998, www.pdkintl.org/kappan/kbla9810.htm
Carr, Sonya C. (2008) Student and Peer Evaluation: Feedback for All Learners. Teaching Exceptional Children, 40, No. 5, 24-30. Retrieved March 20, 2009, http://vnweb.hwwilsonweb.com.proxy.lib.odu.edu/hww/results/getResults.jhtml?_DARGS=/hww/results/results_common.jhtml.20
Providing Students with Effective Feedback . (2007) [Electronic version] Academic Leadership, 4, No. 4. Retrieved March 20, 2009, www.academicleadership.org/leader_action_tips/Providing_Students_with_Effective_Feedback.shtml
Smith, Lois J. (2008) Grading Written Projects: What Approaches Do Students Find Most Helpful? Journal of Education for Business, 83, No. 6, 325-330. Retrieved March 20, 2009, http://vnweb.hwwilsonweb.com.proxy.lib.odu.edu/hww/results/getResults.jhtml?_DARGS=/hww/results/results_common.jhtml.20
'Reader ResponseTbandy001 (talk) 19:31, 16 April 2009 (UTC) I thought this article was really informative because I never really payed attention to feedback and how effective it was until I joined the class this semester. You gave examples of common feedback, most effective feedback, and bad feedback. I think that this article was very informative, had I would have never taken this class your article would have told me everything I would need to know about what feedback is and how it works. I think all feedback is good feedback though because without any feedback you would never know what people thought of your performance. All you would have to go on is your own perspective. | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/15%3A_Instructional_Assessment-Grading/15.07%3A_What_is_the_process_for_providing_effective_feedback.txt |
Carissa Eckelman
Learning Objectives
• Identify what Differentiated assessment is
• Learn different types of differentiated assessments
• Understand the different types of learners
Introduction
There are many different types of students that teachers will encounter throughout their years of teaching. Each child has different gifts, and they also have different struggles. Teachers need to be able to identify the different types of learners that they will encounter, and how to successfully teach and give assessment to these students. The first type of students that a teacher will encounter is referred to as the "normative students." These students as referred to as by Webster is, "of, relating to, or determining norms or standards." Which in teaching means that these students can complete most tasks or assessments that are given to them. Normative students are given what are called Norm-Referenced Tests or (NRTs). These tests are defined as a type of test, assessment, or evaluation which yields an estimate of the position of the tested individual in a predefined population, with respect to the trait being measured. (Wikipedia) In this you compare one of the students to another with the results. The next type of students that a teacher could be presented with is a disabled learner. The definition of a disabled person is any person who has a physical or mental impairment which substantially limits one or more of such person's major life activities, has a record of such impairment, or is regarded as having such impairment. (Administration 2004.) As teacher this means that you will be responsible for coming up with different ways of giving assessments to these students, because they can't take the NRTs.
Different Assessments
Since you will be responsible for coming up with different ways to test students with disabilities it is important to know some ways that could really help you. First let's start with the basics. The definition of differentiated assessment is an ongoing process through which teachers gather data before, during and after instruction from multiple sources to identify learners' needs and strengths. Students are differentiated in their knowledge and skills. (Chapman and King 2004.) Since you know the definition of what differentiated assessment is you can use it towards your teaching. For instance you don't have to necessarily test students on a subject, but rather on how they are improving. Types of things to assess could be completion of tasks, ability to work with and listen to others, participation levels, respects self and others, ability to discuss, explain, make connections, debate, support opinions, infer, reason, re-tell, describe, report, predict. (About, 2009). Another way of differentiating assessment is when you have students who can't read as well as others, and you are testing say social studies, read the questions to the students. You aren't giving them a reading test, so by reading them the different questions they can actually have a chance of figuring out the correct questions.
Note
Here are some GREAT tips on how to differentiate assessment and instruction www.frsd.k12.nj.us/rfmslibrarylab/di/differentiated_instruction.htm
Two key types of different assessments are performance based assessment and portfolio assessment (Eric, 1993.). In performance based assessment you ask the students to perform tasks to evaluate certain skills. For portfolio assessment portfolios are an effective way to bring assessment into harmony with instructional goals. Portfolios can be thought of as a form of "embedded assessment"; that is, the assessment tasks are a part of instruction. Teachers determine important instructional goals and how they might be achieved. Through observation during instruction and collecting some of the artifacts of instruction, assessment flows directly from the instruction. (Shavleson 1992.)
Conclusion and Author's Opinion
So there are a lot of different ways that teachers can learn to test and instruct students with different needs and abilities. Students don't have to be given a standard 100 question multiple choice test to really prove what they know. They could be given an experiment to do or a paper to write. I personally think that every teacher should practice differentiated assessment. Since, inclusion is a huge part in almost all public schools teachers will come across students that will need differentiated assessment. From what I have seem, through observation and from other teachers, you can assess students in lots of different ways. For example, my mom, who is a second grade teacher uses differentiated assessment a lot. She reads test questions to students who wouldn't be able to read them. She also assesses them in other ways than just tests. One teacher I observed used projects to assess students. She would give them each a project after each unit. Sometimes it would be a book to make, a poster, or a brochure. By using these different ways to assess, each students get a fair chance at being able to learn and succeed.
Exercise \(1\)
1. All of the following are examples of types of differentiated assessment EXCEPT:
a. Performance Based Assessment
b. N.R.T.s
c. Portfolio Assessment
d. Debating a subject
2. What is Differentiated Assessment?
a. Figuring out different needs and skills of students and giving tests based on them.
b. Choosing which students get to take a test
c. Instead of testing, giving the students all A's.
d. Making the students all take the same test
3. You are a new teacher and want to use different assessments for every level of students. What is an example of a problem you might occur?
a. Since they are all in the same class they don't need differentiated assessment.
b. No problem
c. The students will all rebel and could hurt you.
d. You will have a long time grading them, and therefore it might not be worth making different tests for all the levels.
4. You are a teacher and want to make a differentiated assessment. What is an example of an assessment.
a. Having the students draw a picture explaining the lesson
b. Having the students take a multiple choice test.
c. Having the students do an experiment
d. Both a and d. | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/15%3A_Instructional_Assessment-Grading/15.08%3A_Should_students_have_differentiated_assessments_based_on_their.txt |
By: Amanda Burke
Learning Objectives
• The reader will identify the pros and cons of using report cards to measure student progress.
• The reader will identify alternative ways of measuring student progress.
• The reader will be able to define the School's Report Card.
Introduction
It is fifteen minutes until class is dismissed. The teacher has waited all day to hand out the item in his hand. He wanted to avoid the chaos that goes along with it, this small manila envelope containing, for some, the most anticipated and others the most dreaded thing of the school year. Report cards! The deed is done. Each student responds in a different way. Some can't open them fast enough, eager to see the list of As and check marks, but others hold it slowly in front of them take a deep breath and hope to some higher power that they somehow will not be grounded for the next six weeks. Report cards have long been the standard of communication between school and home. These reports are meant to show the students progress in the classroom, and display the grade that the student has earned in each subject. There is also usually a section that reflects the student’s motor, social, and behavioral skills as well. Some schools also use midterm reports to help students judge where they stand and make improvements to grades before the next reporting period. These report periods are usually every six to nine weeks. Educators, however, are starting to question if these reports are in fact the best way to judge a students’ progress. Some also question whether or not report cards, that are strictly grade based, are more harmful than helpful to the student. We will look at both the pros and cons to these issues, and also some alternative ways to assess student progress.
The Good
Report cards are a great way for parents to know how their child is performing in school. "The purpose of report cards is to convey information from the school to parents about a student's educational progress."(Friedman,1995)They do just that. Traditional report cards show either the numerical grade earned, or it may be converted into a letter grade: A,B,C,D,or F, with A being top performance and F failing. This serves as a great communication tool for parents. Straight letter grading can also help teach responsibility in the student. If they fail to turn in assignments or do poorly on other assessments, then this greatly affects their grades. This in turn helps teach students that they are responsible for their actions and motivates them to meet future goals. Letter grades can be assigned in many ways to help students overcome any areas of poor performance. The Association for Physiological Science discusses different types of grading to best benefit the student. These include "weighted letter grades, accumulated points, definitional assessment, median grading, or holistic grading." (Zlokovich, 2001) (Click to see more information about each style.[1]) Each of these grading styles can result in an accurate letter grade that corresponds with mastery of a state standard, and indicates if the child is showing progress. Letter grading is seen by some as the most fair way to grade. If there are a number of points available for an assignment then every student has the same chance of scoring the highest grade. This method of grading promotes accountability on the student's and parents part. Not everyone agrees that report cards are beneficial. Let's look at some of the cons associated with report cards.
The Bad
There is much concern that traditional report cards are not successfully showing student progress.There has been much debate as to whether or not teachers should award only a letter grade. Many see the act of assigning a letter grade as being inconsistent. Some teachers may assign grades based on mastery of standards, and some assign grades in comparison to other students in the class. (Francis,2006)What this means essentially is that a child may be able to deliver a particular grade for an assignment, but he may not have mastered the material. The opposite may also occur. Maybe he knows the standard but was not able to perform well enough on an assignment to earn a grade reflective of this. This lends to an unfair grading system, and no proof of improvement or ability of the students. Another problem surrounding use of traditional grades is that students and parents may not understand exactly what the grade means. (Francis,2006) They may see Cs or Ds and think their child is falling behind, but the teacher may view that student as just being slightly below average compared to other student's performance. Traditional letter grading can be too subjective. Students may earn high letter grades, but perform poorly on standards tests, such as the Virginia SOLs.(Delisio, 2007)There is also the belief that letter grading can have a negative effect on students self esteem and motivation. If they repeatedly see themselves failing or performing lower than their friends they may begin to doubt their ability. This in turn could set the student up for even greater failure, or develop a situation of learned helplessness, in which the student feels they cannot do it and will not even try. It could also foster negative competition between friends at school or between siblings at home. In stead of focusing on learning the material, the student may be more focused on trying to beat a brother, sister, or friend by earning higher grades to impress them. This,again, could be a situation where the student my score well but not retain the information given. A student may also feel pressured to perform by parents who expect nothing short of straight As. This is a learned reaction because of the tradition of report cards. The parent was expected to earn high grades when they were a child, and may not fully understand what a letter grade means in today's education system. Although communication is needed to keep parents informed, it for these reasons that traditional report cards are often considered bad. There have been some alternatives addressed to help mend these concerns and still keep parents informed with a more accurate report.
The Alternatives
Many people argue that traditional report cards are not an effective method of measuring student progress since the focus has shifted more to state standards and accountability. According to Education World, "a report card revolution has been gaining momentum in the U.S., started by state standards, and accelerated by the testing and accountability provisions of the federal No Child Left Behind Act." (Delisio, 2007) There have been many alternatives proposed to traditional letter grade report cards. Some of the alternatives suggested are age appropriate skills checklists, narratives added to traditional report cards, pass or fail grading systems, or a combination of two or more of these. Skills checklists would indicate if a student has met a state standard, or SOL. Narratives would still support a traditional report card, but would give an opportunity for teachers to prove students have improved since the last report. (Francis, 2006) Pass/fail or met/not met is simply what it states a student has either passed the subject or met the goal being graded. These types of reports could help alleviate the concerns surrounding report cards. Checklists and narrative reports take the guess work out of determining how a child is progressing. They will clearly show whether the student has met the goals established for them. Even if a letter grade still exists, a narrative could clearly explain what that grade means. Pressure to perform and low self esteem issues when a desired score is not reached could be a thing of the past for today's students. With the face of education changing, many schools have already chosen to change their method of assessing student progress. These alternative reports are appearing in more and more schools across the country. As education is changing so is the face and role of assessments. Below are some samples of different types of report cards.
Note
REPORT CARD EXAMPLES
• Click here for examples of a traditional letter grade report card.[2] or [3]
• Click here for an example of a skills checklist report card.[4]
• The above photo is an example of a Met/Not Met/Improvement report card.
These three examples show the unique differences between a traditional report card,a skills checklist that is specifically tailored towards state standards, and a met not met report. Notice on the traditional cards only the subject being graded is listed and on the skills checklist each standard is listed for that individual subject. This is thought by many to be a more effective way to measure student progress. The met/not met card simply shows that they have met the goal, not met it, or needs improvement. I consider these to be great examples of three varying types of assessment reporting.
What is the School Report Card and the Nations Report Card?
In addition to individual report cards given to students the state also issues a report card for each school and school district. We will look specifically at Virginia as an example. "The Virginia School Report Card provides information on student achievement, accreditation, safety, and attendance for the state as a whole and for individual schools"(VDOE,2008).As part of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, each state is required to meet certain federal goals and standards. Each state releases a school report card to show their progress towards these goals. The Virginia Department of Education claims it will have meet these goals when:"All children achieve high academic standards and are proficient in reading and mathematics, all children of limited English proficiency become proficient in English, all children are taught by highly qualified teachers, all students attend schools that are safe, drug free, and conducive to learning, and all students graduate from high school" (VDOE,2008). This report card is intended to show the federal government, parents of students and the public that our schools are meeting and/or working hard to meet these goals. Visit the Virginia Department of Education to search for individual schools or district report cards.[5] Another report card is the Nation's Report Card. [6](Click to visit)This a report of the National Assessment of Educational Progress, or NAEP. "NAEP reports information on student performance for the nation, states, and in some cases, urban districts in a variety of subject areas." (NAEP,2008) Not every student participates in this exam. students are selected to provide the most accurate sampling possible. There is a sampling taken from different schools and states across the nation. Students are tested in various subject areas. The intent of the NAEP is to make streamlined comparisons between states, a hard task due to the different standards each state requires. The results are compiled and published as the Nation's Report Card. This is available to the public to see where our education system stands, and can also be used by policy makers, principals, educators and teachers in decision making processes. (NAEP 2008)
Exercise \(1\)
1. What is a state school report card?
A. Assessment report of SOL given to individual students each year.
B. Final transcript given for graduation purposes.
C. State school budget report.
D. Yearly report of school's accedemic progress.
2.Which act has forced educators to reconsider the traditional report card?
A. American Reporting Act
B. IDEA Act
C. No Child Left Behind Act
D. West Coast Research Act
3.This note appears next to a C on a students report card and is an example of what: Timmy has made great improvements in the last 9 weeks. He has met each SOL for social studies, made a greater effort to turn in assignments, and has improved overall one letter grade.
A. Met/Not Met
B. Narrative
C. Passing
D. Skills Checklist
4. A met/not met type of report card would best be suited for what grade level?
A.Fith
B.Kindergarten
C.Sixth
D.Twelfth
Answer
1. D 2.C 3.B 4.B | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/15%3A_Instructional_Assessment-Grading/15.09%3A_Are_report_cards_the_best_way_to_measure_progress.txt |
by Heather Alderman
Learning Objectives
• The definition and purpose of portfolios
• Who and what is involved in the implementation process of portfolios
• The advantages of electronic portfolios
• The disadvantages of portfolios
Introduction
Educators are becoming more and more frustrated with the pressures of standardized tests and how they are used as a method of assessment. Teachers must center their instruction around these standards because they are accountable for their students’ preparation of these tests (Blackbourn et al., 2004). In the end, are standardized tests truly a justified method of measuring each student’s progress? Are there alternative approaches to assess those students who do not perform well on tests?
Portfolio-based assessment was designed as an evaluation that centers around each individual student (Blackbourn et al., 2004). The definition of a portfolio is a collection of a student’s work over a period of time. They are used as a performance-based assessment tool to demonstrate what the student is learning and to track their progress (Abrenica). They also allow the student to reflect on his or her strengths and weaknesses and then apply these skills to improve their performance (Valdez, 2001). Let’s take a more in-depth look at the structure, evaluation, and pros and cons of portfolio assessment.
Portfolio Implementation
Implementing a portfolio uses a constructivist approach because it “deeply involves the students in the task assigned to them” (Valdez, 2001, p. 1) Portfolios should be designed by both the teacher and student. Specific goals and objectives need to be set to not only reflect the teacher’s standards, but the interests and learning styles of the student (Blackbourn et al., 2004). Portfolios should not only be a collection of test results, journal entries, and homework. They should also include written reflections to accompany each entry that demonstrate the student’s knowledge, skills, and application of what they have learned (Valdez, 2001).
Electronic Portfolios
Portfolio assessment began by collecting student work samples and organizing them in folders or binders so that the teacher, students, and parents could monitor student progress. Oftentimes these portfolios can become bulky and begin to take up space. There is also the problem with documents that are too large to be kept in a folder or binder (Abrenica).
Because of the digital age we are living in, electronic portfolios, or e-folios, have proven to be more popular and practical. Information and documents can easily be scanned and stored on a computer hard drive, floppy disk, CD, DVD, or any other storage media. This method takes up much less space and can be easily accessed. An electronic portfolio provides endless possibilities, which include voice recordings of a student reading, video recordings of student presentations, and pictures taken from a Science Fair awards presentation.
Once the portfolio entries have been chosen and organized, the electronic portfolio can be presented as a slideshow or uploaded as a website. This is where creating a portfolio becomes an active learning strategy because the students are encouraged to use their creativity (Valdez, 2001). The electronic portfolios can be enhanced with sound clips, music, graphics, and pictures, thus making it more appealing to those viewing the presentation.
Note
Creating a portfolio is an active learning strategy where students are encouraged to use their creativity. -Penelope Valdez
An electronic portfolio not only encourages students to use their creativity, but also enhances their computer and technology skills. Students will be introduced to the use of computers, scanners, digital cameras, multimedia software programs, and web authoring programs. In the end, students will “feel a sense of accomplishment and empowerment by displaying, sharing and presenting their electronic portfolios to teachers, fellow classmates and parents” (Abrenica, p. 1).
Sample Electronic Portfolios These electronic portfolio examples provide entries from all subject areas on the elementary level. These are excellent examples of different types of media. Each student created their own personal website that reflects their personality. While I thought these were creatively and visually excellent electronic portfolio examples, I was disappointed that not every entry provided a personal written reflection from the student. I think a written reflection should be a requirement for every portfolio entry so that the students can analyze and reflect on their strengths and weaknesses.
Portfolio Assessment Example
Penelope Valdez is a seventh grade science teacher in Los Angeles, California. She requires her students to turn in monthly portfolio entries so that by the end of the school year they will have a total of ten entries in their portfolio. Her students may choose any of the topics covered during the given month and do the following:
“State and explain in detail what concept they have learned. Students should write this section in their own words, and it should be about a page long. Statements should always begin with “I learned that . . . ” or “I learned how to . . .” Some examples include: I learned that high blood pressure afflicts African Americans more than people from other ethnic backgrounds; I learned that HIV is called a genetic disease, not because it is a disease transmitted by inheritance, but because it is a disease that afflicts DNA, which is the building blocks of our genes; or I learned how to use, handle, care, and store microscopes properly. . Create a product applying the concept they have learned with the purpose of presenting the science concept in an easy-to-understand way. For example, students could make a family tree showing incidence of high blood pressure among relatives or have someone take photographs of the student properly using, caring for, and storing a microscope; and evaluate, judge, and critique a popular magazine article, print or TV advertisement, or overheard quote from the news or media. They must base their evaluations on the concepts learned, determine if the science in their selection is accurate or not, and explain their appraisal. (Valdez, 2001, p. 2)”
Ms. Valdez is able to easily assign grades by basing her evaluation on the outline of what needs to be included in each entry. Figure I illustrates a sample of her scoring guide. For the first part she looks for “accuracy of the concept written about and makes sure the explanation of the concept is written in the student’s own words. The extent and depth of any extra research is also considered. For the second part of the entry, the level of originality and creativity is evaluated. For the third part, I look for originality in the student’s choice of an article or other media example, while also evaluating the role science plays in the student’s choice and the soundness of the student’s critique of the piece. (Valdez, 2001, p.2)”
Disadvantages of Portfolios
While portfolios are beneficial to both the teacher and students by having a positive effect on student learning, there are some disadvantages. A large amount of a teacher’s time is consumed to plan, organize, and grade each portfolio. Penelope Valdez states that she often finds herself spending as much as ten minutes grading each portfolio entry and writing comments on how the students can improve their entries (Valdez, 2001). There is also another time issue if the students are not used to using computers and technology. They must learn to use and manipulate digital media in order to complete their portfolio (Abrenica). This certainly takes time away from instruction in the classroom.
Conclusion
Portfolio-based assessment offers an alternative to traditional, standardized testing. They allow the students to demonstrate their own skills of what they have learned rather than specific skills determined by test constructors (Blackbourn et al., 2004). Although portfolios are a lot of work and take longer to evaluate than a test, results reveal that portfolio assessment is well worth the investment.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Because it involves the students in what they are assigned, what type of approach do portfolios implement?
(A) Constructivism
(B) Existentialism
(C) Perennialism
(D) Progressivism
2. Which of the following is NOT considered an advantage of portfolio assessment?
(A) They allow students to feel a sense of accomplishment and ownership
(B) They are time consuming
(C) They encourage students to use their creativity
(D) They enhance computer and technology skills
3. Ryan wants to use his history presentation as an entry in his electronic portfolio. Which of the following would be the least effective way to electronically showcase his presentation?
(A) Scan his notes
(B) Scan his visual aids
(C) Upload a video of his presentation
(D) Upload pictures of the presentation
4. Sarah must write a reflection to accompany her portfolio entry about the HIV disease. Which of the following would be the best written reflection?
(A) HIV is a disease that can be inherited from our parents.
(B) HIV is called a genetic disease, not because it is a disease transmitted by inheritance, but because it is a disease that afflicts DNA, which is the building blocks of our genes.
(C) I learned about HIV in science class.
(D) I learned that HIV is called a genetic disease, not because it is a disease transmitted by inheritance, but because it is a disease that afflicts DNA, which is the building blocks of our genes.
Answer
1. (A)
2. (B)
3. (A)
4. (D) | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/15%3A_Instructional_Assessment-Grading/15.10%3A_How_are_portfolios_an_alternative_way_to_measure_progress.txt |
By Megan Varnell
Learning Objectives
• The reader should be able to define the term "rubric" in relation to education
• The reader should be able to identify the different types of rubrics
• The reader should be able to identify several pros and cons associated with using rubrics
Introduction
Wouldn't it be great if a student could look inside their teacher's head and see exactly what is expected of them in order to get an A+ on a particular assignment or project? Students actually can come quite close to doing this, all thanks to rubrics! Many parents and students have probably heard the term "rubric" before without really knowing what it meant. In this article, not only will this term be defined, but also the pros and cons associated with rubrics will be laid out.
The Pros of Using Rubrics
Using rubrics have many advantages. Many experts believe that student work is much better when a rubric is made available to them. Students know what is expected of them before hand, so it is easier for them to meet the objectives. Rubrics are also beneficial for teachers. They can make grading much quicker and also much more fair. Teachers can also use a rubric they create on several assignment. A teacher can also refer a student back to the rubric if they are not satisfied with a particular grade so the student can under why that grade was given to them.
Note
Advantages of Rubric
•Helps the grading process become more efficient
•Helps faculty grade/score more accurately, fairly and reliably
•Requires faculty to set and define more precisely the criteria used in the grading process
•Supports uniform and standardized grading processes among different faculty members
•Clarifies quality expectations to students about their assignments
•Students are able to self-assess their own work prior to submitting it
•Students can understand better the rationale and the reason for grades
•Helps communicating grade between faculty and students
•Helps improve student performance, because they know what to focus on
(Advantages and Disadvantages of Rubrics, 2005).
The Cons of Using Rubrics
Rubrics also come with some disadvantages. Rubrics can be very time consuming to create and time is not something that most teachers have an excess of. It also can be difficult for teachers to come up with the appropriate language for the rubric so that the expectations are very clear. Sometimes, rubrics require much revision in order to use them easily.
Note
Possible Disadvantages of Rubrics
•Development of rubrics can be complex and time-consuming
•Using the correct language to express performance expectation can be difficult
•Defining the correct set of criteria to define performance can be complex
•Rubrics might need to be continuously revised before it can actually be usable in an easy fashion
(Advantages and Disadvantages of Rubrics, 2005).
Conclusion
In conclusion, rubrics come in many forms and can help both teachers and students greatly. For teachers, rubrics can speed up the grading process as well as give them the opportunity to show students what they are expecting of them. For students, rubrics can help clarify what they must achieve in order to get a good grade. Creating rubrics can sometimes be difficult and time consuming, but overall, teachers and students both benefit greatly from them.
Exercise \(1\)
1) The word rubric comes from the Latin word rubrica, which means what?
a. checklist
b. manuscript
c. red ochre
d. teacher-made
2) Which is NOT a type of rubric?
a. analytic
b. generic
c. holistic
d. illuminated
3) Why might Mr. Davis chose to use a analytic rubric for his students' oral presentations?
a. Because he wants to judge the presentation as a whole.
b. Because he wants to use a rubric that he can create quickly.
c. To give the students specific feedback.
d. To grade the presentations quickly.
4) Why might Mrs. Nicks use generic rubrics for her science labs?
a. Because she wants to compare the student's progress over time.
b. Because she wants students grade to be based on all components parts.
c. Because she likes to make completely new rubrics for each assignment.
d. Because she wants students to receive specific feedback.
Answer
1) c
2) d
3) c
4) a | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/16%3A_Instructional_Assessment-_Performance_Assessment_and_Rubrics/16.01%3A_What_are_the_pros_and_cons_of_usin.txt |
by Lisa Castellano
Note
"Educators are asking—and rightfully so — whether rubrics enhance or stifle learning and teaching" - Barry Gilmore
Introduction
After reading this article, readers should be able to define a rubric, be able to describe how to involve students in the rubric writing process, and state at least two reasons why it is advantageous for students to write rubrics
What is a rubric
Used primarily as a performance assessment for academic assignments, especially writing, “a rubric is a document that lists criteria and describes varying levels of quality, from excellent to poor, for a specific assignment” (Andrade, 2007). Usually presented when an assignment is originally given, a rubric delineates expectations for students. A rubric could also give deadlines for completing portions of a large assignment.
Why Should Students Design Rubrics?
If students understand the criteria necessary to produce an exemplary product, “their own standards tend to increase” (Skillings & Ferrell, 2000, p. 455). Students, who help to develop the standards for work in their own classroom, increase their confidence in their ability to learn (Skillings & Ferrell, 2000, p. 455). Another benefit of involving students in the process of creating rubrics is that it “empowers them in the development of critical thinking skills” (Skillings & Ferrell, 2000, p. 455). If students are permitted to help create a rubric, their understanding of an assignment is increased and they “are empowered to become self-directed learners” (Why Use Rubrics). Further, the process of writing a rubric helps students to “better understand and become actively involved in the educational cycle: concept, teaching, mastery, and assessment” (Leonhardt, 2005).
Involving Students in Writing Rubrics
Normally, a teacher is the person who develops a rubric for an assignment. However, a teacher may choose to involve students in developing criteria for a rubric. A teacher, for instance, could present examples of a project and ask students questions about the quality of each example. Students would have to define what made one example better than another, why one was not outstanding, but not poor either. This not only helps students to improve their questioning skills, but “through these conversations, students learn to recognize the kind of questions that are needed to address the essential question [topic assignment] and complete their projects” (Yoshina & Harada, 2007).
Rubric for Questions We can write questions that relate to the essential question How can we protect endangered species?
Criteria Advanced Proficient Novice
1. Name an endangered species
2. Identify why that species is endangered.
3. Explain the causes and effects if this animal were to be extinct.
4. Suggest possible solutions.
5. Examine the pros and cons of each solution.
6. Explain the importance of protecting endangered species.
Our questions relate to all the criteria. Our questions relate to four or five of the criteria. Our questions relate to three or fewer of the criteria
(Yoshina & Harada, 2007)
Students should then be able to list criteria for a quality assignment. According to Student-generated rubrics by “bringing students into the assessment process, students need to understand these criteria in order to distinguish between best, acceptable and unacceptable assignments”.
Because a rubric sets and defines grading criteria in a precise manner, the development of a grading rubric can be time consuming for a teacher (Advantages and Disadvantages of Rubrics, 2005). This is especially true if a teacher needs to develop or refine a rubric for multiple performance assessments. A rubric needs to be clarified and revised several times “before it can actually be usable in an easy fashion” (Advantages and Disadvantages of Rubrics, 2005). In the case of using student input for a rubric, a teacher needs to organize student input and then present a rough draft to students for feedback. Once that is completed, the rubric can be revised and distributed (Yoshina & Harada, 2007).
Barry Gilmore uses another method of having students write rubrics. He has the students, as a group, “create(s) a contract that includes a schedule, an outline of responsibilities (and consequences) , and a rubric for assessment of the project.” He believes that this “sort of student involvement leads…to student investment.” (Gilmore, 2007, p, 24).
Conclusion
Having students participate in the process of writing and developing rubrics has many advantages. Students develop evaluative skills and become more involved in the learning process. It encourages students to set higher goals for themselves and place a higher value on their work.
Exercise \(1\)
1) An advantage of using a student written rubric would be which of the following:
a. A student’s understanding of a topic is increased by helping to create a rubric.
b. A teacher has no justification for a particular grade.
c. Rubrics do not prevent bias grading.
d. Students cannot evaluate their work before submitting it for a grade.
2) A disadvantage of using a student written rubric would be which of the following:
a. A rubric allows teachers to grade assignments quickly.
b. The teacher still has to edit the rubric before it can be used and this can be time consuming.
c. Students can help create and refine a rubric.
d. Teachers have to create rubrics for every assignment.
3) Mrs. Young, a media center specialist, will have middle school students create a rubric about blogging. Since this is a complex topic, how could she help students better understand what criteria she expects from them?
a. The teacher should use a rubric that she has used before.
b. Learning targets should be posted on an interactive white board in the media center.
c. Blogs should be examined for quality and variety in order to see the difference between a godd blog and a bad blog.
d. The teacher could show students how blogs have become Internet versions of diaries and journals.
4) Mr. Plant wants his students to help create a rubric for an upcoming group poetry assignment. What should he ensure that students do in order to accomplish the task of creating a rubric?
a. Create a time limit for the assignment to be completed.
b. Students should examine works of poetry to develop criteria.
c. Resposibilities for completing the assignment should be outlined.
d. All of the above
Answer
1. a 2. b 3. c 4. d
Sources
Advantages and Disadvantages of Rubrics. (2005). Retrieved October 25, 2008, from http://demo.4vqzl21.remote.schoolcenter.com/education/components/scrapbook/default.php?sectiondetailid=5128&PHPSESSID=b2fa70324ba350fc
Andrade, H. (2007, December). Self-Assessment Through Rubrics. Educational Leadership, 65(4), 60-63. Retrieved October 11, 2008, from Education Research Complete database.
Gilmore, B. (2007, September). Off the Grid: The Debate Over Rubrics—and What It's Missing. California English, 13(1), 22-25. Retrieved October 11, 2008, from Education Research Complete database.
Leonhardt, A. (2005, Fall2005). Using Rubrics as an Assessment Tool in Your Classroom. General Music Today, 19(1), 10-16. Retrieved November 5, 2008, from Education Research Complete database.
Skillings, M., & Ferrell, R. (2000, March). Student-generated rubrics: Bringing students into the assessment process. Reading Teacher, 53(6), 452. Retrieved November 5, 2008, from Education Research Complete database.
Why Use Rubrics. (n.d.). Evaluation: Process. Retrieved October 19, 2008, from University of Minnesota Web site: www.carla.umn.edu/assessment/vac/Evaluation/p_5.html.
Yoshina, J., & Harada, V. (2007, February). Involving Students in Learning Through Rubrics. Library Media Connection, 25(5), 10-14. Retrieved November 5, 2008, from Education Research Complete database. | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/16%3A_Instructional_Assessment-_Performance_Assessment_and_Rubrics/16.02%3A_How_can_students_be_involved_in_th.txt |
By Ashley Wade
Learning Objectives
• Define rubric.
• Identify different types of rubrics.
• Understand how to incorporate rubrics into grading.
What is a Rubric?
So what is a rubric? According to Goodrich, a rubric is “a scoring tool that lists the criteria for a piece of work or what counts.” Through this scoring tool, teachers are able to determine how to grade their students work fairly and reasonably. With the implementation of a rubric, students and their parents will also be able to “figure out how their [or their child's] project will be evaluated.” Rubrics allow everyone to see what is being asked and what an individual is supposed to be doing. One student even stated that they disliked rubrics because “if you get something wrong, your teacher can prove you knew what you were supposed to do.” Usually “rubrics specify level of performance expected for several levels of quality.” These are either titled as ratings, from excellent to poor, or as numerical scores, from zero to four. From these two types of ratings, a teacher or instructor can total the scores to determine a final grade, ranging from an A to a F. (What is a Rubric?, 2008)
Different Rubrics
There are many different types of rubrics that have been developed. Listed below are some of the main types of rubrics that can be used in the classroom.
Holistic
• Usually judges the assignment as a whole entity
• Usually very easy to use and can be created very quickly
• Associated with less feedback
Analytical
• Usually judges the assignment by its individual parts
• Usually harder and more time consuming to create
• Has more specific feedback
General or Generic
• Usually scores assignments that have similar tasks
• Better for regular events or assignments, i.e. papers or science projects
• Easier to compare an individual’s progress over time
Task-specific
• Usually scores assignments that are unique and specific
• Better for just assigning grades
• Harder to create, yet get nothing in return either, such as feedback
...So which one is BEST for me?
Note
"...rubrics help teachers as well as evaluate student work. Further, creating rubrics with your students can be powerfully instructive." (Andrade, H., 2000)
By examining the various rubrics listed above, one can see that each is very specific to what kind of needs it can accommodate. By using a general rubric, a teacher can grade a student's paper quickly, make the grading process easier, as well as making the student's expectations known at the same time. If a teacher asked their student to put on a skit in front of the class, a more task-specific rubric could be developed in order to accommodate the specific ideas the teacher would want the student to present. With rubrics, the teacher can make sure he/she grades all the students with the same intentions in mind, as well as lets the student know ahead of time what they will be graded on. Simply put, rubrics are something that take time to get used to and create. By looking at various rubrics that have already been made, a teacher can then determine which ones might benefit them most. Even by including one's students in the process of creating a rubric can help to benefit all sides of the spectrum.
Exercise \(1\)
1.) Who benefits from rubrics?
a) The Parent
b) The Student
c) The Teacher
d) All of the Above
2.) Which of the following is NOT a type of rubric?
a) Analytical
b) General
c) Holistic
d) Major
3.) Mrs. Smith might use a task-specific rubric because...
a) She is having her students do a very general assignment.
b) She will easily be able to compare her students progress.
c) She is having her students do a very unique assignment.
d) It is harder to create, yet gives great feedback.
4.) Mrs. White might use a holistic rubric in order to...
a) Judge her student's assignment by its individual parts
b) Judge her student's assignment as a whole.
c) Obtain more feedback for her students
d) Take more time in making a rubric for her students
Answer
1) D
2) D
3) C
4) B | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/16%3A_Instructional_Assessment-_Performance_Assessment_and_Rubrics/16.03%3A_What_kind_of_rubric_is_best_for_a_.txt |
by: Lauren Carson
Learning Objectives
• Two Alternative Types of Assessment
• The benefits and disadvantages of Portfolios
• The benefits and disadvantages of Performance Assessment
Introduction
Assessment is an important part of the United States school system. Tests are generally used to gather statistical data on how well students are doing and how well teachers are teaching material. The state, parents, teachers, and even students themselves want to be tested to know where they stand on a particular subject. The main focus of assessment should be that of helping all students acquire a better understanding of literacy and learning and not simply to evaluate if students have learned or if teachers are teaching correctly(IRA/NCTE). Through assessment students are able understand where they lack understanding, are having difficulties and know where they excel in academics. From a teacher’s perspective assessment helps him or her change their teaching style on a particular subject to meet the needs of students or confirm that a technique is beneficial to students. Let us take a look at two alternatives for Language Arts assessment at the elementary level.
Portfolios
Portfolios are simply a collection of student works. In elementary setting students may be required to keep writing samples such as short journal entries and tests. This method of assessment is often considered a more concise method for the language arts because it gives an insight to student progression (Willson, Wright and Stallworth). Through portfolios give administrators and teachers an insight to students learning style and what specific goals the student may have in mind. According to Yih-Fen and Michael A. Martin a portfolio should be a joint effort of the child, teacher and parent. The student’s involvement should include selections of what he or she wants placed as an indicator of his or her work. Through this hand on selection the student is able to obtain an excitement for learning through the involvement. The teacher’s role in portfolio assessment includes note taking and field assessment. Teacher input in the portfolio process helps to back up the content of the portfolio chosen by the child. Assuming that work is sent home and completed outside of the school setting, parents need to understand what is being assessed and placed into the portfolio so they can aid in the development of the child’s educational experience ( Chen, Maritin). The disadvantages of portfolios can often be the same aspect that makes them beneficial. While allowing students to choose his or her work there is no standard to compare portfolios with, especially for those students not from the same school or state. Time also plays a factor into the disadvantages of portfolios. In order for a portfolio to be successful it must encompass work over a certain time span. If a student is expected to have a portfolio as a form of evaluation and has not been keeping work then a portfolio cannot be adequately formed or graded (Cullian, Galda, Strickland).
Performance
Performance assessment requires student to actively show understanding of a subject through such mediums as plays, group activities or projects. For the language arts performance assessment can be very effective. As with any written language the spoken language must be evaluated as well. Through performance methods students are able to show that he or she can not only write or understand grammar in a written form but is capable of conveying what he or she knows orally. Through Oral assessment teachers are able to listen to how a student uses grammar, easily take note of problems with vocabulary that may not be as easily testable via paper and pencil (Cullian, Galda, Strickland). Alongside the pros of performance assessment there also cons. Performance grading can be very time consuming to observe each child rather than all students being assessed at a given time. As there is often few precise guidelines for performance, bias can easily become integrated in the assessment process ( Chen, Maritin).
Exercise \(1\)
1. Give two examples of what types of materials can be found in a portfolio.
a. Ethnic background and economic status
b. Ethnic background and disciplinary problems
c. Journals and tests
d. Journals and economic status
2. Who should be involved in the portfolio process?
a. Teachers, principals and parents
b. Teachers, students and parents
c. Teachers and students only
d. Teachers and principals only
3. What are two examples of Performance assessment?
a. Oral reports and homework
b. Oral reports and reading aloud
c. Reading aloud and take home tests
d. None of the above
4. If Mrs. Jamerson has asked her students write a story and present it orally to the class using only past tense and second person point of view after a lesson on tense and point of view; what type of assessment is Mrs. Jamerson using?
a. Review Assessment
b. Performance and Portfolio Assessment
c. Portfolio Assessment
d. Performance Assessment
Answer
1. c
2. b
3. b
4. d
Resources
Chen Yih-Fen, Martin Michael A. “Using Performance Assessment and Portfolio Assessment Together in the Classroom.” Reading Improvement. Vol. 37.1 Spr 2000: 32-38.
Cullinan Bernice E., Lee Galda, Dorothy S. Strickland. Language Arts Learning and Teaching. Canada: Thomas Wadsworth, 2004
IRA/NCTE Joint Task Force on Assessment. Standards for the Assessment of Reading and Writing. United States of America: International Reading Association of America 1994
Willson Elizabeth K., Wright H. Vivian, Stallworth B. Joyce. “ Secondary Pre-service Teacher’s Development of Electronic Portfolios: An Examination of Perceptions.” Journal of Technology and Teacher Education. Vol. 11.4 2000: 515-527. | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/16%3A_Instructional_Assessment-_Performance_Assessment_and_Rubrics/16.04%3A_What_performance_assessments_can_b.txt |
By Taylor Smith
Learning Objectives
1. After reading this article the student will have a better understanding of how to implement Performance-Based Assessment in an Elementary Mathematics lesson.
2. After reading this article the student will have a better understanding of a holistic rubric vs. an analytic rubric.
What is Performance-Based Assessment?
Performance Assessment is especially important in mathematics as there are many processes involved in coming to a correct answer. There are many levels in mathematics to build on. For example understanding addition helps you understand subtraction Understanding multiplication helps you better understand division and so on. Students must always “show their work” so the teacher knows they understand the process to getting there.
The best way to decide how to implement performance assessment in a mathematics lesson is to fully understand performance assessment.
Note
“Performance-based assessments ‘represent a set of strategies for the…application of knowledge, skills, and work habits through the performance of tasks that are meaningful and engaging to students’”(Brualdi, 1998). .
This sort of assessment helps the teacher by providing information about how the student applies knowledge as well as creating “additional learning experiences for the students (Brualdi, 1998)”
Steps to take when implementing Performance-based assessment
The first step in implementing performance-based assessment is to define the purpose of the assessment. The skill to be assessed, the level at which students should be performing, and the type of knowledge to be assessed are some of the things that need to be defined initially (Brualdi, 1998).
The next step is choosing an activity with which to assess. The two types of assessment that could be used are formal and informal (Brualdi, 1998). During an informal assessment the student does not realize they are being assessed (Brualdi, 1998). For example, if a unit on long division was being taught, after instruction, the teacher would give some problems to be worked on in the classroom. While students are working on these problems the teacher would walk around and check their work to see how well they understood the lesson. In doing this the teacher would either write down or make a mental note of what students did not understand so it could be reviewed.
During a formal assessment the student is aware they are being assessed (Brualdi, 1998). For example, during a unit on long division the teacher could give a pre-test after instruction. Students would complete the pre-test and then they could exchange papers and be graded by their peers. After grading the teacher could ask what questions were missed and then go over those problems step by step.
The next step would be to create a performance rubric (Brualdi, 1998). “As opposed to most traditional forms of testing, performance-based assessments don’t have clear-cut right or wrong answers. Rather, there are degrees to which a person is successful or unsuccessful (Brualdi, 1998)”. This is especially true for mathematics. Once again we will use long division as an example. If the student understands the process of long division but in doing the problem makes a multiplication or subtraction error, does that make the answer 100% incorrect? No it does not. This is where designing scoring rubrics for your classroom comes into play.
Holistic vs. Analytic Rubrics
Note
“Rubrics are…formally defined as scoring guides, consisting of specific pre-established performance criteria, used in evaluating student work on performance assessments (Mertler, 2001)”. .
There are two types of rubrics which can be used: holistic and analytic (Mertler, 2001). A holistic rubric scores the process as a whole where the analytic rubric scores separate parts or steps of a problem and then totals the score (Mertler, 2001).
Holistic rubrics are normally used when there is room for error as long as the overall outcome is correct. They can be used when there the answer is somewhat definitive (Mertler, 2001). Holistic rubrics provide limited feedback to the student as it is an overall answer that is required and are mostly used for summative purposes (Mertler, 2001).
“Analytic rubrics are usually preferred when a fairly focused type of response is required; that is, for performance tasks in which there may be one or two acceptable responses and creativity is not an essential feature of the students’ responses (Mertler, 2001)”. The use of analytic rubrics can result in several scores which can slow down the grading process (Mertler, 2001). Click this link to see a general example of an analytic mathematics rubric.[1] This generic math rubric is a great example of something that could be re worked to use for a specific math subject.
Conclusion
In elementary mathematics it is imperative students are assessed formatively as well as summatively. Once again, there are so many facets of math that build on to one another. Something that is not understood or missed by a student can affect them throughout life. During my elementary years I did not grasp measurement and to this day, at almost thirty years old I still have trouble with measurement. It is minor but if something important is missed it could have a dangerous domino effect on your student’s future education.
Exercise \(1\)
1. What is the first step in implementing performance based assessment?
(a) Create a Rubric
(b) Choose an activity
(c) Define a purpose
(d) Decide which type of rubric to use
2. In which assessment is the student aware they are being evaluated?
(a) Formal
(b) Analytic
(c) Holistic
(d) Informal
3. If you are a 4th grade teacher and you want to informally evaluate your students understanding of long division you would:
(a) Give them a pre test
(b) Walk around the classroom while they are doing a worksheet and assess what they understand and don’t understand
(c) Ask them if they have any questions about long division
(d) Give a post test
4. Which type of rubric would be best used to assess a students understanding of long division?
(a) Analytic
(b) Formal
(c) Informal
(d) Holistic
Answer
1. (c)
2. (a)
3.(b)
4. (a) | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/16%3A_Instructional_Assessment-_Performance_Assessment_and_Rubrics/16.05%3A_What_performance_assessments_can_b.txt |
Learning Objectives
• The reasons for needing alternative assessment for students
• Advantages of using performance assessment in the classroom
• Learning the differences between homemade performance assessments and retail boxed cirriculums.
As a teacher-in-training, I often imagine myself leading my future students through the curriculum. Before beginning any formal teacher preparation classes, I intended to use many of the same techniques in my classroom that were used by my grade school teachers, including lecturing, the occasional pop quiz, and end of chapter testing. However, as Michael Kamen describes the transformation that elementary school science teacher Virginia made, other student teachers and I soon realize that the traditional assessment method of “teaching first and assessing second” may not give the best opportunity for all students to express their knowledge for credit(Kamen, 1998).
Coursework for elementary science has changed over the past few decades, specifically the past 10 years after U.S. students continue to fall below the high scores of Asian students in math and science on standardized tests (Ramirez). During his campaigning in 2008, President Obama expressed his desire to make math and science education a priority during his term in office, with some schools already trying to accomplish this by using text books from Singapore (Ramirez). High emphasis has been placed on students' math and science scores. For these reasons, researches are looking for ways to assess students’ science achievement in the classroom that is different from the measurements taken by national, state, and local associations (Baxter).
Old fashioned scoring methods of science achievement have several problems in modern science education. While students need to be familiar with and know strategies for selective response testing due to the many standardized tests they are subjected to in public schools, many children have a difficult time taking these tests. Multiple choice tests often limit students to choose one of four options that are written in a different language than what the student can understand or relate to (Kamen).
One way to better measure achievement of science students is for teachers and school administrators to implement alternative assessment practices in the classroom. Alternative assessments to measure student achievement in elementary science can include creative drama, student portfolios, oral presentations, and performance assessments. Teachers watch students performing experiments as individuals or in small groups or during presentations and assign them a grade or points based on certain criteria.
Alternative assessments benefit teachers and students in a classroom by acting as a “bridge between content areas”, such as assigning writing projects in science class (Kamen). Another major advantage is the “interplay” between student assessment and teaching techniques (Kamen).
There are two ways to implement performance assessment in the classroom: 1)homemade techniques that are individualized by the teacher and customized to his or her students abilities and 2)out-of-the-box pre-developed classroom cirriculums.
Homemade assessment techniques require minimal cost. Examples of homemade assessments are student-written notebooks or laboratory journals or logs, oral presentations, and student-written questions for traditional tests.
Out-of-the-box cirriculums can be expensive when purchased, but some are available to all for free, such as FOSS: Full Option Science System. FOSS has two major studies occurring including ASK Project: Assessing Science Knowledge and FAST Project: Formative Assessment for Science through Technology.
"You cannot test your way to a good education"
- Parents and concerned citizens, like Toni Jenkins of TX who commented to U.S. News and World Report's online newsstory Study: U.S. Trails Asian Countries in Math and Science, are bitter towards the large amount of standardized testing given to public school students.
"...I never really considered hands-on to be anything but playing, and now I see that minds-on aspect too. "
- Virginia, Kamen 1998
1. According to the article, why has school cirriculum placed a larger emphasis on math and science content in the last 10 years? A. to tighten immigration laws B. to raise U.S. student testing scores to meet or exceed students in Asian countries C. to obtain increased funding for public schools from NASA D. to eventually compete with Russian students now traveling to outer space
References:
Study: U.S. Trails Asian Countries in Math and Science. Retrieved March 23, 2009, from U.S. News and World Report: www.usnews.com/blogs/on-education/2008/12/9/study-us-trails-asian-countries-in-math-and-science.html
Rcrow008 (talk) 00:44, 24 March 2009 (UTC) | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/16%3A_Instructional_Assessment-_Performance_Assessment_and_Rubrics/16.06%3A_What_performance_assessments_can_b.txt |
By: Shelby C. Blair
Learning Objectives
• Name at least two different types of assessments that can be used in Social Studies.
• Have working knowledge of some tools used for passing assessments.
Introduction
The classrooms we teach in today are so diverse. Inclusion in the classroom helps to add to classroom diversity. With this diversity you have students with different abilities and talents. The days of taken regular assessment of test and essays are a thing of the past. Not all students are great test takers nor are all students are great at creative projects. Assessing students with one type of medium does not help to show whether a student has mastered a concept. This is even more evident with the subject of Social Studies because it can deal with simple knowing facts about an event in history to interpreting and using sources to understand history.
Types of Assessments
While working on my observation in both 5th grade and also with all the substituting I did in elementary classrooms I have seen and heard first hand about different assessments current teachers are using to assess students in Social Studies. Some different types of assessments are the general test, research projects, class presentations, K-W-L charts and journals, and finally folding booklets. Most of us know what general test, research projects, and class presentations are, so I will not go into detail about there. K-W-L charts and journals are a really interesting way to assess students’ knowledge and to help them remember facts and understand history. K-W-L stands for Knowing-Wanting-Learning and actually answers the “what” question (Gammil, 2006). In my class observation for 5th grade I saw students completing this in their science journal. The first thing they did for the new science topic they were learning about was to spend 15-minutes writing down everything they knew about the topic. Then they started to take notes. This was the beginning of the K-W-L journal. K-W-L charts could be in the form of a tri-folding booklet. For tri-folding booklets on the first row, the students draw a picture of what they know about one aspect of the topic. The second row, they draw a picture of what they want to know about the one aspect. The third row, they finish when they have completed the lesson topic on what they learned. Folding books can also help students with concepts to prepare for SOL testing. In a 4th grade class I substituted in, I had to have the students make small booklets on the Virginia Tribes. Every so many pages they started and titled another chapter in the booklet on a particular tribe. On each page of the book, they had to write one fact to go with the category for the tribe of that chapter. After they wrote the one fact they then had to draw a picture to go along with it. These booklets were made out of 3 ½ by 5 index cards. The students turned them in before the test the next day.
Note
For some examples on different type of assessment activities for Elementary Social Studies click here: www.hnhsd.org/Gr3%20SS.pdf
Tools for Assessments
There are many different tools to assess the above mention assessments. Some tools are the standard answer grades to test. Like when you take the VA-SOL (Standard of Learning) test for Social Studies and all you have are multiple-choice questions. As we all know multiple-choice questions yield only one correct answer in most cases. For essays a lot of teachers use to just grade them based on the opinion of how well they felt the student wrote and if they mentioned all the facts. There was so much room for bias on that. However, there is a way to grade projects and essays that can eliminate some, if not most of the biasness and also allows fair grading. This way is by using a rubric. Before Foundations of Education and Assessment I had never heard of the term rubric and never experienced it as an assessing tool. The rubric in my opinion made it a lot easier to rank my fellow peers articles and also gave me insight in how great they would be to use for my future students. Using a rubric allows you to be able to have certain criteria that need to be met to get a certain score ranking. As a teacher you can use students input in helping to create these, though from what I have heard and seen in the public school systems, they have their own rubrics to be used. Given the rubric to your students allows the student to know exactly what they have to have and do to get a certain score on their project or essay. The following is an example of a rubric used in elementary school and tied both Language Arts and Social Studies together.
John and Abigail Adams Online Research and Writing Rubric
Uninspired Patriotic Revolutionary
Database Research Skills Printed letter only Printed letter including 3 dates Printed letter, dates, and cited the MHS website
Letter Writing Responded to letter Responded to letter using date, heading, salutation, and indents Responded to letter using date, heading, salutation, and indents. No spelling errors.
Revolutionary Understandings Wrote letter as either John or Abigail Adams Wrote letter as John or Abigail and included convincing details of the times Wrote letter as John or Abigail and included details of the times and understanding of the Revolutionary Conflict
(Tannetta, 2008)
Conclusion
With the classrooms being as diverse as they are and not all students having the same abilities to perform well on one type of assessment, you need different types of assessments. Some examples of assessments are the K-W-L chart and journals, as well as, they folding booklets. To assess these assessments there are so many different tools out there for teachers to use. One assessment that can eliminate some, if not most of the biasness and allow for fair grading is the holistic rubric. This type of rubric could also allow for the student to know exactly what is to be expected for a certain grade.
Exercise \(1\)
1. What does K-W-L stand for in K-W-L charts and journals?
A. Knowing-Wishing-Learning
B. Learn-Know-Want
C. Learn-Know-What
D. Wish-Learn-Know
2. Which of the following is a tool that can be used for passing assessments?
A. Drawings
B. Folding-Booklets
C. Journals
D. Rubrics
3. You are a new teacher and are planning on having students do a poster presentation to the class. Which would be the best type of assessment tool to use?
A. Essay
B. Judging Panel
C. Rubric
D. Standardized Test
4. You are a Social Studies Teacher in 3rd grade. Your class is an inclusion class. What is the best way to assess your students understanding of the material?
A. Have multiple assessment activities for students to complete
B. Have a multiple-choice test
C. Write in a Journal
D. Write an Essay
Answer
1. B. Learn-Know-Want
2. D. Rubrics
3. C. Rubric
4. A. Have multiple assessment activities for students to complete | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/16%3A_Instructional_Assessment-_Performance_Assessment_and_Rubrics/16.07%3A_What_performance_assessments_can_b.txt |
By A. Jones
Learning Objectives
• The reader will be able to define why art is taught.
• The reader will be able to define some specific art assessments.
• The reader will know the ways to evaulate and assess art.
Note
'"The art room is...the teachers canvas on which ideas are showcased, the curiours are challenged, and responses are invited. George Szekely"
Why We Teach Art ?
In order to assess art you must first understand why we teach and make art. Art is a means to engage all students senses for learning and expression. Creating art helps children express their imaginative and emotional personal development. Art lessons contribute to the cognitive development and their critical thinking skills. Art is crucial in helping students to understand and explore their world and develop their own abilities to function in it. Art exposes students to world cultures, individual expressions, visual symbols, and it helps them to develop their own preferences, and it makes them aware of influences in society. Art has the ability to integrates all major subjects : Math, Science, Social Studies, History, Language Art, and Technology. Students enjoy art classes because it allows them to touch on experiences not addressed in any other classes. In art, students can express opinions and ideas that are uniquely different then their peers.In art there is always more than one way to achieve excellence. According to Elliot Eisner "the arts teaches children: to make good judgement, that problems can have more than one answer, the arts celebrate multiple perspectives,the art teaches that in complex forms of problem solving are seldom fixed, the arts makes vivid facts that neither words in their literal form nor numbers exhaust what we know, the art teaches students that small differences can have large effects, the art teaches students to think through and within a material, the art enables us to have experiences no other source has the capability of."(Eisner,2006)
Note
" Learning to draw will put you in touch with a long respected tradition that begins in Prehistoric times. Drawing remains a natural way for creative people to visually express their attitudes about the world around them. Wayne Enstice and Melody Peters"
Art Evaluations
Creating art objectives and evaluations usually consist of two parts examining artwork during the process and after artwork is completed. There are several ways a teacher can monitor the students progress, which might include : examining the students projects in art portfolios, engaging students in written and verbal critiques about their artworks and their peers artwork, and assessing learning in student and in art journals. Art Portfolios are a collection of student artwork representing a selection of different performances. Art portfolios showcase students accomplishments and progress through various stages of art production. Art Journals are like mini art diary's they contain sketches, art thought process, and students own views and interpretation of certain lessons and art vocabulary.Portfolios are a great way to assess and demonstrate improvement over time.
The website below has examples of art Evaluations www.mmwindowtoart.com/evaluations.html
"Defined Objectives"
Defined objectives are important to meet standards and provide assessments of performance. All students need to be clearly informed of objectives and grading rubrics on every lesson. A Rubric is a grading chart it has specific details on what is be evaluated. For example most art rubrics give you: O is for Outstanding artwork done with no help 100-95% , V is for Very Good Work with little help from Teacher 90-86% ,S is for Satisfactory basic artwork 85-76% no real thrills , N is for Needs Improvement 75-69% did just enough to get by , U is for Unsatisfactory 68% and lower did not master much of the lesson. A art rubric usually states specific goals of the project. For example student will learn to mix paint from dark to light within a grid. You can look at the grid and tell if the students have the same five to six colors you gave them, or if they experimented and made some shades and tints of those colors by mixing the paints with white or black.Stating specific objectives allow students the ability to achieve these goals.The Following website list art rubrics http://www.goshen.edu/art/ed/rubric3.html .Many state and local systems set broad goals. These goals are set by the National Art Education Association that are recommended for standard based art instructions.The following website has the National Standards for Dance, Music, Theater, and Visual Arts http://artsedge.kennedy-center.org/teach/standards.cfm .
Art Objectives and Assessments
There are many different ways to evaluate art lessons. Many teachers objectives reflect their personal values about art education,their teaching styles and their students age and ability. All art teachers teach a specific skills that you build upon and expand into more quality artwork.Too many directions at once may confuse younger students and students with ADHD or special education requirements. Wise art teachers expand lessons to cover more than one class meeting. By expanding class lessons you gives students the opportunity and time to build up and reflect in order to master the skills. Mastery of skills builds confidence giving them a great piece as a end result in which they are proud of.No teacher teaches with the hopes of students to become failures . Many art teachers use performance-based assessments.Performance based assessments require students to perform or demonstrate a task. Most art grades are based on artwork , art learning and can be based on some extent on test results. There are five main art objectives 1.Production 2. Perception 3. Critcism 4. Aesthetics and 5. Art History. Art Production is the process of making or producing art. Art Perception is how students see and digest what they are doing , looking at, or learning. Art Criticism is the students ability to point out evidence and make connections to the artwork that supports their perception. Art Aesthetics in the students questioning " Why" . For example if you show students a pieces of artwork that they find to be ugly or weird ? Why do you think this is ugly ? Why do you think this is weird ? This is a example Aesthetics. Art History is the study of past art masters, ancient civilizations, valuable objects from various cultures,and artifacts.
Types Of Formal and Informal Assessments
"Through educators often think the primary purpose of assessments is grading, a thorough assessment plan ,consist of a variety of eveidence on student acquisition of learning" (Rohrer,2009) Informal assessments is the teacher assessing who is grasping a lesson and who is not. As a class progress a teacher can tell who is engaged in art production and who not by looking at students. Teachers can quietly talk to students and give them some encouraging words, demonstrate a technique they can try, and also make mention of the overall rubrics and goals and objective timewise. For example by the end of this class we should all have our background sky painting in, when we meet again we will be filling in details of the landscape and will not have any sky colored paint available. Formal assessments are vital to gain information for educational decision making to revise programs and increase grades."In recent years, policymakers have been reassessing their conception of teacher quality by beginning to focus attention on examining the relationship between the assessment of the teacher competence and student achievement."(Randall,2005) Verification of student learning is the main reason for formal assessment. Assessments help teachers evaluate their programs, diagnose learning,revise,compare,and anticipate educational needs and determine if needs have been achieved.These assessments also help determine how to adjust lessons to increase student learning. Assessment informs teachers if they need to shift instruction strategies to reach more students." Instead of using traditional assessment,such as standardized test, many teachers are choosing to use performace based, authentic assessment to measure the quality of an eduaction program by comprehensively examining the individuals performance"(Yauying,2004).
Conclusion
We teach art to help students explore the world around them and find their place in society . Art asessments have been performance based and are starting to influence other subjects to include more performance based activities instead of just quizzes and test.By reflection on different types of art assessments, and how teachers can use art portfolios and art journals to see what students have digested the lesson or not. Assessments are not just used for grades but also needed to inform students and teachers of progress and what may need to be retaught or reworked strategy wise to close the gap between successful students and unsuccessful students.In conclusion good assessments evaluates and summarize both student learning and teachers effectiveness.Art mimics much of society it is constantly changing and evolving.
Exercise \(1\)
Add exercises text here.
1. Why do we teach art?
a.because it is a state requirement.
b.to engage in students sense of learning and expression.
c.to enable children to draw and paint very well.
d.to give teacher's a planning break.
2. What are the two parts to art evaluations?
a. examining the artwork during the process and once artwork is completed.
b. examining for the best quality of artwork at the completion only.
c. examining the work to see who could include the most in their artwork.
d. examining the artwork for evidence of art principles.
3. What is the purpose of assessments ?
a.to give grades only.
b.to inform students and teachers on learning targets.
c.to evaluate teachers only.
d.to evaluate teachers and students.
4. What are the art objectives?
a.art assessment only to give a grade.
b.art assessing, the artmaking, and art history aspect.
c.production, history, perception, aesthetics, and criticism.
d.the art of making artworks
Answer
1. b
2. a
3. d
4. c | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/16%3A_Instructional_Assessment-_Performance_Assessment_and_Rubrics/16.08%3A_What_performance_assessments_can_b.txt |
By ReAnne Shields
Learning Objectives
• Readers will be able to identify different assessments used for physical education
Introduction
Assessments are very important to the learning process. With the use of assessments it allows for teachers and students to see how they are progressing in particular subject areas. Is the student learning the correct information and retaining it well? And is the teacher giving effective lessons that allow the student to learn and understand? These are two of the main questions that revolve around the idea of assessments.
When looking at subjects other than the basic math, English, history, and science, how do teachers assess their students? As for physical education there are a few assessments used to see how well their students are doing with specific motor skills or sport activities.
Physical Education Assessments
In physical education it is very important for students to be assessed by the teacher and themselves. This way students and teachers can see where the student may be physically with different skills and activities. “The most widely-used assessment in PE are fitness test”. (Jefferies, Jefferies, and Mustain, 1997) With fitness test teachers take the scores from each student and compare them to a table of norms and from that students are given a rating. (Jefferies, Jefferies, and Mustain, 1997) Many teachers have their students perform fitness test at the beginning and end of the school year to see what progress the student has made throughout the year. Along with that main assessment, there are other assessments that are used for other motor skills and sport activities. According to Melograno, in his article “Integrating Assessment into Physical Education Teaching,” the author goes into the different techniques for assessment that a physical education teacher can consider using for their class.
The different assessment techniques are good when assessing other aspects of a physical education class. The techniques are as followed: teacher directed, peer, self, and portfolio assessments. For the purpose of elementary students the best techniques to assess their performance is teacher directed assessments and self-assessments. Peer and portfolio assessments would work better for secondary schools, because they require more responsibility than most elementary students would be capable of doing.
The teacher directed assessment is split into achievement test which “are usually designed to measure perceptual motor skills, motor ability, physical fitness, and sport skills, observational inventories- which provide a record of students’ cognitive motor and affective behavior through checklists and rating scales, and written test- which provides a direct measure of knowledge and higher order abilities like application and synthesis.” (Melograno, 1997)
The self-assessment, “students make critical and valid assessments of their own abilities. Performance is compared to individual target goals, peer standards, teacher established criteria, or all of these.” (Melograno, 1997) Here students have the opportunity to critique themselves on their performance and set goals they would like to reach.
These assessments are mainly based on performance, where teachers “require students to demonstrate specific skills and competencies rather than simply selecting one of several predetermined answers to a question.” (Hensley, 1997) By using performance-based assessment the students are able to exhibit their skills learned and they can assess themselves as can the teacher, by using both techniques mentioned above.
How to use Assessments
These assessments are also used to not only work on the progress of students but to improve the teaching of the different motor skills and sports. There are a few steps in using assessments to help with program structure and they are “ Step 1: Identify what students are expected to achieve as a result of instruction in each grade, Step 2: Standardize assessment procedures and instruments, Step 3: Validate assessments, Step 4: Aggregate results, and Step 5: Act on results.” (Allen, 2002) And as teachers take these steps at the end of the year they themselves are able to assess how their instruction went and from there improve on it. Setting certain standards for the different grade levels and putting together a rubric to follow helps with this process.
As a teacher you want to make sure you are able to break down the steps of different skills just enough that you and the student are able to record/follow the progress. (Jeffries, Jeffries, and Mustain, 1997)
Generic Scoring Rubric Score
Demonstrate mastery of sport specific skills and ability to consistently perform with little or no conscious effort resulting in few errors. Extensive knowledge base and understanding of sports or activity. Employs effective strategy specific to the task or situation 5-Excellent
Demonstrates competency and ability to perform basic skills without making many errors. Complete understanding of rules and strategies of the specific sport or activity. Usually selects appropriate strategy and skill for situation and generally displays consistent performance. 4-Good
Displays basic knowledge of sport or activity and ability to perform fundamental skills adequately to be able to play game. Performance is frequently inconsistent, resulting in numerous errors being made. Understands basic strategies, but lacks ability to effectively employ. 3-Satisfactory
Demonstrates inability to perform more than the basic skills. Has difficulty in executing even the basic skills, making frequent errors, some critical, during performance. Generally inconsistent performance with only a minimal understanding or strategies and rules. 2-Fair
Rarely, if ever performs skills well enough to be able to play a meaningful game. Demonstrates little understanding of sport or activity and inability to execute skills without making significant and frequent errors. Makes little attempt to adjust performance. 1-Poor
(Hensley, 1997)
Using a model such as this would be good for a PE teacher assessing skills and even knowledge. For example a PE teacher can have his or her students play a game of baseball and pay attention to how each student responds to the different task and skills of the game. When batting, the student knows where to place their hands on the bat, how to stand, and where to place the bat. The students understand the concept of a strike and ways that's players get out. Each of these areas can be assessed by using a rubric. Some students may understand a little more or a little less than what is expected. By using a generic rubric such as this one helps the teacher have a good idea of how and what the students are taking in.
Assessing students in physical education is important and there are many ways to assess, its up to you as a teacher to choose which assessment is best for the activity.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Which of the following is not an assessment used by PE teachers?
a.competition assessment
b.fitness testing
c.performance based assessment
d.teacher-directed assessment
2. Which assessments are best used for elementary aged students?
a.Peer Assessment
b.Self Assessment
c.Teacher Directed
d.Both B & C
3. Ms Anderson is teaching her K-5 students basketball skills. For her first grade students who are working on dribbling with one hand, which assessment will not dictate they are progressing from dribbling with two hands?
a. a self assessment
b. a performance assessment
c.Ms Anderson using a rubric
d.a written test
4. Ms Anderson is doing an assessment on her 5th grade students running times, comparing them from the beginning of the year. Which assessment should she use?
a. A rubric
b.A performance assessment
c.A written test
d.A self assessment
Answer
1. A
2. D
3. D
4. B | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/16%3A_Instructional_Assessment-_Performance_Assessment_and_Rubrics/16.09%3A_What_performance_assessments_can_b.txt |
Note
• Comprehend examples of Secondary English assessments
• Understand the assignments used in each type of assessment described
• Understand different ways to assess a student in Secondary English
Introduction
Secondary English is definitely not one of the easier subjects to assess. There could be several different answers for one assignment and it is up to the teacher to decipher those answers according to his or her rubric. History, science and math are easier in the sense that there is always one answer. English, especially secondary, allows for multiple answers, all differing. Although memorization and comprehension is used in all subjects, it lends itself more to the sciences and history compared to secondary English. Reading comprehension, interpretation and writing are somewhat harder to assess because students create the pieces of work and that work is graded via a general rubric the teacher has created.
What are assessments and how are they utilized?
There are three common assessments used by educators in the classroom; summative, formative and performance. Summative assessments are usually given periodically throughout a school year to determine at a particular point in time what students know and do not know. A lot of students and educators reference standardized testing, end-of-unit tests and end-of-chapter tests with summative assessments. The teacher is informed of the students' progress and learning at the end of a lesson plan with the summative assessment. They help evaluate the effectiveness of programs, alignment of curriculum, or student placement in specific programs. They are too far down the road to be used in classroom learning adjustment. Summative assessments are typically used after the classroom has taken a number of formative assessments.
Formative assessments inform both teachers and students about student understanding at a point when timely adjustments can be made, unlike summative assessments. They are typically associated with practice tests, quizzes and group work. They require a lot of student-teacher communication and interaction to ensure the student is learning and understanding the curriculum before they take the summative assessment. According to Robert Stake, "When the cook tastes the soup, that’s formative; when the guests taste the soup, that's summative," (Earl, Lorna, 2003).
The third most common assessment used in education today is called the performance assessment. Teachers use this type of assessment to discover how a student, "understands and applies knowledge," (Coyle, G., 2009). "They can be used to evaluate reasoning, products, and skills that can be observed and judged using specific criteria. Tasks that have more than one acceptable solution often lend themselves well to a performance based assessment," (Coyle, G., 2009). Performance based assessments are being utilized more and more with students who show ineffective progression on standardized testing. A student who doesn't perform well on the SAT and ACT, isn't necessarily behind in education; they just might not test well. "Many states are incorporating performance-based assessments into their standardized tests or adding assessment vehicles such as student portfolios and presentations as additional measures of student understanding. These rigorous, multiple forms of assessment require students to apply what they're learning to real world tasks," (How Should We Measure Student Learning?: The Many Forms of Assessment, 2008).
Listed below are other well-known assessments used in education today; the objective assessment, subjective assessment, self assessment and interactive assessment.
• "Objective assessments: Usually multiple choice, true false, short answer, have correct answers. These are good for testing recall of facts and can be automated.
• Subjective assessments: The teacher's judgment determines the grade; essay tests. Essay tests take longer to answer, longer to grade and therefore only include a small number of questions, focusing on complex concepts.
• Self assessments: Assignments that provide for quick student feedback. They help the learner check if they have mastered a topic, provide opportunity to measure learning progress, are usually voluntary and may allow multiple attempts, inform the learner, but not the teacher.
• Interactive assessments: Designed to allow learner's to perform a task. Can be graded or not. Examples: students could conduct a virtual experiment rather than an experiment in a physical laboratory, language software might have sophisticated speech recognition software to provide feedback about pronunciation, creation of an online tool, such as a virtual instrument. Students could perform a song, and the software provides feedback about accuracy and timing."
• (MSU, Virtual University Design and Technology, 2007).
Note
Formative Assessment examples:
• Anecdotal records
• Quizzes & essays
• Diagnostic tests
• Lab reports
Summative Assessment examples:
• Final Exams
• Statewide exams (SOL)
• National exams
• Entrance Exams (SAT, ACT, GRE)
Performance Assessment examples:
• Conducting and creating a science experiment
• Giving a speech
• Writing a Research paper
• Operating machinery or equipment, i.e., photography or a computer program
(Classroom Assessment: Basic Concepts, 2009)
Ways to assess Secondary English
English teachers are advised to always give encouraging feedback along with their suggestions. Handing back a student's work with red marks scribbled all over their assignment isn't encouraging for future assignments. "Informative feedback should be provided rather than just a mark or grade. In addition to identifying areas where improvement should be made, teachers can write constructive and encouraging comments, as these motivate students to do well," (Curriculum Development Council and the Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority, 2007). There is no one "universal" way to grade an English assignment, each assignment is different.
Different works equals different grading:
• "When assessing an oral presentation, the emphasis can be put primarily on content and fluency.
• When going through book reports, the focus can be upon learners’ ideas and personal responses.
• When marking compositions, it is advisable to provide learners with comprehensive feedback on content, accuracy, appropriateness, presentation and organization."
• (Curriculum Development Council and the Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority, 2007).
Teaching secondary English is an everyday challenge. Educators are constantly creating new ways to assess the children in their classes. Why? Because they want to involve their students and ensure that everyone is learning. Students in high school today are children of the Digital Age; they expect everything fast and are very hands-on learners. In the article, "Beyond Reading Check Quizzes," by Diane Vanaskie Mulligan, a veteran high school English teacher in Massachusetts, we are given several examples of creatively assessing a high school English class. Mulligan says, "By shifting the focus from making students prove they've done their homework to helping them engage with texts, teachers can set students up for success," (2008). Participation in structured discussions, one paragraph responses and "the old-fashioned" reading journal are just a couple of ways to heighten student interaction and grades without quizzes and tests, (Mulligan, 2008). Not only does this aid the teacher in the amount of work they are required to grade, it also gives the students the ability to learn creatively.
Another great way to assess a student in secondary English is through student portfolios and their development. A portfolio can be started at a young age; either in middle school and carried through high school or as a freshmen in high school. A portfolio can show a teacher and a student the progression and learning curve over a number of years. It's good for either short or long term use in the classroom and should include all written work, written assessments and published work, (Streich, 2008). "Properly maintained portfolios contain student work that assists curricular evaluation, demonstrates individual student progress, and can be used in student placement," (Streich, 2008). Students can also use their portfolios to gain admittance into advanced placement classes in college along with entrance into that university.
Check this site out! It lists and describes the Stands of Learning requirements according to the Department of Education for Secondary English, grades 9-12. [1]
Secondary English Assessment vs Math & Science Assessment
Assessing a student in English class is much different than assessing a student in math or science. The biggest difference between English, math and science assessments is the ability to list one or more answers. In English you are expected to use your mind creatively. Students are expected to overly develop the plotline in an essay and are authorized to act dramatic while reading a Shakespeare play outloud in class. In math and science there is almost always one single answer, never any grey area. Unlike math and science, English allows students to cross into a lot of grey area depending on the type of assignment. Another key point that differentiates the two areas is "do-over's." In a typical English class, students are allowed to turn in rough drafts and outlines of projects or assignments before receiving a final grade. In science and math, students are taught the lesson, they may have one or two homework or class work assignments and then they are tested. There are no "do-over" chances.
Secondary English Assignments vs. Math & Science Assignments
Note
Different Types of Assignments
English: Reading & Writing
• Essays
• Vocabulary work either individual or in pairs
• Creative writing
• Poetry or writing portfolios
• Collaborative research papers
• Grammar worksheets
• Collaborative book reports
• Group discussions about literary topics (4 students to a group)
Math & Science
• Data Analysis
• Algebra
• Geometry,
• Chemistry, periodic table of elements
• Word problems
• Factors, sums, multiples
• Linear equations
• Statistics
• Lab reports
Conclusion
No matter the subject you are assessing, assessment is always hard. Your job as a teacher is to honestly assess each student in your classroom. Teachers must have the ability to differentiate between their students and the types of assessments that work for them and that particular assignment. Assessing secondary English is definitely a challenge, but so is math and science assessment. They differ in the types of assessments used and how a teacher assess the assignment.
Exercise \(1\)
1. According to the article, what is an example of a secondary English assessment assignment?
a. Oral Presentation
b. Creating a science experiment
c. Research paper
d. Both A & B
2. Mrs. Martin, a 12th grade English teacher, has assigned a written response essay to her students. The topic of choice is up to them as long as it discusses a topic regarding William Shakespeare's Hamlet, which they just, finished reading. What kind of assessment is this?
a. Objective
b. Self Assessment
c. Subjective
d. Interactive
3. What can a student place in a portfolio?
a. Anything, as long as it's their personal work.
b. Only graded, approved, written assignments
c. Items from their senior year of high school
d. Tests, quizzes, essays and papers
4. Mr. Ray, an 11th grade English teacher, has placed his students in groups and assigned each a number of essays, articles and poems that need to be laid out and arranged for the junior class newspaper. He has assigned his students the task of design, lay-out and organization via the computer program, Adobe InDesign. They have until the end of their two-hour block to complete this. What kind of assessment is this?
a. Formative Assessment
b. Self-Assessment
c. Summative Assessment
d. Interactive Assessment
Answer
1. d
2. c
3. a
4. d | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/16%3A_Instructional_Assessment-_Performance_Assessment_and_Rubrics/16.10%3A_What_performance_assessments_can_b.txt |
By Michael Piper
Learning Objectives
• The reader should be able to describe written, oral, observation, and portfolio assessment.
• The reader should be able to recognize examples of written, oral, observation, and portfolio assessment.
• The reader should be able to describe what factors are important when creating an assessment.
Introduction
Mathematics can be a dangerous subject to teach. It carries with it the connotation of being a cold and objective subject, with black and white answers. People rarely tend to think of math as an art form or an adventure. Teachers and students alike are guilty of this impropriety, neglecting math's mysterious and elegent nature. The glory of math bravado and intense mental gymnastics gets traded for cold methodologies and mindless repetition. Students fail to exclaim eureka and great scott as they conquer concepts and self. Teachers fail to glow or shed tears when whispering delicious formulas and sacred teachings. The goal of the math teacher must be to once again move the student to tremble with awe and excitement over this great subject. But with growing pressure to meet the rigorous demands of quantitative standardized testing, how can one achieve this end? How can one implement assessments so that they kindle a passion for math instead of smothering it? The goal of this article is to help equip the motivated secondary teacher with tools that promote the understanding and appreciation of mathematics.
General Guidelines for Creating and Using Assessments
Before going into specific methods and strategies of assessment, it is important to make a few notes. Effective assessment does not come about by throwing together random assessment events as an after thought to lesson planning. Assessment is an integral part of the teaching and learning process, and should be deeply interwoven into all classroom processes. It can be used before, during, and after units and the course in general. The vast majority of assessment need not be graded and may even given without the student ever having been aware of it.
Specific methods and strategies of assessment are also not beneficial in and of themselves, but are tools that require the teacher to develop skill in both administering the assessment and using its results. Assessments should be developed from defined purposes and with specific goals for their outcome. They can be used not only for evaluating student progress and understanding, but also to get students to think critically about what they are learning. They can be used purely for gaining feedback so that a teacher may adjust their instruction. And if one desires, they can even be used to make students recognize their own personal biases and misconceptions about mathematics. One should clearly define what is being assessed and how this may be done efficiently and accurately for a diverse collection of students.
Specific Methods of Assessment and their Related Strategies
The Importance of Writing Assessment in Math Class
This tends to be a form of assessment that gets neglected in math classes. Because it seems irrelevant or time consuming, many teachers dismiss it without considering its benefits. But there have been numerous studies that show a distinct correlation between strong math performance and the consistent use of reflective writing assessment (Evans 2008). The process of writing about math requires students to critically think about specific concepts and to organize them into a coherent flow. This helps the student to internalize specific ideas and promotes long term retention. It also allows them to evaluate their own understanding of concepts (Stepanek 1997). And since the students will have a better ability to express math verbally, they are likely to see improvements in reading math problems as well.
There are a variety of ways to implement this method. There are a wide range of topics. The students could be asked to write what they had learned at the end of the day, to explain how the concepts being discussed are used or reflected in every day life, or to compare and contrast current lessons with previous ones. They could also be asked to reflect on what they enjoy about the material, what they find difficult about it, or to describe areas where the teacher is being effective or ineffective. The style of writing can vary. Journals, essays, and some open-ended questions are a few of the ways this can be administered (Stepanek 1997).
When using this method, it is important to be consistent and to provide feedback. Consistency will help students become efficient in the writing process as well as promoting the processing of material as they learn since they will expect to have to write about it later. Feedback is important to show that you are reading their articles and that you care about their opinions and ideas (Stepanek 1997).
Making Math Practical
Math has many practical and real-life applications. There are two ways that this understanding can be beneficial to student learning and interest. Many students already do math operations subconsciously in their daily lives without realizing it. By expressing math concepts in everyday situations that students encounter, some of the fear that is tied to unfamiliar math terminology and symbols can be diminished by providing associations that will encourage retention. Also, by polling students to find out common interests, lessons can be adjusted to present material in light of subjects that interest students. Examples presented in this way develop an appreciation of the usefulness of the subject as well as improving interest and retention (Stepanek 1997). One of the challenges of teaching math is that one must overcome stereotypes such as math isn't useful in the real world. Encouraging students to think about their future careers and explaining the usefulness of math within those fields can help combat a mentality of doing math simply to pass and graduate. Math has applications in every field, including art, sports, the military, and most white and blue collar jobs to name a few.
Observation
Observations within the classroom setting can be very useful for getting feedback on student strengths and weaknesses. This can be done in a variety of ways, such as checking individual students as they work, observing group work, and having students perform problems in front of the class (Stepanek 1997).
Oral Assessment
Oral assessment is strategy many teachers use, consciously or unconsciously. Often it is simply asking students in a class for guidance while performing a problem in front of the class. Oral assessment has the advantage of providing more information than a standard test normally will. It gives real time feedback of student comprehension, helps diagnose misunderstandings and misconceptions of the material, reveals students' attitudes towards the subject, and effectively shows student comprehension of the material (Stepanek 1997).
Teachers can perform oral assessments through class discussions, individual interviews, focus groups, and student presentations to name a few methods. Topics can include those listed for writing assessments as well as a range of questions with quick or obvious answers. The teacher should have an idea of the questions that will be asked ahead of time, while leaving room to expand more into specific areas that prove valuable. It is important that students feel comfortable and safe to speak openly and make mistakes. The more routinely this style of assessment is administered, the more comfortable students will be with it. Common mistakes to avoid when performing this assessment are giving students answers or suggestions, posing leading questions, excessive talking/teaching by the teacher, and interrupting the student(Stepanek 1997).
Homework
Getting students to do math homework has always been difficult. One strategy to encourage students to complete homework is having open-homework quizzes, where students may use homework assignments as help on quizzes. Without announcing which quizzes will be given this way, students are more likely to complete random homework assignments they might not do otherwise.
Computer Administered Assessment
Some schools administer the SOL test on computers only. Students doing math problems on the computer for the first time tend to experience a great deal of difficult compared to solving the same problem on paper. It can be extremely helpful to get students familiar with doing math problems on the computer before this kind of complication occurs.
Portfolio Assessment
Portfolios are collections of student work demonstrating student comprehension of material. They can be put together from existing assignments as a sample demonstrating student strengths and weaknesses. Or they can be a selection of works from among a number of assignments for the purposes of grading. Portfolios may be done as a supplement to normal classroom grading systems but can also be done in place of them (Stepanek 1997).
Non-Standard Grading Techniques
Another method of math assessment involves modifying the common grading system. Graded tests require that material on the test is such that the student will recognize and be able to complete the problems given. Unique and challenging problems that push students abilities too far would be unfair. Also, if a student does poorly on a few tests, even if by the end of the course they comprehend the material they cannot get a good grade in the class. Since the goal of the course is for the student to learn the material, some modifications can be made to the grading system that can have a variety of effects. For example, if students know they can retake a test they did poorly on, there will be less testing anxiety to get a high score the first time around. Testing anxiety can cause a student to do poorly on a test they are actually capable of doing well on. Another option is flexible grading, where students are graded on different assignments that they can choose from to accommodate different learning styles. This type of system could also accommodate self learning because students would have more freedom to work far ahead of the rest of the class (Murphy 1999).
Note
Links to Resources on the Net
[1] National Council of Teachers of Mathematics-Article
[2] It's Just Good Teaching publication
[3] Assessment Strategies Article***Good Overview***
[4] Math Assessment Articles
[5] Assessment Strategies Handbook
[6] Portfolio Assessment Strategies
[7] Math Practice Tests/Tutorials
[8] Math Tutorials
A Sample Math Assessment
[9] Intermediate Algebra Final Exam
The sample provided is a final exam for intermediate algebra. It consists of almost all short answer questions, allowing for partial credit based on work shown. At the end it provides several problems from which the taker can choose three. This is a good assessment because it tests accurately whether or not the student knows the information. If this were not a final and it was being given back before the end of the course, the teacher would be able to provide useful and specific feedback to the student, as well as being able to shape lesson plans based on how the class had done as a whole.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Which of the following is not a type of assessment?
A. A Math Journal
B. A Teacher Observing a Student Working
C. A Math Formula Sheet
D. An Individual Interview
2. Math is useful in which job field?
A. Sports
B. Art
C. Military
D. All of the above
3. Ms. Ima Mathner asks John what step she should do next for a problem she is demonstrating on the board. This is an example of:
A. Oral Assessment
B. Written Assessment
C. Portfolio Assessment
D. None of the above
4. John is asked to choose from samples of his classwork over the semester and put them together for a grade. This is an example of:
A. Oral Assessment
B. Written Assessment
C. Portfolio Assessment
D. None of the Above
Answer
(1-C)
(2-D)
(3-A)
(4-C) | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/16%3A_Instructional_Assessment-_Performance_Assessment_and_Rubrics/16.11%3A_What_performance_assessments_can_b.txt |
by Alec Bauserman
Note
It is no use saying, 'We are doing our best.' You have got to succeed in. --Winston Churchill
With the advent of the No Child Left Behind Act and the state's adoption of the SOLs, school-wide testing has taken the front seat in public education. Students have high expectations placed on them and they come under increased scrutiny to ensure they are on track to meet these goals. Pre-tests, midterms, post assessments, quizzes, tests, common assessments. The list is endless. Testing has not only become the desired 'ends,' but the 'means' as well. As school systems focus more and more on the benefits of varying forms of assessments, it is sensible that the teacher should also consider their options. This paper will examine the varying forms of assessment available to the high school science teacher, with specific examples provided for earth science.
Learning Objectives
• recognize and explain the different forms of assessment
• list pro's and con's of each type of assessment
• be able to define performance assessments, cite benefits & give examples
Reasons for Assessment
Before we examine the types of assessments, we must first understand WHY assessments are given in the first place. Traditionally, a teacher would give a test at the end of a unit to measure how successful they were in imparting the material to their students. They'd grade the test, hand it back & move on. These days tests are used for more than just determining how much a student learned or how hard they studied. Teachers give a quiz or other assignment to AID the learning process, not just measure it. Tests given at the end of a unit to determine how much a student learned are called summative assessments. Tests given along the way which are used to assist the learning process (and not just to measure the results) are named formative assessments
Summative = assessment OF learning
Formative = assessment FOR learning
Both of these have a place in the classroom. Formative assessments are given midway through a lesson. They help students understand the material and they help teachers determine how quickly the student's are picking up the material. By assigning a grade to them, teachers make it 'worthwhile' for the students to put forth their full effort. If the teacher makes the assessment a collective effort with students working in pairs or small groups, the students benefit from peer-to-peer dialogue and the students who have gained a better understanding can impart their knowledge to the students who haven't yet mastered the subject matter. By the time the teacher reaches the end of the unit, a summative assessment can be given, each student working with only their knowledge. They should be comfortable in their understanding and confident in the their responses. The grade will be counted and the class will move on.
Types of Assessment
Summative Assessment - a summative assessment is given at the end of a unit to determine just how much each student gained from the lessons. A summative assessment can take many forms, but in a secondary science class they are usually one of the following:
• a chapter test
• an essay
• a project
Each of these has its own strengths and weaknesses. Chapter tests are the most common but not necessarily the most effective means of testing a student's knowledge and the application of that knowledge. Tests are good in that they can take many forms - selected response (multiple choice, true-false, matching), short answer, fill in the blank, etc. A more diverse test with a wide range of question types is useful. On the other hand it is a form of putting all one's eggs in a single basket. A bad night before the test, classroom disruption during the test, a poorly written question... All of these can lead to lower student scores which do not accurately reflect a student's true grasp of the material. I have personally given tests where I knew for a fact that the student knew the material yet were unable to answer the question due to poor wording on my part. As such, a summative chapter test is not always the most effective way to determine academic progress. An essay also has its pros and cons. On the one hand it is useful in that a student may take their time and think through their response. They can consult with the teacher or other students to improve their response. By writing out their thoughts, it is readily apparent to the teacher whether or not the student understands the material. A monkey with a pencil will occasionally score well on a multiple-choice test but its is much harder to fake understanding with a constructed response like an essay. In this way, essays make good summative assessments. On the other hand, they are difficult for students with poor writing skills. I teach freshmen and many of them struggle to write coherent sentences and develop a linear argument. A student may perfectly understand the material they were taught yet fail the essay simply because they are not effective writers.
A project has many qualities which make it an attractive choice for summative assessment. They do not depend on a single days effort, but rather a long time period. They allow students to revise and improve their work. They help students learn as they create it. They are often fun to do (for some) and students take a lot of pride in their work. They can be tailor-made to answer the teachers questions and a rubric can help the students design an good submission. Unfortunately, they often take too much time and students will often wait until the day before to start. A heap of quickly made, poorly constructed projects is a nightmare for a teacher to grade, even with an effective rubric. Also, because each chapter or unit is only so long, the project must usually be described weeks in advance. For teachers constantly pressed for time, this takes a lot of effort and foresight to be successful.
Formative Assessment - a formative assessment is given during instruction in order to 1) help the student learn the material and 2) aid the teacher in determining how well the students understand the material. It is often termed an "assessment for learning." A few examples of formative assessments I've given my high school earth science & biology classes are:
• presentations
• Common Formative Assessment (CFA)
• examination & discussion of articles
A presentation is a great example of a formative assessment. Students are assigned a topic to present to the class, either individually or in groups, most often using Powerpoint. The students learn the material as they study it, condense it, and package it into a form easily understood by their peers. It is often said that the best way to learn something is to approach it as though you would need to teach it to someone. A presentation is just such an example. Students must research and understand the material well enough to teach it and answer basic questions on it. The drawback is that in any group, some will work hard and others just enough to get by. The learning is not always equal. Additionally, teachers must develop a rubric, grade the resulting presentations, and patch up any holes in the student's instruction. It can often take more time than just teaching 'the old fashioned way.' The term CFA has several meanings but in my class I use it to refer to a group quiz that is given to aid student understanding. I will typically present a graphic or animation that contains material covered in the last few days (or weeks if possible) and ask several "knowledge" questions and several "application" questions. These are helpful because our Virginia SOLs are graph- and graphic-heavy so I make every effort to expose my students to these. We will discuss the answers afterward and the students grade each others papers. This cuts down on the teacher's workload. Drawbacks are few, but the most common is that one group member does most of the work and the others daydream. Even so, I have found these to be effective and I will continue to use them in my instruction. Recent online and in-print news articles offer a great avenue to provide formative assessments. Students are given a handout, no more than a page or two, with a news article pertaining to the current topic in the class. They are to read it and answer some basic questions. The article provides students with a real-world example of the topic's relevance and the discussion afterwards helps students to understand what they read. Reading comprehension is benefited and they can discuss their personal opinion on the subject. The downside is that it is difficult to find articles that have enough topic-specific vocabulary yet are on a reading level suitable for high schoolers. The article is often too easy or too hard, or requires a lot of background knowledge and prior explanation. Even so, articles are fun to use and benefit the students who read them.
Note
Sample Earth Science CFA questions
"With your partner, discuss the physical features of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, its origin and its potential future effects. Explain these features with your knowledge of convection currents in the Earth's mantle. In what way does the MAR relate to the Theory of Plate Tectonics? Construct a response in 5-paragraph form, no less than 2 pages long. One partner is responsible for typing, the other will present their findings to the class. See the rubric for details." -Mr Bauserman
EXPLANATION - This CFA is designed to benefit students in several ways:
• provide peer interaction
• assist students learn content
• provide teacher-student dialogue
• enhance writing & public-speaking
• I have found these CFAs to be fun, useful, and wholly beneficial to instruction. They don't take too much time and they increase students' confidence in their learning.
Performance assessment
"...the application of knowledge, skills, and work habits through the performance of tasks that are meaningful and engaging to students" (Hibbard and others, 1996)
Regardless of the purpose for testing, a teacher should always feel comfortable giving a performance-based assessment. By asking the students to show their accumulated knowledge and skills, a teacher can assess the students formatively or summatively. Performance assessments can take many forms; many have already been mentioned above. Speeches, presentations, projects, activities, games... Any activity where a student must do something other than filling out a test can be considered a performance assessment. They may be performed individually or in groups, they can be formal (count for a grade) or be informal. They may be used to test a students progress (summative) or be used to assist in the learning process (formative).
Some of the benefits of using performance-based assessments are in the table to the right. Generally speaking, a performance assessment is most beneficial in giving the teacher a better understanding of student mastery as compared to a standard, selected-response summative test. McLaughlin and Warren found that these assessments were effective when given to student's with disabilities (McLaughlin, M.J. and Warren, S.H., 2008).
For the assessment to be effective, however, the teacher must first do two things:
• Clearly define the skill-set or body of knowledge to be tested
• Create a clear rubric for the students to work with
Teachers who attempt to give a performance-based assessment and are displeased with the results often failed to do one these two things. By having muddled goals or unclear standards of expectations, both the teacher and students become frustrated and the assessment is in vain.
Note
What are the benefits of a performance assessment ?
• "[T]hey evaluate thinking skills such as analysis, synthesis, evaluation, and interpretation of facts and ideas — skills which standardized tests generally avoid.
• They are flexible enough to allow teachers to evaluate each child's progress using information obtained from ongoing classroom interactions with materials and peers.
• They are a means for improving instruction, allowing teachers to plan a comprehensive, developmentally oriented curriculum based on their knowledge of each child.
• They provide valuable, in-depth information for parents, administrators, and other policy makers.
• They put responsibility for monitoring what children are learning — and what teachers are teaching — in the hands of teachers, where it belongs."
Meisels, S.J. (2008). "Teacher's Timely Topics: Performance Assessment." Retrieved from http://teacher.scholastic.com Oct 28, 2008. (link)
Exercise \(1\)
1) Student testing can be either _______ or __________. (KNOWLEDGE)
• a) formal ; informal
• b) summative ; formative
• c) both a & b
• d) neither a nor b
2) Formative assessments are useful for all but which reason? (KNOWLEDGE)
• a) they allow a teacher to adjust instruction
• b) they identify student strengths and weaknesses
• c) they assist the student learn the material
• d) they require less planning than summative assessments
3) Which of the following would be a good example of a summative test? (REASONING)
• a) A geometry teacher assigns 5 pages of bookwork for homework
• b) A gym teacher makes his class run 10, untimed laps around the gym.
• c) An art teacher demonstrates how to sketch a self-portrait with charcoal
• d) A Spanish teacher gives a chapter test on vocabulary and verb tense.
4) What might be a possible drawback of performance testing? (REASONING)
• a) they allow students to use their own individual talents
• b) they benefit the student's understanding of the material
• c) they are time-consuming
• d) they can be more fun than a pen-and-paper assessment
Answer
1 - C
2 - D
3 - D
4 - C | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/16%3A_Instructional_Assessment-_Performance_Assessment_and_Rubrics/16.12%3A_What_performance_assessments_can_b.txt |
Learning Objectives
• Understand traditional methods of assessment
• Understand the goal and advantages of performance assessment
• Understand how performance assessments can be used to teach Social Studies.
Traditional Assessment
Traditional assessment is the evaluation of student learning using traditional methods of achievement collection. Most traditional assessments are developed to determine a students understanding and recollection of events after the instruction has been delivered. Typical traditional assessment tools consist of fill-in-the-blanks, true-false, multiple-choice tests, matching and other similar mechanisms. Students typically are required to select an answer or recall information to complete the assessment. These tests may be standardized, such as the Stanford 10, NAEP, Benchmark, AP and SAT tests as well as the Virginia SOLS. Traditional assessment tests do not, by definition need to be as structured or inflexible as these more familiar state and national tests. Teachers can create their own evaluation tools that follow the traditional methods of assessment.
Note
"Whenever the people are well-informed, they can be trusted with their own government;... whenever things get so far wrong as to attract their notice, they may be relied on to set them right."—Thomas Jefferson
The driving force behind traditional assessment is the theory that the primary goal of schools is to help shape and develop productive citizens. This theory is used to formulate objectives whose goal is to develop historically literate individuals who are able to identify historical figures, events and dates. Many traditions assessment tools do not focus on the subject of history. The Stanford 10 is a traditional assessment tool that focuses on Reading vocabulary and comprehension, data analysis and math problem solving. SAT scores also focus on math, reading, and writing fundamentals. The NAEP, however is a national assessment that focuses not only on math, reading and science; but also civics and US history. A copy of the recent US history results can be found at: http://nationsreportcard.gov/ushistory_2006/. The Virginia Standards of Learning have elements of history and in 4th grade Virginia history is assessed.
Performance Assessment: Goals and Advantages
Performance assessments, which are also often called "authentic assessments", provide for a teacher to evaluate knowledge through the use of engaging activities. Students are not forced to complete multiple choice questions, instead they are asked to construct, record, display or explore topics through presentations and writing. Those instructors who use performance assessments require students to not only memorize information, but more importantly encourages them to synthesize knowledge through data collection, reflection and constructive assignments. Students are asked to analyze and explain historical events through research and the development of journals, projects, and other demonstrable means.
Students are often asked to use their current knowledge to come up with theories or solutions to hypothetical situations. Typical questions may include, "How would life in the South after the Civil War been different if President Abraham Lincoln had survived his assassination?" The students may be asked to create a journal as a southerner in the years following the Civil War under President Lincoln's reconstruction policies. An Instructor may ask the students, "How did Pasteur and Lister change how doctors performed medicine?" The students could create a play of a debate between doctors of the 18th century and late 19th century.
Often performance assessments include extended tasks and assignments that require ongoing research and collection of data that is carried out over several hours or weeks. This form of assessment is widely used to develop a students ability to synthesize information into creative writing assignments. Journals and portfolios are often created by the students to demonstrate their learning acquisition as well as allowing for presentations to their classmates.
Where traditional assessments may ask multiple choice questions about a particular subject matter, performance assessments allow teachers to assess not only acquired knowledge, but also the ability of students to create brochures, oral presentations and essays. Unlike traditional assessment, students are fully aware of how they will be assessed and what they need to accomplish to be successful. This allows the students to judge their own work as they create their projects. Performance assessments are based on the particular curricula of a specific school system and classroom. Unlike traditional assessment whose tests are created by anonymous administrators and test producers, performance assessments are created and developed by the teachers in the classroom. Performance assessments allow for scaffolding of knowledge and not simply learning random facts without context.
Instructors that use performance assessments need to create a rubric with which to judge the students successful completion of the assignments. One of the criticisms of performance assessments is the random nature of the grading. Traditional assessments are often created and graded by national or state organizations. To effectively use performance assessments the rubric needs to be created, explained to the students, and adhered to during the grading process. Follow the following link to understand more about the role of the rubric in performance assessments. score.rims.k12.ca.us/standards/performanceassessment/
Performance Assessments in the Social Studies Classroom
Performance assessments can easily be incorporated into history and social studies classes. Unlike math and science courses writing and presentation assignments are easily interwoven into the curriculum. Some examples of how one might use performance assessments in an American history course might include splitting the students into groups. Each group would be given the names of eight US Presidents. The group would be given the opportunity to do independent research through the computer lab and library to determine the success of their assigned Presidents. The rubric for assessment would clarify to the students that they should judge each President on specific qualities such as accomplishments, crisis management, political Skill, appointments, character and integrity. With this information the students would rate their eight Presidents and create a presentation to deliver explaining how they came to their conclusions. Through this activity the students escape simply know which President was the 12th or 14th, or which President was in power during war. The students add context and synthesis to simple memorization requirements. The students will learn how to create presentations, respect differing opinions, and determine how to narrow, edit and refine their findings to support their opinions. Each student in the class will learn more through the other classmates research then they would learn by memorizing book information alone.
Another example of performance assessment in American history would be to give the students the opportunity to describe how North America and the World would have been different if the South would have won the Civil War. The essay and presentation would be judged on a rubric of content, clarity, continuity, creativity, and correct use of grammar. This activity would promote the research skills of the students as well as their English writing proficiency.
If you give yourself a moment you could probably come up with hundreds of ways to use performance assessments in the classroom. These assessments take a little more time in that you must create a rubric and explain the requirements to the class, but these assessments allow the students to develop their research, writing and presentation skills. This benefits them much more than simply developing multiple choice and fill in the blank test taking skills.
Note
"I have a conviction that education is important to the preservation of our republican government, and that it is also essential to its protection against foreign power."—Thomas Jefferson
"If the children are untaught, their ignorance and vices will in future life cost us much dearer in their consequences than it would have done in their correction by a good education."—Thomas Jefferson
Exercise \(1\)
1. Traditional Assessments are most frequently:
a. based on tasks to find an answer through activity and analysis.
b. multiple choice.
c. in class question and answer.
d. based on portfolios and writings of students.
2. How can performance assessment be used in a classroom setting?
a. Have students take a final exam at the end of the quarter.
b. through classroom discussion.
c. by using a pop quiz to probe for knowledge.
d. have students keep a journal with reflections of things they have learned.
3. What teacher created item is necessary when using performance assessments?
a. a large multiple choice test.
b. a rubric for grading.
c. a fun and interesting matching quiz.
d. a 750 word essay assignment.
4. A language arts teacher asks to collaborate with you on a history lesson. What performance assessment task could you apply.
a. have the students read the teacher's notes to the class.
b. a quiz on proper vocabulary and syntax.
c. place students in reading groups to produce a journal describing the Battle of Hampton Roads from a sailors perspective.
d. have students read the history book and create a proper outline.
Answer
1. B
2. D
3. B
4. C | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/16%3A_Instructional_Assessment-_Performance_Assessment_and_Rubrics/16.13%3A_What_performance_assessments_can_b.txt |
By: Brian Breshears
Introduction
While studying a language there are a myriad of ways that a student may be assessed. Testing students on their knowledge of vocabulary or placement of accent marks by way of a written response test or a research paper are just a couple of options. The unique thing about learning a language is that it is meant to be performed. Reading and writing are important aspects of the language, but its true purpose is verbal communication. This chapter will explore options for performance assessment as it pertains to the Spanish language.
Learning Objectives
• Reader will be able to identify two methods of assessing a Spanish student by way of performance.
What is Performance Assessment?
According to the Alverno College, which implemented assessments for its students in 1973, assessment is defined as the following:
• a process integral to learning
• involving observation and judgment of each student's performance
• based on public criteria
• with self assessment
• with feedback for student improvement of learning and faculty improvement of teaching (Albromeit, Accessed on 18, March 2009)
More specifically they define performance assessment as “Demonstration of abilities in action in the kind of integrated situation in which students would use them in their life beyond campus” (Albromeit, Accessed on 18, March 2009).
Note
depts.alverno.edu/saal/ Performance Assessments are founded in a curriculum based on eight abilities
Types of performance assessments
Getting students to speak the language is probably the most challenging thing about being a Spanish teacher. To get students started on a path to proficiency, a teacher must be able to remove the obstacles standing in front of them. One major obstruction facing the students is a fear of speaking in front of others. The easiest way to overcome this is through group conversation.
In group conversation the teacher splits the class into groups of two or three. In order to make the students feel comfortable about speaking another language in front of their peers, the teacher will create a template from which the students should follow in order to create their conversation. The groups are then responsible for creating a conversation in Spanish in their own words, but using the template as a road map for their conversation. They will then present the final conversation in front of the class. Each student must use the vocabulary they have studied leading up to the presentation.
This task promotes self education by allowing the students to speak about things that interest them, but also keeps them focused on a specific format for their conversation. A student is more likely to look up and retain words he/she doesn’t know when talking in front of his/her peers.
Another assessment is an extended oral presentation. The teacher can give the student a written test in Spanish, have them memorize it and then present it in front of the class. The Spanish teacher at Hugo Owen’s Middle School, Laura Agudelo, gives an example of this, “I find the Pledge of Allegiance works perfectly. It’s short enough that it’s not too intimidating to memorize and it’s a text that is familiar to them” (Agudelo, 2009). According to Mrs. Agudelo the rubric by which she assesses her students is based on correct pronunciation and fluidity of speech. The students feel comfortable with the text and it is also something they can practice in their homeroom every morning.
Conclusion
Performance assessment can be very rewarding for both the teacher and students when used properly. It can also give students confidence to speak in front of others.
Exercise \(1\)
1. What is the most challenging thing about being a language teacher?
a. dispelling cultural differences
b. getting the students to speak the language
c. getting to work on time
d. learning how to speak another language
2. What are two examples of performance assessment?
a. Class projects and Smartboard lessons
b. Computer games and hooked on phonics
c. Extended oral presentation and conversation
d. Written test and quiz performance
3. It what ways could Mrs. Agudelo assess her student’s performance of the language?
a. Ask them questions in the language and grade their competency.
b. Have them memorize the pledge of allegiance and grade their pronunciation
c. Assign them conversations and grade their fluency
d. All of the above
4. What would be an effective way for Mrs. Agudelo to reinforce a vocabulary list?
a. Have the students write them repeatedly.
b. Have students create conversations using the vocabulary list.
c. Stand in front of the class and yell the words until they get them
d. Tell the principal that the students are all stupid and she can’t teach them.
Answer
1) b
2) c
3) d
4) b | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/16%3A_Instructional_Assessment-_Performance_Assessment_and_Rubrics/16.14%3A_What_performance_assessments_can_b.txt |
By Vanessa Rutter
Note
“I didn't fail the test, I just found 100 ways to do it wrong”
- Benjamin Franklin
Learning Objectives
• The student will be able to understand the advantages and disadvantages of multiple-choice tests
• The student will be able to understand the advantages and disadvantages of essay tests
• The student will be able to provide an example of why multiple-choice or essay tests are used
• The student will be better informed of the results produced by multiple-choice, essay, and other tests
Introduction
Throughout school, teachers and other education officials use tests to assess how much information that the students have absorbed. This can be important in different ways depending on how the results will be used.
Figuring out what students have learned in the classroom is an important issue in the education field (Swartz, 2006). Teachers want to know that when they assess what their students have learned that the teachers are using an accurate assessment strategy that will mesh with their learning targets. In the following information, the focus will be on affects of using multiple-choice, essay, or other tests along with why they are used.
Advantages and disadvantages of multiple-choice tests
Multiple-choice testing became popular in the 1900's because of the efficiency that it provided (Swartz, 2006). According to Matzen and Hoyt, "Beginning in 1901, the SAT was a written exam, but as the influence of psychometricians grew in 1926, the SAT became a multiple-choice test" (2006). Until recently, multiple-choice have been favored especially for SAT and ACT testing. For many years now, the SAT test was used for mostly multiple-choice questions and has changed in the past few years so that it now includes an essay section.
Other advantages of multiple-choice tests include how quickly tests can be graded compared to others. There are machines that can quickly grade scantrons as well as bubble sheets that show right and wrong answers quickly for teachers when grading. It is much more cost efficient than having to read over written answers which take time and possibly training depending on who is employed to grade them (Holtzman, 2008).
Others may say that multiple-choice tests are hard. In college, students have said that multiple-choice question tests are long, filled with many words, and very complicated (Holtzman, 2008). Some argue that multiple-choice question tests are based on testing the level of knowledge only and do not show a student's level of comprehension and application of information (Holtzman, 2008). It is hard to judge on a multiple-choice test whether the student guesses the right answer or didn't get the answer right because they were confused and chose one of the other answers (Swartz, 2006).
Advantages and disadvantages of essay tests
Essay tests have started to become more dominant because of the results that come along with it. Essay format questions contain a level of information quality that exceeds that of multiple-choice (Swartz, 2006). According to Swartz (2006), "They provide the opportunity to assess more complex student attributes and higher levels of attribute achievement". Another advantage of an essay is that the teacher can clearly see what the student knows instead of being misconstrued with multiple-choice tests were students can guess the right answers. A student that doesn't do well with test taking may find writing an essay to much more efficient rather than testing knowledge through multiple-choice.
There are also problems associated with essay tests. Administering essay test can be harder and be less cost efficient. There is technology already available for grading multiple-choice tests that take up much less time then grading essay tests. Essays cannot be ran through a bubble sheet optical reader machine that quickly grades scantrons used for multiple choice questions tests. For a professor with over three hundred students, it is much more efficient to use multiple-choice tests than grade three hundred essays. Communication is an important factor as well. For a student that can not write well, they may feel at a disadvantage when being graded by writing an essay. This could be true for someone with a learning disability.
Other Factors to Consider
Note
“If more testing were the answer to the problems in our schools, testing would have solved them a long time ago”
Bill Goodling, chair of House Education Committee
Multiple-choice and essay tests are not the only test out there. The recently modified SAT test states that if you put the wrong answer you will have points taken off in the multiple-choice section. This is an incentive to not fill in the circle unless the student knows the answer or is pretty sure of themselves. There are also short answer tests and fill in the blank, but the most popular are the ones mentioned before.
Other tests may show an excess of seven different multiple-choice answers to choose from. The first three would be regular answers (A, B, or C). The next three answers will be where a student can get half credit for the answer by choosing D ("A or B"), E ("B or C), or F ("A or C"). Then the student will not get full credit by choosing D, E, or F but half credit by being able to narrow the answer down to the two answers they are certain of. The last choice would be G (I don't know). There the student would get a one-third of the credit for being honest rather than no points for guessing a wrong answer (Swartz, 2006).
Conclusion
In conclusion there are many advantages and disadvantages to both multiple-choice and essay tests. The teacher should pick out what is more suitable according to the classroom. Factors that would favor multiple-choice may be large class size, large amount of knowledge, technology already available for scantrons, less time for grading, and students with low writing scores. Factors that would favor essay tests could include smaller class sizes, many student teacher aides to help grade, assessment of application and comprehension, and students with high writing scores. Other tests are also being developed to bring the most from assessing students comprehension of information.
Exercise \(1\)
1. What is an advantage of using an essay test?
A) It costs less money
B) It contains a higher level of information quality
C) It takes a long time to grade
D) It can be graded with a bubble sheet optical reader
2. What is a disadvantage of using multiple-choice tests?
A) Students can guess the answers
B) Tests require scantrons
C) Tests are easier
D) Tests can be graded faster
3. If a teacher has a large group of students in their class, what kind of test would be less time consuming to grade?
A) Fill in the blank test
B) Essay test
C) Oral test
D) Multiple choice test
4. Multiple-choice tests assess mostly what type of cognitive information from students?
A) Evaluation
B) Application
C) Knowledge
D) Comprehension
Answer
1. B
2. A
3. D
4. C | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/17%3A_Instructional_Assessment-_Assessment_Strategies/17.01%3A_Should_I_give_a_multiple-choice_test_an_essay_t.txt |
by Amy B. Williams
Learning Objectives
• Be able to comprehend the important role that journals have in the classroom.
• Understand how journals can be used as an assessment method.
• Comprehend examples of using journals for language, math and science.
Introduction
Who ever said assessment wasn't fun? That is old news as journals are invading the classrooms! Journals have become a wonderful non-traditional assessment tool that falls under the category of personal communication. Teachers are understanding the role that journals have in the classroom and the benefits they provide for students. Journals aren't just for writing your deepest and darkest secrets while being kept hidden under your mattress! Throughout this article you will understand that the purpose of a journal is to allow students to have a voice. A voice that reflects their understanding and knowledge on a subject instead of just reiterating another person's ideas that they have memorized word-for-word. It is an informal style of writing that results in a student thinking for themselves.
I Scream, You Scream, We All Scream For Journals!
All the interest in journals is due to the fact that this type of personal communication encourages students to look at subjects and facts that they may have been intimidated by so the student feels more adventurous and willing to explore their ideas in writing (White, 2008). Journals aren't just for writing either; they can also involve drawing, painting and role-playing (Miami Museum of Science, 2008). If journaling is done correctly it can provide the following information:
• "Help students pinpoint what they know and don't know.
• Connect previous knowledge with what the student is currently studying.
• Summarize what the student understands and their knowledge on a topic.
• Help students understand important questions to ask.
• Help student keep his or her thoughts more organized.
• Support an interdisciplinay approach to education.
• Help student see in a more visual approach to learning.
• Allow student to take a tentative idea and make it more permanent" (Burchfield, 2005).
Students with a journal generally have clearer thoughts and an increased ability to explain a concept while the teacher can truly grasp the type of learner that student really is.
Note
Using Journals In Math
[1]
This is a fantastic website for teachers to use journals in Math class. You can even click on a PDF of a Math Journal! This is a must see!
(Geocities.com, 2008)
Journal: A Teacher's Best Friend
The timing of a journal assignment includes different options with before, during, or after a lesson. There are two general types of journals in a classroom: 1. A journal that students are given very little direction on and the student writes down their thoughts, feelings and ideas, 2. A journal where the student is given a prompt or a specific topic to write on that has boundaries and guidelines needed for accuracy (Miami Museum of Science, 2008). Some teachers assign journal writing without grades. If this is the case, then the teacher will be more apt to correct grammar and spelling and make comments and appropriate praise. Journals also can be used for more class discussion and participation. If a student writes their ideas and understandings down on paper, then greater class discussion results. According to Hillocks, if a teacher uses journals in the classroom it allows that teacher to not only look through a window into how the student is thinking and learning, but how they learn. In other words, a journal shows if a student is struggling with a subject, their strengths and weaknesses, and if there are any misconceptions involved in learning.
According to Burchfied, Journals also answer specific questions for a teacher:
• Can the student organize information?
• Can the student explain a specific concept?
• Does the student use communication skills correctly to communicate an idea?
• Is the student confident in his or her abilities?
• What is the student feeling?
• Is the student's response coherent and well-structured (Burchfield, et al, 200
To give credit to journals for an assessment method is an understatement. It is obvious that journals provide a deeper depth and understanding into a student, which can only benefit teachers. Journals can be as simple as loose leaf papers in a folder, a spiral notebook labeled Journal, or store bought journals.
To Grade Or Not To Grade...
Grades are not necessary in journaling, but it is suggested to follow a specific rubric if assigning a grade. If grades are not given on a specific assignment, here are some great ideas on assessing a student's journal (Burchfield, et al., 2005):
• Because some of the writing is informal it is best to focus on content rather than mechanics.
• Be positive, encouraging and accepting of the student's writing.
• Single out one or two things to comment on and don't undertake the entire journal.
• Be specific when you comment on a specific problem.
• When appropriate, have students edit one another's journal.
• Ask students to read aloud, when appropriate, so the classroom becomes more conducive to sharing and confidence levels increase.
• After students have completed three journal entries, ask them to choose their best entry, revise it and have other students begin peer
editing.
• Allow for more revisions after peer editing and grading then post it on a classroom blog or website.
Again, grading isn't always a definite with journals and should be left up to the discretion of the teacher.
Examples of Journal Assignments: Don't Enter The Classroom Without Them!
Note
Different Types of Journals
Daily Journals
• My most embarrassing moment...
• What I would like to change about school...
• My best friend is...
• The best thing that ever happened to me...
• The saddest thing that ever happened to me...
• What I want to be when I grow up...
• If I could change the world I would...
Specific Subject Prompts
Math
• Does math scare you?
• Design two mathematical bumper stickers--one funny and one serious.
• If I were better at math, I would...
• If math could be a color (shape or sound) it would be...because...
• My best kept secret about math is...
• What kind of math figure are you? (Circle, square, triangle, parallelogram, etc.) Why?
(Geocities.com, 2008)
Language
• Record in journal your personal thoughts and feelings after reading "The Diary of Anne Frank." (or any book the student has read)
• What does Anne's diary tell us about her? (or any main character of a book)
• If you could talk to Anne, what would you ask her? (or any author)
• Give a different ending to the book you just finished.
• What if you were the main character?
• Explain how you feel the character was like in the book.
• Draw a picture of a scene from the book and write a sentence underneath.
• Across the top of your journal write WHO, WHAT, WHERE, WHY and WHEN...answer all these questions.
• Pick a President and write a letter to them about what you wish would be different and why?
• If you could have dinner with any past or present famous person who would it be and why?
• Student writes a paragraph using three vocabulary words written on the board.
• Write four Jeopardy style questions based on the lesson you were just taught.
(Teachervision.com, 2007)
Science
• Have students record any science experiment results over a period of time.
• Record the amount of snowfall over a 2 week period, along with the temperature outside at time of snowfall and the amount of snow.
• Record in journal the stages of a classroom bean seedling during growth stages.
• Record which cup of water (1 hot, 1 cold and 1 room temp)freezes first and how long it took.
(Teachervision.com, 2007)
Final Thoughts
Journals are like a telescope into a student's mind. This type of personal communication allows students to express what they are feeling about specific topics. It is taking learning beyond the basics to see things as they really are and not just skimming the surface. Teachers are in the classroom for a reason, which is to impact the student academically, socially and emotionally. A journal is simply a collection of a student's feelings, ideas and thoughts put down in black and white. Incorporating journals into the classroom takes commitment and organization, but the payoff is an exciting and motivating way for students to learn.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Journals are an assessment method that fall under the category:
a. Selected response
b. Extended written response
c. Performance assessment
d. Personal communication
2. If a journal is used correctly in the classroom, it can:
a. Connect the student's previous knowledge to what they are currently learning.
b. Tell a teacher the student deserves an A or F.
c. Inform the teacher if the student needs a different seating arrangement.
d. Allow the student to ignore the teacher's lesson.
3. The benefit of a journal for a teacher is:
a. One less thing to grade in an overwhelming job.
b. Tells the teacher if the student can explain a specific topic.
c. It helps the classroom seem less cluttered.
d. Allows the teacher to learn more about the student except for how he or she is feeling.
4. Stella has just completed an informal journal assignment for language in Mrs. Williams's classroom. Mrs. Williams is now ready to assess Stella's journal. What is the best method to consider?
a. It is best to focus on Stella's content rather than the mechanics of her journal.
b. Because it is an informal journal assignment, Stella should receive a specific grade.
c. Not even grade Stella's journal because it would focus on her character and not her capability.
d. Never asses a journal because it is to be used as a "filler" assignment when there is free time.
5. Mrs. Williams has just assigned a journal assignment after all the students read "The Diary of Anne Frank." She wants to compare and assess what the students predicted the diary meant to Anne Frank before they read the book and what they feel it meant to her after they finished the book. Why would Mrs. Williams be assessing this?
a. She can't think of another prompt for a journal topic.
b. The students seem like they are losing interest and this is a great way to motivate them.
c. She wants to assess if the students have fully grasped the concept of the diary and how it become a source of support for Anne Frank.
d. She knows Anne Frank is covered on the VA SOL and she feels this would be a good way to teach the students.
Answer
1. d
2. a
3. b
4. a
5. c | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/17%3A_Instructional_Assessment-_Assessment_Strategies/17.02%3A_How_can_student_journals_be_used_for_assessment.txt |
By Morgan Conley
Learning Objectives
• Readers will be able to define Classroom Discussion and recognize which type of Assessment it falls under.
• Readers will be able to summarize the benefits and limitations to using Classroom Discussions for Assessment purposes.
Using Classroom Discussion For Assessment
By incorporating classroom discussion in regular lesson plans, teachers can assess their students based on personal communication and knowledge of the subject matter. This is a form of formative assessment that takes place during the learning process to help the teacher and student understand the discussed information. Class discussion should be used together with other forms of assessment such as written response, selected response, and performance assessment in order to fully assess students. By presenting a question to a class of students, a teacher can open the classroom for discussion and mediate while the students come up with their own conclusions. “The best discussions occur in classrooms in which the teacher models discussion by being a discussant rather than the originator of all ideas” (Dixon, 2000). Not only raw knowledge can be expressed within these discussions; opinions, thoughts, and questions can be spoken freely with regard to the subject being discussed. Students even respond to others, answer each other’s questions, and present new questions or thoughts based on others responses. Students can share their own experiences pertaining to the discussed topic, which can help others learn because they are given clearer and more practical examples.
Note
“Nine tenths of education is encouragement.” -Anatole France
Example & Explanation
An example of this would be a high school art teacher mediating a weekly artwork critique of his or her students’ artwork. The teacher can assess not only the artwork, but also each students thoughts about the artwork based on information presented in class. After the students post each of their works at the front of the class, the teacher goes through each piece and opens a class discussion by asking the students what they like and dislike about the artworks. Other matters and questions can be addressed also. For instance, what elements of art were used? What is the most effective part of this piece of work? What could be changed to make the piece stronger? By engaging each student into the discussion the students are applying the information they have been taught in order to support their own opinions and thoughts. Students may also respond to each others comments by adding to or questioning what was said in response.
Sample Criteria Used To Assess Classroom Discussion
• Does the student stay on topic?
• Does the student show understanding by using subject matter vocabulary appropriately?
• Does the student use concepts and vocabulary learned in the classroom to add weight to his/her opinions and ideas?
• Does the student contribute his/her ideas and/or build upon the ideas of others?
• Is the student respectful to others with respect to differences in opinion?
• Does the student provide constructive criticism to others regarding their thoughts, comments, or work?
Note
“All scholarship, like all science, is an ongoing, open-ended discussion in which all conclusions are tentative forever, the principal value and charm of the game being the discovery of the totally unexpected.”-Hugh W. Nibley
Benefits Of Using Class Discussion
There are numerous benefits to effective class discussion being used for assessment. Number one being it is simply more interesting, fun, and interactive than simply listening to a teacher lecture or by taking a written test in order to assess knowledge of a subject matter. Classroom discussions encourage the practice of social skills and informal oral communication. This is a much-needed skill later in life. Class discussions encourage learning through active participation, comprehension and listening. Even those students who are less inclined to speak up, benefit from class discussions. For these student, the teacher can ask them questions about their own thoughts or to reword what someone else has already said. Class discussions force students to think, solve problems, listen to others, and even analyze other students ideas. This more informal type of assessment can be given in the form of a class participation grade for instance. Students learn to exercise the use of cognitive skills and furthermore, they back up their thoughts with evidence from past in class teachings. Students feel a stronger sense of confidence because they get to say what they think, instead of being told, this is what you should think. Because the teacher acts as a peer listener, responder, questioner, instead of a lecturer, students feel more in control of their learning and in turn become more motivated.
Limitations Of Using Class Discussion
Though there are many benefits, there are also some limitations to using classroom discussions for assessment. For example, this type of assessment is more suited for higher grade levels where students have the mental capacity to participate in a classroom discussion. Other types of assessment must be used in combination with this type of personal communication assessment in order to thoroughly assess a student’s knowledge and application. Classroom discussion alone is not a good way to thoroughly assess students. Then there is the argument that classroom discussion may not be the best way to evaluate all students. What about the shy, introverted students? In a study done in 2008, while comparing students written responses to that of the same students classroom discussion responses, the study proved that written responses were more thorough and not fully manifested within the environment of classroom discussions (Furtak, Erin Marie; Ruiz-Primo, Maria Araceli, 2008). This statement makes a lot of sense when one considers their own writings. People tend to be more descriptive, logical, and meticulous when writing because they most usually think things through thoroughly and write several drafts before the final draft is complete. Whereas, within a class discussion there is no intense brainstorming, outlining, and drafting over the course of several days. You have minutes at best to think about the topic, form an opinion, and speak your mind. Because of this, students tend to use bias, assumption, and judgement in order to form opinions. But is this such a bad thing? Or does this only make classroom discussions more effective when hearing and discussing the opposing views and diverse perspectives of others?
Exercise \(1\)
(1) What Form of Assessment does Classroom Discussion fall under?
A. Written Response
B. Performance Assessment
C. Selected Answer Response
D. Personal Communication
(2) Which of the following BEST describes Classroom Discussion?
A. Formal Assessment
B. Performance Assessment
C. Formative Assessment
D. Summative Assessment
(3) Mrs. Williams is a Drawing teacher at a High School. She has all of her students post their latest assignment on the board at the front of the classroom. She then asks her students what they like and dislike about each piece or artwork. She also asks them to comment on what can be changed in order to make each piece stronger. What is this an example of?
A. Lecture
B. Formal Assessment
C. Class Discussion
D. Selected Answer Response
(4) Which of the following answers BEST demonstrates Classroom Discussion?
A. An oral presentation by a student about their favorite artist.
B. A teacher begins class by asking his/her students "What is Art?" and various students respond with their opinions.
C. A classroom is broken up into groups of 4 students in order to discuss their group project.
D. A teacher begins class by lecturing while using a Powerpoint presentation.
Answer
(1) D
(2) C
(3) C
(4) B | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/17%3A_Instructional_Assessment-_Assessment_Strategies/17.03%3A_How_can_classroom_discussions_be_used_for_asses.txt |
by Aaron Burdon
An Observation...
I have been observing Mr. Charles Kennison’s 5th Grade class for the last couple weeks as a student observer and I have been fascinated at the level of involvement and enthusiasm for learning that his students have. Recently, when the students were dismissed for lunch, I was trying to figure out what to do with my time until the students returned. Mr. Kennison offered for me to sit in on what he referred to as something like a coaching session. Two of his students were going to bring their lunches back to the classroom to engage in one on one conferences with Kennison over their struggles with reading.
I felt uncomfortable at first, but Mr. Kennison assured me that it would be no problem and in fact, I would be most welcome. When I was growing up, a one-on-one conference with the teacher during lunch usually was a form of discipline; however, when these two students arrived with their lunches, they seemed almost very nonchalant about it, as if it were part of the norm. These were not students that struck me as behavior challenges and as one would meet privately with Kennison, I would informally chat with the other about various topics. It occurred to me that this personal attention to each student’s individual needs was likely the reason why the class as a whole remained deeply involved and enthusiastic about learning.
Kennison is in keeping with one of the main points of Susan M. Brookhart’s article “Feedback that Fits,” that the most effective feedback begins with knowing your students well. (Brookhart,2007/2008) These short lunchtime conferences that he has with his students allow for him to give direct, personal attention to each of his students while also instilling in them a boost of confidence in their potential for learning.
What is a personal conference?
Personal communication is just one of the many methods available for teachers to assess for learning. To put it simply, a personal conference is a conversation with a student to assess where they are and where they need to be. This kind of personalized attention, a part of Differentiated Instruction allows us to be much more effective as instructors and match the material to the students’ needs and interests. It makes it relevant to their lives and generates a sense of ownership in their own learning. (Tomlinson, 1999) As the methods of instruction and assessment continue to evolve in today’s school systems, this kind of one on one attention is vital and bears many fruit.
What are the advantages to personal conferences?
First and perhaps most important, a personal conference gives an instructor insight to where the student feels he or she is in regard to learning the necessary targets of the curriculum. The teacher also can get feedback on his or her own effectiveness in instruction and can use this feedback to tweak instruction as needed. It can also reinforce for the instructor what is working and reaching the students.
Another advantage of a personal conference is that it isolates the student from the peer pressures and self-censorship that can be prevalent in a full classroom. The feedback one receives from a student in such a conference is likely to be more genuine than if given in front of other students.
Note
To learn more about Dr. Carol Ann Tomlinson and her studies in Differentiated Instruction, visit her website at www.caroltomlinson.com.
What are the disadvantages?
One of the major disadvantages to conducting personal conferences with every student is the time that it consumes. When should it be scheduled. Should it be scheduled during class, after class, or in between class? Even the most effective personal conferencing require the instructor to manage his or her time wisely so that it does not interfere with the advancement of the rest of the class. Like with Mr. Kennison, conducting these assessments during lunchtime consume time that could be spent grading papers or just allowing the instructer to take a break. There is a tremendous sacrifice in taking a personal interest in the academic careers of ones students.
The other side of the challenge is for those who schedule these conferences during class. Often focusing 100% of an instructors attention on one student leaves the others neglected. Not every teacher has the luxury of self-motivated students or a teachers assistant to monitor them. Figuring out what to do with the other students can become more of a challenge than the conference itself.
So, what about before or after class? Now, you begin to not only interfere with the students personal time, which will require some parental contact, but also begins to take away at the teacher's personal time as well. We got into teaching for a variety of reasons, but one can assume that losing ones free time was not one of them.
Making the personal conference effective
So, how does one make the most out of these personal conferences? First of all, make sure that your students see it as a good thing, not a punishment. A great way to do this is to make sure you are consistent with them. If you only bring a student in for conference if they are performing poorly, it could be devostating to the fragile egos of young learners when you ask them to meet with you.
Another way to get the most out of these conferences is to give equal share to everyone. It isn't always the poor performers who need attention and oftentimes, those who are gifted also need similar attention. (Tomlinson, 2007/2008) Keep in mind that personal communication with ones students as a means of assessment does not necessarily need to be formal. Sometimes a casual chat out of the context of school can provide key insight into students minds and where they see themselves going.
Conclusions
While it is surely not the only method of personalized instruction, personal conferences with ones students can truly advance the individual understanding of their needs and motivations. Although they can be time consuming and require teachers to go beyond the curriculum, effective personal conferences can enhance an entire classroom, one student at a time.
Exercise \(1\)
1) What exactly is a personal conference?
A) a conversation with a student to assess where they are and where they need to be.
B) an informal chat with a small group of students on the challenges they are having in the classroom.
C) a critical meeting between parents, teachers, and students to develop an action plan when a child is performing poorly.
D) a meeting between the instructor and the principal to review the performance of the students and make critical tweaks to the instruction according to their opinions.
2) Which of these is NOT an advantage to conducting personal conferences with students?
A) It gives feedback on the possible strengths and weaknesses of the student.
B) It gives feedback on the possible strengths and weaknesses of the instructor.
C) It should always be conducted after school with parents permission.
D) It isolates the student from the pressures of classmates to receive more genuine feedback.
3) Which of these examples would be considered the best example of an effective personal conference?
A) An online chat with a group of students about the obstacles they are having with their group project.
B) A one-on-one chat with a student during lunchtime away from the cafeteria in an empty classroom.
C) A formal meeting before class with the student, his or her parents, and the principal.
D) Keeping a student after class to write a misspelled word 100 times on the chalkboard to enhance learning.
4) What is a reasonable disadvantage to conducting personal conferences with every student?
A) Students often see a personal meeting with the teacher as a punishment.
B) Most students are more likely to speak their mind in front of the class instead of by themselves.
C) Effective personal conferencing with students often leave the rest of the class unattended and therefore hinders learning.
D) It may require a large time commitment from the instructor beyond the regular class instruction.
Answer
1) = A) It is a conversation with a student to assess where they are and where they need to be.
2) = C) Conferences can be scheduled at any time and parents do not always need to be notified.
3) = B) The key here is one on one. Effective personal conferences do not always have to be formal.
4) = D) Even the most effective personal conferencing could consume a lot of the instructors time beyond the regular class time. | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/17%3A_Instructional_Assessment-_Assessment_Strategies/17.04%3A_How_can_personal_conferences_be_used_for_assess.txt |
By Heather Campbell
Learning Objectives
• Identify types of multiple choice questions
• Define some guidelines for creating multiple choice questions. .
Multiple choice questions
Multiple choice questions are questions with multiple specific choices. The questions may have multiple correct answers or only one.
Pros
There are many positive points to multiple choice questions. The questions are easy to grade and can even be done by a computer using a scantron system. Even with out a computer a teacher can grade a large amount of tests in a short amount of time allowing more time for teaching and planning. They reduce bias as there is a finite right and wrong answer, all questions are graded on the same scale. Tests can even be graded with out any knowledge of who the student is. Questions can be formatted to asses a large amount of knowledge in a short time. The questions easily asses knowledge while allowing for application and reasoning questions as well.
Cons
There are also negatives associated with multiple choice questions. The questions can be hard to form, and time consuming to create. The questions have to be written to where every student can understand and come up with the answer. Questions can leave no room for students to extend their answers.
In the End
Due to large class sizes and limited teaching resources multiple choice questions are the tests of the future. It is very important for educators to learn how to create multiple choice questions that can test a wide range of student abilities.
Classifying Questions
Multiple choice questions are classified in two ways. The first way is how a question is asked, the second is what the question is asking.
Form
According to the teaching effectiveness program form the University of Oregon there are five types of multiple choice questions used to elicit critical thinking.
• problem/solution evaluation - show how a student has responded to a problem and then choose if the response is appropriate.
• incomplete scenario - using a diagram or writing leave parts out of the whole and ask to fill in the blanks.
• case study - using an elaborate example or chart multiple questions can be created.
• analogy - using two different elements to compare things.
• premise-consequence - requires students to determine outcome of a given problem.
(Cooper, 2000)
Function
Blooms taxonomy describes different learning targets physiological definitions as to what kind of information the question is asking.
• Knowledge - the ability to memorize and recall.
• Comprehension - the ability to comprehend the jest of the material.
• Application - the ability to use knowledge in novel situations.
• Analysis - the ability to divide things into parts.
• Synthesis - the ability to create a novel idea from analysis parts.
• Evaluation - the ability to judge material.
(Carneson, Delpierre, and Masters, 1996)
Each question style elicits different understandings of the material. Multiple choice questions Bloom found were mainly knowledge. Educators looking to enrich students ability to problem solve and apply knowledge to everyday situations should focus on a more diverse testing. Synthesis by definition does not lean its self towards multiple choice questions.
Application
Why is knowing how to ask questions and what questions ask important?
A good test will have variety in the questions it asks as well as having questions that test the students skills. If a test is all knowledge questions than a student that has little knowledge of the topic but can recognize words might still be able to pass. By mixing in application, reading, and analysis questions a teacher can more adequately reward students for their knowledge on the topic. In the box above there is a chart of Bloom's verbs can help teachers determine what a level of question a teacher has written.
A question should only have one answer that can be determined correct. When there are multiple right answers it can confuse even knowledgeable students. Putting answers in alphabetical order will help limit patterns in correct answers.
Example
1. What caused World War One?
• a. Assassination of Franz Ferdinan.
• b. Democratic nations fear of Communism.
• c. Treaties of nations.
• d. Trade in global economy.
All of the answers in the question can be considered causes of World War One making the question difficult to answer. If the question asked instead What event sparked World War One? it would lead student to pick A as the correct answer.
Carnet Reference system lists ten golden rules for writing multiple choice questions.
• 1. Examine only the important facts!
Questions should be geared towards the learning targets.
• 2. Use simple language!
Errors can confuse students, the test should test the material not the students vocabulary.
• 3. Make the questions brief and clear!
Getting rid of the fluff helps students understand what the question is asking.
• 4. Form the questions correctly!
Bad grammar can set students off to a wrong answer.
• 5. Take into consideration the independence of questions!
Questions should not be able to be used to answer another question.
• 6. Offer uniform answers!
Uniform answers in length prevents students from using answer construction from picking the right answer.
• 7. Avoid asking negative questions!
If you must use a negative question make sure to Emphasis NOT so as not to confuse the student.
• 8. Avoid distracters in the form of "All the answers are correct" or "None of the answers is correct"!
• 9. Distracters must be significantly different from the right answer (key)!
Wrong answers only a little different from the correct answer can confuse even intelligent students.
• 10. Offer an appropriate number of distracters!
More wrong answers means its harder to pick the right answer out randomly.
wwww.carnet.hr/referalni/obrazovni/en/spzit/theory/mcqwrite
Conclusion
Due to large classrooms and limited numbers of teachers multiple choice questions are here to stay. Writing a question can require time and skills but there are a few important things to keep in mind when it comes to writing questions. It is important to keep questions simple, grammatically correct and aimed at the learning targets.
Exercise \(1\)
1. Rules of writing a good answer includes all of the following except which answer?
• a. Always make sure the right answer varies throughout tests.
• b. Follow grammar rules for all answers when not testing grammar.
• c. Gear all questions to the learning targets.
• d. Use uniform construction to all answers.
2. Questions involving splitting material into parts require what kind of thought according to Bloom's Taxonomy?
• a. About.
• b. Analysis.
• c. Knowledge
• d. Understanding
3. The question in the box below contains what kind of question.
93. Elephants are to mice as jungle cats are to what?
• a. Clowns.
• b. Dart frogs.
• c. Leaves.
• d. Tigers.
• a. Analogy.
• b. Case study.
• c. Consequence.
• d. Problem evaluation.
4. Students are given an assignment to study biomes, and what kind of animals live in different biomes by reading an article, what would be an appropriate question to put on a quiz the next day related to the assignment?
• a. How many kinds of plants are found in arid biomes?
• b. What kinds of biomes have large cats living in them?
• c. What causes biomes to form?
• d. Where is the hottest biomes in the world?
Answer
1. A
2. B
3. A
4. B | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/17%3A_Instructional_Assessment-_Assessment_Strategies/17.05%3A_What_is_the_best_way_to_write_good_multiple-cho.txt |
Learning Objectives
• Understand the benefits of essay questions for both Students and Teachers
• Identify when essays are useful
Introduction
Essays, along with multiple choice, are a very common method of assessment. Essays offer a means completely different than that of multiple choice. When thinking of a means of assessment, the essay along with multiple choice are the two that most come to mind (Schouller).The essay lends itself to specific subjects; for example, a math test would not have an essay question. The essay is more common in the arts, humanities and the social sciences(Scouller). On occasion an essay can be used used in both physical and natural sciences as well(Scouller). As a future history teacher, I will find that essays will be an essential part of my teaching structure.
The Benefits for Students
By utilizing essays as a mean of assessments, teachers are able to better survey what the student has learned. Multiple choice questions, by their very design, can be worked around. The student can guess, and has decent chance of getting the question right, even if they did not know the answer. This blind guessing does not benefit the student at all. In addition, some multiple choices can deceive the student(Moore). Short answers, and their big brother the essay, work in an entirely different way. Essays remove this factor. in a addition, rather than simply recognize the subject matter, the student must recall the material covered. This challenges the student more, and by forcing the student to remember the information needed, causes the student to retain it better. This in turn reinforces understanding(Moore). Scouller adds to this observation, determining that essay assessment "encourages students' development of higher order intellectual skills and the employment of deeper learning approaches; and secondly, allows students to demonstrate their development."
Note
"Essay questions provide more opportunity to communicate ideas. Whereas multiple choice limits the options, an essay allows the student express ideas that would otherwise not be communicated." (Moore)
The Benefits for Teachers
The matter of preparation must also be considered when comparing multiple choice and essays. For multiple choice questions, the instructor must choose several questions that cover the material covered. After doing so, then the teacher has to come up with multiple possible answers. This is much more difficult than one might assume. With the essay question, the teacher will still need to be creative. However, the teacher only has to come up with a topic, and what the student is expected to cover. This saves the teacher time. When grading, the teacher knows what he or she is looking for in the paper, so the time spent reading is not necessarily more. The teacher also benefits from a better understanding of what they are teaching. The process of selecting a good essay question requires some critical thought of its own, which reflects onto the teacher(Moore).
Conclusion
Multiple Choice. True or False. Short Answer. Essay. All are forms of assessment. All have their pros and cons. For some, they are better suited for particular subjects. Others, not so much. Some students may even find essays to be easier. It is vital to understand when it is best to utilize the essay. Obviously for teachers of younger students, essays are not as useful. However, as the age of the student increase, the importance of the essay follows suit. That essays are utilized in essential exams such as the SAT, SOLs and in our case the PRAXIS demonstrates how important essays are. However, what it ultimately comes down to is what the teacher feels what will best assess what has been covered.
Exercise \(1\)
1)What Subject would most benefit from essays?
A: Anatomy
B: Mathematics for the Liberal Arts
C: Survey of American Literature
D: Golf
2)What is an advantage of essay assessment for the student?
A) They allow for better expression
B) There is little probability for randomness
C) The time taken is less overall
D) A & B
3)What is NOT a benefit of essay assessment for the teacher
A)They help the instructor better understand the subject
B)They remove some the work required for multiple choice
C)The time spent on preparation is less
D) There is no noticeable benefit.
4)Issac is a teacher making up a test. The test will have multiple sections: Short answer, multiple choice, and an essay. What subject does Issac MOST LIKELY teach?
A)History
B)Cooking
C)Calculus
D)Botony
Answer
1) C
2) D
3) D
4) A | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/17%3A_Instructional_Assessment-_Assessment_Strategies/17.06%3A_What_are_the_benefits_of_essay_tests.txt |
By Megan Ricardo
Learning Objectives
• Readers should be able to fully understand what a rubric is.
• Readers will start to understand how rubrics can be assessed.
• Readers will learn how to use portfolios in a variety of class subjects.
What is a Portfolio?
A portfolio has been defined as "a purposeful collection of student work that exhibits the student's efforts, progress, and achievements in one or more areas, the collection must include student participation in selecting contents, and show evidence of self-reflection (Paulson 1991). Rubrics have been used for several years in classes such as english and art, however are becoming more popular and are gaining more support in terms of assessment. A portfolio is basically a way for a student to reflect work done, and perhaps see growth building learning provided by the student himself. Portfolios are also used to be sent into some colleges or jobs, it provides an example of your current values and the way you make choices, without you even knowing it (Paulson 1991)! Assessment is becoming harder and harder with pressure on scaffolding and building learning for each individual. A portfolio allows "staff and students to understand the educational process at the level of the individual," making the learning and assessment based on the individual and not the general class such as a test (Paulson 1991). By learning more about portfolio and portfolio assessment, we as educated teachers can decide how they might be used in our own classrooms.
Note
"Portfolios allow students to assume ownership in ways that few other instructional approaches allow, it requires students to collect and reflect on examples of their work, providing both an instructional component to the curriculum and offering the opportunity for authentic assessments" (Paulson 1991)
Guidelines for Realizing the Power of Portfolios
Portfolios include the power to reveal a lot about their creator and their learning in a formal way (Paulson). This power would not be useful if several key characteristics mentioned in the article "What makes a Portfolio a Portfolio" are not kept in mind. First, the portfolio must allow the student to learn about learning, this makes them involved and actively aware of the process. Second, the portfolio must be done "by the student and not to the student," this helps the student to "value themselves as learners". Third, the portfolio is not a cumulative folder, the student must be concise in deciding what will go into the portfolio, not everything should be in there. Fourth, the portfolio must contain the following parts, the rationale, intents of the student, contents, standards, and judgements as well as a reflection. This will allow students to "bring understandings and applications to the surface, thus encouraging metacognitive and reflective thinking (King 2008). Fifth, work should be kept throughout the year with the portfolio in mind but may be sorted through before producing the final portfolio. This is a great chance for students to keep up with unfinished work. Sixth, a portfolio may have multiple purposes but they should never conflict. Seventh, the portfolio should have information that shows growth within the class period. If there is no growth in a full year this may be a sign that learning did not occur. And finally, these portfolios will not happen themselves, be sure to guide the students and give proper instruction to make this a learning tool and not a punishment or stressful activity.
The impact of Portfolios as a tool of Assessment
Portfolios are different than standardized tests. Some argue that they are better, some argue they are worse. Naturally two sides will occur. The best we can do is to examine the characteristics of assessment and make the choice ourself. Achievement tests can give outcomes which can be "counted and accounted," yet "portfolio assessment offers the opportunity to observe students in a broader context: taking risks, developing creative solutions, and learning to make judgements about their own performances. (Paulson 1991). One of the problems of assessments such as tests or rubrics is that the student is only allowed statistics to be produced of their work, portfolio assessment is different. The student puts so much into the portfolio, the teacher is almost an outsider looking in when they grade it, on tests or rubrics, the teacher is looking for something they wrote down to look for. Portfolios allow a teacher to be taught on what might come out of the portfolio. "Portfolios provide an intersection between instruction and assessment and a means for the student to value themselves as learners, (King 2008) this helps students to be more positive and creative when turning in their portfolio which will thus produce a more satisfying grade. Since a student may not know what to put into the portfolio, teachers can guide the student by giving them "key assignments," these allow students to "write a metacognitive description explaining their thinking on how they showed the connections among theories" (King 2008). The key assignments are basically just main subjects from which a student can pick one of their works to relate to. Using portfolios can strongly help assessment in the classroom.
Ways to use Portfolios in a variety of classes
Up to this point, you may have been thinking a portfolio is only useful in art. But portfolios have been effectively used in many different subject areas. There are different kinds of portfolios and perhaps by looking at them we can get ideas of which ones we might be able to use for which subjects. A showcase portfolio "displays the candidate's depth of knowledge and is a compilation of successfully completed work" (King 2008). A great example of this kind of portfolio would be an art portfolio including several pieces of work, or maybe a history portfolio containing maps or other related works, or perhaps a Spanish portfolio of different Spanish speaking countries and information about each. Next there is a formative portfolio which "illustrates a student's learning processes over time and demonstrates growth" (King 2008). An example of this type of portfolio might be an English portfolio containing papers, poems or other forms of literature. Also, a math portfolio containing several examples of the main points of each chapter and how to do the problems step by step with the students comments on the best way to learn how to do this problem. Either way you look at it, showcase or formative, a portfolio can be used in any classroom in multiple ways but still holds the same benefits of the assessment of it.
Example Portfolio Assessment
This is an example of a perfect portfolio assessment sheet/rubric. By scrolling down to the "Content Assessment Rubric" we can see an assessment of a portfolio. (Click the one to go to the link) [1] (Gonzalez 2004). This is an example of a rubric to grade a portfolio keeping in mind the student's process of creating the portfolio and the individual. It shows how a portfolio might be graded for not only completion but elements required for the full learning through using the portfolio to occur. This is a good example because it does not only grade on content but also on what the student did to further their learning and how effective the assignment was and it even goes as far as showing the effectiveness of the learning outcomes. This is a strong rubric with high expectations of learning to have happened in making the portfolio, a perfect assessment for this type of assignment.
Conclusion
Portfolios have "become a mechanism to guide our own individual practices," the students are learning how to learn and the teachers are being taught by what the students have learned. By reflection on what a portfolio is, how it can be used, and its relationship to assessment, we as teachers can now start to form our opinion about using portfolios. The way we use a portfolio will vary from class to class and subject to subject, but one thing will always remain the same, "a portfolio provides a forum that encourages students to develop the abilities needed to become independent, self-directed learners," (Paulson 1991) and when they have done this, is our job of assessment not already half over?
Exercise \(1\)
1. What is a characteristic of a portfolio?
A. Allows students to fill out multiple choice questions.
B. Contains all documents from the entire course.
C. Must show reflection in the portfolio making process.
D. None of the above.
2. What are the two types of portfolios?
A. Formative and Summative
B. Formal and Informal.
C. Showcase and Formative.
D. Terrible and Good.
3. Which assignment listed below could a portfolio and portfolio assessment be used in to effectively grade a students learning:
A. A study of painting and growth of students painting technique
B. Doing a collection of history maps and reflecting on old maps versus new maps.
C. A and B
D. Neither A or B.
4. A Portfolio cannot be used to grade:
A. A students growth in general writing processes.
B. A multiple choice math problem assignment.
C. A collection of designs for a small engine project.
D. A compilation of poems written in a Spanish class.
Answer
1 C
2 C
3 C
4 B | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/17%3A_Instructional_Assessment-_Assessment_Strategies/17.07%3A_How_can_portfolios_be_used_for_assessment.txt |
Lauren Kathryn Crawford
Preparation, sweaty palms, anxiety over the results, these could all either be symptoms of a hot date, or of the dreaded t-word, test. In particular standardized testing which causes anxiety to everyone in the educational system from the President of the United States, to school boards, principals, teachers and students.
In the following article we are going to discuss the standardized testing, its' criticisms, the necessity for its' existence, and how to use the results as an instructor to help narrow achievement gaps.
Note
A principal from an Appalachian school in eastern Kentucky,
"There's a school eighteen miles down the road that has 80%
of the kids on free and reduced lunch... and they are at a
Higher absolute rank," to his teaching staff, "Don't bring up
to me about how our kids are disadvantaged. 'That dog won't
hunt!'"
Learning Objectives
• The student will be able to identify basic subject areas of standardized testing and understand how it is scored.
• The student will be able to identify the arguments against standardized testing.
• The student will be able to identify the benefits of standardized testing.
• The student will be able to recognize some ways that results can help him/her as an instructor to help narrow achievement gaps in their classroom.
Standardized Testing
Since the 1970's, standardized tests have been the aim of much criticism in the United States, but their basic purpose is to serve as a measure or rule of preparedness in the early grades and mastery of core subject matter in later grades (Rock, Stenner, 2005).
School entry test like the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised and The Stanford Binet- Intelligence tests are intended to determine the readiness levels of kindergartners entering schools (Rock, Stenner, 2005). These tests measure the vocabulary and cognitive ability of a child(Rock, Stenner, 2005). Similar tests are conducted in groups or individually throughout the year and many of these tests are adaptive and measure progress,they are not static measures that result in either a passing or failing grade (Rock, Stenner, 2005). An adaptive test instead uses what is known as a floor/ceiling rule (Rock, Stenner, 2005). This rule means that (in the case of vocabulary testing) a group of words will be easy for the student, falling below the floor, while a group of words will be more difficult for the student, above the ceiling (Rock, Stenner, 2005). Throughout the year progress will dictate what level the ceiling and floor will move to (Rock, Stenner, 2005).
Other tests, like the SOL used in Virginia are used to determine mastery of core subject matter taught throughout the year (Bagin, 1994). Generally, these tests measure understanding in mathematics, science, reading and writing (Bagin, 1994). Some tests, the SOL is an example, are given at a predetermined time and scoring is based on either multiple choice, short answer or open response (Bagin,Stenner 1994). Another type of testing, used in states like Kentucky uses a portfolio system that students add to all year long in conjunction with a time allotted test at another time of the year (Wolf, Borko, Elliot, 2000).
All of these tests are graded on a percentile system (Rock, Stenner, 2005). That is, how well the student does on the test in comparison with other students tested at the same grade level (Rock, Stenner, 2005). For example, a student who scores in the 90th percentile has done better than 90 percent of other students taking the test (How Standardized Testing, 2009). A student that test in the 10th percentile has only done better than 10 percent of his/her peers (How Standardized Testing, 2009).
Scores on these tests are used in a number of ways. Collectively, nation-wide these scores tell our president how well our students are doing as a whole and at the state level (Bagin, 1994). States allocate funding based on test results and individual schools determine which programs need more improvement (King, Houston, Middleton, 2000). Teachers use these scores to evaluate their teaching methods and yes, these scores are also used at times to determine the readiness of students to continue to the next grade level (Rock, Stenner, 2005).
Criticisms of Standardized Testing
Opponents to current standardized testing techniques dislike test like the Peabody and the SOL for a number of reasons, but the two main arguments are against their reliability and what they see as racial bias existing in the questions themselves.
In order for a test to be deemed useful, it must above all else be reliable (Rock, Stenner, 2005). That is that results should be consistent (Rock, Stenner, 2005). One way tests are measured for consistency is by doing sample runs with panels of a representative sample of students (Rock, Stenner, 2005). Sample runs of the tests are conducted in two different ways:
1. Two versions of the test with like questions are run. If the test is reliable similar results should be yielded by both groups of test takers (Rock, Stenner, 2005).
2. A single test is randomly and equally divided (Rock, Stenner, 2005). This test is ran and reliability is determined by the similarity of these results (Rock, Stenner, 2005).
The results of these sample runs are measured in much the same way that standardized tests results are measured. A rating of 90% means a test yields similar results 90 percent of the time while a rating of 10% would mean that the test yields similar results only ten percent of the time.
Because it is generally accepted that the range of achievement cannot be accurately predicted; a reliability rating of eighty-percent or more is seen as acceptable by national standards and critics disagree (Thernstrom, 1992).
Critics believe that if a test yields dissimilar results even only twenty percent of the time that the test could not possibly be measuring what it is intended to (Thernstrom, 1992(.
Other critics of the tests believe that they are racially biased for a number of reasons (King et al., 2000). One basis for this belief is that the achievement gap between students of European heritage typically score much higher than minorities do (Thernstrom, 1992). One test for scholastic readiness showed that when test results were compared between students of European heritage and those of African descent, the former group scored higher seventy-six percent of the time, while the latter only scored higher twenty-four (Rock, Stenner, 2005).
On the other hand,some questions are viewed as being racially biased because they are deemed as culturally irrelevant (Thernstrom, 1992). For example, a question that asks "What is the name of a baby cow?", is more relevant to someone growing up in a rural area than someone living in an urban one (Thernstrom, 1992). Some critiques even believe that language tests are racially biased because they see one form of spoken language as correct while another form of the same language as incorrect (Thernstrom, 1992).
A Need For Change: The Case for Standardized Testing
While both critiques and proponents of standardized testing could debate their sides all day, the need to assess students to determine both their progress and the progress of their teachers and schools is undeniable.
Standardized testing evaluates students early in their education on their readiness both scholastically and behaviorally (Rock, Stenner, 2005). Students and their parents are able to measure at least generally their progress and areas in which they need improvement (Wolf et al., 2000).
In older grades standardized testing measures where students rate in comparison with their peers and thus how the student and his teachers are doing (Bagin, 1994). While these test do rate students according to how well they do on these tests, some schools have used these scores to reform their systems and in turn drastically improve their methods (Wolf et al., 2000).
Schools in economically devastated areas like the ones in eastern Kentucky, have under the strong leadership of their principals and the dedication of their teachers achieved higher ratings (Wolf et al., 2000). One principal of such a school stated, "there's a school 18 miles down the road that has 80% of their kids on free and reduced lunch... and they have made progress and are at a higher absolute rank." To his teachers this same principal would say, " Don't bring up to me about how our kids are disadvantaged. That dog won't hunt." The latter part of the statement is a local expression he used in this case to mean that excuses would not help their school improve (Wolf et al., 2000).
Instead of making excuses, schools that have taken poor standardized testing results and used them to improve their schools, have used them more in how one principal put it, as "stock market quotes." They see poor results in one area as a flag to improve that department (Wolf et al., 2000). They have teachers take classes in new teaching methods and they work together to see that their children improve (Wolf et al., 2000).
While the jury is still out on whether or not there is a better method of determining individual student progress. The need for a common measure to compare students to bring about change is still more present than ever.
How to use Standardized Testing Results to Bridge Achievement Gaps
So the question is, is if these test are not completely reliable, and if they are irrelevant to some students, how do we change that?
The answer: Be Innovative Forward Thinking Teachers!
The best teachers, one principal, stated were teachers that were in fact themselves learners (Wolf et al., 2000). Actively seeking out new methods to add to and modify their instruction (Wolf et al., 2000). The teachers that work together with parents and their fellow students as well as counselors to understand individual needs (Wolf et al.). Lastly the teachers that ignore the pessimism of others and raise expectation levels of their students and make the material relevant for those it might not other wise be ( Wolf et al., 2000).
Several companies currently travel from state to state and hold seminars and lesson demos (Wolf, et al., 2000). These seminars cover an array of matter from core areas like writing and math to how to incorporate technology into their lessons (Wolf et al., 2000). The attitude today is to work smarter not harder (Wolf et al., 2000). Teachers that attend these continuing education generally report positive feedback (Wolf et al., 2000). One teacher reported after a lesson demo on writing where they had students add a reflection to a narrative assignment, "I think what I've learned here is not something completely different from what I've been doing all together but adding to it. I'm really excited about this!" Other lessons show teachers how to incorporate technology into their daily activities to make planning easier and to tie lessons together (Wolf et al., 2000).
Also, schools seemed to do better when the idea of community was present.(Wolf et al., 2000) At one school where major improvements have been said to occur a teacher spoke of how there was a concept of the students being the schools responsibility and not just the particular teacher that they happened to have that year (Wolf et al., 2000). Dedicated teachers attend meetings sometimes daily with other teachers and counselors of the students to better grasp their backgrounds and particular predicaments (Wolf et al., 2000).
Lastly, despite criticisms of standardized testing, the proficient teachers of today do not accept that their students have limitations, or are incapable of learning any given concept. Instead these teacher work hard everyday to make material relevant for their children and develop lesson plans that speak to individual lesson plans.
Note
Tips to Narrow Achievement Gaps
1. Ask parents to talk to their kids and explain the importance of education to them; that education is a necessary step to professional success in America.(In a study high achievers commonly had parents that expressed these views.)(Lee, 1994)
2. Assess students often to keep track of their progress and give encouragement throughout the school year.
3. Understand that poor assessments might be the result of language barriers or a stressful home environment, have a plan to address these types of issues(Lee, 1994).
Exercise \(1\)
1. A student that scores in the 90th percentile on a standardized test like the SOL has scored how?
a) Better than 90 percent of his/her peers.
b) Worse than 90 percent of his/her peers.
c) Worse than 90 of his/her peers.
d) Better than 90 of his/her peers.
2. Which of these is NOT a criticism of standardized testing?
a)It is unreliable.
b)Its' results can be used by teachers and the educational system as a whole to improve their methods.
c)It is racially biased because it asks questions that are unrelated to some students' culture.
d)It puts unreasonable pressure on students and teachers to do well.
3. A teacher has just reviewed the results from this years SOL. She notices that even her students who received high scores in both the math and verbal seemed to fail to grasp long division. She should...
a)Focus on verbal instruction since the students did well in that area.
b)Use the same verbal instruction method year after year since that seemed to work and reform her long division plans.
c) Reteach the lesson in long division and find a reliable teacher whose students did well on that part of the test for some ideas on how to improve her instruction.
d) Give up, these disadvantaged kids are incapable of learning anything anyway!
4. A quiet, hard working young Asian student Chris Young is getting farther and farther behind in his studies and has done poorly on the reading portion of his SOL. He refuses to go to after school help sessions and only socializes with other Asian students. All of the following might encourage this student to do better EXCEPT...
a)Give Chris a sheet of resources that offer online help to students with language barriers. Being online might reduce any embarrassment he may have in learning English as a second language if this is a problem he is encountering.
b)Discuss his progress with his family. In some Asian cultures failure is seen as an embarrassment and Chris might not admit that he is having difficulty before it is too late.
c)Create lesson plans that allow for group work so that Chris has a chance to socialize with different types of students and might be more comfortable with getting help.
d)Ignore the issue Asian kids ALWAYS do better on things like standardized testing, this is obviously a failure of the test
Answer
1. A
2. B
3. C
4. D | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/18%3A_Instructional_Assessment_-_Standardized_Testing/18.01%3A_What_is_the_case_for_standardized_testing.txt |
By: Kathryn Morris
Learning Objectives
By reading this article, the reader should gain an understanding about the negative problems that standardized testing creates. They should learn about how students do not gain the in depth educational value from the multiple choice questions on these tests that they would from other types of assessments. The reader will also learn about the limitations that standardized tests place on the curriculum taught to students by the teachers, as well as the biases that these tests can have. Finally, the reader will learn about the anxiety created by these tests for students and teachers due to the adequate yearly progress that is mandated by the No Child Left Behind Act.
Introduction
Standardized testing has become a prevalent normality in the public schools in the United States due to the standards put into place by the No Child Left Behind Act. Public schools all over the country are reliant on the scores from these tests given to their children. Because of No Child Left Behind, every student in third grade to twelfth grade must be tested by state standardized tests. While these tests can be used by the state and national government to determine whether or not schools are meeting their specified adequate yearly progress or not, there are also many negative aspects of these tests.
Note
Important Information About Standardized Tests for Parents
KidSource
Family Education
Memorization vs. Evaluation
By making students take standardized tests, they are not required to apply their knowledge of the information that has been taught to them by their teachers. To save time and money, most of these tests that are given to students consist of only multiple choice questions (Winerip, 2006). With this type of test they simply have to recall information and memorize facts that they know will appear on the tests. Multiple choice questions do not require them to apply or evaluate the information they learned (Winerip, 2006). While multiple choice standardized tests may be good for the states because they save time and money, they may not be the most beneficial to the students taking them for their educational future.
Limited Curriculum
Standardized tests can also be detrimental to teachers who are educating the children. The curriculum that they are required to teach is severely limited to the material that they are told will be on the test. This practice of teaching is referred to as “teaching to the test” because the educators do not get much of a chance to teach other pertinent information (National Center for Fair and Open Testing, 2007). Because of the pressure placed onto the teachers for their students to do well on these tests, they are forced to allow ample time for the children to learn this specified material. This does not allow much time, if any, for the teachers to expand the curriculum to teach material that may be more interesting or fun for the children. Creative and interesting teaching methods are halted so that only material tested on standardized tests is taught to the children (National Center for Fair and Open Testing, 2007). Some teachers are now quitting their jobs due to the unhappiness that they are experiencing caused by testing (Solley, 2007).
Test Anxiety
It is no secret that taking tests can severely increase student’s anxiety. Now, students have severe pressure placed onto them to perform well on these standardized tests, so their anxiety increases (Solley, 2007). Beginning in third grade, students know that they are required to do well on these tests and therefore may have great anxiety before the tests (Phillips, 2006). According to the Washington Post, researchers have found that test anxiety affects about 25% of American students today to various degrees (Can Exam Anxiety Be Overcome?, 2004). They have said that the majority of these children are in 3rd to 5th grade. These children may be fearful that they will not meet the requirements to pass the test, which would in turn be detrimental to their educational careers.
Biased Tests
These tests given to students could also be very biased. For the most part, questions on standardized tests are written on the norms of white, middle class Americans (Phillips, 2006). Students falling into other categories than these, such as African-Americans, Asians, and those living in poverty, could be at a disadvantage when it comes to answering certain questions. Students who are English language learners, or ELL’s could also be at a disadvantage because of the fact that English is not their first language, so language proficiency becomes an issue with them successfully completing the test (Phillips, 2006)
Note
Examples of Standardized Tests
Virginia SOL Grade 3 Reading Test, Spring 2007
State Requirements, Virginia Standards of Learning, By Grade Level
Standardized Testing Example
The sites listed above in the box provide examples of the state of Virginia's standardized test given to all students beginning in third grade. While each state has its own name for their test, Virginia's is called the Standards of Learning. Each year, the state department of education releases tests for students and teachers to use as a guide in preparing for future tests. The first link is to the actual released test for third grade reading from the spring of 2007.
The second link is to the Virginia Department of Education's SOL website. Here, you will find all of the standards that are listed by the state that could possibly be covered on the tests. These lists are what the teachers go by in order to teach the correct curriculum to their students.
Exercise \(1\)
1In what grade must students begin to take federally mandated standardized tests. according to the No Child Left Behind Act of 2002?
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
I. Multiple choice questions provide students challenging questions that determines whether or not students fully can apply the material learned.
II. Multiple choice questions allow States and testmakers to save time on grading responses and making difficult test questions, respectively.
III. Multiple choice questions make it possible to save money by using electronic devices as opposed to real people who understand the material.
2According to the given statements above, why does the government support the use of multiple choice standardized tests rather than the essay and short answer format?
I only.
II only.
III only.
Both II and III only.
I, II, and III.
3According to the Washington Post, about how many students are affected by test anxiety?
percent of students in the
rd and 5th grade.
4Mrs. Smith teaches a fourth grade social studies class in the state of Virginia. Her expertise is the American Civil War, in particular the battles that took place in the state of Virginia. Mrs. Smith would like to teach her students a specialized, in depth lesson about the first and second battles of Bull Run, however she cannot do so due to the time constraints coming mainly from what principle?
Fair Education Act
"teaching to the test"
"Keep History Simple"
Teacher Protection Act
No Child Left Behind Act
5Kris encounters bias while taking a standardized test. Kris is originally from Korea. If Kris was asked to choose the best answer for something he could eat between dog, frame, cow, or book. He has difficulty choosing between the dog and the cow because, in Korea, eating dog is acceptable. Which type of bias does Kris face in this situation?
Cultural Bias.
Racial Bias.
Gender Bias.
Educational Bias.
Substitution Bias. | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/18%3A_Instructional_Assessment_-_Standardized_Testing/18.02%3A_What_is_the_case_against_standardized_testing.txt |
By Shannon Green
What is Advanced Placement?
According the website that sponsors the Advanced Placement Test, www.CollegeBoard.com, "The AP Program is a collaboration between motivated students, dedicated teachers, and committed high schools, colleges, and universities. Since 1955, the AP Program has enabled millions of students to take college-level courses and exams, and to earn college credit or placement while still in high school" (K-12 Services, AP Program Section, 2008, ¶ 4). These classes allow high school students a glimpse at what a college level course would be like.
As we approach the end of 2008, it has become more apparent that a college degree is necessary in order to remain competitive in the job market. One way that high school students can have a head start is by participating in the Advanced Placement classes offered by their high school and by taking the Advanced Placement (AP) test offered by College Board. Depending on the score that is received on the AP test (most often a score of 3 or higher is required) and the selected College, it is possible for a first semester College Freshman student to begin school with college credits already on his transcript.
This article will discuss the basics of the AP Test and explain the benefits that are associated with taking the test. It will also explore the current problems and criticism of the AP Test program.
What are AP Tests?
Advanced Placement (AP) Tests are taken by students who wish to receive college credit before starting college. These tests are given by College Board, the same company that issues the SAT. The AP program offers 37 courses and exams across 22 subject areas. It is even possible to take an AP test without taking an AP class! The tests are graded on a scale of 1-5, and students who received a 3 or higher may be able to receive college credits. The tests are often 60% multiple-choice and 40% free-response. The multiple-choice section is graded by computer and the free-response section is graded by a group of college professors and AP class teachers (AP, 2008, The Grade-Setting Process Section). Once a student has decided to take an AP test, he needs to register at www.collegeboard.com and pay the \$86 testing fee per exam he registers to take.
Note
The following is a list of AP Classes and Exams
"Art History, Biology, Calculus AB, Calculus BC, Chemistry, Chinese Language and Culture, Computer Science A, Computer Science AB
Macroeconomics, Microeconomics, English Language, English Literature, Environmental Science, European History, French Language, French
Literature, German Language, Comp Government & Politics, U.S. Government & Politics, Human Geography, Italian Language and Culture
Japanese, Language and Culture, Latin Literature, Latin: Virgil, Music Theory, Physics B, Physics C, Psychology, Spanish Language
Spanish Literature, Statistics, Studio Art, U.S. History, World History" (AP, 2008, AP Courses and Exams Section).
Visit this website for more information and to download course desciptions and learn more about the AP Subjects [1]
AP Tests sound great, how does a student get started?
The following is an example of what a typical high school student who wishes to take an AP Test might encounter:
Jimmy wants to take the AP Biology exam because he is hoping to receive college credit before entering into his freshman year at Old Dominion University. Jimmy first visits the AP Test website at www.collegeboard.com. He signs up to take the AP Biology test and pays \$86 for the testing fee. He is a good student in his AP Biology class and is hoping that he can receive a grade of 3 so that he can receive college credits before entering college. He has checked the ODU Admissions website at admissions.odu.edu/undergraduate.php?page=APscores and knows that if he gets a 3 on the AP Biology Exam he can get 4 credits that would be equivalent to him taking the following classes: BIOL 108N, 115N, 109N or 116N. If he is able to score a 4 or a 5 on the exam he can get 8 credits for BIOL 115N and 116N! On test day, Jimmy reports to his test center with a couple of No.2 pencils, a pen, and his ID. He opens his exam booklet and answers the questions in the multiple-choice section. Next he moves onto the free-response section and the first question reads as follows:
"Flowering plants have evolved various strategies for fertilization.
a. Describe the process of fertilization in flowering plants.
b. Discuss TWO mechanism of pollen transfer and the adaptations that facilitate each mechanism.
Some species of flowering plants have evolved mechanism to prevent self-fertilization.
c. Discuss and evolutionary advantage of preventing self-fertilization.
d. Discuss TWO mechanisms that prevent self-fertilization." ( AP, Biology, 2008, Sample Questions & Guidelines, Free Response section, p. 4).
After three hours, Jimmy completes his test and a few months later his scores are sent to him, his high school and to ODU. Jimmy was thrilled because he received a 5 on his exam and is going to start his freshman year of college with 8 credits!
Jimmy's exam was a summative assessment of what he learned in his AP course. The above example is good illustration of what an AP exam would test. The exam would require the student to draw on the basic knowledge that he or she would have learned throughout class.
Benefits of the AP Courses and Tests
The example above illustrates one of the major benefits of taking the AP Test, college credit. By receiving college credit, the incoming freshman student may be able to skip the introductory classes and move on to more advanced study. This would allow the student to take more interesting classes as well as classes more focused on his major. If a student received credit for an AP English exam, he may be able to satisfy all of his English requirements with that exam. By not having to take English during his freshman year he can concentrate on classes that are part of his major curriculum. This would be a great benefit to the student, not to mention the financial benefit. On a cost basis, it may be more economical for the student to spend \$86 on the test fee and receive 3 college credits than it would be to pay for the 3 credits taking the class at the University.
Another benefit of taking the AP test is the reflection it may have on the student. The Admissions department at ODU may look at Jimmy's AP Test score and the fact that he took AP classes and view him as a student committed to education and academics. This may improve his chances of being accepted into the program. "In applying to colleges and universities with highly competitive applicant pools, students can use AP scores as a way to signal their challenging curriculum. For applicants from schools that grant a grade premium for an AP course, the scores also allow students to boost their grade-point averages" (Oxtoby, 2007, p. 45).
Students who take AP classes and AP tests may also receive additional benefits when they are college students. "Students who take Advanced Placement courses in high school appear more likely to graduate from college within four years and have higher grade point averages in college than similar students who aren't exposed to such classes, according to an unpublished study by researchers in Texas" (Klein, 2007, p. 7).
Does race make a difference?
While it may not seem like a problem, more and more high school students are taking the AP Exam. As a result those receiving a score of 3 or above have slipped and the average score has been down over the past four years (Cech & Holovach, 2008). While not every racial and ethnic group is being negatively affected, such as Asian, Asian American and Pacific Islanders, Cech and Holovach report "the percentage of passing exams taken by Hispanic students slipped by 5.5 percentage points over the past fours years, to 43 percent in 2007. This gap would further widen if there was no AP Spanish-language exam. Cech and Holovach quote Mr. Packer from the College Board on this fact. He states that without the AP Spanish-language exam "the percentage of Hispanic students sitting in an AP class and earning a 3 or better drops to 7.5 percentage" (2008, Gaps in Scores Section, ¶ 11). The percentages of passing scores among the group the College Board refers to as black or African-American slipped by nearly 4 points, to just 25 percent" (2008, Gaps in Scores section, ¶ 8).
While test scores still seemed to indicate a disparity among the races, there are some advancements being made. "Through encouragement from federal, state, and local governments, more and more schools are incorporating advanced material into their curricula, so students from all walks of life- not just from elite prep schools- have access to more challenging courses (Oxtoby, 2008, p.45).
Note
To learn more about a program that provides grants to increase the participation of low-income students in AP classes and tests click here [2]
he Downside to AP Classes and Tests
Are we providing a benefit to our students by offering more and more AP classes and exams? Are these classes and tests really preparing them for college? When I was in high school I took an AP Chemistry class because I was planning on entering college as a Chemistry major, my major has since changed by my experience with this AP class did provide me with insight that may affect other students of AP courses. After completing the year of AP Chemistry I decided not to take the AP Exam because I did not feel like I had been able to comprehend the basic skills necessary to achieve a passing score. As a result, I took an introductory Chemistry class my first semester of college. While taking the college level class I realized that my knowledge of the foundations of Chemistry were not strong enough and it would not have been beneficial to me to have taken the AP Exam and received a passing score because I would have struggled in the future Chemistry classes I had to take as a Chemistry major. I realized that I really had not learned enough in my AP class to provide me with the knowledge to be a successful student. My personal incident occurred over 10 years ago, but it may still be happening to students today.
David Oxtoby expands on this point in his article The Rush to Take More AP Courses Hurts Students, High Schools, and Colleges, he states, "Although I applaud the effort to make challenging courses available to growing numbers of high school students, I worry that advanced-placement programs are rapidly becoming the latest way in which schools are "teaching to the test", rather than using creativity to excite and challenge students. Too much of the high school curriculum is turning into a pale imitation of college courses instead of providing the solid foundation students need to build on in the future, and the new pressures associated with these courses are distorting both the high school experience and the nature of the courses being taught" (2007, p. 44). Perhaps the competitiveness of the current student has increased the drive to add more and more AP courses, but what benefit are we providing to our students if we are not providing them with the basic foundations that will prepare them to be successful college students?
Conclusion
There are benefits and draw backs to AP tests and classes. Students can benefit from the exposure to advanced level classes. They can benefit in college by being prepared for a typical college-level class. They can even benefit by receiving college credits before entering a university. This can help them by being able to skip over introductory courses that they are already proficient in and allowing them to start more advanced work in their freshman year. What teachers need to be observant of in teaching AP classes is making sure that we are not just "teaching to the test". We need to make sure that the students are receiving a strong foundation in these classes otherwise they will not be successful college students. Statistically, more and more students are taking the AP tests, but how should we view this statistic when the gap of passing scores is widening between the races? This seems to indicate that while schools are providing AP classes to a wider range of students there is still a disparity among minority students. We as teachers need to make sure that we are preparing our AP students in the foundations of the AP subjects and not pushing them to just "pass the test".
"Admissions offices also need to communicate with schools that an AP label is less important than a challenging and innovative course. Above all, there needs to be more opportunities for colleges and high school teachers to talk with each other about the kinds of high school curricula that best prepare students for college, taking into account the real differences between secondary and post secondary levels of education. The truth is that making our high schools more like colleges will not necessarily help them provide a superior education. Nor will it necessarily provide graduates with a better preparation for success when they encounter true college-level work" (Oxtoby, 2007, p. 46).
Exercise \(1\)
1. What high school classes expose students to college-level curriculum?
a. accelarated level
b. advanced placement
c. gifted and talented
d. honors level
2. How many subject areas can a students take an AP test in?
a. 22
b. 30
c. 37
d. 59
3. A student wants to increase her chances of standing out to college admissions. What could help emphasize her commitment to academics?
a. participate in the school play
b. play on a varsity sports team
c. take AP courses and exams
d. volunteer at a charity
4. Joe wants to be a Math major when he enters college. He is already has a very good understand of the foundations of Calculus and is taking an AP Calculus course at his high school. What chould Joe do if he wants to receive college credit for Calculus before entering college?
a. have his teacher write a letter to the Admissions department stating what a great student Joe is in Math
b. receive a perfect score on the Math sections of the SATs
c. sign up for and take the Calculus AP exam
d. tell his ollege calculus professor that he already took the class in high school
Answer
1. b
2. a
3. c
4. c | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/18%3A_Instructional_Assessment_-_Standardized_Testing/18.03%3A_What_are_Advanced_Placement_tests.txt |
By Gurmeet Gill
Learning Objectives
• define college placement test
• identify the type of assessment to which it corresponds
• describe the purpose(s) of college placement tests
• explain the advantages and disadvantages of these tests
What are College Placement Tests?
Note
College Placement Tests
"Tests used by colleges to determine student accomplishment levels for purposes of placing them in appropriate courses." (Purdue University Calumet, 2007)
Introduction
Upon entering college, students are required to take college placement tests. These tests determine the student's level of readiness regarding college-level work, often in the core classes of Mathematics and English. Surprisingly, approximately half of all students entering college score below the minimum. For these students, colleges provide remedial classes in that specific subject area. These classes help the students acquire the skills and knowledge-base that are needed prior to taking the college entry-level class for that core subject area. (EduGuide, 2008).
Type of Assessment
College placement tests are a form of criterion-referenced assessment. In this type of assessment, "test scores [translate] into a statement about the behavior to be expected of a person with that score or their relationship to a specified subject matter" (Wikipedia, 2008). Criterion referenced assessments are also referred to as standards-based assessments. The assessment is used to determine whether the student has sufficiently learned the material for which he/she is being tested. The ACT, a standardized achievement examination for college admission, is an example of this type of assessment (Wikipedia, 2008). The two most common college placement tests, COMPASS and ACCUPLACER, are also examples of criterion-referenced assessment (Achieve, Inc., 2007).
Purpose(s) of College Placement Tests
College placement tests primarily serve to determine whether a student has the developed the knowledge and/or skills needed to take the college entry-level courses in a specific subject area. These tests notify the college of the students strengths and weaknesses in that subject area. For instance, if a student has taken a placement test in Mathematics, the test may show that the student understands pre-algebra since he answered all, or most, related questions correctly. However, that same student may struggle in algebra since he answered a significant proportion of related questions incorrectly. The main objective of the college placement test is to identify key problems in core subject areas before the student's education progress is disrupted (ACT, Inc., 2008).
Note
Key objectives of college placement tests:
• identify areas of strength and areas of weakness
• determine readiness for college level course work
• prevent disruption of educational progress due to lack of readiness
(ACT, Inc., 2008)
Examples of College Placement Tests
COMPASS
Introduction
COMPASS is an untimed, computerized placement test that is managed by the same company that administers the ACT test. It is used by many colleges throughout the United States. Tests offered by COMPASS include reading, mathematics, writing skills, writing essay (e-write), and English as a Second Language (ESL). Upon completion of this placement test, students are not only immediately notified of their score, but also receive information regarding the courses for which they should register (ACT, Inc., 2008).
Sample Test Questions
Reading
Reading Sample Passage
The Reading Placement Test consists of five types of reading comprehension passages - Practical Reasoning, Prose Fiction, Humanities, Social Sciences, and Natural Sciences (ACT, Inc., 2008). The adjacent link is an excellent example of a Humanities passage. It includes two multiple-choice questions which address referring and reasoning skills.
Mathematics
Math Sample Question
The Mathematics Placement Test consists of multiple choice questions which test five mathematical areas - Numerical Skills/Pre-Algebra, Algebra, College Algebra, Geometry, and Trigonometry. Each mathematical placement area tests for basic skills, application, and analysis (ACT, Inc., 2008). The adjacent link exemplifies the kind of questions that would be found on the Numerical Skills/Pre-Algebra Placement Test. The four multiple choice questions test all three areas - basic skills, application, and analysis.
Writing Skills
Writing Skills Sample Essay
The Writing Skills Placement Test consists of essays that each contain various errors. At the end of each essay, there are multiple choice questions which test knowledge and skills in two key content categories - Usage/Mechanics and Rhetorical Skills. Usage/Mechanics includes punctuation, basic grammar and usage, as well as, sentence structure. Rhetorical Skills includes strategy, organization, and style (ACT, Inc., 2008). The adjacent link is an excellent representation of a sample essay and questions set that students would find on the Writing Skills Placement Test. The four multiple choice questions following the essay address four of the six areas found under the content categories. The first and third questions test the students on two different areas concerning Usage/Mechanics; whereas, the second and fourth questions test two different areas concerning Rhetorical Skills.
ACCUPLACER
Introduction
ACCUPLACER, a computer adaptive test, is used by colleges' academic advisors, counselors, and Registrar's Offices to decide course selection for students. It is used in conjunction with the student's academic background and ambitions. While the multiple-choice tests are untimed, the essay test can be either timed or untimed. Tests offered by ACCUPLACER include reading, writing, mathematics, and English as a Second Language (ESL). Upon completion of any of the ACCUPLACER placement tests, students receive an immediate score report from the college (College Board, 2008).
Sample Test Questions
The ACCUPLACER Placement Tests address seven key areas of academics in reading, writing, language use, mathematics, and English as a Second Language. The seven components include Sentence Skills, Reading Comprehension, an Arithmetic Test, Elementary Algebra, a College Level Math Test, a Written Essay, and ESL Testing (College Board, 2008). Examples of each can be found in the following link:
ACCUPLACER Sample Questions
English as a Second Language (ESL)
The ESL Placement Test is for those students who have learned English as a second language, or in addition to their native language. This placement test assesses the student's skills in English. The test is divided into five sections, each examining a different area of English. The five sections include ESL Reading Skills, ESL Language Use, ESL Sentence Meaning, WritePlacer ESL, and ESL Listening. Students can be required to take one or more of these sections, as determined by the college or university (College Board, 2008).
Advantages and Disadvantages of College Placement Tests
Advantages
Reading
• Instrumental in determining whether student is unlikely to succeed in a credit-bearing college course
• Emphasis on informational text, which reflects the type of reading done in college
• (Achieve, Inc., 2007, p. 13)
Writing
• Require students to demonstrate ability to take a position/stand or develop a point of view
• Scoring rubrics often emulate college-ready expectations
• Multiple-choice section(s) address editing and revising skills
• (Achieve, Inc., 2007, p. 19)
Mathematics
• Emphasizes algebra
• Arranged in multiple tiers
• (Achieve, Inc., 2007, pp. 26–28)
Disadvantages
Reading
• Passages less challenging than those in admission tests
• Passages not well-aligned to later high school, but rather to middle school and early high school
• Overall, far less rigorous in placement tests than admission tests
• (Achieve, Inc., 2007, p. 13)
Writing
• Emphasis on lower-level cognitive skills; unable to fully assess student's abilities
• Multiple-choice section(s) focus less on advanced skills - organization/development of ideas
• (Achieve, Inc., 2007, pp. 19–25)
Mathematics
• Favors pre-algebra and basic algebra instead of advanced algebra concepts needed for College Algebra
• Not enough questions to draw on higher-level thinking
• Narrow; not reflective of complete scale of content
• (Achieve, Inc., 2007, p. 26)
Generation 1.5
Note
"When colleges offer several options for writing placement, they demonstrate sensitivity to the various needs new students have; however, fair and appropriate placement is potentially more complex than even these many options reveal." (Di Gennaro, 2008, p. 62)
In the United States, there is an increase in the number of students seeking higher education who are considered non-native English speakers. As a result, the heavy reliance on, and reliability of, college writing placement tests in determining student placement into writing courses is of grave concern. Many colleges and universities offer different placement alternatives. Examples of these include, but are not limited to, ESL (English as a Second Language) writing sections, developmental and/or basic writing courses, and freshman/first-year composition. However, these alternatives just simply are not enough (Di Gennaro, 2007, p. 62).
Generation 1.5 is a term coined by Linda Harklau, Kay Losey, and Meryl Siegal, in their 1999 book. Generation 1.5 learners are commonly described as students for whom English is a second language (L2); however, they have often completed their secondary school education in the United States prior to attending college (Di Gennaro, 2007, p. 65). Furthermore, Generation 1.5 learners have received the majority, if not all, of their formal education in English; whereas, L2 students have had their primary, and even part of their secondary, school education in their native language Di Genarro, 2007, p. 66). According to Di Genarro (2007), writing program administrators should do more than simply recognize the different types of learners for whom English is a second language. "We must also adopt or design assessment procedures to help us identify these different groups of learners if we are to provide them with the most appropriate placement options, ensuring that our tests serve as door-openers rather than gate-keepers" (Di Genarro, 2007, p. 75).
Conclusion
College placement tests are criterion-referenced assessments used by colleges and universities across the United States. Of the many different placement tests available, COMPASS and ACCUPLACER are the most commonly used. These tests not only assess student readiness in core college classes, but also determine academic areas of strength and weakness for each student. Reading, writing, mathematics, and ESL are the most common areas of testing by colleges and universities. For each of these areas, there are advantages, as well as, disadvantages. However, colleges and universities continue to require college placement tests, thus implying that the advantages strongly outweigh the disadvantages. The controversy continues over the benefits and drawbacks of college placement tests, especially for ESL and Generation 1.5 learners.
Exercise \(1\)
1. College placement tests are what type of assessment?
a) Norm-referenced assessment
b) Criterion-referenced assessment
c) Ipsative assessment
d) Forward looking assessment
2. Tests offered by COMPASS include which of the following?
a) Reading, writing skills, mathematics
b) Mathematics, ESL, social studies
c) ESL, social studies, writing essay
d) Science, reading, writing skills
3. Marie is an in-coming freshman at her local university. She has just taken several college placement tests. Which of the following does not reflect a reason that the college placement tests were administered?
a) to determine what areas of a subject Marie does not know
b) to determine what areas of a subject Marie already knows
c) to determine Marie's readiness in college level work in core classes
d) to determine Marie’s academic standing in the college
4. Mai Ling is considered a Generation 1.5 learner. Which of the following is not likely to be true of Mai Ling?
a) She is from a country other than the United States
b) She probably learned English as a second language
c) She received very little formal education in English
d) She completed secondary school in the United States
Answer
1. b
2. a
3. d
4. c | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/18%3A_Instructional_Assessment_-_Standardized_Testing/18.04%3A_What_college_placement_tests_are_available.txt |
By Wendy Belgrave
Learning Objectives
• Understand how standardized testing can be biased
• Understand how social factors influence success
Introduction
We have all heard the stereotype. We can’t get away from it. The word is out, in schools and movies all across the nation and maybe even all over the world. The word is that Asian students are smarter than everyone else. Racial gaps in standardized tests show this to be true, but could there be more to that? Could it be that these tests could be biased, or could there be other social factors involved?
I Want The Asian In My Group
Mission San Jose High School in Fremont California is considered one of the best public schools in the country. This school raises the controversial question since 75 percent of the students are Asian (CNN 2008). The principle himself admits that he believes that the success of his school is directly associated with the Asian population. According to the CNN, the top 5 schools in California are majority Asian. They also say that Asian students score higher than their white peers, nationally Asians lead in grade point average, and are more likely to take higher level math courses.
With these statistics on hand, what does the principle at Mission San Jose think about our controversial question? His direct belief as to why that is… “The parents come from a system where they all teach for a test.” Hazel Marcus, a Stanford University Cultural Psychologist says that Asian students are not naturally more intelligent than other students, and that there are no biological or genetic differences in between races. An Asian student at Thomas Nelson Community College commented, “It’s our parents. My parents push me more on subjects like math and science. My parents aren’t so bad, but I have friends whose parents push them really hard (VU 2008).” Since there is nothing physical that makes Asians smarter, maybe the question should be, are there other factors involved?
Note
Asian and white students saw their scores increase this year, by 5 and 4 points, respectively, across the three parts of the SAT. Score averages for minority groups other than Asians were down by 6 to 8 points across the three exams (Inside Higher Ed 2008).
Check out this website to view the CNN special on "Are Asians Students Smarter". http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=opBfHXePM2Y
Biased Perhaps?
With the Asian students aside for a bit, let us now ask the question. Could the standardized tests be biased? The bias does not necessarily target one race or culture; it could affect many at a time. What about the student that is struggling to learn the language, the student that becomes overwhelmed by the pressure of a timed test, or the student whose parents cannot afford the luxury of hiring a tutor specifically for the purpose of SAT testing. What about the little girl in Alaska who is asked to fill in the blank about trees; Trees are ____. a) short b) food c) green. I do not believe that test makers are purposefully trying to make the test biased, but it may just be a difficult task to make a test that fits all lifestyles and cultures.
Blame It On Social Status
One commentator Jonathan Pollard had this catchy subtitle, “Standardized tests are great at ensuring that poor kids become poor adults.” He blames the “poor schools” for spending money on standardized tests taking materials instead of using the money to hire better teachers. He also believes that standardized tests do not test intelligence but “tend to focus on short term memory and actual test-taking ability rather than genuine understanding (Pollard 2008). Many complain that to close the academic achievement gap, money must be spent more equally in lower class school districts.
Although some may be able to blame social status on poor test results, others such as Hazel Marcus states that education in prized in most Asian cultures and “academic success is a child’s duty to his family. It is your job, it is what you are supposed to do to bring honor to your family; to be educated (Marcus 2008).” My Asian friend agrees, “Social status has nothing to do with the drive to educate yourself, it is not just luck, it is the ability to make good decisions. There are many people out there that do it every day (Vu 2008).”
Conclusion
So the age old question remains, are Asians more intelligent than other people? No. More disciplined? Some may think so. But regardless of what people may think, every person has a chance to become educated here in the United States regardless of race, or gender. There may be factors that may put some people ahead but regardless of that, it cannot stop a person from being important. Martin Luther King is a perfect example of what society might say is not good enough. “Martin Luther King Jr., considered one of the greatest orators in history, scored in the third quartile, or below average, on the verbal portion of the Graduate Record Exam, a standardized test taken to get into graduate school (Facts on File, 1999).” Martin Luther King's example cautions against overreliance on standardized tests as a measure of students' potential.
Exercise \(1\)
1. What does the principle of Mission San Juan High School attribute his school’s success to?
A) Good after school programs
B) Great teachers
C) The majority Asian population
D) Strict rules
2. According to Inside Higher Ed, how many points on average did minority groups other than Asian drop?
A) 1 to 2
B) 3 to 4
C) 4 to 5
D) 6 to 8
3. What social factors do you think cause poor grades and testing scores?
A) Lack of qualified teachers
B) Poverty
C) Violence in schools
D) All of the above
4. What can a standardized test not tell you?
A) The potential of each student
B) What the students have learned during the school year
C) What the students needs to be taught
D) What subjects need to be emphasized
Answer
1. C
2. D
3. D
4. A | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/18%3A_Instructional_Assessment_-_Standardized_Testing/18.05%3A_Why_are_there_achievement_gaps_between_races_an.txt |
by Megan Rowles
Learning Objectives
• Definition of assessment
• How to make assessments useful for students
• How to make assessments useful for teachers
• The decisions teachers make to enhance instruction
• The criteria assessments should meet if they are to inform instructional decisions
Assessment
Assessment is defined "as the process of obtaining information that is used to make educational decisions about students, to give feedback to the student about his or her progress, strengths, and weaknesses, to judge instructional effectiveness and curricular adequacy, and to inform policy (Buros, 1990)." There are various techniques used for assessment: formal and informal observation, qualitative analysis of pupil performance and products, paper-and-pencil tests, oral questioning, and analysis of student records (Buros, 1990). Teachers are left to decide how to make use of the assessment results, and which technique will be employed.
Despite the importance of assessment in today's education, formal training in assessment design and analysis seems to lacking. "A recent survey showed, for example, that fewer than half the states require competence in assessment for licensure as a teacher (Guskey, 2003). Teachers who lack the specific training rely heavily on the assessment methods of the textbook or instructional materials. "They treat assessments as evaluation devices to administer when instructional activities are completed and to use primarily for assigning students' grades (Guskey, 2003)."
Make Assessments Useful
According to Guskey, to use assessments to improve instruction and student learning, teachers need to change their approach to assessments.
First, make assessments useful for students. "Classroom assessments that serve as meaningful sources of information don't surprise students. Instead, these assessments reflect the concepts and skills that the teacher emphasized in class, along with the teacher's clear criteria for judging students' performance (Guskey, 2003)." These concepts, skills, and criteria align with the teacher's instructional activities, which also align with state or district standards. "The students see these assessments as fair measures of important learning goals (Guskey, 2003)." Students further their learning when teachers provide them with important feedback on their learning progress.
Second, make assessments useful for teachers. The most useful classroom assessments also serve a purpose for teachers: helping them identify what they taught well and what they need to work on. Retrieving this information does not have to be painful. Teachers can simply take note which students failed to meet criteria or missed specific items. When reviewing the results, teachers must consider the quality of the item or criteria; then determine whether these items adequately address the knowledge, understanding, or skill that they were intended to measure (Guskey, 2003). If no problems are found with the criteria, teachers must take their teaching into consideration. Guskey says analyzing assessment results in this way means setting aside some powerful ego issues. Many teachers may initially say, "I taught them. They just didn't learn it!" But on reflection, most recognize that their effectiveness is not defined on the basis of what they do as teachers but rather on what their students are able to do. Can effective teaching take place in the absence of learning? Certainly not. However, teachers and students share responsibility in the learning process. In some cases, even with great teaching, some students may not learn perfectly. But, if a teacher is reaching fewer than half the class, the teacher's method of instruction needs to improve . This kind of evidence is what teachers need to help target their instructional improvement efforts (Guskey, 2003).
Enhancing Instruction
When teachers are better informed of the learning progress and difficulties of their students, they can make better decisions about what a student needs to learn next and how to teach that material in a manner that will maximize the student’s learning (Fuchs 1996). According to Fuchs, teachers make three types of decisions using assessment results:
1. Instructional placement decisions—what the student knows and where he or she should be in the instructional sequence.
2. Formative evaluation decisions—information to monitor a student’s learning while an instructional program is underway—how quickly progress is being made, whether the instructional program is effective, and whether a change in instructional program is needed to promote the student’s learning.
3. Diagnostic decisions—which specific difficulties account for the student’s inadequate progress so the teacher can remediate learning progress and design more effective instructional plans.
Note
WHAT CRITERIA SHOULD ASSESSMENTS MEET IF THEY ARE TO INFORM INSTRUCTIONAL DECISIONS?
These assessments should meet seven criteria:
1. Measure important learning outcomes.
2. Address all three purposes of assessment.
3. Provide clear descriptions of student performance that can be linked to instructional actions.
4. Be compatible with a variety of instructional models.
5. Be easily administered, scored, and interpreted by teachers.
6. Communicate the goals of learning to teachers and students.
7. Generate accurate, meaningful information (i.e., be reliable and valid).
(Fuchs, 1996)
Illustrating the Topic
<www.oseda.missouri.edu/SUCCESS/academic\$.htm>
This is an example of an assessment program for Missouri students. According to the project, "the major goals of the Assessment Section are to oversee the development and implementation of the statewide performance assessments consistent with the 1993 Outstanding Schools Act and, through the Missouri Assessment Project (MAP), maintain the state assessment system through teacher-developed assessment items and teacher scoring of annual assessments. Additionally, the Assessment Section provides assistance to teachers and administrators in using assessment results to improve instruction and to provide useful data about education in Missouri."
On the page, if you click the left link to success stories, you can read examples. Below is an example from 2000, where one school went the extra mile to improve assessment strategies:
"Glasgow Has A Lock-In :
The fifth and eighth grade teachers at Glasgow Schools were looking for something special to do in order to help improve test scores on the state assessments taken each spring in Missouri. After much thought, it was decided that the school would sponsor a lock-in. On Friday, April 9, 1999 Glasgow Schools sponsored a lock-in targeted at all students in fifth and eighth grade. The idea was to allow for additional review time that is sometimes hard to come by during a regular school day when teachers are still working to cover all required objectives. The teachers wanted to make the review an appealing choice for the students in order to achieve a big turnout.
Our answer was a lock-in that would last all of a Friday night. Students left school at the end of the day and returned with all of their things at 6:00 P.M. The students were divided into their appropriate grade levels and the reviewing began.
Teachers spent time before the lock-in creating games to review previously taught skills. Review Twister and Jeopardy were the big hits. School administrators and our school counselor spent the night with the teachers and students to show their support for a strong testing week. Students also practiced performance tasks throughout the evening.
Each grade level worked until we ate at 7:00 P.M. The school provided sub sandwiches and drinks for the group, and students brought along plenty of other snacks to share. After supper, we continued to review until around 9:00 P.M.
Following the review section of the evening, we played relay games (3 legged race, mini John Deere tractor pull, tug-of-war, etc.) Businesses from our community donated prizes for the games. We encouraged the students to bring in their favorite CDs for the dance we had that began at 10:00 P.M. At midnight we started movies and played board games. Some of the children drifted off to sleep and others stayed up all night. We had donuts at 5:15 A.M. and sent the students home at 6:00 A.M.
In addition to our lock-in, numerous activities were implemented to encourage success on the assessment. In the fifth grade class, the teacher talked with the students extensively about good test taking skills.
The class formed study teams and created special names for their teams. Within these teams, the students listed all of the strategies that make test taking a more positive experience. The teams also created an inspirational chant that they performed before each test taking session. Before each testing session, the teams met to read over the strategy list they had created, eat a simple snack and provide support to each team member. These meetings really set a tone for success in the classroom before the actual testing began.
Students spent time talking about the stress involved in test taking. Each child used a slip of construction paper to write down what he or she found most stressing concerning the upcoming test. The fifth grade class used these slips of paper to create a long class "stress chain." This chain was put up across the classroom door during each testing session in order to "lock all stress outside."
A very special book was used during the lock-in and the week of testing called "Hooray for Diffendoofer Day!". This book addressed the importance of doing well on school assessments in a fun and encouraging way. The students requested that "Hooray for Diffendoofer Day!" be read every day of testing. They really enjoyed this book by Dr. Seuss.
It is really difficult to describe the excitement and eagerness that the students had towards the assessments after our night together. The children really understood the importance of these tests and they wanted to show everyone how well they could do. Our test scores improved dramatically, and the children felt a tremendous amount of success. We are very proud of their efforts!"
The above example really demonstrates the willingness of the teachers to encourage success on assessment. Not only were the "typical" assessment strategies covered, but these strategies were taken to the next level. A job well done!
Exercise \(1\)
1. The process of obtaining information that is used to make educational decisions about students, to give feedback to the student about his or her progress, strengths, and weaknesses, to judge instructional effectiveness and curricular adequacy, and to inform policy is known as:
A. Teaching
B. Assessment
C. Feedback
D. Enhancing Student Performance
2. Teachers make three types of decisions when using assessment results. These include all except:
A. Instructional Placement Decisions
B. Formative Evaluation Decisions
C. Diagnostic Decisions
D. Progressive Decisions
3. Mary's teacher, Mrs. Bryant, discusses Mary's progress with math. Mary seems to be behind the rest of the class. Mrs. Bryant is left to decide whether or not Mary needs special instruction/change in instructional program. What type of decision is this?
A. Instruction Placement Decision
B. Formative Evaluation Decision
C. Diagnostic Decision
D. Progressive Decision
4. Mrs. Bryant is reviewing the class's science quizzes. Every student seems to have missed #5. She assumes that the class just wasn't paying attention. Mrs Bryant should:
A. Criticize her class for not paying attention.
B. Give a re-take.
C. Double the value of the next quiz in hopes of higher grades.
D. Reconsider her teaching method before jumping to conclusions.
Answer
1. B
2. D
3. B
4. D | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment_(Kidd_et_al.)/18%3A_Instructional_Assessment_-_Standardized_Testing/18.06%3A_What_do_teachers_need_to_know_about_using_asses.txt |
1.1 History and Influences on the Field
According to Seels and Richey (1994), the educational technology field emerged, and continues to develop, through interactions of influences, including foundational research and theory and the features and capabilities of current technologies. This means the field of educational technology is “a child not only of theoretical knowledge, but also of practical knowledge” (p. 68).
Theory from fields as diverse as psychology, engineering, communications, computer science, business, and education has contributed foundational knowledge, while emerging new technologies prompt researchers to explore new possibilities for creating learning environments, and to further build and refine theory.
Reiser (2001) provided an extensive summary of the history of the field, tracing its roots back to the early 1900s. The first catalogue of instructional film was produced in the US in 1910, and a “visual instruction” movement, with professional organizations and journals dedicated to the topic, arose. This became known as “audiovisual instruction” as technology (e.g., film with sound) advanced. Film and other media were used extensively for military training during World War II (Seels & Richey, 1994; Reiser, 2001), and scholars such as Edgar Dale (https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgar_Dale) contributed to theoretical discussions about how media might contribute to learning. Educational television was the focus of attention in the 1950s and 1960s, until the computer emerged as the next technology with potential to change education.
To see how technology tools and their use in education has evolved since the advent of computers, see the following three videos:
1.02: Chapter Summary
Although educational technology is still “young” compared to many other fields of study, it has a rich and diverse history. The subsequent chapters of this text review will introduce you to the various influences, theories, and traditions that inform this exciting field of study and practice.
1.03: Chapter 1 References
Januszewski, A., & Molenda, M. (2008). Educational technology: A definition with commentary. New York: Routledge.
Reiser, R. A. (2001). A History of Instructional Design and Technology: Part I: A History of Instructional Media. Educational Technology Research and Development, 49, 53-64.
Reiser, R. A. (2001). A History of Instructional Design and Technology: Part II: A History of Instructional Design. Educational Technology Research and Development, 49, 57-67.
Seels, B. B. & Richey, R.C. (1994). Instructional technology: The definition and domains of the field. AECT: Bloomington, IN
2.01: Cognitive Development- The Theory of Jean Piaget
Cognition refers to thinking and memory processes, and cognitive development refers to long-term changes in these processes. One of the most widely known perspectives about cognitive development is the cognitive stage theory of a Swiss psychologist named Jean Piaget. Piaget created and studied an account of how children and youth gradually become able to think logically and scientifically.
Piaget believed that learning proceeded by the interplay of assimilation (adjusting new experiences to fit prior concepts) and accommodation (adjusting concepts to fit new experiences). The to-and-fro of these two processes leads not only to short-term learning, but also to long-term developmental change. The long-term developments are really the main focus of Piaget’s cognitive theory.
After observing children closely, Piaget proposed that cognition developed through distinct stages from birth through the end of adolescence. By “stages” he meant a sequence of thinking patterns with four key features:
1. The stages always happen in the same order.
2. No stage is ever skipped.
3. Each stage is a significant transformation of the stage before it.
4. Each later stage incorporated the earlier stages into itself.
Basically, this is a “staircase” model of development. Piaget proposed four major stages of cognitive development, and called them (1) sensorimotor intelligence, (2) preoperational thinking, (3) concrete operational thinking, and (4) formal operational thinking. Each stage is correlated with an age period of childhood, but only approximately.
The Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to Age 2
In Piaget’s theory, the sensorimotor stage occurs first, and is defined as the period when infants “think” by means of their senses and motor actions. As every new parent will attest, infants continually touch, manipulate, look, listen to, and even bite and chew objects. According to Piaget, these actions allow children to learn about the world and are crucial to their early cognitive development.
The infant’s actions allow the child to represent (i.e., construct simple concepts of) objects and events. A toy animal may be just a confusing array of sensations at first, but by looking, feeling, and manipulating it repeatedly, the child gradually organizes her sensations and actions into a stable concept: toy animal. The representation acquires a permanence lacking in the individual experiences of the object, which are constantly changing. Because the representation is stable, the child “knows,” or at least believes, that toy animal exists even if the actual toy animal is temporarily out of sight. Piaget called this sense of stability object permanence, a belief that objects exist whether or not they are actually present. Object permanence is a major achievement of sensorimotor development, and marks a qualitative transformation in how older infants (~24 months) think about experience compared to younger infants (~6 months).
During much of infancy, of course, a child can only barely talk, so sensorimotor development initially happens without the support of language. It might therefore seem hard to know what infants are thinking. Piaget devised several simple, but clever, experiments to get around their lack of language, and these experiments suggest that infants do indeed represent objects even without being able to talk (Piaget, 1952). In one, for example, he simply hid an object (like a toy animal) under a blanket. He found that doing so consistently prompts older infants (18-24 months) to search for the object, but fails to prompt younger infants (less than six months) to do so. (You can try this experiment yourself if you happen to have access to young infant.) Something motivates the search by the older infant even without the benefit of much language, and that “something” is presumed to be a permanent concept or representation of the object.
The Preoperational Stage: Age 2 to 7
In the preoperational stage, children use their new ability to represent objects in a wide variety of activities, but they do not yet do it in ways that are organized or fully logical. One of the most obvious examples of this kind of cognition is dramatic play, or the improvised make-believe of preschool children. If you have ever had responsibility for children of this age, you have likely witnessed such play.
Children engaged in imaginative activities are thinking on two levels at once—one imaginative and the other realistic. This dual processing of experience makes dramatic play an early example of metacognition, or reflecting on and the monitoring of thinking itself. Because metacognition is a highly desirable skill for success in school, teachers of young children (preschool, kindergarten, and even first or second grade) often make time and space in their classrooms for dramatic play, and sometimes even participate in it themselves to help develop the play further.
The Concrete Operational Stage: Age 7 to 11
As children continue into elementary school, they become able to represent ideas and events more flexibly and logically. Their rules of thinking still seem very basic by adult standards and usually operate unconsciously, but they allow children to solve problems more systematically than before, and therefore to be successful with many academic tasks. In the concrete operational stage, for example, a child may unconsciously follow the rule: “If nothing is added or taken away, then the amount of something stays the same.”
This simple principle helps children understand certain arithmetic tasks (such as adding or subtracting zero from a number) as well as perform certain classroom science experiments (such as ones that involve calculating the combined volume of two separate liquids). Piaget called this period the concrete operational stage because children mentally “operate” on concrete objects and events. They are not yet able, however, to operate (or think) systematically about representations of objects or events. Manipulating representations is a more abstract skill that develops later, during adolescence.
Concrete operational thinking differs from preoperational thinking in two ways, each of which renders children more skilled as students. One difference is reversibility, or the ability to think about the steps of a process in any order. Imagine a simple science experiment, for example, such as one that explores why objects sink or float by having a child place an assortment of objects in a basin of water. Both the preoperational and concrete operational child can recall and describe the steps in this experiment, but only the concrete operational child can recall them in any order (e.g., chronological, reverse chronological, etc). This skill is very helpful for any task involving multiple steps—a common feature of tasks in the classroom. In teaching new vocabulary from a story, for another example, a teacher might tell students: “1) Every time you come across a word you don’t know, write it down. 2) Then find and write down the definition of that word before returning to the story. 3) After you have a list of all the words you don’t know, have a friend test you on your list.” These directions involve repeatedly remembering to move back and forth between a second step and a first—a task that concrete operational students—and most adults—find easy, but that preoperational children often forget to do or find confusing. If the younger children are to do this task reliably, they may need external prompts, such as having the teacher remind them periodically to go back to the story to look for more unknown words.
The other new feature of thinking that develops during the concrete operational stage is the child’s ability to decenter, or focus on more than one feature of a problem at a time. There are hints of decentration in preschool children’s dramatic play, which requires being aware on two levels at once—knowing that a banana can be both a banana and a “telephone.” But the decentration of the concrete operational stage is more deliberate and conscious than preschoolers’ make-believe.
The other new feature of thinking that develops during the concrete operational stage is the child’s ability to decenter, or focus on more than one feature of a problem at a time. There are hints of decentration in preschool children’s dramatic play, which requires being aware on two levels at once—knowing that a banana can be both a banana and a “telephone.” But the decentration of the concrete operational stage is more deliberate and conscious than preschoolers’ make-believe. Now the child can attend to two things at once quite purposefully. Suppose you give students a sheet with an assortment of subtraction problems on it, and ask them to do this: “Find all of the problems that involve two-digit subtraction and that involve borrowing from the next column. Circle and solve only those problems.” Following these instructions is quite possible for a concrete operational student (as long as they have been listening!) because the student can attend to the two subtasks simultaneously—finding the two-digit problems and identifying which actually involve borrowing. (Whether the student actually knows how to “borrow” however, is a separate question.)
In real classroom tasks, reversibility and decentration often happen together. A well-known example of joint presence is Piaget’s experiments with conservation, the belief that an amount or quantity stays the same even if it changes apparent size or shape (Piaget, 2001; Matthews, 1998). Imagine two identical balls made of clay. Any child, whether preoperational or concrete operational, will agree that the two indeed have the same amount of clay in them simply because they look the same. But if you now squish one ball into a long, thin “hot dog,” the preoperational child is likely to say that the amount of clay has changed—either because its shape is longer or because it is thinner, but at any rate because it now looks different. The concrete operational child will not make this mistake, thanks to new cognitive skills of reversibility and decentration: for him or her, the amount is the same because “you could squish it back into a ball again” (reversibility) and because “it may be longer, but it is also thinner” (decentration). Piaget would say the concrete operational child “has conservation of quantity.”
Notice the difference between the two younger (preoperational) and the slightly older (concrete operational) child in this video as they perform the conservation task:
https://youtu.be/YtLEWVu815o (3:18 minutes).
The classroom examples described above also involve reversibility and decentration. As already mentioned, the vocabulary activity described earlier requires reversibility (going back and forth between identifying words and looking up their meanings); but it can also be construed as an example of decentration (keeping in mind two tasks at once—word identification and dictionary search). And as mentioned, the arithmetic activity requires decentration (looking for problems that meet two criteria and also solving them), but it can also be construed as an example of reversibility (going back and forth between subtasks, as with the vocabulary activity). Either way, the development of concrete operational skills supports students in doing many basic academic tasks; in a sense, concrete operational skills make ordinary school work possible.
The Formal Operational Stage: Age 11 and Beyond
In the last of the Piagetian stages, the child becomes able to reason not only about tangible objects and events, but also about hypothetical or abstract ones. Hence, it has the name formal operational stage—the period when the individual can “operate” on “forms” or representations. With students at this level, the teacher can pose hypothetical (or contrary-to-fact) problems: “What if the world had never discovered oil?” or “What if the first European explorers had settled first in California instead of on the East Coast of the United States?” To answer such questions, students must use hypothetical reasoning, meaning that they must manipulate ideas that vary in several ways at once, and do so entirely in their minds.
Compare the child and the young woman in this video and notice the difference in their abilities to reason hypothetically:
https://youtu.be/YJyuy4B2aKU (1:02 minutes).
The hypothetical reasoning that concerned Piaget primarily involved scientific problems. His studies of formal operational thinking therefore often look like problems that middle or high school teachers pose in science classes. In one problem, for example, a young person is presented with a simple pendulum, to which different amounts of weight can be hung (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958). The experimenter asks: “What determines how fast the pendulum swings: the length of the string holding it, the weight attached to it, or the distance that it is pulled to the side?”
The young person is not allowed to solve this problem by trial-and-error with the materials themselves, but must mentally reason a way to the solution. To do so systematically, he or she must imagine varying each factor separately, while also imagining the other factors that are held constant. This kind of thinking requires facility at manipulating mental representations of the relevant objects and actions—precisely the skill that defines formal operations.
As you might suspect, students with an ability to think hypothetically have an advantage in many kinds of school work: by definition, they require relatively few “props” to solve problems. In this sense they can in principle be more self-directed than students who rely only on concrete operations—certainly a desirable quality in the opinion of most teachers. Note, though, that formal operational thinking is desirable—but not sufficient for—solving all academic problems, and is far from being the only way that students achieve educational success. Formal thinking skills do not ensure that a student is motivated or well-behaved, for example, nor does they guarantee other desirable skills, such as ability at sports, music, or art. The fourth stage in Piaget’s theory is really about a particular kind of formal thinking: the kind needed to solve scientific problems and devise scientific experiments. Since many people do not normally deal with such problems in the normal course of their lives, it should be no surprise that research finds that many people never achieve or use formal thinking fully or consistently, or that they use it only in selected areas with which they are very familiar (Case & Okomato, 1996). For teachers, the limitations of Piaget’s ideas suggest a need for additional theories about development—ones that focus more directly on the social and interpersonal issues of childhood and adolescence. The next sections describe some of these. | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Educational_Technology_(Thompson)/01%3A_Introduction_to_Educational_Technology/1.01%3A_History_and_Influences_on_the_Field.txt |
Social development refers to the long-term changes in relationships and interactions involving self, peers, and family. It includes both positive changes, such as how friendships develop, and negative changes, such as aggression or bullying. One of the best-known theories of social development is the Eight Psychosocial Crises of Erik Erikson. Like Piaget, Erikson developed a theory of social development that relies on stages, except that Erikson thought of stages as a series of psychological or social (or psychosocial) crises —turning points in a person’s relationships and feelings about themselves. Each crisis consists of a dilemma or choice that carries both advantages and risks, but in which one choice or alternative is normally considered more desirable or “healthy.”
How one crisis is resolved affects how later crises are resolved. The resolution to each crisis also helps to create an individual’s developing personality. Erikson proposed eight crises that extend from birth through old age. Four of the stages occur during the school years, and are given special attention here, but it is also helpful to know which crises are thought to come both before and after those in the school years.
Eight Psychosocial Crises According to Erikson
Psychosocial crisis Approximate age Description
Trust and mistrust Birth to one year Development of trust between caregiver and child
Autonomy and shame Age 1-3 Development of control over bodily functions and activities
Initiative and guilt Age 3-6 Testing limits of self-assertion and purposefulness
Industry and inferiority Age 6-12 Development of sense of mastery and competence
Identity and role confusion Age 12-19 Development of identity and acknowledge of identity by others
Intimacy and isolation Age 19-25+ Formation of intimate relationships and commitments
Generativity and
stagnation
Age 25-50+ Development of creative or productive activities that contribute to future generations
Integrity and despair Age 50+ Acceptance of personal life history and forgiveness of self and others
Crises of Infants and Preschoolers: Trust, Autonomy, and Initiative
Almost from the day they are born, infants face a crisis (in Erikson’s sense) about trust and mistrust. They are happiest if they can eat, sleep, and excrete according to their own physiological schedules, regardless of whether their schedules are convenient for the caregiver. Unfortunately, though, a young infant is in no position to control or influence a caregivers scheduling needs, so the baby faces a dilemma about how much to trust or mistrust the caregiver’s helpfulness. It is as if the baby asks, “If I demand food (or sleep, or a clean diaper, etc.) now, will my mother actually be able to help me meet this need?” Hopefully, between the two of them, caregiver and child resolve this choice in favor of the baby’s trust: the caregiver proves to be at least “good enough” in attentiveness, and the baby risks trusting the caregiver’s motivation and skill.
Almost as soon as this crisis is resolved, however, a new one develops over the issue of autonomy and shame. The child (who is now a toddler) may now trust his or her caregiver, but the very trust contributes to a desire to assert autonomy by taking care of basic personal needs, such as feeding, toileting, or dressing. Given the child’s lack of experience in these activities, however, self-care is risky at first—the toddler may feed (or use the toilet, or dress themselves, etc.) clumsily and ineffectively. The child’s caregiver, then, risks overprotecting the child and criticizing their early efforts unnecessarily, thus causing the child to feel shame for even trying. Hopefully, as with the earlier crisis of trust, the new crisis gets resolved in favor of autonomy through the combined efforts of the child to assert independence and of the caregiver to support the child’s efforts.
Eventually, about the time a child is of preschool age, the autonomy exercised during the previous period becomes more elaborate, extended, and focused on objects and people other than the child and their basic physical needs. The child at a daycare center, for example, may now undertake to build the “biggest city in the world” out of all available unit blocks—even if other children want some of the blocks for themselves. The child’s projects and desires create a new crisis of initiative and guilt, because the child soon realizes that acting on impulses or desires can sometimes have negative effects on others—more blocks for one child may mean fewer for someone else. As with the crisis over autonomy, caregivers have to support the child’s initiatives whenever possible, but they must also take heed not to make the child feel guilty for desiring to have or to do something that affects others’ welfare. By limiting behavior where necessary—but not limiting internal feelings—caregivers will be supporting the development of a lasting ability to take initiative. Expressed in Erikson’s terms, the crisis is then resolved in favor of initiative.
Even though only the last of these three crises overlaps with the school years, all three relate to issues faced by students of any age, and even by their teachers. A child or youth who is fundamentally mistrustful, for example, has a serious problem in coping with school life. If you are a student, it is essential for your long-term survival to believe that teachers and school officials have your best interests at heart, and that they are not imposing assignments or making rules gratuitously. Even though students are not infants any more, teachers function like Erikson’s caregiving parents in that they need to prove worthy of students’ trust through their initial flexibility and attentiveness.
Parallels from the classroom also exist for the crises of autonomy and of initiative. To learn effectively, students need to make choices and undertake academic initiatives at least some of the time, even though not every choice or initiative may be practical or desirable. Teachers, for their part, need to make true choices and initiatives possible, and refrain from criticizing, even accidentally, a choice or intention behind an initiative even if the teacher privately believes that it is “bound to fail.” Support for choices and initiative should be focused on providing resources and on guiding the student’s efforts toward more likely success. In these ways, teachers function like parents of toddlers and preschoolers in Erikson’s theory of development, regardless of the age of their students.
The Crisis of Childhood: Industry and Inferiority
Once into elementary school, the child is faced for the first time with becoming competent and worthy in the eyes of the world at large, or more precisely in the eyes of classmates and teachers. To achieve their esteem, he or she must develop skills that require effort that is sustained and somewhat focused. The challenge creates the crisis of industry and inferiority. To be respected by teachers, for example, the child must learn to read and to behave like a “true student.” To be respected by peers, he or she must learn to cooperate and to be friendly, among other things. There are risks involved in working on these skills and qualities, because there can be no guarantee of success with them in advance. If the child does succeed, therefore, he or she experiences the satisfaction of a job well done and of skills well learned—a feeling that Erikson called industry. If not, however, the child risks feeling lasting inferiority compared to others. Teachers therefore have a direct, explicit role in helping students to resolve this crisis in favor of industry or success.
They can set realistic academic goals for students—ones that tend to lead to success—and then provide materials and assistance for students to reach their goals. Teachers can also express their confidence that students can in fact meet their goals if and when the students get discouraged, and avoid hinting (even accidentally) that a student is simply a “loser.” Paradoxically, these strategies will work best if the teacher is also tolerant of less-than-perfect performance by students. Too much emphasis on perfection can undermine some students’ confidence—fostering what Erikson called inferiority—by making academic goals seem beyond reach.
The Crisis of Adolescence: Identity and Role Confusion
As children develop lasting talents and attitudes as a result of the crisis of industry, they begin to face a new question: what do all the talents and attitudes add up to be? Who is the “me” embedded in this profile of qualities? These questions are the crisis of identity and role confusion. Defining identity is riskier than it may appear, because some talents and attitudes may be poorly developed, and some may even be undesirable in the eyes of others. To further complicate the issue, some valuable talents and attitudes may evade others’ notice. Conflicts in resolving the identify and role confusion crisis may yield a personal misunderstanding of one’s attitudes and talents, or confusion regarding who others expect that person to be. In Erikson’s terms, role confusion is the result.
Teachers can minimize role confusion in a number of ways. One is to offer students diverse role models by identifying models in students’ reading materials, for example, or by inviting diverse guests to school. The point of these strategies would be to express a key idea: that there are many different ways to be respected, successful, and satisfied with life. Another way to support students’ identity development is to be alert to students’ confusions about their futures, and refer them to counselors or other services outside school that can help sort these out. Still another strategy is to tolerate changes in students’ goals and priorities—e.g., sudden changes in extra-curricular activities or in personal plans after graduation. Since students are still “trying on” different roles, discouraging experimentation may not be in students’ best interests.
The Crises of Adulthood: Intimacy, Generativity, and Integrity
Beyond the school years, according to Erikson, individuals continue psychosocial development by facing additional crises. Young adults, for example, face a crisis of intimacy and isolation. This crisis is about the risk of establishing close relationships with a select number of others. Whether the relationships are heterosexual, homosexual, or not sexual at all, their defining qualities are depth and sustainability. Without them, an individual risks feeling isolated.
Assuming that a person resolves this crisis in favor of intimacy, however, he or she then faces a crisis about generativity and stagnation. This crisis is characteristic of most of adulthood, and not surprisingly therefore is about caring for or making a contribution to society, and especially to its younger generations. Generativity is about making life productive and creative so that it matters to others. One obvious way for some to achieve this feeling is by raising children, but there are also many other ways to contribute to the welfare of others.
2.03: Chapter Summary
While the approaches taken by Piaget and Erikson are not the only ways to look at development, they offer valuable insights into how learners approach tasks and relationships in a learning environment. While Piaget focused on cognitive development, Erikson provided perspective on how learning and development occur within a larger social context. The next chapter will explore theories specifically targeted to learning.
2.04: Chapter 2 References
Case, R. & Okamoto, Y. (1996). The role of central conceptual structures in children’s thought. Chicago:
Society for Research on Child Development.
Inhelder, B. & Piaget, J. (1958). The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolescence: An essay on the growth of formal operational structures. New York: Basic Books.
Matthews, G. (1998). The philosophy of childhood. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children. New York: International Universities Press.
Piaget, J. (2001). The psychology of intelligence. Oxford, UK: Routledge.
A large portion of the text in this chapter is taken from Chapter 3 of the open access text Educational Psychology, 3rd Edition, 2011 by Kelvin Seiffert and Rosemary Sutton. (Minor modifications to words and phrases were made as needed to fit the current context.) | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Educational_Technology_(Thompson)/02%3A_Human_Development/2.02%3A_Social_Development-_Erikson%27s_Eight_Psychosocial_Crises.txt |
In the early 1900s, the most prevalent way of looking at learning was the view we call behaviorism. Behaviorists defined learning as an observable change in behavior. At the time, this was viewed as a scientific approach, in contrast to the introspective or psychoanalytic view of learning that had been prevalent in the past. Behaviorists believed that we can never know what is going on “inside people’s heads” and that it is inappropriate to try to guess or speculate at what cannot be empirically observed. Instead, they believed that we should watch for observable changes in behavior to find out what people were learning.
Classical Conditioning
In the early part of the 20th century, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) was studying the digestive system of dogs when he noticed an interesting behavioral phenomenon: The dogs began to salivate when the lab technicians who normally fed them entered the room, even though the dogs had not yet received any food. Pavlov realized that the dogs were salivating because they knew they were about to be fed; the dogs had begun to associate the arrival of the technicians with the food that soon followed their appearance in the room.
With his team of researchers, Pavlov began studying this process in more detail. He conducted a series of experiments in which, over a number of trials, dogs were exposed to a sound immediately before receiving food. He systematically controlled the onset of the sound and the timing of the delivery of the food, and recorded the amount of the dogs’ salivation. Initially the dogs salivated only when they saw or smelled the food, but after several pairings of the sound and the food, the dogs began to salivate as soon as they heard the sound. Pavlov concluded that the animals had learned to associate the sound with the food that followed.
Pavlov had identified a fundamental associative learning process called classical conditioning. Classical conditioning refers to learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus (e.g., a tone) becomes associated with a stimulus (e.g., food) that naturally produces a behavior (e.g., salivation). After the association is learned, the previously neutral stimulus (e.g., a tone) is by itself sufficient to produce the behavior (e.g., salivation).
Psychologists use specific terms to identify the stimuli and the responses in classical conditioning. The unconditioned stimulus (US) is something (such as food) that triggers a natural occurring response, and the unconditioned response (UR) is the naturally occurring response (such as salivation) that follows the unconditioned stimulus. The conditioned stimulus (CS) is a neutral stimulus that, after being repeatedly presented prior to the unconditioned stimulus, evokes a similar response as the unconditioned stimulus. In Pavlov’s experiment, the sound of the tone served as the conditioned stimulus that, after learning, produced the conditioned response (CR), which is the acquired response to the formerly neutral stimulus. Note that the UR and the CR are the same behavior—in this case salivation—but they are given different names because they are produced by different stimuli (the US and the CS, respectively).
The image found at https://goo.gl/images/u4HSU3 is helpful for visualizing these relationships.
Conditioning is evolutionarily beneficial because it allows organisms to develop expectations that help them prepare for both good and bad events. Imagine, for instance, that an animal first smells a new food, eats it, and then gets sick. If the animal can learn to associate the smell (CS) with the food (US), then it will quickly learn that the food creates the negative outcome, and not eat it the next time.
Operant Conditioning
In contrast to classical conditioning, which involves involuntary responses (e.g., salivating), B.F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning, posited that learning occurrs through the process of reinforcing an appropriate voluntary response to a stimulus in the environment.
Operant Conditioning has some very specific terminology. This terminology is often misused because the terms have a different meaning from their common colloquial use. Skinner claimed that the consequences that follow any given behavior could either increase or decrease that behavior. He used the term reinforcement to describe consequences that increases a behavior and punishment to describe those that decrease the behavior. He further claimed that a reinforcement or punishment could be either a stimulus added, which he defined as positive, or or a stimulus removed, which he called negative. It is important to set aside the common meanings and connotations of the words positive and negative and focus on how they are defined in Operant Conditioning. In this context the terms are more like “adding and subtracting” rather than “good and bad.”
A reinforcement, then, can be either positive or negative. For example, if you give a child praise for completing her homework (because you want her to continue this desirable behavior), you would be giving her positive reinforcement. Negative reinforcement, on the other hand, removes a consequence or stimulus that the person doesn’t like, in the hope of increasing the desirable behavior. If you tell the child that because she completed her homework immediately after school today she is excused from helping with the dinner dishes, you are giving her negative reinforcement. In both cases, you are hoping the reinforcement you provide will increase the desirable behavior of completing her homework.
The goal of punishment is to decrease a behavior. Positive punishment is an added stimulus designed to decrease a behavior. If a child is acting out in class and you scold him, you are delivering a positive punishment. The scolding is an added stimulus. A negative punishment would be taking something away that the child wants. For example, if you tell him he has to stay in from recess after acting out in class, you are using negative punishment.
The important thing to remember about reinforcement and punishment is that the result determines whether a stimulus serves as a reinforcement or a punishment, regardless of the intentions of the person delivering the stimulus. A teacher can take a certain action with the intention of punishing a child, but end up inadvertently providing reinforcement. If the child who is acting out in class craves any kind of attention she can get from an adult, both the praise and the scolding can be equally reinforcing for her.
While the examples above involve humans, it is important to note that Skinner’s research was primarily done with animals trained in special cages called “Skinner Boxes” designed to deliver reinforcements and punishments. For example, he would train a rat to push a lever when a green light came on by first watching the rat move around and explore the cage until it eventually pushed the lever. When the rat pushed the lever a food pellet would be released, which caused the rat to push the lever frequently. Once this behavior was established, he would start turning on a light, and only release a food pellet if the rat pushed the lever when the light was on. Eventually, the rat would be trained to push the lever every time the light came on.
Skinner believed that human learning occured by the same mechanism, and that even very complex behaviors could be learned by reinforcing intermediate behaviors (as in the example of the rat above) and gradually shaping the complex behavior. In 1957, Skinner published “Verbal Behavior,” where he applied his theory to language learning. This was controversial. The linguist Noam Chomsky, for example, argued that Operant Conditioning was inadequate to explain how humans learn to construct new sentences in response to new experience.
For more information about B. F. Skinner and his Operant Conditioning theory, see this video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D-RS80DVvrg (4:45 minutes).
Behaviorism in Educational Technology
Today, principles of Operant Conditioning are used by teachers for general classroom management and to support students with special needs. Educational technology has also employed Behaviorist principles, especially Operant Conditioning. Programmed Instruction (see https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmed_learning), for example, is a teaching strategy that developed and grew along with advances in technology. Drill and practice software is helpful for specific content, such as multiplication tables or second language vocabulary, that must be learned to a level of automaticity. Games and gamification also make use of Operant Conditioning principles. Acquiring resources and “leveling up” provide reinforcement, while losing one’s sword in a battle or falling off a cliff serve to punish errors. | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Educational_Technology_(Thompson)/03%3A_Learning_Theory/3.01%3A_Behaviorist_Theories_of_Learning.txt |
In the 1960s, cognitive theories of learning gradually began to replace Behaviorism as a predominant view. Cognitive theorists claim that observable behaviors are not sufficient to describe learning because the internal thought processes are also part of learning. The cognitive perspective was heavily influenced by the development of computer technology and telecommunications, and use the computer as a metaphor to understand what is happening in the human mind. Learning is defined as storing and organizing information and concepts in the mind.
Information Processing
One of the early cognitive theories of learning and memory was Atkinson and Schiffrin’s (1968) Information Processing Theory. This theory views the mind as a computer that accepts inputs and performs processing activities on those inputs, similar to the way a computer processes data. In this view there are three “buckets” known as memory stores.
When you take in information—seeing, hearing, smelling, etc.—it starts in the sensory register. You are constantly bombarded with sensory information, and most of these stimuli are dropped after reaching the sensory register because you don’t pay attention to them. For example, when you are enjoying a meal in a restaurant with friends, the sound of other people’s conversations reaches your ears, but you normally do not attend to these sounds and therefore do not remember hearing them. The stimuli that you do attend to are then sent to your short-term memory. The short-term memory is where you work with information, process it, and try to pass it into long-term memory.
The theoretical terminology of Information Processing has worked its way into colloquial speech and somewhat changed in meaning. In Information Processing Theory, short-term memory is very short indeed—about 30 seconds! In order to keep something in your mind longer than that, you need to process that information. You do this by rehearsing (repeating) it, or connecting it to what you already know. Or, perhaps you create visual images. The processing you do to make the new information meaningful and memorable is called encoding. Encoding moves information from your short-term memory to your long-term memory.
When you need to remember something that you learned previously, you retrieve it from your long-term memory and move it back into your short-term memory, a process analogous to opening a file on your computer and displaying it on the desktop. This is why short-term memory is also known as working memory. (These two terms originated from different but similar theoretical models of how memory works.)
Short-term memory has a limited capacity. In his article “The Magical Number Seven,” Miller (1956) proposed that we can hold approximately seven items in our short term memory, or, taking individual variation into account, “seven plus or minus two.” There are strategies we use to help us effectively increase this capacity, however. Chunking is the process of memorizing small units so they become single items in memory. We can then hold seven plus or minus two “chunks” in our memory. An example of this would be a 10-digit phone number, which is chunked into an area code, prefix, and a final chunk of four digits. (This was more important in the days before mobile phones did our dialing for us!)
In contrast to our limited short-term memory, long-term memory is believed to be unlimited in capacity. While there is some disagreement about whether we really retain everything in long term-memory “forever,” there is agreement that we retain a large amount of information for a very long time. Often when we have trouble remembering something, the difficulty is with retrieval. Retrieval is particularly difficult for things we memorize only by rote rehearsal; a more elaborate encoding process will lead to more useful retrieval cues.
Cognitive Load Theory
Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller, 1994) elaborates on the concept of a limited short term memory by defining three types of “load” that need to be considered by instructors and instructional designers. Extraneous load is the cognitive burden posed by distracting elements. An example would be a confusing navigation process in a poorly designed tutorial. Intrinsic load is the complexity inherent in the subject matter. Dealing with that complexity is part of learning the material, and can’t be entirely avoided. Germane load is the cognitive demand of processing the subject matter. Remember that to move new information from short-term memory to long-term memory in a retrievable manner, we need to use elaboration techniques. Elaboration is effortful, however, and poses germane cognitive load. According to Cognitive Load Theory, instructors and instructional designers should seek to minimize extraneous cognitive load to free the learner’s capacity to handle the intrinsic and germane load.
Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning
Richard Mayer’s Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning is a particularly useful theory for educational technologists because it attempts to offer some prescriptive advice for designing media for learning. Let’s use multimedia to explore this multimedia theory! Watch the following videos for more information:
You can also read more about this theory here: https://www.eduhk.hk/apfslt/v12_issue2/rias/page4.htm.
Constructivism
Constructivists believe that learning occurs as an individual interacts with the environment and constructs meaning by making sense of his or her experience. While still a cognitivist theory, it emphasizes meaning-making processes that may be unique for each learner. The teacher’s role is to create experiences that facilitate this meaning-making process.
Jonassen, Peck, & Wilson (1999) define the following five attributes of meaningful learning:
• Learning is active. Learners manipulate the environment and learn from observing the natural consequences of their actions.
• Learning is constructive. Learners integrate new experience with prior knowledge to construct meaning.
• Learning is intentional. Learners articulate learning goals and reflect on the progress towards these goals.
• Learning is authentic. Learners need to experience a rich, authentic context for their meaning-making.
• Learning is cooperative. Learners construct knowledge through productive conversation with other learners.
Educational technology can facilitate a constructivist learning experience through tools such as collaborative shared documents (e.g., wikis), information for exploration (e.g., web searching), complex simulations, and constructive projects (e.g., video creation). | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Educational_Technology_(Thompson)/03%3A_Learning_Theory/3.02%3A_Cognitive_Theories_of_Learning.txt |
Behaviorist and cognitive theories of learning focus on the individual learner. Social learning theorists view learning as a process of adopting ways of thinking from the culture and community. Therefore, social interaction is a crucial part of the learning process. Two leading thinkers in the social learning tradition were Albert Bandura and Lev Vygotsky.
Observational Learning (Albert Bandura)
Observational learning is based on behaviorist principles, but is focused modeling—learning by observing the behavior of others. To demonstrate the importance of observational learning in children, Bandura, Ross, and Ross (1963) showed children a live image of either a man or a woman interacting with a Bobo doll, a filmed version of the same events, or a cartoon version of the events. As you can see in the video linked below, the Bobo doll is an inflatable balloon with a weight in the bottom that makes it bob back up when you knock it down. In all three conditions, the model violently punched, kicked, sat on, and hit the doll with a hammer:
https://youtu.be/Pr0OTCVtHbU (4:08 minutes).
Take a moment to see how Albert Bandura explains his research into the modeling of aggression in children. The researchers first let the children view one of the three types of modeling, and then let them play in a room in which there were some toys. To create some frustration in the children, Bandura let the children play with the fun toys for only a couple of minutes before taking them away. Then Bandura gave the children a chance to play with the Bobo doll.
If you guessed that most of the children imitated the model, you would be correct. Regardless of which type of modeling the children had seen, and regardless of the sex of the model or the child, the children who had seen the model behaved aggressively, just as the model had done. They also punched, kicked, sat on the doll, and hit it with the hammer. Bandura and his colleagues had demonstrated that these children learned new behaviors simply by observing and imitating others.
Observational learning is useful for animals and for people because it allows us to learn without having to actually engage in what might be a risky behavior. Although modeling is normally adaptive, it can be problematic for children who grow up in violent families. These children are not only the victims of aggression, but they also see it happening to their parents and siblings. Because children learn how to be parents in large part by modeling the actions of their own parents, it is no surprise that there is a strong correlation between family violence in childhood and violence as an adult. Observational learning is also the basis for concern about the effect violent television shows and video games may have on children.
Vygotsky’s Social Learning Theory
Lev Vygotsky developed and published his theory in Russia in the 1920s, but it wasn’t until the 1960s and early 1970s that his work became well-known among education researchers in the United States. His work emphasized learning through social interaction. Vygotsky believed that our culture provides us with “cognitive tools” that affect the way we think. Our language, for example, is a cultural tool. While language serves a similar function in all cultures, the unique features of a language can influence how we think. For example, if you are a speaker of a language that has different forms of address depending on social position (such as vous versus tu in French), you probably have a slightly different way of thinking about status and social position than a speaker of a language (such as English) that does not recognize this distinction. Similarly, children who learn to add and subtract with an abacus think about numbers differently than children who learn with different manipulatives or with only pencil and paper.
According to Vygotsky, children learn these cultural tools by interacting with adults, who model use of the tools and assist children in using them. Children begin by imitating the adults’ behavior, but eventually they internalize them. The adult serves as a more knowledgeable other who provides scaffolding that allows the child to perform in his or her zone of proximal development (ZPD). The ZPD is the gap between what the child can do successfully without help and what he or she can do with help. The assistance provided is called scaffolding because it is intended to support the child temporarily and be gradually taken away as the child gains skill. (More advanced peers can also provide scaffolding.)
For more detail on Vygotsky’s theory, see: http://epltt.coe.uga.edu/index.php?title=Vygotsky%27s_constructivism.
3.04: Connectivism
While behaviorists and cognitivists focused on the individual learning and social learning theories looked at learning within social systems, George Siemans (2005) believed that learning and knowledge could exist outside the person in a complex web of people and information sources. According to Sieman’s (2005) Connectivist Theory, the following principles apply to learning:
• “Learning and knowledge rests in diversity of opinions.
• Learning is a process of connecting specialized nodes or information sources.
• Learning may reside in non-human appliances.
• Capacity to know more is more critical than what is currently known.
• Nurturing and maintaining connections is needed to facilitate continual learning.
• Ability to see connections between fields, ideas, and concepts is a core skill.
• Currency (accurate, up-to-date knowledge) is the intent of all connectivist learning activities.
Decision-making is itself a learning process. Choosing what to learn and the meaning of incoming information is seen through the lens of a shifting reality. While there is a right answer now, it may be wrong tomorrow due to alterations in the information climate affecting the decision” (Siemans, 2005, online).
You can read Siemans’ complete article introducing Connectivism here: http://www.itdl.org/journal/jan_05/article01.htm.
3.05: Chapter Summary
As you can see, understanding how people learn is an ongoing process. While the early behaviorists focused on observable behaviors, researchers are constantly seeking new ways to gain a better understanding of how learning happens. Sometimes, as in the cases of cognitive theories and connectivism, a new technology inspires new models and metaphors. Other times it is interaction with other cultures that influences theory, as when Vygotsky’s work was translated into English. All of these theories and perspectives add to our understanding of teaching and learning. However, there are personal factors that influence how receptive we are to learning as well. In the next chapter we will discuss how motivation can affect readiness to learn.
3.06: Chapter 3 References
Atkinson, R. C., & Shiflrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 2(1), 89-195.
Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1963). Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66(1), 3–11.
Jonassen, D., Peck, K. L., & Wilson, B. G. (1999). Technologies for meaning making. Learning with technology: A constructivist perspective (pp. 1 – 18). Columbus, OH: Prentice Hall.
Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63(2), 81.
Siemans, G. (2005). Connectivism: A learning theory for the digital age. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning 2(1). Retrieved from http://www.itdl.org/journal/jan_05/index.htm.
Sweller, J. (1994). Cognitive Load Theory, learning difficulty, and instructional design. Learning and Instruction, 4(4), 295-312.
The sections on classical conditioning and observational learning in this chapter were taken from Chapter 7 of the open access textbook Introduction to Psychology, published by the University of Minnesota in 2015. This text was itself adapted from a 2010 book published by an author who requested no attribution. | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Educational_Technology_(Thompson)/03%3A_Learning_Theory/3.03%3A_Social_Theories_of_Learning.txt |
One way motives vary is by the kind of goals that students set for themselves, and by how these goals support students’ academic achievement. As you might suspect, some goals encourage academic achievement more than others, but even motives that do not concern academics explicitly tend to affect learning indirectly.
Goals that Contribute to Achievement
What kinds of achievement goals do students hold? Imagine three individuals—Maria, Sara, and Lindsay—who are taking algebra together. Maria’s main concern is to learn the material as well as possible because she finds it interesting and because she believes it will be useful to her in later courses, perhaps at university. Hers is a mastery goal because she wants primarily to learn or master the material. Sara, however, is concerned less about algebra than about getting top marks on the exams and in the course. Hers is a performance goal because she is focused primarily on looking successful; learning algebra is merely a vehicle for performing well in the eyes of peers and teachers. Lindsay, for her part, is primarily concerned about avoiding a poor or failing mark. Hers is a performance-avoidance goal, or failure-avoidance goal, because she is not really concerned about learning algebra, as Maria is, or about competitive success, as Sara is; she is simply intending to avoid failure.
As you might imagine, mastery, performance, and performance-avoidance goals often are not experienced in pure form, but in combinations. If you play the clarinet in the school band, you might want to improve your technique simply because you enjoy playing as well as possible—essentially a mastery orientation. But you might also want to look talented in the eyes of classmates—a performance orientation. Another part of what you may wish, at least privately, is to avoid looking like a complete failure at playing the clarinet. One of these motives may predominate over the others, but they all may be present.
Mastery goals tend to be associated with enjoyment of learning the material at hand, and in this sense represent an outcome that teachers often seek for students. By definition therefore they are a form of intrinsic motivation. As such, mastery goals have been found to be better than performance goals at sustaining students’ interest in a subject. In one review of research about learning goals, for example, students with primarily mastery orientations toward a course they were taking not only tended to express greater interest in the course, but also continued to express interest well beyond the official end of the course, and to enroll in further courses in the same subject (Harackiewicz, et al., 2002; Wolters, 2004).
Performance goals, on the other hand, imply extrinsic motivation, and tend to show the mixed effects of this orientation. A positive effect is that students with a performance orientation do tend to get higher grades than those who express primarily a mastery orientation. The advantage in grades occurs both in the short term (with individual assignments) and in the long term (with overall grade point average when graduating). But there is evidence that performance oriented students do not actually learn material as deeply or permanently as students who are more mastery oriented (Midgley, Kaplan, & Middleton, 2001). A possible reason is that measures of performance—such as test scores—often reward relatively shallow memorization of information and therefore guide performance-oriented students away from processing the information thoughtfully or deeply. Another possible reason is that a performance orientation, by focusing on gaining recognition as the best among peers, encourages competition among peers. Giving and receiving help from classmates is thus not in the self-interest of a performance-oriented student, and the resulting isolation limits the student’s learning.
Goals that Indirectly Affect Achievement
Failure-Avoidant Goals
Failure-avoidant goals by nature undermine academic achievement. Often they are a negative byproduct of the competitiveness of performance goals (Urdan, 2004). If a teacher (and sometimes also fellow students) puts too much emphasis on being the best in the class, and if interest in learning the material as such therefore suffers, then some students may decide that success is beyond their reach or may not be desirable in any case. The alternative—simply avoiding failure—may seem wiser as well as more feasible. Once a student adopts this attitude, he or she may underachieve more or less deliberately, doing only the minimum work necessary to avoid looking foolish or to avoid serious conflict with the teacher. Avoiding failure in this way is an example of self-handicapping—or making deliberate actions and choices that reduce a student’s chances of success. Students may self-handicap in a number of ways; in addition to not working hard, they may procrastinate about completing assignments, for example, or set goals that are unrealistically high.
Social Goals
Most students need and value relationships, both with classmates and with teachers, and often (though not always) they get a good deal of positive support from the relationships. But the effects of social relationships are complex, and at times can work both for and against academic achievement. If a relationship with the teacher is important and reasonably positive, then the student is likely to try pleasing the teacher by working hard on assignments (Dowson & McInerney, 2003). Note, though, that this effect is closer to performance than mastery; the student is primarily concerned about looking good to someone else. If, on the other hand, a student is especially concerned about relationships with peers, the effects on achievement depend on the student’s motives for the relationship, as well as on peers’ attitudes. Desiring to be close to peers personally may lead a student to ask for help, and give help to peers—behaviors that may support higher achievement, at least up to a point. But desiring to impress peers with skills and knowledge may lead to the opposite; as already mentioned, the competitive edge of such a performance orientation may keep the student from collaborating and, in this indirect way, reduce a student’s opportunities to learn. The abilities and achievement motivation of peers themselves can also make a difference, but once again the effects vary depending on the context. Low achievement and motivation by peers affect an individual’s academic motivation more in elementary school than in high school, more in learning mathematics than learning to read, and more if there is a wide range of abilities in a classroom than if there is a more narrow range (Burke & Sass, 2006). In spite of these complexities, social relationships are valued so highly by most students that teachers should generally facilitate them, while also keeping an eye on their nature and their consequent effects on achievement.
Encouraging Mastery Goals
Even though a degree of performance orientation may be inevitable in school because of the mere presence of classmates, it does not have to take over students’ academic motivation completely. Teachers can encourage mastery goals in various ways. One way is to allow students to choose specific tasks or assignments for themselves, when possible, because their choices are more likely than usual to reflect prior personal interests, and hence be more intrinsically motivated. The limitation of this strategy, of course, is that students may not see some of the connections between their prior interests and the curriculum topics at hand. In this case it also helps for the teacher to look for and point out the relevance of current topics or skills to students’ personal interests and goals. Suppose, for example, that a student enjoys the latest styles of music. This interest may actually have connections with a wide range of school curriculum, such as:
• Biology (because of the physiology of the ear and of hearing)
• Physics or general science (because of the nature of musical acoustics)
• History (because of changes in musical styles over time)
• English (because of relationships of musical lyrics and themes with literary themes)
• Foreign languages (because of comparisons of music and songs among cultures)
Still another way to encourage mastery orientation is to focus on students’ individual effort and improvement as much as possible, rather than on comparing students’ successes to each other. You can encourage this orientation by giving students detailed feedback about how they can improve performance, or by arranging for students to collaborate on specific tasks and projects rather than to compete about them, and in general by showing your own enthusiasm for the subject at hand. | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Educational_Technology_(Thompson)/04%3A_Motivation/4.01%3A_Goal_Orientation.txt |
4.2 Attribution Theory
Attributions are perceptions about the causes of success and failure. Suppose that you get a low mark on a test and are wondering what caused the low mark. You can construct various explanations for (that is, make various attributions about) this failure: maybe you did not study very hard; maybe the test itself was difficult; maybe you were unlucky; maybe you doubt your own intelligence. Each explanation attributes the failure to a different factor. The explanations that you settle upon may reflect the truth accurately, or then again, they may not. What is important about attributions is that they reflect personal beliefs about the sources or causes of success and failure. As such, they tend to affect motivation in various ways, depending on the nature of the attribution (Weiner, 2005).
Locus, Stability, and Controllability
Attributions vary in three underlying ways: locus, stability, and controllability. The locus of an attribution is the location (figuratively speaking) of the source of success or failure. If you attribute a top mark on a test to your ability, then the locus is internal; if you attribute the mark to the test’s having easy questions, then the locus is external. The stability of an attribution is its relative permanence. If you attribute the mark to your ability, then the source of success is relatively stable — by definition, ability is a relatively lasting quality. If you attribute a top mark to the effort you put into studying, then the source of success is unstable — effort can vary and has to be renewed on each occasion or else it disappears. The controllability of an attribution is the extent to which the individual can influence it. If you attribute a top mark to your effort at studying, then the source of success is relatively controllable—you can influence effort simply by deciding how much to study. But if you attribute the mark to simple luck, then the source of the success is uncontrollable—there is nothing that can influence random chance.
As you might suspect, the way that these attributions combine affects students’ academic motivations in major ways. It usually helps both motivation and achievement if a student attributes academic successes and failures to factors that are internal and controllable, such as effort or a choice to use particular learning strategies (Dweck, 2000). Attributing successes to factors that are internal but stable or uncontrollable (like ability), on the other hand, is both a blessing and a curse: sometimes it can create optimism about prospects for future success (“I always do well”), but it can also lead to indifference about correcting mistakes (Dweck, 2006), or even create pessimism if a student happens not to perform at the accustomed level (“Maybe I’m not as smart as I thought”). Worst of all for academic motivation are attributions, whether stable or not, related to external factors. Believing that performance depends simply on luck (“The teacher was in a bad mood when marking”) or on excessive difficulty of material removes incentive for a student to invest in learning. All in all, then, it seems important for teachers to encourage internal, controllable attributions about success.
Influencing Students’ Attributions
One way or another, effective learning strategies involve framing teachers’ own explanations of success and failure around internal, controllable factors. Instead of telling a student: “Good work! You’re smart!”, try saying: “Good work! Your effort really made a difference, didn’t it?” If a student fails, instead of saying, “Too bad! This material is just too hard for you,” try saying, “Let’s find a strategy for practicing this more, and then you can try again.” In both cases the first option emphasizes uncontrollable factors (innate intelligence, difficulty level), and the second option emphasizes internal, controllable factors (effort, use of specific strategies).
Insisting that attributions are controllable will only be convincing, however, if teachers provide appropriate conditions for students to learn—conditions in which students’ efforts really do pay off. There are three conditions that have to be in place for this to happen. First, academic tasks and materials need to be moderated to the right level of difficulty. If you give problems in advanced calculus to a first-grade student, the student will not only fail them but also be justified in attributing the failure to an external factor—task difficulty. If assignments are assessed in ways that produce highly variable, unreliable marks, then students will rightly attribute their performance to an external, unstable source—luck. Both circumstances will interfere with motivation.
Second, teachers also need to be ready to give help to individuals who need it, even if they believe an assignment is easy enough or clear enough that students should not need individual assistance. Readiness to help is always essential because it is often hard to know in advance exactly how difficult a task will prove to be for particular students. Without assistance, a task that proves difficult initially may remain difficult indefinitely, and the student will be tempted to make unproductive attributions about his or her failure (“I will never understand this,” “I’m not smart enough,” or “It doesn’t matter how hard I study,” etc.).
Third, teachers need to remember that ability—usually considered a relatively stable factor—often actually changes incrementally over the long term. Recognizing this fact is one of the best ways to bring about actual increases in students’ abilities (Blackwell, Trzniewski, & Dweck, 2007; Schunk, Pintrich, & Meese, 2008). A middle-years student might play the trumpet in the school band at a high level of ability, but this ability actually reflects a lot of previous effort and a gradual increase in ability. A second grade student who reads fluently may have high current ability to read, but at some point in the distant past that same student could not read as well, and even further back they may not have been able to read at all. The increases in ability have happened at least in part because of effort. While these ideas may seem obvious, they can easily be forgotten in the classroom because effort and ability evolve according to very different time frames. Effort and its results appear relatively immediately—a student expends effort this week, this day, or even at this very moment, and the effort (if not the results) are visible right away. But ability may take longer to show itself; a student often develops it only over many weeks, months, or years. | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Educational_Technology_(Thompson)/04%3A_Motivation/4.02%3A_Attribution_Theory.txt |
In addition to being influenced by their goals, interests, and attributions, students’ motives are affected by specific beliefs about their personal capacities. In self-efficacy theory the beliefs become a primary, explicit explanation for motivation (Bandura, 1977, 1986, 1997). Self-efficacy is the belief that you are capable of carrying out a specific task or reaching a specific goal. Note that the belief and the action or goal are specific. Self-efficacy is a belief that you can write an acceptable term paper, for example, or repair an automobile, or make friends with the new student in class. These are relatively specific beliefs and tasks. Self-efficacy is not about whether you believe that you are intelligent in general, whether you always like working with mechanical things, or think that you are generally a likeable person. These more general judgments are better regarded as various mixtures of self-concepts (beliefs about general personal identity) or of self-esteem (evaluations of identity). Self-efficacy beliefs, furthermore, are not the same as “true” or documented skill or ability. They are self-constructed, meaning that they are personally developed perceptions. Therefore, discrepancies might exist between a person’s self-efficacy beliefs and the person’s actual abilities. You can believe that you can write a good term paper, for example, without actually being able to do so, and vice versa: you can believe yourself incapable of writing a paper, but discover that you are in fact able to do so. In this way, self-efficacy is like the everyday idea of confidence, except that it is defined more precisely. And as with confidence, it is possible to have either too much or too little self-efficacy. The optimum level seems to be either at or slightly above true capacity (Bandura, 1997). As explained below, large discrepancies between self-efficacy and ability can create motivational problems for the individual.
Effects of Self-Efficacy on Students’ Behavior
Self-efficacy may sound like a uniformly desirable quality, but research as well as teachers’ experiences suggests that its effects are a bit more complicated than they first appear. Self-efficacy has three main effects, each of which has both a “dark” or undesirable side and a positive or desirable side.
Choice of Tasks
The first effect is that self-efficacy makes students more willing to choose tasks they already feel confident at succeeding. This effect is almost inevitable, given the definition of the concept of self-efficacy, and has been supported by research on self-efficacy beliefs (Pajares & Schunk, 2001). For teachers, the effect on choice can be either welcome or not, depending on circumstances. If a student believes that he or she can solve mathematical problems, then the student is more likely to attempt the mathematics homework that the teacher assigns. Unfortunately the converse is also true. If a student believes that he or she is incapable of solving the problem, then the student is less likely to attempt the math homework (perhaps telling themselves, “What’s the use of trying?”) regardless of their actual ability.
Furthermore, since self-efficacy is self-constructed, it is also possible for students to miscalculate or misperceive their true skills, and these misperceptions themselves can have complex effects on students’ motivations. From a teacher’s point of view, all is well if students overestimate their capacity and succeed at a relevant task anyway, or if they underestimate their capacity but discover along the way that they can succeed. (The latter instance may even have the result of raising the student’s self-efficacy beliefs as a result.) All may not be well, though, if students do not believe that they can succeed and therefore do not even try, or if students overestimate their capacity by a wide margin and are then unexpectedly disappointed by a failure that lowers their self-efficacy beliefs.
Persistence at Tasks
A second effect of high self-efficacy is to increase one’s persistence at relevant tasks. If you believe that you can solve crossword puzzles, but encounter one that takes longer than usual, then you are more likely to work longer at the puzzle until you (hopefully) really do solve it. This is probably a desirable behavior in many situations, unless the persistence happens to interfere with other, more important tasks (e.g., what if you should be doing homework instead of working on crossword puzzles?). If you happen to have low self-efficacy for crosswords, on the other hand, then you are more likely to give up early on a difficult puzzle. Giving up early may often be undesirable because it deprives you of a chance to improve your skill by persisting. Then again, the consequent lack of success cause by giving up may provide a useful incentive to improve your crossword skills. And again, misperceptions of capacity make a difference. Overestimating your capacity by a lot (excessively high self-efficacy) might lead you not to prepare for or focus on a task properly, and thereby impair your performance. So as with choosing tasks, the effects of self-efficacy vary from one individual to another and one situation to another. The teacher’s task is therefore two-fold: first, to discern the variations, and second, to encourage the positive self-efficacy beliefs.
Response to Failure
High self-efficacy for a task not only increases a person’s persistence at the task, but also improves their ability to cope with stressful conditions and to recover their motivation following outright failures. Suppose that you have two assignments—an essay and a science lab report—due on the same day, and this circumstance promises to make your life hectic as you approach the deadline. You will cope better with the stress of multiple assignments if you already believe yourself capable of doing both of the tasks than if you believe yourself capable of doing just one of them or (especially) of doing neither. You will also recover better in the unfortunate event that you end up with a poor grade on one or even both of the tasks.
That is the good news. The bad news, at least from a teacher’s point of view, is that the same resilience can sometimes also serve non-academic and non-school purposes. How so? Suppose, instead of two school assignments due on the same day, a student has only one school assignment due, but also holds a part-time evening job as a server at a local restaurant. Suppose, further, that the student has high self-efficacy for both of these tasks; they believe, in other words, that they are capable of completing the assignment as well as continuing to work at the job. The result of such resilient beliefs can easily be a student who devotes a less-than-deal amount of attention to school work, and who even ends up with a lower grade on the assignment than they are capable of of achieving. | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Educational_Technology_(Thompson)/04%3A_Motivation/4.03%3A_Self-Efficacy.txt |
Common sense suggests that human motivations originate from some sort of inner “need.” We all think of ourselves as having various “needs”—a need for food, for example, or a need for companionship—that influences our choices and activities. This same idea also forms part of some theoretical accounts of motivation, though the theories differ in the needs they emphasize or recognize. Some needs may decrease when satisfied (like hunger), but others may not (like curiosity). Either way, needs differ from the self-efficacy beliefs discussed earlier, which are relatively specific and cognitive, and affect particular tasks and behaviors fairly directly.
A recent theory of motivation based on the idea of needs is self-determination theory, proposed by the psychologists Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, among others. The theory proposes that understanding motivation requires taking into account three basic human needs:
• Autonomy—the need to feel free of external constraints on behavior
• Competence—the need to feel capable or skilled
• Relatedness—the need to feel connected or involved with others
Note that these needs are all psychological, not physical; hunger and sex, for example, are not on the list. They are also about personal growth or development, not about deficits that a person tries to reduce or eliminate. Unlike food or safety, you can never get enough autonomy, competence, or relatedness. You (and your students) will seek to enhance these continually throughout life.
The key idea of self-determination theory is that when people (such as you or one of your students) feel that these basic needs are reasonably well met, they tend to perceive their actions and choices to be intrinsically motivated or “self-determined.” In that case they can turn their attention to a variety of activities that they find attractive or important, but that do not relate directly to their basic needs. Among your students, for example, some individuals might read books that you have suggested, and others might listen attentively when you explain key concepts from the unit you happen to be teaching.
If one or more basic needs are not met well, however, people will tend to feel coerced by outside pressures or external incentives. They may become preoccupied, in fact, with satisfying whatever need has not been met and thus exclude or avoid activities that might otherwise be interesting, educational, or important.
In proposing the importance of needs, then, self-determination theory is asserting the importance of intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation comes from within the person. You are intrinsically motivated when you find an activity enjoyable, interesting, meaningful, or worthwhile. For example, Cindy looks forward to summer vacation because it gives her plenty of time to read novels. Cindy’s prolific reading habits come from her intrinsic motivation to read. In contrast, extrinsic motivation occurs when you expect an external reward, such as a salary or a good grade. Jan does not inherently enjoy reading as much as Cindy does, but she is enrolled in a summer reading program at the local library. Jan receives points each time she completes a book, and she knows that the top five readers at the end of the summer will win prizes. Here, Jan’s motivation to read during her summer vacation is primarily extrinsic.
The self-determination version of intrinsic motivation, however, emphasizes a person’s perception of freedom, rather than the presence or absence of “real” constraints on action. Self-determination means a person feels free, even if the person is also operating within certain external constraints. In principle, a student can experience self-determination even if the student must, for example, live within externally imposed rules of appropriate classroom behavior. To achieve a feeling of self-determination, however, the student’s basic needs must be met—needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. In motivating students, then, the bottom line is that teachers have an interest in helping students meet their basic needs, and in not letting school rules or the teachers’ own leadership styles interfere with or block satisfaction of students’ basic needs.
“Pure” self-determination may be the ideal for most teachers and students, of course, but the reality is usually different. For a variety of reasons, teachers in most classrooms cannot be expected to meet all students’ basic needs at all times. One reason is the sheer number of students, which makes it impossible to attend to every student perfectly at all times. Another reason is teachers’ responsibility for a curriculum, which can require creating expectations for students’ activities that sometimes conflict with students’ autonomy or makes them feel (temporarily) less than fully competent. Still another reason is students’ personal histories, ranging from divorce to poverty, which may create needs in some individuals that are beyond the power of teachers to remedy.
The result from students’ points of view is usually only a partial perception of self-determination, and therefore a simultaneous mix of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations. Self-determination theory recognizes this reality by suggesting that the “intrinsic-ness” of motivation is really a matter of degree, extending from highly extrinsic, through various mixtures of intrinsic and extrinsic, to highly intrinsic (Koestner & Losier, 2004). At the extrinsic end of the scale is learning that is regulated primarily by external rewards and constraints, whereas at the intrinsic end is learning regulated primarily by learners themselves. By assuming that motivation is often a mix of the intrinsic and extrinsic, the job of the teacher becomes more realistic. The job is not to expect purely intrinsic motivation from students all the time, but simply to arrange and encourage motivations that are as intrinsic as possible. To do this, the teacher needs to support students’ basic needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness.
To learn more about the levels of intrinsic-extrinsic motivation or other details about self-determination theory, explore the following links:
Supporting Autonomy in Learners
A major part of supporting autonomy is to give students choices wherever possible (Ryan & Lynch, 2003). The choices that encourage the greatest feelings of self-control are those that concern relatively major issues or that have relatively significant consequences for students, such as whom to choose as partners for a major group project. But choices also encourage some feeling of self-control even when they are about relatively minor issues, such as how to organize your desk or what kind of folder to use for storing your papers at school. It is important, furthermore, to offer choices to all students, including students needing explicit directions in order to work successfully. Avoid reserving choices for only the best students or giving up offering choices altogether to students who fall behind or who need extra help. All students will feel more self-determined and therefore more motivated if they have choices of some sort.
Teachers can also support students’ autonomy more directly by minimizing external rewards (like grades) and comparisons among students’ performance, and by orienting and responding to students’ expressed goals and interests. In teaching elementary students about climate change, for example, you can support autonomy by exploring which aspects of this topic have already come to students’ attention and aroused their concern. The point of the discussion would not be to find out “who knows the most” about this topic, but to build and enhance students’ intrinsic motivations as much as possible. In reality, of course, it may not be possible to succeed at this goal fully—some students may simply have no interest in the topic, for example, or you may be constrained by time or resources from fully individualizing certain activities. But any degree of attention to students’ individuality, as well as any degree of choice, will support students’ autonomy.
Supporting the Need for Competence
The most obvious way to make students feel competent is by selecting activities that are challenging but nonetheless achievable with reasonable effort and assistance (Elliott, McGregor, & Thrash, 2004). Although few teachers would disagree with this idea, there are times when it is hard to put into practice, such as when you first meet a class at the start of a school year and therefore are unfamiliar with the students’ backgrounds and interests. But there are some strategies that are generally effective even if you are not yet in a position to know the students well. One is to emphasize activities that require active response from students. Sometimes this simply means selecting projects, experiments, discussions and the like that require students to do more than simply listen. Other times it means expecting active responses in all interactions with students, such as by asking questions that call for “divergent” (multiple or elaborated) answers. In a social studies class, for example, try asking “What are some ways we could find out more about our community?” instead of “Tell me the three best ways to find out about our community.” The first question invites more divergent, elaborate answers than the second.
Another generally effective way to support competence is to respond and give feedback as immediately as possible. Tests and term papers help subsequent learning more if returned—with comments—sooner rather than later. Discussions teach more if you include your own ideas in them, while still encouraging students’ input. Small group and independent activities are more effective if you provide a convenient way for students to consult authoritative sources for guidance when needed, whether the source is you personally, a teaching assistant, a specially selected reading, or even a computer program. In addition, you can sometimes devise tasks that create a feeling of competence because they have a “natural” solution or ending point. Assembling a jigsaw puzzle of the community, for example, has this quality, and so does creating a jigsaw puzzle of the community if the students need a greater challenge.
Supporting the Need to Relate to Others
The main way of support students’ need to relate to others is to arrange activities in which students work together in ways that are mutually supportive, that recognize students’ diversity, and minimize competition among individuals. Having students work together can happen in many ways. You can, for example, deliberately arrange projects that require a variety of talents; some educators call such activities “rich group work” (Cohen, 1994). While studying medieval society after begin place in small groups, for example, one student can contribute drawing skills, another can contribute writing skills, and still another can contribute dramatic skills. The result can be a multi-faceted presentation—written, visual, and oral. The groups needed for rich group work provide for students’ relationships with each other, whether they contain six individuals or only two.
As a teacher, you can add to these organizational strategies by encouraging the development of your own relationships with class members. Your goal, as teacher, is to demonstrate caring and interest in your students not just as students, but as people. The goal also involves behaving as if good relationships between and among class members are not only possible, but ready to develop and perhaps even already developing. A simple tactic, for example, is to speak of “we” and “us” as much as possible, rather than speaking of “you students.” Another tactic is to present cooperative activities and assignments without apology, as if they are in the best interests not just of students, but of “all of us” in the classroom, yourself included.
Keeping Self-Determination in Perspective
In certain ways self-determination theory provides a sensible way to think about students’ intrinsic motivation and therefore to think about how to get them to manage their own learning. A particular strength of the theory is that it recognizes degrees of self-determination and bases many ideas on this reality. Most people recognize combinations of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation guiding particular activities in their own lives. We might enjoy teaching, for example, but also do this job partly to receive a paycheck. To its credit, self-determination theory also relies on a list of basic human needs—autonomy, competence, and relatedness—that relate comfortably with som of the larger purposes of education.
Although these are positive features for understanding and influencing students’ classroom motivations, some educators and psychologists nonetheless have lingering questions about the limitations of self-determination theory. One is whether merely providing choices actually improves students’ learning, or simply improves students’ satisfaction with learning. There is evidence supporting both possibilities (Flowerday & Schraw, 2003; Deci & Ryan, 2003), and it is likely that there are teachers whose classroom experience supports both possibilities as well. Another question is whether it is possible to pay too much attention to students’ needs—and again there is evidence that both favors and contradicts this possibility. Too many choices can actually make anyone (not just a student) frustrated and dissatisfied with the choice the person actually does make (Schwartz, 2004). Furthermore, differentiating activities to students’ competence levels may be impractical if students are functioning at extremely diverse levels within a single class, as sometimes happens. Differentiating may be inappropriate, too, if it holds a teacher back from covering key curriculum objectives that students need and at least some students are able to learn. These are serious concerns, though not serious enough to give up offering choices to students or to stop differentiating instruction altogether. | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Educational_Technology_(Thompson)/04%3A_Motivation/4.04%3A_Self-Determination_Theory.txt |
Motivation is affected by several factors, including reinforcement for behavior, but especially also students’ goals, interests, and sense of self-efficacy and self-determination. The factors combine to create two general sources of motivation: students’ expectation of success and the value that students place on a goal. Viewing motivation in this way is often called the expectancy-value model of motivation (Wigfield & Eccles, 2002; Wigfield, Tonk, & Eccles, 2004), and sometimes written with a multiplicative formula as follows:
expectancy * value = motivation
The relationship between expectation and value is “multiplicative” rather than additive because in order to be motivated, it is necessary for a person to have at least a modest expectation of success and to assign a task at least some positive value. If you have high expectations of success but do not value a task at all (mentally assign it a “0” value), then you will not feel motivated at all. Likewise, if you value a task highly but have no expectation of success about completing it (assign it a “0” expectancy), then you also will not feel motivated to perform. Expectancies are the result of various factors, but particularly the goals held by a student, and the student’s self-efficacy, as discussed earlier in this chapter. A student with mastery goals and strong self-efficacy for a task, for example, is likely to hold high expectations for success. Values are also the result of various factors, but especially students’ interests and feelings of self-determination. A student who has a lasting personal interest in a task or topic and is allowed to choose it freely is especially likely to value the task, and therefore to feel motivated.
Ideally, both expectancies and values will be high when students are confronted with learning critically important tasks. The reality, however, is that students sometimes do not expect success, nor do they necessarily value success when it is attainable. How can a teacher respond to low expectations and low valuing? In brief, raising low expectations depends on adjusting task difficulty so that success becomes a reasonable prospect; a teacher must make tasks neither too hard nor too easy. Reaching this general goal depends in turn on thoughtful, appropriate planning, i.e., selecting reasonable objectives, adjusting them on the basis of experience, finding supportive materials, and providing students with help when needed.
Raising the value of academic tasks is equally important, but the general strategies for doing so are different than for raising expectations. Increasing value requires linking the task to students’ personal interests and prior knowledge, showing the utility of the task to students’ future goals, and showing that the task is valuable to other people the students respect.
4.06: Designing for Motivation
How do educational technologist include motivation in the design of educational experiences and products? In addition to the ideas presented above, John Keller’s ARCS model is useful for providing guidelines. This model was developed by synthesizing many of the motivational theories highlighted above. The acronym ARCS stands for:
• Attention—start by gaining the learner’s attention by arousing curiosity or presenting a problem to be solved.
• Relevance—demonstrate to the learner that the lesson will be useful to them or consistent with their goals.
• Confidence—create an expectation of success.
• Satisfaction—enhance the learners’ feelings of satisfaction by providing appropriate rewards for achievement.
To achieve these four goals, Keller (Keller & Suzuki, 20014) outlines a ten-step design process, which is discussed in the chapter focusing on instructional design. You can find out much more about the ARCS model here: https://www.arcsmodel.com/.
4.07: Chapter Summary
This chapter introduced several theories of motivation. While they all emphasize different aspects of motivation, they are not mutually exclusive, and in fact they overlap. While many of the examples in this chapter involved children, the general concepts apply to adult learners as well. The next chapter will focus explicitly on the needs and motivations of adult learners. | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Educational_Technology_(Thompson)/04%3A_Motivation/4.05%3A_Expectancy-Value_Theory.txt |
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.
Blackwell, L., Trzniewski, K., & Dweck, C. (2007). Implicit theories predict achievement across an adolescent transition: a longitudinal study. Child Development, 78, 246-263.
Brophy, J. (2004). Motivating Students to Learn (Second ed.). Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Burke, M. & Sass, T. (2006). Classroom peer effects and student achievement. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Economic Association, Boston, USA.
Cohen, E. (1994). Designing groupwork: Strategies for the heterogeneous classroom, 2nd edition. New York: Teachers’ College Press.
Dowson, M. & McInerney, D. (2003). What do students say about their motivational goals? Toward a more complex and dynamic perspective on student motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 28, 91-113.
Dweck, C. (2000). Self-theories: Their role in motivation, personality, and development. Philadelphia: Psychology Press.
Dweck, C. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York: Random House.
Elliott, A., McGregor, H., & Thrash, T. (2004). The need for competence. In E. Deci & R. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 361-388). Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.
Flowerday, T., Shraw, G., & Stevens, J. (2004). Role of choice and interest in reader engagement. Journal of Educational Research, 97, 93-103.
Harzckiewicz, J., Barron, K., Tauer, J., & Elliot, A. (2002). Short-term and long-term consequences of achievement goals. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 316-320.
Keller, J. M., & Suzuki, K. (2004). Learner motivation and e-learning design: a multinationally validated process. Journal of Educational Media, 29. doi:10.1080/1358t65042000283084
Koestner, R. & Losier, G. (2004). Distinguishing three ways of being highly motivated: a closer look at introjection, identification, and intrinsic motivation. In E. Deci & R. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 101-122). Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.
Midgley, C., Kaplan, A., & Middleton, M. (2001). Performance-approach goals: Good for what, for whom, and under what conditions, and at what cost? Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 77-86.
Pajares, F. & Schunk, D. (2001). Self-beliefs and school success: Self-efficacy, self-concept, and school achievement. In . Riding & S. Rayner (Eds.), Perception (pp. 239-266). London: Ablex Publishing.
Ryan, R. & Lynch, M. (2003). Philosophies of motivation and classroom management. In R. Curren (Ed.), Blackwell companion to philosophy: A companion to the philosophy of education (pp. 260-271). New York, NY: Blackwell.
Schunk, D., Pintrich, P., Meese, J. (2008). Motivation in education: Theory, research and applications. New York: Pearson Professional.
Schwartz, B. (2004). The paradox of choice: Why more is less. New York: Ecco/Harper Collins.
Urdan, T. (2004). Predictors of self-handicapping and achievement: Examining achievement goals, classroom goal structures, and culture. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 251-254.
Weiner, B. (2005). Motivation from an attribution perspective and the social psychology of perceived competence. In A. Elliot & C. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of Competence and Motivation, pp. 73-84. New York: Guilford Press.
Wigfield, A. & Eccles, J. (2002). The development of achievement motivation. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Wigfield, A., Tonk, S., & Eccles, J. (2004). Expectancy-value theory in cross-cultural perspective. In D. McInerney & S. van Etten (Eds.), Research on Sociocultural Influences on Motivation and Learning. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishers.
Wolters, C. (2004). Advancing achievement goal theory: Using goal structures and goal orientations to predict students’ motivation, cognition, and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 236-250.
The majority of the text in this chapter is taken from Chapter 6 of the open access text Educational Psychology, 3rd Edition, 2011 by Kelvin Seiffert and Rosemary Sutton. (Minor modifications to words and phrases were made as needed and transitional text added to fit the current context.) | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Educational_Technology_(Thompson)/04%3A_Motivation/4.08%3A_Chapter_4_References.txt |
The best-known theory of adult learning is Malcolm Knowles’ theory of Andragogy. The term means “leading a man” and sets up a contrast with pedagogy, which means “leading a child.” The theory is based on the following six assumptions (as described in Merriam et al., 2007):
1. People become less dependent and more self-directed as they mature
2. Adults have a rich set of life experiences that affect how they learn
3. Adult readiness to learn is related to the roles adults play in their lives and the contexts in which they live and work
4. Adults need immediate application for their learning, and are more interested in learning to solve problems rather than to acquire knowledge about academic subjects
5. Adult motivation comes from internal rather than external sources
6. Adults need to understand the relevance of what they are learning
Like all theories, andragogy has its critics. Some argue that it is a model for teaching or instructional design but does not have the explanatory power of a learning theory. Others argue that the assumptions underlying andragogy are not unique to adults. For example, children also benefit from relevance and intrinsic motivation.
For more information about andragogy, see the following links:
5.02: Community of Practice
Community of practice is a concept developed by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger, and arose out of their study of workplace learning, though the concept can also apply in schools or informal settings. The basic concept of community of practice is that groups of people engaged in a common practice (e.g., job, hobby, etc.) have both explicit and tacit knowledge, which is passed from “old-timers” to “newcomers” through social processes. Not every community is a community of practice. Wenger (1998) describes the essential features of a community of practice as follows:
• A domain, or shared area of distinct competence or expertise. This can be a formal profession or something less formal, such as a hobby, but it is more goal-oriented than just a gathering of friends.
• A community where members work together, share information, and help each other.
• A practice with a repertoire of tools, methods, etc.
Newcomers join a community of practice by first engaging in legitimate peripheral participation, where they contribute to the practice despite their novice skill level. Their participation is peripheral because it is “an approximation of full participation that gives exposure to actual practice” (Wenger, 1998, p.10), but also legitimate if they are accepted as a member by the community. As they gain skills and knowledge, the newcomers gradually progress to full participation and the mentoring of other newcomers.
For more information about communities of practice, see: https://scholarsbank.uoregon.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1794/11736/A%20brief%20introduction%20to%20CoP.pdf?sequence%E2%80%B0=%E2%80%B01
5.03: Transformative Learning
While there are several theories that focus on transformation, the best known if the theory developed by Jack Mezirow. The term transformative refers to the idea that adults can reflect on and make sense of their experiences in a way that changes them is some way. This process occurs when learners change either their frame of reference by altering either their habits of mind (assumptions through which experience is filtered) or their point of view (beliefs and attitudes).
The transformative learning process involves:
1. Experience
2. Critical reflection on the experience
3. Reflective discourse (seeking out and discussing a variety of opinions and perspectives related to the experience)
4. Action (a decision, plan, or specific action prompted by the process)
For more detail on transformative learning, see the following resources:
5.04: Chapter Summary
While many aspects of human cognition, and thus of teaching and learning, are similar for children and adults, there are many theories and models that focus on what makes adult learning unique. Andragogy emphasizes the life experience and self-directed behavior of adults, community of practice explores how learning occurs informally through goal-directed social interaction, and transformative learning emphasizes adults’ potential for transformation through deep reflection. These theories improve the ability of educational technologists and instructional designers to create appropriate learning experiences for learners of all ages.
5.05: Chapter 5 References
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide. San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning, and identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Educational_Technology_(Thompson)/05%3A_Adult_and_Workplace_Learning/5.01%3A_Andragogy.txt |
The Shannon-Weaver model is one foundational theory of information transmission. It features a sender who encodes a message to send over a communication channel. A receiver at the other end then decodes the message. Watch the following six-minute video for an overview of the model:
A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page.
https://youtu.be/etcIX0aC-4E (6:18 minutes)
Another model, by Wilber Schramm, built upon these same concepts, but also acknowledged the interaction between sender and receiver by considering what he called “fields of experience,” or whether the sender and receiver had enough shared experience to be able to communicate effectively. The following eight-minute video discusses Schramm’s model and applies it explicitly to teaching and learning:
A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page.
https://youtu.be/KZKacQqd8LE (7:39 minutes)
While all teachers are concerned with crafting their instructional messages in a way that students, can receive and understand, educational technologist have the added concern of making sure the technology facilitates communication rather than impedes it. When technology mediates communication between teacher and student, there is a risk that it will introduce noise into the communication process. At the same time, technology can provide opportunities to encode a message in meaningful ways.
6.02: Instructional Message Design
The concept of instructional message design arose from the intersection of these communication theories and learning theories, which shifted the focus from the actions of the sender to how the message is understood by the receiver (Bishop, 2014). According to Bishop (2014), feedback (reinforcement or punishment) was viewed as an important part of the instructional message in the behaviorist era, while under the cognitive perspective the emphasis shifted to facilitating information processing by the learner.
Watch the following TEDx talk about how to design effective PowerPoint slides. While designers and researchers may argue over some of the details of this presentation (e.g., the speaker’s prescription to use dark slide backgrounds is quite controversial and definitely not applicable in all situations!), it provides an excellent example of how cognitive principles and design principles are combined to create guidelines for instructional message design:
A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page.
https://youtu.be/Iwpi1Lm6dFo (20:31 minutes).
Bishop (2014) suggests that in light of the evolution of learning theory toward more constructivist paradigms (see chapter 3 of this book), instructional message design needs to be viewed more broadly than it has in the past. She suggests Brent Wilson’s Four Pillars of Practice as a starting point for this broader view. Wilson’s four pillars (as summarized in Bishop, 2014) are as follows:
1. Individual cognition and behavior—understanding how learners think and learn
2. Social and cultural learning—how the social and cultural context affects learning
3. How values are communicated in design
4. The aesthetic experience of learning
6.03: Chapter Summary
While theories of communication and theories of learning have evolved over the years, and the nature of the connection between them has shifted, it is useful for us as educators to keep in mind that instruction, whether in a face-to-face classroom, an online classroom, or even a self-service e-learning application, is an act of communication. An understanding of the communication process therefore underlies all we do as educators.
6.04: Chapter 6 References
Bishop, M. J. (2014). Instructional message design: Past, present, and future relevance. In Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (pp. 373-383). Springer New York. | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Educational_Technology_(Thompson)/06%3A_Communication/6.01%3A_Communication_Models.txt |
Research traditions stem from people’s beliefs about truth and knowledge. Creswell (2003) identifies four research traditions that evolve from different knowledge claims: postpositivism, constructivism, advocacy, and pragmatism.
Postpositivism
Postpositivism evolved from the older positivist view, which held strong beliefs about reality and truth being “out there in the world” waiting to be discovered through rigorous, objective testing. At the time when scientific research methods were emerging and people were learning more and more about the physical world, there was a great deal of confidence that the truth could be fully known and understood by careful, controlled observation. These positivist beliefs moderated over time, especially with respect to the social sciences, and led to an acknowledgment that human behavior does not follow laws equivalent to the laws of physics. (In fact, even our understanding of reality in the physical world has changed over the years.) Postpositivism, then, follows from the positivist tradition but in a moderated and, perhaps, more humble form. It retains the belief that there is objective truth in the world, and that if we make an effort to protect our research projects from our personal biases we can uncover a tentative approximation of truth, recognizing that our understanding will always be incomplete and imperfect.
Constructivism
Constructivism holds that reality, at least as it applies to the social sciences, is constructed by humans. That is, constructivists do not believe in an objective truth waiting to be discovered. Rather, meaning is constructed in human minds and through human interaction. This relatively more subjective view leads to very different beliefs about what we can know and understand. To understand the world, in the constructivist view, we need to seek understanding of human experience.
Advocacy
The advocacy (sometimes called critical) tradition is much more purposeful in its goals for research. While beliefs about reality and knowledge are probably similar to the constructivist tradition, those questions are not the focus of attention. The primary concern in this tradition is the power structures in society, which can oppress some groups of people. In the advocacy tradition the purpose of research is to find a way to facilitate change. The desired end goal is to emancipate people who are oppressed by a power structure, and to support them in implementing a desired change.
Pragmatism
The pragmatic perspective focuses on practicality and expediency. Questions about truth and reality are almost “off the radar screen” in this tradition as researchers focus on the most effective way to answer a specific question in a given situation.
7.02: Research Traditions
The different beliefs about reality and knowledge described above lead to different research questions and different ways of conducting research. Quality research demonstrates consistency between the research tradition, research questions, type of data collected, methods of data analysis, conclusion drawn, and claims about how widely the conclusions can be generalized (applied to other situations beyond the research study).
Postpositivist Research
In the postpositivist tradition, the job of researchers is to uncover to the best of their ability (or at least approximate) objective truth. They use established theory to generate research questions that can be answered through objective observation and/or experimentation. They form a theory-based hypothesis and then test it by collecting and analyzing data, which is most often quantitative. They look for evidence that either supports or does not support the hypothesis, recognizing that conclusions from any one study will always be tentative and not certain. You will often see phrases like “How does X affect Y?” or “Does X cause Y?” in their written reports. Postpositivist researchers make every effort to control for extraneous factors and take careful measurements. The ultimate goal is to make a discovery that has some measure of generalizability, or applicability to other similar contexts.
Experimental design is common under this tradition. For example, if researchers want to know if a gamified math lesson helps students learn basic algebra, they might randomly assign a group of similar students to learn an algebra lesson either with the game or in a traditional classroom. Random assignment minimizes the risk that pre-existing differences between the two groups will “contaminate” the result. If random assignment is not possible, they might instead do a quasi-experiment where they use two existing groups with similar characteristics, such as two classrooms in the same school. Experimenters then give both groups a test on the material before the intervention to verify both groups have similar (lack of) knowledge of the lesson. After each group completes the intervention they are tested again to see if the groups achieved different average scores.
If the group completing the traditional lesson has an average score of 8/10 on the test and the group completing the gamified lesson averages 9/10, does that demonstrate that the gamified version was better? Not necessarily. The significance of the difference must be verified statistically before researchers can claim they have evidence supporting the usefulness of the gamified lesson.
Experiments and quasi-experiments are not the only types of studies done under a postpositivist perspective. Descriptive studies (often, but not always, accomplished with surveys) and correlational studies (explorations of whether two variables appear to change in relation to each other) are also common.
All of the research traditions come with their own set of strengths and limitations, which should be readily acknowledged by researchers. The strength of postpositivist research is its ability to produce generalizable results that can be applied in other settings with characteristics similar to the research setting. A limitation is that its focus on patterns and trends neglects the experiences of individuals. Postpositivist research is good at addressing questions of “What works?” or “Which is better?” (e.g., “Does a gamified algebra lesson improve test scores?”) but does not usually address questions like “What does the process look like?” or “What are the students’ perceptions of their experience?” | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Educational_Technology_(Thompson)/07%3A_Research_in_Educational_Technology/7.01%3A_Views_of_Knowledge.txt |
Constructivist researchers seek to understand the experience of research participants in order to discover the participants’ subjective truth or perceptions. In contrast to postpositivist researchers who begin with a theory and a hypothesis, constructivists more often start with a broad question, and allow participants to drive the direction of the data collection. Constructivists do value established theory, but they are more likely to use it to support the interpretation of the data they have collected, rather than using it to support hypotheses or questions at the beginning of a study.
Constructivist researchers don’t claim objectivity, but instead acknowledge and describe their subjectivity as they co-construct understanding with their participants. For example, a white, female researcher interviewing a group of Latina adolescent girls might discuss ways in which she is and is not equipped to understand the perspective of these participants. Because the researcher was herself once an adolescent girl, she may have some shared experience with the study participants. At the same time there are differences (due to ethnicity, reaching adolescence in a different time period, etc.) that could introduce misunderstandings as the researcher seeks to interpret the participants’ words and gestures. In addition, because the researcher is older and in a position of authority, her presence might influence what the participants choose to disclose. Constructivist researchers do their best to anticipate these issues and acknowledge them as part of their reporting.
Constructivist researchers often (though not always) use qualitative data collection and analysis. They are less likely (compared to postpositivists) to use tests and surveys that can be analyzed with statistics. Instead, they gather qualitative data, such as from interviews, focus groups, and observations, that allow the participants to describe or demonstrate their experiences. For example, the researcher described above might interview the adolescent girls to find out how they experienced the gamified math lesson. Did they find the competitive element of the lesson motivating, threatening, or something else the researcher hadn’t thought of? How is the gamified lesson reflected in their feelings about their ability to learn algebra? Reports of research findings may feature quotations of the participants’ words, detailed descriptions of their interactions, or similar rich descriptive information. Data analysis often involves looking for themes that emerge from this rich data, which are sometimes organized into categories. There are a variety of approaches to qualitative research, and a detailed description of them is outside the scope of this chapter. However, as you read journal articles, you will see discussion of methodologies like ethnography, phenomenology, qualitative case studies, and several others.
Because constructivist researchers believe that knowledge emerges within a specific context, they do not claim their research findings are widely generalizable. In the example above, the researcher interviewed a particular group of Latina adolescent girls in a particular school, and the experiences of these girls might not reflect the experience of other Latina adolescent girls in that school, let alone in a different school or city. While this lack of generalizability is acknowledged as a limitation, it is not viewed as a deficiency. When truth and knowledge are viewed as human constructions created in specific contexts, generalizability is not deemed appropriate or desirable.
The strength of the constructivist research tradition is its focus on the experiences of individual participants and on processes and experiences over time. A limitation is that it does not allow for conclusions that can be generalized to other populations. For example, a research project consistent with the constructivist perspective would not tell us the best way to implement a gamified algebra lesson to improve learning or math confidence in adolescent girls.
Advocacy Research
In the advocacy tradition the researcher is seen as a facilitator, with the participants as equal partners. The focus of the research is not the acquisition of knowledge for its own sake, but rather on empowering the participants and their communities. The researcher seeks to support participants as they discover ways to emancipate themselves from an unjust power structure. The end result is usually a concrete plan for action. Action research is one methodology associated with the advocacy tradition. Research questions frequently center on issues related to race, class, gender, and the effects of the prevailing power structure on marginalized groups of people. Advocacy research is often guided by critical theory (see https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_theory); it goes beyond mere interpretation or understanding, and aims to critique what its proponents see as the different ways in which dominant ideologies manifest in various contexts.
Pragmatism in Research
In the pragmatic research tradition, researchers do not take a firm position on whether reality and knowledge are objective or subjective. Consequently, their work can reflect elements of postpositivist and constructivist traditions, and their methodologies mix both quantitative and qualitative elements. In some studies, the balance of quantitative and qualitative is fairly equal. For example, a researcher may collect both rich descriptive data and test scores from the adolescent girls doing the gamified algebra lesson in an effort to understand how the gamified pedagogy and the girls’ perceptions worked together to shape their learning experience. In other cases one element may be subordinate to the other. For example, the researcher may be primarily interested in finding out how the gamified algebra lesson affects test scores, but may also want to interview selected participants to enhance understanding of the result.
A strength of this research tradition is the flexibility it provides to approach a single research topic in multiple ways. A limitation is its lack of clear commitment to a philosophical viewpoint. Some argue that it is not really possible to be so flexible in one’s view of reality and truth, and that pragmatism is often a disguised form of postpositivsim (Denzin, 2010).
7.04: Chapter Summary
This chapter briefly introduced the four primary research traditions: postpositivism, constructivism, advocacy, and pragmatism. A good quality research project will be situated in one of these traditions and will carry its beliefs and perspectives consistently throughout the study. When you read a journal article that reports on a research project, keep this need for consistency in mind. Do the researchers seem to believe that truth is objective and knowable (though maybe not perfectly), or do they believe truth is more subjective and knowledge is context-dependent? Then look at the research questions to see if they correspond with that perspective. For example, researchers who believe truth is objective and discoverable should ask research questions that emphasize things that can be measured quantitatively. Next, evaluate how well their research methods match the questions they asked. For example, postpositivists seeking to answer cause-and-effect questions will use experimental design, while constructivists seeking to explore perspectives and experience will use a method, such as interviews, that provides rich data reflecting the participants’ perspectives. Finally, the conclusions that they draw at the end should be consistent with what came before. They should not, for example, make cause-and-effect claims if their data came from qualitative interviews.
For more background and detail on different research traditions, you are encouraged to watch the video linked below. While it is addressed to nursing students, it is relevant to all researchers and consumers of research reports, as it provides an excellent overview of the “big ideas” from this chapter:
https://youtu.be/hCOsY5rkRs8 (11:59 minutes).
7.05: Chapter 7 References
Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Denzin, N. K. (2010). Moments, mixed methods, and paradigm dialogs. Qualitative inquiry, 16(6), 419-427. | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Educational_Technology_(Thompson)/07%3A_Research_in_Educational_Technology/7.03%3A_Constructivist_Research.txt |
There are several models that can be used to scaffold a systematic approach to the design and development of instructional materials and learning experiences. Each model has its unique features, but there is also a great deal of overlap. The 5-minute video linked below provides an overview of several models. The remainder of the chapter highlights a few important models in more detail.
https://youtu.be/dWqc3s64LIU
The ADDIE Framework
ADDIE is an acronym that stands for Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation. This framework outlines a systematic approach to designing learning experiences. It is often used as-is to outline the instructional design process, but its principles also underlie the more specific instructional design models highlighted below.
For an overview of the ADDIE process, watch the following five videos:
Dick & Carey
One of the best known, foundational theories of instructional design is the model developed by Walter Dick and Lou Carey developed a comprehensive instructional design model in the late 1970s. See the following five-minute video for an overview of the Dick and Carey model:
https://youtu.be/-sq2vn8Tm-U
You can also read more about this model at
https://elearningindustry.com/9-steps-to-apply-the-dick-and-carey-model-in-elearning
Participatory Design Processes
We have already discussed the importance of understanding your target learners when designing and educational experience. Learner analysis is, for example, an important component of the analysis phase of the ADDIE framework. This approach still maintains a certain separation between designer and end user or learner; the designer provides something and the learner receives the product the designer created.
Participatory design is a model that breaks down the designer-user separation and brings the end user into the process from the ground up. The following ~18 minute video provides an excellent introduction to participatory design:
https://youtu.be/U3Hn-sONiRg
(Note that this video makes reference to a different design model – the double diamond – than the ones we have reviewed here. As instructional designers we would plug in an ID model or framework, such as ADDIE, in place of the double diamond.)
8.02: Cultural Competence in Instructional Design
In our increasingly globalized economy and increasingly multicultural local contexts, consideration of culture is gaining attention among instructional designers and educational technology researchers. Dr. Patricia A. Young from the University of Maryland is one of the leading researchers in this area of cultural competence in instructional design. Her work is based on a definition of culture as “the patterns of behavior and thinking by which members of groups recognize and interact with one another” (Scheel & Branch, 1993 as cited in Young, 2008b, p. 8). She identifies two trends in the development of communications technology – internationalization and localization – that have made consideration of culture salient. Internationalization “seeks to eliminate culture, thus making the product one that can be used by all or a universal design” while localization “tailors products to the needs of a target audience” (Young, 2008b, p. 7). Designers attempting to design for an international market may, for example, avoid humor, metaphor, and colloquial language in order to create a product that they believe will translate into any language and cultural context. Designers wishing to localize, on the other hand, would study the local context and target the product to fit that context.
Young (2008b) advocates a culture based model (CBM), “an intercultural, instructional design framework that guides designers through the management, design, development, and assessment process while taking into account explicit culture-based considerations (p. 107). The acronym ID-TABLET represents the eight major areas of concern when incorporating culture into instructional design. These areas are:
• Inquiry – a series of questions for designers can use to constantly verify the product they are creating is appropriate for the audience
• Development – design factors to keep in mind as decisions are made and problems solved during the development process
• Team – decision making is a team effort including all needed areas of expertise, including a cultural expert
• Assessments – assessments at all levels of the process, including ongoing critical evaluation of the assessment process itself and culture-specific assessments.
• Brainstorming – guidelines for gathering input from multiple stakeholders during the design process
• Learners – “support the learner’s cultural frame of reference while meeting the learning outcomes of the project” (p. 114)
• Elements – elements of culture, as defined in a variety of disciplines such as anthropology and psychology
• Training – providing product-specific and culture-based training to instructors
While the details of how this model is used is outside the scope of this chapter, the most important point to note is that it is not a mere “layering” of culture onto an existing ID model, but rather a new model that seeks to embed cultural awareness in each step.
8.03: Careers in Instructional Design
Instructional designers are employed in a variety of different environments, including manufacturing, finance, healthcare, and the military, and higher education, though the specific job titles may vary by industry. In PK-12 school environments the title of “instructional designer” is less common, but curriculum developers, technology coaches, and others may perform instructional design-related work.
Here are two helpful videos (which have some overlapping content but with slightly different emphasis) that summarize what instructional designers do:
8.04: Chapter Summary
This chapter introduced the ADDIE framework and a sample of instructional design models. It also discussed the need to consider cultural factors throughout the design process. This is by no means an exhaustive list of instructional design models, but it provides an awareness of the systematic nature of instructional design and lays the groundwork for further study. To learn more about the the models highlighted here and many others, the following resources are helpful, explore the material available on Instructional Design Central (https://www.instructionaldesigncentral.com/instructionaldesignmodels).
8.05: Chapter 8 References
Tracey, M. W., & Baaki, J. (2014). Design, designers, and reflection-in-action. In B. Hokanson & A. Gibbons (Eds.), Design in educational technology: Design thinking, design process, and the design studio (pp. 1 – 14). New York: Springer.
Young, P. A. (2008a). The culture based model: Constructing a model of culture. Educational Technology and Society, 11(2), 107-118.
Young, P. A. (2008b). Integrating culture in the design of ICTs. British Journal of Educational Technology, 39(1), 6-17. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2007.00699.x | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Educational_Technology_(Thompson)/08%3A_Instructional_Design/8.01%3A_Instructional_Design_Models.txt |
In 1983 Dr. Richard Clark published a literature review (Clark, 1983) where he concluded that “media do not influence learning under any conditions” (p. 445). He believed media were “mere vehicles that deliver instruction but do not influence student achievement any more than the truck that delivers our groceries causes changes in our nutrition” (1983, p. 445). At the time he recommended that researchers stop doing media comparison studies. By media comparison studies Clark meant research that compares whether learning with new technologies (e.g., computers) differs from learning using more traditional methods (e.g., books, pencil, paper, etc.). Instead of studying the medium itself, Clark encouraged researchers to shif their focus to observing attitudes towards computers and the enjoyment of learning with technology.
Ten years later, the journal Educational Technology Research and Development devoted a special issue to a debate between Clark and Robert Kozma (http://robertkozma.com/), who focused more on the future potential of evolving technology and media. Kozma (1994) argued that instead of considering the question settled, researchers should continue to explore ways that media might influence learning, saying, “If there is no relationship between media and learning it may be because we have not yet made one” (p. 7). Clark (1994) maintained his original view, arguing that studies claiming to find benefits from media were confounded by different teaching methods: “Media and their attributes have important influences on the cost or speed of learning but only the use of adequate instructional methods will influence learning” (Clark, 1994, p. 27).
While other researchers took up the debate, and the costs and benefits of technology have shifted as technology tools evolved, the argument has not been definitively resolved in the field. As someone engaged with or interested in the educational technology field, you are encouraged to read the original articles (shown in the reference list below) and then reflect on your own view. Do you think media can or does influence learning? Why or why not?
You might also be interested in viewing this AECT “history makers” interview with Richard Clark:
9.02: Replace Amplify and Transform
Technology in the classroom (face-to-face or online) can serve different purposes. One way to categorize these purposes is the RAT framework (Hughes et al., 2006). The introduction of new technology can lead to the replacement, amplification, or transformation of teaching and learning. Technology as replacement occurs when the new technology provides “different means to the same instructional end” (p. 2). An example of replacement would be a teacher who has students use word processing software to highlight unfamiliar words in a text where they formerly used a highlight marker on a printed page. Amplification refers to increases in efficiency and productivity. For example, when teachers use word processors to prepare and then continuously update teaching materials, or spreadsheet software to track and calculate grades, they are increasing their efficiency and productivity without fundamentally changing the task at hand.
While replacement and amplification are valid reasons to integrate technology into the teaching and learning environment, teachers are also encouraged to look for ways technology might transform what they do. Transformative uses of technology fundamentally change some aspect of the learning process. For example, Hughes et al. (2006) give the example of an English teacher incorporating a writing assignment using hypertext. A hypertext narrative is fundamentally different from a linear narrative in that hypertext incorporates different types of thinking and writing skills, so the technology used in this case can be viewed as transforming the instructional goals and the learning process.
The simplicity of this early taxonomy for classifying technology use is a double-edged sword: it is easy to understand, but risks attributing too much power to technology tools rather than how the tools are integrated into the teaching and learning context. The next topic, TPACK, looks at technology integration in a larger context. | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Educational_Technology_(Thompson)/09%3A_Technology_Selection_and_Integration/9.01%3A_The_Media_Debate.txt |
The Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework (Mishra & Koehler, 2006; Koehler, Mishra & Cain, 2013) is another way of thinking about integrating technology into the teaching and learning process. It builds on earlier work by Lee Shulman (http://www.leeshulman.net/domains/), but adds technology as an additional essential component of teacher knowledge. Koehler, Mishra, and Cain (2013) define the layers of teacher knowledge as follows:
• Content knowledge—knowledge of the subject matter
• Pedagogical knowledge—general knowledge of how students learn and how teachers can facilitate learning
• Pedagogical content knowledge—knowledge of discipline-specific teaching and learning (e.g., common student misconceptions in the domain and how to overcome them)
• Technology knowledge—knowledge beyond mere computer literacy, encompassing “a deeper, more essential understanding and mastery of information technology for information processing, communication, and problem solving” (p. 15)
• Technological content knowledge—“a deep understanding of the manner in which the subject matter…can be changed by the application of particular technologies” and “which specific technologies are best suited for addressing subject-matter learning” (p. 16)
• Technological pedagogical knowledge—“an understanding of how teaching and learning can change when particular technologies are used in particular ways” (p. 16)
Finally, Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) is
the basis of effective teaching with technology, requiring an understanding of the representation of concepts using technologies, pedagogical techniques that use technologies in constructive ways to teach content, knowledge of what makes concepts difficult or easy to learn and how technology can help redress some of the problems that students face, knowledge of students’ prior knowledge and theories of epistemology, and knowledge of how technologies can be used to build on existing knowledge to develop new epistemologies or strengthen old ones (p. 16).
For more information on how all of these ideas fit together, see Royce Kimmons’ helpful video, “TPACK in Three Minutes” here:
https://youtu.be/0wGpSaTzW58 (3:11 minutes).
To dig a little bit deeper, you can view this video featuring one of the TPACK founders, Dr. Punya Mishra:
https://youtu.be/wn4ElDeZQeM (13:26 minutes).
Note: You will notice that the original article used the acronym “TPCK” and later articles use “TPACK.” As the framework evolved the “and” was added to the name simply to make the acronym easier to read and pronounce.
9.04: Chapter Summary
As you can see, there are many perspectives on how and when (and maybe even if!) technology should be integrated into the learning environment. Perspectives range from Clark’s (1983, 1994) focus on cost and efficiency to the complex interaction of Mishra and Koehler’s (2006) TPACK framework. For researchers, technology integration is likely to remain a active area of inquiry in the field for the foreseeable future. For teachers, there will be no easy answers, but your awareness of the complexity of the issue will help you remain a reflective practitioner.
9.05: Chapter 9 References
Clark, R. E. (1983). Reconsidering research on learning from media. Review of Educational Research, 53(4), 445-459.
Clark, R. E. (1994). Media Will Never Influence Learning. Educational Technology Research and Development, 42(2), 21-29.
Hughes, J., Thomas, R., & Scharber, C. (2006, March). Assessing technology integration: the RAT–replacement, amplification, and transformation – framework. In Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference (pp. 1616-1620). Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE).
Koehler, M., Mishra, P., & Cain, W. (2013). What is technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK)? Journal of Education, 193(3), 13-19.
Kozma, R. (1994). Will media influence learning? Reframing the debate. Educational Technology Research and Development, 42(2), 7-19.
Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. (2006). Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A framework for teacher knowledge. Teachers College Record, 108, 1017-1054. | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Educational_Technology_(Thompson)/09%3A_Technology_Selection_and_Integration/9.03%3A_TPACK.txt |
The Technology Acceptance Model (Davis, 1989), or TAM, posits that there are two factors that determine whether a computer system will be accepted by its potential users: (1) perceived usefulness, and (2) perceived ease of use. The key feature of this model is its emphasis on the perceptions of the potential user. That is, while the creator of a given technology product may believe the product is useful and user-friendly, it will not be accepted by its potential users unless the users share those beliefs.
For a quick introduction to TAM, see this 4-minute video:
This 15-minute video provides more detail on the background of and development of the model: https://youtu.be/Eknh4UbegGw
10.02: Decomposed Theory of Planned Behavior
The Theory of Planned Behavior states that our intentions to perform a certain behavior (such as the adoption of a new technology) arise from three major categories of influence: (1) our attitudes towards the behavior, (2) the influences (norms) of our social circle, and (3) our perceived level of control regarding the behavior. The Decomposed Theory of Planned Behavior builds on the original theory by breaking these three influences into more detailed dimensions. See this five-minute video for a more detailed explanation of the theory:
https://youtu.be/DFn-IOcpd8A
10.03: Diffusion of Innovation
In Diffusion of Innovations, Rogers (1995) described how new ideas spread through communities. According to Rogers, there are identifiable characteristics that predict whether and how quickly an innovation will spread through a community.
1. Relative advantage – people are more likely to adopt an innovation if they perceive it as having some advantage over their current situation
2. Compatability – people are more likely to adopt an innovation that fits with their cultural norms, attitudes, and beliefs
3. Complexity – people are more likely to adopt innovations that are easy for them to understand and use
4. Trialability – people are more likely to adopt an innovation if they can test it before committing to its adoption
5. Observability – people are more likely to adopt an innovation if they see others adopt it successfully.
An innovation that has these five characteristics still needs to be communicated to members of the community in order to be adopted. Thus, Rogers identified communication channels as an important element of the diffusion process. With respect to adopting innovation, Rogers believed personal communication between people was more important than mass media communication. Because innovations are not adopted instantly, time is also an important element of Rogers’ model. Finally, innovations are communicated over time through a social system.
While innovations diffuse through communities, these communities are made up of individuals making their own decisions about whether to adopt the innovation. Rogers identified five stages in the decision process, as follows:
1. The knowledge stage, where the individual learns of the existence of the innovation and gathers information about it.
2. The persuasion stage, where the individual actively seeks out knowledge that will help in the decision process
3. The decision stage, where the individual adopts or rejects the innovation
4. The implementation stage, where the individual uses the innovation and evaluates its benefits
5. The confirmation stage, where the individual continues to seek information to confirm that the adoption decision was beneficial.
While these stages are believed to apply to all individuals, of course people vary in their receptivity to new ideas and how much time and information they need to make an adoption decision. Rogers identified the following categories of adopters:
1. Innovators – risk-tolerant people who like to seek out new ideas
2. Early adopters – opinion leaders in the community who are receptive to trying new ideas and have the social position to influence others
3. Early majority – people who are deliberate in their adoption decisions but tend to adopt more quickly than average
4. Late majority – risk-averse people who need to see an innovation being used successfully by others before they adopt it
5. Laggards – the last to adopt an innovation, often only adopting it after a new innovation has already begun to replace it.
Watch the following two videos for a greater understanding of how these groups of adopters operate over time within communication channels in a social structure to spread an innovative idea throughout a community:
• Part 1
https://youtu.be/9QnfWhtujPA
• Part 2
https://youtu.be/NiNoNYLBabA
While Diffusion of Innovation Theory has played an important role in educational technology research and in the planning of educational technology products, it has, like any theory, been subject to critique. For a critical look at the concept of laggards, see http://www.management.ac.nz/ejrot/cmsconference/2005/proceedings/technology/Klein.pdf
10.04: Chapter Summary
The theories and models described in this chapter take different perspectives, but all emphasize that the adoption and use of new technology is subject to a variety of influences in a complex interaction. Designers and champions of new technology may not be able to control all of these influences, but understanding them can lead to better implementation and better communication with users.
10.05: Chapter 10 References
Davis, F. D. (1989). Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology. MIS quarterly, 13(30 319-340.
Rogers, E. M. (1995). Diffusion of innovations. New York, The Free Press. | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Educational_Technology_(Thompson)/10%3A_Acceptance_and_Diffusion_of_Technology/10.01%3A_Technology_Acceptance_Model.txt |
Finding and using digital resources from a variety of sources is integral to the work on an educational technologist, so a solid understanding of copyright is essential. In addition, educational technologist are often called upon to provide guidance to colleagues on copyright issues, and those in a teaching role have a responsibility to help students understand and abide by copyright laws and standards of fair use.
The Oklahoma State University Library provides a concise but thorough summary of copyright laws and fair use standards. Please see the following resources:
Copyright Basics (http://info.library.okstate.edu/c.php?g=152024&p=998497)
Fair Use and Exceptions (http://info.library.okstate.edu/c.php?g=152024&p=998571)
Links to Other Resources (http://info.library.okstate.edu/c.php?g=152024&p=998645)
The Electronic Frontier Foundation provides curriculum to assist teachers in teaching their students about copyright, available at https://www.teachingcopyright.org/.
For more information on how to find usable digital material, see this guide to Creative Commons: https://docs.google.com/document/d/10QP1R-taLNHpY1K2iaPwJ5s3n-wV1tW3oFTYLNf3F3o/edit.
11.02: Conflicts of Interest
A conflict of interest can be defined as “(1) a situation that has the potential to undermine the impartiality of a person because of the possibility of a clash between the person’s self-interest and professional interest or public interest, or (2) a situation in which a party’s responsibility to a second-party limits its ability to discharge its responsibility to a third-party” (http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/conflict-of-interest.html).
In the educational technology field, a conflict of interest can occur in a variety of situations. For example, educational technologists who do freelance consulting work for a technology vendor may have an incentive to convince their primary employer to purchase the consulting company’s product, or may have difficulty separating time spent working for the consulting company from time spent on their primary employment. It is important to be aware of these potential conflicts and consider how to avoid them. Also keep in mind that the appearance of conflict of interest may harm your professional reputation even when you are confident you are managing the situation appropriately.
11.03: Academic Integrity
Whether writing a paper for a class, submitting a manuscript to a journal, or preparing a presentation in the workplace, care must be taken to avoid plagiarism. While some plagiarism is deliberately committed by those who think they can “get away with” stealing someone else’s work, many episodes of plagiarism are accidental and occur as a result of not fully understanding what plagiarism is and how to avoid it. Just like a traffic ticket, however, ignorance of the law does not exempt anyone from the responsibility to follow the law or the consequences of not following it.
Acadia University provides an engaging tutorial with an excellent explanation of what plagiarism is and how you can avoid it in all its forms. You can see the tutorial by following the link below: http://library.acadiau.ca/sites/default/files/library/tutorials/plagiarism/.
A variety of other resources for learning about and avoiding plagiarism are listed on the OSU library website: http://info.library.okstate.edu/ILS/plagiarism.
11.04: Ethical Research
In keeping with federal law and local policy, universities and other research organizations maintain standards for ethical research. These standards include general principles for the responsible conducting of research, and specific rules for the protection of participants in research projects.
Responsible Conduct of Research (RCR)
According to Oklahoma State University, responsible conduct of research requires attention to topics such as “proper citation of other work, plagiarism, research misconduct, intellectual property and copyright, falsification and unwarranted editing of data, conflict of interest, authorship on manuscripts, and mentor-mentee relationships”
(OSU, n.d.). While RCR is discussed mainly in the context of academic work, these principles apply to educational technologists in all of the roles they may fill, as students, researchers, and practitioners.
Researchers must take care to conduct their research properly, as defined by the standards of their chosen method, and present their findings accurately. They must also treat research participants with respect throughout the process, including data collection, analysis, and reporting of findings.
Another component of RCR is sharing credit appropriately for any publications that result from the research. Generally, everyone who contributes substantially to the project has earned the right to be listed as an author. Conversely, author credit is not “given” to those who do not make substantial contributions. The American Psychological Association provides guidelines for authorship that, although written primarily for a graduate student audience, are helpful for all researchers and practitioners in the field of educational technology. These guidelines are available at http://www.apa.org/science/leadership/students/authorship-paper.pdf.
Protection of Human Participants
Educational technologists frequently perform research with human participants. This is true of academic research and also in some workplace situations, such as usability testing for new educational software or products. Because of past abuses of human subjects, there are federal laws in place to ensure protection of research participants, and universities have Institutional Review Boards (IRB) in place to ensure that these laws are followed. Research done outside of a university setting (e.g., software usability testing) is not subject to IRB oversight, but protection of human volunteers is still important for ethical practice in the field.
University researchers at all levels (faculty, graduate students, etc.) are required to complete training prior to conducting any research with human participants. Information about the IRB process at Oklahoma State University can be found at http://irb.okstate.edu/.
11.05: Chapter Summary
Ethics in the educational technology profession encompasses a variety of topics, including, but not limited to, professional competence, copyright, conflicts of interest, academic integrity, and responsible conduct of research. This chapter has provided only a broad overview of important issues to keep in mind as you strive for ethical practice in the field. You should view the information revealed here as a starting place, not as an exhaustive list. As you progress in your career you will want to take advantage of a variety of sources of lifelong learning, such as professional organizations, mentors, trustworthy web resources, and continuing professional education, to help you grow as an ethical educational technology professional.
11.06: Chapter 11 References
AECT (2007). Code of Professional Ethics. Retrieved from http://aect.site-ym.com/members/group_content_view.asp?group=91131&id=309963
Lin, H. (2007). The ethics of instructional technology: issues and coping strategies experienced by professional technologists in design and training situations in higher education. Educational Technology Research and Development, 55(5), 411-437. doi:10.1007/s11423-006-9029-y
Oklahoma State University (n.d.). Responsible Conduct of Research. Retrieved from https://compliance.okstate.edu/rcr/rcr-index | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Foundations_of_Educational_Technology_(Thompson)/11%3A_Professional_Ethics/11.01%3A_Copyright.txt |
Science is with us everywhere. Advances in technology and science are rapidly transforming our world – from growing food, developing medicines, making exercise regimes, recycling and presenting the daily weather report, to reading a map and using our mobile phones and computers.
The modern world would not be modern at all without the understandings and technology enabled by science. In the future, being science literate will be a necessity, not an option. We cannot escape from the significance of science.
A student scientist is someone who is being formally educated about science and how to practise science, as well as developing scientific skills and attributes such as teamwork, communication, and personal and professional responsibility.
This chapter introduces the concept of science and its importance in our lives (Sections 1.1 and 1.2). Student scientists will learn about what science is and how it works, and how science graduates are able to change society for the better (Section 1.2). Section 1.3 warns the student scientist about pseudoscience, and how it differs from ‘real’ science – what you are here to learn.
1.1 How medical science has shaped our history
Medical science includes a diverse range of specialities including anatomy and physiology, biochemistry, pathology, haematology, microbiology, immunology, and pharmacology to name a few. Within these various fields of study, many advances have been made through scientific investigation to improve our understanding of human biology, the basis of disease, and the diagnosis and treatment of disease. While the number of advancements are too vast to cover in a single text, we can gain an appreciation of the impact of these scientific advancements by a look at examples within physiology, one of the medical science areas of study.
Physiology is a branch of biology that deals with the normal functions and activities of living organisms and their parts. Physiologists are interested in the mechanical, physical and biomechanical functions of humans or animals, and their organs and cells.
Understanding and appreciating the history of physiology provides a context for learning current physiology. It also highlights how scientific understanding can change, and how current beliefs may one day be obsolete. The timeline below presents some of the notable discoveries in physiology that have informed our understanding of the human body and treatment for many diseases. These scientists have all been awarded Nobel prizes in Physiology or Medicine for their discoveries.
Box 1.1: Timeline of physiology discoveries
The website PhysiologyInfo.org, sponsored by the American Physiological Society, presents a timeline of physiology that highlights important discoveries between 1822 and 2013. General physiology milestones are presented in addition to milestones in endocrinology and metabolism.
An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://usq.pressbooks.pub/howtodoscience/?p=5#h5p-1
1.2 Current issues in medical science
Every day scientific advancements that significantly enhance our understanding of physiology and quality of life are revealed. The American Physiological Society has identified six ‘hot topics’ in the life sciences that are particularly important today:
• cancer biology
• cardiovascular biology
• exercise and metabolism
• inflammation and immunity
• the microbiome (previously known as the gut flora)
• stem cells and regeneration.
Box 1.2 highlights some recent breakthroughs in four of these six key themes.
Box 1.2: Recent breakthroughs in physiology
Click on the drop-downs to read more.
An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://usq.pressbooks.pub/howtodoscience/?p=5#h5p-2
1.3 Science literacy
A science degree helps students develop science literacy, so that graduates can contribute to society positively. Experts including science academics, science students, employment groups and professional societies identified three elements of science literacy that a science student should understand by the time they graduate (Figure 1.1).
Graduates with scientific literacy are well prepared to participate in decision-making and debate socio-scientific issues that will improve society.
The scientific method is the procedure of systematic observation, and forming, testing and modifying hypotheses.
In high school and university, we learn science mostly from textbooks, which often presents science as absolute facts that we have always known. What the textbook doesn’t make obvious is that these facts are only the best current information we have, and that these facts are the results of years of work by many scientists experimenting.
To fully understand science, we need to know how scientists conduct science and obtain facts.
Cutting-edge knowledge at the frontier of science is not as thoroughly tested as the well-tested and long-standing knowledge existing in contemporary textbooks. New data may not stand up to the test of time. New theories, ideas and possibilities can easily disappear as research progresses and data are generated. What might have been initially imagined by the physiologist as a ‘break-through’ discovery can easily end up as nothing more than a hypothesis without data to support it.
Student scientists should have the opportunity to appreciate the full scope of science during their undergraduate degrees, which includes the freedom to imagine new ideas, but with adequate educator support to actually take on the role of a scientist and test these ideas. This way, a student can learn about and understand science.
Knowledge of science concepts, or ‘what do we know?’
The first element of scientific literacy is the most obvious – knowledge in science or the collection of facts that science has produced. Student scientists spend a large part of their undergraduate degrees learning scientific facts in their discipline area – that is, they focus on ‘what we know’ and not on ‘how we came to know it’. Scientific facts are claims about the world that can be directly established by a careful, unprejudiced use of the senses, or repeated and verifiable observations.
Scientific knowledge tells us about the nature of the world beyond what we see on the surface. It tells us about our cells and the organelles within, the transmission of energy from light hitting the retina in the eye to the electrical energy travelling down the optic nerve, and even about the conditions that existed in the world long before humans were around to observe it.
Scientific theory
The ultimate goal of science is to understand the natural world in terms of scientific theories – that is, concepts based on what we learn from experimentation. In science, our understanding is constantly increasing and, as a result, our theories develop and change.
In science, the word ‘theory’ is reserved for a conceptual scheme supported by a large number of observations; Figure 1.2 shows five currently accepted scientific theories.
Scientific theories cannot be conclusively proved or disproved, and they change when evidence requires it. Once theories are proposed to explain the facts on a particular topic, they are rigorously and ruthlessly tested by observation and experiment. Theories that don’t stand up to observational and experimental tests are eliminated and replaced by new potential explanations that must also be tested. Science progresses through the process of trial and error, by educated guesses and dismissals – only the most likely theories survive (see Box 1.3). Theories can never be described as true – rather, they are the best available explanations that are an improvement on anything we have had before.
Box 1.3: Scientific hypothesis, testing and theory
Science starts with problems associated with explaining some behaviour of the world or universe in light of an existing theory. An example given by Chalmers (2013) is the observation that bats can fly well at night, even though they have small, weak eyes.
This observation is problematic in light of the theory that living creatures see with their eyes. A potential answer will be proposed to explain the observation – that is, a hypothesis. The hypothesis will then be tested and eliminated, or be successful. Once a hypothesis has managed to withstand a wide range of rigorous tests, it may become a theory and the scientist will move on to another problem and begin the process again.
It can take a lot of evidence and time to change established theories. There are many examples in science where theories were believed even when there was a great deal of opposing evidence – as explored in Box 1.4.
Box 1.4: The difficulties in changing scientific theory
Widely accepted during the 18th and 19th centuries, the miasma theory of disease transmission explained the origin and spread of some epidemic diseases like cholera. According to the theory, these diseases were caused by miasma (Greek for pollution) – an ill-defined, poisonous vapour secreted by rotting organic matter, or a noxious form of ‘bad air’ (Figure 1.3).
In 1546, Italian physician, poet, astronomer and geologist Girolamo Fracastoro first proposed a hypothesis that contradicted the miasma theory – that contagious diseases were caused and spread by transferrable seed-like bodies. Other scientists proposed similar hypotheses , but it wasn’t until the work of Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch in the late 1860s that the germ theory became widely accepted. Joseph Lister, who came to be known as the ‘father of modern surgery’, applied the advances made by Pasteur to the hospital environment and introduced sterilisation of equipment, bedding, gowns and wounds, and washing hands to prevent infection.
Lister faced opposition despite the positive results he was achieving. It didn’t help that bacteria were too small to see – but eventually his aseptic techniques were adopted throughout Germany, the United States, France and, finally, Great Britain.
Sometimes scientists believe in a hypothesis so much that they may think they are observing things that are not there. The canals of Mars are a fascinating (although non-physiological) example of this.
In 1877, Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli reported the discovery of canals on Mars (Hetherington, 1976); many astronomers including Percival Lowell (1911) and Eugène Antioniadi (1930) also documented seeing the canals and drew detailed maps. Around 1895, these drawings led to Lowell concluding that the canals were an irrigation system developed by Martians. When more sophisticated telescopes and imaging technology were available, astronomers including Antioniadi proposed that these canals were an optical illusion caused by dust moving across the surface of Mars due to heavy winds (Gifford, 1964). This was supported by images obtained in the 1960s by unmanned NASA spacecraft.
The facts we learn about physiology as student scientists are the results of years of careful, slow work by teams of scientists. Their results – and therefore our knowledge – is constantly evolving. Textbook ‘facts’ may have been challenged, and may still be challenged and evolving.
This leads into the second element of scientific literacy: understanding how we came to know scientific facts and theories.
Knowledge of the scientific method, or ‘how did we come to know it?’
Scientific method refers to the body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. It is based on gathering observable, empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning (Newton, 1726/1999, pp 794-796)
The scientific method includes the elements shown in Figure 1.4.
In a speech to graduating students at the California Institute of Technology in 2016, Atul Gawande, a surgeon and public health researcher, said:
Science is not a major or a career. It is a commitment to a systematic way of thinking, an allegiance to a way of building knowledge and explaining the universe through testing and factual observation (Gawande, 2016).
The process of making new discoveries in science is not as straightforward and neat as it may first appear. As a student scientist, you read textbooks, and conduct ‘cookbook’ practicals in which you follow a series of steps. In practice, creating new knowledge in science is characterised by difficulties, uncertainties and competing hypotheses
Science is a huge discipline, and the way science is done depends on the field of study. Exactly how a scientist conducts their craft depends on what knowledge and answers they are pursuing. For example, astronomers and geologists base their understanding on field observations, whereas physiologists and chemists base their understanding on experiments.
To a physiologist, the scientific method means implementing a series of experimental steps to create new knowledge and develop a more sophisticated understanding of a particular topic.
The scientific method follows seven general steps (see Figure 1.5):
1. make an observation
2. research what is already known about the topic (literature review)
3. form a testable hypothesis that may explain the observation
4. perform an experiment or series of experiments
5. analyse the results
6. accept or dismiss the hypothesis (conclusion)
7. share the results.
Some philosophers and scientists prefer to see the scientific method as an ideal rather than a rule or a description of the practice of all scientists. Scientists are humans, and this means that we are not perfect and we are different in terms of our motivation, drive and ideas – all of which may result in science being practised differently.
Scientists may approach their quest for new discoveries differently, but they will always seek evidence that can be obtained in different ways. The scientific method combines rational thought and imagination to predict and explain phenomena, and the work of scientists is always open to scrutiny, criticism and debate.
Figure 1.6 shows a cyclic model of the scientific method, indicating how it is an ongoing process.
Video 1.1: Video overview of the scientific method [7 mins, 32 sec]
TED-Ed presentation by Adam Savage on two spectacular examples of profound scientific discoveries that came from simple, creative methods that anyone could have followed.
Note: Closed captions are available by selecting the CC button below.
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Observation and research
Scientific research starts with a scientist making an initial observation that they cannot explain with an existing theory. It can also be a more open-ended questions, such as ‘How can I treat this particular disease?’ The scientist will study any previous data – that is, review the existing literature on the topic area, which are facts relevant to the problem at hand. This research may reveal that another scientist has already answered the question and, in this case, a new question will be asked. If the question hasn’t been answered, the scientist will use the findings of their research to help them to design a good question that they can test.
Hypothesis and aim
Research, and imaginative and creative thinking help the scientist to formulate a hypothesis that they can test to explain an observation or answer a question. A hypothesis is an assumption based on knowledge obtained during the observation stage – it is an ‘educated guess’.
Data generated during an experiment either support or fail to support the hypotheses. Hypotheses may be specific (e.g. chronic ingestion of artificial sweeteners causes weight gain in humans) or broad (e.g. viruses cause disease in animals). Hypotheses are always subject to modification.
It is important to note that hypotheses, however, may be proven untrue. This occurs when the data do not support the hypothesis, in which case, the hypothesis must be rejected or refined.
A hypothesis is tightly linked to the aim of the study, which is the objective or goal of an experiment or series of experiments. The aim is written in a similar manner to the hypothesis. A hypothesis is a prediction about the outcome of an experiment; an aim is usually written in the form of an instruction:
Hypothesis: chronic ingestion of artificial sweetener causes weight gain in humans.
Aim: To determine if chronic ingestion of artificial sweetener causes weight gain in humans.
Experiment
Physiologists conduct experiments to test whether the real world behaves as predicted by the hypothesis. The purpose of the experiments is to find out if the resulting observations of the real world agree or conflict with the prediction – if they agree, we can be more confident that the hypothesis is true, but if they disagree we become less confident.
Experiments are a valuable scientific tool, because when experimenting we are able to control and manipulate phenomena and events. However, this also means that we are creating an ‘artificial environment’ for our experiments. This may not end up reflecting what is happening in the real – messy – world.
Experiments will only help us to support or not support hypothesis if they are carried out properly. This means using care and the right equipment and settings, and the with goal of minimising error. If we conduct careless experiments that introduce error into the results, the observations (or data) are useless when we try to evaluate our hypothesis.
Part of understanding how science works includes becoming aware of the methods and tools of science. Each scientific discipline has its own specialised techniques and tools that it uses to observe the natural world; student scientists will be exposed to some of these methods in practical classes during their studies. Experimental methods are not perfect, even when scientists try their best, and they can be updated or replaced over time. Advances in technology or scientific understanding may mean that previously accepted methods are rejected and replaced with new ones. This may also mean that experimental results obtained using old methods are also ignored, or viewed as less relevant, because our way of thinking about the topic has changed.
It is not always easy and straightforward to conduct well-designed experiments and to get reliable results. New experiments may take months or even years to perfect. Scientists need to work hard to collect high-quality results, including:
• developing their theoretical and practical knowledge of an area and a technique
• learning through trial and error
• mastering the available technology.
Researchers must provide details on how their experiments were conducted, because other researchers must be able to repeat the results. If results cannot be repeated, the hypothesis is no longer supported, and the conclusion may be incorrect. When the results of experiments are shared with the wider scientific community, the research will be judged on many things, including the methods employed.
Also, it is very rare for a researcher to generate their experimental methods from scratch; it is more common to use methods that have been shown by other researchers to be successful at measuring particular variables. This is another reason it is important to provide details of your methodology.
Results
Scientists collect the data generated from their experiments and analyse them to determine whether the hypothesis was supported or not. In the analysis stage, the scientist combines the results from repeated experiments and carries out statistical analysis to test the hypothesis – for example, to determine whether differences exist between different experimental groups. Scientists will present their results as text, tables and graphs.
Results should be reproducible – that is, another scientist should be able to follow the same method and obtain the same results. If they are not able to do this, it may mean that the original results were an error. For this reason, scientists will usually conduct a single experiment multiple times.
Scientists rarely attempt to replicate the findings of other scientists, despite the importance of reproducibility. There are few incentives for scientists to dedicate time to replicating existing studies, and it can be difficult to replicate studies because the methods may be unclear, and poor or incorrect study designs may have been used in the original research (Belluz et al., 2016).
Recently, some scientists have found that when they do try to replicate studies, they have not been able to obtain the same results. This has led to a ‘crisis of reproducibility’. Scientists who have investigated reproducibility have found that few findings published in top psychology journals as well as highly cited papers on psychiatric treatment (Tajika et al., 2015) could be replicated (Open Science Collaboration, 2015). This issue is gaining more attention and must be addressed by scientists from all disciplines.
Conclusion
Conclusions are made about the results of the experiment in light of the hypothesis. Simply, the results do or do not support the hypothesis. The conclusions below are the two possibilities arising from the example hypothesis and aim shown previously:
Conclusion: Chronic ingestion of artificial sweetener caused weight gain in humans.
Conclusion: Chronic ingestion of artificial sweetener did not cause weight gain in humans.
The study hypothesis, aim and conclusion are therefore highly connected.
Scientific conclusions are subject to change when new findings dictate that they need to be changed. Quite often in science, new studies, which might use new techniques and equipment, tell us when conclusions need to be modified or changed entirely.
Share results
Results of experiments should be shared with the wider scientific community, so they can contribute to the pool of knowledge on a topic and lead to better understanding for everyone.
Scientists can communicate with their peers in different ways:
• make an oral presentation at a conference
• present a poster at a conference
• publish a journal article in a peer-reviewed academic journal (see Box 1.5).
Publication of results makes information widely available and the results will be used by others if they are seen as interesting – results not deemed interesting will fade from sight; sadly, this is the fate of most published articles.
Box 1.5: Peer-reviewed articles and academic journals
Results do not become a part of the pool of shared knowledge until they are published, but not all results achieve this outcome. Scientists must present their findings in the accepted format – that is, a journal article, and convince journal editors and referees that their work is interesting, sound and useful.
Once a journal editor accepts an article, it is subjected to peer review. This is where others scientists with expertise in the relevant field, usually anonymously, read through and check that the work is of sufficient quality and worthy of publication. The publication and peer-review process is at the mercy of people and therefore not perfect – error, bias and dishonesty is inherent. As a result, some research that should be published isn’t – and some research that shouldn’t be published is.
This is a stressful process because research scientists in universities and industry aim to publish their work in academic and professional journals. Their publication record is tremendously important to scientists because it is often used to judge the quality of their work. Ultimately, a researcher’s publication record determines whether they get or keep jobs, or gain funding to continue their work.
Interesting and important results will be cited by other scientists in the field who will test the results, and often modify and extend on the research. They may also report back if they find something wrong or inadequate in the research. Results that withstand scrutiny by peers and continue to be seen as interesting, useful and correct (or not obviously wrong) will make their way into secondary literature, that is review articles, monographs and graduate-level textbooks. If more time passes and the results are still interesting and correct, they will find their way into undergraduate textbooks, which have the widest reach and influence.
An example of the scientific method is shown in Box 1.6.
The language used in presentations and journal articles is highly technical and will contain a lot of scientific jargon. A non-expert audience will struggle to understand the meaning of such publications. To communicate their findings to lay – or non-expert – audiences, scientists may talk about their work during, for example, a radio or television interview.
Chapter 6 and Chapter 7 discusses the ins and outs of writing technical publications, and Chapter 8 talks more about communicating science to the non-expert audience.
Box 1.6: The scientific method in action
Observation: A physiologist determines that available evidence indicates that say drug X – which is not yet approved by Australia’s Therapeutic Goods Administration – increases the metabolic rate, and may therefore be a promising weight loss drug.
Hypothesis: The physiologist hypothesises that ‘drug X will cause weight loss in adult rats’.
Aim: The physiologist plans a study, with the aim to ‘determine if drug X will cause weight loss in adult rats’.
Experiment: The physiologist randomly assigns 20 adult rats to a control and treatment group – 10 per group. The control group is administered a daily dose of the placebo and the treatment group is administered a daily dose of the drug for 4 months. The control group receives a placebo instead of a drug, and all other conditions are identical to the treatment group with the exception of the drug. They receive the same kind of food and water. Body weight is recorded daily.
Results: At the end of the 4-month treatment period, the physiologist performs a statistical analysis on the body weight data. The data reveal that there is a statistical difference between treatment groups, with the treatment rats weighing less than the control rats.
Conclusion: Drug X caused weight loss in adult rats.
Share results: The physiologist will share their work with peers through a poster or oral presentation at a conference, and/or a journal article.
Knowledge and appreciation of science in society, or ‘how can we contribute’?
Understanding how science influences society – and vice versa – is an important aspect of scientific literacy. Science graduates who are able to combine their scientific knowledge and how it works with an understanding of the role of science in society will be valuable citizens who can contribute effectively to debates and decision making about science-related public issues.
One of the roles of a science graduate is to uphold the reputation of science in society by explaining what it is and why it is important. Many members of the public misunderstand what science is, what it means if something is scientific, and how science and technology are related. Some scientists may also share these misunderstandings (Bauer, 1992).
Video 1.2: Science and Society [4 mins, 37 secs]
Watch this video interview with Steven Pinker, renowned experimental psychologist and Professor in the Department of Psychology at Harvard University, on the place of science in society.
Note: Closed captions are available by selecting the CC button below,
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Many people already do respect science, and this has been exploited in some advertisements that tell us that a product has been ‘scientifically proven’ to be better, stronger, faster, more efficient or even sexier than its rivals. This is meant to make the product more attractive to consumers because it implies that the claims are well founded and perhaps beyond dispute (Chalmers, 2013).
On the other hand, some people do mistrust science, as evidenced by some views about climate change and childhood vaccinations. Although most scientists agree that climate change is occurring, some of the public still view it as an issue that is up for debate. And despite the evidence supporting the positive impact of immunisation on human health, some parents are reluctant to vaccinate their children.
Scientists are responsible for discoveries that have resulted in nuclear weapons and pollution, and – as a result – are distrusted by some members of the public. A study published in 2012 reviewed data collected from American citizens on their social attitudes from 1974 to 2010 (Gauchat, 2012). The author found that trust in science has not declined during this time period, except among people who described themselves as politically conservative and those who frequently attended church. Also, levels of trust in science varied a lot according to social class, ethnicity, gender, and region. This is not surprising, given the way science and scientists have treated some populations – for example, African–American men in the Tuskegee study (see Case Study 1.1).
Case Study 1.1: Tuskegee study and distrust of doctors among African–Americans
Marcella Alsan and Marianne Wanamaker published a working paper in the National Bureau of Economic Research in 2016 (Alsan & Wanamaker, 2016); the abstract summarises their study.
Alsan and Wanamaker’s research showed that the unethical study may have led to a distrust in doctors, which contributed to (~35%) African–American men avoiding the health care system and therefore dying earlier. This effect was stronger the closer the men lived to Macon County, Alabama, where the Tuskegee study took place.
Although science influences how society functions, it is also true that society influences which topics are chosen for research and government funding. In 2015, the Australian Government developed a set of Science and Research Priorities. This project was led by the former Chief Scientist, Professor Ian Chubb, and included consultation with researchers, industry leaders and government representatives, who together represent all citizens. The areas that have been chosen as priorities are those deemed to be of critical importance to Australia and will be given public funding. They are:
• Food
• Soil and water
• Transport
• Cybersecurity
• Energy
• Resources
• Advanced manufacturing
• Environmental change
• Health
1.4 Pseudoscience
“Pseudoscience is the form of science without the substance.” (Gawande, 2016)
Pseudoscience describes an idea, field, practice, body of knowledge or belief that is presented as being scientific, but does not follow or obey the scientific method, and is not consistent with the standards of scientific research.
In 2006, the National Science Foundation (in the United States) analysed survey data from the previous 20 years and found that many Americans have many pseudoscientific beliefs, including astrology, lucky numbers, the existence of unidentified flying objects (UFOs), extrasensory perception (ESP) and magnetic therapy (National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, 2006). They found that belief in pseudoscience increased during the 1990s and early 2000s, but declined between 2001 and 2005. In 2012 (National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, 2014):
• 55% of Americans said astrology is ‘not at all scientific’
• 32% said they thought astrology was ‘sort of scientific’
• 10% said it was ‘very scientific’
• about 4% said they ‘did not know’.
These numbers have not changed dramatically since surveys began, indicating that there is much for science communicators to achieve. Other examples of pseudoscience include acupuncture, alchemy, astrology, homeopathy, intelligent design and physiognomy.
Box 1.7: Characteristics of pseudoscience
• The use of vague, exaggerated, or untestable claims: Many claims made by pseudoscience cannot be tested with evidence. As a result, they cannot be falsified, even if they are not true.
• An over-reliance on confirmation rather than refutation: Any incident that appears to justify a pseudoscience claim is treated as proof of the claim. Claims are assumed true until proven otherwise, and the burden of disproof is placed on skeptics of the claim.
• A lack of openness to testing by other experts: Practitioners of pseudoscience avoid subjecting their ideas to peer review. They may refuse to share their data and justify the need for secrecy with claims of proprietary or privacy.
• An absence of progress in advancing knowledge: In pseudoscience, ideas are not subjected to repeated testing followed by rejection or refinement, as hypotheses are in true science. Ideas in pseudoscience may remain unchanged for hundreds — or even thousands — of years. In fact, the older an idea is, the more it tends to be trusted in pseudoscience.
• Personalization of issues: Proponents of pseudoscience adopt beliefs that have little or no rational basis, so they may try to confirm their beliefs by treating critics as enemies. Instead of arguing to support their own beliefs, they attack the motives and character of their critics.
• The use of misleading language: Followers of pseudoscience may use scientific-sounding terms to make their ideas sound more convincing. For example, they may use the formal name dihydrogen monoxide to refer to plain old water (Miller, 2020).
Defenders of science have identified hallmark moves of the pseudoscientist, as shown in Box 1.7.
Scientifically literate graduates are able to improve society by combatting pseudoscience, as discussed in the section ‘Knowledge and appreciation of science in society’.
Resource
Australian researchers John Cook and Professor Stephan Lewandowsky wrote The Debunking Handbook, a guide to defending science as a more valid approach to explaining the world.
Click the drop down below to review the terms learned from this chapter.
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New and exciting scientific discoveries that have a positive impact on humanity are not usually stumbled upon by chance. Scientists systematically go about their work to create new knowledge in many important areas such as the treatment and prevention of disease.
We gain improved understandings of our natural world when scientists dedicate themselves to the pursuit of discovery by carefully preparing for, planning and conducting experiments. A scientist’s carefully controlled experiments produce data, and the data that build from many different – yet similar – experiments on a given topic provide evidence to help us understand more about a particular field or topic.
Effective experimental design is not haphazard; it is in itself a science, where a set of rules are followed to produce valid and reliable data.
In Chapter 1, we introduced the importance of scientific literacy, which includes the recommendation that student scientists understand science, including how we come by our scientific knowledge. We introduced the scientific method, of which a big component is experimentation. During your undergraduate degree, you will likely be given a chance to practise the scientific method and to design your own study.
This chapter will explain the principles of experimental design and lead you through some examples of experimental design in human physiology.
2.1 Researching human physiology
“Human research is research conducted with or about people, or their data or tissue.” –(National Health and Medical Research Council & Australian Research Council, 2007 p. 3).
Although there is no one perfect definition of research, it is generally agreed that research includes investigation carried out with the purpose of gaining knowledge and understanding, or for training researchers. The Australian Research Council states:
“Research is defined as the creation of new knowledge and/or the use of existing knowledge in a new and creative way so as to generate new concepts, methodologies, inventions and understandings. This could include synthesis and analysis of previous research to the extent that it is new and creative…” (Australian Research Council, 2022, para. 1).
“In research in human physiology, investigators may use human participants or animal subjects. Animals are commonly used to inform our understanding of how humans work. In contrast, animal physiologists study animals to inform their understanding of how animals function.” (Department of Education Skills and Employment, 2022).
In this chapter, we will provide some practical tips on writing hypotheses, aims and conclusions, and then focus on the ‘experiment’ step of the scientific method (Figure 2.1).
Where to start?
Before designing an experiment, you will have read some research on the existing scientific literature on a topic and made an observation you cannot yet explain. This process will lead you to write the hypothesis for the study. More scientifically put, the hypothesis is a prediction of the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable in a scientific research study.
A hypothesis is an assumption or prediction based on sound evidence – that is, an ‘educated guess’.
Scientists may differ on how they write their hypotheses; one simple model is presented here. Firstly, identify your independent variable and dependent variable; these are essential to the aim, hypothesis and conclusion of a study.
Independent variable
• The variable that the investigator intentionally changes in an experiment to observe its effect on other variables
• Example: in an experiment where a scientist studies the effect of artificial sweetener on body weight, artificial sweetener is the independent variable
Dependent variable
• The variable that changes in an experiment as a result of the independent variable
• Example: in an experiment where a scientist studies the effect of artificial sweetener on body weight, body weight is the dependent variable
Now that you have conducted research on the topic and decided on what you predict will happen under your experimental conditions, and you have established your independent and dependent variables, you can use the following schema to write your hypothesis.
Hypothesis
Simply replace the text in the boxes below with information specific to your experiment.
Independent variable will cause dependent variable to predicted direction of change experimental conditions
For example:
Artificial sweetener will cause body weight to increase in healthy elderly humans
Or:
An acute dose of 100 mg of drug X will cause oxygen consumption to decrease in healthy young adults
Try to avoid hypothesising that your independent variable will have no effect on your dependent variable.
Here is a hypothesis written by a student with a suggestion for how it could be improved. The original hypothesis is missing some information that will make it clear and specific to the experiment that the student is planning to conduct.
Original hypothesis that needs some work:
Listening to fast music will increase activity in the cardiovascular system (CVS)
Revised hypothesis that is more precise and indicates what is being compared:
Music with a high tempo (150 beats per minute [bpm]) will cause heart rate and mean arterial pressure to increase more than music with a low tempo (75 bpm)
Now that you have your hypothesis, it is simple to slightly modify this statement to write your aim.
Aim
The aim can be written using the same words as the hypothesis, with the addition of ‘to determine the effect of’ or ‘to determine if’ at the beginning of the sentence.
The aim of a scientific research study is to determine the effect of the independent variable(s) on the dependent variable(s).
Simply replace the boxes below with information specific to your experiment.
To determine if independent variable will cause dependent variable to predicted direction of change experimental conditions
For example, (this matches the hypothesis presented in the previous section):
To determine if artificial sweetener will cause body weight to increase in healthy elderly humans
Or, (this matches the hypothesis presented in the previous section):
To determine if an acute dose of 100 mg of drug X will cause oxygen consumption to decrease in healthy young adults
Here is an aim written by a student with a suggestion for how it could be improved. The original aim is missing some information that will make it clear and specific to the experiment that the student is planning to conduct.
Original aim that needs some work: Introduce participants to music with a range of BPMs in order to establish what effect if any the speed of music had on their CVS.
Revised aim that is more precise and indicates what is being compared:
To determine if music with a high tempo (150 bpm) will cause heart rate and mean arterial pressure to increase more than music with a low tempo (75 bpm)
We’re jumping ahead a bit, but it is a good place to discuss writing your conclusion. Your conclusion should be very tightly linked to your hypothesis and aim. In fact, you can base the wording of your conclusion on the wording of your hypothesis (and aim since it is written similarly to the hypothesis).
Conclusion
The conclusion can be written using the same words as the hypothesis. Just change the wording slightly to indicate how the results compared with your prediction.
A conclusion is the answer to your research question – a summary of how the results of a scientific study support or fail to support the hypothesis.
Simply replace the boxes below with information specific to your experiment.
Independent variable caused / or did not cause dependent variable to observed direction of change experimental conditions
For example:
Artificial sweetener caused body weight to increase in healthy elderly individuals
Or:
An acute dose of 100 mg of drug X did not cause oxygen consumption to decrease in healthy young adults
Here are some conclusions written by students with suggestions for how they could be improved. The original conclusions are long-winded and wordy, and do not clearly link back to the hypothesis and aim.
Remember, if you collected usable data in your experiment, you can always state a conclusion! If you did not find a significant difference between groups or conditions, this is still a valid conclusion.
Original conclusion that needs some work: Despite the results indicating a slight increase in the cardiovascular system, statistical tests indicate that there was no statistically significant difference between the control and the music group. Therefore, due to the inconclusive results we cannot make any conclusions and further studies need to be completed.
Revised conclusion that is more concise and reflective of what the student investigated:
Music with a high tempo (150 bpm) did not cause heart rate and mean arterial pressure to increase more than music with a low tempo (75 bpm)
Original conclusion that needs some work: Despite the results indicating a slight increase in time-to-exhaustion, statistical tests indicate that there was no statistically significant difference between the control and the caffeine group. Therefore, according to statistical tests, caffeine does not provide any additional benefits in improving time-to-exhaustion in cold conditions.
Revised conclusion that is more concise and reflective of what the student investigated:
Caffeine did not cause running time to exhaustion to increase in cold conditions
Original conclusion that needs some work: An increased dosage of caffeine caused an increase in cognitive performance, however due to lack of statistical significant results, further research is warranted.
Revised conclusion that is more concise and reflective of what the student investigated:
An acute dose of 150 mg of caffeine did not cause cognitive performance to improve more than an acute dose of 50 mg of caffeine
Original conclusion that needs some work: There were no statistically significant results, although a trend was observed with caffeine having a positive effect on cognitive performance.
Revised conclusion that is more concise although some more information could have been included to better reflect the experimental conditions:
Caffeine did not cause cognitive performance to improve
Now let’s design your experiment …
2.2 Designing an experiment to test your hypothesis
Now that you have your independent and dependent variables, an idea of your experimental conditions, and a hypothesis and aim, it’s time to design your experiment.
Control group experimental design
In a control group experimental design, the participants are divided into two groups, one of which is designated the control and the other the experimental group.
Before you begin your physiology experiment, you will need to create groups. If the purpose of your study is to investigate the differences or the influence of an independent variable on distinct populations – for example, males and females – this task will be simple. You would simply place the males into one group and the females into the other group.
If your study is not investigating distinct populations, and the purpose of your study is to investigate the effect of an intervention that may have permanent or long-lasting effects, or the experiments will be terminal for animal subjects (e.g. mice or rat study where animals are sacrificed to harvest organs and tissues for analysis) you will have to be a bit more thoughtful. In this situation, you will create two groups – a control and treatment.
A key feature of this type of experimental design is that the groups contain different individual animal subjects or human participants.
Control group
This group of animal subjects or human participants are treated identically to the treatment group, except they do not receive or experience the independent variable of interest. This typically involves the use of a placebo (e.g. sugar pill) or a sham of the independent variable where possible (e.g. sham exercise)
Treatment group
This group of animal subjects or human participants are exposed to the independent variable of interest – for example, an acute dose of caffeine or a 5-kilometre run.
A simple ‘before-and-after’ comparison on the same set of individuals is not valid, because it does not control for extraneous time-dependent variables (e.g., developmental age and learning).
In a control group experimental design, you would typically only have one control group. But, you could have one or more treatment groups, depending on the specifics of your study.
Creating control and treatment groups
Random assignment
If you have large sample sizes, or if the group of animal subjects or human participants are very similar, you can randomly assign the animals or humans to the control and treatment groups.
For example, when inbred strains of rat of a particular sex and age are being studied, the animals are so similar – genetically and physiologically – that random assignment to treatment groups is highly unlikely to produce groups with systematic differences. Systematic differences can introduce extraneous variables that interfere with the results of your experiment (see the next section).
Extraneous variables
An extraneous variable is an unwanted variable that is not the independent variable of interest, but influences the outcome of – and therefore adds error to – an experiment (Karanicolas et al., 2010). A major goal in research design is to decrease or control the influence of extraneous variables as much as possible. If you randomly allocate animal subjects or human participants that are very different to your control and treatment groups, you may find that these differences may influence the outcome of your experiment (see Box 2.1).
Box 2.1: Extraneous variables in control and treatment groups
You conduct an experiment on the effect of hormone Z on mice, and you randomly allocate your mice to control and treatment groups.
The control group is administered a placebo and the treatment group is administered hormone Z. The metabolic rates of all the animals are then measured, and groups compared, to determine whether the hormone has any effect on metabolic rate.
Imagine that random assignment had, by chance, resulted in two groups that differed substantially in average body mass or sex – although keep in mind that is more likely to occur in wild animals and not with specifically bred laboratory mice). This experiment would be unable to separate the effects of mass, sex and hormone treatment, all of which are known to affect metabolic rate.
In other words, in this example:
• mass and sex are the extraneous variables
• hormone treatment is the independent variable
• metabolic rate is the dependent variable
Introduction of such extraneous variables can be controlled by creating balanced groups – that is, experimental groups with no obvious differences.
Balanced groups
If you don’t have large sample sizes or your animal subjects or human participants are quite different, you should create balanced groups. Creating balanced groups will minimise or eliminate the effect of variables other than the ones you are investigating – that is, your independent variables.
Balanced groups are experimental groups with no obvious differences.
To create balanced groups, baseline measurements are taken and are then used to create groups with no obvious differences. This may be simple, such as equally assigning male and female subjects or participants to each group (Figure 2.2). You may use measurements such as the mean body mass index, grade point average, short-term memory span or minutes of weekly exercise to balance groups (Figure 2.3).
The variables that you use to balance groups should be the same as, or closely related to those, that you will measure in the experiments. If there are large amounts of variables to measure, the scientist must determine what are the most significant variables that are needed to be controlled for.
After balanced groups are created, the independent variable is then introduced.
Treatment order control / cross-over experimental design
In a treatment order / cross-over experimental design, each participant is measured under the control and experimental treatment conditions, with one-half of the participants experiencing the conditions in reverse order.
You should use a treatment order control experiment design, also known as the cross-over experiment design for some types of experiments. For example, if you are investigating the effects of a treatment that only causes short-term effects, and you are not studying the difference between distinct populations or using animal subjects where the experiment will be terminal for them.
In this experimental design you will decide on your conditions – for example, the effects of an acute bout of aerobic exercise on short-term memory. Instead of having two separate groups, one as a control (no exercise) and the other as a treatment group (exercise) as you would for the control group experimental design, each participant is measured under the control and treatment conditions, with one-half of the participants experiencing the conditions in the reverse order.
This type of design can also have more than one treatment condition. In this case, animal subjects or human participants will experience all conditions, but in a different order.
The analysis for a cross-over design considers only the differences between the two (or more) measurements (dependent variables) from each individual. This makes it a powerful design, because it eliminates the ‘noise’ resulting from differences between individuals. Put more simply, each animal subject or human participant acts as their own control (Figure 2.4).
Experimental noise is the …inherent variation existing between different subjects for a variable measured under control or treatment conditions.
It is important to note that physiological experiments that use animal subjects generally use the control group experimental design, and not the cross-over design. In animal studies, it is very common that the experiments are terminal.
Placebos
A placebo is used in research studies that investigate the effects of medicines. The treatment group receives the medicine, and the control group receives a placebo – a dummy medicine that has no therapeutic effect. An example of a dummy medicine is a sugar pill that looks identical to the real medicine. Comparing the results from both groups should indicate the effectiveness and side-effects of the drug.
Placebos can be used in both control group experimental designs and cross-over designs. However, keep in mind that the cross-over experimental design would not be appropriate if:
• the drug was to be taken over a long period of time – say, years
• it could cure a disease or condition
• it had long-lasting effects.
Interestingly, in studies that used placebos, human participants don’t know if they are receiving the dummy medication or the real thing, and sometimes not even the researchers know. We will expand on this concept of blinding a bit later.
Logic should tell you that the placebo will have no effect. However, a strange phenomenon called the ‘placebo effect’ can occur, which is when people get better when they are taking the placebo. There are various hypotheses that attempt to explain this phenomenon, but the underlying mechanisms remain mysterious.
Another interesting piece of information that you may initially find odd is that placebos are also administered in animal studies.
Why would scientists do this? What’s the point if the animals are not going to be psychologically concerned with the treatment – that is, why bother if there is no placebo effect?
Well, imagine a control group experimental design study where treatment rats are injected with a drug every day for a month. Remember that the only difference between control and treatment groups should be the independent variable – in this case, the drug.
Keep in mind that, in addition to the independent variable (the drug), the treatment animals will also receive an injection every day.
Can you determine what the placebo would be for this experiment?
If you said the control group would also receive a daily injection, but with just the drug vehicle (the substance that the drug is dissolved or suspended in, without the drug), you’d be right.
If the placebo isn’t administered, the drug would not be the only variable that the treatment animals receive compared with the control animals. The extraneous variables introduced into the study are the injection itself and the drug vehicle, which may affect the results. For example, the injections could cause the animals stress each day, in which case the study would be investigating the effects of the drug and stress. However, if the control group received a daily injection as well, the investigators could conclude that any differences seen between the two groups were a result of the drug only.
Blinding
How much will the participants and investigators know about the details of the experiment?
Blinding refers to hiding certain information (e.g., group allocation) from one or more individuals involved in a research study.
Blinding attempts to minimise or eliminate bias that may result if the participants or investigators know too much about the experimental conditions. As result, those involved in the research may unconsciously change their behaviour. Investigators may observe participants differently if they know they received the experimental drug rather than the placebo – this may bias the results. Participants may respond differently if they know they received the drug and not the placebo based on their pre-conceived ideas about what should happen.
Bias is a process where the scientists performing the research or the participants of the research influence the results, in order to portray a certain outcome.
Blinding is used in both control group and cross-over experimental designs. The best strategy is to blind as many individuals as possible in a research study. You may choose to have a single-blind or double-blind study.
Single-blind study
In a single-blind experiment, the individual participants do not know which group they are in (control or treatment) and what intervention they will receive.
For example, in a study investigating the effects of caffeine ingestion on endurance running performance, participants don’t know if they are taking caffeine or a placebo.
Double-blind study
In a double-blind experiment, the individual participants and the persons administering the experiment are unaware of critical aspects of the experiment, with this information being held by a third party, and is only revealed to the investigators when the study is over. A double-blind procedure is used to protect against both placebo effects and investigator bias.
For example, in a study investigating the effects of caffeine ingestion on endurance running performance, the participants and the investigators don’t know who is taking placebo and who is taking caffeine at the time of ingestion.
Animal subjects and human participants
When physiologists experiment to learn more about humans, it may surprise you to hear that we often use animal subjects as well as human participants. Of the laboratory animals that we use for research, 95% are mice and rats. Laboratory mice and rats make an ideal model to study human physiology because:
• their genetic, biological and behavioural characteristics closely resemble those of humans
• many human disease states can be replicated in these animals
• they are inexpensive, and easy to handle and house
• they have a short-life span
• they are almost genetically identical – apart from sex differences – because they are usually inbred.
Genetic similarity greatly reduces the risk of introducing extraneous variables into the study and is the reason why random assignment is an appropriate method for creating groups. Group size would typically be around 10 animals, although this may differ depending on techniques used. It is standard practice to use the same strain sex and age of animal in any given study.
Animal studies usually have a control group experimental design, because these types of experiments are often terminal for the animals.
Human studies are not as straightforward and may vary widely – experiments may have 5–10 participants per group, and up to 1000s when longitudinal analyses or meta-analyses are carried out. Reading the current literature on your topic will give you an indication of how many study participants are commonly required in your area of research.
There is likely to be much greater genetic variation among study participants, as well as differences in lifestyle factors (e.g. different diets and levels of exercise, and some people smoke). Because of these differences in humans, it becomes crucial when using control group experimental designs to balance groups, to try and limit the number of extraneous variables introduced to the study.
The size of the expected effect of the phenomena you are investigating is important. If you are investigating something that is likely to have a small effect, you will need more subjects or participants than if you are studying something that is likely to have a large effect. An investigator will conduct a power analysis when designing their study. A power analysis is a statistical approach used to determine the minimum number of subjects or participants required so you can reasonably expect to detect an effect of a given size.
2.3 Examples of experimental design in human physiology
The following sections are examples of human participant studies using different experimental designs. To determine if there are significant differences between your two groups after collecting the data (datasets), you will need to perform a statistical analysis. The experimental design that you choose will determine which statistical test you should use.
Chapter 3 tells you how to do these statistical analyses.
Control group experimental design
Two experimental groups
Example of a study of animal subjects using control group experimental design
An example of a control group experimental design is shown in Figure 2.7.
Aim: To determine the effect of an immunosuppressive drug (independent variable) on blood vessel function (dependent variable).
Experiment: A group of animals is randomly assigned to either a control or treatment group, with each group containing equal numbers. All animals are housed under the same conditions, but the treatment group animals receive the drug and the control group receives a placebo.
Example of a study of human participants using control group experimental design
An example of a control group experimental design for human participants is shown in Figure 2.8.
Aim: To investigate and determine the effect of gender on exercise performance.
Experiment: Human participants are assigned to either a male or female group. All participants experience the same conditions – the difference is their gender (independent variable).
For Figure 2.7 and Figure 2.8 use an independent t-test to compare the measurements (dependent variables) from the two groups (conditions). By doing this, you will determine the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable(s).
More than two experimental groups
Example of a study of animal subjects using control group experimental design
An example of a control group experimental design with more than two experimental groups is shown in Figure 2.9.
Aim: To determine the effect of chronic administration of two doses (moderate and high) of growth hormone (independent variable) on muscle size (dependent variable).
Experiment:
• The control group receives daily administration of a placebo.
• Treatment group 1 receives daily administration of the moderate dose of growth hormone.
• Treatment group 2 receives daily administration of the high dose of growth hormone.
Example of a study of human participants using control group experimental design
An example of a control group experimental design with more than two experimental groups is shown in Figure 2.10.
Aim: To determine the effect of different amounts of touch-typing practice (independent variable) on touch-typing skill development (dependent variable).
Experiment: In this case, a cross-over design would be inappropriate. Because of the learning effect of the treatment, an extraneous variable is introduced.
For Figure 2.9 and Figure 2.10 use a one-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) independent samples test to compare the measurements (dependent variables) made in the three or more groups. By doing this, you will determine the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable.
If the ANOVA reveals statistical significance between the groups, conduct a post hoc test to determine where the statistically significant differences exist (e.g. in Figures 2.9 and Figure 2.10, there could be significant differences in the dependent variable between the control and treatment group 1, the control and treatment group 2, and/or treatment groups 1 and 2).
Treatment order control / cross-over experimental design
Two experimental groups
Example of a study of human participants using treatment order control / cross-over experimental design
An example of a cross-over experimental design is shown in Figure 2.11.
Aim: To determine the effect of caffeine on cognitive performance.
Experiment: A group of participants have their cognitive performance measured after consuming either caffeine or placebo on two test days, separated by at least seven days.
In week 1:
• group 1 participants consume the placebo
• group 2 participants consume caffeine before cognitive testing.
In week 2, the reverse happens:
• group 1 consumes caffeine before cognitive testing
• group 2 consumes placebo before cognitive testing.
Caffeine is usually eliminated from the body in under two days, so there would not be a carry-over effect of caffeine in group 2 participants one week after initial testing when the second session of testing occurs.
Use a paired t-test to compare the measurements obtained in the two conditions.
To determine the effect of the independent variable, combine the data (dependent variable) from groups 1 and 2, and conduct a paired t-test.
More than two experimental groups
Example of a study of human participants using treatment order control / cross-over experimental design
An example of a treatment order control / cross-over experimental design with more than two experimental conditions is shown in Figure 2.12.
Aim: To determine the effect of moderate and high doses of caffeine (independent variable) on the time it takes to complete a 5 km running trial (dependent variable).
Experiment: In this example, participants have their running performance measured after consuming either moderate- or high-dose caffeine, or placebo, on three test days, with testing separated by at least seven days.
In week 1:
• group 1 participants consume the placebo before the 5-km run
• group 2 participants consume moderate-dose caffeine before the 5-km run
• group 3 participants consume high-dose caffeine before the 5-km run.
In week 2:
• group 1 consumes high-dose caffeine before the 5-km run
• group 2 consumes placebo before the 5-km run
• group 3 consumes moderate-dose caffeine before the 5-km run.
In week 3:
• group 1 consumes moderate-dose caffeine before the 5-km run
• group 2 consumes high-dose caffeine before the 5-km run
• group 3 consumes placebo before the 5-km run.
Caffeine is eliminated from the body in less than two days, so there would not be a carry-over effect one week after testing.
Use a one-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) correlated samples test to compare the measurements (dependent variables) when there are at least three conditions. To determine the effect of the independent variable, combine the data (dependent variable) from all groups for each condition.
If the ANOVA reveals statistical significance between the groups, conduct a post hoc test to determine where the statistically significant differences exist (e.g. in Figure 2.12, there could be significant differences in the dependent variable between the control and experimental level 1, the control and experimental level 2, and/or experimental levels 1 and 2).
Investigating the effect of multiple independent variables
You may wish to conduct a more complex experiment in which you are testing the effect of multiple independent variables, such as time (pre-test and post-test) and drug (placebo and drug).
Example of a study of human participants using control group experimental design where more than two independent variables are introduced
An example of this experimental design is shown in Figure 2.13 where the aim of the study is to investigate the effect of an exercise program alone and the exercise program plus adoption of the Mediterranean diet on a group of patients who have suffered an adverse cardiovascular event. The two independent variables are the exercise program and the diet.
Long-term and ongoing adoption of the diet rules out the possibility of using a cross-over design.
Use a two-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) independent measures test to compare the measurements (dependent variables) made in the three or more conditions. By doing this, you will determine the effects of the independent variables on the dependent variable.
When this study design is used, it is possible to find main effects and interaction effects. Main effects are significant differences in dependent variables caused by the independent variables. In this example, this means effects of diet and/or exercise on their own. Interaction effects are significant effects that result when independent variables are combined – in this example this means effects of diet and exercise together.
When the ANOVA finds significant main effects of one or more factors (independent variables), conduct a post hoc analysis to determine which differences are significant.
Example of a study of human participants using treatment order control / cross-over experimental design where more than two independent variables are introduced
An example of this experimental design is shown in Figure 2.14.
Aim: To determine the effect of an acute bout of exercise alone, and exercise plus an acute dose of caffeine, improves short-term memory function in humans.
Experiment: The two independent variables are exercise and caffeine. The short-term effect of caffeine allows us to use a cross-over design. The participants and investigators can be blinded to caffeine, but not for exercise.
Use a two-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) repeated measures test to compare the measurements (dependent variables) when there are at least two independent variables. To determine the effects of the independent variables, combine all data (dependent variable) from all groups for each condition.
When this study design is used, it is possible to find main effects and interaction effects. Main effects are significant differences in dependent variables caused by the independent variables. In this example, this means the effects of caffeine and/or exercise on their own. Interaction effects are significant effects that result when independent variables are combined – in this example, this means the effects of caffeine and exercise together.
When the ANOVA finds significant main effects of one or more factors (independent variables), conduct a post hoc analysis to determine which differences are significant.
All of this can be a bit overwhelming, so Figure 2.15 is a flowchart that summarises how to decide which experimental design and statistical analysis to use. A clearer version of this flowchart [PDF] is available to download.
Click the drop down below to review the terms learned from this chapter.
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Copyright note:
• The quotation from the National Health and Medical Research Council is used under a CC-BY 4.0 licence.
• The quotation from the Australian Research Council is reproduced with permission.
• The quotation from the Department of Education, Skills & Employment (DESE) is used under a CC-BY 4.0 licence. | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/How_To_Do_Science_2e_(Lexis_and_Julien)/1.02%3A_Design_for_Discovery.txt |
Statistics is the science that deals with the collection, analysis and interpretation of numerical data.
Statistics has entered almost every aspect of human endeavour. We can use it for better planning, more efficient delivery of services and increased productivity. Although statistics is a rewarding career choice, most of us will not specialise in this field.
It is, however, important to improve statistical literacy among scientists, journalists, doctors, patients and the community at large, so we can make informed decisions in the face of uncertainty.
In scientific research, we conduct statistical analyses to help us determine whether datasets are different from each other. When statistical analysis determines that datasets are different, we refer to the datasets as ‘statistically different’, or the difference as ‘statistically significant’ or that there is ‘a significant difference’.
When statistical analysis reveals that datasets are not different, we say that there is ‘no significant difference’ between groups.
In this chapter, we will explain some of the basic statistical analyses student scientists will carry out – many of which were referred to in Chapter 2 when you learned about designing experiments. This chapter also provided instructions for conducting these tests using Microsoft Excel software and the VassarStats website.
3.1 Statistics as a part of everyday life
Cholera map made by John Snow in 1854
The location of reported cases of cholera are shown in Figure 3.1. Presentation of the data collected on the number of cases and where they occurred would have been very useful in understanding the spread of the disease and contributing to prevention.
Sporting performance
Figure 3.2 summarises the test bowling statistics of cricketer Imran Khan, showing the number of runs conceded each innings, and career and last 10-innings averages. Collecting so much information in one figure, combining raw data and averages, is a very economical way to summarise a sportsperson’s career.
Health of the population
This bar graph shown in Figure 3.3 presents the percentage of the population aged 60 years and over in 41 countries who have dementia . This figure provides the reader with details of the percentage of the population diagnosed with dementia at the same time allowing a comparison of the percentages across a number of countries.
3.2 Setting up Excel for statistical analysis
Use the arrows below to find out how to set up excel for statistical analysis.
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3.3 Calculating descriptive statistics using Excel
Descriptive statistics are obtained to provide a simple summary of a dataset. Common summary values obtained are mean = a number that typifies a set of numbers, such as a geometric mean or an arithmetic mean; the average value of a set of numbers, and standard deviation = a statistic used as a measure of the dispersion or variation in a distribution; how much the data points differ from the mean.
Use the arrows below to find out to calculate descriptive statistics using Excel.
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3.4 Manually calculating mean and standard deviation in Excel
Use the arrows below to find out to manually calculate mean and standard deviation in Excel.
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3.5 The p value
In scientific research, we refer to the p value to determine if there is a statistical difference (significant difference) between datasets.
Traditionally, in scientific research, a p value of less than 0.05 is considered significant (mean values are different). A p value of 0.05 means that there is a 95% likelihood that the difference between the means is because of the experimental conditions and not chance. In other words, there is only a 5% likelihood that the difference between the means is because of chance, and not the treatment.
One- and two-tailed tests
When you conduct statistical tests using Excel (and most other statistics software) you will see in the outputs that there are two p values, one for a one-tail test, and the other for a two-tail test; the values will be different.
A two-tailed test, also known as a non-directional hypothesis, is the standard test of significance to determine if there is a relationship between variables in either direction. A one-tailed test, also known as a directional hypothesis, is a test of significance to determine if there is a relationship between the variables in one direction. A one-tailed test is useful if you have a good idea, usually based on your knowledge of the subject, of the direction of the difference that exists between variables. This makes our statistics more sensitive and able to detect more-subtle differences.
Unless you can justify why you are using a one-tail test, it is recommended that you use a two-tail test.
Video 3.1: p value in statistics [4 mins, 42 secs]
The video below explains what a p value tells us. There are different types of statistical tests used to determine the p value, depending on the type of data you have.
Note: Closed captions are available by selecting the CC button below.
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Calculating the p value using an independent t-test in Excel
This statistical hypothesis test is conducted to determine whether there is a statistically significant difference between the means in two unrelated groups (e.g. females and males).
Use the arrows below to find out to calculate the p value using an independent t-test in Excel.
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Calculating the p value using a paired t-test in Excel
This statistical hypothesis test is conducted to determine whether there is a statistically significant difference between the means in two related groups (e.g. control and treatment measures in a group of participants in an experiment using a cross-over design).
Use the arrows below to find out to calculate the p value using a paired t-test in Excel.
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Calculating the p value using a one-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA)
The one-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) test is conducted to determine whether there is a statistically significant difference between the means of three or more groups. The groups may be independent or unrelated, or they may be related.
Unrelated groups are made up of separate groups where a given participant will only experience one condition in a control group experimental design (e.g. children, adults and older people).
Related groups are made up of the same participants with each participant experiencing all conditions as would occur in a cross-over experimental design (e.g. placebo, acute low-dose caffeine, acute high-dose caffeine).
In Excel, the same test is used to determine if there are significant differences between groups. It doesn’t matter if the groups are independent or related. (But note that this is not the case with all analytic tools).
Use the arrows below to find out to calculate the p value using a one-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA).
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To determine which datasets are statistically different from each other, conduct independent t-tests (using the instructions shown previously) comparing variable 1 and variable 2, variable 2 and variable 3, and variable 1 and variable 3.
This is not the ideal way to conduct a post hoc analysis, but is the simplest way to do this using Excel. We suggest using VassarStats for one-factor ANOVA tests.
3.6 Linear correlation
When do I use a linear correlation?
You may choose to use correlation when you are trying to determine whether, and how strongly, two variables are related (linearly). Correlations are appropriate to use when your data are continuous, which means that the values are not restricted to defined separate values but can be any value across an endless range. Examples of continuous data include temperature in degrees Celsius and height in centimetres. (Note, data should be normally distributed and not contain any significant outliers if you plan to test for correlations; these factors are not addressed in this guide.)
Correlation is a statistical approach to determining if and how well two variables are related to each other.
One of the simpler correlations is called Pearson’s product-moment correlation. This test produces a correlation coefficient, r, which is the number that indicates the strength or magnitude, and the direction of the relation between the two variables. The correlation attempts to draw a line of best fit through the data points, and r indicates how far away the data points are from the line. There are different guidelines for interpretation of the strength of the relation – one example is shown in Figure 3.4.
Generally speaking, the more the relation between the two variables looks like a straight line, the closer r gets to 1.0 or –1.0. If r is positive then you have a direct or increasing relation between variables and if r is negative then you have an inverse or decreasing relation between variables.
Remember that correlation does not indicate causation. Finding a correlation between two data points does not mean that one caused the other. Box 3.1 gives a more detailed explanation of this.
Box 3.1: Difference between correlation and causation
A physiological example of the difference between correlation and causes can be seen in heart disease studies.
Correlation studies
There are a lot of epidemiologic studies showing inverse associations between antioxidant intake and the incidence of atherosclerosis. In other words, an inverse correlation exists between antioxidant intake and the incidence of atherosclerosis. Because the epidemiologic data only show a correlation however, it would be incorrect to say that ‘low antioxidant intake causes atherosclerosis’ based on these studies.
Similarly, a number of early studies showed that low concentrations of blood antioxidants were associated with an increased risk of adverse cardiac events. In other words, there was an inverse correlation between blood antioxidants and adverse cardiac events. Because correlation does not indicate causation, the authors of this group of studies could not conclude that low blood antioxidants caused adverse cardiac events, or vice versa.
Cause-and-effect studies
Follow-up studies went further than looking for correlation between these variables. Experiments were designed to determine the effect of antioxidant supplementation on atherosclerosis and adverse cardiac events. To determine cause-and-effect, groups of investigators designed randomised controlled trials (RCTs) where one group of human participants received long-term antioxidant supplementation, and the other group received a placebo.
Overall, these studies have shown conflicting findings, with some studies showing that antioxidant supplementation reduced atherosclerosis and adverse cardiac events, and other studies showed no effect. The exact reasons for the contradictory findings observed in the RCTs are not known, although it has been suggested that differences in the study populations, supplements administered, and outcome measures may explain the variability.
A key point that you should take from this example is that these later experiments were specifically designed to determine if cause-and-effect exists. In this case, it would be incorrect to talk about associations or correlations between antioxidant intake and atherosclerosis and adverse cardiac events.
Case study 3.1: Example of correlation analysis
Wisløff and colleagues investigated whether maximal strength was related to sprint performance in elite male soccer players. The first variable, maximal strength, was the maximum load the participants could lift in half squats (1 repetition maximum, in kilograms). The second variable, sprint performance, was time taken to sprint 10 m (10 m sprint, in seconds). The scatter plot revealed a direct linear relation and this was supported by the correlation coefficient and the p value: r = 0.94, p < 0.001. According to the r value, the direct linear relation was very strong (see images below). The investigators concluded that maximal strength in half squats was associated with sprint performance – participants with high strength ran 10 m faster than participants with low strength.
Testing for a correlation using Excel
We will look at the steps to follow for a correlation using the example of investigating whether time spent exercising per week was associated with performance on physiology exams.
Use the arrows below to test for a correlation in Excel.
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Reporting the results of the correlation
If you did not test the significance, then:
r(df) = [Pearson coefficient]
Where df = total number of observations / data points – 1
Using the example above. r(9) = 0.87
If you did test the significance, then:
r(df) = [Pearson coefficient], p = [p value]
Using the example above. r(9) = -0.87, p = 0.001
Excel will not easily test the significance of a correlation; however, if you are using more powerful statistical software (or VassarStats), you will obtain a p value that you can interpret as previously discussed.
When describing and discussing your data, you can refer to the strength of the relation between the variables using the wording shown in Figure 3.4; the direction will be determined by whether r is positive or negative.
In this example:
A very strong direct relation (r=???) was observed between time spent exercising per week and performance on a physiology exam.
Remember, you cannot conclude that long periods of time spent exercising caused high performance on a physiology exam, or vice versa, just that these variables are associated with each other.
3.7 VassarStats
VassarStats is a free web-based program that you can use to conduct statistical analysis. We recommend using this program for one-factor ANOVA, two-factor ANOVA and linear correlations. Unlike Excel, VassarStats allows you to conduct post hoc tests after your ANOVA and to determine the statistical significance of linear correlations. It is a simple to use website that steps you through each phase of the test.
Use VassarStats to calculate ANOVA and linear correlations.
If you use VassarStats to conduct one-factor ANOVA tests, use the following:
• Independent group comparison: One-factor ANOVA Independent Samples test
• Related group comparison: One-factor ANOVA Correlated Samples test.
The designers of this site suggest using the following web browsers – Firefox, Safari, and Chrome. Note that Internet Explorer is not recommended.
Below are instructions for using VassarStats to conduct the following tests:
• One-factor ANOVA Independent Samples
• One-factor ANOVA Correlated Samples
• Linear regression.
Calculating the p value using a one-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) Independent Samples test
This statistical hypothesis test can be used to determine whether there is a statistically significant difference between the means of three or more groups when the groups are independent or unrelated.
Unrelated groups are made up of separate groups where a given participant will only experience one condition in a control group experimental design – for example, children, adults and older participants.
All screenshots in this section are used with permission from the copyright owner, Richard Lowry.
Use the arrows to learn how to calculate the p value using a one-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) Independent Samples test.
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Calculating the p value using a one-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) Correlated Samples test
This statistical hypothesis test can be used to determine whether there is a statistically significant difference between the means of three or more groups when the groups are related or made up of the same participants.
Related groups are made up of the same participants, with each participant experiencing all conditions as would occur in a cross-over experimental design – for example, placebo, acute low-dose caffeine, acute high-dose caffeine.
All screenshots in this section are used with permission from the copyright owner, Richard Lowry.
Use the arrows to learn how to calculate the p value using a one-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) Correlated Samples test.
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Testing for a correlation using VassarStats
We will now look at the steps to follow if trying to determine correlation, using the example of investigating whether time spent exercising per week was associated with performance on physiology exams in the section called ‘Testing for a correlation using Excel’.
All screenshots in this section are used with permission from the copyright owner, Richard Lowry.
Use the arrows to learn how test a correlation using VassarStats.
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Click the drop down below to review the terms learned from this chapter.
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Now that you are familiar with the scientific method, know how to design experiments, and have collected and analysed the results, what do you do next?
By the time you arrive at this stage, you will know your research project and data inside out. Other than your immediate colleagues, most people will not be as familiar with the work. You know that a part of the scientific process is sharing information.
You will increase the chance of engaging and informing your audience by communicating the findings of your research visually, through figures and tables. Presenting data in figures and tables, rather than in text alone, will help the audience grasp difficult concepts and observe patterns. You saw some good examples of these in Section 3.1.
In this chapter, you will learn how to create column and line graphs (figures) with correct axis titles, error bars, and significance symbols using Microsoft Excel and Word software. You will also learn how to create scientific tables.
4.1 Creating a column graph in Excel
Column or bar graphs are used to show patterns and relationships across and between datasets when the general pattern is more important than the exact data values.
Start by calculating descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation) using one of the methods shown in Chapter 3.
Use the arrows below to learn how to create a column graph in Excel.
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Box 4.1: Using the ‘Charts elements’ feature
You can use this menu to change how your graph looks and what data are displayed.
Changing axes and axes titles
If you untick the box next to ‘Axes’, you can remove both the x- and y-axes. If you hover your mouse over the ‘Axes item’, you can access more options for formatting the axes.
Add axis titles and format the titles. If you selected column headings when creating the graph, each column will already be labelled with that information (rest, exercise and post-exercise in this example).
When the ‘Axis Titles’ box is checked, generic axis labels will be added. Right-click on the labels and select ‘Edit Text’ to replace the generic title with your own.
Deleting the chart title
In most cases, you will not need a chart title because this information will be provided in the figure name or caption, so uncheck the box next to ‘Chart Title’.
Adding or removing gridlines
Check or uncheck the ‘Gridlines’ box to add or remove gridlines.
Adding error bars
Check the box next to ‘Error Bars’, click on the arrow and select ‘More Options’.
You will now have access to the ‘Error Bars’ formatting tab on the right-hand side of the screen. For ‘Error Amount’, select the ‘Custom’ option and click the ‘Specify Value’ button.
The ‘Custom Error Bars’ dialogue box will appear. This is where you add the cell references for the values to be used for the error bars. When adding both positive and negative error bars, you enter the same cell locations/error bar values to both boxes (cells B15:D15 in this example).
If you get an error message after entering your standard deviation values into the ‘Custom Error Bars’ boxes, check to make sure the text present in these boxes when the window first appeared was deleted completely before you added your values.
Error bars (representing standard deviation) will appear on your graph.
Adding significance symbols
Use the arrows below to learn how to add significant symbols in Excel.
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Changing the look of your column graph using ‘Format Data Series’
There are several things you can do to make your graph look more attractive. To access these options in Excel, you need to access the ‘Format Data Series’ tab.
Use the arrows below to learn how to change the look of your column graph.
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A completed scientific column graph
After following the previous instructions, you will have a completed scientific column graph. Add a figure legend (caption) below the graph and it will be ready to share. The example shown below is for illustration purposes only – usually data this simple would be presented in text with no need for a figure.
4.2 Creating a line graph in Excel
Line graphs are used to show patterns and relationships across and between datasets when the general pattern is more important than the exact data values. Line graphs are particularly useful if you want to show a trend over time occurring in two or more groups.
Most of the principles of creating a line graph are the same as for creating a bar or column graph, so follow the instructions in Section 4.1 when changing axis titles, adding error bars and significance symbols. Formatting specific for line graphs are described in the following steps.
Start by calculating descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation) using one of the methods shown in Chapter 3.
1. Highlight the data you wish to graph.
2. Select the ‘Insert’ tab and choose the type of graph you want to create – for example, click the drop-down arrow next to the icon of a line graph and select a line graph style:
A simple line graph will appear in your spreadsheet and ready for you to format using the same steps shown in Section 4.1.
Adding markers to data points
Select the data in your graph and the ‘Format Data Series’ tab will appear on the right-hand side of your screen.
Click on the ‘Line and Fill’ icon and then the ‘Marker’ label and click the arrow at the side of ‘Marker Options’.
Choose an ‘Automatic’ or ‘Built-in’ marker. You will now have data markers on your line.
A completed scientific line graph
After following the instructions above, you will have a completed scientific line graph. Add a figure name (caption) below the graph and it will be ready to share.
4.3 Creating a table using Word
Tables are used to present many precise numerical values and other specific data in a small space and, importantly, when you don’t want to show patterns and relationships across and between datasets.
Start by calculating descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation) using one of the methods shown in Chapter 3. Note that the screenshots in this section are from Microsoft Office Professional Plus 2013; if you are using a different version, your screen may
look slightly different.
Entering a basic table
Use the arrows below to learn how to enter a basic table in Word.
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A completed scientific table
After following the instructions above, you will have a completed scientific table. Add a table caption above the table and it will be ready to share.
Further reading
Speed, T 2014, Statistics is More Than a Numbers Game – It Underpins All Sciences, Office of the Chief Scientist, <www.chiefscientist.gov.au/2014/07/australia-2025-smart-science-statistics/>.
Click the drop down below to review the terms learned from this chapter.
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An essential skill for all scientists to master is the ability to access relevant and reliable scientific information from a variety of sources.
You will need access to scientific literature for a variety of reasons:
• designing an experiment
• writing an article or essay
• designing a poster.
All of these tasks involved sourcing reliable, authoritative literature, and you’ll need to know how to reference it.
This chapter will provide student scientists with assistance in navigating the many avenues for locating scientific literature and referencing it, including using the reference management software EndNote.
5.1 Types of scientific literature
The two main types of scientific literature are original investigations and literature reviews.
Original investigations (Figure 5.1) are published accounts of new studies undertaken on a particular topic. They will generally step the reader through the stages of the study:
• introduction
• methods
• results
• discussion
• conclusion
• references
Published literature reviews (Figure 5.2) present a synthesis and evaluation of the existing literature on a particular topic with the aim of gaining a new, deeper understanding of the topic. The review article will be structured around themes rather than stages of the scientific method.
5.2 Accessing scientific literature
You can locate scientific literature via Google Scholar, online databases such as PubMed, and the University of Southern Queensland library website when you are looking for a specific article or searching for literature on a specific topic.
Google Scholar
Google Scholar provides a simple way to perform a broad search for scholarly literature. From one place, you can search across many disciplines and sources:
• articles
• theses
• books
• abstracts
• court opinions.
Academic publishers, professional societies, online repositories, universities and other web sites all publish these types of literature. Google Scholar helps you find relevant work across the world of scholarly research.
Box 5.1: Search tips
• Set your preferences to retrieve your university library resources: For example, select Settings > Library Link > add University of Southern Queensland Library > Save
• Use the asterisk * (e.g. child* will find child, children, childhood, childless)
• Use the asterisk as a placeholder to find a word within words e.g. “acquired * injury” finds acquired brain injury
• Use quotes to search by phrase (e.g. “type 2 diabetes” or “social media”)
Try this search in Google Scholar: “patient information” AND “back pain”
Extra help with using Google scholar is at this webpage.
Databases, what are they and how do I use them to find information?
Databases are another way to find quality academic and scholarly information. The USQ library subscribes to many databases that are relevant to your studies in human physiology, such as:
• PubMed
• Web of Science
• ClinicalKey
• ScienceDirect
PubMed is a database that comprises of more than 26 million citations for biomedical literature from MEDLINE, life science journals and online books. Citations may include links to full-text content from PubMed Central and publisher websites.
Journals
Journals contain scholarly articles written by experts in specific disciplines. This tutorial explains what scholarly journals are and how to access them from the USQ library.
5.3 Determining if an article is scholarly or peer reviewed
It can be hard to work out if a journal is scholarly or peer reviewed. There is a lot of information online that looks like proper science, but isn’t! These tips can help you determine if you are accessing reliable information.
If searching in a library database:
• Check to see if there is a box on the database search page that allows you to limit your search results to refereed or peer-reviewed journal articles.
If you already have a journal article or title, use these option to check if it is scholarly or peer reviewed:
• Look at the article itself for a header or similar that indicates refereed or reviewed.
• Look at the table of contents of the journal. Often items are grouped under a heading like ‘reviewed articles’.
• Check the journal’s website to see if a statement is made about the content being peer reviewed or refereed. However, be aware that not all the contents of a refereed journal will be refereed (e.g. books reviews, practice, commentaries, editorials are not peer reviewed).
• Look for the Ulrichsweb database in your library catalogue. If you have access, use the ‘Quick Search’ drop down and select ‘Title (keyword)’ and type in the journal title. Next to journal titles that include at least some refereed content is the image of a black and white striped ‘referee’s shirt’. You can also click on the journal title and you will see ‘Refereed – yes or no’.
5.4 Library website resources to assist with searching for authoritative information
Your university library will provide tutorials and resources to help you search for authoritative information.
5.5 Referencing
Anyone who reads your work will need to know where you got your information from if you didn’t generate it yourself (e.g. the results of your experiment). The reference section provides a list of the references that you cited in the body of your work, whether it be a literature review, original investigation research article or essay.
It is important to accurately cite references in research papers to acknowledge your sources and ensure credit is appropriately given to authors of work you have referred to. An accurate and comprehensive reference list also shows your readers that you are well-read in your topic area and are aware of the key papers that provide the context to your research.
It is important to keep track of your resources and to reference them consistently in the format required by the publication in which your work will appear. Most scientists will use referencing software to store details of all of the journal articles (and other sources) they use while writing their review article. This software also automates the process of adding in-text references and creating a reference list.
In-text citations indicate where (within your sentences) you have used the ideas of other scientists. The in-text citations will either be provided as a number, or as the name of the author and date of publication.
A reference list is a list of all the sources that you have used as in-text references in your scientific paper that enables the reader of your work to locate and verify the sources you have use.
Here are two basic formats for a reference list:
• an alphabetical listing by first author’s last name (author–date system)
• a numerical listing that reflects the order of the citations in the body of the paper (number format).
The format will depend on the journal of publication, as each journal has their own specific referencing format.
A bibliography tends to use the author–date format, as the works might not be cited in the text.
Author–date system
Author-date reference styles indicate in-text citations by placing the author’s surname and the date of publication in brackets, and the reference list is in alphabetical order by author’s surname. Harvard and APA are examples of author date styles.
The associated images show a section of the discussion, and a section of the reference list of a research article (Bain et al., 2014) that has used an author-date system.
Your university library will provide guidance and examples of the referencing styles you are expected to use. Ask your tutor which style you are to use for your assignment.
This short video shows you the basics of Harvard referencing. Please note there are different interpretations of the style and use the resources provided by your university library when composing your own in-text citations and reference lists.
Click the drop down below to review the terms learned from this chapter. | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/How_To_Do_Science_2e_(Lexis_and_Julien)/1.05%3A_Accessing_Scientific_Literature_and_Referencing.txt |
Science only moves forward when the findings of research investigations are communicated widely. After carrying out the experiment (an original investigation) and using the results to inform a conclusion as to the appropriateness of your hypothesis (Chapter 2), you are ready to share your findings (Figure 6.1).
Initially, research outcomes are communicated within the scientific community by scientists themselves. Results are then presented outside of the scientific community, by scientists or other professionals, such as science journalists and teachers.
Typically, scientists communicate their work within the scientific community by writing and publishing research articles and presenting posters and oral communications at scientific conferences. It is through these modes of communication that scientists have their work put through the gruelling test of peer review, where the work is both criticised and commended by other expert scientists. Only work that is recommended by peers will find its way to an issue of a peer-reviewed journal.
Peer-reviewed refers to the process by which scholarly work is checked by a group of experts in the same field to make sure it meets the journal standards before it is accepted or published.
The peer-review process for oral communications and poster presentations at scientific conferences is a little less gruelling than for journals, although, a peer-review process is still applied before the work is accepted by conference organisers. Although many scientists will grimace at the mention of ‘peer-review’, it is through this process that we increase the likelihood that valid science (and not pseudoscience) is shared with the world. Peer review is an essential part of the scientific process, to make important economic and health-related decisions that affect the future prosperity of humanity.
As with all forms of communication, scientific research articles, oral communications and poster presentations need to be prepared and delivered according to specific guidelines and using particular language. It is important that student scientists begin to understand these guidelines and are given opportunities to practise these forms of communication. This chapter provides a roadmap for preparing and delivering these important modes of scientific communication.
6.1 Research articles
A research article reports the results of original research, assesses its contribution to the body of knowledge in a given area, and is published in a peer-reviewed scholarly journal.
Research articles generally step the reader through the stages of the study. An example of a research article presenting the results of an original investigation is shown in below.
There are now 1000s of peer-reviewed journals in which scientists can publish the outcomes of their research. Each journal will have a slightly different format for their papers, but generally will include an abstract, introduction, methods, results, discussion and conclusion, and references section. In addition, some journals are requiring plain English summaries.
We will look at each section in turn and provide some tips for writing each section for your research.
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When looking at each section of a journal article, we will highlight how the authors have presented certain information processes. We will explain how to write the sections of an article by referring to a research article of an original investigation that was published in Physiological Reports and shown in Figure 6.2. Each section from the published paper is annotated to highlight important features of the format of the research article.
Summary for non-experts
In recent years, it has become more common for journals to request authors to also provide a short summary of their research paper that is understandable by non-experts, such as members of the public, high school and university students, scientists from other disciplines, and members of the health care community. For example, The Journal of Physiology publishes a ‘Key-points summary’ at the beginning of each research article. According to the journal’s editors, this summary was introduced with the following intentions:
• It can help readers to decide quickly if the paper is relevant or interesting.
• It helps scientists from disciplines related to physiology learn about the work by providing an easy-to-read summary of the research.
• It allows audiences other than scientists to engage with current research in physiology, including students, patients or carers, and the media.
The summaries are written clearly in plain English, without scientific jargon, abbreviations or acronyms. Sentences are kept as short as possible.
The specific format for a summary for the non-expert audience will vary from journal to journal but will have the same principles. We’ll use the Key-points summary in The Journal of Physiology as an example to look at this type of writing in more detail.
The Journal of Physiology gives authors guidelines for preparing their Key-points summary (The Physiological Society, 2016); these are summarised below along with an example that has been annotated to highlight important features.
General guidelines for writing a Key-points summary:
1. The summary should be written in no more than 150 words and no more than five bullet points
1. One or two points on background to the present study
2. One or two points on what the paper adds to existing knowledge
3. One or two points on the importance of the results to body function in health and/or disease.
2. Language used should be understood by non-specialists with general scientific knowledge.
3. The summary should accurately reflect the findings of the paper and implications for future research.
Examples of Key-points summaries from The Journal of Physiology Instructions to Authors (The Physiological Society, 2016) have been highlighted to show how to write summaries that adhere to the guidelines and state:
1. what is known
2. what the paper adds to existing knowledge
3. the importance of results
Abstract
An abstract is generally a single paragraph that accurately reflects the contents of the paper – that is, the introduction, methods, results, and conclusion.
Please note: the examples below are adapted from Kon, M, Ohiwa, N, Honda, A, Matsubayashi, T, Ikeda, T, Akimoto, T, Suzuki, Y, Hirano, Y & Russell, A 2014, ‘Effects of systemic hypoxia on human muscular adaptations to resistance exercise training’, Physiological Reports, vol. 2, p. e12033. Used under a CC BY 2.0 licence.
Introduction
The introduction should establish the context and importance of the research. You may state your hypotheses and aims in the introduction; see Chapter 2 for tips on writing these statements.
Methods and statistics
In the Methods and statistics section, you explain clearly how you carried out your study. The importance of providing sufficient information in this section was discussed in Chapter 1.
Results
Results appear in written form, supported by figures and tables, as appropriate. Examples of how to present all three forms of results are provided below. Chapter 3 and Chapter 4 provide details on conducting statistical tests, and creating figures and tables.
Discussion and conclusion
The function of the Discussion is to interpret your results in light of what was already know about the topic, and to explain our new understanding of the issue after taking your results into consideration.
The Discussion connects to the Introduction by way of the questions or hypotheses, and the literature that you cited. It does not simply repeat or rearrange the Introduction. Instead, it tells how your study has moved us forward from the place you left the reader at the end of the Introduction. See Chapter 2 for tips on writing a conclusion.
6.2 Poster presentation
Scientific posters summarise research concisely and attractively to help publicise it and generate discussion when presented at scientific conferences.
Posters are presented at scientific conferences, and include brief text mixed with tables and/or graphs, and other presentation formats. A room will be setup with posters displayed on poster boards and times will be set aside for attendees to view the posters while their authors standby to answer questions and discuss their research.
The most important thing to remember when writing a poster is to keep things concise. A very wordy poster will be hard for a viewer to read, as the conference organisers will give you a maximum poster size you can display.
The hardest part about creating a poster is cutting out any information that is not strictly necessary; this takes time and possibly a number of drafts.
When creating a poster, you are stepping through a similar process to the process of writing up your research in research article format – however, with much less detail.
This section provides an example of a poster that presents an overview of an original investigation. We will also look at each section of the poster, and highlight important features of the format of the poster.
Results
Remember to state your results only briefly the in text. Where appropriate, support this description with a figure or table.
Discussion
Keep this short, but make sure you still explain the following points:
• How do your findings compare with what has been done previously in similar research?
• How do your results fit with your hypothesis – were your findings expected? Why or why not?
• What physiological mechanism do you propose to explain the findings?
Conclusion
Keep the conclusion concise. We suggest using the schema introduced in Chapter 2 to write a short, direct conclusion that is consistent with your hypotheses and aims
Acknowledgments
The acknowledgements section is an optional chance to thank people who contributed to your poster, including during the planning, data collection, analysis and presentation phase.
6.3 Oral communication
A scientific oral communication is a prepared, purposeful presentation designed to share your research work with other scientists. Here, you try to convince your audience that your research is valid and important.
Oral communications are often given at scientific conferences and are usually followed by questions from fellow scientists in the audience (Figure 6.3).
Similar to a poster presentation, the challenge of an oral communication is keeping things concise. You will have a limited opportunity to present the outcomes of your original investigation, so you want to spend this time focused on the most important aspects of the project – particularly the results and the implications of these findings.
Video 6.1: How to prepare an oral research presentation [4 mins, 09 secs]
Note: Closed captions are available by selecting the CC button below.
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Most students will agree that oral communications are one of the most stressful tasks you will undertake during your degree. As a student scientist, you will have spent hours engaging with live and recorded lecture presentations and will have experienced many different types of presentations. As a result, you know what it is like to be an audience member. What kept you engaged? Consider the good and not so good lectures you have experienced as an audience member as you prepare your presentation. Try to embody the presenters that you enjoyed listening to.
When preparing your oral communication, you have three elements to consider:
• visual aids
• language use
• delivery.
Visual aids
Very wordy presentation slides will be hard for the audience to read and will be overwhelming. You will need to cut out any information that is not strictly necessary; this takes time and possibly a number of drafts.
Remember, you don’t need to include everything you are going to say on your slides. Rather, you should use the limited space on the slides to state key ideas and use these as prompts for your talk.
In a scientific oral communication, you should include slides for each of the major sections of a research article:
• introduction
• methods
• results
• discussio
• conclusion.
Given you have limited time, devote less time to your methods, and more to your results and discussion of the implications of your findings.
For your presentation slides, avoid large blocks of text. Try to break up the text you include using bullet points and also images where appropriate. Keep your presentation design simple – use dark fonts on a light background or light fonts on a dark background. Ensure that the font size is readable by your audience. Avoid overly distracting slide transitions or sound effects; these detract from your talk and may appear unprofessional.
Take the time to proofread your slides so there are no spelling or grammatical errors.
The following sections show an example of slides from an overview of an original investigation. We discuss each section of the presentation and highlight important features relating to the content of the slides. We also provide suggestions for how slides can complement your talk.
As an example of how to expanding on the concise text shown in your slides during your presentation, you could say ‘Each participant was measured under both conditions, with one-half of the subjects experiencing the conditions in reverse order’. Another example of how you could expand on the concise text shown on your slides during your presentation: ‘Each participant stood on the force plate for 1 minute trials’.
Results
You may choose to have separate Results and Discussion slides as in this example. Alternatively, where you have more than one major result to present, you may present each finding on a separate slide where you combine the Results and Discussion.
Discussion
Keep this short, but make sure you still explain the following points:
• How do your findings compare with what has been done previously in similar research?
• How do your results fit with your hypothesis? Were your findings expected? Why or why not?
• What physiological mechanism do you propose to explain the findings?
As before, use footnotes for referencing.
Conclusion
Keep the conclusion concise. We suggest using the schema introduced in Chapter 2 to write a short, direct conclusion that is consistent with your hypotheses and aims.
Language use
You may want to begin work on the delivery aspect of your presentation by writing a script, but keep in mind the written word is very different than the spoken word. Reading your script aloud, to yourself and to a practise audience, will allow you to hear your speech so you can judge whether the language is appropriate for a presentation.
Remember that the way we write and speak are very different.
Try to make language choices that are imaginative, memorable and compelling, and enhance the effectiveness of your presentation. Watch presentations by people you admire and study the way they use language to engage the audience.
Resource
Ted talks has 1000s of presentations that you can use for inspiration.
Remember to consider the level of expertise of your audience when deciding on the language to use.
Delivery
During your practise sessions, you can work on your delivery. A good presenter will be audible to everyone in the audience and will speak fluently, and not rely on notes. If you simply read your notes or presentation slides, it is very distracting to the audience. Practise will allow you to know your presentation well enough to leave the notes aside and speak to the audience.
Be conscious of your posture, use of gestures and eye contact, and vocal expressiveness. These elements will make your presentation compelling, and make you appear polished and confident.
Be aware of the time limit for your talk and be mindful of how close you are to the limit during your practice runs. You should make use of most or all of the allocated presentation time.
Remember to find out if there will be time allowed for questions after your talk, and ensure you consider this when preparing your presentation.
Further reading
Sahay, A., & Thangavelu, A. (2021). Presentations In Academic Success. https://usq.pressbooks.pub/academicsuccess/chapter/presentations/
Click the drop down below to review the terms learned from this chapter.
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Copyright note:
• Content from the annotated article is from Kon, M, Ohiwa, N, Honda, A, Matsubayashi, T, Ikeda, T, Akimoto, T, Suzuki, Y, Hirano, Y & Russell, A 2014, ‘Effects of systemic hypoxia on human muscular adaptations to resistance exercise training’, Physiological Reports, vol. 2, p. e12033. Used under a CC BY 2.0 licence.
• The posters in this chapter are from How to Do Science version 1.1 by La Trobe University used under a CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 licence.
references
Kon, M., Ohiwa, N., Honda, A., Matsubayashi, T., Ikeda, Tatsuaki., Akimoto, T., Suzuki, Y., Hirano, Y., & Russell, A.P. (2014) Effects of systemic hypoxia on human muscular adaptations to resistance exercise training. Physiological Reports, 2(6).
The Physiological Society. (2016). Guidelines for writing a key points summary: Information for authors. Retrieved August 24, 2016 from http://jp.msubmit.net/html/Keypoints_Guidelines.pdf. | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/How_To_Do_Science_2e_(Lexis_and_Julien)/1.06%3A_Communicating_Scientific_Discoveries_to_Peers.txt |
Hundreds of original investigation research articles on health science topics are published each year. It is becoming harder and harder to keep on top of all new findings in a topic area and – more importantly – to work out how they all fit together to determine our current understanding of a topic. This is where literature reviews come in.
In this chapter, we explain what a literature review is and outline the stages involved in writing one. We also provide practical tips on how to communicate the results of a review of current literature on a topic in the format of a literature review.
7.1 What is a literature review?
Literature reviews provide a synthesis and evaluation of the existing literature on a particular topic with the aim of gaining a new, deeper understanding of the topic.
Published literature reviews are typically written by scientists who are experts in that particular area of science. Usually, they will be widely published as authors of their own original work, making them highly qualified to author a literature review.
However, literature reviews are still subject to peer review before being published. Literature reviews provide an important bridge between the expert scientific community and many other communities, such as science journalists, teachers, and medical and allied health professionals. When the most up-to-date knowledge reaches such audiences, it is more likely that this information will find its way to the general public. When this happens, – the ultimate good of science can be realised.
A literature review is structured differently from an original research article. It is developed based on themes, rather than stages of the scientific method.
In the article Ten simple rules for writing a literature review, Marco Pautasso explains the importance of literature reviews:
Literature reviews are in great demand in most scientific fields. Their need stems from the ever-increasing output of scientific publications. For example, compared to 1991, in 2008 three, eight, and forty times more papers were indexed in Web of Science on malaria, obesity, and biodiversity, respectively. Given such mountains of papers, scientists cannot be expected to examine in detail every single new paper relevant to their interests. Thus, it is both advantageous and necessary to rely on regular summaries of the recent literature. Although recognition for scientists mainly comes from primary research, timely literature reviews can lead to new synthetic insights and are often widely read. For such summaries to be useful, however, they need to be compiled in a professional way (Pautasso, 2013, para. 1).
An example of a literature review is shown in Figure 7.1.
Video 7.1: What is a literature review? [2 mins, 11 secs]
Watch this video created by Steely Library at Northern Kentucky Library called ‘What is a literature review? Note: Closed captions are available by clicking on the CC button below.
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7.2 Steps of writing a literature review
Writing a literature review is a very challenging task. Figure 7.2 summarises the steps of writing a literature review. Depending on why you are writing your literature review, you may be given a topic area, or may choose a topic that particularly interests you or is related to a research project that you wish to undertake.
Chapter 6 provides instructions on finding scientific literature that would form the basis for your literature review.
Once you have your topic and have accessed the literature, the next stages (analysis, synthesis and evaluation) are challenging. Next, we look at these important cognitive skills student scientists will need to develop and employ to successfully write a literature review, and provide some guidance for navigating these stages.
Analysis, synthesis and evaluation
Analysis, synthesis and evaluation are three essential skills required by scientists and you will need to develop these skills if you are to write a good literature review (Figure 7.3). These important cognitive skills are discussed in more detail in Chapter 9.
Analysis
The first step in writing a literature review is to analyse the original investigation research papers that you have gathered related to your topic.
Analysis requires examining the papers methodically and in detail, so you can understand and interpret aspects of the study described in each research article.
An analysis grid is a simple tool you can use to help with the careful examination and breakdown of each paper. This tool will allow you to create a concise summary of each research paper; see Table 7.1 for an example of an analysis grid. When filling in the grid, the aim is to draw out key aspects of each research paper. Use a different row for each paper, and a different column for each aspect of the paper (Tables 7.2 and 7.3 show how completed analysis grid may look).
Before completing your own grid, look at these examples and note the types of information that have been included, as well as the level of detail. Completing an analysis grid with a sufficient level of detail will help you to complete the synthesis and evaluation stages effectively. This grid will allow you to more easily observe similarities and differences across the findings of the research papers and to identify possible explanations (e.g., differences in methodologies employed) for observed differences between the findings of different research papers.
Table 7.1: Example of an analysis grid
Author, date and rationale Aim Experimental design Results Conclusion Evaluation of findings
[include details about the authors, date of publication and the rationale for the review] [summarise the aim of the experiment] [summarise the experiment design, include the subjects used and experimental groups] [summarise the main findings] [summarise the conclusion] [evaluate the paper’s findings, and highlight any terms or physiology concepts that you are unfamiliar with and should be included in your review]
Table 7.3: Sample filled-in analysis grid for research article by Ping and colleagues
Author, date and rationale Aim Experimental design Results Conclusion Evaluation of findings
Ping 2010
The effect of chronic caffeine supplementation on endurance performance has been studied extensively in different populations. However, concurrent research on the effects of acute supplementation of caffeine on cardiorespiratory responses during endurance exercise in hot and humid conditions is unavailable
To determine the effect of caffeine supplementation on cardiorespiratory responses during endurance running in hot and humid conditions 9 heat-adapted recreational male runners
Age 25.4±6.9 years
Weight (kg) 57.6±8.4
Non-users of caffeine (23.7±12.6 mg/day)
Randomised, double-blind placebo-controlled cross-over design (at least 7 days gap between trials to nullify effect of caffeine)
Caffeine (5 mg/kg) or placebo ingested as a capsule one hour before a running trial to exhaustion (70% VO2 max on a motorised treadmill in a heat-controlled laboratory (31 °C, 70% humidity)
Diet monitored for 3 days before first trial and repeated for 3 days before 2nd trial (to minimise variation in pre-exercise muscle glycogen)
Subjects asked to refrain from heavy exercise for 24 h before trials
Subjects drank 3 ml of cool water per kg of body weight every 20 min during running trial to stay hydrated
Heart rate (HR), core body temperature and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were recorded at intervals of 10 mins, while oxygen consumption was measured at intervals of 20 min
Mean exhaustion time was 31.6% higher in the caffeine group:
• Placebo 83.6±21.4
• Caffeine 110.1±29.3
Running time to exhaustion was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the caffeine trial compared to the placebo trial
HR, core body temp, VO2 did not show any significant variation between trials (p > 0.05)
Caffeine ingestion significantly (p < 0.05) decreased the RPE at 30, 40, 50 and 60 min. There were no differences (p > 0.05) between trials at 10 and 20 minutes, and at the end of the trial.
Ingestion of caffeine improved the endurance running performance, but did not affect heart rate, core body temperature, oxygen uptake or RPE. The lower RPE during the caffeine trial may be because of the positive effect of caffeine ingestion on nerve impulse transmission, as well as an analgesic effect and psychological effect. Perhaps this is the same reason subjects could sustain the treadmill running for longer in the caffeine trial.
Source: Ping, WC, Keong, CC & Bandyopadhyay, A 2010, ‘Effects of acute supplementation of caffeine on cardiorespiratory responses during endurance running in a hot and humid climate’, Indian Journal of Medical Research, vol. 132, pp. 36–41. Used under a CC-BY-NC-SA licence.
Synthesis
Step two of writing a literature review is synthesis.
Synthesis describes combining separate components or elements to form a connected whole.
You will use the results of your analysis to find themes to build your literature review around. Each of the themes identified will become a subheading within the body of your literature review.
A good place to start when identifying themes is with the dependent variables (results/findings) that were investigated in the research studies.
Because all of the research articles you are incorporating into your literature review are related to your topic, it is likely that they have similar study designs and have measured similar dependent variables. Review the ‘Results’ column of your analysis grid. You may like to collate the common themes in a synthesis grid (see, for example Table 7.4).
Evaluation
Step three of writing a literature review is evaluation, which can only be done after carefully analysing your research papers and synthesising the common themes (findings).
During the evaluation stage, you are making judgements on the themes presented in the research articles that you have read. This includes providing physiological explanations for the findings. It may be useful to refer to the discussion section of published original investigation research papers, or another literature review, where the authors may mention tested or hypothetical physiological mechanisms that may explain their findings.
When the findings of the investigations related to a particular theme are inconsistent (e.g., one study shows that caffeine effects performance and another study shows that caffeine had no effect on performance) you should attempt to provide explanations of why the results differ, including physiological explanations. A good place to start is by comparing the methodologies to determine if there are any differences that may explain the differences in the findings (see the ‘Experimental design’ column of your analysis grid). An example of evaluation is shown in the examples that follow in this section, under ‘Running performance’ and ‘RPE ratings’.
When the findings of the papers related to a particular theme are consistent (e.g., caffeine had no effect on oxygen uptake in both studies) an evaluation should include an explanation of why the results are similar. Once again, include physiological explanations. It is still a good idea to compare methodologies as a background to the evaluation. An example of evaluation is shown in the following under ‘Oxygen consumption’.
7.3 Writing your literature review
Once you have completed the analysis, and synthesis grids and written your evaluation of the research papers , you can combine synthesis and evaluation information to create a paragraph for a literature review (Figure 7.4).
The following paragraphs are an example of combining the outcome of the synthesis and evaluation stages to produce a paragraph for a literature review.
Note that this is an example using only two papers – most literature reviews would be presenting information on many more papers than this ( (e.g., 106 papers in the review article by Bain and colleagues discussed later in this chapter). However, the same principle applies regardless of the number of papers reviewed.
The next part of this chapter looks at the each section of a literature review and explains how to write them by referring to a review article that was published in Frontiers in Physiology and shown in Figure 7.1. Each section from the published article is annotated to highlight important features of the format of the review article, and identifies the synthesis and evaluation information.
In the examination of each review article section we will point out examples of how the authors have presented certain information and where they display application of important cognitive processes; we will use the colour code shown below:
Abstract
This should be one paragraph that accurately reflects the contents of the review article.
Introduction
The introduction should establish the context and importance of the review
References
The reference section provides a list of the references that you cited in the body of your review article. The format will depend on the journal of publication as each journal has their own specific referencing format.
It is important to accurately cite references in research papers to acknowledge your sources and ensure credit is appropriately given to authors of work you have referred to. An accurate and comprehensive reference list also shows your readers that you are well-read in your topic area and are aware of the key papers that provide the context to your research.
It is important to keep track of your resources and to reference them consistently in the format required by the publication in which your work will appear. Most scientists will use reference management software to store details of all of the journal articles (and other sources) they use while writing their review article. This software also automates the process of adding in-text references and creating a reference list. In the review article by Bain et al. (2014) used as an example in this chapter, the reference list contains 106 items, so you can imagine how much help referencing software would be. Chapter 5 shows you how to use EndNote, one example of reference management software.
Click the drop down below to review the terms learned from this chapter.
An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://usq.pressbooks.pub/howtodoscience/?p=273#h5p-29
Copyright note:
• The quotation from Pautasso, M 2013, ‘Ten simple rules for writing a literature review’, PLoS Computational Biology is use under a CC-BY licence.
• Content from the annotated article and tables are based on Schubert, MM, Astorino, TA & Azevedo, JJL 2013, ‘The effects of caffeinated ‘energy shots’ on time trial performance’, Nutrients, vol. 5, no. 6, pp. 2062–2075 (used under a CC-BY 3.0 licence) and Ping, WC, Keong, CC & Bandyopadhyay, A 2010, ‘Effects of acute supplementation of caffeine on cardiorespiratory responses during endurance running in a hot and humid climate’, Indian Journal of Medical Research, vol. 132, pp. 36–41 (used under a CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 licence).
references
Bain, A.R., Morrison, S.A., & Ainslie, P.N. (2014). Cerebral oxygenation and hyperthermia. Frontiers in Physiology, 5, 92.
Pautasso, M. (2013). Ten simple rules for writing a literature review. PLoS Computational Biology, 9(7), e1003149. | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/How_To_Do_Science_2e_(Lexis_and_Julien)/1.07%3A_Writing_a_Literature_Review.txt |
Our society advances depending on the scientific literacy of its citizens. Scientifically literate individuals – such as science graduates – are trained to think scientifically. Not only do they understand scientific concepts, but they also know the nature of science and how we came to know what we do.
Thinking scientifically and critically – separating false claims that lack scientific evidence from scientifically valid information – is essential for everyday life. Individuals who are scientifically literate are able to make responsible decisions and participate in society in a positive way.
Citizens cannot be expected to improve their scientific literacy on their own, but many people can play a part in this important endeavour. This includes graduates from science, the medical and dental professions, the allied health disciplines, and other science-related fields including science journalism.
Improving the scientific literacy in our communities depends on the ability of science-educated individuals to reach out to our citizens and communicate science to them in such a way that has a long-lasting affect.
Your task is to inspire the community, fascinate them – and alert them when appropriate. Overall, you must help to educate the public and instil a passion that makes them want to learn more. This is how we can get people to change their behaviours in ways that will positively affect our future. Scientifically literate members of society will then go on to educate their own children, who will in turn instil scientific literacy in their children and so on.
The general public is an audience with variable educational backgrounds and scientific understanding. Initially, it may be more difficult to communicate effectively with them than with your scientific peers. But this just takes practise. Many science curriculums focus on teaching facts. Communication tasks tend to be largely restricted to the scientific community.
In this chapter, you will learn more about what some high-profile scientists have to say on the importance of scientific literacy and science communication to the general public or non-expert audience (see Box 8.1). We will share some simple tips on how you can communicate effectively with the community at large to make your impact.
Box 8.1: What experts have to say about scientific literacy and science communication to the general public
Communicating science has been discussed by many eminent scientists and scientific associations.
Professor Ian Chubb
Professor Ian Chubb was Australia’s Chief Scientist in 2011–15. The Chief Scientist provides high-level independent advice to the Prime Minister and other ministers about science, technology and innovation.
Science has a marketing problem. There’s no question about that. The manner in which we get across the sheer awesomeness of science is often too muted. We’re not constantly out there. We see single events as being enough and so, as I’m constantly saying to scientists, you know, just because you have a symposium or press release or a press conference, that’s not enough in itself. – Ian Chubb
Regarding primary school children:
[Renowned astronomer Carl Sagan] once said that we take these young children, who are totally curious and we then progressively beat it out of them. And I think that one of the things that we have to do is to maintain the sense that they can go to primary school and they can get shown science, visually, how it’s practised, not taught out of a book, not just, you know, follow me, this is a principle. Why? Well it doesn’t matter just learn it. That they’re actually shown the awesomeness of science from a very early age and when that happens all the evidence is it sticks. – Ian Chubb
Regarding climate change:
I would say part of plan B is to present the evidence in a way that’s accessible to people who are interested but not necessarily trained in the disciplines of science. And that’s where the message has got to go and I think that we started the run too late in that we said, you know, all of this work was done. It was kept largely – largely not exclusively – within the scientific community and it suddenly gets dumped on the public that this is a real problem that we’ve got to address right away. We should start earlier, we should work progressively through it, take the public with us as we go but we do need to make sure it’s not the typical techo and scientific talk but it is, in fact, without at all being patronising but simply saying these are the real facts, this is what it means, these are the implications and we need to do something about it. – Ian Chubb
Professor Suzanne Cory
Professor Suzanne Cory is one of Australia’s most distinguished molecular biologists. She is currently a Research Professor in the Molecular Genetics of Cancer Division at The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute and a Vice-Chancellor’s Fellow of The University of Melbourne.
Every scientist I know who has been inspired to be a scientist has been inspired through a teacher … Teaching science well at school is the way to inspire the next generation of scientists. It’s also absolutely critical to have a scientifically literate community. So but science is still taught the old chalk and talk way, often by teachers who have not been trained in the subjects in which they’re forced to teach. So we need to invest in this country in training more and better science teachers and give them the resources to teach with and we need to teach them … we need to teach our students by doing science, which is what you were saying and the Government has invested in two programs that the Academy of Science has developed over the last the years. There’s a Primary Connections Program and there’s Science By Doing for junior secondary schools. Those programs are totally transforming the way science is taught in schools, they need to be in every school in this country. – Suzanne Cory
Professor Ian Chubb and Professor Suzanne Cory’s comments are taken from a special science edition of the ABC program Q&A called ‘Science: precious petals to passionate teachers’ (Jones et al., 2014). The comments here are taken from the ‘Keeping students interested’ and ‘Climate change’ segments.
The Australian Academy of Science
The mission of the Australian Academy of Science (AAS, 2015) is to:
• champion Australian scientific excellence
• promote and disseminate scientific knowledge
• provide independent scientific advice
The AAS aims to benefit of Australia and the world (Australian Academy of Science, 2015). Scientists from the AAS found that the number of students studying science in years 11 and 12 is declining: in 2012 only 50% of year 12 students studied science (Goodrum et al., 2012). The authors recommended improving student engagement in science studied in years 7–10 to generate interest that will increase numbers of senior high school students continuing to study science. The AAS also recognises the importance of developing scientific literacy in primary school students, which led to the implementation of the Primary Connections initiative that aims to engage students in science at a younger age (Primary Connections, 2013).
The National Science Foundation
The National Science Foundation (NSF, 2015) is an independent federal agency created by the United States Congress in 1950 to:
• promote the progress of science
• advance the national health, prosperity and welfare
• secure the national defense.
In 2006, the NSF reported that the American public had a limited understanding of science and technology, despite being supportive of the fields (Kahlor & Stout, 2010). The public’s lack of knowledge about science can have far-reaching negative implications, including that they are unable to evaluate scientific information presented by public and allied health agencies, pharmaceutical companies, journalists and medical practitioners (Kahlor & Stout, 2010).
For the student scientist, it should be clear that one of the many important things that we need to achieve is an increase in the scientific literacy of our citizens, if humanity is to have the best possible future.
8.1 Where to start
So what are some relatively straightforward and simple ways that people can communicate both formally and informally to the general public – in a way that is effective? Although there is no definite and correct answer, the suggestions in Figure 8.1 should steer you in the right direction.
To help you decide what to do next, choose your starting point – one of concept, audience or mode – and refer to Figure 8.2.
If you are interested in a particular concept, follow the blue arrows in Figure 8.2.
• Who needs to know about this concept?
• What mode of communication is this audience most likely to respond to?
If you have identified an audience you would like to communicate to, follow the red arrows in Figure 8.2.
• What is a concept this audience needs to know about?
• How do you best communicate to this audience?
If you have identified a mode of communication you would like to use, follow the yellow arrows in Figure 8.2.
• Who would be most likely to respond to this mode of communication?
• What is a concept this audience needs to know about?
Know your audience
Successful science communicators must be able to recognise and understand their target audience, and make the science accessible to them. Examples of discrete audiences include:
• preschool children
• primary school children
• secondary school students
• university students
• patients diagnosed with a particular condition
• family members of patients diagnosed with a particular condition
• older people
• people from a particular demographic (e.g. non-English speaking background)
• inactive individuals
• overweight individuals
• smokers
As you can see, your audience can vary a lot!
To narrow down and understand your audience, conduct an audience analysis. This will allow you to communicate with them more effectively.
Resources
One of the resources for The writer’s workshop: skills for success course offered by the Business Administration Program at the University of Washington is a series of questions to help you analyse your audience (University of Washington, 2014). This resource lists three main areas to consider when analysing your audience: demographics, disposition and knowledge. These questions are written in reference to a reading audience, but they apply to all audience types. The resource also suggests that you consider how each of the factors you identify affects your readers’ attitudes, expectations, and opinions about you and your topic.
The Australian Bureau of Statistics website allows you to access national and regional statistics on the Australian population. Results from the most recent census as well as statistics on social trends are available.
Ensure that your topic is significant and relevant to your audience
To have a significant and positive impact on improving scientific literacy in the community, your choice of topic should be contemporary and highly relevant to your audience. Equally as important to this, you need to communicate in such a way that – in the end – the audience truly believes the issue really matters to them. If your audience believes this, their attitude and behavior will start to change in line with what the science is telling us.
Remember that members of the general public are likely to be more interested in the implications and impact of science, rather than the nitty-gritty that we talk about with our scientific peers.
A good way to determine why a particular concept is important is by asking yourself that exact question. Is it related to a significant health issue for the Australian population, such as mental health, inactivity, poor diet, diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease or cancer? Is it an important global issue, such as climate change?
At the global level, there are myriad issues that the world faces. Energy, food and water security; climate change; biodiversity; infectious diseases and conditions such those caused by the Zika COVID-19 virus and Ebola virus; health issues such as cardiovascular health and diabetes; air pollution; and mental health for trauma survivors. These are only a small percentage of the world’s most important problems – many more need to be communicated to the public.
Resource
The Australian Institute of Health and Welfare website has a list of national health priority areas, as well as data on a range of health and welfare issues sorted by subject.
Contrary to what you might think, science professionals are yet to successfully communicate these issues adequately to the general public. If we improve our science communication to the public and increase scientific literacy, we increase our chances of successfully confronting these challenges both domestically and globally.
Box 8.2 provides some examples of topics, target audiences and desired outcomes.
Box 8.2: Examples of topics and appropriate target audiences
Never forget that the knowledge we have is because of science. Wherever possible, include relevant information on how we came to know what we do. In other words, how has the science evolved that has led us to our current understandings on the issue?
It’s also important to know what types of attitude and behavior changes the science is telling us should take place. Your communication should help the population move towards these changes, along with an understanding of why the changes should occur.
Type II diabetes prevention
Audience and task: Communicate to a group of newly joined Weight Watchers members on how they can reduce their risk of developing Type II diabetes. These individuals will be overweight and at an increased risk of developing the disease.
Desired outcome: increased activity and weight loss, and decreased risk of developing type II diabetes in these individuals, combined with an understanding of how poor diet and inactivity increases the risk of developing diabetes.
Cardiovascular disease prevention
Audience and task: Communicate to the general public on what the risk factors are for development of cardiovascular disease and what can be done to reduce the risk. Cardiovascular disease is a leading cause of death in Australia, so in this case it would be appropriate to pitch to the general public.
Desired outcome: increased activity, weight loss in overweight individuals, a healthier diet rich in antioxidants, quit smoking or never taking it up, decreased risk of developing cardiovascular disease, combined with an understanding of the science behind the risks of cardiovascular disease.
The benefits of quitting smoking
Audience and task: Communicate to the smoking population on what the dangers of smoking are and some tips on how to stop.
Desired outcome: Quit smoking and understand the health benefits of doing so.
The benefits of not taking up smoking
Audience and task: Communicate to a group of primary school children on what the dangers of smoking are and some tips on how not to take it up.
Desired outcome: reduce rates of smoking uptake in our young population and an understanding of the health benefits of not taking up smoking.
The benefits of regular physical activity
Audience and task: Communicate to a group of primary school children on the benefits of regular physical activity before bad habits set in.
Desired outcome: increased activity levels reducing risk of cardiovascular disease, diabetes and obesity, combined with an understanding of why exercise helps do this.
How to prevent the spread of the Zika virus
Audience and task: Communicate to the general public in South America and North America on what science tells us about the best way to treat and prevent the spread of Zika virus.
Desired outcome: decreased spread of Zika virus, combined with an understanding of how Zika virus spreads.
Ensure your communication platform is appropriate for your audience
Consider the vast array of available platforms for communicating about your topic to your audience:
• websites
• posters and brochures
• newspaper and magazine articles
• songs, games and videos
• classroom activities
• podcasts and mobile apps
• artworks
It is important to engage with the audience in a genre appropriate to that audience. For example, if you would like to create a video to communicate your topic, would it be best to select a topic that would be of interest to 15–20 year olds or to 60–70 year olds? Consider how you would justify your decision. Box 8.3 provides a list of resources that can help you decide on your communication platform.
Regardless of the communication platform that you choose, take care to present your communication piece professionally – this is likely to have a greater impact on your audience.
Box 8.3: Useful programs for creating communication pieces
There are many useful programs available for creating communication pieces. Many of these tools are easy to use and produce a professional looking product. This is not an exhaustive list of useful software but it’s certainly a great place to start:
• Adobe Spark can help you create social graphics, web stories and animated videos – in minutes
• Microsoft Sway helps you make and share interactive reports, presentations and stories
• iMovie or Windows Movie Maker come standard with your Apple or PC
• Moovly allows you to make animated videos, presentations, infographics and videoclips
• Visme allows you to create presentations and infographics
• Audacity is a free, sophisticated audio recording and editing software
• Canva is a free-to-access website that allows you to do simple graphic design, and create flyers, posters and presentations
• PowToon allows you to create animated videos and presentations
• Videoscribe offers a 7-day free trial to create whiteboard-style animations
Which platform to use?
Use language suitable to your audience
To successfully communicate your topic or concept to your target audience, you must consider the unique characteristics of your audience and their knowledge in the area.
As a part of your audience analysis, you will research the specifics of your audience. This analysis will tell you important information about the demographics, disposition and knowledge of your audience. All of these factors will impact on your choice of language for your communication piece.
There are a few do’s and don’ts when communicating with non-scientific audiences:
• DO use plain language
• DO NOT use scientific jargon
• DO use compelling arguments and scenarios
• DO use symbolism and analogies.
Avoid using scientific jargon
Jargon is the specialised vocabulary of any profession, trade, science or hobby. Scientific jargon is that vocabulary specific to science, and each field of science will have its own jargon.
Any biochemist researching in the area of antioxidants and oxidative stress will be familiar with terms such as free radical, superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, reactive oxygen species, superoxide, hydroxyl radical, hydrogen peroxide, SOD, GPX and H2O2.
But do not use any of this jargon when communicating with non-expert audiences. Instead, you will need to replace the relevant jargon with simple words that your audience will understand:
Low levels of alpha-tochopherol promotes endothelial dysfunction.
Becomes:
An appropriate intake of vitamin E in the diet is important to maintain healthy blood vessels. (Scientific statement translated for a group of individuals who need to improve their diet to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease.)
Use compelling arguments and scenarios
Although you should never exaggerate the science when communicating with your audience, it is appropriate to tell the truth and share scenarios that may be confronting.
For example, if you are communicating with a group of smokers, it might be appropriate to show pictures of what a smokers’ lung looks like. Likewise, let your audience know what their health outcome could be if they continue to smoke heavily.
Compelling arguments and scenarios are more likely to affect the audience and – as we already know – this brings potential for action and positive change.
Use symbolism such as analogies
Using symbolism or analogies is not a necessity when communicating science to the public, but it may be appropriate in some circumstances.
An analogy is a comparison between one thing and another, typically to explain or clarify something.
Given that scientific concepts may be difficult for the general public to grasp, using an example of something the audience is already familiar with can help them to understand what you are trying to tell them.
In Video 8.1 you will see the clever use of analogy and art to communicate science.
8.2 Examples of communication pieces for non-scientific audiences
As you can see from the examples in this section, the ideas for communicating effectively are endless.
It might be easier than you think to create something that will have an impact on a population group and help increase the scientific literacy in our society. What are you waiting for?
Video 8.1: Michiko Maruyama and Art of Learning [2 mins, 40 secs]
Dr. Michiko Maruyama applied for medical school after surviving a rare cancer — an experience she doodled about and submitted as a comic strip for her medical school application. Now, she regularly uses art to communicate with her patients, and she dreams of opening a studio dedicated to integrating art, design and medicine. You can view Dr. Michiko’s art on their website the Art of Learning.
Note: Closed captions are available by clicking the CC button below.
One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view them online here: https://usq.pressbooks.pub/howtodoscience/?p=311#oembed-1
Magazine article explaining research findings to a non-expert audience
You need to write a 500-word article for the non-expert audience explaining the pathophysiology of a disease. In addition, you include recent research findings from a published journal article: Vance, E., Is Estrogen the New Ritalin?, in Scientific American Mind. 2010, Munn & Co.: New York, NY. p. 6. Below are some new stories explaining research finding to a non-expert audience.
Box 8.5: New stories
News story published on a website explaining exciting new scientific inventions for studying disease and what this means for patients
Source: Cincinnati Children’s. (2014). Lab-developed intestinal organoids form mature human tissue in mice. Available from: http://www.cincinnatichildrens.org/news/release/2014/lab-grown-intestines-10-19-2014/.
News story published on a website about a new potent antibiotic that doesn’t encounter any detectable resistance
Source: Kelland, K. (2015). “Scientists discover ‘game-changing’ new antibiotic for first time in 30 years.” Available from http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-01-09/scientists-discover-new-antibiotic-for-first-time-in-30-years/6007730
News story published on a website explaining an important discovery of a genetic mutation
Source: Kelland, K. (2015). “Gene mutations key to heart muscle disease identified.” Available from http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2015/01/15/4162649.htm.
News story published on a website announcing the trial of an Ebola vaccine
Source: Lapook, J. (2014). “Ebola vaccine human trials begin.” Available from http://www.cbsnews.com/news/ebola-vaccine-being-tested-in-rapid-fashion-say-researchers/
Classroom activity/lesson plan to help explain a concept to primary school students
A primary school teacher needs a lesson they can use in one a 1-hour class. You could provide a solution that includes a few PowerPoint slides, an activity for the students to do and some questions at the end so they can test how well they did.
Example resource
Classroom activity/lesson plan to help explain a concept to first-year university students studying physiology
First-year physiology students need to understand a challenging concept in an upcoming workshop. The communication activity could help students with terminology or an activity a team of students could engage in to understand the concept.
Resource
Carvalho, H. (2011). A group dynamic activity for learning the cardiac cycle and action potential. Advances in Physiology Education, 35(3).
A poster displayed in a clinic waiting room to communicate ways to reduce the risk of contracting/transmitting an illness or disease
You could use your graphic design skills to design a poster that incorporates some physiology and a public health message. You could also design a brochure to give health centre patients to take home.
See some historical examples of public health posters collected by the US National Library of Medicine.
A game for university classmates to help remember a difficult concept
You studied a challenging concept in second-year physiology, and want to design a fun game that will help students understand the physiology or to revise before an exam.
Resource
Odenweller, C., Hsu, C., & DiCarlo, S. (1998). Educational card games for understanding gastrointestinal physiology. Advances in Physiology Education, 275(6).
A video explaining a useful concept to non-experts
You have learned to use some video production software, and you want to use these skills to make a video (or 12–14 frame storyboard) explaining and important concept
Video resources
A song explaining a useful concept to non-experts
If you are a talented songwriter, you write a song suitable for your target audience that explains a scientific concept. Your target audience could be for primary school or university students, or for the general public – for example, a jingle for an advertising campaign.
Video 8.1: Circulatory song [3 mins, 20 secs]
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A podcast in which you explain an important concept for a non-expert audience
You love making podcasts, so you make one about something that you find interesting and important enough to be published on your university website.
Resources
A mobile app for smartphones or tablets that allows students of any age to better understand a concept
You may want to design a mobile app that secondary or tertiary students can use to start understanding physiology – in a fun way!
An artwork for display that demonstrates your understanding of a concept
If you are a talented artist, you could create an artwork (painting, mixed-media model, sculpture or a set of mounted photographs) that could be displayed in the newly refurbished physiology laboratories, or in an appropriate setting such as a physiotherapists waiting room. The artwork explains an important concept in a creative and appealing way.
Resources
Click the drop down below to review the terms learned from this chapter.
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Jones, T. (Host), Cory, S. (Panellist), Doherty, P. (Panellist), Schmidt, B. (Panellist), Cheng, M. (Panellist), Chubb, I. (Panellist), Fitzgerald, M. (Panellist). (2014, September 15). Science: Precious petals to passionate teachers. [TV series episode]. In P. McEvoy (Director), & T. Jones (Host). Q + A. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. https://www.abc.net.au/qanda/science...chers/10656196
references
Australian Academy of Science. (2015). About Us. Retrieved January 19, 2015, from https://www.science.org.au/ about-us
Goodrum, D., Druhan, A., & Abbs, J. (2012). The status and quality of Year 11 and 12 science in Australian schools. Australian Academy of Science. https://www.science.org.au/files/userfiles/support/reports-and-plans/2015/year11and12report.pdf
Jones, T. (Host), Cory, S. (Panellist), Doherty, P. (Panellist), Schmidt, B. (Panellist), Cheng, M. (Panellist), Chubb, I. (Panellist), Fitzgerald, M. (Panellist). (2014, September 15). Science: Precious petals to passionate teachers. [TV series episode]. In P. McEvoy (Director), & T. Jones (Host). Q + A. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. https://www.abc.net.au/qanda/science-precious-petals-to-passionate-teachers/10656196
Kahlor, L., & Stout, P. (2010). Communicating science: New agendas in communication. Routledge.
National Science Foundation. (2015). About the National Science Foundation, Retrieved January 19, 2015, from http://www.nsf.gov/about/.
Primary Connections. (2013). Primary Connections: Linking science with literacy. Retrieved October 21, 2013, https://web.archive.org/web/20130917034951/primaryconnections.org.au/index.html
University of Washington. (2014). Audience analysis. Retrieved December 5, 2014, from http://faculty.washington.edu/ezent/aaaa.htm | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/How_To_Do_Science_2e_(Lexis_and_Julien)/1.08%3A_Sharing_Science_with_the_Community.txt |
So far, you learned ‘how to do science’. But what now? Being a scientist means that science will be a part of your life for years to come.
The way a scientist thinks and behaves informs how they carry out scientific tasks. Alongside developing your scientific knowledge and skills throughout your science degree, you will be given the opportunity to develop the personal and professional responsibility that will guide you throughout your life – professionally and personally.
This chapter explains what it means to be a scientist, which is more than just ‘doing science’. You’ll also learn about careers options, and how to use your skills once you enter the workforce.
A group of science academics, science students, employment groups and professional societies. identified three things that a science graduate should know and be able to do regarding accountability for their own learning and scientific work by the time they graduate (Yucel, 2013). This includes:
• Being independent and self-directed learners
• Working effectively, responsibly and safely as an individual or a team
• Demonstrating knowledge of the guidelines and laws relevant to their disciplinary areas, and personally practising ethical conduct
9.1 Being independent and self-directed learners
Employers of science graduates often try to find candidates with a variety of skills such as having the ability to make decisions, being project management-minded, being resourceful and having good problem-solving abilities (Yucel, 2013).
In the workforce, science graduates often find themselves in an environment that has little direction from management, and they may need to develop or adapt new skills and understandings. Therefore, as a student scientist, learn to take responsibility for your success during your studies, so you will be prepared to continue doing so after you graduate.
To succeed in your chosen career, you will need to develop autonomy as a learner and be able to judge your own performance – Figure 9.1 shows the characteristics you will need to become an independent and self-directed learner.
Cognitive skills you need to be a good scientist
To be able to think like a scientist and conduct all of the tasks required of a scientist, you need to develop the cognitive skills lying along a continuum – from simple to complex – as shown in Bloom’s taxonomy of learning (Figure 9.2).
Capabilities and attributes required to be a scientist
Capabilities and attributes are skills that you can demonstrate and are highly valued by employers.
Most universities have a set of skills that are referred to as ‘graduate capabilities’ and these are usually focused around similar skillsets. Sometimes graduate capabilities are referred to as ‘generic skills’ or ‘transferable skills’ – but most of all they can be thought of as ‘interdisciplinary skills’ that are important in science as well as a range of other disciplines.
Interdisciplinary skills are the foundation skills that graduates will use in their everyday work to communicate effectively, professionally, ethically, and with understanding for the diversity of the population in all occupations and disciplines (La Trobe University, 2016).
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9.2 Working effectively, responsibly and safely as an individual or a team
Scientists will work both independently and in teams, and will practise working in both contexts during their undergraduate degree – see below (Whatley, 2009).
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As a student scientist, it is essential that you adopt a professional approach to your scientific learning and work because this will ultimately help you to make important contributions to science and society.
Ways in which you can adopt a professional approach include:
• demonstrate the use of appropriate techniques and equipment in projects
• be organised, on time and respectful to colleagues
• demonstrate an awareness of relevant issues such as environmental, safety, community or political issues
• seek a range of information to develop and strengthen projects that you are part of
• interact with appropriate specialists to achieve agreed outcomes and develop broader knowledge
• adapt positively to change and take initiative
• complete tasks in a safe, competent and timely manner
• demonstrate professional ethics
Student scientists should conduct scientific enquiry in a manner that falls within the codes of practice for workplace health and safety. This includes considering the following when relevant:
• basic workplace health and safety
• biological safety
• chemical safety
• electrical safety
• laboratory equipment safety
• personal protective equipment
• radiation and laser safety
Team context
All scientists work in teams, and student scientists will get to practise their team work skills during their undergraduate degree. Some features of successful teams are shown in Figure 9.4.
Teams are formed when people come together to work towards a common goal
Resource
Read about how you can be an effective and efficient team member in this Good Practice Guide [PDF].
Team projects
There are several things you should consider when starting a team project:
• Get to know the rest of your team. Think of your team as puzzle pieces that can be placed together in a variety of ways (Llopis, 2012).
• Establish team work agreements. Newly established teams should consider completing a team work agreement. It has been shown that team cohesion, trust, and awareness of members’ obligations, expectations of others and working relationships are improved when teams establish ground rules at the beginning of a project (Whatley, 2009).
• Create team goals. Decide on the big-picture goals of the team and record these (perhaps in your team agreement).
• Create task lists, and clearly define roles and responsibilities. A team should operate as a mosaic whose unique strengths and differences convert into a powerful united force (Llopis, 2012). Create a detailed task list and a time line for completion of these tasks.
• Decide on a team communication process. This includes the preferred method, frequency and nature of team communication, and ensure relevant contact details are shared. Consider making use of tools that let you communicate and collaborate with your team mates online. For example, use Zoom software for online video meetings when you can’t meet in person. Office365 and Google software allow multiple people to work together on one document, spreadsheet or presentation.
• Establish proper team dynamics. Decide on acceptable and unacceptable team dynamics, and record how unacceptable team dynamics will be dealt with should they arise (perhaps in your team agreement).
Box 9.1: Effective ways to communicate with your team
Here some effective ways to communicate with your team – compiled from past student scientists.
• Share phone numbers and email addresses
• Reply to team members in a timely fashion
• Arrive at team meetings and class on time
• Use social media to communicate
• Complete necessary and appropriate prereading
• Set small, achievable deadlines frequently
• Have a team brief at the beginning of team sessions
• Use time wisely
9.3 Guidelines, laws and ethical conduct
High-quality science graduates have an understanding of their social, cultural and environmental responsibilities as they study the natural world.
As a student scientist, you should do your best to behave ethically throughout your undergraduate study, to prepare you to become an ethical professional. Examples of ethical conduct in action include:
• accurate data recording and storage
• proper referencing and avoiding plagiarism
• intellectual integrity
• safely disposing of biological and chemical waste
• knowledge and application of the principles of animal ethics and/or human ethics.
Being an ethical scientist is more than just doing the right thing. It requires scientists to act in the right spirit, out of respect and concern for one’s fellow creatures (National Health and Medical Research Council et al., 2015).
How to be an ethical scientist – personal responsibility
Scientists and philosophers have spent their lives considering the aims of science and how scientific research should be conducted. Haque et al. summarised the most important principles displayed by an ethical scientist (Hasque et al., 2022).
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How to be an ethical scientist – guidelines and laws
In many cases, the government may be involved in establishing guidelines or laws for safe and ethical behaviour.
Guidelines are sets of non-mandatory rules, principles or recommendations for procedures or practices in a particular field. Laws are rules that regulate the actions of people and may be enforced by applying penalties.
There are guidelines and laws relevant to scientists that cover experimentation and data collection, quality control procedures and appropriate safety procedures. There are also instances when you might need to obtain a government permit for a certain type of activity or research. For example, scientists and student scientists need to perform scientific work in accordance with the Workplace Health and Safety Act 2011. This act provides a balanced and nationally consistent structure to help protect workers, including science students, against harm to their health, safety and welfare by eliminating or minimising work-related risks.
Human research
Scientists and science students involved in human research studies need to respect human research participants. They also need to comply with ethical principles of integrity, respect for persons, justice and goodness, as elaborated in the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research.
The statement is a series of guidelines developed by the National Health and Medical Research Council, the Australian Research Council and Universities Australia. These guidelines were developed to promote ethically good human research, protect participants and foster research that will benefit the community.
Unfortunately, history shows us that human research participants have not always been treated with respect. Some research studies have been done in the past that humanity should not be proud of.
Video 9.1: The worst Nobel Prize ever awarded [9 mins, 26 secs]
Note: Closed captions are available by clicking on the CC button below.
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Resource
Take a look at this comprehensive research ethics timeline from 1932 to the present.
Case study 9.1: Ethics of stem cell research
Most of us have heard of stem cell research, but what exactly is it?
Stem cell research involves using embryonic stem cells or adult stem cells to learn more about human health and disease. Embryonic stem cells are derived from embryos and are highly versatile –they can give rise to any type of cell in the fully developed body. Adult stem cells are more limited, because they can only give rise to certain cells types.
Australian scientists have been at the cutting edge of stem cell research since the discovery of the human embryonic stem cell line in the late 1990s. Despite the overwhelming potential of this research to progress human health, some individuals are highly opposed to the use of embryonic stem cells because of the associated ethical issues.
There has been much debate around the ethical issues associated with stem cell research. The following videos show both US President Bush’s and Obama’s view of this research.
As you will see, world leaders don’t always agree on the ethical issues surrounding modern day scientific research:
Animal research
To learn more about human health and disease, many scientists use animal models. When doing so, the welfare of the animals must be respected.
The Australian Code of Practice for the care and use of animals for scientific purposes 8th edition (2013) provides principles for the guidance of teachers, investigators, and all people involved in the care and use of animals for scientific purposes. It provides guidelines for the humane conduct of scientific and teaching activities, and for accessing animals.
The code of practice states that animals should only be used for scientific purposes when the study:
• has scientific or educational merit
• aims to benefit humans, animals or the environment
• is conducted with integrity.
In addition, the number of animals used should be minimised, the wellbeing of the animals must be supported, and harm (including pain and distress) in the animals must be avoided or minimised.
Nevertheless, the community still debates as to whether animals should be used to progress science. The following videos present both sides of this debate:
9.4 Careers for science graduates
The great physicist Edwin Hubble, speaking at Caltech’s commencement in 1938, said a scientist has ‘a healthy skepticism, suspended judgement, and disciplined imagination’ – not only about other people’s ideas but also about his or her own. The scientist has an experimental mind, not a litigious one (Gawande, 2016).
Student scientists don’t necessarily go on to a career as a laboratory-based scientist. They do, however, take their scientific literacy and skills to whatever profession they enter. Trained scientists are valuable additions to teams and companies from a range of disciplines and fields.
Australia’s former Chief Scientist Professor Ian Chubb and his office prepared a report on the importance of science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) graduates in Australia’s future, which stated:
An education in STEM … fosters a range of generic and quantitative skills and ways of thinking that enable individuals to see and grasp opportunities. These capabilities – including deep knowledge of a subject, creativity, problem solving, critical thinking and communication skills – are relevant to an increasingly wide range of occupations. They will be part of the foundation of adaptive and nimble workplaces of the future (Office of the Chief Scientist, 2014, p. 7)
Throughout your undergraduate degree, you will develop a range of practical skills that will be useful in whatever professional roles you take on in the future, including:
• How to work in a laboratory
• How to reference
• How to do statistical analyses
• How to search databases
• How to talk and write about science and other topics
• How to work as part of a team
• How to present data in, for example, graphs or tables
The United Kingdom’s Science Council has identified 10 types of scientists working today (Science Council, 2016). This list highlights the fact that not all scientists end up working in laboratories – in fact, there are a wide variety of jobs that need the knowledge and skills developed during a science degree, as discussed earlier in this chapter.
Click the drop down below to review the terms learned from this chapter.
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• Whatley, J 2009, ‘Ground rules in team projects: Findings from a prototype system to support students’, Journal of Information Technology Education, 8, 161–176.
Additionally content from:
references
Bloom, B.S. (1984). Taxonomy of educational objectives book 1: Cognitive domain (2nd ed.). Addison-Wesley Longman Ltd.
Gawande, A. (2016, June 10). The mistrust of science. The New Yorker. https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/the-mistrust-of-science
Hasque, M., Parvin, M., Akhter, F., & Safin, M. (2022). A commentary on the importance of ethics in scientific research. Journal of Agriculture and Aquaculture, 4(1). https://escientificpublishers.com/importance-of-ethics-in-scientific-research-JAA-04-0037.
La Trobe University. (2016). La Trobe essentials: Sustainability thinking. Retrieved August 12, 2016, from https://web.archive.org/web/20160801205113/www.latrobe.edu.au/essentials/sustainability-thinking
Llopis, G. (2012, October). 6 ways successful teams are built to last. Forbes. www.forbes.com/sites/ glennllopis/2012/10/01/6-ways-successfulteams-are-built-to-last/
National Health and Medical Research Council, Australian Research Council, & Australian Vice Chancellors’ Committee. (2015). National statement on ethical conduct in human research 2007, updated May 2015 (NHMRC Publication reference E72). National Health and Medical Research Council. www.nhmrc.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/reports/national-statement-2015-e72.pdf
Office of the Chief Scientist. (2014). Science, technology, engineering and mathematics: Australia’s future. Australian Government. www.chiefscientist.gov.au/sites/default/files/STEM_AustraliasFuture_Sept2014_Web.pdf
Science Council. (2016). 10 types of scientist. Retrieved July 1, 2016, from http://sciencecouncil.org/about-us/10-types-of-scientist/
Whatley, J. (2009). Ground rules in team projects: Findings from a prototype system to support students. Journal of Information Technology Education, 8, 161-176. https://doi.org/10.28945/165
Yucel, R. (2013). Good practice guide (Science): Threshold learning outcome 1 Understanding science. Australian Government Office for Learning and Teaching. https://www.acds.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/Science-Good-Practice-Guide-2013-TLO1.pdf
1.10: Accessibility Assessment
2
Below is a short accessibility assessment of eight key areas that have been assessed during the production process of this text. The checklist has been drawn from the BCcampus Open Education Accessibility Toolkit. While a checklist such as this is just one part of a holistic approach to accessibility, it is one way to begin our work on embedded good accessibility practices in the books we support.
It is our hope that by being transparent on our current books, we can begin the process of making sure accessibility is top of mind for all authors, adopters, students and contributors of all kinds on all our open textbook projects. As such, we welcome any feedback from students, instructors or others who encounter the book and identify an issue that needs resolving.
Accessibility Checklist
Category Item Status
Organising Content Content is organised under headings and subheadings X
Organising Content Headings and subheadings are used sequentially (e.g. Heading 1, Heading 2, etc.) X
Images Images that convey information include Alternative Text (alt-text) descriptions of the image’s content or function X
Images Graphs, charts, and maps also include contextual or supporting details in the text surrounding the image X
Images Images, diagrams, or charts do not rely only on colour to convey important information X
Images Images that are purely decorative contain empty alternative text descriptions. (Descriptive text is unnecessary if the image doesn’t convey contextual content information) X
Tables Tables include column headers, and row headers where appropriate X
Tables Tables include a title or caption X
Tables Tables do not have merged or split cells X
Tables Tables have adequate cell padding X
Weblinks The weblink is meaningful in context, and does not use generic text such as “click here” or “read more” X
Weblinks Externals weblinks open in a new tab. Internal weblink do not open in a new tab. X
Weblinks If a link will open or download a file (like a PDF or Excel file), a textual reference is included in the link information (e.g. ‘[PDF]’). X
Embedded Multimedia A transcript has been made available for a multimedia resource that includes audio narration or instruction
Embedded Multimedia Captions of all speech content and relevant non-speech content are included in the multimedia resource that includes audio synchronized with a video presentation All videos, except one third-party video has closed captions
Embedded Multimedia Audio descriptions of contextual visuals (graphs, charts, etc.) are included in the multimedia resource
Formulas Formulas have been created using MathML
Formulas Formulas are images with alternative text descriptions, if MathML is not an option
Font Size Font size is 12 point or higher for body text X
Font Size Font size is 9 point for footnotes or endnotes
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by Mariette Bates, Ph.D.
People with disabilities are multifaceted and complex. They work, have families, drive cars, run companies and contribute to the diversity of our country and their communities. They are our neighbors, our friends, our parents and siblings. They are us! The treatment of disabled people in history, though, has been one of marginalization, stigma, and discrimination, often using the fact of disability to justify the violation of rights.
Having a diagnosis of a disability simply means that a person has a condition that might require treatment or specialized intervention – or it might not. Just because someone has a disability diagnosis doesn’t mean anything about a person’s ability, competency or character – it just means that the person identifies as having an impairment or a professional has determined that they have a particular physical or mental condition. As you’ll read below, in society we view diagnoses as being scientifically developed and reliable, but they can also be viewed as socially constructed – that is, what is seen as a problem to be fixed in one society may be viewed as quite typical in others.
In Disability Studies, we take the approach that although an individual may have an impairment, it’s the barriers they encounter in the physical environment and the lack of opportunity for employment, access to education, recreation, and housing that can ‘disable’ an individual. We see these barriers as representing the larger issue of disabling attitudes in society and pervasive disability oppression. As workers, advocates, parents or siblings, we hope that exploring disability with a critical eye can help us understand more about the interaction between disability and society, and that what we learn can make us better advocates for ourselves and others.
Although we embrace the social model of disability in disability studies – you’ll learn more about this a bit later – there are terms that society and professionals use every day to refer to disability. If you’re working in the field, it’s important to understand what the terms mean but also to be able to shift perspective and keep the social model in mind.
In our daily lives, we encounter different systems – the educational system, the medical system, or perhaps a governmental system that may be providing benefits. Each of these may have a different way of looking at disability, and different criteria for meeting that system’s definition of disability, further complicating our understanding of disability.
Remember, though, that every person is different and is an individual. Having a particular diagnosis or label only means that a person has a particular set of characteristics that seem consistent with a particular condition. But even people with the same diagnosis may experience the condition in different ways, with different types of support needs. So, for example, someone with the diagnosis of Down syndrome may need support in many activities of daily living like dressing or eating, and may need a great deal of support in school. Another individual with the same diagnosis of Down syndrome may graduate from high school with the same diploma as non-disabled classmates and not need support at home at all.
Physical impairments are conditions that largely affect our senses and mobility – our ability to move through the environment easily. People with physical disabilities may use assistive devices to help them navigate living – wheelchairs, or walkers, prosthetics, hearing aids, glasses, large print materials, or technology to help them communicate with others.
Sensory impairments affect our ability to see or hear, or to experience the environment the same way people without these conditions do. Hearing impairments and vision issues like low vision or blindness are included here. If the sensory issue occurs before age 21, the child may be considered to have a developmental disability. Some people have chemical sensitivity, so they have different reactions to odors from the kinds of cleaning materials or perfumes in grooming products than others do, and can have very severe reactions. And some people have a sensitivity to particular kinds of light as well.
Spinal cord injuries are caused by accidents, such as automobile crashes, falls, domestic or other violence, or other trauma to the spine. These can occur at any age. Depending on where the injury occurs, different parts of the body might be affected and the injured person may use a wheelchair for mobility, or may not have use of their arms. People with injuries higher up on the spinal cord may use a respirator to help them breathe.
Traumatic Brain Injuries (TBI) are also caused by accidents – falls where a child or adult hits their head, or a soldier experiences shock to the brain caused by a bomb or gunshot wound. These can also be caused by domestic violence or other violence that affects how the brain functions.
Limb impairments can be caused by inherited genetic issues, by injuries caused to a developing fetus (like the umbilical cord wrapping around fingers that inhibits their growth) or by amputations because of accidents, trauma, or chronic illness like diabetes.
Club feet and cleft palates are very common birth defects, and in most cases the cause isn’t known, but is due to a combination of genetic and environmental factors. In developed countries, these conditions are typically corrected in childhood with surgery, but in much of the world people with club feet and people with cleft palates face social barriers to work and relationships.
Genetic disorders can cause many different disabilities. DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid -carries the code for all of our genes (a gene is just a sequence of DNA). When humans reproduce, the DNA from their parents is copied and recombined. Because humans are so complex, it’s not unusual for parts of DNA to not copy correctly – either some DNA is left out or some DNA is copied too many times. When a sequence of DNA is left out, it’s called a ‘deletion.’ When DNA is copied to many times, it’s referred as a ‘DNA repeat.’ How these deletions or repeats are expressed in a person depends on which of our 23 pairs of chromosomes has deletions or repeats and how that particular sequence of DNA molecules is expressed in a human being. ALL of us have both deletions and repeats of DNA in some of our chromosomes and genes, but not all of us have genetic disorders that are expressed in ways that might cause us to be thought of as different from ‘typical’ people.
Image by Gerd Altmann from Pixabay.
Developmental Disabilities are a group of disabilities, including ADHD, Autism Spectrum Disorder, Cerebral Palsy, Intellectual Disabilities, Hearing Loss, Learning Disability, Vision Impairments, and delays. These occur before age 21 and are expected to last throughout the lifetime.
Intellectual disabilities are disabilities that occur before age 21 – during a person’s developmental stage of life – and are likely to be lifelong. A person with a developmental disability may require support in learning (both academic and experiential learning), judgment and reasoning. Some people with intellectual disabilities can live independently, work, and have families, while some need maximum support in all aspects of daily living.
Common developmental disabilities include Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), autism spectrum disorder, cerebral palsy, hearing loss, intellectual or cognitive disability, learning disability, vision impairment, or neurological impairments.
Intellectual or cognitive disabilities require some specialized assistance in learning. There is a wide range of people who have this diagnosis, so we can’t assume anything just because a person has a label of intellectual disability. Most people with intellectual disabilities are able to acquire information and skills in order to live independently and work as adults. A small percentage, however, need lifelong maximum support in activities of daily living like eating, showering, and dressing.
There are many causes of intellectual disability, including genetic disorders, falls, malnutrition, environmental pollution, birth trauma, infections, child abuse and accidents.
Autism Spectrum Disorders are very common – according to the Centers for Disease Control from 2017, 1 in 59 children has been diagnosed with ASD. The criteria for a diagnosis of ASD are complicated. You can read the Centers for Disease Control criteria for a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder here.
While ASD is sometimes characterized as a communication disorder, increasingly, some people believe autism is simply a different way of seeing the world, and the behaviors that accompany autism should be viewed as a form of diversity rather than something that needs professional intervention. It’s important to remember that everyone with the diagnosis of ASD is an individual and nothing can be assumed about her or his abilities or need for support simply because of the diagnosis. Not every autistic person has every trait named in the diagnostic criteria, or experiences the same characteristic in the same way. While there is a growing movement of autistic pride, each autistic person experiences autism in their own way, and each may require different types of support for housing, education, employment, relationships, communication, healthcare, and activities of daily living.
Learning Disabilities are very common and can be thought of as a processing disorder, where information is process a bit differently than with people who don’t have this disability. One way to accommodate children and adults with learning disabilities is to provide extra time to process information or to express ideas. Dyslexia (difficulty in reading), dysgraphia (difficulty in writing), and dyscalculia (difficulty with arithmetic), are common learning disabilities. Another common learning disability is attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) which results in difficulty in sustaining focus.
Cerebral Palsy is a very common developmental disability that causes people to experience stiff muscles or difficulties with coordination that causes a jerky motion. In some people it causes a continuous writhing motion. Some people with cerebral palsy can walk, while others need to use a wheelchair for mobility. A small percentage of cerebral palsy is inherited, but most cerebral palsy is caused by birth trauma or another kind of trauma, such as an accident.
Some people with cerebral palsy have cognitive or learning disabilities, while many do not. So like having a diagnosis of any other disability, having a diagnosis of cerebral palsy doesn’t imply anything about intelligence, judgment or ability to work.
Epilepsy is a seizure disorder, where neurons in the brain can cause several different types of seizures. Some seizures are minor and the individual experiencing them loses contact with the environment for a brief period of time. Some seizures might cause a person to have repetitive motions for a minute or more. And some seizures are more involved and cause the person experiencing them to lose control of muscles for a period of time.
Neurological impairments are a collection of conditions resulting from issues with the nervous system that may cause a range of symptoms. Some neurologic impairments are hidden disabilities that result in the need for some specialized assistance. Some neurological impairments have a genetic component, while others do not. Neurological impairments include narcolepsy, neurofibromatosis, tuberous sclerosis, spina bifida, Prader-Willi syndrome, and Tourette Syndrome.
Legal Issues, Legal Rights, and Disability
Citizens of the United States obtain rights in three different ways: they are enumerated in our Constitution and Bill of Rights; they are enacted through legislation (local, state or federal) and codified in regulations that further explain or interpret the legislation; or they are the result of court decisions that further define our rights, how they should be interpreted and commonly understood.
Citizens with disabilities have the same rights as citizens who do not have disabilities, among them the right to vote, to own property and dispose of it as they wish, the right to marry, the right to privacy, the right to worship, and freedom of speech, and the right to due process.
After World War II and the Nuremberg Trials, an important concept of informed consent became the standard when medical or other interventions are recommended. This means that a person needs to consent to treatment and needs to understand both the benefits of the treatment and any risks that might derive from the treatment. If we go in for surgery, we are asked to sign a consent form that details what could happen to us as a result of the surgery or of medications that are prescribed. Informed consent also applies to issues like behavior management interventions.
One issue that has involved informed consent and is the source of some tension at the moment is the issue of guardianship. In New York State, the law presumes that anyone who is over 18 can make his or her own decisions. Some individuals with intellectual disabilities may need support in order to make decisions about health care, whether or not to have children, or other life choices. Parents can retain the power to make these decisions for their adult children with intellectual or developmental disabilities if they go to court and petition to remain their adult child’s guardian. Sometimes parents are awarded limited guardianship – they can make some decisions for their adult child with a disability, but not all decisions. Recently a new idea – supported decision-making – is gaining ground. The idea is that the person appoints someone he or she trusts to assist in making important decisions without giving up her or his rights.
When a person with a disability enters public care (or private care) they often give up some rights or parts of rights in order to be eligible for the care they receive. For example, if a person is moving into a group home or apartment program that is run by a service agency, s/he might be giving up some rights to privacy or self-determination in order for the service agency to provide what’s needed. For example, if the person is living with six people and there are two staff members, and five of the residents want to go swimming on Tuesdays, the person who would prefer to stay home may end up going swimming because there is no one to stay home with him or her. Or if the person is used to having a private room s/he may be living with a roommate, at least for a period of time. These issues are typically spelled out so that they are clear before the person moves from one setting to another. While the goal of these organizations should be to provide as much choice as possible – to provide services in the ‘least restrictive environment’ possible, practical issues sometimes mean choices may be limited.
There are five basic laws and regulations that affect disabled children and adults. These are explained below:
The Rehabilitation Act of 1973: Sections 504 and 508 (1973)
The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 is very important because its Section 504 mandated that any public entity receiving federal funds needed to be accessible to individuals with disabilities. Since hospitals, federal courts, transportation systems and educational institutions received federal funds, what this meant was that for the first time people who had mobility or sensory issues could take advantage of higher education or the court system, or have access to public transportation. Section 508 mandated that internal federal systems – for example, the telecommunications systems- had to be accessible. This opened the door for people with disabilities to be employed by the federal government. One of the important principles included in the Rehab Act of 1973 was the idea of ‘least restrictive alternative’ or ‘least restrictive environment.’ What this means is that when services are needed – whether they are rehabilitative or educational – they should be provided in the least possible segregated setting, and that people with disabilities should only receive segregated services when absolutely necessary. So, rehabilitation services should be provide in the community, not in segregated settings like hospitals or institutions.
PL 94-142 (1975), renamed IDEA (2004), and Every Student Succeeds Act (2015)
Public Law 94-142, the Education of All Handicapped Children Act – further modified in and renamed Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) mandated a free and appropriate education to all children, whether or not they had a disability. IDEA expanded on this idea, and recent reauthorizations have made some improvements. Important to the original and subsequent modifications is the idea which was embedded in the Rehab Act of 1973 – the idea of ‘least restrictive setting.’ Extending this idea is the concept that the default educational setting should be one where the child with a disability is included or integrated, and only removed from an inclusive classroom for a specific, documented reason (therapy or another documented reason). Also included is the mandate for a written individualized education plan (IEP) that describes the student’s needs and the services to be provided to assist in that child’s education, due process and appeals, formalized input from parents and the student, and periodic review. Additional supports needed by the student are detailed in each student’s IEP.
The Developmental Disabilities Act (1963)
The Developmental Disabilities Act was initially authorized in 1963 by President Kennedy. It is administered under the federal Administration for Community Living (ACL). It is reauthorized periodically and changes are made depending on current needs. For example, in 1975, the State Protection and Advocacy systems were created to address civil rights violations. The Act of 1978 provided for the creation of Developmental Disabilities Planning Councils in each state. These Councils are awarded federal funds and are charged with funding pilot projects that can be widely adopted if they prove to be viable and useful. The DD Act also provided for the creation of University Centers of Excellence in Developmental Disabilities (UCEDs) which are charged with training clinicians and other staff to work in the community with individuals with developmental disabilities. Protection and Advocacy programs in each state can help with bringing legal actions in cases of violations of individual rights, but they frequently bring actions against more systemic violations of rights. Protection and Advocacy Programs address legal rights of individuals with developmental disabilities, assistive technology, voting accessibility and traumatic brain injury. You can read more about the Developmental Disabilities Act here: https://acl.gov/about-acl/history-dd-act.
The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990
The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 is the most sweeping legislation for persons with disabilities in the United States. The ADA was signed by President George H. W. Bush in July of 1990, and took effect two years later. The ADA and its amendments of 2008 provide for reasonable accommodation in employment, communication, transportation, and in the use of community resources, like local businesses. While the ADA lays the groundwork for forcing accessibility, it also puts the burden of complaint upon disabled citizens. While the Office of Civil Rights will investigate and prosecute violations of the ADA, reliance for identifying instances of violation rests with individuals with disabilities.
Obama archives. President Bush signing the ADA. Far right (in hat) is Justin Dart.
The Olmstead v L.C. Decision of 1999
The Olmstead v L.C. Decision of 1999 was a lawsuit filed by two women living in the Georgia Regional Hospital. Each of the women wanted to live in the community and in each case the professionals treating the women agreed that they would be able to do that. The State of Georgia had not placed the women arguing that their budget was inadequate to support them in the community. The case went all the way to the Supreme Court, which found that “under Title II of the ADA states are required to place persons with mental disabilities in community settings rather than in institutions when the State’s treatment professionals have determined that community placement is appropriate” and when other conditions have been met. The decision also reaffirmed that individuals with disabilities should not be excluded from life in the community but instead should be included in society. You can read the Supreme Court decision here: https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/98-536.ZS.html. | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Introducing_Developmental_Disability_Through_a_Disability_Studies_Perspective_(Brooks_and_Bates)/1.01%3A_Disability_is_Complicated.txt |
Disability studies views disability in general as a social construct. Rather than one universal experience of disability, this view acknowledges that disabled people have different experiences across time and cultures, and ideas about what disability means and who is disabled are defined by humans. Disability studies also recognizes a difference between impairment, or body-mind difference, and disability.
Disability studies views disability in general as a social construct. Rather than one universal experience of disability, this view acknowledges that disabled people have different experiences across time and cultures, and ideas about what disability means and who is disabled are defined by humans. Disability studies also recognizes a difference between impairment, or body-mind difference, and disability.
Who is viewed as having a disability, and how does this shift throughout time? Thomas Armstrong argues that developmental disabilities, learning disabilities, and mental health disabilities are defined by the societies and eras in which we live. He writes, “No brain exists in a social vacuum. Each brain functions in a specific cultural setting and at a particular historical period that defines its level of competence” (2010, p. 15). People with the same brain differences are regarded completely differently dependent on the social context. The places and times we live in make things easier or harder for people with developmental disabilities. Armstrong posits that “being at the right place at the right time seems to be critical in terms of defining whether you’ll be regarded as gifted or disabled” (p. 15).
Disability historian Kim Nielsen (2012) notes that the concept of disability changed throughout American history. The idea of what “disability” meant was not the same. Before Europeans colonized North America, some indigenous people viewed individuals with disabilities differently than we do today: “A young man with a cognitive impairment might be an excellent water carrier. That was his gift. If the community required water, and if he provided it well, he lived as a valued community member with no stigma” (2012, p. 3). People with what we now call “developmental disabilities” were included in the community. Often, they were not viewed negatively. Nielsen explains, “Most indigenous communities did not link deafness, or what we now consider cognitive disabilities, or the shaking bodies of cerebral palsy, with stigma or incompetency” (2012, p. 4). Once European settlers began colonizing North America, they brought disease and violence. War and illness shifted resources among groups and changed group values. These changes impacted disabled people. The same people who were included in their communities might not have a place anymore. Nielsen explains that suddenly, for people with impairments including what we now call developmental disability, “Though they may have possessed excellent storytelling or basket-making skills, wisdom, the ability to nurture children, these things meant little in the face of overwhelming communal stress” (2012, p. 18). In other words, colonialism brought disease and war. New and dangerous conditions made disabled people less valuable to the group, less likely to be a part of the group, and more likely to die.
European colonists brought different views of people with developmental disability. Kim Nielson explains that in the 1600s, people with some physical impairments could be accepted because they participated in work. At the same time, “those that today we would categorize as having psychological and cognitive disabilities attracted substantial policy and legislative attention by Europeans attempting to establish social order, capitalist trade networks, and government in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century North America” (Nielson, 2012, p. 20). Europeans made laws and policies that impacted disabled people’s lives. In Colonial America, some people with developmental disability and psychiatric disability were sent to institutions like almshouses and asylums, while others lived in the community or were locked away at home. Nielson explains, “The decades surrounding the American Revolution were a period of transition for those with mental and cognitive disabilities, in which some were referred to experts outside the family and some were not” (p.38). Nielson sees this as a shift toward the medical model of disability, in which disability is seen as an individual problem that requires medical intervention. People started turning to doctors to help them understand their family members’ disabilities.
Disabled people were not the only ones impacted by negative ideas about disability. People of color, women, immigrants, and people now considered LGBTQIA (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex, and asexual) were impacted by ableism and the medical model of disability. The concept of feeble-mindedness was misused to control and oppress marginalized people like woman and people of color. Ableism is structural discrimination against disabled people. Ableism shares roots with other oppressions, like racism, sexism, homophobia, transphobia, and xenophobia. Nielson notes, “The racist ideology of slavery held that Africans brought to North America were by definition disabled. Slaveholders and apologists for slavery used Africans’ supposed inherent mental and physical inferiority, their supposed abnormal and abhorrent bodies, to legitimize slavery” (p. 42). Slavery was inhumane and operated through racism. Slavery also relied on negative ideas about disability. As medicine took hold in the 1800s, “medical expertise regarding women’s biological deficiencies buttressed the exclusion of white women from higher education, voting, and property ownership” (Nielson, 2012, p. 66). So medical model disability language was used to deny women’s rights. People today considered LGBTQIA were “diagnosed as sexual perverts” and were deported, sterilized, and institutionalized (Nielson, 2012, p. 115). Indigenous people were mistreated, killed, and barred from citizenship, while potential immigrants were scrutinized for signs of disability. During the time between the American Revolution and the Civil War, “Disability, as a concept, was used to justify legally established inequalities” (Nielson, 2012, p. 50).
Samuel Gridley Howe believed people with developmental disability could learn and work, and helped establish schools, including those that served students with developmental disability (Nielson, 2012, pp. 67-68). Asylums were segregated racially. Institutionalized people of color and indigenous people received worse treatment (Nielson, 2012, p. 92). Institutions exposed disabled people to extreme abuse and neglect. People with developmental disability were among the most targeted for institutionalization.
The late 1800s to the early 1900s was when institutions really became central to the plight of people with developmental disability. Starting in the mid-1800s, children and adults with developmental disability were sent to “training schools,” “colonies,” and “institutions for the feeble-minded” (Jirik, 2014). There were smaller private institutions, as well as an influx of large public institutions. Katrina Jirik (2014) explains that “As the laws changed, allowing lifetime commitment to the institutions,” they went from educating people who weren’t allowed in public schools due to disability to calling it “vocational training” to use inmates for “the labor needed to run the institution” (2014). Institutions became places where people were warehoused for their whole lives. People with developmental disability faced neglect, abuse, medical experimentation, and death in institutions across America.
Historical Perspectives on Developmental Disability
As eugenics became popular, institutions became places to separate and sterilize Americans with developmental disability and other disabilities (Jirik, 2014). Eugenics is the idea that some people are smarter, healthier, and better because of their genes. In 1883, Sir Francis Galton came up with the term “eugenics,” meaning “well-born” (Kurbegovic & Dyrbye, n.d.). He believed that by encouraging certain people to marry and have children while discouraging or stopping other people from doing so, humans would improve and get rid of problems. Galton, who was cousins with Charles Darwin, is known as the father of eugenics. As Lennard Davis (2013) writes: On the one hand Sir Francis Galton was cousin to Charles Darwin, whose notion of the evolutionary advantage of the fittest lays the foundation for eugenics and also for the idea of a perfectible body undergoing progressive improvement. As one scholar has put it, “Eugenics was in reality applied biology based on the central biological theory of the day, namely the Darwinian theory of evolution” (Farrell 1985, 55). Darwin’s ideas service to place disabled people along the wayside as evolutionary defectives to be surpassed by natural selection. So eugenics became obsessed with the elimination of “defectives,” a category which included the “feebleminded,” the deaf, the blind, the physically defective, and so on. (Davis, 2013, p. 3).
Charles Darwin was a scientist and explorer. In 1859, his theory of evolution, based on his observation of animals, was published. The title of his book was On the Origin of Species. One part of Charles Darwin’s theory was natural selection. In 1859, Darwin wrote, “It may be said that natural selection is daily and hourly scrutinising, throughout the world, every variation, even the slightest; rejecting that which is bad, preserving and adding up all that is good” (1859/2009, p. 83). Natural selection meant that the animals (including ancestors of humans) who adapted best to their environment and had the best qualities would be most likely to survive, mate, and have offspring. The genes of the “fit” animals would also live on in the successful animals’ descendants. On the other hand, natural selection also meant that the least fit animals, who did not adapt “well,” would be unlikely to be chosen as a partner, and therefore pass their genes down to future generations. One biologist, Herbert Spencer, framed natural selection as the idea of “survival of the fittest” (Kurbegovic, 2014).
People got excited by Charles Darwin’s theories. Some people began to think that natural selection should apply to human beings in society. Erna Kurbegovic (2014) says,
Social Darwinists tried to explain inequality between individuals and groups by misapplying Darwinian principles. Thus, those who were successful were seen as superior to those who were not. This type of thinking helped set the stage for the eugenics movement to emerge. (Kurbegovic, 2014).
Social Darwinists used Darwin’s theories to try to understand society and thought that groups of people who were struggling were biologically worse.
Natalie Ball (2013) describes how Charles Darwin contributed to eugenics. Ball explains that Darwin’s theories advanced biology and genetics research, so people used his theories to justify eugenics. She writes,
The segregation, sterilization, and murder of various groups was justified by some as being done for the greater good of evolution – those groups were considered to be ‘less fit’, and by preventing their reproduction, advocates argued that the human race would improve and evolve into a better species. (Ball, 2013).
Darwin’s part in the eugenics movement is shown by his family members, including his cousin Sir Francis Galton, the father of eugenics, and two of his sons, who were involved in eugenics leadership and promotion (Ball, 2013).
Was Charles Darwin himself a eugenicist? Eugenicists are people who studied, practiced, and believed in eugenics. In his book The Descent of Man, he included racist arguments that fit into eugenicist thought, while arguing against laws controlling who had babies (Ball, 2013). But as Natalie Ball (2013) writes, “Whether or not he would have agreed with it, the theory of evolution and natural selection provided a scientific and theoretical basis for eugenic ideas and actions” (Ball, 2013). Arguing about whether Charles Darwin was or was not a eugenicist is not important. What’s important is how his ideas supported eugenics as a legitimate science.
Eugenics is part of the history of people with developmental disability. Eugenicists wanted “better” people to have children and live freely. Eugenicists thought some people weren’t worthy of having children, living in the community, or even being alive. In America, people thought of eugenics as a “science.” Many Americans supported public policies based on eugenics. At Ellis Island, disabled immigrants, including immigrants with developmental disability, were judged and deported (Nielson, 2012, p. 103). States passed laws to sterilize disabled people. American eugenicist Harry Laughlin’s “model sterilization law became internationally renowned, eventually taken up by Adolf Hitler in his own bid for a national racial purity” (Nielson, 2012, p. 102). In 1927, the United States Supreme Court said it was acceptable to sterilize people with developmental disability. It didn’t matter if people wanted to have children. The Buck v. Bell case said doctors could sterilize disabled people without their permission. The Supreme Court said it was best for public health to stop people with developmental disability from having children. They believed that parents passed developmental disability to their children (Buck v. Bell, 1927).
American eugenics made a worldwide impact. As Nancy E. Hansen, Heidi L. Janz, and Dick J. Sobsey write (2008), Nazis put laws in place with “similar, if more radical, eugenic understandings [which] resulted in the systematic murder of almost 250,000 disabled people during the period of National Socialism in Germany” (pp. S104-S105). Some Nazi policies were based on American and European laws. Other Nazi laws went further by killing people they saw as unworthy. One group Nazis targeted were people with disabilities.
Eugenics and Nazism play a role in autism history. Historians credit both Dr. Hans Asperger and Dr. Leo Kanner with creating the autism diagnosis (Czech, 2018, p. 4). The two doctors each had “types” of autism named after them—Kanner’s autism and Asperger syndrome (Silberman, 2015). Today, different autistic people with different support needs share the same disability name. During the Nazi regime, Asperger was a doctor in Austria. Some of Asperger’s ideas about autism changed our understanding of developmental disability. People in English-speaking Western countries often thought Asperger resisted the Nazis and protected disabled people (Czech, 2018, p. 3). Newly-available documents from Nazi times show that the real story is more complicated. According to Herwig Czech (2018), Asperger referred at least two children with developmental disability to Am Spiegelgrund. Am Spiegelgrund was an institution that Nazis used to murder disabled people (p. 20). When Nazis sterilized disabled people, Asperger seemed ambivalent. New facts make older stories about Asperger harder to believe. Czech suggests to think about Asperger’s discoveries about autism in context (p. 32). In other words, remember that Asperger contributed to present thinking about developmental disability, but don’t forget his actions in Nazi-occupied Austria. As Czech points out, the roots of the autism diagnosis comes from a time of eugenics.
IQ as Eugenics
Eugenicists considered people with developmental disability genetically inferior. People with intellectual disability were seen as a threat. The invention of intelligence quotient (IQ) testing helped eugenicists to segregate people with intellectual disability. Thomas Armstrong (2010) explains how IQ testing came about:
In 1905 psychologist Alfred Binet was asked by the Paris public school system to devise a test that would help predict which students would be in need of special education services. He developed the original test, upon which IQ scores would be based, but his belief was that students could improve their performance on the test through further development and learning. It was a German psychologist, William Stern, who actually gave the test a ‘score’ that became the intelligence quotient of an individual. The most significant changes in IQ testing, however, took place when American psychologist Henry Goddard brought Binet’s test and Stern’s score to the United States. In contrast to Alfred Binet, Goddard believed that the IQ test represented a single innate entity that could not be changed through training. (pp. 141-142)
Eugenicists thought that intelligence was genetic, unchangeable, related to social and financial success, and necessary for moral citizenship (Roige, 2014). IQ tests were used to label people as “feeble-minded,” which put them at risk of being institutionalized and sterilized (Roige, 2014). According to Kim Nielson (2012), “Many in power… used Gregor Mendel’s scientific work on plant genetics and the newly developed Binet-Simon intelligence test to argue that criminality, feeble-mindedness, sexual perversions, and immorality, as well as leadership, responsibility, and proper expressions of gender, were hereditary traits” (Nielson, 2012, p. 101). By saying that morality and intelligence were passed down through families, scientists argued for laws that restricted people who fell outside of the norm. IQ scores were treated as evidence for the kind of lives people were allowed to lead.
Modern-Day Eugenics
Eugenics might seem like it should be a concept from the past, but unfortunately, it continues in present-day disability policy. Despite their eugenicist history, IQ tests still are used to decide disability diagnosis, schooling, and employment, as well as “ in courts…if the person is capable of informed consent or of parenting” (Roige, 2014). In other words, IQ scores or a diagnosis of intellectual disability can be used to restrict rights. Nancy E. Hansen, Heidi L. Janz, and Dick J. Sobsey (2008) state, “There are disturbing similarities between Nazi arguments concerning ‘quality of life’, ‘useless eaters’, or ‘lives less worthy’ and discussions of disability currently taking place among ‘mainstream’ geneticists and bioethicists advocating a value scale of humanness” (p. S105). Bioethics relates to the study moral questions about life and living beings. One famous philosopher, Peter Singer, has debated whether a baby with a disability who needs expensive healthcare has a right to life. Hentoff (1999) quotes Singer as writing that “It does not seem wise to add to the burden on limited resources by increasing the number of severely disabled children” in Should the Baby Live? and in Practical Ethics, “that the parents, together with their physicians, have the right to decide whether ‘the infant’s life will be so miserable or so devoid of minimal satisfaction that it would be inhumane or futile to prolong life’” (Hentoff, 1999). Reading Singer’s work can be jarring and upsetting from a disability studies lens. Singer’s arguments show that eugenics is still discussed and debated. This is part of what Hansen, Janz, and Sobsey are talking about when they write that there are “disturbing similarities” between eugenic arguments of Nazis and modern bioethicists (2008, p. S105). The authors also mean that some people who study and give medical advice about genes use language of eugenics when referring to people with genetically-linked disabilities. There have been many advances in genetics in the twenty-first century, from the Human Genome Project sequencing DNA in 2003 to present-day commercially-available genetic testing kits (Roberts & Middleton, 2017). When parents-to-be go to the doctor, they can find out whether their future children are likely to have an impairment linked to their genes. For instance, a doctor can tell somebody whether their child is likely to have developmental disability like Fragile X syndrome or chronic illnesses like cystic fibrosis. A genetic counselor is a professional who understands genetic conditions, discusses test results, and advises patients of options for treatment and reproduction. A genetic counselor might give advice to somebody who finds out through screening during pregnancy that the embryo has an impairment such as Down syndrome, spina bifida, hydrocephalus, or a heart condition. In this scenario, the genetic counselor would advise their patient about options to continue with or terminate the pregnancy.
One area of ethical concern is prenatal screening. During pregnancy, future parents can find out whether their child will have certain impairments. Doctors can diagnose some impairments that are linked to genetic or physical differences in fetuses. Down syndrome is one example of a developmental disability that can be diagnosed prenatally. A consequence of prenatal diagnosis in an ableist world is reducing the populations of people with certain impairments. A person can end a pregnancy if they find out the embryo has an impairment. For instance, “Since prenatal screening tests were introduced in Iceland in the early 2000s, the vast majority of women—close to 100 percent—who received a positive test for Down syndrome terminated their pregnancy” (Quinones, 2017). Julian Quinones explained that about eighty percent of expecting parents got the screening test, which involves “an ultrasound, blood test and the mother’s age” to estimate risk factors of genetic disabilities (Quinones, 2017). Compared to other countries, very few people with Down syndrome are born in Iceland each year.
Scientists are working hard to research genes and physical signs of more impairments. One developmental disability that scientists want to understand better is autism. There are large-scale research studies about autism and genetics. One giant research study is SPARK for Autism, which is aiming for thousands of genetic samples from autistic people and their families around the United States. SPARK says its purpose is “to help scientists find and better understand the potential causes of autism. … What we collect and learn will be shared with many autism researchers to help speed up the progress of autism research” (Simons Powering Autism Research, 2019a, para. 1). But when it comes to genetics and disability, disability rights groups question what will be done with the new information scientists find.
Currently medical professionals diagnose autism based on people’s behavior and developmental history. But what would it mean if autism could be tested for genetically, like with Down syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, and other impairments?
Pat Walsh, Mayada Elsabbagh, Patrick Bolton and Ilina Singh (2011) write about how researchers are looking for a biomarker for autism—a measurable, predictable biological indicator of a specific condition that can identify “at risk” people, diagnose a condition, and/or provide “personalized treatments” (p. 605). Despite their scientific interest, Walsh et al. know that there could be ethical problems with finding a biomarker for autism. Autism is different for everyone, and people’s experiences with being autistic change over time. Walsh et al. (2011) said that “it is important that biomarker discovery in autism does not result in children being given a biological label that fixes and defines their potential and treatments” (p. 606). They are saying that it would not be ethical to use genetic testing to label a child with a type of autism. Then the child could become limited by what the test said. Another ethical issue is whether to view autism as a difference or a disability. Walsh et al. discussed how some disability rights and neurodiversity advocates have argued for viewing autism as a difference, not a disability. If finding a biomarker could lead to “prevention” of autism, then no matter what exactly is meant by prevention, it “assumes that autism is problematic” (Walsh et al, 2011, p. 608). One form of prevention would be prenatal genetic testing. At the time that the authors wrote the article, they thought it would be “unlikely” for one test to tell an expectant parent if their fetus is autistic and more likely that testing could identify different types of autism for parents-to-be and parents of babies (Walsh et al., 2011, pp. 608-609). The authors admit that making prenatal genetic testing available for autism could “could lead to embryo selection and elective termination (to avoid having a child with autism) becoming the norm” (Walsh et al., 2011, pp. 608-609). In other words, people may choose to terminate their pregnancy because of a chance that the fetus could be autistic, or choose to be implanted with what scientists say is a nonautistic fetus. In fact, the authors explained that there already are prenatal genetic tests for autism available in labs. However, the test looks for genetic variations “that are associated with autism” but should not be connected to autism without more research (Walsh et al., 2011, p. 609). Because the authors were interested in ethics as well as science, they recommended that autistic people and their families be involved in whatever clinical tests may emerge.
Erik Parens and Adrienne Asch (2003) wrote a disability rights perspective on prenatal testing. Within their working group, they found that both people with disabilities and parents of children with disabilities disagreed about the purpose and use of prenatal genetic testing:
Although many members of Little People of America would not use prenatal testing to select against a fetus that would be heterozygous for achondroplasia (and who could become a long-lived person with achondroplasia), they might use the test to avoid bearing a child who would be homozygous, because that is a uniformly fatal condition. As participants at the 1997 meeting of the Society for Disability Studies suggested, some people with disabilities would use prenatal testing to selectively abort a fetus with the trait they themselves carry; and some people who would not abort a fetus carrying their own disability might abort a fetus if it carried a trait incompatible with their own understanding of a life they want for themselves and their child. A similar diversity of views toward prenatal testing and abortion can be found among parents raising a child with a disability. (Parens & Asch, 2003, p. 41)
Knowing somebody’s relationship to disability will not tell you how they feel about genetic testing. However, Parens and Asch wrote about shared concerns that disability rights activists have about prenatal tests: “it is the reality of using prenatal testing and selective abortion to avoid bringing to term fetuses that carry disabling traits” (Parens & Asch, 2003, p. 41). They recommend that geneticists and medical providers involved in pregnancy care learn about disability and “identify and overcome biases against people with disabilities” so they can share realistic information with patients (Parens & Asch, 2003, p. 45). So, their disability rights perspective on prenatal testing is that healthcare providers and potential parents deserve accurate information about life with disability and the purpose of testing, as well as the opportunity to consider their values about children and disability before they are confronted with medical decisions. Kruti Acharya (2011) highlighted advances in providing the sort of information for which Parens and Asch were advocating. A 2008 law, the Kennedy-Brownback Pre- and Postnatally Diagnosed Conditions Awareness Act, meant that when doctors tell families about Down syndrome or another impairment, they must give “accurate information” about the impairment and related disability resources (Acharya, 2011, p. 5).
People can submit a sample of saliva or blood and find out whether they have a gene or a change in their genes that is linked to an impairment. Everyone has genetic variations—differences from and changes to what is expected in DNA, which is like our genetic coding. But, certain genetic variations are linked to impairments. While Hansen, Janz, and Sobsey clarify that they believe modern genetic counseling is “not truly eugenic in its intent” (2008, p. S106), they warn that it also does not center disability rights. Even if it is not intended to be eugenics, though, does that necessarily mean that the impact is not eugenics? Hansen, Janz, and Sobsey also state that genetic counseling does not question Darwin’s principles that contributed to eugenics.
Eugenics can involve deciding who deserves to be alive. Eugenics can also involve deciding who is allowed to have babies. Even in 2018, Washington State came under fire for deliberating over a law change that would potentially make it easier for people with disabilities under guardianship to be sterilized against their own will. Autistic advocate and founder of the Autistic Self-Advocacy Network (ASAN), Ari Ne’eman, wrote that Washington State “prohibits guardians from authorizing sterilization without court approval — but the state judicial system is currently considering a proposal […which] advocates with disabilities and the ACLU believe…will streamline the process and increase the number of guardians requesting the sterilization of those under their power” (Ne’eman, 2018).
The right to reproduce is not the only right in jeopardy for people with developmental disability. Although voting rights are supposedly protected under the Voting Rights Act (1964), the Voting Accessibility for the Elderly and Handicapped Act (1984), and the Americans with Disabilities Act (1990), the reality is that people with developmental disability have been prevented from participating in this part of citizenship throughout time. Disability historian Kim E. Nielsen (2012) explains that as far back as in Massachusetts colony of 1641, some people were exempt from public service and criminal punishment and protected from financial decision-making (p. 21). The list included women, children, older adults, and disabled people, illustrating how concepts around cognitive disability have often included groups viewed as different due to race, gender, age, nationality, or sexual orientation and marginalized by systemic oppression. Nielsen (2012) explains, “Between the 1820s and the Civil War, states also began to disenfranchise disabled residents by means of disability-based voting exclusions.…Virginia excluded ‘any person of unsound mind’ from voting in 1830 (it went without saying that women and African Americans were excluded from the vote)” (p. 76). These voting restrictions not only focused on perceived cognitive impairment, but also made a lasting impact to the present day. Switzer reported on a 1997 research study showing that forty-four states had laws that specifically prevented some people with disabilities from voting: “Some states refused to allow whole classes of people to vote (those variously termed idiots, insane, lunatics, mentally incompetent, mentally incapacitated, unsound minds, not quiet and peacable, and under guardianship and/or conservatorship)” (2003, pp. 181-182). Jaqueline Vaughn Switzer (2003) explains that voting is still not a national right for all people with disabilities.
Individuals with developmental disability are prime targets of modern eugenics. While the times and the specifics shifted, the denial of human rights continues for people with developmental disability. However, the history and present of developmental disability is not a straightforward story of victimhood. People with developmental disability resist ableism and advocate for rights. Resistance and self-advocacy offers a path forward for disabled people. | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Introducing_Developmental_Disability_Through_a_Disability_Studies_Perspective_(Brooks_and_Bates)/1.02%3A_Developmental_Disability_as_a_Social_Construct.txt |
The History of the Self-Advocacy Movement
At first, people with developmental disability were spoken over. Locked away in institutions, medicated and sterilized without consent, mistreated and misunderstood, they were not in a position to be viewed as experts in their own lives. People with developmental disability did resist and advocate, but their environments and society at large limited the impact of their actions. Deinstitutionalization is the movement to close institutions, asylums, and state schools. Instead, disabled people live and learn in their communities. Activists organized, advocated, and used legal strategies to work toward the goal of shutting down abusive places like the Willowbrook State School in Staten Island, New York. Some parents and other family members were strong advocates for deinstitutionalization. They became viewed as the voice of their children.
But people with developmental disability had thoughts and opinions of their own. They had their own ideas about themselves, their disability, their community, and what they wanted life to be like. So people with developmental disability began to organize. They met up in groups. They advocated against institutions with the strength and inside information of survivors.
Self-advocates worked together to improve disability rights and fight for deinstitutionalization. Many self-advocacy groups began in the 1970s and 1980s as institutions were called into question and shut down (The Minnesota Governor’s Council on Developmental Disabilities, 2019). Mark Friedman of Speaking For Ourselves, Inc. and Ruthie-Marie Beckwith of People First of Tennessee, Inc. wrote that for early members of Speaking for Ourselves and People First of Tennessee, speaking out about personal experiences in institutions was a powerful part of their advocacy work:
They overcame their fears and lack of experience and began reaching out to their incarcerated counterparts living in institutions. The members’ efforts to expose the nature and insidiousness of their oppression were relentless. As their voices grew in number and volume, so did the resistance they encountered from family members, professionals, family advocates, state officials, unions, and other individuals and entities with extensive conflicts of interest. (2014, p. 239)
As activists, self-advocates with developmental disability faced push-back as they fought to change conditions. Friedman and Beckwith (2014) described barriers like lack of money, transportation, telephones, formal education, and literacy/numeric skills. Additionally, self-advocate group members were often forced to work in sheltered workshops and to ask permission from support staff members to attend meetings. They note that “many of such difficulties that arose were a product of ableism and the effects of incarceration and paternalism, rather than inherent in members’ intellectual disabilities” (p. 239). This reality represents the social model of disability—showing how society disables people through ableist barriers.
As self-advocacy groups grew in power, self-advocates faced danger and roadblocks. Activists with exposed the rampant abuse they had survived in institutions. People with developmental disability continued to face high rates of abuse. Even self-advocates living in the community could be punished for their activism. Friedman and Beckwith (2014) explain, “Self-advocacy chapter members fortunate enough to move out of the institutions were routinely threated with ‘being sent back’ for not complying with minor rules or failing to “fit in” to smaller, but still segregated community homes” (p. 241). Despite these dangers, self-advocates kept fighting. They helped to change their own lives and the lives of other people with developmental disability.
Self-Advocacy and the Neurodiversity Movement
Neurodiversity is the understanding that all brains are different and that those differences are neutral. Neurodiversity as a concept can be considered particularly well-suited to many types of developmental disability. Judy Singer originated the term “neurodiversity” in the 1990s (Armstrong, 2010, p. 7). Autistic sociologist Damian Milton (2014) defines neurodiversity as follows:
For me, the concept of neurodiversity suggests that variations in neurological development are part of natural diversity, rather than something to be pathologised using a purely medical model of disability, defined by one’s deviation from statistical or idealised norms of observed behaviour. This is not to say that those who identify as autistic people or other forms of neuro-identity do not find life challenging. (p. 11)
Autistic self-advocacy overlapped with and followed in the footsteps of the pioneering self-advocates with intellectual disability and developmental disability. The neurodiversity movement has been around for decades (Kras, 2010; Milton, 2014). According to Joseph Kras, a big moment was when autistic self-advocates responded to the NYU Child Study Center’s 20__ billboard campaign. NYU Child Study Center formatted their disability service advertisements as “ransom notes” written from autism and other disabilities to parents. Here’s what Joseph F. Kras had to say about the Autistic Self-Advocacy Network’s (ASAN) and self-advocates’ response to NYU Child Study Center’s advertising campaign:
Ari Ne’eman and ASAN used the speed and penetration of the Internet to forge alliances with other disability rights organizations to quickly shut down the Ransom Notes campaign. As important, they foregrounded the neurodiversity movement’s evolution away from a paternalistic model of advocacy to one of self-advocacy. (Kras, 2010).
This campaign is one of many successful ventures that used the Internet to connect disability communities for advocacy. Advocacy and self-advocacy among people with developmental disability continues to evolve. Advocates work to make the world better for all people with disabilities.
Evolving Language: Language and the Self-Advocacy Movement
Nowadays, there are many types of advocacy and self-advocacy. Advocates do everything from fight for individual inclusion in the workplace and blog about disability rights to lobby for law changes and educate family members and professionals to participate in protests and civil disobedience. Social media sites, like Facebook and Twitter, have changed activism. People can connect with disability communities through the internet regardless of access to transportation and participate in social media activism campaigns. Language is the focus of some disability activism.
Eugenicists created language like “moron,” “imbecile,” and “idiot”. These terms were once medical labels for people with intellectual disability based on IQ scores. According to Thomas Armstrong (2010),
It was Goddard who first coined the term ‘moron’ (from the Greek word moros, which meant ‘dull’) in 1910, a word that was later applied to people who achieved an IQ score of 51 to 70. Those who scored from 26 to 50 were known as ‘imbeciles,’ and those with an IQ of 0 to 25 were deemed to be ‘idiots.’ These were actual scientific terms used by professionals to describe low-scoring individuals on IQ tests in the first half of the twentieth century. (pp. 141-142)
Once simply medical labels, words like “mentally retarded” devolved into ableist slurs (Barry, 2016). People with intellectual disability, and allies inside and outside of disability communities, have successfully campaigned against use of the “r-word” (Special Olympics, 2017). As Matthew Williams, who has epilepsy and an intellectual disability, said in his 2015 TEDx Talk,
There has been lots of change since Special Olympics began in 1968, but in too many cases, people with intellectual disabilities are invisible to the wider population. People use the r-word in front of me, and they think it doesn’t matter. That’s the word “retard” or “retarded” used in a derogatory manner. They’re not thinking about how much it hurts me and my friends. (Williams, 2015)
Beyond everyday speech, the advocacy also impacted the way the U.S. government writes disability policy. In 2010, President Obama signed Rosa’s Law, which with the purpose “to change references in Federal law to mental retardation to references to an intellectual disability, and change references to a mentally retarded individual to references to an individual with an intellectual disability” (P.L. 111–256, 2010). This legislation amended education, health, and disability rights laws, removing the outdated and offending language and replacing it with preferred language of “intellectual disability.” Rosa’s Law is one example of how language used around disability is important, and why some advocacy focuses on shifting disability terminology.
More language advocacy must still be done at other levels of government. People with developmental disability have higher rates of abuse than nondisabled people. NPR investigated and found that “unpublished Justice Department data on sex crimes… show that people with intellectual disabilities — women and men — are the victims of sexual assaults at rates more than seven times those for people without disabilities” (Shapiro, 2018). Meanwhile, some states still use offensive disability terms from eras when eugenics was considered a legitimate science, especially in legal proceedings. For instance, in court proceedings surrounding sexual assault, the State of New Jersey uses the terms “physically helpless,” “mentally defective,” and “mentally incapacitated” to describe people with developmental, mental health, and/or physical disabilities who are victims/survivors of sexual assault (N.J.S.A. 2C:14-3a [2C:14-2a(7)]). Court proceedings around consent should not dehumanize abuse victims with disabilities and survivors with disabilities through old-fashioned language.
Erasing euphemisms in favor of clear-cut words is another facet of disability language advocacy. Euphemisms are ways of not saying things straightforwardly. So rather than saying somebody has a disability, using a euphemism might mean saying somebody has “special needs.” Lawrence Carter-Long began a social media campaign, #SayTheWord, with this goal in mind, and other disability rights advocates enthusiastically jumped in. Jamie Davis Smith for the Washington Post reported that Carter-Long advocates for “disability” over “special needs”: “‘A need isn’t special if other people get to take the same thing for granted,’ he says, arguing that using terms like ‘special needs’ can obscure access to having those needs met, because they can make ordinary needs seem extraordinary” (Smith, 2017).
Morton Ann Gernsbacher, Adam R. Raimond, M. Theresa Balinghasay, and Jilana S. Boston (2016) agree that euphemisms like “special needs” detract from disability discussions. After the authors created stories about characters, who they either labeled with “special needs,” “a disability,” a specific impairment, or no impairment, they surveyed adults with and without connections to disability, asking them to rank the characters in terms of preference and to complete a free-association task around the words “special needs” and “disability” (p. 6). Free association is when people think of every word that comes to mind about a particular topic. So the researchers would ask their participants to brainstorm about the phrase “special needs,” and the word “disability.” The researchers categorized and analyzed the lists of words associated with “special needs” and “disability.” They concluded that the term “special needs” was vaguer, more negative, and more associated with “special rights” and “segregation” than the word “disability” (p. 9). Interestingly, “Participants were significantly more likely to associate developmental disability with the euphemism special needs than with the term disability” (p. 8). When general public hears “special needs,” they may think of people with developmental disability, but they also link “special needs” to negative words, segregated settings, and the idea that accommodations are going above and beyond. This free association may speak to the stigma and ableism surrounding people with developmental disability in particular. Gernsbacher, Raimond, Balinghasay, and Boston argue against using the euphemism “special needs” for these reasons.
Disability rights advocates are fighting to use the language they choose to define themselves. People in some disability communities overwhelmingly prefer identity-first language (“disabled person”) or person-first language (“person with a disability”). For instance, many autistic people prefer identity-first language (“autistic person”) (Kenny et al., 2015). Communities may collectively prefer one over the other for historical and advocacy-related reasons. In 1999, Jim Sinclair, an autistic advocate and community-builder and co-founder of Autism Network International, argued for identity-first language (“autistic person”) and against person-first language (“person with autism.”) Sinclair’s reasoning was three-fold: One, separation versus integration of identity; two, importance versus lack of importance of identity; and three, moral values attached to identity. Sinclair’s first reason for preferring “autistic person” is that “saying person with autism suggests that the autism can be separated from the person. … Autism is hard-wired into the ways my brain works. I am autistic because I cannot be separated from how my brain works” (Sinclair, 2013). So one argument for identity-first language is integration of disability into a person’s identity, rather than separating disability.
Sinclair’s second reason for preferring identity-first language is that “saying person with autism suggests that even if autism is part of the person, it isn’t a very important part. … We talk about male and female people, and even about men and women and boys and girls, not about people with maleness and people with femaleness” (Sinclair, 2013). In a similar sense, Sinclair argues that “person with autism” makes autism appear incidental, or like something that could be removed or not mentioned without changing the person underneath. Yet Sinclair and many other autistic adults view autism as a core aspect of identity that affects everything else about their experience as a human being. This argument for identity-first language is that disability is an important identity that shapes lives.
Sinclair’s third reason for disliking person-first language is the message it might send about the value of autism, or autistic lives. Sinclair writes:
Saying person with autism suggests that autism is something bad—so bad that is isn’t even consistent with being a person. Nobody objects to using adjectives to refer to characteristics of a person that are considered positive or neutral. …It is only when someone has decided that the characteristic being referred to is negative that suddenly people want to separate it from the person. I know that autism is not a terrible thing, and that it does not make me any less a person. (Sinclair, 2013)
Disability is too often seen as negative. Sinclair resists this negative definition of disability by putting autism at the center, and that autism is a part of or one way of being a person.
Just as Jim Sinclair argues for identity-first language, other people with disabilities argue for person-first language. Some early self-advocates with developmental disability favored “people with disabilities” over “disabled person” due to focusing on personhood rather than impairment. One large self-advocate group got its name because of this very reason. After attending a Canadian self-advocacy conference in 1973, people with developmental disability in Oregon gathered to plan their own the following year (The Minnesota Governor’s Council on Developmental Disabilities, 2019): “At this planning meeting, one man talked about being labeled ‘mentally retarded’ and said, ‘I want to be known as a person first!’ People First was later chosen as the name for a new self-advocacy organization” (The Minnesota Governor’s Council on Developmental Disabilities, 2019). As an act of empowerment, some disabled people seek to reclaim ableist slurs and repurpose these terms for their own use. It’s important to recognize that reclaiming offensive language is only something that members of the marginalized group can do, not people without disabilities. For instance, some people with disabilities choose to refer to themselves as “crips.” Disability studies scholar Simi Linton says, “Cripple, gimp, and freak as used by the disability community have transgressive potential. They are personally and politically useful as a means to comment on oppression because they assert our right to name experience” (Linton, 1998, p. 17). It’s OK for people with disabilities to call themselves words that society recognizes as offensive. It’s best to ask each individual person with developmental disability what language they prefer to be called if they can communicate this information. Otherwise, it’s best to make sure you use respectful, up-to-date language to talk about any person and their disability.
Language can be used to help or hurt, and the words used to describe people can be used to justify discrimination. As the R-Word: Spread the Word to End the Word campaign website puts it, “Language affects attitudes and attitudes affect actions” (Special Olympics, 2017). Why focus on language? Words hold great power.
Language and Developmental Disability
People with developmental disability, like people with any impairment, have diverse experiences and views on their own disabilities. Comedian and actor Zach Anner, who writes about his cerebral palsy, made a video with the Cerebral Palsy Foundation for their “Just Say Hi” campaign (2015), which urged strangers to greet people with cerebral palsy and other disabilities. In response to the Cerebral Palsy Foundation’s “Just Say Hi” campaign, disability rights scholar Kim Sauder, who has cerebral palsy, noted, “rather than telling people to ‘just say hi’ a more appropriate lesson would be to make it clear that disabled people should have the right to exist in public without comment” (2015, para. 13). None of us can assume that we know which terms a person with a specific impairment prefers. Even two people with the same impairment might want to be called different terms.
Just because somebody has a diagnosis does not mean that they will identify with the diagnosis, or even identify as disabled at all! The same label might mean vastly different things to two people. Rebecca Monteleone and Rachel Forrester-Jones (2017) interviewed fifteen British people labeled with intellectual disability. Some research participants had created their own definition of intellectual disability related in part to how others had treated them, and affirmed stigma surrounding intellectual disability. Monteleone and Forrester-Jones explained, “Identification of disability primarily relied on physical or tangible experiences of disability. The experience of disability in oneself was often accompanied by self-degradation or feelings of injustice, and the judgement of others played a role in perceptions” (Monteleone & Forrester-Jones, 2017, p. 308). They also found that some people with intellectual disability were unfamiliar with common disability terminology and uncomfortable talking about disability. The authors called for more accessible language access.
Dan Barry investigated a group of mistreated men. The men had intellectual disabilities. They worked in a meat processing plant in Iowa. Barry wrote about what he found in the New York Times. He also talked about words surrounding intellectual disability in the United States. Barry explained that language about intellectual disability has shifted over time. He wrote,
By the 1950s, the accepted term had become mental retardation. … But no matter how well-intentioned, this term also devolved into a pejorative, posing a problem for groups and government agencies whose names included the r-word. And as people with intellectual disability moved out of institutions and took their rightful place in the community, they began to advocate for themselves—and to express their loathing for the word “retarded.” (Barry, 2016, paras. 16-17)
Disability language continues to change over time. What is acceptable in one era is frowned upon in the next. Lawrence Carter-Long explained that over the course of his life, from the late 1960s to the present, “while my condition hasn’t changed, I’ve been called handicapped, handi-capable, disabled, differently-abled, and a person with a disability — the latter being an understandable attempt primarily by parents of disabled children to separate the disability from the person” (King, 2016). Despite the numerous different labels applied to his life, Carter-Long emphasizes that “my condition hasn’t changed” (King, 2016). What he means by this statement is that the view of him as a person, the view of his impairment, and the “proper” way to talk about disability changed rapidly. But the whole time that he was referred to by differing labels, Carter-Long still had the same impairment, cerebral palsy. He didn’t change, though the disability terminology changed, and in some ways, society’s view of him and his disability changed, too. Terms fluctuated from the offensive to the euphemism, from identity-first to person-first.
Putting the Social Media of Disability into Practice
Indeed, the experiences that people have are shaped by their environment and their access to resources. Stephen J. MacDonald (2009) studied people with dyslexia in the United Kingdom. MacDonald looked at their experiences through a social model of disability lens. He surveyed 77 people with dyslexia. Then he conducted qualitative interviews. He interviewed 13 people from different socioeconomic status (p. 353). He found that schools and workplaces created disabling barriers for people with dyslexia. In other words, school and work can be inaccessible for some people with learning disabilities. In the UK, MacDonald learned that middle-class people with dyslexia accessed private tutoring and school tuition. Middle-class people with dyslexia had more flexible employment. They accessed assistive technology. The barriers caused more problems for working-class people with dyslexia because they did not have the same resources that middle-class people with dyslexia did (2009, p. 359). When investigating the experiences of people with dyslexia in schools, MacDonald notes that “literacy skills are often seen as a measurement of success in the culture of contemporary education” (p. 354). Western societies disable people with dyslexia by focusing on literacy and accessing literacy through traditional reading.
It’s important to learn the history, theories, and concepts of disability studies, but how do we put the social model of disability into practice for people with developmental disabilities? What do these concepts look like in practice? Even in environments that don’t view developmental disability from a social model perspective, such as schools, it is possible to apply disability studies to work with individuals. Focusing on inclusion means providing an education that works for a variety of students with and without disabilities. Using both existing models of successful inclusive schools and the precepts of neurodiversity, Thomas Armstrong puts the social model of disability into action by suggesting specific qualities that inclusive education should hold. First, inclusive classrooms that work for neurodivergent students, including students with developmental disabilities, should be welcoming to students from any “culture, race, gender, and sexual orientation,” disabled students with a variety of impairments, and nondisabled students (2012, p. 195). Rather than being either a general education classroom with mainstreamed students with disabilities or a special education classroom, teachers value students’ different backgrounds and emphasize that “there is no such thing as a normal student” (p. 197). Instead of including just one teacher, Armstrong recommends involving many caring educators and assistants, from multiple co-teachers with general and special education training to “tutors, aides, parent volunteers, specialized service personnel” and “the students themselves, engaging in teaching one another” (p. 199).
Beyond explicitly welcoming all students and involving caring human relationships in learning, Armstrong speaks to the need for providing a multitude of activities and approaches to best engage students’ strengths. Armstrong explains, “The neurodiverse classroom celebrates and teaches about diversities of all kinds” (p. 197). He recommends working race, culture, gender, sexuality, and disability into curricula as well as infusing lessons with histories of famous neurodivergent people, involving family and community members with developmental, learning, and mental health disabilities in classwork, and stocking the classroom with materials that highlight people with developmental, learning, and mental health disabilities (p. 197), and using assistive technology such as communication devices, reading and writing software (p. 198). Armstrong suggests using Universal Design for Learning: “In the classroom, universal design refers to removing barriers to learning for kids with disabilities in ways that also enhance everyone’s ability to learn” (pp. 196-197). He profiles the William W. Henderson Inclusion Elementary School, from Massachusetts, which gives meaning to the term “presuming competence”:
Students study Shakespeare, for example, but in different ways. Some read with their eyes, some with their fingers; one interprets it with a drawing, while another performs a skit. A fifth-grade teacher engages her students in a lesson on the literary genre of memoir. Some will read bound books. Some will listen to an audiotape. Others will use a computer program that displays and speaks the words of a scanned book. Individual students have specific instructional enhancements added to help them master the material according to their unique gifts and needs. The speech therapist constructs a set of voice recordings and picture symbols for Betsaida (who is nonverbal) so she can communicate her needs more successfully. The biology teacher creates a chart listing ways that Joshua (who has mild cognitive delays) can take responsibility for certain activities in the lab. The art teacher keeps a box of varying grips with her so that students with fine motor difficulties can better use drawing and painting implements. (Armstrong, 2010, p. 192)
Schools have found ways to make students with developmental disability engaged in learning and included in the community. Some of these concepts come from disability rights advocates and disability studies.
Conclusion: Advocacy in the Future
The social model of disability and the neurodiversity paradigm can help show problems and discrimination. More importantly, the social model and neurodiversity can design solutions to make life better for people with developmental and learning disabilities. In his investigation of neurodiversity, educator and researcher Thomas Armstrong (2010) advocates for what he calls “niche construction”—what disability studies scholars would call removing societal barriers. Armstrong writes that for neurodivergent people, “instead of always having to adapt to a static, fixed, or ‘normal’ environment, it’s possible for them (and their caregivers) to alter the environment to match the needs of their own unique brains” (2010, p. 18).
Advocates with developmental disability have paved a path toward better tomorrows for all disabled people. When it comes to disability rights, there is still far to go for people with developmental disability. From inclusion and accessibility in the community and access to supports for a self-directed life to shifting language around disability and fighting violence against disabled people, there are many fights ahead. The self-advocacy movement has proven that change can be made and fights can be won. | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Introducing_Developmental_Disability_Through_a_Disability_Studies_Perspective_(Brooks_and_Bates)/1.03%3A_Self-Advocacy_and_Advocacy.txt |
Abstract. The renaissance of board games in the digital age is sometimes attributed to the multiplication of board game channels on Youtube (Muench, 2017), or to the need to socialize and interact in person (Jolin, 2016). Today, board gameplay is not only livestreamed on platforms such as Twitch.Tv, but sites such as boardgamegeek, and gaming conventions such as Gen Con create a space for board gamers to interact and keep up with the latest happening in the board game community/industry. . Though board gameplay is breaking into mainstream, studies on the different learning spaces in the digital era are still dominated by environments enriched with digital tools such as video games (Carter, Gibbs & Harrop, 2014a). Drawing on board game literature, this chapter discusses board games and how the resurgence of these games in the 21st century may provide an opportunity to understand learning in the digital age.
Introduction.
The rising trend of board gameplay in recent years puzzles many observers of the popular culture. In a technology-driven society, and in a time when important interactions are preferably delegated to technology (Turkle, 2012), the revival of board games (Graham, 2016) is intriguing as well as interesting. According to Euromonitor International, a global market research firm, the global sales of board games reached \$9.6 billion in 2016, with board games such as Settlers of Catan selling more than \$80 million in the United States (Graham, 2016). Board games are becoming for families, children, and young adults, a way to socialize and a common entertainment (Graham, 2016). Kay (2018) writes that U.S. sales of board games increased by 28% between 2016 and 2017 and will grow at a similar rate by 2020. The resurgence of board games in this age certainly denotes a need to explore the revival of board games in the United States in the era of video games. Paraphrasing James Gee, in this chapter, I interrogate board gameplay in an attempt to address the following question: what do board games have to tell us about learning in the digital age?
Oxford online dictionary defines board games as games that include the movement of counters or other objects round a board. These games are certainly different from video games because they include moving pieces on a premarked physical board (Berland & Lee, 2011). It should be noted that some board games such as Mysterium, Songo, Oware, Through the Ages: A New Story of Civilization, and Lords of Waterdeep have been digitized (Ekwè, 2005; Marks & Thrower, 2018). Yet, the board game renaissance is driven by children and adults (Jolin, 2016; Kay, 2018). Furthermore, the development of games such as German-style board games1 (e.g., Settlers of Catan and Pandemic) that prioritize action and encourage the optimization of limited resources (Kapp, 2018), also explain this resurrection.
Prior to discussing the relationship between board games and learning in the digital age, it is critical to explain that the notion of board game resurgence in this century is specific to the Western world (e.g., United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Germany). In Africa, and particularly in Cameroon, board gameplay has been a popular activity for centuries, and as such, the notion of board game resurgence in the digital age may not be applied to Africa, and specifically to Cameroon. The digital age refers to the wide use of digital technology in almost all aspects of human activities, including economic, social, and political interactions (Adomi, 2008; Wang & Torrisi-Steele, 2016). In other words, the digital age is characterized by digital technology shaping the way people live and interact (Ngelime, 2018). Though Africa has creatively embraced the digital age and can no longer be viewed as out of digital age world (Ngelime, 2018), board games have always been popular in different communities or ethnic groups (Nxumalo & Mncube, 2018).
Learning and board games in the digital age
Despite the resurgence of board games, they are mostly researched as artifacts or objects of art , and not as spaces for learning (Bayeck, 2017; Wise, 2018). Nevertheless, some researchers have started exploring board games as learning spaces (Berland & Lee, 2012; Carter et al., 2014) to uncover their learning potential (Bayeck, 2017; Carter, Harrop & Gibbs, 2014a). Such research deviates from the long-standing tradition in game studies that conceived board games as spaces to mine for the design of digital games to enhance players’ gaming experiences (Xu, Barba, Radu, Gandy & MacIntyre, 2011; Zagal, Rick & Hsi, 2006). As Carter et al. (2014b) explain:
The limited number of studies which solely focus on the attraction and experience of non-digital games presents the possibility that without a firm foundational understanding of the [board game] game experience, and the role that the physicality of this experience plays in the enjoyment of the game (highlighted as being important), essential elements of the experience may be overlooked or diminished in digital augmentation (p. 7).
Consequently, without an examination of board gameplay, the learning experiences board games offer to players are likely to be overlooked. In the following paragraphs, I discuss few studies on board games to highlight learning occurring in board gameplay, and to point to board games as spaces for learning that is relevant in the 21st century.
In their study of Warhammer 40,0002 (W40K) board game, Carter et al. (2014a) described players’ multiple activities that evidenced critical thinking, as well as strategic thinking. For instance, players researched narratives behind each army prior to drafting their army by using external resources such as books developed by the developers of the game (Carter et al., 2014a). Players also studied the characters prior to drafting their army by using fictional books about the game, and simulated their readings during their gameplay (Carter et al., 2014a). In addition, players developed their own gameplay strategy based on their preconception of how the game will unfold (Carter et al., 2014a). I argue that W40K practices as described in Carter et al. (2014a) involved a learning process that increased gameplay experience and motivation. For example, in researching players and the different armies’ narratives, players acquired research skills, while gaining more information about the characters and the armies. Playing also meant engaging in decision-making (e.g., drafting the army), and in strategic thinking as they created their own gameplay strategy (Carter et al., 2014a). Though a pastime, W40K activities engage players in learning that is pleasant and fun. Hence, the process of selecting characters, building the army, and using external resources is an illustration of players’ engagement in contextualized meaning making practices, or literacy practices. Indeed, from a sociocultural perspective, participation in practices related to the gameplay as well as interacting with others is learning (Lantolf, 2000; Nasir & Hand, 2006).
Berland and Lee (2012) explored Pandemic3 (Figure 2), a collaborative board game in which players team up to fight diseases and keep the world safe. The authors show that players engaged in complex computational thinking activities distributed among participants (Berland & Lee, 2012). For instance, players collaborated to understand their actions, and engaged in significant crosstalk during gameplay (Berland & Lee, 2012). Consequently, Pandemic created a space for players to participate in learning activities that included computational thinking practices, and collaboration. Board games are therefore useful spaces for learning and practicing skills that are important for everyday life in the digital age.
With regards to learning, it is important to also consider non-western board games. However, empirical studies of board games and learning in non-western contexts such as Africa are still extremely limited (Bayeck, 2017; Mkondiwa, 2019). Nevertheless, as mentioned earlier, the notion of resurgence of board games in the digital age cannot unquestionably be applied to Africa. Africa has a long tradition of board gameplay. Board games such as Oware, Songo, and Bao (Bayeck, 2017; BBC, 2016; Mawere, 2013) are ancient African board games that require “high degree of intelligence and vigilance when playing [them]” (Mawere, 2013, p.11). According to Mawere (2013) board gameplay constituted one of the educational strategies used in precolonial Africa. Though empirical studies on African board gameplay are practically nonexistent, description of strategic games such as Songo4 (Figure 3) evidences that the gameplay involves complex thinking and strategies to outwit the adversary (Meka, 2008; Owona, 2004).
Songo gameplay involves the use of proverbs as a means to demonstrate players’ level of expertise, fast and complex calculations (Njock, 1985; Mbarg Owona, 2004). Building on Owona’s (2004) and Njock’s (1985) descriptions of the gameplay, it is clear that Songo gameplay involves practices that create learning opportunities for players. For instance, counting seeds/pebbles, strategizing to beat the opponent, and engaging in an exchange of proverbs (implying communication as well as language learning) are instances of learning and literacy practices embedded in this ancient African game that are relevant in the digital age. Hence, as competitiveness, strategy, and communication are critical in Songo gameplay, so are these ideas important in the digital age. Reflecting on another board game called Tsoro5 (Figure 4), Mawere (2013) writes:
In fact the players have to think quickly and clearly in order to outwit the opponent. This means that the game is meant to develop and sharpen the [player’s] intellectual faculty such that s/he [develops] the aptitude to manoeuvre different situations in real life. (p.11).
Drawing from the discussion above, there is no doubt that exploring board gameplay is relevant for understanding learning in the digital age. Indeed, non-digital environments such as board games can allow for learning skills that have been strongly associated with digital technology (e.g., computational thinking). Moreover, board games tell us that learning in the digital age is also about interactions, and community. Players value the social component of board games that allows in-person interaction, and reduces isolation (Graham, 2016; Jolin, 2016). Considering that learning occurs in this space, I argue that learning is facilitated in environments that allow, or are designed for interactions to happen among learners, and for spaces that limit the isolation of individuals in the learning process. While Peerutin (2017) views the rise of board games as a counterpoint to the digital trend, a “desire to switch off from the harsh and anxiety-producing reality of the real world”, I argue that the resurgence can shape learning in this age. Quoting a player, Matson (2018) writes:
While the internet is a great thing, sitting down and playing with friends and family is becoming increasingly important. Having time away from our phones and computers where we can talk, play and enjoy time together is something board games let us do.
A first glance at this statement seems to indicate that board game players want to stay away from digital technologies. However, a closer look at this statement also unravels a desire to interact, to be in an environment that enhances togetherness. This understanding is for instance supported by the livestreaming of board gameplay on Twitch.Tv, which shows that staying away from digital tools, is not the only and predominant attraction of board games for players. The social component of board games can inform the design of learning settings in the 21st century.
Conclusion
With the resurgence of board games, especially in the Western world, in the era of social media, digital games, and other forms of digitally-mediated human interactions, I discuss in this chapter learning in the digital age through board games. I contend that limiting the rise of board games to the need for players to interact in person, away from digital tools, may prevent researchers, designers, and educators from engaging with what that may mean for learning in the era of digital technology. The revival of board games gives us insights into learning and learners today; it tells us about learning in the digital age. As much as digital games’ popularity has drawn the interest of educational researchers, the rise of board games in the digital era calls for greater exploration of learning in these spaces, and their potential to inform learning, and the design of learning settings in this age.
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1 German-style board games are characterized by strategy, economics, cooperation, military themes, and the downplaying of luck (Lamb, 2011; Kapp, 2018).
2 A strategic game created by Games Workshop Ltd; its success has led to the development of various derivative products.
3 A game published by Z-Man Games in 2007. Pandemic is one of the key titles in the board-gaming resurrection, and the collaborative aspect of the game the world attracts a wide range of players (Jolin, 2016).
4Songo is made of two rows of seven holes each on a long wooden board. It is played with 70 identical seeds/pebbles distributed equally between two players, and the player with 40 seeds/pebbles wins the game (Meka, 2008; Owona, 2004). There are different versions of Songo game across Africa, as well as different rules. The winning principle mentioned here is specific to Songo played by the Ewondo ethnic group in Cameroon.
5 Mostly played in Southern Africa, made of four rows of 32 holes, and played with 64 seeds/pebbles | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Learning_in_the_Digital_Age_(Asino_et_al.)/1.01%3A_Board_games_and_learning-_Why_care_in_the_digital_age.txt |
Abstract. Blended learning has become a popular term in education today. This chapter aims to explain the definition of blended learning, provide an overview of common blended learning models and offer suggested practices in designing a blended learning environment in K-12 settings. The authors also correlate blended learning practices and benefits to the Universal Design for Learning principles.
Learning Outcomes
• Define blended learning
• Investigate common blended learning models
• Explore suggested strategies for designing a blended learning environment
• Develop an understanding of the connection between blended learning and Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
What is Blended Learning?
According to Horn and Staker (2015), “Blended learning is any formal education program in which a student learns at least in part through online learning, with some element of student control over time, place, path, and/or pace” (p. 34). Blended learning environments are also commonly referred to as “hybrid” courses or classes. Any mixture of online learning and face-to-face (or traditional) settings can be classified as “blended learning.” For the purposes of this paper, the terms “blended” and “hybrid” will be used synonymously.
Learning in the digital age means learning can happen at anytime from anywhere. Therefore, blended environments are becoming more and more prevalent in the world of education. Such learning environments are typically thought of as evolving in higher education. In fact, The University of Potomac communicated that 6,700,000 students were enrolled in online courses in 2014 (2017). Additionally, Lehman and Conceição (2014) reported, “Participation in online courses has grown by 358% since 2003 (p. 4). The demand for online learning opportunities is growing and will only continue to grow as time goes on.
However, these blended learning environments are making their way down into the land of high school and elementary education. Lips (2010) reported, “As many as 1 million children (roughly 2 percent of the K-12 student population) are participating in some form of online learning” (para. 3). The learning settings include fully online as well as blended learning programs. The potential benefits of blended learning, in particular, are causing K-12 schools to take notice and explore implementation of blended learning models.
Why Blended Learning?
It is no secret that the education system of the United States is failing students. This is likely due to the fact that society is changing and the world is evolving, but the education system is the same as it was over two centuries ago. Back in the 19th century, the goal of the school system was to prepare students for jobs in factories, mills and other labor-driven employment. Hence, the development of a “factory system” of education. Students were placed in groups according to their age (without regard for learning needs or abilities). All students were taught the same thing, at the same time, in the same way as if they were on a conveyor belt. This type of education worked then because the goal was different than it is now. Now, 200 years later, the goal of the education system has changed, but the model has not. As Horn and Staker (2015) explained, “Today’s factory model of education, in which we batch students in classes and teach the same thing on the same day, is an ineffective way for most children to learn” (p. 8). School systems need to evolve into the digital age with the rest of the world, otherwise a great disservice is being done to our students. According to Lips (2010), “Online learning has the potential to revolutionize American education” (para. 22).
While the research is limited for elementary settings, the flexibility and adaptability of blended learning, or hybrid, models offers enhanced teaching and learning experiences. Prescott, Bundschuh, Kazakoff and Macaruso (2016) explained, “Blended learning can take various forms, thus allowing users to adapt a program that best fits their pedagogical goals and physical setting” (p. 1). In other words, blended learning provides teachers with the ability to personalize learning for students. In a meta-analyses of 45 studies, Means, Bakia and Murphy (2014) found that, “on average, students in conditions that included significant amounts of learning online performed better than students receiving face-to-face instruction,” and went on to state that, “the subset of the studies employing blended learning approaches was entirely responsible for the observed online advantage” (p. 20). Hence, blended learning is suggested to be more beneficial than fully online or fully traditional settings.
Means et al. (2014) suggested several reasons or purposes for the implementation of blended learning in relation to K-12 schools which include the following:
• Accessibility of learning
• Facilitation of small group instruction
• Addressing diverse needs
• Increase in productivity
• Providing a variety of instructional methods and techniques
• Enhancing engagement among students and teachers
• Providing additional support for complicated, abstract content
As explained by Horn and Staker (2015), “Blended learning is the engine that can power personalized and competency-based learning” (p. 10). Furthermore, “It provides a simple way for students to take different paths toward a common destination,” and, “It can free up teachers to become learning designers, mentors, facilitators, tutors, evaluators, and counselors to reach each student in ways never before possible” (Horn & Staker, 2015, p. 10-11).
Blended Learning Models
There are many ways in which blended learning has been implemented. As more is learned about the effectiveness of hybrid learning environments, one can postulate that more models will be developed. For now, the following models will be discussed: rotation models, a flipped model, flex and “a la carte” models, an enriched virtual model, and a mixture or blend of models.
Rotation Model
The rotation model is the most common model of blended learning used by elementary school teachers. In today’s classrooms, many teachers already use a rotation model in an effort to provide small group instruction. Common in elementary schools is the use of the Daily 5, which is a framework for structuring literacy time in the classroom. It consists of various activities designed to teach students independence while engaging in meaningful literacy tasks (Boushey & Moser, 2014). Rotation models are not new to the K-5 setting but are less utilized (out of blended learning context) in middle- and high-school.
Station Rotation. Specific to blended learning, station rotation includes groups of students rotating through learning stations, at least one of which would include an online learning component (see Figure 1). Depending upon the content area and the teacher, this may look different in every classroom or school. Typically, students are grouped by need or ability. The group moves through various stations together (the number of stations depends on the way the teacher set up the class). Suggested stations may include small group instruction with the teacher (the face-to-face component), individual learning (self-paced and online) and independent practice or application (may be an online task or traditional task).
Lab Rotation. For schools which are not yet 1:1, meaning not every student has his or her own device to use, a lab rotation might be the only option (see Figure 2). The lab rotation is set up similar to station rotation, but involves students moving to a computer lab, facilitated by staff other than certified teachers (i.e. aides, paraprofessionals, support personnel) somewhere else in the school. A percentage of students’ day is spent in the computer lab focused on basic skills through the use of software or other online materials deemed appropriate by the school district or teacher.
Individual Rotation. In this model, algorithms are used to design students’ rotation schedule based on their assessment scores. They may still encounter the similar educational experiences, but the prescribed rotation schedule is based on their personal needs (see Figure 3). Horn and Staker (2015) explained the individual rotation as, “Each student has an individualized playlist to guide him through the rotations. Paraprofessionals are on hand to assist students with Edgenuity [online curriculum]. In the breakout rooms, a face-to-face teacher expands on the material introduced online and helps students apply it” (p. 45). The factor that sets this model apart from the other rotation models is that students transition individually rather than with a group of students.
Flipped Classroom
The flipped classroom model flips the setting of traditional learning (see Figure 4). In this model, students do the “learning” at home via online tools, such as instructional videos, recorded lectures, and other content-related material. The teacher then uses the traditional face-to-face time to help student apply what they have learned through higher-level tasks, projects and assignments. This model lends itself to the middle school and high school settings where time is extremely valuable, and often limited.
Flex Model
Originally designed to provide an opportunity for high school dropouts to recover education credits, the flex model offers students an opportunity to set their own schedules. In the flex model of blended learning, online instruction and online delivery of content is the main mode of student learning (see Figure 5). Teachers, in this model of blended learning, design the course, but then act as more of a facilitator and are used “as-needed.” Learning is student-driven and self-paced in this model which is much more likely to be used in a high school or higher education setting.
A La Carte Model
The “A La Carte” model offers students a chance to take a fully online course on top of their traditional course schedule (see Figure 6). This type of model is seen more often in high school and higher education settings because if provides students with an opportunity to move more quickly through their program. As more colleges and universities are offering this option, the high schools are doing the same to make sure their students are fully prepared for higher education.
Enriched Virtual Model
As explained by Horn and Staker, “Many Enriched Virtual programs began as full-time online schools and then, noticing that their students needed more support, developed blended programs to provide face-to-face enrichment and a safe, peaceful physical setting” (p. 50). However, the traditional classes do not meet daily, or even regularly. Often times, courses implementing an Enriched Virtual model use the progress of the students to determine how often they provide traditional face-to-face instruction or support. That being said, this model lends itself to the higher education setting and is not ideal for K-12 schools (see Figure 7).
Mixture of Models
While the models of blended learning described above are the most common, it is not uncommon to see a blend of models evolving in classrooms. For example, an elementary school teacher might use a “station rotation” model, but “flip” his or her whole group instruction to make efficient use of his or her time with students. The bottom line is that as students continue to evolve and the goal of education continues to evolve, so will best practices in education.
Designing a Blended Experience
Designing an effective blended learning experience is not as easy as just taking traditional content and making it available online. Means et al., (2014) cautioned that the benefits of online learning, “tended to result from a redesign of instruction to extend learning time or promote greater engagement with content” (p. 23). In addition, they explained that such positive outcomes were a result of blended learning environments which, “were likely to involve additional instructional resources and activities that encouraged interactions among learners” (Means et al., 2014, p. 23). Furthermore, Lehman and Conceição (2014) suggest the use of “intentional design” which they explained as, “a method that involves purposeful action and takes into consideration the online learning environment, the teaching process, and learner characteristics” (p. 19).
Community & Culture
One of the most important factors to consider in designing a blended learning experience for students is establishing a community and culture of learning and growing. Establishing a sense of community in a traditional classroom is much easier to do than in an online environment. BlendedLearning.org shed light on this important factor by stating, “Culture is especially useful—or toxic—in blended programs because blended learning goes hand in hand with giving students more control and flexibility. If students lack the processes and cultural norms to handle that agency, the shift toward a personalized environment can backfire” (Clayton Christensen Institute, 2018). Teachers must be very intentional with their course design to include components of interaction and collaboration amongst online students. In the field of blended learning, a teacher should ensure that the culture he or she sets up within the traditional setting is upheld in the online setting as well.
Delgado, Wardlow, McKnight and O’Malley (2015) dittoed the need for establishing a culture of learning. They suggested, “Fostering a learning culture means shifting a traditional teacher-centered model to a student-centered model,” which allows the students to drive their own learning while the teacher is available to provide personalized direct instruction to a small group of students or one-on-one (p. 403). Poirier (2010) provided the following suggestions for instructional strategies which can help establish a culture of collaboration and learning:
• Encourage student leadership in online discussions through assignment of roles
• Integrate ice breakers and scavenger hunts when introducing a new topic
• Use team-based jigsaw presentations to review content
• Ask students to submit photos with their introductions
• Require students to create and maintain a digital portfolio and provide links for the rest of the students to view
Motivation & Engagement
Francis (2012) pointed out that, “Simple class size and access to technology can lead to students having a greater opportunity to be off-task and disengaged in the classroom” (p. 147). This can happen in blended learning environments as well, even with the teacher in the same room. When building a blended learning experience or hybrid course, engagement and motivation are crucial to the success of students regardless of their age.
Andrew Miller, an experienced online teacher of K-12 students, has experienced the challenges of motivating and engaging his students. Through his experiences, Miller (2012) found that, “If you want students to be engaged…it [the activities] must be meaningful” (para. 3). In order for learning activities to be meaningful, they must have purpose.
Whether in an online or a traditional classroom setting, purpose is a driving force behind engagement and motivation. Boushey and Moser (2014) explained, “Setting a purpose and creating a sense of urgency establishes a culture in which every moment of learning and practicing counts” (p. 37). When teachers clearly establish the reason behind an activity, online or in-person, and the students feel the sense of urgency and usefulness, teachers and students will work together to succeed. Kelly (2012) further explained the need for students to understand the relevance of the activities or the content embedded in online learning. Teachers can ensure students understanding by, “being explicit about how the skills and knowledge students acquire in the course can be applied beyond school” (para. 5).
In addition to understanding the usefulness of coursework, Kelly (2012) indicated that students need to feel empowered. “Students feel empowered when they feel that they have some control over some aspects of their learning” (para. 3). One way to provide students with this sense of empowerment is through providing choices. In fact, Boushey and Moser (2014) use this concept in the Daily 5 framework. Based on the work of Gambrell (as cited by Boushey & Moser, 2014), “Choice has been identified as a powerful force that allows students to take ownership and responsibility for their learning. Studies indicate that motivation increases when students have opportunities to make choices about what they learn and when they believe they have some autonomy or control over their own learning” (p. 25). In sum, purpose and choice equate to motivation and engagement.
Content & Organization
One of the major benefits of digital learning is utilizing online formats to access and use up-to-date, current content. In addition, “[blended learning] enables bringing the affordances of technology to bear in teaching conceptually challenging abstract and complex content” (Means, Bakia & Murphy, 2014, p. 115). Supplemental resources, including instructional videos and other interactive media, are readily available online allowing instructors to vary the way they present new and difficult concepts to their students. Pearson Education (2016) pointed out, “Next generation instructional systems that include print and digital options with online adaptive skill building allow teachers and students to personalize in new and exciting ways” (Pearson Education, Inc., 2016).
Finding ways to present curricular content to students is only half the battle. Teachers also need to organize the content in a manageable way. Many online learning platforms have organizational tools available to instructors, such as timelines, modules and units. Many instructors choose to set up the online component of the class in a module format. Doing so breaks the content down into more manageable chunks. Using a modular format also allows students to plan their time and set goals. Lehman and Conceição (2014) explained that using modular (or “chunking”) techniques, “helped the students reduce cognitive overload and allowed them to focus on the content without becoming overwhelmed” (p. 24).
Assessment
With an online component embedded in traditional instruction, digital tools to create assessments which provide immediate feedback are more prevalent. Additionally, teachers are exploring the many ways in which students can demonstrate their learning beyond the multiple-choice assessments of the past. Access to digital devices with internet access enables students to “show what they know” in a multitude of ways which were impossible before, including: recording an audio or video response using tools like Recap or FlipGrid, making an interactive presentation using Nearpod, collaborate on a project using Google Docs or Google Slides, create a website or a blog, etc.
Communication
Another key component in designing online learning environments is communication. Clear communication of expectations and learning intentions, success criteria and learning progressions are essential for student success in online learning. Waack (n.d.) summarized John Hattie’s work regarding teacher clarity with the following statement, “Clear learning intentions describe the skills, knowledge, attitudes and values that the student needs to learn.” The criteria for success should also be clear and concise. Students need to know what they need to do in order to be successful. Sharing the progression of learning allows students to understand how content builds throughout the course or class. Doing these things provides students with a sense of organization and time management allowing students to pace themselves, which will in turn keep them motivated and engaged. Lehman and Conceição (2014) provided a few clear guidelines for this task:
• Provide specific course outcomes
• Include explicit directions for assignments and tasks
• Share the goals of the course or class
• Use deadlines or due dates (p. 25-26)
In addition to the above suggestions, it is also important to provide consistent and specific feedback to students throughout the blended experience. This might be done through chats, email, and/or commenting tools. Lehman and Conceição (2014) reported, “Consistent feedback made students feel self-confident and provided them with a consistent pace” (p. 29). Lack of feedback can often have negative effects on the learning environment, whether online or in-person. In a meta-analysis of educational studies, Hattie and Timperley (2007) found that, “Feedback is among the most critical influences on student learning” (p. 102).
Personalized Learning
“The opportunity to help every student learn at the best pace and path for them is the most important benefit of digital learning” (Pearson Education, Inc., 2016). In order to do this, instructors must start by getting to know their students and their students’ interests. This can be achieved through interest-surveys, informal chat sessions, and icebreaker activities (all can be done online or face-to-face). In addition to understanding students’ interests, it is also important to be proactive about students’ needs. One of the benefits to online courses or classes is that it reaches mores students. However, with more students come more diverse needs. It is important that instructors take into account their students’ learning needs and find ways to address the needs through the presentation of the content, the learning activities and the ways in which students demonstrate their understanding.
Universal Design for Learning
According to Coy, Marino and Serianni (2014), the demand for virtual learning environments is growing (p.64). With that growth comes more students with more needs. It is the instructor’s responsibility to consider the needs of all students as he or she designs an online learning environment. Many of the instructional strategies discussed above can be addressed through using Universal Design for Learning (UDL) principles. Developed by Meyer and Rose, “Universal design for learning (UDL) is a framework to improve and optimize teaching and learning for all people based on scientific insights into how humans learn” (Cast.org, 2014). Typically, when one hears the term UDL, he or she automatically thinks in terms of special education and assistive technology. However, UDL is actually focused on meeting the needs of all learners, using strong pedagogy (in online or traditional settings), and using high-quality, research-based instructional practices. “UDL guidelines offer a set of concrete suggestions that can be applied to any discipline or domain to ensure that all learners can access and participate in meaningful, challenging learning opportunities,” and these guidelines are ever-evolving as scientists learn more about how people learn (Cast.org, 2014). The UDL principles include providing multiple means of engagement, representation and expression.
Providing “multiple means of engagement” refers to the “why” of learning. This includes using a variety of engagement techniques which may include providing options for “recruiting interest, sustaining effort and persistence, and self-regulation” (Cast.org, 2014). In an online environment, strategies might entail:
• Collaborating with students to set a vision or goal and purpose
• Providing multiple paths to reach the same learning outcome
• Creating self-reflection and self-assessment tools
• Having students predict outcomes on assignments or tests
Regardless of the strategies used, the ultimate goal of providing multiple means of engagement is to create a sense of purpose and motivation for all students (Cast.org, 2014).
The next principle of the UDL framework is to “provide multiple means of representation” which refers to the “what” of learning. This is about the presentation of the curricular content. It is important to provide options for “perception, language and symbols, and comprehension” (Cast.org, 2014). When designing any online content, an instructor might think about:
• Minimizing distractions on an educational video by using SafeShare.tv
• Using closed-captioning on instructional videos
• Paying attention to the use of distracting fonts and colors in presentations
• Using infographics or other media in addition to text
• Providing outlines of important ideas in complicated content
These strategies are important in the online learning setting, but also in the traditional classroom as the goal of providing multiple means of representation is to create “resourceful and knowledgeable” students (Cast.org, 2014). The use of technology makes this easier for teachers.
Finally, the third principle of UDL is to provide “multiple means of expression” which addresses the “how” of learning. This principle focuses on the responsibility of teachers to provide options for “physical action, expression and communication, and executive functions” (Cast.org, 2014). Strategies for addressing these concepts may include:
• Providing multiple ways to access content and material (interactive e-books)
• Allowing students to respond in various ways (audio, video, drawing, etc.)
• Using scaffolding techniques when reading and writing
• Using interactive web tools (annotation software, storyboards, etc.)
Cast.org stressed, “It is important to provide alternative modalities for expression, both to the level the playing field among learners and to allow the learner to appropriately (or easily) express knowledge, ideas and concepts in the learning environment” (2014).
UDL is an instructional framework which uses best pedagogical practices, regardless of environment; however, the use of technology makes using UDL techniques easier for teachers and students. It requires a shift in pedagogy in an effort to reach all learners despite their academic (or social) needs.
Conclusion
In conclusion, Lehman and Conceição (2014) explained that, “content design needs to be developed differently depending on the discipline and the desired outcomes of a specific course” (p. 20). Furthermore, “This process requires intention, anticipation, prioritization, and envisioning” (Lehman & Conceição, 2014, p. 20). Although the research is limited, “Blending online instruction with teacher-led activities can enable better learning when it provides a unique, new capability that supports the processes of learning, and when it increases the amount of time during which students are actively engaged in learning” (Means et al., 2014, p. 120).
As society continues to move away from the traditional factory model of education and into learning in the digital age, blended learning offers “the best of both worlds.” Benefits of blended learning models typically include: differentiated instruction, more effective use of instructional time, use of multimedia to enhance teaching and learning, personalized learning paths addressing specific learner needs, targeted instruction opportunities, increased motivation and engagement.
However, to reap these benefits, schools must consider several important pedagogical factors in their quest to set up an effective blended learning environment; such components include building a community and fostering a positive culture, using strategies to establish and maintain motivation and engagement among students (and teachers), practicing effective communication with teacher clarity and effective feedback, personalize learning for students and incorporate principles of UDL in an effort to reach all learners. Delgado et al. (2015) reported that, “blended learning could be better than traditional classrooms, when instructors’ involvement, interaction, content, student capabilities, and the right amount of human to technology [are] combined” (p. 403).
Questions to Consider
• How do the authors define Blended Learning?
• How does the author’s definition compare and contrast with your existing definition of Blended Learning?
• From your experiences, how has learning Blended Learning been a part of your learning experiences, and where could it have fit in a seamless manner?
• The rotation models of instruction provide a variety of opportunities for experience and learning through digital and blended means. How do you see any of the rotation models best fitting with your personal knowledge base and instructional style?
• Where might a mixed-model of methods best fit for student learning in digital settings? Provide a rationale for your response.
• Considering the key elements of digital learning through a Blended Learning format provided in the chapter, develop a learning opportunity to use the key elements of Blended Learning from the chapter. Provide a description of the elements you included and the ways they contributed to the learning opportunity. | textbooks/socialsci/Education_and_Professional_Development/Learning_in_the_Digital_Age_(Asino_et_al.)/1.02%3A_Effective_Instruction_in_Blended_Learning_Environments.txt |
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