chapter
stringlengths 1.97k
1.53M
| path
stringlengths 47
241
|
|---|---|
This is essentially what is aimed for in radio transmitter design, where the antenna or transmission line “impedance” is matched to final power amplifier “impedance” for maximum radio frequency power output. Impedance, the overall opposition to AC and DC current, is very similar to resistance and must be equal between source and load for the greatest amount of power to be transferred to the load. A load impedance that is too high will result in low power output. A load impedance that is too low will not only result in low power output but possibly overheating of the amplifier due to the power dissipated in its internal (Thevenin or Norton) impedance.
Maximum Power Transfer Example
Taking our Thevenin equivalent example circuit, the Maximum Power Transfer Theorem tells us that the load resistance resulting in greatest power dissipation is equal in value to the Thevenin resistance (in this case, 0.8 Ω):
With this value of load resistance, the dissipated power will be 39.2 watts:
If we were to try a lower value for the load resistance (0.5 Ω instead of 0.8 Ω, for example), our power dissipated by the load resistance would decrease:
Power dissipation increased for both the Thevenin resistance and the total circuit, but it decreased for the load resistor. Likewise, if we increase the load resistance (1.1 Ω instead of 0.8 Ω, for example), power dissipation will also be less than it was at 0.8 Ω exactly:
If you were designing a circuit for maximum power dissipation at the load resistance, this theorem would be very useful. Having reduced a network down to a Thevenin voltage and resistance (or Norton current and resistance), you simply set the load resistance equal to that Thevenin or Norton equivalent (or vice versa) to ensure maximum power dissipation at the load. Practical applications of this might include radio transmitter final amplifier stage design (seeking to maximize power delivered to the antenna or transmission line), a grid-tied inverter loading a solar array, or electric vehicle design (seeking to maximize power delivered to drive motor).
Maximum Power Doesn’t Mean Maximum Efficiency
Maximum power transfer does not coincide with maximum efficiency. Application of The Maximum Power Transfer theorem to AC power distribution will not result in maximum or even high efficiency. The goal of high efficiency is more important for AC power distribution, which dictates a relatively low generator impedance compared to the load impedance.
Similar to AC power distribution, high fidelity audio amplifiers are designed for a relatively low output impedance and a relatively high speaker load impedance. As a ratio, “output impedance” : “load impedance” is known as damping factor, typically in the range of 100 to 1000.
Maximum power transfer does not coincide with the goal of lowest noise. For example, the low-level radio frequency amplifier between the antenna and a radio receiver is often designed for lowest possible noise. This often requires a mismatch of the amplifier input impedance to the antenna as compared with that dictated by the maximum power transfer theorem.
Review
• The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem states that the maximum amount of power will be dissipated by a load resistance if it is equal to the Thevenin or Norton resistance of the network supplying power.
• The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem does not satisfy the goal of maximum efficiency. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_I_-_Direct_Current_(Kuphaldt)/10%3A_DC_Network_Analysis/10.12%3A_Maximum_Power_Transfer_Theorem.txt |
In many circuit applications, we encounter components connected together in one of two ways to form a three-terminal network: the “Delta,” or Δ (also known as the “Pi,” or π) configuration, and the “Y” (also known as the “T”) configuration.
It is possible to calculate the proper values of resistors necessary to form one kind of network (Δ or Y) that behaves identically to the other kind, as analyzed from the terminal connections alone. That is, if we had two separate resistor networks, one Δ and one Y, each with its resistors hidden from view, with nothing but the three terminals (A, B, and C) exposed for testing, the resistors could be sized for the two networks so that there would be no way to electrically determine one network apart from the other. In other words, equivalent Δ and Y networks behave identically.
There are several equations used to convert one network to the other:
Δ and Y networks are seen frequently in 3-phase AC power systems (a topic covered in volume II of this book series), but even then they’re usually balanced networks (all resistors equal in value) and conversion from one to the other need not involve such complex calculations. When would the average technician ever need to use these equations?
A prime application for Δ-Y conversion is in the solution of unbalanced bridge circuits, such as the one below:
Solution of this circuit with Branch Current or Mesh Current analysis is fairly involved, and neither the Millman nor Superposition Theorems are of any help, since there’s only one source of power. We could use Thevenin’s or Norton’s Theorem, treating R3 as our load, but what fun would that be?
If we were to treat resistors R1, R2, and R3 as being connected in a Δ configuration (Rab, Rac, and Rbc, respectively) and generate an equivalent Y network to replace them, we could turn this bridge circuit into a (simpler) series/parallel combination circuit:
After the Δ-Y conversion . . .
If we perform our calculations correctly, the voltages between points A, B, and C will be the same in the converted circuit as in the original circuit, and we can transfer those values back to the original bridge configuration.
Resistors R4 and R5, of course, remain the same at 18 Ω and 12 Ω, respectively. Analyzing the circuit now as a series/parallel combination, we arrive at the following figures:
We must use the voltage drops figures from the table above to determine the voltages between points A, B, and C, seeing how the add up (or subtract, as is the case with voltage between points B and C):
Now that we know these voltages, we can transfer them to the same points A, B, and C in the original bridge circuit:
Voltage drops across R4 and R5, of course, are exactly the same as they were in the converted circuit.
At this point, we could take these voltages and determine resistor currents through the repeated use of Ohm’s Law (I=E/R):
A quick simulation with SPICE will serve to verify our work:
The voltage figures, as read from left to right, represent voltage drops across the five respective resistors, R1 through R5. I could have shown currents as well, but since that would have required insertion of “dummy” voltage sources in the SPICE netlist, and since we’re primarily interested in validating the Δ-Y conversion equations and not Ohm’s Law, this will suffice.
Review
• “Delta” (Δ) networks are also known as “Pi” (π) networks.
• “Y” networks are also known as “T” networks.
• Δ and Y networks can be converted to their equivalent counterparts with the proper resistance equations. By “equivalent,” I mean that the two networks will be electrically identical as measured from the three terminals (A, B, and C).
• A bridge circuit can be simplified to a series/parallel circuit by converting half of it from a Δ to a Y network. After voltage drops between the original three connection points (A, B, and C) have been solved for, those voltages can be transferred back to the original bridge circuit, across those same equivalent points. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_I_-_Direct_Current_(Kuphaldt)/10%3A_DC_Network_Analysis/10.13%3A_%CE%94-Y_and_Y-%CE%94_Conversions.txt |
• 11.1: Electron Activity in Chemical Reactions
So far in our discussions on electricity and electric circuits, we have not discussed in any detail how batteries function. Rather, we have simply assumed that they produce constant voltage through some sort of mysterious process. Here, we will explore that process to some degree and cover some of the practical considerations involved with real batteries and their use in power systems.
• 11.2: Battery Construction
The word battery simply means a group of similar components. In military vocabulary, a “battery” refers to a cluster of guns. In electricity, a “battery” is a set of voltaic cells designed to provide greater voltage and/or current than is possible with one cell alone.
• 11.3: Battery Ratings
Because batteries create electron flow in a circuit by exchanging electrons in ionic chemical reactions, and there is a limited number of molecules in any charged battery available to react, there must be a limited amount of total electrons that any battery can motivate through a circuit before its energy reserves are exhausted. Battery capacity could be measured in terms of total number of electrons, but this would be a huge number. We could use the unit of the coulomb (equal to 6.25 x 1018 ele
• 11.4: Special-purpose Batteries
Back in the early days of electrical measurement technology, a special type of battery known as a mercury standard cell was popularly used as a voltage calibration standard. The output of a mercury cell was 1.0183 to 1.0194 volts DC (depending on the specific design of cell), and was extremely stable over time. Advertised drift was around 0.004 percent of rated voltage per year. Mercury standard cells were sometimes known as Weston cells or cadmium cells.
• 11.5: Practical Considerations - Batteries
When connecting batteries together to form larger “banks” (a battery of batteries?), the constituent batteries must be matched to each other so as to not cause problems.
11: Batteries And Power Systems
In the first chapter of this book, the concept of an atom was discussed, as being the basic building-block of all material objects. Atoms, in turn, are composed of even smaller pieces of matter called particles. Electrons, protons, and neutrons are the basic types of particles found in atoms. Each of these particle types plays a distinct role in the behavior of an atom. While electrical activity involves the motion of electrons, the chemical identity of an atom (which largely determines how conductive the material will be) is determined by the number of protons in the nucleus (center).
The protons in an atom’s nucleus are extremely difficult to dislodge, and so the chemical identity of any atom is very stable. One of the goals of the ancient alchemists (to turn lead into gold) was foiled by this sub-atomic stability. All efforts to alter this property of an atom by means of heat, light, or friction were met with failure. The electrons of an atom, however, are much more easily dislodged. As we have already seen, friction is one way in which electrons can be transferred from one atom to another (glass and silk, wax and wool), as well as heat (generating voltage by heating a junction of dissimilar metals, as in the case of thermocouples).
Electrons can do much more than just move around and between atoms: they can also serve to link different atoms together. This linking of atoms by electrons is called a chemical bond. A crude (and simplified) representation of such a bond between two atoms might look like this:
There are several types of chemical bonds, the one shown above being representative of a covalent bond, where electrons are shared between atoms. Because chemical bonds are based on links formed by electrons, these bonds are only as strong as the immobility of the electrons forming them. That is to say, chemical bonds can be created or broken by the same forces that force electrons to move: heat, light, friction, etc.
When atoms are joined by chemical bonds, they form materials with unique properties known as molecules. The dual-atom picture shown above is an example of a simple molecule formed by two atoms of the same type. Most molecules are unions of different types of atoms. Even molecules formed by atoms of the same type can have radically different physical properties. Take the element carbon, for instance: in one form, graphite, carbon atoms link together to form flat “plates” which slide against one another very easily, giving graphite its natural lubricating properties. In another form, diamond, the same carbon atoms link together in a different configuration, this time in the shapes of interlocking pyramids, forming a material of exceeding hardness. In yet another form, Fullerene, dozens of carbon atoms form each molecule, which looks something like a soccer ball. Fullerene molecules are very fragile and lightweight. The airy soot formed by excessively rich combustion of acetylene gas (as in the initial ignition of an oxy-acetylene welding/cutting torch) contains many Fullerene molecules.
When alchemists succeeded in changing the properties of a substance by heat, light, friction, or mixture with other substances, they were really observing changes in the types of molecules formed by atoms breaking and forming bonds with other atoms. Chemistry is the modern counterpart to alchemy and concerns itself primarily with the properties of these chemical bonds and the reactions associated with them.
A type of chemical bond of particular interest to our study of batteries is the so-called ionic bond, and it differs from the covalent bond in that one atom of the molecule possesses an excess of electrons while another atom lacks electrons, the bonds between them being a result of the electrostatic attraction between the two unlike charges.
When ionic bonds are formed from neutral atoms, there is a transfer of electrons between the positively and negatively charged atoms. An atom that gains an excess of electrons is said to be reduced; an atom with a deficiency of electrons is said to be oxidized. A mnemonic to help remember the definitions is OIL RIG (oxidized is less; reduced is gained). It is important to note that molecules will often contain both ionic and covalent bonds. Sodium hydroxide (lye, NaOH) has an ionic bond between the sodium atom (positive) and the hydroxyl ion (negative). The hydroxyl ion has a covalent bond (shown as a bar) between the hydrogen and oxygen atoms:
Na+ O—H- Sodium only loses one electron, so its charge is +1 in the above example. If an atom loses more than one electron, the resulting charge can be indicated as +2, +3, +4, etc. or by a Roman numeral in parentheses showing the oxidation state, such as (I), (II), (IV), etc. Some atoms can have multiple oxidation states, and it is sometimes important to include the oxidation state in the molecular formula to avoid ambiguity.
The formation of ions and ionic bonds from neutral atoms or molecules (or vice versa) involves the transfer of electrons. That transfer of electrons can be harnessed to generate an electric current.A device constructed to do just this is called a voltaic cell, or cell for short, usually consisting of two metal electrodes immersed in a chemical mixture (called an electrolyte) designed to facilitate such an electrochemical (oxidation/reduction) reaction:
In the common “lead-acid” cell (the kind commonly used in automobiles), the negative electrode is made of lead (Pb) and the positive is made of lead (IV) dioxide (PbO2), both metallic substances. It is important to note that lead dioxide is metallic and is an electrical conductor, unlike other metal oxides that are usually insulators. (note: Table below) The electrolyte solution is a dilute sulfuric acid (H2SO4 + H2O). If the electrodes of the cell are connected to an external circuit, such that electrons have a place to flow from one to the other, lead(IV) atoms in the positive electrode (PbO2) will gain two electrons each to produce Pb(II)O. The oxygen atoms which are “left over” combine with positively charged hydrogen ions (H)+to form water (H2O). This flow of electrons into into the lead dioxide (PbO2) electrode, gives it a positive electrical charge. Consequently, lead atoms in the negative electrode give up two electrons each to produce lead Pb(II), which combines with sulfate ions (SO4-2) produced from the disassociation of the hydrogen ions (H+) from the sulfuric acid (H2SO4) to form lead sulfate (PbSO4). The flow of electrons out of the lead electrode gives it a negative electrical charge. These reactions are shown diagrammatically below:
Note on lead oxide nomenclature:
This process of the cell providing electrical energy to supply a load is called discharging since it is depleting its internal chemical reserves. Theoretically, after all of the sulfuric acid has been exhausted, the result will be two electrodes of lead sulfate (PbSO4) and an electrolyte solution of pure water (H2O), leaving no more capacity for additional ionic bonding. In this state, the cell is said to be fully discharged. In a lead-acid cell, the state of charge can be determined by an analysis of acid strength. This is easily accomplished with a device called a hydrometer, which measures the specific gravity (density) of the electrolyte. Sulfuric acid is denser than water, so the greater the charge of a cell, the greater the acid concentration, and thus a denser electrolyte solution.
There is no single chemical reaction representative of all voltaic cells, so any detailed discussion of chemistry is bound to have limited application. The important thing to understand is that electrons are motivated to and/or from the cell’s electrodes via ionic reactions between the electrode molecules and the electrolyte molecules. The reaction is enabled when there is an external path for electric current and ceases when that path is broken.
Being that the motivation for electrons to move through a cell is chemical in nature, the amount of voltage (electromotive force) generated by any cell will be specific to the particular chemical reaction for that cell type. For instance, the lead-acid cell just described has a nominal voltage of 2.04 volts per cell, based on a fully “charged” cell (acid concentration strong) in good physical condition. There are other types of cells with different specific voltage outputs. The Edison cell, for example, with a positive electrode made of nickel oxide, a negative electrode made of iron, and an electrolyte solution of potassium hydroxide (a caustic, not acid, substance) generates a nominal voltage of only 1.2 volts, due to the specific differences in chemical reaction with those electrode and electrolyte substances.
The chemical reactions of some types of cells can be reversed by forcing electric current backward through the cell (in the negative electrode and out the positive electrode). This process is called charging. Any such (rechargeable) cell is called a secondary cell. A cell whose chemistry cannot be reversed by a reverse current is called a primary cell.
When a lead-acid cell is charged by an external current source, the chemical reactions experienced during discharge are reversed:
Review
• Atoms bound together by electrons are called molecules.
• Ionic bonds are molecular unions formed when an electron-deficient atom (a positive ion) joins with an electron-excessive atom (a negative ion).
• Electrochemical reactions involve the transfer of electrons between atoms. This transfer can be harnessed to form an electric current.
• A cell is a device constructed to harness such chemical reactions to generate electric current.
• A cell is said to be discharged when its internal chemical reserves have been depleted through use.
• A secondary cell’s chemistry can be reversed (recharged) by forcing current backward through it.
• A primary cell cannot be practically recharged.
• Lead-acid cell charge can be assessed with an instrument called a hydrometer, which measures the density of the electrolyte liquid. The denser the electrolyte, the stronger the acid concentration, and the greater charge state of the cell. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_I_-_Direct_Current_(Kuphaldt)/11%3A_Batteries_And_Power_Systems/11.01%3A_Electron_Activity_in_Chemical_Reactions.txt |
The symbol for a cell is very simple, consisting of one long line and one short line, parallel to each other, with connecting wires:
The symbol for a battery is nothing more than a couple of cell symbols stacked in series:
As was stated before, the voltage produced by any particular kind of cell is determined strictly by the chemistry of that cell type. The size of the cell is irrelevant to its voltage. To obtain greater voltage than the output of a single cell, multiple cells must be connected in series. The total voltage of a battery is the sum of all cell voltages. A typical automotive lead-acid battery has six cells, for a nominal voltage output of 6 x 2.0 or 12.0 volts:
The cells in an automotive battery are contained within the same hard rubber housing, connected together with thick, lead bars instead of wires. The electrodes and electrolyte solutions for each cell are contained in separate, partitioned sections of the battery case. In large batteries, the electrodes commonly take the shape of thin metal grids or plates, and are often referred to as plates instead of electrodes.
For the sake of convenience, battery symbols are usually limited to four lines, alternating long/short, although the real battery it represents may have many more cells than that. On occasion, however, you might come across a symbol for a battery with unusually high voltage, intentionally drawn with extra lines. The lines, of course, are representative of the individual cell plates:
If the physical size of a cell has no impact on its voltage, then what does it affect? The answer is resistance, which in turn affects the maximum amount of current that a cell can provide. Every voltaic cell contains some amount of internal resistance due to the electrodes and the electrolyte. The larger a cell is constructed, the greater the electrode contact area with the electrolyte, and thus the less internal resistance it will have.
Although we generally consider a cell or battery in a circuit to be a perfect source of voltage (absolutely constant), the current through it dictated solely by the external resistance of the circuit to which it is attached, this is not entirely true in real life. Since every cell or battery contains some internal resistance, that resistance must affect the current in any given circuit:
The real battery shown above within the dotted lines has an internal resistance of 0.2 Ω, which affects its ability to supply current to the load resistance of 1 Ω. The ideal battery on the left has no internal resistance, and so our Ohm’s Law calculations for current (I=E/R) give us a perfect value of 10 amps for current with the 1 ohm load and 10 volt supply. The real battery, with its built-in resistance further impeding the flow of electrons, can only supply 8.333 amps to the same resistance load.
The ideal battery, in a short circuit with 0 Ω resistance, would be able to supply an infinite amount of current. The real battery, on the other hand, can only supply 50 amps (10 volts / 0.2 Ω) to a short circuit of 0 Ω resistance, due to its internal resistance. The chemical reaction inside the cell may still be providing exactly 10 volts, but voltage is dropped across that internal resistance as electrons flow through the battery, which reduces the amount of voltage available at the battery terminals to the load.
Since we live in an imperfect world, with imperfect batteries, we need to understand the implications of factors such as internal resistance. Typically, batteries are placed in applications where their internal resistance is negligible compared to that of the circuit load (where their short-circuit current far exceeds their usual load current), and so the performance is very close to that of an ideal voltage source.
If we need to construct a battery with lower resistance than what one cell can provide (for greater current capacity), we will have to connect the cells together in parallel:
Essentially, what we have done here is determine the Thevenin equivalent of the five cells in parallel (an equivalent network of one voltage source and one series resistance). The equivalent network has the same source voltage but a fraction of the resistance of any individual cell in the original network. The overall effect of connecting cells in parallel is to decrease the equivalent internal resistance, just as resistors in parallel diminish in total resistance. The equivalent internal resistance of this battery of 5 cells is 1/5 that of each individual cell. The overall voltage stays the same: 2.0 volts. If this battery of cells were powering a circuit, the current through each cell would be 1/5 of the total circuit current, due to the equal split of current through equal-resistance parallel branches.
Review
• A battery is a cluster of cells connected together for greater voltage and/or current capacity.
• Cells connected together in series (polarities aiding) results in greater total voltage.
• Physical cell size impacts cell resistance, which in turn impacts the ability for the cell to supply current to a circuit. Generally, the larger the cell, the less its internal resistance.
• Cells connected together in parallel results in less total resistance, and potentially greater total current. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_I_-_Direct_Current_(Kuphaldt)/11%3A_Batteries_And_Power_Systems/11.02%3A_Battery_Construction.txt |
A battery with a capacity of 1 amp-hour should be able to continuously supply a current of 1 amp to a load for exactly 1 hour, or 2 amps for 1/2 hour, or 1/3 amp for 3 hours, etc., before becoming completely discharged. In an ideal battery, this relationship between continuous current and discharge time is stable and absolute, but real batteries don’t behave exactly as this simple linear formula would indicate. Therefore, when amp-hour capacity is given for a battery, it is specified at either a given current, given time, or assumed to be rated for a time period of 8 hours (if no limiting factor is given).
For example, an average automotive battery might have a capacity of about 70 amp-hours, specified at a current of 3.5 amps. This means that the amount of time this battery could continuously supply a current of 3.5 amps to a load would be 20 hours (70 amp-hours / 3.5 amps). But let’s suppose that a lower-resistance load were connected to that battery, drawing 70 amps continuously. Our amp-hour equation tells us that the battery should hold out for exactly 1 hour (70 amp-hours / 70 amps), but this might not be true in real life. With higher currents, the battery will dissipate more heat across its internal resistance, which has the effect of altering the chemical reactions taking place within. Chances are, the battery would fully discharge some time before the calculated time of 1 hour under this greater load.
Conversely, if a very light load (1 mA) were to be connected to the battery, our equation would tell us that the battery should provide power for 70,000 hours, or just under 8 years (70 amp-hours / 1 milliamp), but the odds are that much of the chemical energy in a real battery would have been drained due to other factors (evaporation of electrolyte, deterioration of electrodes, leakage current within battery) long before 8 years had elapsed. Therefore, we must take the amp-hour relationship as being an ideal approximation of battery life, the amp-hour rating trusted only near the specified current or timespan given by the manufacturer. Some manufacturers will provide amp-hour derating factors specifying reductions in total capacity at different levels of current and/or temperature.
For secondary cells, the amp-hour rating provides a rule for necessary charging time at any given level of charge current. For example, the 70 amp-hour automotive battery in the previous example should take 10 hours to charge from a fully-discharged state at a constant charging current of 7 amps (70 amp-hours / 7 amps).
Approximate amp-hour capacities of some common batteries are given here:
• Typical automotive battery: 70 amp-hours @ 3.5 A (secondary cell)
• D-size carbon-zinc battery: 4.5 amp-hours @ 100 mA (primary cell)
• 9 volt carbon-zinc battery: 400 milliamp-hours @ 8 mA (primary cell)
As a battery discharges, not only does it diminish its internal store of energy, but its internal resistance also increases (as the electrolyte becomes less and less conductive), and its open-circuit cell voltage decreases (as the chemicals become more and more dilute). The most deceptive change that a discharging battery exhibits is increased resistance. The best check for a battery’s condition is a voltage measurement under load, while the battery is supplying a substantial current through a circuit. Otherwise, a simple voltmeter check across the terminals may falsely indicate a healthy battery (adequate voltage) even though the internal resistance has increased considerably. What constitutes a “substantial current” is determined by the battery’s design parameters. A voltmeter check revealing too low of a voltage, of course, would positively indicate a discharged battery:
Fully charged battery:
Now, if the battery discharges a bit . . .
and discharges a bit further . . .
and a bit further until its dead.
Notice how much better the battery’s true condition is revealed when its voltage is checked under load as opposed to without a load. Does this mean that its pointless to check a battery with just a voltmeter (no load)? Well, no. If a simple voltmeter check reveals only 7.5 volts for a 13.2 volt battery, then you know without a doubt that its dead. However, if the voltmeter were to indicate 12.5 volts, it may be near full charge or somewhat depleted—you couldn’t tell without a load check. Bear in mind also that the resistance used to place a battery under load must be rated for the amount of power expected to be dissipated. For checking large batteries such as an automobile (12 volt nominal) lead-acid battery, this may mean a resistor with a power rating of several hundred watts.
Review
• The amp-hour is a unit of battery energy capacity, equal to the amount of continuous current multiplied by the discharge time, that a battery can supply before exhausting its internal store of chemical energy.
• An amp-hour battery rating is only an approximation of the battery’s charge capacity, and should be trusted only at the current level or time specified by the manufacturer. Such a rating cannot be extrapolated for very high currents or very long times with any accuracy.
• Discharged batteries lose voltage and increase in resistance. The best check for a dead battery is a voltage test under load. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_I_-_Direct_Current_(Kuphaldt)/11%3A_Batteries_And_Power_Systems/11.03%3A_Battery_Ratings.txt |
Back in the early days of electrical measurement technology, a special type of battery known as a mercury standard cell was popularly used as a voltage calibration standard. The output of a mercury cell was 1.0183 to 1.0194 volts DC (depending on the specific design of cell), and was extremely stable over time. Advertised drift was around 0.004 percent of rated voltage per year. Mercury standard cells were sometimes known as Weston cells or cadmium cells.
Unfortunately, mercury cells were rather intolerant of any current drain and could not even be measured with an analog voltmeter without compromising accuracy. Manufacturers typically called for no more than 0.1 mA of current through the cell, and even that figure was considered a momentary, or surge maximum! Consequently, standard cells could only be measured with a potentiometric (null-balance) device where current drain is almost zero. Short-circuiting a mercury cell was prohibited, and once short-circuited, the cell could never be relied upon again as a standard device.
Mercury standard cells were also susceptible to slight changes in voltage if physically or thermally disturbed. Two different types of mercury standard cells were developed for different calibration purposes: saturated and unsaturated. Saturated standard cells provided the greatest voltage stability over time, at the expense of thermal instability. In other words, their voltage drifted very little with the passage of time (just a few microvolts over the span of a decade!), but tended to vary with changes in temperature (tens of microvolts per degree Celsius). These cells functioned best in temperature-controlled laboratory environments where long-term stability is paramount. Unsaturated cells provided thermal stability at the expense of stability over time, the voltage remaining virtually constant with changes in temperature but decreasing steadily by about 100 µV every year. These cells functioned best as “field” calibration devices where ambient temperature is not precisely controlled. Nominal voltage for a saturated cell was 1.0186 volts, and 1.019 volts for an unsaturated cell.
Modern semiconductor voltage (zener diode regulator) references have superseded standard cell batteries as laboratory and field voltage standards.
A fascinating device closely related to primary-cell batteries is the fuel cell, so-called because it harnesses the chemical reaction of combustion to generate an electric current. The process of chemical oxidation (oxygen ionically bonding with other elements) is capable of producing an electron flow between two electrodes just as well as any combination of metals and electrolytes. A fuel cell can be thought of as a battery with an externally supplied chemical energy source.
To date, the most successful fuel cells constructed are those which run on hydrogen and oxygen, although much research has been done on cells using hydrocarbon fuels. While “burning” hydrogen, a fuel cell’s only waste byproducts are water and a small amount of heat. When operating on carbon-containing fuels, carbon dioxide is also released as a byproduct. Because the operating temperature of modern fuel cells is far below that of normal combustion, no oxides of nitrogen (NOx) are formed, making it far less polluting, all other factors being equal.
The efficiency of energy conversion in a fuel cell from chemical to electrical far exceeds the theoretical Carnot efficiency limit of any internal-combustion engine, which is an exciting prospect for power generation and hybrid electric automobiles.
Another type of “battery” is the solar cell, a by-product of the semiconductor revolution in electronics. The photoelectric effect, whereby electrons are dislodged from atoms under the influence of light, has been known in physics for many decades, but it has only been with recent advances in semiconductor technology that a device existed capable of harnessing this effect to any practical degree. Conversion efficiencies for silicon solar cells are still quite low, but their benefits as power sources are legion: no moving parts, no noise, no waste products or pollution (aside from the manufacture of solar cells, which is still a fairly “dirty” industry), and indefinite life.
Specific cost of solar cell technology (dollars per kilowatt) is still very high, with little prospect of significant decrease barring some kind of revolutionary advance in technology. Unlike electronic components made from semiconductor material, which can be made smaller and smaller with less scrap as a result of better quality control, a single solar cell still takes the same amount of ultra-pure silicon to make as it did thirty years ago. Superior quality control fails to yield the same production gain seen in the manufacture of chips and transistors (where isolated specks of impurity can ruin many microscopic circuits on one wafer of silicon). The same number of impure inclusions does little to impact the overall efficiency of a 3-inch solar cell.
Yet another type of special-purpose “battery” is the chemical detection cell. Simply put, these cells chemically react with specific substances in the air to create a voltage directly proportional to the concentration of that substance. A common application for a chemical detection cell is in the detection and measurement of oxygen concentration. Many portable oxygen analyzers have been designed around these small cells. Cell chemistry must be designed to match the specific substance(s) to be detected, and the cells do tend to “wear out,” as their electrode materials deplete or become contaminated with use.
Review
• mercury standard cells are special types of batteries which were once used as voltage calibration standards before the advent of precision semiconductor reference devices.
• A fuel cell is a kind of battery that uses a combustible fuel and oxidizer as reactants to generate electricity. They are promising sources of electrical power in the future, “burning” fuels with very low emissions.
• A solar cell uses ambient light energy to motivate electrons from one electrode to the other, producing voltage (and current, providing an external circuit).
• A chemical detection cell is a special type of voltaic cell which produces voltage proportional to the concentration of an applied substance (usually a specific gas in ambient air). | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_I_-_Direct_Current_(Kuphaldt)/11%3A_Batteries_And_Power_Systems/11.04%3A_Special-purpose_Batteries.txt |
When connecting batteries together to form larger “banks” (a battery of batteries?), the constituent batteries must be matched to each other so as to not cause problems. First we will consider connecting batteries in series for greater voltage:
We know that the current is equal at all points in a series circuit, so whatever amount of current there is in any one of the series-connected batteries must be the same for all the others as well. For this reason, each battery must have the same amp-hour rating, or else some of the batteries will become depleted sooner than others, compromising the capacity of the whole bank. Please note that the total amp-hour capacity of this series battery bank is not affected by the number of batteries.
Next, we will consider connecting batteries in parallel for greater current capacity (lower internal resistance), or greater amp-hour capacity:
We know that the voltage is equal across all branches of a parallel circuit, so we must be sure that these batteries are of equal voltage. If not, we will have relatively large currents circulating from one battery through another, the higher-voltage batteries overpowering the lower-voltage batteries. This is not good.
On this same theme, we must be sure that any overcurrent protection (circuit breakers or fuses) are installed in such a way as to be effective. For our series battery bank, one fuse will suffice to protect the wiring from excessive current, since any break in a series circuit stops current through all parts of the circuit:
With a parallel battery bank, one fuse is adequate for protecting the wiring against load overcurrent (between the parallel-connected batteries and the load), but we have other concerns to protect against as well. Batteries have been known to internally short-circuit, due to electrode separator failure, causing a problem not unlike that where batteries of unequal voltage are connected in parallel: the good batteries will overpower the failed (lower voltage) battery, causing relatively large currents within the batteries’ connecting wires. To guard against this eventuality, we should protect each and every battery against overcurrent with individual battery fuses, in addition to the load fuse:
When dealing with secondary-cell batteries, particular attention must be paid to the method and timing of charging. Different types and construction of batteries have different charging needs, and the manufacturer’s recommendations are probably the best guide to follow when designing or maintaining a system. Two distinct concerns of battery charging are cycling and overcharging. Cycling refers to the process of charging a battery to a “full” condition and then discharging it to a lower state. All batteries have a finite (limited) cycle life, and the allowable “depth” of cycle (how far it should be discharged at any time) varies from design to design. Overcharging is the condition where current continues to be forced backwards through a secondary cell beyond the point where the cell has reached full charge. With lead-acid cells in particular, overcharging leads to electrolysis of the water (“boiling” the water out of the battery) and shortened life.
Any battery containing water in the electrolyte is subject to the production of hydrogen gas due to electrolysis. This is especially true for overcharged lead-acid cells, but not exclusive to that type. Hydrogen is an extremely flammable gas (especially in the presence of free oxygen created by the same electrolysis process), odorless and colorless. Such batteries pose an explosion threat even under normal operating conditions, and must be treated with respect. The author has been a firsthand witness to a lead-acid battery explosion, where a spark created by the removal of a battery charger (small DC power supply) from an automotive battery ignited hydrogen gas within the battery case, blowing the top off the battery and splashing sulfuric acid everywhere. This occurred in a high school automotive shop, no less. If it were not for all the students nearby wearing safety glasses and buttoned-collar overalls, significant injury could have occurred.
When connecting and disconnecting charging equipment to a battery, always make the last connection (or first disconnection) at a location away from the battery itself (such as at a point on one of the battery cables, at least a foot away from the battery), so that any resultant spark has little or no chance of igniting hydrogen gas.
In large, permanently installed battery banks, batteries are equipped with vent caps above each cell, and hydrogen gas is vented outside of the battery room through hoods immediately over the batteries. Hydrogen gas is very light and rises quickly. The greatest danger is when it is allowed to accumulate in an area, awaiting ignition.
More modern lead-acid battery designs are sealed, fabricated to re-combine the electrolyzed hydrogen and oxygen back into water, inside the battery case itself. Adequate ventilation might still be a good idea, just in case a battery were to develop a leak.
Review
• Connecting batteries in series increases voltage, but does not increase overall amp-hour capacity.
• All batteries in a series bank must have the same amp-hour rating.
• Connecting batteries in parallel increases total current capacity by decreasing total resistance, and it also increases overall amp-hour capacity.
• All batteries in a parallel bank must have the same voltage rating.
• Batteries can be damaged by excessive cycling and overcharging.
• Water-based electrolyte batteries are capable of generating explosive hydrogen gas, which must not be allowed to accumulate in an area. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_I_-_Direct_Current_(Kuphaldt)/11%3A_Batteries_And_Power_Systems/11.05%3A_Practical_Considerations_-_Batteries.txt |
• 12.1: 12.1 Introduction to Conductance and Conductors
By now you should be well aware of the correlation between electrical conductivity and certain types of materials. Those materials allowing for easy passage of free electrons are called conductors, while those materials impeding the passage of free electrons are called insulators.
• 12.2: Conductor Size
It should be common-sense knowledge that liquids flow through large-diameter pipes easier than they do through small-diameter pipes (if you would like a practical illustration, try drinking a liquid through straws of different diameters). The same general principle holds for the flow of electrons through conductors: the broader the cross-sectional area (thickness) of the conductor, the more room for electrons to flow, and consequently, the easier it is for flow to occur (less resistance).
• 12.3: Conductor Ampacity
The smaller the wire, the greater the resistance for any given length, all other factors being equal. A wire with greater resistance will dissipate a greater amount of heat energy for any given amount of current, the power being equal to P=I2R. Dissipated power in a resistance manifests itself in the form of heat, and excessive heat can be damaging to a wire (not to mention objects near the wire!), especially considering the fact that most wires are insulated with a plastic or rubber coating, w
• 12.4: Fuses
Normally, the ampacity rating of a conductor is a circuit design limit never to be intentionally exceeded, but there is an application where ampacity exceedance is expected: in the case of fuses.
• 12.5: Specific Resistance
• 12.6: Temperature Coefficient of Resistance
You might have noticed on the table for specific resistances that all figures were specified at a temperature of 20o Celsius. If you suspected that this meant specific resistance of a material may change with temperature, you were right!
• 12.7: Superconductivity
Conductors lose all of their electrical resistance when cooled to super-low temperatures (near absolute zero, about -273o Celsius). It must be understood that superconductivity is not merely an extrapolation of most conductors’ tendency to gradually lose resistance with decreasing temperature; rather, it is a sudden, quantum leap in resistivity from finite to nothing. A superconducting material has absolutely zero electrical resistance, not just some small amount. Superconductivity was first di
• 12.8: Insulator Breakdown Voltage
The atoms in insulating materials have very tightly-bound electrons, resisting free electron flow very well. However, insulators cannot resist indefinite amounts of voltage. With enough voltage applied, any insulating material will eventually succumb to the electrical “pressure” and electron flow will occur. However, unlike the situation with conductors where current is in a linear proportion to applied voltage (given a fixed resistance), current through an insulator is quite nonlinear: for volt
12: Physics of Conductors and Insulators
Unfortunately, the scientific theories explaining why certain materials conduct and others don’t are quite complex, rooted in quantum mechanical explanations in how electrons are arranged around the nuclei of atoms. Contrary to the well-known “planetary” model of electrons whirling around an atom’s nucleus as well-defined chunks of matter in circular or elliptical orbits, electrons in “orbit” don’t really act like pieces of matter at all. Rather, they exhibit the characteristics of both particle and wave, their behavior constrained by placement within distinct zones around the nucleus referred to as “shells” and “subshells.” Electrons can occupy these zones only in a limited range of energies depending on the particular zone and how occupied that zone is with other electrons. If electrons really did act like tiny planets held in orbit around the nucleus by electrostatic attraction, their actions described by the same laws describing the motions of real planets, there could be no real distinction between conductors and insulators, and chemical bonds between atoms would not exist in the way they do now. It is the discrete, “quantitized” nature of electron energy and placement described by quantum physics that gives these phenomena their regularity.
When an electron is free to assume higher energy states around an atom’s nucleus (due to its placement in a particular “shell”), it may be free to break away from the atom and comprise part of an electric current through the substance. If the quantum limitations imposed on an electron deny it this freedom, however, the electron is considered to be “bound” and cannot break away (at least not easily) to constitute a current. The former scenario is typical of conducting materials, while the latter is typical of insulating materials.
Some textbooks will tell you that an element’s conductivity or nonconductivity is exclusively determined by the number of electrons residing in the atoms’ outer “shell” (called the valence shell), but this is an oversimplification, as any examination of conductivity versus valence electrons in a table of elements will confirm. The true complexity of the situation is further revealed when the conductivity of molecules (collections of atoms bound to one another by electron activity) is considered.
A good example of this is the element carbon, which comprises materials of vastly differing conductivity: graphite and diamond. Graphite is a fair conductor of electricity, while diamond is practically an insulator (stranger yet, it is technically classified as a semiconductor, which in its pure form acts as an insulator, but can conduct under high temperatures and/or the influence of impurities). Both graphite and diamond are composed of the exact same types of atoms: carbon, with 6 protons, 6 neutrons and 6 electrons each. The fundamental difference between graphite and diamond being that graphite molecules are flat groupings of carbon atoms while diamond molecules are tetrahedral (pyramid-shaped) groupings of carbon atoms.
If atoms of carbon are joined to other types of atoms to form compounds, electrical conductivity becomes altered once again. Silicon carbide, a compound of the elements silicon and carbon, exhibits nonlinear behavior: its electrical resistance decreases with increases in applied voltage! Hydrocarbon compounds (such as the molecules found in oils) tend to be very good insulators. As you can see, a simple count of valence electrons in an atom is a poor indicator of a substance’s electrical conductivity.
All metallic elements are good conductors of electricity, due to the way the atoms bond with each other. The electrons of the atoms comprising a mass of metal are so uninhibited in their allowable energy states that they float freely between the different nuclei in the substance, readily motivated by any electric field. The electrons are so mobile, in fact, that they are sometimes described by scientists as an electron gas, or even an electron sea in which the atomic nuclei rest. This electron mobility accounts for some of the other common properties of metals: good heat conductivity, malleability and ductility (easily formed into different shapes), and a lustrous finish when pure.
Thankfully, the physics behind all this is mostly irrelevant to our purposes here. Suffice it to say that some materials are good conductors, some are poor conductors, and some are in between. For now it is good enough to simply understand that these distinctions are determined by the configuration of the electrons around the constituent atoms of the material.
An important step in getting electricity to do our bidding is to be able to construct paths for electrons to flow with controlled amounts of resistance. It is also vitally important that we be able to prevent electrons from flowing where we don’t want them to, by using insulating materials. However, not all conductors are the same, and neither are all insulators. We need to understand some of the characteristics of common conductors and insulators, and be able to apply these characteristics to specific applications.
Almost all conductors possess a certain, measurable resistance (special types of materials called superconductors possess absolutely no electrical resistance, but these are not ordinary materials, and they must be held in special conditions in order to be super conductive). Typically, we assume the resistance of the conductors in a circuit to be zero, and we expect that current passes through them without producing any appreciable voltage drop. In reality, however, there will almost always be a voltage drop along the (normal) conductive pathways of an electric circuit, whether we want a voltage drop to be there or not:
In order to calculate what these voltage drops will be in any particular circuit, we must be able to ascertain the resistance of ordinary wire, knowing the wire size and diameter. Some of the following sections of this chapter will address the details of doing this.
Review
• Electrical conductivity of a material is determined by the configuration of electrons in that materials atoms and molecules (groups of bonded atoms).
• All normal conductors possess resistance to some degree.
• Electrons flowing through a conductor with (any) resistance will produce some amount of voltage drop across the length of that conductor. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_I_-_Direct_Current_(Kuphaldt)/12%3A_Physics_of_Conductors_and_Insulators/12.01%3A_12.1_Introduction_to_Conductance_and_Conductors.txt |
Two Basic Varieties of Electrical Wire: Solid and Stranded
Electrical wire is usually round in cross-section (although there are some unique exceptions to this rule), and comes in two basic varieties: solid and stranded. Solid copper wire is just as it sounds: a single, solid strand of copper the whole length of the wire. Stranded wire is composed of smaller strands of solid copper wire twisted together to form a single, larger conductor. The greatest benefit of stranded wire is its mechanical flexibility, being able to withstand repeated bending and twisting much better than solid copper (which tends to fatigue and break after time).
Wire size can be measured in several ways. We could speak of a wire’s diameter, but since its really the cross-sectional area that matters most regarding the flow of electrons, we are better off designating wire size in terms of area.
The wire cross-section picture shown above is, of course, not drawn to scale. The diameter is shown as being 0.1019 inches. Calculating the area of the cross-section with the formula Area = πr2, we get an area of 0.008155 square inches:
These are fairly small numbers to work with, so wire sizes are often expressed in measures of thousandths-of-an-inch, or mils. For the illustrated example, we would say that the diameter of the wire was 101.9 mils (0.1019 inch times 1000). We could also, if we wanted, express the area of the wire in the unit of square mils, calculating that value with the same circle-area formula, Area = πr2:
Calculating the Circular-mil Area of a Wire
However, electricians and others frequently concerned with wire size use another unit of area measurement tailored specifically for wire’s circular cross-section. This special unit is called the circular mil (sometimes abbreviated cmil). The sole purpose for having this special unit of measurement is to eliminate the need to invoke the factor π (3.1415927 . . .) in the formula for calculating area, plus the need to figure wire radiuswhen you’ve been given diameter. The formula for calculating the circular-mil area of a circular wire is very simple:
Because this is a unit of area measurement, the mathematical power of 2 is still in effect (doubling the width of a circle will always quadruple its area, no matter what units are used, or if the width of that circle is expressed in terms of radius or diameter). To illustrate the difference between measurements in square mils and measurements in circular mils, I will compare a circle with a square, showing the area of each shape in both unit measures:
And for another size of wire:
Obviously, the circle of a given diameter has less cross-sectional area than a square of width and height equal to the circle’s diameter: both units of area measurement reflect that. However, it should be clear that the unit of “square mil” is really tailored for the convenient determination of a square’s area, while “circular mil” is tailored for the convenient determination of a circle’s area: the respective formula for each is simpler to work with. It must be understood that both units are valid for measuring the area of a shape, no matter what shape that may be. The conversion between circular mils and square mils is a simple ratio: there are π (3.1415927 . . .) square mils to every 4 circular mils.
Measuring Cross-Sectional Wire Area with Gauge
Another measure of cross-sectional wire area is the gauge. The gauge scale is based on whole numbers rather than fractional or decimal inches. The larger the gauge number, the skinnier the wire; the smaller the gauge number, the fatter the wire. For those acquainted with shotguns, this inversely-proportional measurement scale should sound familiar.
The table at the end of this section equates gauge with inch diameter, circular mils, and square inches for solid wire. The larger sizes of wire reach an end of the common gauge scale (which naturally tops out at a value of 1), and are represented by a series of zeros. “3/0” is another way to represent “000,” and is pronounced “triple-ought.” Again, those acquainted with shotguns should recognize the terminology, strange as it may sound. To make matters even more confusing, there is more than one gauge “standard” in use around the world. For electrical conductor sizing, the American Wire Gauge (AWG), also known as the Brown and Sharpe (B&S) gauge, is the measurement system of choice. In Canada and Great Britain, the British Standard Wire Gauge (SWG) is the legal measurement system for electrical conductors. Other wire gauge systems exist in the world for classifying wire diameter, such as the Stubs steel wire gauge and the Steel Music Wire Gauge (MWG), but these measurement systems apply to non-electrical wire use.
The American Wire Gauge (AWG) measurement system, despite its oddities, was designed with a purpose: for every three steps in the gauge scale, wire area (and weight per unit length) approximately doubles. This is a handy rule to remember when making rough wire size estimations!
For very large wire sizes (fatter than 4/0), the wire gauge system is typically abandoned for cross-sectional area measurement in thousands of circular mils (MCM), borrowing the old Roman numeral “M” to denote a multiple of “thousand” in front of “CM” for “circular mils.” The following table of wire sizes does not show any sizes bigger than 4/0 gauge, because solid copper wire becomes impractical to handle at those sizes. Stranded wire construction is favored, instead.
For some high-current applications, conductor sizes beyond the practical size limit of round wire are required. In these instances, thick bars of solid metal called busbars are used as conductors. Busbars are usually made of copper or aluminum, and are most often uninsulated. They are physically supported away from whatever framework or structure is holding them by insulator standoff mounts. Although a square or rectangular cross-section is very common for busbar shape, other shapes are used as well. Cross-sectional area for busbars is typically rated in terms of circular mils (even for square and rectangular bars!), most likely for the convenience of being able to directly equate busbar size with round wire.
REVIEW:
• Electrons flow through large-diameter wires easier than small-diameter wires, due to the greater cross-sectional area they have in which to move.
• Rather than measure small wire sizes in inches, the unit of “mil” (1/1000 of an inch) is often employed.
• The cross-sectional area of a wire can be expressed in terms of square units (square inches or square mils), circular mils, or “gauge” scale.
• Calculating square-unit wire area for a circular wire involves the circle area formula:
• Calculating circular-mil wire area for a circular wire is much simpler, due to the fact that the unit of “circular mil” was sized just for this purpose: to eliminate the “pi” and the d/2 (radius) factors in the formula.
• There are π (3.1416) square mils for every 4 circular mils.
• The gauge system of wire sizing is based on whole numbers, larger numbers representing smaller-area wires and vice versa. Wires thicker than 1 gauge are represented by zeros: 0, 00, 000, and 0000 (spoken “single-ought,” “double-ought,” “triple-ought,” and “quadruple-ought.”
• Very large wire sizes are rated in thousands of circular mils (MCM’s), typical for busbars and wire sizes beyond 4/0.
• Busbars are solid bars of copper or aluminum used in high-current circuit construction. Connections made to busbars are usually welded or bolted, and the busbars are often bare (uninsulated), supported away from metal frames through the use of insulating standoffs. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_I_-_Direct_Current_(Kuphaldt)/12%3A_Physics_of_Conductors_and_Insulators/12.02%3A_Conductor_Size.txt |
Primarily for reasons of safety, certain standards for electrical wiring have been established within the United States, and are specified in the National Electrical Code (NEC). Typical NEC wire ampacity tables will show allowable maximum currents for different sizes and applications of wire. Though the melting point of copper theoretically imposes a limit on wire ampacity, the materials commonly employed for insulating conductors melt at temperatures far below the melting point of copper, and so practical ampacity ratings are based on the thermal limits of the insulation. Voltage dropped as a result of excessive wire resistance is also a factor in sizing conductors for their use in circuits, but this consideration is better assessed through more complex means (which we will cover in this chapter). A table derived from an NEC listing is shown for example:
Notice the substantial ampacity differences between same-size wires with different types of insulation. This is due, again, to the thermal limits (60o, 75o, 90o) of each type of insulation material.
These ampacity ratings are given for copper conductors in “free air” (maximum typical air circulation), as opposed to wires placed in conduit or wire trays. As you will notice, the table fails to specify ampacities for small wire sizes. This is because the NEC concerns itself primarily with power wiring (large currents, big wires) rather than with wires common to low-current electronic work.
There is meaning in the letter sequences used to identify conductor types, and these letters usually refer to properties of the conductor’s insulating layer(s). Some of these letters symbolize individual properties of the wire while others are simply abbreviations. For example, the letter “T” by itself means “thermoplastic” as an insulation material, as in “TW” or “THHN.” However, the three-letter combination “MTW” is an abbreviation for Machine Tool Wire, a type of wire whose insulation is made to be flexible for use in machines experiencing significant motion or vibration.
Therefore, a “THWN” conductor has Thermoplastic insulation, is Heat resistant to 75o Celsius, is rated for Wet conditions, and comes with a Nylon outer jacketing.
Letter codes like these are only used for general-purpose wires such as those used in households and businesses. For high-power applications and/or severe service conditions, the complexity of conductor technology defies classification according to a few letter codes. Overhead power line conductors are typically bare metal, suspended from towers by glass, porcelain, or ceramic mounts known as insulators. Even so, the actual construction of the wire to withstand physical forces both static (dead weight) and dynamic (wind) loading can be complex, with multiple layers and different types of metals wound together to form a single conductor. Large, underground power conductors are sometimes insulated by paper, then enclosed in a steel pipe filled with pressurized nitrogen or oil to prevent water intrusion. Such conductors require support equipment to maintain fluid pressure throughout the pipe.
Other insulating materials find use in small-scale applications. For instance, the small-diameter wire used to make electromagnets (coils producing a magnetic field from the flow of electrons) are often insulated with a thin layer of enamel. The enamel is an excellent insulating material and is very thin, allowing many “turns” of wire to be wound in a small space.
Review
• Wire resistance creates heat in operating circuits. This heat is a potential fire ignition hazard.
• Skinny wires have a lower allowable current (“ampacity”) than fat wires, due to their greater resistance per unit length, and consequently greater heat generation per unit current.
• The National Electrical Code (NEC) specifies ampacities for power wiring based on allowable insulation temperature and wire application. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_I_-_Direct_Current_(Kuphaldt)/12%3A_Physics_of_Conductors_and_Insulators/12.03%3A_Conductor_Ampacity.txt |
What is a Fuse?
A fuse is nothing more than a short length of wire designed to melt and separate in the event of excessive current. Fuses are always connected in series with the component(s) to be protected from overcurrent, so that when the fuse blows (opens) it will open the entire circuit and stop current through the component(s). A fuse connected in one branch of a parallel circuit, of course, would not affect current through any of the other branches.
Normally, the thin piece of fuse wire is contained within a safety sheath to minimize hazards of arc blast if the wire burns open with violent force, as can happen in the case of severe overcurrents. In the case of small automotive fuses, the sheath is transparent so that the fusible element can be visually inspected. Residential wiring used to commonly employ screw-in fuses with glass bodies and a thin, narrow metal foil strip in the middle. A photograph showing both types of fuses is shown here:
Cartridge type fuses are popular in automotive applications, and in industrial applications when constructed with sheath materials other than glass. Because fuses are designed to “fail” open when their current rating is exceeded, they are typically designed to be replaced easily in a circuit. This means they will be inserted into some type of holder rather than being directly soldered or bolted to the circuit conductors. The following is a photograph showing a couple of glass cartridge fuses in a multi-fuse holder:
The fuses are held by spring metal clips, the clips themselves being permanently connected to the circuit conductors. The base material of the fuse holder (or fuse block as they are sometimes called) is chosen to be a good insulator.
Another type of fuse holder for cartridge-type fuses is commonly used for installation in equipment control panels, where it is desirable to conceal all electrical contact points from human contact. Unlike the fuse block just shown, where all the metal clips are openly exposed, this type of fuse holder completely encloses the fuse in an insulating housing:
The most common device in use for overcurrent protection in high-current circuits today is the circuit breaker.
What is a Circuit Breaker?
Circuit breakers are specially designed switches that automatically open to stop current in the event of an overcurrent condition. Small circuit breakers, such as those used in residential, commercial and light industrial service are thermally operated. They contain a bimetallic strip (a thin strip of two metals bonded back-to-back) carrying circuit current, which bends when heated. When enough force is generated by the bimetallic strip (due to overcurrent heating of the strip), the trip mechanism is actuated and the breaker will open. Larger circuit breakers are automatically actuated by the strength of the magnetic field produced by current-carrying conductors within the breaker, or can be triggered to trip by external devices monitoring the circuit current (those devices being called protective relays).
Because circuit breakers don’t fail when subjected to overcurrent conditions—rather, they merely open and can be re-closed by moving a lever—they are more likely to be found connected to a circuit in a more permanent manner than fuses. A photograph of a small circuit breaker is shown here:
From outside appearances, it looks like nothing more than a switch. Indeed, it could be used as such. However, its true function is to operate as an overcurrent protection device.
It should be noted that some automobiles use inexpensive devices known as fusible links for overcurrent protection in the battery charging circuit, due to the expense of a properly-rated fuse and holder. A fusible link is a primitive fuse, being nothing more than a short piece of rubber-insulated wire designed to melt open in the event of overcurrent, with no hard sheathing of any kind. Such crude and potentially dangerous devices are never used in industry or even residential power use, mainly due to the greater voltage and current levels encountered. As far as this author is concerned, their application even in automotive circuits is questionable.
The electrical schematic drawing symbol for a fuse is an S-shaped curve:
Fuse Ratings
Fuses are primarily rated, as one might expect, in the unit for current: amps. Although their operation depends on the self-generation of heat under conditions of excessive current by means of the fuse’s own electrical resistance, they are engineered to contribute a negligible amount of extra resistance to the circuits they protect. This is largely accomplished by making the fuse wire as short as is practically possible. Just as a normal wire’s ampacity is not related to its length (10-gauge solid copper wire will handle 40 amps of current in free air, regardless of how long or short of a piece it is), a fuse wire of certain material and gauge will blow at a certain current no matter how long it is. Since length is not a factor in current rating, the shorter it can be made, the less resistance it will have end-to-end.
However, the fuse designer also has to consider what happens after a fuse blows: the melted ends of the once-continuous wire will be separated by an air gap, with full supply voltage between the ends. If the fuse isn’t made long enough on a high-voltage circuit, a spark may be able to jump from one of the melted wire ends to the other, completing the circuit again:
Consequently, fuses are rated in terms of their voltage capacity as well as the current level at which they will blow.
Some large industrial fuses have replaceable wire elements, to reduce the expense. The body of the fuse is an opaque, reusable cartridge, shielding the fuse wire from exposure and shielding surrounding objects from the fuse wire.
There’s more to the current rating of a fuse than a single number. If a current of 35 amps is sent through a 30 amp fuse, it may blow suddenly or delay before blowing, depending on other aspects of its design. Some fuses are intended to blow very fast, while others are designed for more modest “opening” times, or even for a delayed action depending on the application. The latter fuses are sometimes called slow-blow fuses due to their intentional time-delay characteristics.
A classic example of a slow-blow fuse application is in electric motor protection, where inrush currents of up to ten times normal operating current are commonly experienced every time the motor is started from a dead stop. If fast-blowing fuses were to be used in an application like this, the motor could never get started because the normal inrush current levels would blow the fuse(s) immediately! The design of a slow-blow fuse is such that the fuse element has more mass (but no more ampacity) than an equivalent fast-blow fuse, meaning that it will heat up slower (but to the same ultimate temperature) for any given amount of current.
On the other end of the fuse action spectrum, there are so-called semiconductor fuses designed to open very quickly in the event of an overcurrent condition. Semiconductor devices such as transistors tend to be especially intolerant of overcurrent conditions, and as such require fast-acting protection against overcurrents in high-power applications.
Fuses are always supposed to be placed on the “hot” side of the load in systems that are grounded. The intent of this is for the load to be completely de-energized in all respects after the fuse opens. To see the difference between fusing the “hot” side versus the “neutral” side of a load, compare these two circuits:
In either case, the fuse successfully interrupted current to the load, but the lower circuit fails to interrupt potentially dangerous voltage from either side of the load to ground, where a person might be standing. The first circuit design is much safer.
As it was said before, fuses are not the only type of overcurrent protection device in use. Switch-like devices called circuit breakers are often (and more commonly) used to open circuits with excessive current, their popularity due to the fact that they don’t destroy themselves in the process of breaking the circuit as fuses do. In any case, though, placement of the overcurrent protection device in a circuit will follow the same general guidelines listed above: namely, to “fuse” the side of the power supply not connected to ground.
Although overcurrent protection placement in a circuit may determine the relative shock hazard of that circuit under various conditions, it must be understood that such devices were never intended to guard against electric shock. Neither fuses nor circuit breakers were designed to open in the event of a person getting shocked; rather, they are intended to open only under conditions of potential conductor overheating. Overcurrent devices primarily protect the conductors of a circuit from over temperature damage (and the fire hazards associated with overly hot conductors), and secondarily protect specific pieces of equipment such as loads and generators (some fast-acting fuses are designed to protect electronic devices particularly susceptible to current surges). Since the current levels necessary for electric shock or electrocution are much lower than the normal current levels of common power loads, a condition of overcurrent is not indicative of shock occurring. There are other devices designed to detect certain shock conditions (ground-fault detectors being the most popular), but these devices strictly serve that one purpose and are uninvolved with protection of the conductors against overheating.
Review
• A fuse is a small, thin conductor designed to melt and separate into two pieces for the purpose of breaking a circuit in the event of excessive current.
• A circuit breaker is a specially designed switch that automatically opens to interrupt circuit current in the event of an overcurrent condition. They can be “tripped” (opened) thermally, by magnetic fields, or by external devices called “protective relays,” depending on the design of breaker, its size, and the application.
• Fuses are primarily rated in terms of maximum current, but are also rated in terms of how much voltage drop they will safely withstand after interrupting a circuit.
• Fuses can be designed to blow fast, slow, or anywhere in between for the same maximum level of current.
• The best place to install a fuse in a grounded power system is on the ungrounded conductor path to the load. That way, when the fuse blows there will only be the grounded (safe) conductor still connected to the load, making it safer for people to be around. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_I_-_Direct_Current_(Kuphaldt)/12%3A_Physics_of_Conductors_and_Insulators/12.04%3A_Fuses.txt |
Designing Wire Resistance
Conductor ampacity rating is a crude assessment of resistance based on the potential for current to create a fire hazard. However, we may come across situations where the voltage drop created by wire resistance in a circuit poses concerns other than fire avoidance. For instance, we may be designing a circuit where voltage across a component is critical, and must not fall below a certain limit. If this is the case, the voltage drops resulting from wire resistance may cause an engineering problem while being well within safe (fire) limits of ampacity:
The Resistance Formula
If the load in the above circuit will not tolerate less than 220 volts, given a source voltage of 230 volts, then we’d better be sure that the wiring doesn’t drop more than 10 volts along the way. Counting both the supply and return conductors of this circuit, this leaves a maximum tolerable drop of 5 volts along the length of each wire. Using Ohm’s Law (R=E/I), we can determine the maximum allowable resistance for each piece of wire:
We know that the wire length is 2300 feet for each piece of wire, but how do we determine the amount of resistance for a specific size and length of wire? To do that, we need another formula:
This formula relates the resistance of a conductor with its specific resistance (the Greek letter “rho” (ρ), which looks similar to a lower-case letter “p”), its length (“l”), and its cross-sectional area (“A”). Notice that with the length variable on the top of the fraction, the resistance value increases as the length increases (analogy: it is more difficult to force liquid through a long pipe than a short one), and decreases as cross-sectional area increases (analogy: liquid flows easier through a fat pipe than through a skinny one). Specific resistance is a constant for the type of conductor material being calculated.
The specific resistances of several conductive materials can be found in the following table. We find copper near the bottom of the table, second only to silver in having low specific resistance (good conductivity):
Notice that the figures for specific resistance in the above table are given in the very strange unit of “ohms-cmil/ft” (Ω-cmil/ft), This unit indicates what units we are expected to use in the resistance formula (R=ρl/A). In this case, these figures for specific resistance are intended to be used when length is measured in feet and cross-sectional area is measured in circular mils.
The metric unit for specific resistance is the ohm-meter (Ω-m), or ohm-centimeter (Ω-cm), with 1.66243 x 10-9 Ω-meters per Ω-cmil/ft (1.66243 x 10-7 Ω-cm per Ω-cmil/ft). In the Ω-cm column of the table, the figures are actually scaled as µΩ-cm due to their very small magnitudes. For example, iron is listed as 9.61 µΩ-cm, which could be represented as 9.61 x 10-6 Ω-cm.
When using the unit of Ω-meter for specific resistance in the R=ρl/A formula, the length needs to be in meters and the area in square meters. When using the unit of Ω-centimeter (Ω-cm) in the same formula, the length needs to be in centimeters and the area in square centimeters.
All these units for specific resistance are valid for any material (Ω-cmil/ft, Ω-m, or Ω-cm). One might prefer to use Ω-cmil/ft, however, when dealing with round wire where the cross-sectional area is already known in circular mils. Conversely, when dealing with odd-shaped busbar or custom busbar cut out of metal stock, where only the linear dimensions of length, width, and height are known, the specific resistance units of Ω-meter or Ω-cm may be more appropriate.
Solving
Going back to our example circuit, we were looking for wire that had 0.2 Ω or less of resistance over a length of 2300 feet. Assuming that we’re going to use copper wire (the most common type of electrical wire manufactured), we can set up our formula as such:
Algebraically solving for A, we get a value of 116,035 circular mils. Referencing our solid wire size table, we find that “double-ought” (2/0) wire with 133,100 cmils is adequate, whereas the next lower size, “single-ought” (1/0), at 105,500 cmils is too small. Bear in mind that our circuit current is a modest 25 amps. According to our ampacity table for copper wire in free air, 14 gauge wire would have sufficed (as far as notstarting a fire is concerned). However, from the standpoint of voltage drop, 14 gauge wire would have been very unacceptable.
Just for fun, let’s see what 14 gauge wire would have done to our power circuit’s performance. Looking at our wire size table, we find that 14 gauge wire has a cross-sectional area of 4,107 circular mils. If we’re still using copper as a wire material (a good choice, unless we’re really rich and can afford 4600 feet of 14 gauge silver wire!), then our specific resistance will still be 10.09 Ω-cmil/ft:
Remember that this is 5.651 Ω per 2300 feet of 14-gauge copper wire, and that we have two runs of 2300 feet in the entire circuit, so each wire piece in the circuit has 5.651 Ω of resistance:
Our total circuit wire resistance is 2 times 5.651, or 11.301 Ω. Unfortunately, this is far too much resistance to allow 25 amps of current with a source voltage of 230 volts. Even if our load resistance was 0 Ω, our wiring resistance of 11.301 Ω would restrict the circuit current to a mere 20.352 amps! As you can see, a “small” amount of wire resistance can make a big difference in circuit performance, especially in power circuits where the currents are much higher than typically encountered in electronic circuits.
Let’s do an example resistance problem for a piece of custom-cut busbar. Suppose we have a piece of solid aluminum bar, 4 centimeters wide by 3 centimeters tall by 125 centimeters long, and we wish to figure the end-to-end resistance along the long dimension (125 cm). First, we would need to determine the cross-sectional area of the bar:
We also need to know the specific resistance of aluminum, in the unit proper for this application (Ω-cm). From our table of specific resistances, we see that this is 2.65 x 10-6 Ω-cm. Setting up our R=ρl/A formula, we have:
As you can see, the sheer thickness of a busbar makes for very low resistances compared to that of standard wire sizes, even when using a material with a greater specific resistance.
The procedure for determining busbar resistance is not fundamentally different than for determining round wire resistance. We just need to make sure that cross-sectional area is calculated properly and that all the units correspond to each other as they should.
Review
• Conductor resistance increases with increased length and decreases with increased cross-sectional area, all other factors being equal.
• Specific Resistance (”ρ”) is a property of any conductive material, a figure used to determine the end-to-end resistance of a conductor given length and area in this formula: R = ρl/A
• Specific resistance for materials are given in units of Ω-cmil/ft or Ω-meters (metric). Conversion factor between these two units is 1.66243 x 10-9 Ω-meters per Ω-cmil/ft, or 1.66243 x 10-7 Ω-cm per Ω-cmil/ft.
• If wiring voltage drop in a circuit is critical, exact resistance calculations for the wires must be made before wire size is chosen. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_I_-_Direct_Current_(Kuphaldt)/12%3A_Physics_of_Conductors_and_Insulators/12.05%3A_Specific_Resistance.txt |
Resistance values for conductors at any temperature other than the standard temperature (usually specified at 20 Celsius) on the specific resistance table must be determined through yet another formula:
The “alpha” (α) constant is known as the temperature coefficient of resistance, and symbolizes the resistance change factor per degree of temperature change. Just as all materials have a certain specific resistance (at 20o C), they also change resistance according to temperature by certain amounts. For pure metals, this coefficient is a positive number, meaning that resistance increases with increasing temperature. For the elements carbon, silicon, and germanium, this coefficient is a negative number, meaning that resistance decreases with increasing temperature. For some metal alloys, the temperature coefficient of resistance is very close to zero, meaning that the resistance hardly changes at all with variations in temperature (a good property if you want to build a precision resistor out of metal wire!). The following table gives the temperature coefficients of resistance for several common metals, both pure and alloy:
Let’s take a look at an example circuit to see how temperature can affect wire resistance, and consequently circuit performance:
This circuit has a total wire resistance (wire 1 + wire 2) of 30 Ω at standard temperature. Setting up a table of voltage, current, and resistance values we get:
At 20o Celsius, we get 12.5 volts across the load and a total of 1.5 volts (0.75 + 0.75) dropped across the wire resistance. If the temperature were to rise to 35o Celsius, we could easily determine the change of resistance for each piece of wire. Assuming the use of copper wire (α = 0.004041) we get:
Recalculating our circuit values, we see what changes this increase in temperature will bring:
As you can see, voltage across the load went down (from 12.5 volts to 12.42 volts) and voltage drop across the wires went up (from 0.75 volts to 0.79 volts) as a result of the temperature increasing. Though the changes may seem small, they can be significant for power lines stretching miles between power plants and substations, substations and loads. In fact, power utility companies often have to take line resistance changes resulting from seasonal temperature variations into account when calculating allowable system loading.
Review
• Most conductive materials change specific resistance with changes in temperature. This is why figures of specific resistance are always specified at a standard temperature (usually 20o or 25o Celsius).
• The resistance-change factor per degree Celsius of temperature change is called the temperature coefficient of resistance. This factor is represented by the Greek lower-case letter “alpha” (α).
• A positive coefficient for a material means that its resistance increases with an increase in temperature. Pure metals typically have positive temperature coefficients of resistance. Coefficients approaching zero can be obtained by alloying certain metals.
• A negative coefficient for a material means that its resistance decreases with an increase in temperature. Semiconductor materials (carbon, silicon, germanium) typically have negative temperature coefficients of resistance.
• The formula used to determine the resistance of a conductor at some temperature other than what is specified in a resistance table is as follows: | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_I_-_Direct_Current_(Kuphaldt)/12%3A_Physics_of_Conductors_and_Insulators/12.06%3A_Temperature_Coefficient_of_Resistance.txt |
There is some debate over exactly how and why superconducting materials superconduct. One theory holds that electrons group together and travel in pairs (called Cooper pairs) within a superconductor rather than travel independently, and that has something to do with their frictionless flow. Interestingly enough, another phenomenon of super-cold temperatures, superfluidity, happens with certain liquids (especially liquid helium), resulting in frictionless flow of molecules.
Superconductivity promises extraordinary capabilities for electric circuits. If conductor resistance could be eliminated entirely, there would be no power losses or inefficiencies in electric power systems due to stray resistances. Electric motors could be made almost perfectly (100%) efficient. Components such as capacitors and inductors, whose ideal characteristics are normally spoiled by inherent wire resistances, could be made ideal in a practical sense. Already, some practical superconducting conductors, motors, and capacitors have been developed, but their use at this present time is limited due to the practical problems intrinsic to maintaining super-cold temperatures.
The threshold temperature for a superconductor to switch from normal conduction to superconductivity is called the transition temperature. Transition temperatures for “classic” superconductors are in the cryogenic range (near absolute zero), but much progress has been made in developing “high-temperature” superconductors which superconduct at warmer temperatures. One type is a ceramic mixture of yttrium, barium, copper, and oxygen which transitions at a relatively balmy -160o Celsius. Ideally, a superconductor should be able to operate within the range of ambient temperatures, or at least within the range of inexpensive refrigeration equipment.
The critical temperatures for a few common substances are shown here in this table. Temperatures are given in kelvins, which has the same incremental span as degrees Celsius (an increase or decrease of 1 kelvin is the same amount of temperature change as 1o Celsius), only offset so that 0 K is absolute zero. This way, we don’t have to deal with a lot of negative figures.
Superconducting materials also interact in interesting ways with magnetic fields. While in the superconducting state, a superconducting material will tend to exclude all magnetic fields, a phenomenon known as the Meissner effect. However, if the magnetic field strength intensifies beyond a critical level, the superconducting material will be rendered non-superconductive. In other words, superconducting materials will lose their superconductivity (no matter how cold you make them) if exposed to too strong of a magnetic field. In fact, the presence of any magnetic field tends to lower the critical temperature of any superconducting material: the more magnetic field present, the colder you have to make the material before it will superconduct.
This is another practical limitation to superconductors in circuit design, since electric current through any conductor produces a magnetic field. Even though a superconducting wire would have zero resistance to oppose current, there will still be a limit of how much current could practically go through that wire due to its critical magnetic field limit.
There are already a few industrial applications of superconductors, especially since the recent (1987) advent of the yttrium-barium-copper-oxygen ceramic, which only requires liquid nitrogen to cool, as opposed to liquid helium. It is even possible to order superconductivity kits from educational suppliers which can be operated in high school labs (liquid nitrogen not included). Typically, these kits exhibit superconductivity by the Meissner effect, suspending a tiny magnet in mid-air over a superconducting disk cooled by a bath of liquid nitrogen.
The zero resistance offered by superconducting circuits leads to unique consequences. In a superconducting short-circuit, it is possible to maintain large currents indefinitely with zero applied voltage!
Rings of superconducting material have been experimentally proven to sustain continuous current for years with no applied voltage. So far as anyone knows, there is no theoretical time limit to how long an unaided current could be sustained in a superconducting circuit. If you’re thinking this appears to be a form of perpetual motion, you’re correct! Contrary to popular belief, there is no law of physics prohibiting perpetual motion; rather, the prohibition stands against any machine or system generating more energy than it consumes (what would be referred to as an over-unity device). At best, all a perpetual motion machine (like the superconducting ring) would be good for is to store energy, not generate it freely!
Superconductors also offer some strange possibilities having nothing to do with Ohm’s Law. One such possibility is the construction of a device called a Josephson Junction, which acts as a relay of sorts, controlling one current with another current (with no moving parts, of course). The small size and fast switching time of Josephson Junctions may lead to new computer circuit designs: an alternative to using semiconductor transistors.
Review
• Superconductors are materials which have absolutely zero electrical resistance.
• All presently known superconductive materials need to be cooled far below ambient temperature to superconduct. The maximum temperature at which they do so is called the transition temperature.
12.08: Insulator Breakdown Voltage
Once current is forced through an insulating material, breakdown of that material’s molecular structure has occurred. After breakdown, the material may or may not behave as an insulator any more, the molecular structure having been altered by the breach. There is usually a localized “puncture” of the insulating medium where the electrons flowed during breakdown.
Thickness of an insulating material plays a role in determining its breakdown voltage, otherwise known as dielectric strength. Specific dielectric strength is sometimes listed in terms of volts per mil (1/1000 of an inch), or kilovolts per inch (the two units are equivalent), but in practice it has been found that the relationship between breakdown voltage and thickness is not exactly linear. An insulator three times as thick has a dielectric strength slightly less than 3 times as much. However, for rough estimation use, volt-per-thickness ratings are fine.
Review
• With a high enough applied voltage, electrons can be freed from the atoms of insulating materials, resulting in current through that material.
• The minimum voltage required to “violate” an insulator by forcing current through it is called the breakdown voltage, or dielectric strength.
• The thicker a piece of insulating material, the higher the breakdown voltage, all other factors being equal.
• Specific dielectric strength is typically rated in one of two equivalent units: volts per mil, or kilovolts per inch. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_I_-_Direct_Current_(Kuphaldt)/12%3A_Physics_of_Conductors_and_Insulators/12.07%3A_Superconductivity.txt |
Admittedly, the concept of a “field” is somewhat abstract. At least with electric current it isn’t too difficult to envision tiny particles called electrons moving their way between the nuclei of atoms within a conductor, but a “field” doesn’t even have mass, and need not exist within matter at all.
Despite its abstract nature, almost every one of us has direct experience with fields, at least in the form of magnets. Have you ever played with a pair of magnets, noticing how they attract or repel each other depending on their relative orientation? There is an undeniable force between a pair of magnets, and this force is without “substance.” It has no mass, no color, no odor, and if not for the physical force exerted on the magnets themselves, it would be utterly insensible to our bodies. Physicists describe the interaction of magnets in terms of magnetic fields in the space between them. If iron filings are placed near a magnet, they orient themselves along the lines of the field, visually indicating its presence.
The Electric Fields
The subject of this chapter is electric fields (and devices called capacitors that exploit them), not magneticfields, but there are many similarities. Most likely you have experienced electric fields as well. Chapter 1 of this book began with an explanation of static electricity, and how materials such as wax and wool—when rubbed against each other—produced a physical attraction. Again, physicists would describe this interaction in terms of electric fields generated by the two objects as a result of their electron imbalances. Suffice it to say that whenever a voltage exists between two points, there will be an electric field manifested in the space between those points.
The Field Force and the Field Flux
Fields have two measures: a field force and a field flux. The field force is the amount of “push” that a field exerts over a certain distance. The field flux is the total quantity, or effect, of the field through space. Field force and flux are roughly analogous to voltage (“push”) and current (flow) through a conductor, respectively, although field flux can exist in totally empty space (without the motion of particles such as electrons) whereas current can only take place where there are free electrons to move. Field flux can be opposed in space, just as the flow of electrons can be opposed by resistance. The amount of field flux that will develop in space is proportional to the amount of field force applied, divided by the amount of opposition to flux. Just as the type of conducting material dictates that conductor’s specific resistance to electric current, the type of insulating material separating two conductors dictates the specific opposition to field flux.
Normally, electrons cannot enter a conductor unless there is a path for an equal amount of electrons to exit (remember the marble-in-tube analogy?). This is why conductors must be connected together in a circular path (a circuit) for continuous current to occur. Oddly enough, however, extra electrons can be “squeezed” into a conductor without a path to exit if an electric field is allowed to develop in space relative to another conductor. The number of extra free electrons added to the conductor (or free electrons taken away) is directly proportional to the amount of field flux between the two conductors.
The Capacitors Electric Field
Capacitors are components designed to take advantage of this phenomenon by placing two conductive plates (usually metal) in close proximity with each other. There are many different styles of capacitor construction, each one suited for particular ratings and purposes. For very small capacitors, two circular plates sandwiching an insulating material will suffice. For larger capacitor values, the “plates” may be strips of metal foil, sandwiched around a flexible insulating medium and rolled up for compactness. The highest capacitance values are obtained by using a microscopic-thickness layer of insulating oxide separating two conductive surfaces. In any case, though, the general idea is the same: two conductors, separated by an insulator.
The schematic symbol for a capacitor is quite simple, being little more than two short, parallel lines (representing the plates) separated by a gap. Wires attach to the respective plates for connection to other components. An older, obsolete schematic symbol for capacitors showed interleaved plates, which is actually a more accurate way of representing the real construction of most capacitors:
When a voltage is applied across the two plates of a capacitor, a concentrated field flux is created between them, allowing a significant difference of free electrons (a charge) to develop between the two plates:
As the electric field is established by the applied voltage, extra free electrons are forced to collect on the negative conductor, while free electrons are “robbed” from the positive conductor. This differential charge equates to a storage of energy in the capacitor, representing the potential charge of the electrons between the two plates. The greater the difference of electrons on opposing plates of a capacitor, the greater the field flux, and the greater “charge” of energy the capacitor will store.
Because capacitors store the potential energy of accumulated electrons in the form of an electric field, they behave quite differently than resistors (which simply dissipate energy in the form of heat) in a circuit. Energy storage in a capacitor is a function of the voltage between the plates, as well as other factors which we will discuss later in this chapter. A capacitor’s ability to store energy as a function of voltage (potential difference between the two leads) results in a tendency to try to maintain voltage at a constant level. In other words, capacitors tend to resist changes in voltage drop. When voltage across a capacitor is increased or decreased, the capacitor “resists” the change by drawing current from or supplying current to the source of the voltage change, in opposition to the change.
To store more energy in a capacitor, the voltage across it must be increased. This means that more electrons must be added to the (-) plate and more taken away from the (+) plate, necessitating a current in that direction. Conversely, to release energy from a capacitor, the voltage across it must be decreased. This means some of the excess electrons on the (-) plate must be returned to the (+) plate, necessitating a current in the other direction.
Just as Isaac Newton’s first Law of Motion (“an object in motion tends to stay in motion; an object at rest tends to stay at rest”) describes the tendency of a mass to oppose changes in velocity, we can state a capacitor’s tendency to oppose changes in voltage as such: “A charged capacitor tends to stay charged; a discharged capacitor tends to stay discharged.” Hypothetically, a capacitor left untouched will indefinitely maintain whatever state of voltage charge that its been left it. Only an outside source (or drain) of current can alter the voltage charge stored by a perfect capacitor:
Practically speaking, however, capacitors will eventually lose their stored voltage charges due to internal leakage paths for electrons to flow from one plate to the other. Depending on the specific type of capacitor, the time it takes for a stored voltage charge to self-dissipate can be a long time (several years with the capacitor sitting on a shelf!).
When the voltage across a capacitor is increased, it draws current from the rest of the circuit, acting as a power load. In this condition the capacitor is said to be charging, because there is an increasing amount of energy being stored in its electric field. Note the direction of electron current with regard to the voltage polarity:
Conversely, when the voltage across a capacitor is decreased, the capacitor supplies current to the rest of the circuit, acting as a power source. In this condition the capacitor is said to be discharging. Its store of energy—held in the electric field—is decreasing now as energy is released to the rest of the circuit. Note the direction of electron current with regard to the voltage polarity:
If a source of voltage is suddenly applied to an uncharged capacitor (a sudden increase of voltage), the capacitor will draw current from that source, absorbing energy from it, until the capacitor’s voltage equals that of the source. Once the capacitor voltage reached this final (charged) state, its current decays to zero. Conversely, if a load resistance is connected to a charged capacitor, the capacitor will supply current to the load, until it has released all its stored energy and its voltage decays to zero. Once the capacitor voltage reaches this final (discharged) state, its current decays to zero. In their ability to be charged and discharged, capacitors can be thought of as acting somewhat like secondary-cell batteries.
The choice of insulating material between the plates, as was mentioned before, has a great impact upon how much field flux (and therefore how much charge) will develop with any given amount of voltage applied across the plates. Because of the role of this insulating material in affecting field flux, it has a special name: dielectric. Not all dielectric materials are equal: the extent to which materials inhibit or encourage the formation of electric field flux is called the permittivity of the dielectric.
The measure of a capacitor’s ability to store energy for a given amount of voltage drop is called capacitance. Not surprisingly, capacitance is also a measure of the intensity of opposition to changes in voltage (exactly how much current it will produce for a given rate of change in voltage). Capacitance is symbolically denoted with a capital “C,” and is measured in the unit of the Farad, abbreviated as “F.”
Convention, for some odd reason, has favored the metric prefix “micro” in the measurement of large capacitances, and so many capacitors are rated in terms of confusingly large microFarad values: for example, one large capacitor I have seen was rated 330,000 microFarads!! Why not state it as 330 milliFarads? I don’t know.
The Capacitor’s Obsolete Name
An obsolete name for a capacitor is condenser or condensor. These terms are not used in any new books or schematic diagrams (to my knowledge), but they might be encountered in older electronics literature. Perhaps the most well-known usage for the term “condenser” is in automotive engineering, where a small capacitor called by that name was used to mitigate excessive sparking across the switch contacts (called “points”) in electromechanical ignition systems.
Review
• Capacitors react against changes in voltage by supplying or drawing current in the direction necessary to oppose the change.
• When a capacitor is faced with an increasing voltage, it acts as a load: drawing current as it absorbs energy (current going in the negative side and out the positive side, like a resistor).
• When a capacitor is faced with a decreasing voltage, it acts as a source: supplying current as it releases stored energy (current going out the negative side and in the positive side, like a battery).
• The ability of a capacitor to store energy in the form of an electric field (and consequently to oppose changes in voltage) is called capacitance. It is measured in the unit of the Farad (F).
• Capacitors used to be commonly known by another term: condenser (alternatively spelled “condensor”). | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_I_-_Direct_Current_(Kuphaldt)/13%3A_Capacitors/13.01%3A_Electric_Fields_and_Capacitance.txt |
Capacitors do not have a stable “resistance” as conductors do. However, there is a definite mathematical relationship between voltage and current for a capacitor, as follows:
The lower-case letter “i” symbolizes instantaneous current, which means the amount of current at a specific point in time. This stands in contrast to constant current or average current (capital letter “I”) over an unspecified period of time. The expression “dv/dt” is one borrowed from calculus, meaning the instantaneous rate of voltage change over time, or the rate of change of voltage (volts per second increase or decrease) at a specific point in time, the same specific point in time that the instantaneous current is referenced at. For whatever reason, the letter v is usually used to represent instantaneous voltage rather than the letter e. However, it would not be incorrect to express the instantaneous voltage rate-of-change as “de/dt” instead.
In this equation we see something novel to our experience thus far with electric circuits: the variable of time. When relating the quantities of voltage, current, and resistance to a resistor, it doesn’t matter if we’re dealing with measurements taken over an unspecified period of time (E=IR; V=IR), or at a specific moment in time (e=ir; v=ir). The same basic formula holds true, because time is irrelevant to voltage, current, and resistance in a component like a resistor.
In a capacitor, however, time is an essential variable, because current is related to how rapidly voltage changes over time. To fully understand this, a few illustrations may be necessary. Suppose we were to connect a capacitor to a variable-voltage source, constructed with a potentiometer and a battery:
If the potentiometer mechanism remains in a single position (wiper is stationary), the voltmeter connected across the capacitor will register a constant (unchanging) voltage, and the ammeter will register 0 amps. In this scenario, the instantaneous rate of voltage change (dv/dt) is equal to zero, because the voltage is unchanging. The equation tells us that with 0 volts per second change for a dv/dt, there must be zero instantaneous current (i). From a physical perspective, with no change in voltage, there is no need for any electron motion to add or subtract charge from the capacitor’s plates, and thus there will be no current.
Now, if the potentiometer wiper is moved slowly and steadily in the “up” direction, a greater voltage will gradually be imposed across the capacitor. Thus, the voltmeter indication will be increasing at a slow rate:
If we assume that the potentiometer wiper is being moved such that the rate of voltage increase across the capacitor is steady (for example, voltage increasing at a constant rate of 2 volts per second), the dv/dt term of the formula will be a fixed value. According to the equation, this fixed value of dv/dt, multiplied by the capacitor’s capacitance in Farads (also fixed), results in a fixed current of some magnitude. From a physical perspective, an increasing voltage across the capacitor demands that there be an increasing charge differential between the plates. Thus, for a slow, steady voltage increase rate, there must be a slow, steady rate of charge building in the capacitor, which equates to a slow, steady flow rate of electrons, or current. In this scenario, the capacitor is acting as a load, with electrons entering the negative plate and exiting the positive, accumulating energy in the electric field.
If the potentiometer is moved in the same direction, but at a faster rate, the rate of voltage change (dv/dt) will be greater and so will be the capacitor’s current:
When mathematics students first study calculus, they begin by exploring the concept of rates of change for various mathematical functions. The derivative, which is the first and most elementary calculus principle, is an expression of one variable’s rate of change in terms of another. Calculus students have to learn this principle while studying abstract equations. You get to learn this principle while studying something you can relate to: electric circuits!
To put this relationship between voltage and current in a capacitor in calculus terms, the current through a capacitor is the derivative of the voltage across the capacitor with respect to time. Or, stated in simpler terms, a capacitor’s current is directly proportional to how quickly the voltage across it is changing. In this circuit where capacitor voltage is set by the position of a rotary knob on a potentiometer, we can say that the capacitor’s current is directly proportional to how quickly we turn the knob.
If we were to move the potentiometer’s wiper in the same direction as before (“up”), but at varying rates, we would obtain graphs that looked like this:
Note how that at any given point in time, the capacitor’s current is proportional to the rate-of-change, or slope of the capacitor’s voltage plot. When the voltage plot line is rising quickly (steep slope), the current will likewise be great. Where the voltage plot has a mild slope, the current is small. At one place in the voltage plot where it levels off (zero slope, representing a period of time when the potentiometer wasn’t moving), the current falls to zero.
If we were to move the potentiometer wiper in the “down” direction, the capacitor voltage would decreaserather than increase. Again, the capacitor will react to this change of voltage by producing a current, but this time the current will be in the opposite direction. A decreasing capacitor voltage requires that the charge differential between the capacitor’s plates be reduced, and the only way that can happen is if the electrons reverse their direction of flow, the capacitor discharging rather than charging. In this condition, with electrons exiting the negative plate and entering the positive, the capacitor will act as a source, like a battery, releasing its stored energy to the rest of the circuit.
Again, the amount of current through the capacitor is directly proportional to the rate of voltage change across it. The only difference between the effects of a decreasing voltage and an increasing voltage is the direction of electron flow. For the same rate of voltage change over time, either increasing or decreasing, the current magnitude (amps) will be the same. Mathematically, a decreasing voltage rate-of-change is expressed as a negative dv/dt quantity. Following the formula i = C(dv/dt), this will result in a current figure (i) that is likewise negative in sign, indicating a direction of flow corresponding to discharge of the capacitor. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_I_-_Direct_Current_(Kuphaldt)/13%3A_Capacitors/13.02%3A_Capacitors_and_Calculus.txt |
There are three basic factors of capacitor construction determining the amount of capacitance created. These factors all dictate capacitance by affecting how much electric field flux (relative difference of electrons between plates) will develop for a given amount of electric field force (voltage between the two plates):
PLATE AREA: All other factors being equal, greater plate area gives greater capacitance; less plate area gives less capacitance.
Explanation: Larger plate area results in more field flux (charge collected on the plates) for a given field force (voltage across the plates).
PLATE SPACING: All other factors being equal, further plate spacing gives less capacitance; closer plate spacing gives greater capacitance.
Explanation: Closer spacing results in a greater field force (voltage across the capacitor divided by the distance between the plates), which results in a greater field flux (charge collected on the plates) for any given voltage applied across the plates.
DIELECTRIC MATERIAL: All other factors being equal, greater permittivity of the dielectric gives greater capacitance; less permittivity of the dielectric gives less capacitance.
Explanation: Although its complicated to explain, some materials offer less opposition to field flux for a given amount of field force. Materials with a greater permittivity allow for more field flux (offer less opposition), and thus a greater collected charge, for any given amount of field force (applied voltage).
“Relative” permittivity means the permittivity of a material, relative to that of a pure vacuum. The greater the number, the greater the permittivity of the material. Glass, for instance, with a relative permittivity of 7, has seven times the permittivity of a pure vacuum, and consequently will allow for the establishment of an electric field flux seven times stronger than that of a vacuum, all other factors being equal.
The following is a table listing the relative permittivities (also known as the “dielectric constant”) of various common substances:
An approximation of capacitance for any pair of separated conductors can be found with this formula:
A capacitor can be made variable rather than fixed in value by varying any of the physical factors determining capacitance. One relatively easy factor to vary in capacitor construction is that of plate area, or more properly, the amount of plate overlap.
The following photograph shows an example of a variable capacitor using a set of interleaved metal plates and an air gap as the dielectric material:
As the shaft is rotated, the degree to which the sets of plates overlap each other will vary, changing the effective area of the plates between which a concentrated electric field can be established. This particular capacitor has a capacitance in the picofarad range, and finds use in radio circuitry.
13.04: Series and Parallel Capacitors
When capacitors are connected in series, the total capacitance is less than any one of the series capacitors’ individual capacitances. If two or more capacitors are connected in series, the overall effect is that of a single (equivalent) capacitor having the sum total of the plate spacings of the individual capacitors. As we’ve just seen, an increase in plate spacing, with all other factors unchanged, results in decreased capacitance.
Thus, the total capacitance is less than any one of the individual capacitors’ capacitances. The formula for calculating the series total capacitance is the same form as for calculating parallel resistances:
When capacitors are connected in parallel, the total capacitance is the sum of the individual capacitors’ capacitances. If two or more capacitors are connected in parallel, the overall effect is that of a single equivalent capacitor having the sum total of the plate areas of the individual capacitors. As we’ve just seen, an increase in plate area, with all other factors unchanged, results in increased capacitance.
Thus, the total capacitance is more than any one of the individual capacitors’ capacitances. The formula for calculating the parallel total capacitance is the same form as for calculating series resistances:
As you will no doubt notice, this is exactly opposite of the phenomenon exhibited by resistors. With resistors, series connections result in additive values while parallel connections result in diminished values. With capacitors, its the reverse: parallel connections result in additive values while series connections result in diminished values.
Review
• Capacitances diminish in series.
• Capacitances add in parallel. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_I_-_Direct_Current_(Kuphaldt)/13%3A_Capacitors/13.03%3A_Factors_Affecting_Capacitance.txt |
Capacitor Working Voltage
Working voltage: Since capacitors are nothing more than two conductors separated by an insulator (the dielectric), you must pay attention to the maximum voltage allowed across it. If too much voltage is applied, the “breakdown” rating of the dielectric material may be exceeded, resulting in the capacitor internally short-circuiting.
Capacitor Polarity
Polarity: Some capacitors are manufactured so they can only tolerate applied voltage in one polarity but not the other. This is due to their construction: the dielectric is a microscopically thin layer of insulation deposited on one of the plates by a DC voltage during manufacture. These are called electrolytic capacitors, and their polarity is clearly marked.
Reversing voltage polarity to an electrolytic capacitor may result in the destruction of that super-thin dielectric layer, thus ruining the device. However, the thinness of that dielectric permits extremely high values of capacitance in a relatively small package size. For the same reason, electrolytic capacitors tend to be low in voltage rating as compared with other types of capacitor construction.
Capacitor Equivalent Circuit
Equivalent circuit: Since the plates in a capacitor have some resistance, and since no dielectric is a perfect insulator, there is no such thing as a “perfect” capacitor. In real life, a capacitor has both a series resistance and a parallel (leakage) resistance interacting with its purely capacitive characteristics:
Fortunately, it is relatively easy to manufacture capacitors with very small series resistances and very high leakage resistances!
Capacitor Physical Size
Physical Size: For most applications in electronics, minimum size is the goal for component engineering. The smaller components can be made, the more circuitry can be built into a smaller package, and usually weight is saved as well. With capacitors, there are two major limiting factors to the minimum size of a unit: working voltage and capacitance. And these two factors tend to be in opposition to each other. For any given choice in dielectric materials, the only way to increase the voltage rating of a capacitor is to increase the thickness of the dielectric. However, as we have seen, this has the effect of decreasing capacitance. Capacitance can be brought back up by increasing plate area. but this makes for a larger unit. This is why you cannot judge a capacitor’s rating in Farads simply by size. A capacitor of any given size may be relatively high in capacitance and low in working voltage, vice versa, or some compromise between the two extremes. Take the following two photographs for example:
This is a fairly large capacitor in physical size, but it has quite a low capacitance value: only 2 µF. However, its working voltage is quite high: 2000 volts! If this capacitor were re-engineered to have a thinner layer of dielectric between its plates, at least a hundredfold increase in capacitance might be achievable, but at a cost of significantly lowering its working voltage. Compare the above photograph with the one below. The capacitor shown in the lower picture is an electrolytic unit, similar in size to the one above, but with very different values of capacitance and working voltage:
The thinner dielectric layer gives it a much greater capacitance (20,000 µF) and a drastically reduced working voltage (35 volts continuous, 45 volts intermittent).
Samples of Different Capacitor Types
Here are some samples of different capacitor types, all smaller than the units shown previously:
The electrolytic and tantalum capacitors are polarized (polarity sensitive), and are always labeled as such. The electrolytic units have their negative (-) leads distinguished by arrow symbols on their cases. Some polarized capacitors have their polarity designated by marking the positive terminal. The large, 20,000 µF electrolytic unit shown in the upright position has its positive (+) terminal labeled with a “plus” mark. Ceramic, mylar, plastic film, and air capacitors do not have polarity markings, because those types are nonpolarized (they are not polarity sensitive).
Capacitors are very common components in electronic circuits. Take a close look at the following photograph—every component marked with a “C” designation on the printed circuit board is a capacitor:
Some of the capacitors shown on this circuit board are standard electrolytic: C30 (top of board, center) and C36 (left side, 1/3 from the top). Some others are a special kind of electrolytic capacitor called tantalum, because this is the type of metal used to make the plates. Tantalum capacitors have relatively high capacitance for their physical size. The following capacitors on the circuit board shown above are tantalum: C14 (just to the lower-left of C30), C19 (directly below R10, which is below C30), C24 (lower-left corner of board), and C22 (lower-right).
Examples of even smaller capacitors can be seen in this photograph:
The capacitors on this circuit board are “surface mount devices” as are all the resistors, for reasons of saving space. Following component labeling convention, the capacitors can be identified by labels beginning with the letter “C”. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_I_-_Direct_Current_(Kuphaldt)/13%3A_Capacitors/13.05%3A_Practical_Considerations_-_Capacitors.txt |
• 14.1: Permanent Magnets
Centuries ago, it was discovered that certain types of mineral rock possessed unusual properties of attraction to the metal iron. One particular mineral, called lodestone, or magnetite, is found mentioned in very old historical records (about 2500 years ago in Europe, and much earlier in the Far East) as a subject of curiosity. Later, it was employed in the aid of navigation, as it was found that a piece of this unusual rock would tend to orient itself in a north-south direction if left free to
• 14.2: Electromagnetism
The discovery of the relationship between magnetism and electricity was, like so many other scientific discoveries, stumbled upon almost by accident. The Danish physicist Hans Christian Oersted was lecturing one day in 1820 on the possibility of electricity and magnetism being related to one another, and in the process demonstrated it conclusively by experiment in front of his whole class! By passing an electric current through a metal wire suspended above a magnetic compass, Oersted was able to
• 14.3: Magnetic Units of Measurement
If the burden of two systems of measurement for common quantities (English vs. metric) throws your mind into confusion, this is not the place for you! Due to an early lack of standardization in the science of magnetism, we have been plagued with no less than three complete systems of measurement for magnetic quantities.
• 14.4: Permeability and Saturation
• 14.5: Electromagnetic Induction
While Oersted’s surprising discovery of electromagnetism paved the way for more practical applications of electricity, it was Michael Faraday who gave us the key to the practical generation of electricity: electromagnetic induction. Faraday discovered that a voltage would be generated across a length of wire if that wire was exposed to a perpendicular magnetic field flux of changing intensity.
• 14.6: Mutual Inductance
If two coils of wire are brought into close proximity with each other so the magnetic field from one links with the other, a voltage will be generated in the second coil as a result. This is called mutual inductance: when voltage impressed upon one coil induces a voltage in another.
14: Magnetism and Electromagnetism
Unlike electric charges (such as those observed when amber is rubbed against cloth), magnetic objects possessed two poles of opposite effect, denoted “north” and “south” after their self-orientation to the earth. As Peregrinus found, it was impossible to isolate one of these poles by itself by cutting a piece of lodestone in half: each resulting piece possessed its own pair of poles:
Like electric charges, there were only two types of poles to be found: north and south (by analogy, positive and negative). Just as with electric charges, same poles repel one another, while opposite poles attract. This force, like that caused by static electricity, extended itself invisibly over space, and could even pass through objects such as paper and wood with little effect upon strength.
The philosopher-scientist Rene Descartes noted that this invisible “field” could be mapped by placing a magnet underneath a flat piece of cloth or wood and sprinkling iron filings on top. The filings will align themselves with the magnetic field, “mapping” its shape. The result shows how the field continues unbroken from one pole of a magnet to the other:
As with any kind of field (electric, magnetic, gravitational), the total quantity, or effect, of the field is referred to as a flux, while the “push” causing the flux to form in space is called a force. Michael Faraday coined the term “tube” to refer to a string of magnetic flux in space (the term “line” is more commonly used now). Indeed, the measurement of magnetic field flux is often defined in terms of the number of flux lines, although it is doubtful that such fields exist in individual, discrete lines of constant value.
Modern theories of magnetism maintain that a magnetic field is produced by an electric charge in motion, and thus it is theorized that the magnetic field of a so-called “permanent” magnets such as lodestone is the result of electrons within the atoms of iron spinning uniformly in the same direction. Whether or not the electrons in a material’s atoms are subject to this kind of uniform spinning is dictated by the atomic structure of the material (not unlike how electrical conductivity is dictated by the electron binding in a material’s atoms). Thus, only certain types of substances react with magnetic fields, and even fewer have the ability to permanently sustain a magnetic field.
Iron is one of those types of substances that readily magnetizes. If a piece of iron is brought near a permanent magnet, the electrons within the atoms in the iron orient their spins to match the magnetic field force produced by the permanent magnet, and the iron becomes “magnetized.” The iron will magnetize in such a way as to incorporate the magnetic flux lines into its shape, which attracts it toward the permanent magnet, no matter which pole of the permanent magnet is offered to the iron:
The previously unmagnetized iron becomes magnetized as it is brought closer to the permanent magnet. No matter what pole of the permanent magnet is extended toward the iron, the iron will magnetize in such a way as to be attracted toward the magnet:
Referencing the natural magnetic properties of iron (Latin = “ferrum”), a ferromagnetic material is one that readily magnetizes (its constituent atoms easily orient their electron spins to conform to an external magnetic field force). All materials are magnetic to some degree, and those that are not considered ferromagnetic (easily magnetized) are classified as either paramagnetic (slightly magnetic) or diamagnetic(tend to exclude magnetic fields). Of the two, diamagnetic materials are the strangest. In the presence of an external magnetic field, they actually become slightly magnetized in the opposite direction, so as to repel the external field!
If a ferromagnetic material tends to retain its magnetization after an external field is removed, it is said to have good retentivity. This, of course, is a necessary quality for a permanent magnet.
Review
• Lodestone (also called Magnetite) is a naturally-occurring “permanent” magnet mineral. By “permanent,” it is meant that the material maintains a magnetic field with no external help. The characteristic of any magnetic material to do so is called retentivity.
• Ferromagnetic materials are easily magnetized.
• Paramagnetic materials are magnetized with more difficulty.
• Diamagnetic materials actually tend to repel external magnetic fields by magnetizing in the opposite direction. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_I_-_Direct_Current_(Kuphaldt)/14%3A_Magnetism_and_Electromagnetism/14.01%3A_Permanent_Magnets.txt |
Detailed experiments showed that the magnetic field produced by an electric current is always oriented perpendicular to the direction of flow. A simple method of showing this relationship is called the left-hand rule. Simply stated, the left-hand rule says that the magnetic flux lines produced by a current-carrying wire will be oriented the same direction as the curled fingers of a person’s left hand (in the “hitchhiking” position), with the thumb pointing in the direction of electron flow:
The magnetic field encircles this straight piece of current-carrying wire, the magnetic flux lines having no definite “north” or “south’ poles.
While the magnetic field surrounding a current-carrying wire is indeed interesting, it is quite weak for common amounts of current, able to deflect a compass needle and not much more. To create a stronger magnetic field force (and consequently, more field flux) with the same amount of electric current, we can wrap the wire into a coil shape, where the circling magnetic fields around the wire will join to create a larger field with a definite magnetic (north and south) polarity:
The amount of magnetic field force generated by a coiled wire is proportional to the current through the wire multiplied by the number of “turns” or “wraps” of wire in the coil. This field force is called magnetomotive force (mmf), and is very much analogous to electromotive force (E) in an electric circuit.
An electromagnet is a piece of wire intended to generate a magnetic field with the passage of electric current through it. Though all current-carrying conductors produce magnetic fields, an electromagnet is usually constructed in such a way as to maximize the strength of the magnetic field it produces for a special purpose. Electromagnets find frequent application in research, industry, medical, and consumer products.
As an electrically-controllable magnet, electromagnets find application in a wide variety of “electromechanical” devices: machines that effect mechanical force or motion through electrical power. Perhaps the most obvious example of such a machine is the electric motor.
Another example is the relay, an electrically-controlled switch. If a switch contact mechanism is built so that it can be actuated (opened and closed) by the application of a magnetic field, and an electromagnet coil is placed in the near vicinity to produce that requisite field, it will be possible to open and close the switch by the application of a current through the coil. In effect, this gives us a device that enables electricity to control electricity:
Relays can be constructed to actuate multiple switch contacts, or operate them in “reverse” (energizing the coil will open the switch contact, and unpowering the coil will allow it to spring closed again).
Review
• When electrons flow through a conductor, a magnetic field will be produced around that conductor.
• The left-hand rule states that the magnetic flux lines produced by a current-carrying wire will be oriented the same direction as the curled fingers of a person’s left hand (in the “hitchhiking” position), with the thumb pointing in the direction of electron flow.
• The magnetic field force produced by a current-carrying wire can be greatly increased by shaping the wire into a coil instead of a straight line. If wound in a coil shape, the magnetic field will be oriented along the axis of the coil’s length.
• The magnetic field force produced by an electromagnet (called the magnetomotive force, or mmf), is proportional to the product (multiplication) of the current through the electromagnet and the number of complete coil “turns” formed by the wire. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_I_-_Direct_Current_(Kuphaldt)/14%3A_Magnetism_and_Electromagnetism/14.02%3A_Electromagnetism.txt |
First, we need to become acquainted with the various quantities associated with magnetism. There are quite a few more quantities to be dealt with in magnetic systems than for electrical systems. With electricity, the basic quantities are Voltage (E), Current (I), Resistance (R), and Power (P). The first three are related to one another by Ohm’s Law (E=IR ; I=E/R ; R=E/I), while Power is related to voltage, current, and resistance by Joule’s Law (P=IE ; P=I2R ; P=E2/R).
With magnetism, we have the following quantities to deal with:
Magnetomotive Force—The quantity of magnetic field force, or “push.” Analogous to electric voltage (electromotive force).
Field Flux—The quantity of total field effect, or “substance” of the field. Analogous to electric current.
Field Intensity—The amount of field force (mmf) distributed over the length of the electromagnet. Sometimes referred to as Magnetizing Force.
Flux Density—The amount of magnetic field flux concentrated in a given area.
Reluctance—The opposition to magnetic field flux through a given volume of space or material. Analogous to electrical resistance.
Permeability—The specific measure of a material’s acceptance of magnetic flux, analogous to the specific resistance of a conductive material (ρ), except inverse (greater permeability means easier passage of magnetic flux, whereas greater specific resistance means more difficult passage of electric current).
But wait . . . the fun is just beginning! Not only do we have more quantities to keep track of with magnetism than with electricity, but we have several different systems of unit measurement for each of these quantities. As with common quantities of length, weight, volume, and temperature, we have both English and metric systems. However, there is actually more than one metric system of units, and multiple metric systems are used in magnetic field measurements! One is called the cgs, which stands for Centimeter-Gram-Second, denoting the root measures upon which the whole system is based. The other was originally known as the mks system, which stood for Meter-Kilogram-Second, which was later revised into another system, called rmks, standing for Rationalized Meter-Kilogram-Second. This ended up being adopted as an international standard and renamed SI (Systeme International).
And yes, the µ symbol is really the same as the metric prefix “micro.” I find this especially confusing, using the exact same alphabetical character to symbolize both a specific quantity and a general metric prefix!
As you might have guessed already, the relationship between field force, field flux, and reluctance is much the same as that between the electrical quantities of electromotive force (E), current (I), and resistance (R). This provides something akin to an Ohm’s Law for magnetic circuits:
And, given that permeability is inversely analogous to specific resistance, the equation for finding the reluctance of a magnetic material is very similar to that for finding the resistance of a conductor:
In either case, a longer piece of material provides a greater opposition, all other factors being equal. Also, a larger cross-sectional area makes for less opposition, all other factors being equal.
The major caveat here is that the reluctance of a material to magnetic flux actually changes with the concentration of flux going through it. This makes the “Ohm’s Law” for magnetic circuits nonlinear and far more difficult to work with than the electrical version of Ohm’s Law. It would be analogous to having a resistor that changed resistance as the current through it varied (a circuit composed of varistors instead of resistors). | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_I_-_Direct_Current_(Kuphaldt)/14%3A_Magnetism_and_Electromagnetism/14.03%3A_Magnetic_Units_of_Measurement.txt |
The nonlinearity of material permeability may be graphed for better understanding. We’ll place the quantity of field intensity (H), equal to field force (mmf) divided by the length of the material, on the horizontal axis of the graph. On the vertical axis, we’ll place the quantity of flux density (B), equal to total flux divided by the cross-sectional area of the material. We will use the quantities of field intensity (H) and flux density (B) instead of field force (mmf) and total flux (Φ) so that the shape of our graph remains independent of the physical dimensions of our test material. What we’re trying to do here is show a mathematical relationship between field force and flux for any chunk of a particular substance, in the same spirit as describing a material’s specific resistance in ohm-cmil/ft instead of its actual resistance in ohms.
This is called the normal magnetization curve, or B-H curve, for any particular material. Notice how the flux density for any of the above materials (cast iron, cast steel, and sheet steel) levels off with increasing amounts of field intensity. This effect is known as saturation. When there is little applied magnetic force (low H), only a few atoms are in alignment, and the rest are easily aligned with additional force. However, as more flux gets crammed into the same cross-sectional area of a ferromagnetic material, fewer atoms are available within that material to align their electrons with additional force, and so it takes more and more force (H) to get less and less “help” from the material in creating more flux density (B). To put this in economic terms, we’re seeing a case of diminishing returns (B) on our investment (H). Saturation is a phenomenon limited to iron-core electromagnets. Air-core electromagnets don’t saturate, but on the other hand they don’t produce nearly as much magnetic flux as a ferromagnetic core for the same number of wire turns and current.
Another quirk to confound our analysis of magnetic flux versus force is the phenomenon of magnetic hysteresis. As a general term, hysteresis means a lag between input and output in a system upon a change in direction. Anyone who’s ever driven an old automobile with “loose” steering knows what hysteresis is: to change from turning left to turning right (or vice versa), you have to rotate the steering wheel an additional amount to overcome the built-in “lag” in the mechanical linkage system between the steering wheel and the front wheels of the car. In a magnetic system, hysteresis is seen in a ferromagnetic material that tends to stay magnetized after an applied field force has been removed (see “retentivity” in the first section of this chapter), if the force is reversed in polarity.
Let’s use the same graph again, only extending the axes to indicate both positive and negative quantities. First we’ll apply an increasing field force (current through the coils of our electromagnet). We should see the flux density increase (go up and to the right) according to the normal magnetization curve:
Next, we’ll stop the current going through the coil of the electromagnet and see what happens to the flux, leaving the first curve still on the graph:
Due to the retentivity of the material, we still have a magnetic flux with no applied force (no current through the coil). Our electromagnet core is acting as a permanent magnet at this point. Now we will slowly apply the same amount of magnetic field force in the opposite direction to our sample:
The flux density has now reached a point equivalent to what it was with a full positive value of field intensity (H), except in the negative, or opposite, direction. Let’s stop the current going through the coil again and see how much flux remains:
Once again, due to the natural retentivity of the material, it will hold a magnetic flux with no power applied to the coil, except this time its in a direction opposite to that of the last time we stopped current through the coil. If we re-apply power in a positive direction again, we should see the flux density reach its prior peak in the upper-right corner of the graph again:
The “S”-shaped curve traced by these steps form what is called the hysteresis curve of a ferromagnetic material for a given set of field intensity extremes (-H and +H). If this doesn’t quite make sense, consider a hysteresis graph for the automobile steering scenario described earlier, one graph depicting a “tight” steering system and one depicting a “loose” system:
Just as in the case of automobile steering systems, hysteresis can be a problem. If you’re designing a system to produce precise amounts of magnetic field flux for given amounts of current, hysteresis may hinder this design goal (due to the fact that the amount of flux density would depend on the current and how strongly it was magnetized before!). Similarly, a loose steering system is unacceptable in a race car, where precise, repeatable steering response is a necessity. Also, having to overcome prior magnetization in an electromagnet can be a waste of energy if the current used to energize the coil is alternating back and forth (AC). The area within the hysteresis curve gives a rough estimate of the amount of this wasted energy.
Other times, magnetic hysteresis is a desirable thing. Such is the case when magnetic materials are used as a means of storing information (computer disks, audio and video tapes). In these applications, it is desirable to be able to magnetize a speck of iron oxide (ferrite) and rely on that material’s retentivity to “remember” its last magnetized state. Another productive application for magnetic hysteresis is in filtering high-frequency electromagnetic “noise” (rapidly alternating surges of voltage) from signal wiring by running those wires through the middle of a ferrite ring. The energy consumed in overcoming the hysteresis of ferrite attenuates the strength of the “noise” signal. Interestingly enough, the hysteresis curve of ferrite is quite extreme:
Review
• The permeability of a material changes with the amount of magnetic flux forced through it.
• The specific relationship of force to flux (field intensity H to flux density B) is graphed in a form called the normal magnetization curve.
• It is possible to apply so much magnetic field force to a ferromagnetic material that no more flux can be crammed into it. This condition is known as magnetic saturation.
• When the retentivity of a ferromagnetic substance interferes with its re-magnetization in the opposite direction, a condition known as hysteresis occurs. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_I_-_Direct_Current_(Kuphaldt)/14%3A_Magnetism_and_Electromagnetism/14.04%3A_Permeability_and_Saturation.txt |
An easy way to create a magnetic field of changing intensity is to move a permanent magnet next to a wire or coil of wire. Remember: the magnetic field must increase or decrease in intensity perpendicular to the wire (so that the lines of flux “cut across” the conductor), or else no voltage will be induced:
Faraday was able to mathematically relate the rate of change of the magnetic field flux with induced voltage (note the use of a lower-case letter “e” for voltage. This refers to instantaneous voltage, or voltage at a specific point in time, rather than a steady, stable voltage.):
The “d” terms are standard calculus notation, representing rate-of-change of flux over time. “N” stands for the number of turns, or wraps, in the wire coil (assuming that the wire is formed in the shape of a coil for maximum electromagnetic efficiency).
This phenomenon is put into obvious practical use in the construction of electrical generators, which use mechanical power to move a magnetic field past coils of wire to generate voltage. However, this is by no means the only practical use for this principle.
If we recall that the magnetic field produced by a current-carrying wire was always perpendicular to that wire, and that the flux intensity of that magnetic field varied with the amount of current through it, we can see that a wire is capable of inducing a voltage along its own length simply due to a change in current through it. This effect is called self-induction: a changing magnetic field produced by changes in current through a wire inducing voltage along the length of that same wire. If the magnetic field flux is enhanced by bending the wire into the shape of a coil, and/or wrapping that coil around a material of high permeability, this effect of self-induced voltage will be more intense. A device constructed to take advantage of this effect is called an inductor, and will be discussed in greater detail in the next chapter.
Review
• A magnetic field of changing intensity perpendicular to a wire will induce a voltage along the length of that wire. The amount of voltage induced depends on the rate of change of the magnetic field flux and the number of turns of wire (if coiled) exposed to the change in flux.
• Faraday’s equation for induced voltage: e = N(dΦ/dt)
• A current-carrying wire will experience an induced voltage along its length if the current changes (thus changing the magnetic field flux perpendicular to the wire, thus inducing voltage according to Faraday’s formula). A device built specifically to take advantage of this effect is called an inductor.
14.06: Mutual Inductance
A device specifically designed to produce the effect of mutual inductance between two or more coils is called a transformer.
The device shown in the above photograph is a kind of transformer, with two concentric wire coils. It is actually intended as a precision standard unit for mutual inductance, but for the purposes of illustrating what the essence of a transformer is, it will suffice. The two wire coils can be distinguished from each other by color: the bulk of the tube’s length is wrapped in green-insulated wire (the first coil) while the second coil (wire with bronze-colored insulation) stands in the middle of the tube’s length. The wire ends run down to connection terminals at the bottom of the unit. Most transformer units are not built with their wire coils exposed like this.
Because magnetically-induced voltage only happens when the magnetic field flux is changing in strength relative to the wire, mutual inductance between two coils can only happen with alternating (changing—AC) voltage, and not with direct (steady—DC) voltage. The only applications for mutual inductance in a DC system is where some means is available to switch power on and off to the coil (thus creating a pulsing DC voltage), the induced voltage peaking at every pulse.
A very useful property of transformers is the ability to transform voltage and current levels according to a simple ratio, determined by the ratio of input and output coil turns. If the energized coil of a transformer is energized by an AC voltage, the amount of AC voltage induced in the unpowered coil will be equal to the input voltage multiplied by the ratio of output to input wire turns in the coils. Conversely, the current through the windings of the output coil compared to the input coil will follow the opposite ratio: if the voltage is increased from input coil to output coil, the current will be decreased by the same proportion. This action of the transformer is analogous to that of mechanical gear, belt sheave, or chain sprocket ratios:
A transformer designed to output more voltage than it takes in across the input coil is called a “step-up” transformer, while one designed to do the opposite is called a “step-down,” in reference to the transformation of voltage that takes place. The current through each respective coil, of course, follows the exact opposite proportion.
Review
• Mutual inductance is where the magnetic field generated by a coil of wire induces voltage in an adjacent coil of wire.
• A transformer is a device constructed of two or more coils in close proximity to each other, with the express purpose of creating a condition of mutual inductance between the coils.
• Transformers only work with changing voltages, not steady voltages. Thus, they may be classified as an AC device and not a DC device. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_I_-_Direct_Current_(Kuphaldt)/14%3A_Magnetism_and_Electromagnetism/14.05%3A_Electromagnetic_Induction.txt |
• 15.1: Magnetic Fields and Inductance
Whenever electrons flow through a conductor, a magnetic field will develop around that conductor. This effect is called electromagnetism. Magnetic fields effect the alignment of electrons in an atom, and can cause physical force to develop between atoms across space just as with electric fields developing force between electrically charged particles. Like electric fields, magnetic fields can occupy completely empty space, and affect matter at a distance.
• 15.2: Inductors and Calculus
• 15.3: Factors Affecting Inductance
There are four basic factors of inductor construction determining the amount of inductance created. These factors all dictate inductance by affecting how much magnetic field flux will develop for a given amount of magnetic field force (current through the inductor’s wire coil):
• 15.4: Series and Parallel Inductors
When inductors are connected in series, the total inductance is the sum of the individual inductors’ inductances. When inductors are connected in parallel, the total inductance is less than any one of the parallel inductors’ inductances.
• 15.5: Practical Considerations - Inductors
Inductors, like all electrical components, have limitations which must be respected for the sake of reliability and proper circuit operation.
15: Inductors
Field Force and Field Flux
Fields have two measures: a field force and a field flux. The field force is the amount of “push” that a field exerts over a certain distance. The field flux is the total quantity, or effect, of the field through space. Field force and flux are roughly analogous to voltage (“push”) and current (flow) through a conductor, respectively, although field flux can exist in totally empty space (without the motion of particles such as electrons) whereas current can only take place where there are free electrons to move. Field flux can be opposed in space, just as the flow of electrons can be opposed by resistance. The amount of field flux that will develop in space is proportional to the amount of field force applied, divided by the amount of opposition to flux. Just as the type of conducting material dictates that conductor’s specific resistance to electric current, the type of material occupying the space through which a magnetic field force is impressed dictates the specific opposition to magnetic field flux.
Whereas an electric field flux between two conductors allows for an accumulation of free electron charge within those conductors, a magnetic field flux allows for a certain “inertia” to accumulate in the flow of electrons through the conductor producing the field.
Stronger Magnetic Fields With Inductors
Inductors are components designed to take advantage of this phenomenon by shaping the length of conductive wire in the form of a coil. This shape creates a stronger magnetic field than what would be produced by a straight wire. Some inductors are formed with wire wound in a self-supporting coil. Others wrap the wire around a solid core material of some type. Sometimes the core of an inductor will be straight, and other times it will be joined in a loop (square, rectangular, or circular) to fully contain the magnetic flux. These design options all have an effect on the performance and characteristics of inductors.
The schematic symbol for an inductor, like the capacitor, is quite simple, being little more than a coil symbol representing the coiled wire. Although a simple coil shape is the generic symbol for any inductor, inductors with cores are sometimes distinguished by the addition of parallel lines to the axis of the coil. A newer version of the inductor symbol dispenses with the coil shape in favor of several “humps” in a row:
As the electric current produces a concentrated magnetic field around the coil, this field flux equates to a storage of energy representing the kinetic motion of the electrons through the coil. The more current in the coil, the stronger the magnetic field will be, and the more energy the inductor will store.
Because inductors store the kinetic energy of moving electrons in the form of a magnetic field, they behave quite differently than resistors (which simply dissipate energy in the form of heat) in a circuit. Energy storage in an inductor is a function of the amount of current through it. An inductor’s ability to store energy as a function of current results in a tendency to try to maintain current at a constant level. In other words, inductors tend to resist changes in current. When current through an inductor is increased or decreased, the inductor “resists” the change by producing a voltage between its leads in opposing polarity to the change.
To store more energy in an inductor, the current through it must be increased. This means that its magnetic field must increase in strength, and that change in field strength produces the corresponding voltage according to the principle of electromagnetic self-induction. Conversely, to release energy from an inductor, the current through it must be decreased. This means that the inductor’s magnetic field must decrease in strength, and that change in field strength self-induces a voltage drop of just the opposite polarity.
Just as Isaac Newton’s first Law of Motion (“an object in motion tends to stay in motion; an object at rest tends to stay at rest”) describes the tendency of a mass to oppose changes in velocity, we can state an inductor’s tendency to oppose changes in current as such: “Electrons moving through an inductor tend to stay in motion; electrons at rest in an inductor tend to stay at rest.” Hypothetically, an inductor left short-circuited will maintain a constant rate of current through it with no external assistance:
Practically speaking, however, the ability for an inductor to self-sustain current is realized only with superconductive wire, as the wire resistance in any normal inductor is enough to cause current to decay very quickly with no external source of power.
When the current through an inductor is increased, it drops a voltage opposing the direction of electron flow, acting as a power load. In this condition, the inductor is said to be charging, because there is an increasing amount of energy being stored in its magnetic field. Note the polarity of the voltage with regard to the direction of current:
Conversely, when the current through the inductor is decreased, it drops a voltage aiding the direction of electron flow, acting as a power source. In this condition, the inductor is said to be discharging, because its store of energy is decreasing as it releases energy from its magnetic field to the rest of the circuit. Note the polarity of the voltage with regard to the direction of current.
If a source of electric power is suddenly applied to an unmagnetized inductor, the inductor will initially resist the flow of electrons by dropping the full voltage of the source. As current begins to increase, a stronger and stronger magnetic field will be created, absorbing energy from the source. Eventually the current reaches a maximum level, and stops increasing. At this point, the inductor stops absorbing energy from the source, and is dropping minimum voltage across its leads, while the current remains at a maximum level. As an inductor stores more energy, its current level increases, while its voltage drop decreases. Note that this is precisely the opposite of capacitor behavior, where the storage of energy results in an increased voltage across the component! Whereas capacitors store their energy charge by maintaining a static voltage, inductors maintain their energy “charge” by maintaining a steady current through the coil.
The type of material the wire is coiled around greatly impacts the strength of the magnetic field flux (and therefore the amount of stored energy) generated for any given amount of current through the coil. Coil cores made of ferromagnetic materials (such as soft iron) will encourage stronger field fluxes to develop with a given field force than nonmagnetic substances such as aluminum or air.
What is Inductance?
The measure of an inductor’s ability to store energy for a given amount of current flow is called inductance. Not surprisingly, inductance is also a measure of the intensity of opposition to changes in current (exactly how much self-induced voltage will be produced for a given rate of change of current). Inductance is symbolically denoted with a capital “L,” and is measured in the unit of the Henry, abbreviated as “H.”
Choke Vs. Inductor
An obsolete name for an inductor is choke, so called for its common usage to block (“choke”) high-frequency AC signals in radio circuits. Another name for an inductor, still used in modern times, is reactor, especially when used in large power applications. Both of these names will make more sense after you’ve studied alternating current (AC) circuit theory, and especially a principle known as inductive reactance.
Review
• Inductors react against changes in current by dropping voltage in the polarity necessary to oppose the change.
• When an inductor is faced with an increasing current, it acts as a load: dropping voltage as it absorbs energy (negative on the current entry side and positive on the current exit side, like a resistor).
• When an inductor is faced with a decreasing current, it acts as a source: creating voltage as it releases stored energy (positive on the current entry side and negative on the current exit side, like a battery).
• The ability of an inductor to store energy in the form of a magnetic field (and consequently to oppose changes in current) is called inductance. It is measured in the unit of the Henry (H).
• Inductors used to be commonly known by another term: choke. In large power applications, they are sometimes referred to as reactors. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_I_-_Direct_Current_(Kuphaldt)/15%3A_Inductors/15.01%3A_Magnetic_Fields_and_Inductance.txt |
Inductors do not have a stable “resistance” as conductors do. However, there is a definite mathematical relationship between voltage and current for an inductor, as follows:
You should recognize the form of this equation from the capacitor chapter. It relates one variable (in this case, inductor voltage drop) to a rate of change of another variable (in this case, inductor current). Both voltage (v) and rate of current change (di/dt) are instantaneous: that is, in relation to a specific point in time, thus the lower-case letters “v” and “i”. As with the capacitor formula, it is convention to express instantaneous voltage as v rather than e, but using the latter designation would not be wrong. Current rate-of-change (di/dt) is expressed in units of amps per second, a positive number representing an increase and a negative number representing a decrease.
Like a capacitor, an inductor’s behavior is rooted in the variable of time. Aside from any resistance intrinsic to an inductor’s wire coil (which we will assume is zero for the sake of this section), the voltage dropped across the terminals of an inductor is purely related to how quickly its current changes over time.
Suppose we were to connect a perfect inductor (one having zero ohms of wire resistance) to a circuit where we could vary the amount of current through it with a potentiometer connected as a variable resistor:
If the potentiometer mechanism remains in a single position (wiper is stationary), the series-connected ammeter will register a constant (unchanging) current, and the voltmeter connected across the inductor will register 0 volts. In this scenario, the instantaneous rate of current change (di/dt) is equal to zero, because the current is stable. The equation tells us that with 0 amps per second change for a di/dt, there must be zero instantaneous voltage (v) across the inductor. From a physical perspective, with no current change, there will be a steady magnetic field generated by the inductor. With no change in magnetic flux (dΦ/dt = 0 Webers per second), there will be no voltage dropped across the length of the coil due to induction.
If we move the potentiometer wiper slowly in the “up” direction, its resistance from end to end will slowly decrease. This has the effect of increasing current in the circuit, so the ammeter indication should be increasing at a slow rate:
Assuming that the potentiometer wiper is being moved such that the rate of current increase through the inductor is steady, the di/dt term of the formula will be a fixed value. This fixed value, multiplied by the inductor’s inductance in Henrys (also fixed), results in a fixed voltage of some magnitude. From a physical perspective, the gradual increase in current results in a magnetic field that is likewise increasing. This gradual increase in magnetic flux causes a voltage to be induced in the coil as expressed by Michael Faraday’s induction equation e = N(dΦ/dt). This self-induced voltage across the coil, as a result of a gradual change in current magnitude through the coil, happens to be of a polarity that attempts to oppose the change in current. In other words, the induced voltage polarity resulting from an increase in current will be oriented in such a way as to push against the direction of current, to try to keep the current at its former magnitude. This phenomenon exhibits a more general principle of physics known as Lenz’s Law, which states that an induced effect will always be opposed to the cause producing it.
In this scenario, the inductor will be acting as a load, with the negative side of the induced voltage on the end where electrons are entering, and the positive side of the induced voltage on the end where electrons are exiting.
Changing the rate of current increase through the inductor by moving the potentiometer wiper “up” at different speeds results in different amounts of voltage being dropped across the inductor, all with the same polarity (opposing the increase in current):
Here again we see the derivative function of calculus exhibited in the behavior of an inductor. In calculus terms, we would say that the induced voltage across the inductor is the derivative of the current through the inductor: that is, proportional to the current’s rate-of-change with respect to time.
Reversing the direction of wiper motion on the potentiometer (going “down” rather than “up”) will result in its end-to-end resistance increasing. This will result in circuit current decreasing (a negative figure for di/dt). The inductor, always opposing any change in current, will produce a voltage drop opposed to the direction of change:
How much voltage the inductor will produce depends, of course, on how rapidly the current through it is decreased. As described by Lenz’s Law, the induced voltage will be opposed to the change in current. With a decreasing current, the voltage polarity will be oriented so as to try to keep the current at its former magnitude. In this scenario, the inductor will be acting as a source, with the negative side of the induced voltage on the end where electrons are exiting, and the positive side of the induced voltage on the end where electrons are entering. The more rapidly current is decreased, the more voltage will be produced by the inductor, in its release of stored energy to try to keep current constant.
Again, the amount of voltage across a perfect inductor is directly proportional to the rate of current change through it. The only difference between the effects of a decreasing current and an increasing current is the polarity of the induced voltage. For the same rate of current change over time, either increasing or decreasing, the voltage magnitude (volts) will be the same. For example, a di/dt of -2 amps per second will produce the same amount of induced voltage drop across an inductor as a di/dt of +2 amps per second, just in the opposite polarity.
If current through an inductor is forced to change very rapidly, very high voltages will be produced. Consider the following circuit:
In this circuit, a lamp is connected across the terminals of an inductor. A switch is used to control current in the circuit, and power is supplied by a 6 volt battery. When the switch is closed, the inductor will briefly oppose the change in current from zero to some magnitude, but will drop only a small amount of voltage. It takes about 70 volts to ionize the neon gas inside a neon bulb like this, so the bulb cannot be lit on the 6 volts produced by the battery, or the low voltage momentarily dropped by the inductor when the switch is closed:
When the switch is opened, however, it suddenly introduces an extremely high resistance into the circuit (the resistance of the air gap between the contacts). This sudden introduction of high resistance into the circuit causes the circuit current to decrease almost instantly. Mathematically, the di/dt term will be a very large negative number. Such a rapid change of current (from some magnitude to zero in very little time) will induce a very high voltage across the inductor, oriented with negative on the left and positive on the right, in an effort to oppose this decrease in current. The voltage produced is usually more than enough to light the neon lamp, if only for a brief moment until the current decays to zero:
For maximum effect, the inductor should be sized as large as possible (at least 1 Henry of inductance). | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_I_-_Direct_Current_(Kuphaldt)/15%3A_Inductors/15.02%3A_Inductors_and_Calculus.txt |
NUMBER OF WIRE WRAPS, OR “TURNS” IN THE COIL: All other factors being equal, a greater number of turns of wire in the coil results in greater inductance; fewer turns of wire in the coil results in less inductance.
Explanation: More turns of wire means that the coil will generate a greater amount of magnetic field force (measured in amp-turns!), for a given amount of coil current.
COIL AREA: All other factors being equal, greater coil area (as measured looking lengthwise through the coil, at the cross-section of the core) results in greater inductance; less coil area results in less inductance.
Explanation: Greater coil area presents less opposition to the formation of magnetic field flux, for a given amount of field force (amp-turns).
COIL LENGTH: All other factors being equal, the longer the coil’s length, the less inductance; the shorter the coil’s length, the greater the inductance.
Explanation: A longer path for the magnetic field flux to take results in more opposition to the formation of that flux for any given amount of field force (amp-turns).
CORE MATERIAL: All other factors being equal, the greater the magnetic permeability of the core which the coil is wrapped around, the greater the inductance; the less the permeability of the core, the less the inductance.
Explanation: A core material with greater magnetic permeability results in greater magnetic field flux for any given amount of field force (amp-turns).
An approximation of inductance for any coil of wire can be found with this formula:
It must be understood that this formula yields approximate figures only. One reason for this is the fact that permeability changes as the field intensity varies (remember the nonlinear “B/H” curves for different materials). Obviously, if permeability (µ) in the equation is unstable, then the inductance (L) will also be unstable to some degree as the current through the coil changes in magnitude. If the hysteresis of the core material is significant, this will also have strange effects on the inductance of the coil. Inductor designers try to minimize these effects by designing the core in such a way that its flux density never approaches saturation levels, and so the inductor operates in a more linear portion of the B/H curve.
If an inductor is designed so that any one of these factors may be varied at will, its inductance will correspondingly vary. Variable inductors are usually made by providing a way to vary the number of wire turns in use at any given time, or by varying the core material (a sliding core that can be moved in and out of the coil). An example of the former design is shown in this photograph:
This unit uses sliding copper contacts to tap into the coil at different points along its length. The unit shown happens to be an air-core inductor used in early radio work.
A fixed-value inductor is shown in the next photograph, another antique air-core unit built for radios. The connection terminals can be seen at the bottom, as well as the few turns of relatively thick wire:
Here is another inductor (of greater inductance value), also intended for radio applications. Its wire coil is wound around a white ceramic tube for greater rigidity:
Inductors can also be made very small for printed circuit board applications. Closely examine the following photograph and see if you can identify two inductors near each other:
The two inductors on this circuit board are labeled L1 and L2, and they are located to the right-center of the board. Two nearby components are R3 (a resistor) and C16 (a capacitor). These inductors are called “toroidal” because their wire coils are wound around donut-shaped (“torus”) cores.
Like resistors and capacitors, inductors can be packaged as “surface mount devices” as well. The following photograph shows just how small an inductor can be when packaged as such:
A pair of inductors can be seen on this circuit board, to the right and center, appearing as small black chips with the number “100” printed on both. The upper inductor’s label can be seen printed on the green circuit board as L5. Of course these inductors are very small in inductance value, but it demonstrates just how tiny they can be manufactured to meet certain circuit design needs. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_I_-_Direct_Current_(Kuphaldt)/15%3A_Inductors/15.03%3A_Factors_Affecting_Inductance.txt |
When inductors are connected in series, the total inductance is the sum of the individual inductors’ inductances. To understand why this is so, consider the following: the definitive measure of inductance is the amount of voltage dropped across an inductor for a given rate of current change through it. If inductors are connected together in series (thus sharing the same current, and seeing the same rate of change in current), then the total voltage dropped as the result of a change in current will be additive with each inductor, creating a greater total voltage than either of the individual inductors alone. Greater voltage for the same rate of change in current means greater inductance.
Thus, the total inductance for series inductors is more than any one of the individual inductors’ inductances. The formula for calculating the series total inductance is the same form as for calculating series resistances:
$\underbrace{L_{total} = L_1 + L_2 + \cdots + L_m}_{\text{Series Inductaces}}$
When inductors are connected in parallel, the total inductance is less than any one of the parallel inductors’ inductances. Again, remember that the definitive measure of inductance is the amount of voltage dropped across an inductor for a given rate of current change through it. Since the current through each parallel inductor will be a fraction of the total current, and the voltage across each parallel inductor will be equal, a change in total current will result in less voltage dropped across the parallel array than for any one of the inductors considered separately. In other words, there will be less voltage dropped across parallel inductors for a given rate of change in current than for any of those inductors considered separately, because total current divides among parallel branches. Less voltage for the same rate of change in current means less inductance.
Thus, the total inductance is less than any one of the individual inductors’ inductances. The formula for calculating the parallel total inductance is the same form as for calculating parallel resistances:
Review
• Inductances add in series.
• Inductances diminish in parallel.
15.05: Practical Considerations - Inductors
Rated current: Since inductors are constructed of coiled wire, and any wire will be limited in its current-carrying capacity by its resistance and ability to dissipate heat, you must pay attention to the maximum current allowed through an inductor.
Equivalent circuit: Since inductor wire has some resistance, and circuit design constraints typically demand the inductor be built to the smallest possible dimensions, there is no such thing as a “perfect” inductor. Inductor coil wire usually presents a substantial amount of series resistance, and the close spacing of wire from one coil turn to another (separated by insulation) may present measurable amounts of stray capacitance to interact with its purely inductive characteristics. Unlike capacitors, which are relatively easy to manufacture with negligible stray effects, inductors are difficult to find in “pure” form. In certain applications, these undesirable characteristics may present significant engineering problems.
Inductor size: Inductors tend to be much larger, physically, than capacitors are for storing equivalent amounts of energy. This is especially true considering the recent advances in electrolytic capacitor technology, allowing incredibly large capacitance values to be packed into a small package. If a circuit designer needs to store a large amount of energy in a small volume and has the freedom to choose either capacitors or inductors for the task, he or she will most likely choose a capacitor. A notable exception to this rule is in applications requiring huge amounts of either capacitance or inductance to store electrical energy: inductors made of superconducting wire (zero resistance) are more practical to build and safely operate than capacitors of equivalent value, and are probably smaller too.
Interference: Inductors may affect nearby components on a circuit board with their magnetic fields, which can extend significant distances beyond the inductor. This is especially true if there are other inductors nearby on the circuit board. If the magnetic fields of two or more inductors are able to “link” with each others’ turns of wire, there will be mutual inductance present in the circuit as well as self-inductance, which could very well cause unwanted effects. This is another reason why circuit designers tend to choose capacitors over inductors to perform similar tasks: capacitors inherently contain their respective electric fields neatly within the component package and therefore do not typically generate any “mutual” effects with other components. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_I_-_Direct_Current_(Kuphaldt)/15%3A_Inductors/15.04%3A_Series_and_Parallel_Inductors.txt |
Electronics is a science, and a very accessible science at that. With other areas of scientific study, expensive equipment is generally required to perform any non-trivial experiments. Not so with electronics. Many advanced concepts may be explored using parts and equipment totaling under a few hundred US dollars. This is good, because hands-on experimentation is vital to gaining scientific knowledge about any subject.
When I started writing Lessons In Electric Circuits, my intent was to create a textbook suitable for introductory college use. However, being mostly self-taught in electronics myself, I knew the value of a good textbook to hobbyists and experimenters not enrolled in any formal electronics course. Many people selflessly volunteered their time and expertise in helping me learn electronics when I was younger, and my intent is to honor their service and love by giving back to the world what they gave to me.
In order for someone to teach themselves a science such as electronics, they must engage in hands-on experimentation. Knowledge gleaned from books alone has limited use, especially in scientific endeavors. If my contribution to society is to be complete, I must include a guide to experimentation along with the text(s) on theory, so that the individual learning on their own has a resource to guide their experimental adventures.
A formal laboratory course for college electronics study requires an enormous amount of work to prepare and usually must be based on specific parts and equipment so that the experiments will be sufficiently detailed, with results sufficiently precise to allow for rigorous comparison between experimental and theoretical data. A process of assessment, articulated through a qualified instructor, is also vital to guarantee that a certain level of learning has taken place. Peer review (comparison of experimental results with the work of others) is another important component of college-level laboratory study and helps to improve the quality of learning. Since I cannot meet these criteria through the medium of a book, it is impractical for me to present a complete laboratory course here. In the interest of keeping this experiment guide reasonably low-cost for people to follow, and practical for deployment over the internet, I am forced to design the experiments at a lower level than what would be expected for a college lab course.
The experiments in this volume begin at a level appropriate for someone with no electronics knowledge, and progress to higher levels. They stress qualitative knowledge over quantitative knowledge, although they could serve as templates for more rigorous coursework. If there is any portion of Lessons In Electric Circuitsthat will remain “incomplete,” it is this one: I fully intend to continue adding experiments ad infinitum so as to provide the experimenter or hobbyist with a wealth of ideas to explore the science of electronics. This volume of the book series is also the easiest to contribute to, for those who would like to help me in providing free information to people learning electronics. It doesn’t take a tremendous effort to describe an experiment or two, and I will gladly include it if you email it to me, giving you full credit for the work. Refer to Appendix 2 for details on contributing to this book.
When performing these experiments, feel free to explore by trying different circuit construction and measurement techniques. If something isn’t working as the text describes it should, don’t give up! It’s probably due to a simple problem in construction (loose wire, wrong component value) or test equipment setup. It can be frustrating working through these problems on your own, but the knowledge gained by “troubleshooting” a circuit yourself is at least as important as the knowledge gained by a properly functioning experiment. This is one of the most important reasons why experimentation is so vital to your scientific education: the real problems you will invariably encounter in experimentation challenge you to develop practical problem-solving skills.
In many of these experiments, I offer part numbers for Radio Shack brand components. This is not an endorsement of Radio Shack, but simply a convenient reference to an electronic supply company well-known in North America. Often times, components of better quality and lower price may be obtained through mail-order companies and other, lesser-known supply houses. I strongly recommend that experimenters obtain some of the more expensive components such as transformers (see the AC chapter) by salvaging them from discarded electrical appliances, both for economic and ecological reasons.
All experiments shown in this book are designed with safety in mind. It is nearly impossible to shock or otherwise hurt yourself by battery-powered experiments or other circuits of low voltage. However, hazards do exist building anything with your own two hands. Where there is a greater-than-normal level of danger in an experiment, I take efforts to direct the reader’s attention toward it. However, it is, unfortunately, necessary in this litigious society to disclaim any and all liability for the outcome of any experiment presented here. Neither I nor any contributors bear responsibility for injuries resulting from the construction or use of any of these projects, from the mishandling of electricity by the experimenter, or from any other unsafe practices leading to injury. Perform these experiments at your own risk! | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/01%3A_Introduction/1.01%3A_Electronics_as_Science.txt |
In order to build the circuits described in this volume, you will need a small work area, as well as a few tools and critical supplies. This section describes the setup of a home electronics laboratory.
Work area
A work area should consist of a large workbench, desk, or table (preferably wooden) for performing circuit assembly, with household electrical power (120 volts AC) readily accessible to power soldering equipment, power supplies, and any test equipment. Inexpensive desks intended for computer use function very well for this purpose. Avoid a metal-surface desk, as the electrical conductivity of a metal surface creates both a shock hazard and the very distinct possibility of unintentional “short circuits” developing from circuit components touching the metal tabletop. Vinyl and plastic bench surfaces are to be avoided for their ability to generate and store large static-electric charges, which may damage sensitive electronic components. Also, these materials melt easily when exposed to hot soldering irons and molten solder droplets.
If you cannot obtain a wooden-surface workbench, you may turn any form of table or desk into one by laying a piece of plywood on top. If you are reasonably skilled with woodworking tools, you may construct your own desk using plywood and 2x4 boards.
The work area should be well-lit and comfortable. I have a small radio set up on my own workbench for listening to music or news as I experiment. My own workbench has a “power strip” receptacle and switch assembly mounted to the underside, into which I plug all 120 volt devices. It is convenient to have a single switch for shutting off all power in case of an accidental short-circuit!
Tools
A few tools are required for basic electronics work. Most of these tools are inexpensive and easy to obtain. If you desire to keep the cost as low as possible, you might want to search for them at thrift stores and pawn shops before buying them new. As you can tell from the photographs, some of my own tools are rather old but function well nonetheless.
First and foremost in your tool collection is a multimeter. This is an electrical instrument designed to measure voltage, current, resistance, and often other variables as well. Multimeters are manufactured in both digital and analog form. A digital multimeter is preferred for precision work, but analog meters are also useful for gaining an intuitive understanding of instrument sensitivity and range.
My own digital multimeter is a Fluke model 27, purchased in 1987:
Digital multimeter
Most analog multimeters sold today are quite inexpensive, and not necessarily precision test instruments. I recommend having both digital and analog meter types in your tool collection, spending as little money as possible on the analog multimeter and investing in a good-quality digital multimeter (I highly recommend the Fluke brand).
======================================
A test instrument I have found indispensable in my home work is a sensitive voltage detector, or sensitive audio detector, described in nearly identical experiments in two chapters of this book volume. It is nothing more than a sensitized set of audio headphones, equipped with an attenuator (volume control) and limiting diodes to limit sound intensity from strong signals. Its purpose is to audibly indicate the presence of low-intensity voltage signals, DC or AC. In the absence of an oscilloscope, this is a most valuable tool, because it allows you to listen to an electronic signal, and thereby determine something of its nature. Few tools engender an intuitive comprehension of frequency and amplitude as this! I cite its use in many of the experiments shown in this volume, so I strongly encourage that you build your own. Second, only to a multimeter, it is the most useful piece of test equipment in the collection of the budget electronics experimenter.
Sensitive voltage/audio detector
As you can see, I built my detector using scrap parts (household electrical switch/receptacle box for the enclosure, section of brown lamp cord for the test leads). Even some of the internal components were salvaged from scrap (the step-down transformer and headphone jack were taken from an old radio, purchased in non-working condition from a thrift store). The entire thing, including the headphones, purchased second-hand, cost no more than \$15 to build. Of course, one could take much greater care in choosing construction materials (metal box, shielded test probe cable), but it probably wouldn’t improve its performance significantly.
The single most influential component with regard to detector sensitivity is the headphone assembly: generally speaking, the greater the “dB” rating of the headphones, the better they will function for this purpose. Since the headphones need not be modified for use in the detector circuit, and they can be unplugged from it, you might justify the purchase of more expensive, high-quality headphones by using them as part of a home entertainment (audio/video) system.
======================================
Also essential is a solderless breadboard, sometimes called a prototyping board or proto-board. This device allows you to quickly join electronic components to one another without having to solder component terminals and wires together.
Solderless breadboard
======================================
When working with wire, you need a tool to “strip” the plastic insulation off the ends so that bare copper metal is exposed. This tool is called a wire stripper, and it is a special form of plier with several knife-edged holes in the jaw area sized just right for cutting through the plastic insulation and not the copper, for a multitude of wire sizes, or gauges. Shown here are two different sizes of wire stripping pliers:
Wire stripping pliers
======================================
In order to make quick, temporary connections between some electronic components, you need jumper wires with small “alligator-jaw” clips at each end. These may be purchased complete, or assembled from clips and wires.
Jumper wires (as sold by Radio Shack)
Jumper wires (home-made)
The home-made jumper wires with large, uninsulated (bare metal) alligator clips are okay to use so long as care is taken to avoid any unintentional contact between the bare clips and any other wires or components. For use in crowded breadboard circuits, jumper wires with insulated (rubber-covered) clips like the jumper shown from Radio Shack are much preferred.
======================================
Needle-nose pliers are designed to grasp small objects, and are especially useful for pushing wires into stubborn breadboard holes.
Needle-nose pliers
======================================
No tool set would be complete without screwdrivers, and I recommend a complementary pair (3/16 inch slotted and #2 Phillips) as the starting point for your collection. You may later find it useful to invest in a set of jeweler’s screwdrivers for work with very small screws and screw-head adjustments.
Screwdrivers
======================================
For projects involving printed-circuit board assembly or repair, a small soldering iron and a spool of “rosin-core” solder are essential tools. I recommend a 25 watt soldering iron, no larger for printed circuit board work, and the thinnest solder you can find. Do not use “acid-core” solder! Acid-core solder is intended for the soldering of copper tubes (plumbing), where a small amount of acid helps to clean the copper of surface impurities and provide a stronger bond. If used for electrical work, the residual acid will cause wires to corrode. Also, you should avoid solder containing the metal lead, opting instead for silver-alloy solder. If you do not already wear glasses, a pair of safety glasses is highly recommended while soldering, to prevent bits of molten solder from accidently landing in your eye should a wire release from the joint during the soldering process and fling bits of solder toward you.
Soldering iron and solder (“rosin core”)
======================================
Projects requiring the joining of large wires by soldering will necessitate a more powerful heat source than a 25 watt soldering iron. A soldering gun is a practical option.
Soldering gun
======================================
Knives, like screwdrivers, are essential tools for all kinds of work. For safety’s sake, I recommend a “utility” knife with retracting blade. These knives are also advantageous to have for their ability to accept replacement blades.
Utility knife
======================================
Pliers other than the needle-nose type are useful for the assembly and disassembly of electronic device chassis. Two types I recommend are slip-joint and adjustable-joint (“Channel-lock”).
Slip-joint pliers
Adjustable-joint pliers
======================================
Drilling may be required for the assembly of large projects. Although power drills work well, I have found that a simple hand-crank drill does a remarkable job drilling through plastic, wood, and most metals. It is certainly safer and quieter than a power drill, and costs quite a bit less.
Hand drill
As the wear on my drill indicates, it is an often-used tool around my home!
======================================
Some experiments will require a source of audio-frequency voltage signals. Normally, this type of signal is generated in an electronics laboratory by a device called a signal generator or function generator. While building such a device is not impossible (nor difficult!), it often requires the use of an oscilloscope to fine-tune, and oscilloscopes are usually outside the budgetary range of the home experimenter. A relatively inexpensive alternative to a commercial signal generator is an electronic keyboard of the musical type. You need not be a musician to operate one for the purposes of generating an audio signal (just press any key on the board!), and they may be obtained quite readily at second-hand stores for substantially less than new price. The electronic signal generated by the keyboard is conducted to your circuit via a headphone cable plugged into the “headphones” jack. More details regarding the use of a “Musical Keyboard as a Signal Generator” may be found in the experiment of that name in chapter 4 (AC).
Supplies
Wire used in solderless breadboards must be 22-gauge, solid copper. Spools of this wire are available from electronic supply stores and some hardware stores, in different insulation colors. Insulation color has no bearing on the wire’s performance, but different colors are sometimes useful for “color-coding” wire functions in a complex circuit.
Spool of 22-gauge, solid copper wire
Note how the last 1/4 inch or so of the copper wire protruding from the spool has been “stripped” of its plastic insulation.
======================================
An alternative to solderless breadboard circuit construction is wire-wrap, where 30-gauge (very thin!) solid copper wire is tightly wrapped around the terminals of components inserted through the holes of a fiberglass board. No soldering is required, and the connections made are at least as durable as soldered connections, perhaps more. Wire-wrapping requires a spool of this very thin wire, and a special wrapping tool, the simplest kind resembling a small screwdriver.
Wire-wrap wire and wrapping tool
======================================
Large wire (14 gauge and bigger) may be needed for building circuits that carry significant levels of current. Though electrical wire of practically any gauge may be purchased on spools, I have found a very inexpensive source of stranded (flexible), copper wire, available at any hardware store: cheap extension cords. Typically comprised of three wires colored white, black, and green, extension cords are often sold at prices less than the retail cost of the constituent wire alone. This is especially true if the cord is purchased on sale! Also, an extension cord provides you with a pair of 120 volt connectors: male (plug) and female (receptacle) that may be used for projects powered by 120 volts.
Extension cord, in package
To extract the wires, carefully cut the outer layer of plastic insulation away using a utility knife. With practice, you may find you can peel away the outer insulation by making a short cut in it at one end of the cable, then grasping the wires with one hand and the insulation with the other and pulling them apart. This is, of course, much preferable to slicing the entire length of the insulation with a knife, both for safety’s sake and for the sake of avoiding cuts in the individual wires’ insulation.
======================================
During the course of building many circuits, you will accumulate a large number of small components. One technique for keeping these components organized is to keep them in a plastic “organizer” box like the type used for fishing tackle.
Component box
In this view of one of my component boxes, you can see plenty of 1/8 watt resistors, transistors, diodes, and even a few 8-pin integrated circuits (“chips”). Labels for each compartment were made with a permanent ink marker. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/01%3A_Introduction/1.02%3A_Setting_Up_a_Home_Lab.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Multimeter, digital or analog
• Assorted batteries
• One light-emitting diode (Radio Shack catalog # 276-026 or equivalent)
• Small “hobby” motor, permanent-magnet type (Radio Shack catalog # 273-223 or equivalent)
• Two jumper wires with “alligator clip” ends (Radio Shack catalog # 278-1156, 278-1157, or equivalent)
A multimeter is an electrical instrument capable of measuring voltage, current, and resistance. Digitalmultimeters have numerical displays, like digital clocks, for indicating the quantity of voltage, current, or resistance. Analog multimeters indicate these quantities by means of a moving pointer over a printed scale.
Analog multimeters tend to be less expensive than digital multimeters, and more beneficial as learning tools for the first-time student of electricity. I strongly recommend purchasing an analog multimeter before purchasing a digital multimeter, but to eventually have both in your tool kit for these experiments.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 1: “Basic Concepts of Electricity”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 8: “DC Metering Circuits”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• How to measure voltage
• Characteristics of voltage: existing between two points
• Selection of proper meter range
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
In all the experiments in this book, you will be using some sort of test equipment to measure aspects of electricity you cannot directly see, feel, hear, taste, or smell. Electricity—at least in small, safe quantities—is insensible by our human bodies. Your most fundamental “eyes” in the world of electricity and electronics will be a device called a multimeter. Multimeters indicate the presence of, and measure the quantity of, electrical properties such as voltage, current, and resistance. In this experiment, you will familiarize yourself with the measurement of voltage.
Voltage is the measure of electrical “push” ready to motivate electrons to move through a conductor. In scientific terms, it is the specific energy per unit charge, mathematically defined as joules per coulomb. It is analogous to pressure in a fluid system: the force that moves fluid through a pipe, and is measured in the unit of the Volt (V).
Your multimeter should come with some basic instructions. Read them well! If your multimeter is digital, it will require a small battery to operate. If it is analog, it does not need a battery to measure voltage.
Some digital multimeters are autoranging. An autoranging meter has only a few selector switch (dial) positions. Manual-ranging meters have several different selector positions for each basic quantity: several for voltage, several for current, and several for resistance. Autoranging is usually found on only the more expensive digital meters, and is to manual ranging as an automatic transmission is to a manual transmission in a car. An autoranging meter “shifts gears” automatically to find the best measurement range to display the particular quantity being measured.
Set your multimeter’s selector switch to the highest-value “DC volt” position available. Autoranging multimeters may only have a single position for DC voltage, in which case you need to set the switch to that one position. Touch the red test probe to the positive (+) side of a battery, and the black test probe to the negative (-) side of the same battery. The meter should now provide you with some sort of indication. Reverse the test probe connections to the battery if the meter’s indication is negative (on an analog meter, a negative value is indicated by the pointer deflecting left instead of right).
If your meter is a manual-range type, and the selector switch has been set to a high-range position, the indication will be small. Move the selector switch to the next lower DC voltage range setting and reconnect to the battery. The indication should be stronger now, as indicated by a greater deflection of the analog meter pointer (needle), or more active digits on the digital meter display. For the best results, move the selector switch to the lowest-range setting that does not “over-range” the meter. An over-ranged analog meter is said to be “pegged,” as the needle will be forced all the way to the right-hand side of the scale, past the full-range scale value. An over-ranged digital meter sometimes displays the letters “OL”, or a series of dashed lines. This indication is manufacturer-specific.
What happens if you only touch one meter test probe to one end of a battery? How does the meter have to connect to the battery in order to provide an indication? What does this tell us about voltmeter use and the nature of voltage? Is there such a thing as voltage “at” a single point?
Be sure to measure more than one size of battery, and learn how to select the best voltage range on the multimeter to give you maximum indication without over-ranging.
Now switch your multimeter to the lowest DC voltage range available, and touch the meter’s test probes to the terminals (wire leads) of the light-emitting diode (LED). An LED is designed to produce light when powered by a small amount of electricity, but LEDs also happen to generate DC voltage when exposed to light, somewhat like a solar cell. Point the LED toward a bright source of light with your multimeter connected to it, and note the meter’s indication:
Batteries develop electrical voltage through chemical reactions. When a battery “dies,” it has exhausted its original store of chemical “fuel.” The LED, however, does not rely on an internal “fuel” to generate voltage; rather, it converts optical energy into electrical energy. So long as there is light to illuminate the LED, it will produce voltage.
Another source of voltage through energy conversion a generator. The small electric motor specified in the “Parts and Materials” list functions as an electrical generator if its shaft is turned by a mechanical force. Connect your voltmeter (your multimeter, set to the “volt” function) to the motor’s terminals just as you connected it to the LED’s terminals, and spin the shaft with your fingers. The meter should indicate voltage by means of needle deflection (analog) or numerical readout (digital).
If you find it difficult to maintain both meter test probes in connection with the motor’s terminals while simultaneously spinning the shaft with your fingers, you may use alligator clip “jumper” wires like this:
Determine the relationship between voltage and generator shaft speed? Reverse the generator’s direction of rotation and note the change in meter indication. When you reverse shaft rotation, you change the polarity of the voltage created by the generator. The voltmeter indicates polarity by direction of needle direction (analog) or sign of numerical indication (digital). When the red test lead is positive (+) and the black test lead negative (-), the meter will register voltage in the normal direction. If the applied voltage is of the reverse polarity (negative on red and positive on black), the meter will indicate “backwards.” | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/02%3A_Basic_Concepts_and_Test_Equipment/2.01%3A_Voltmeter_Usage.txt |
Parts and Materials
• Multimeter, digital or analog
• Assorted resistors (Radio Shack catalog # 271-312 is a 500-piece assortment)
• Rectifying diode (1N4001 or equivalent; Radio Shack catalog # 276-1101)
• Cadmium Sulphide photocell (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1657)
• Breadboard (Radio Shack catalog # 276-174 or equivalent)
• Jumper wires
• Paper
• Pencil
• Glass of water
• Table salt
This experiment describes how to measure the electrical resistance of several objects. You need not possess all items listed above in order to effectively learn about resistance. Conversely, you need not limit your experiments to these items. However, be sure to never measure the resistance of any electrically “live” object or circuit. In other words, do not attempt to measure the resistance of a battery or any other source of substantial voltage using a multimeter set to the resistance (“ohms”) function. Failing to heed this warning will likely result in meter damage and even personal injury.
Learning Objectives
• Determination and comprehension of “electrical continuity”
• Determination and comprehension of “electrically common points”
• How to measure resistance
• Characteristics of resistance: existing between two points
• Selection of proper meter range
• Relative conductivity of various components and materials
Instructions
Resistance is the measure of electrical “friction” as electrons move through a conductor. It is measured in the unit of the “Ohm,” that unit symbolized by the capital Greek letter omega (Ω).
Set your multimeter to the highest resistance range available. The resistance function is usually denoted by the unit symbol for resistance: the Greek letter omega (Ω), or sometimes by the word “ohms.” Touch the two test probes of your meter together. When you do, the meter should register 0 ohms of resistance. If you are using an analog meter, you will notice the needle deflect full-scale when the probes are touched together, and return to its resting position when the probes are pulled apart. The resistance scale on an analog multimeter is reverse-printed from the other scales: zero resistance in indicated at the far right-hand side of the scale, and infinite resistance is indicated at the far left-hand side. There should also be a small adjustment knob or “wheel” on the analog multimeter to calibrate it for “zero” ohms of resistance. Touch the test probes together and move this adjustment until the needle exactly points to zero at the right-hand end of the scale.
Although your multimeter is capable of providing quantitative values of measured resistance, it is also useful for qualitative tests of continuity: whether or not there is a continuous electrical connection from one point to another. You can, for instance, test the continuity of a piece of wire by connecting the meter probes to opposite ends of the wire and checking to see the the needle moves full-scale. What would we say about a piece of wire if the ohmmeter needle didn’t move at all when the probes were connected to opposite ends?
How to Measure Resistance
Digital multimeters set to the “resistance” mode indicate non-continuity by displaying some non-numerical indication on the display. Some models say “OL” (Open-Loop), while others display dashed lines.
Use your meter to determine continuity between the holes on a breadboard: a device used for temporary construction of circuits, where component terminals are inserted into holes on a plastic grid, metal spring clips underneath each hole connecting certain holes to others. Use small pieces of 22-gauge solid copper wire, inserted into the holes of the breadboard, to connect the meter to these spring clips so that you can test for continuity:
An important concept in electricity, closely related to electrical continuity, is that of points being electrically common to each other. Electrically common points are points of contact on a device or in a circuit that have negligible (extremely small) resistance between them. We could say, then, that points within a breadboard column (vertical in the illustrations) are electrically common to each other, because there is electrical continuity between them. Conversely, breadboard points within a row (horizontal in the illustrations) are not electrically common, because there is no continuity between them. Continuity describes what is between points of contact, while commonality describes how the points themselves relate to each other.
Like continuity, commonality is a qualitative assessment, based on a relative comparison of resistance between other points in a circuit. It is an important concept to grasp, because there are certain facts regarding voltage in relation to electrically common points that are valuable in circuit analysis and troubleshooting, the first one being that there will never be substantial voltage dropped between points that are electrically common to each other.
Select a 10,000 ohm (10 kΩ) resistor from your parts assortment. This resistance value is indicated by a series of color bands: Brown, Black, Orange, and then another color representing the precision of the resistor, Gold (+/- 5%) or Silver (+/- 10%). Some resistors have no color for precision, which marks them as +/- 20%. Other resistors use five color bands to denote their value and precision, in which case the colors for a 10 kΩ resistor will be Brown, Black, Black, Red, and a fifth color for precision.
Connect the meter’s test probes across the resistor as such, and note its indication on the resistance scale:
If the needle points very close to zero, you need to select a lower resistance range on the meter, just as you needed to select an appropriate voltage range when reading the voltage of a battery.
If you are using a digital multimeter, you should see a numerical figure close to 10 shown on the display, with a small “k” symbol on the right-hand side denoting the metric prefix for “kilo” (thousand). Some digital meters are manually-ranged, and require appropriate range selection just as the analog meter. If yours is like this, experiment with different range switch positions and see which one gives you the best indication.
Try reversing the test probe connections on the resistor. Does this change the meter’s indication at all? What does this tell us about the resistance of a resistor? What happens when you only touch one probe to the resistor? What does this tell us about the nature of resistance, and how it is measured? How does this compare with voltage measurement, and what happened when we tried to measure battery voltage by touching only one probe to the battery?
When you touch the meter probes to the resistor terminals, try not to touch both probe tips to your fingers. If you do, you will be measuring the parallel combination of the resistor and your own body, which will tend to make the meter indication lower than it should be! When measuring a 10 kΩ resistor, this error will be minimal, but it may be more severe when measuring other values of resistor.
You may safely measure the resistance of your own body by holding one probe tip with the fingers of one hand, and the other probe tip with the fingers of the other hand. Note: be very careful with the probes, as they are often sharpened to a needle-point. Hold the probe tips along their length, not at the very points! You may need to adjust the meter range again after measuring the 10 kΩ resistor, as your body resistance tends to be greater than 10,000 ohms hand-to-hand. Try wetting your fingers with water and re-measuring resistance with the meter. What impact does this have on the indication? Try wetting your fingers with saltwater prepared using the glass of water and table salt, and re-measuring resistance. What impact does this have on your body’s resistance as measured by the meter?
Resistance is the measure of friction to electron flow through an object. The more resistance there is between two points, the harder it is for electrons to move (flow) between those two points. Given that electric shock is caused by a large flow of electrons through a person’s body, and increased body resistance acts as a safeguard by making it more difficult for electrons to flow through us, what can we ascertain about electrical safety from the resistance readings obtained with wet fingers? Does water increase or decrease shock hazard to people?
Measure the resistance of a rectifying diode with an analog meter. Try reversing the test probe connections to the diode and re-measure resistance. What strikes you as being remarkable about the diode, especially in contrast to the resistor?
Take a piece of paper and draw a very heavy black mark on it with a pencil (not a pen!). Measure resistance on the black strip with your meter, placing the probe tips at each end of the mark like this:
Move the probe tips closer together on the black mark and note the change in resistance value. Does it increase or decrease with decreased probe spacing? If the results are inconsistent, you need to redraw the mark with more and heavier pencil strokes, so that it is consistent in its density. What does this teach you about resistance versus length of a conductive material?
Connect your meter to the terminals of a cadmium-sulphide (CdS) photocell and measure the change in resistance created by differences in light exposure. Just as with the light-emitting diode (LED) of the voltmeter experiment, you may want to use alligator-clip jumper wires to make connection with the component, leaving your hands free to hold the photocell to a light source and/or change meter ranges:
Experiment with measuring the resistance of several different types of materials, just be sure not to try measure anything that produces substantial voltage, like a battery. Suggestions for materials to measure are: fabric, plastic, wood, metal, clean water, dirty water, salt water, glass, diamond (on a diamond ring or other piece of jewelry), paper, rubber, and oil. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/02%3A_Basic_Concepts_and_Test_Equipment/2.02%3A_Ohmmeter_Usage.txt |
Parts and Materials
• 6-volt battery
• 6-volt incandescent lamp
• Jumper wires
• Breadboard
• Terminal strip
From this experiment on, a multimeter is assumed to be necessary and will not be included in the required list of parts and materials. In all subsequent illustrations, a digital multimeter will be shown instead of an analog meter unless there is some particular reason to use an analog meter. You are encouraged to use both types of meters to gain familiarity with the operation of each in these experiments.
Cross-references
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 1: “Basic Concepts of Electricity”
Learning Objectives
• Essential configuration needed to make a circuit
• Normal voltage drops in an operating circuit
• Importance of continuity to a circuit
• Working definitions of “open” and “short” circuits
• Breadboard usage
• Terminal strip usage
Creating a Simple Circuit
This is the simplest complete circuit in this collection of experiments: a battery and an incandescent lamp. Connect the lamp to the battery as shown in the illustration, and the lamp should light, assuming the battery and lamp are both in good condition and they are matched to one another in terms of voltage.
If there is a “break” (discontinuity) anywhere in the circuit, the lamp will fail to light. It does not matter where such a break occurs! Many students assume that because electrons leave the negative (-) side of the battery and continue through the circuit to the positive (+) side, that the wire connecting the negative terminal of the battery to the lamp is more important to circuit operation than the other wire providing a return path for electrons back to the battery. This is not true!
Using your multimeter set to the appropriate “DC volt” range, measure voltage across the battery, across the lamp, and across each jumper wire. Familiarize yourself with the normal voltages in a functioning circuit.
Now, “break” the circuit at one point and re-measure voltage between the same sets of points, additionally measuring voltage across the break like this:
What voltages measure the same as before? What voltages are different since introducing the break? How much voltage is manifested, or dropped across the break? What is the polarity of the voltage drop across the break, as indicated by the meter?
Re-connect the jumper wire to the lamp, and break the circuit in another place. Measure all voltage “drops” again, familiarizing yourself with the voltages of an “open” circuit.
Construct the same circuit on a breadboard, taking care to place the lamp and wires into the breadboard in such a way that continuity will be maintained. The example shown here is only that: an example, not the only way to build a circuit on a breadboard:
Experiment with different configurations on the breadboard, plugging the lamp into different holes. If you encounter a situation where the lamp refuses to light up and the connecting wires are getting warm, you probably have a situation known as a short circuit, where a lower-resistance path than the lamp bypasses current around the lamp, preventing enough voltage from being dropped across the lamp to light it up. Here is an example of a short circuit made on a breadboard:
An Example of an Accidental Short Circuit
Here is an example of an accidental short circuit of the type typically made by students unfamiliar with breadboard usage:
Here there is no “shorting” wire present on the breadboard, yet there is a short circuit, and the lamp refuses to light. Based on your understanding of breadboard hole connections, can you determine where the “short” is in this circuit?
Tips to Avoid Short Circuits
Short circuits are generally to be avoided, as they result in very high rates of electron flow, causing wires to heat up and battery power sources to deplete. If the power source is substantial enough, a short circuit may cause heat of explosive proportions to manifest, causing equipment damage and hazard to nearby personnel. This is what happens when a tree limb “shorts” across wires on a power line: the limb—being composed of wet wood—acts as a low-resistance path to electric current, resulting in heat and sparks.
You may also build the battery/lamp circuit on a terminal strip: a length of insulating material with metal bars and screws to attach wires and component terminals to. Here is an example of how this circuit might be constructed on a terminal strip: | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/02%3A_Basic_Concepts_and_Test_Equipment/2.03%3A_A_Very_Simple_Circuit.txt |
Parts and Materials
• 6-volt battery
• 6-volt incandescent lamp
Basic circuit construction components such as breadboard, terminal strip, and jumper wires are also assumed to be available from now on, leaving only components and materials unique to the project listed under “Parts and Materials”.
Further Reading
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 1: “Basic Concepts of Electricity”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 8: “DC Metering Circuits”
Ammeter Usage Learning Objectives
• How to measure current with a multimeter
• How to check a multimeter’s internal fuse
• Selection of proper meter range
Experiment Instructions
Current is the measure of the rate of electron “flow” in a circuit. It is measured in the unit of the Ampere, simply called “Amp,” (A).
The most common way to measure current in a circuit is to break the circuit open and insert an “ammeter” in series (in-line) with the circuit so that all electrons flowing through the circuit also have to go through the meter. Because measuring current in this manner requires the meter be made part of the circuit, it is a more difficult type of measurement to make than either voltage or resistance.
Some digital meters, like the unit shown in the illustration, have a separate jack to insert the red test lead plug when measuring current. Other meters, like most inexpensive analog meters, use the same jacks for measuring voltage, resistance, and current. Consult your owner’s manual on the particular model of meter you own for details on measuring current.
When an ammeter is placed in series with a circuit, it ideally drops no voltage as current goes through it. In other words, it acts very much like a piece of wire, with very little resistance from one test probe to the other. Consequently, an ammeter will act as a short circuit if placed in parallel (across the terminals of) a substantial source of voltage. If this is done, a surge in current will result, potentially damaging the meter:
Ammeters are generally protected from excessive current by means of a small fuse located inside the meter housing. If the ammeter is accidently connected across a substantial voltage source, the resultant surge in current will “blow” the fuse and render the meter incapable of measuring current until the fuse is replaced. Be very careful to avoid this scenario!
You may test the condition of a multimeter’s fuse by switching it to the resistance mode and measuring continuity through the test leads (and through the fuse). On a meter where the same test lead jacks are used for both resistance and current measurement, simply leave the test lead plugs where they are and touch the two probes together. On a meter where different jacks are used, this is how you insert the test lead plugs to check the fuse:
Build the one-battery, one-lamp circuit using jumper wires to connect the battery to the lamp, and verify that the lamp lights up before connecting the meter in series with it. Then, break the circuit open at any point and connect the meter’s test probes to the two points of the break to measure current.
As usual, if your meter is manually-ranged, begin by selecting the highest range for current, then move the selector switch to lower range positions until the strongest indication is obtained on the meter display without over-ranging it. If the meter indication is “backwards,” (left motion on analog needle, or negative reading on a digital display), then reverse the test probe connections and try again.
When the ammeter indicates a normal reading (not “backwards”), electrons are entering the black test lead and exiting the red. This is how you determine direction of current using a meter.
For a 6-volt battery and a small lamp, the circuit current will be in the range of thousandths of an amp, or milliamps. Digital meters often show a small letter “m” in the right-hand side of the display to indicate this metric prefix.
Try breaking the circuit at some other point and inserting the meter there instead. What do you notice about the amount of current measured? Why do you think this is?
Re-construct the circuit on a breadboard like this:
Connecting an Ammeter to a Breadboard Circuit: Tips and Tricks
Students often get confused when connecting an ammeter to a breadboard circuit. How can the meter be connected so as to intercept all the circuit’s current and not create a short circuit? One easy method that guarantees success is this:
• • Identify what wire or component terminal you wish to measure current through.
• • Pull that wire or terminal out of the breadboard hole. Leave it hanging in mid-air.
• • Insert a spare piece of wire into the hole you just pulled the other wire or terminal out of. Leave the other end of this wire hanging in mid-air.
• • Connect the ammeter between the two unconnected wire ends (the two that were hanging in mid-air). You are now assured of measuring current through the wire or terminal initially identified.
Again, measure current through different wires in this circuit, following the same connection procedure outlined above. What do you notice about these current measurements? The results in the breadboard circuit should be the same as the results in the free-form (no breadboard) circuit.
Experiment Results
Building the same circuit on a terminal strip should also yield similar results:
The current figure of 24.70 milliamps (24.70 mA) shown in the illustrations is an arbitrary quantity, reasonable for a small incandescent lamp. If the current for your circuit is a different value, that is okay, so long as the lamp is functioning when the meter is connected. If the lamp refuses to light when the meter is connected to the circuit, and the meter registers a much greater reading, you probably have a short-circuit condition through the meter. If your lamp refuses to light when the meter is connected in the circuit, and the meter registers zero current, you’ve probably blown the fuse inside the meter. Check the condition of your meter’s fuse as described previously in this section and replace the fuse if necessary. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/02%3A_Basic_Concepts_and_Test_Equipment/2.04%3A_How_to_Use_an_Ammeter_to_Measure_Current.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Calculator (or pencil and paper for doing arithmetic)
• 6-volt battery
• Assortment of resistors between 1 KΩ and 100 kΩ in value
I’m purposely restricting the resistance values between 1 kΩ and 100 kΩ for the sake of obtaining accurate voltage and current readings with your meter. With very low resistance values, the internal resistance of the ammeter has a significant impact on measurement accuracy. Very high resistance values can cause problems for voltage measurement, the internal resistance of the voltmeter substantially changing circuit resistance when it is connected in parallel with a high-value resistor.
At the recommended resistance values, there will still be a small amount of measurement error due to the “impact” of the meter, but not enough to cause serious disagreement with calculated values.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 2: “Ohm’s Law”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Voltmeter use
• Ammeter use
• Ohmmeter use
• Use of Ohm’s Law
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
Select a resistor from the assortment, and measure its resistance with your multimeter set to the appropriate resistance range. Be sure not to hold the resistor terminals when measuring resistance, or else your hand-to-hand body resistance will influence the measurement! Record this resistance value for future use.
Build a one-battery, one-resistor circuit. A terminal strip is shown in the illustration, but any form of circuit construction is okay. Set your multimeter to the appropriate voltage range and measure voltage across the resistor as it is being powered by the battery. Record this voltage value along with the resistance value previously measured.
Set your multimeter to the highest current range available. Break the circuit and connect the ammeter within that break, so it becomes a part of the circuit, in series with the battery and resistor. Select the best current range: whichever one gives the strongest meter indication without over-ranging the meter. If your multimeter is autoranging, of course, you need not bother with setting ranges. Record this current value along with the resistance and voltage values previously recorded.
Taking the measured figures for voltage and resistance, use the Ohm’s Law equation to calculate circuit current. Compare this calculated figure with the measured figure for circuit current:
Taking the measured figures for voltage and current, use the Ohm’s Law equation to calculate circuit resistance. Compare this calculated figure with the measured figure for circuit resistance:
Finally, taking the measured figures for resistance and current, use the Ohm’s Law equation to calculate circuit voltage. Compare this calculated figure with the measured figure for circuit voltage:
There should be close agreement between all measured and all calculated figures. Any differences in respective quantities of voltage, current, or resistance are most likely due to meter inaccuracies. These differences should be rather small, no more than several percent. Some meters, of course, are more accurate than others!
Substitute different resistors in the circuit and re-take all resistance, voltage, and current measurements. Re-calculate these figures and check for agreement with the experimental data (measured quantities). Also note the simple mathematical relationship between changes in resistor value and changes in circuit current. Voltage should remain approximately the same for any resistor size inserted into the circuit, because it is the nature of a battery to maintain voltage at a constant level. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/02%3A_Basic_Concepts_and_Test_Equipment/2.05%3A_Ohms_Law.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Calculator (or pencil and paper for doing arithmetic)
• 6-volt battery
• Low-voltage incandescent lamp (Radio Shack catalog # 272-1130 or equivalent)
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 2: “Ohm’s Law”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Voltmeter use
• Ammeter use
• Ohmmeter use
• Use of Ohm’s Law
• Realization that some resistances are unstable!
• Scientific method
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
Measure the resistance of the lamp with your multimeter. This resistance figure is due to the thin metal “filament” inside the lamp. It has substantially more resistance than a jumper wire, but less than any of the resistors from the last experiment. Record this resistance value for future use.
Build a one-battery, one-lamp circuit. Set your multimeter to the appropriate voltage range and measure voltage across the lamp as it is energized (lit). Record this voltage value along with the resistance value previously measured.
Set your multimeter to the highest current range available. Break the circuit and connect the ammeter within that break, so it becomes a part of the circuit, in series with the battery and lamp. Select the best current range: whichever one gives the strongest meter indication without over-ranging the meter. If your multimeter is autoranging, of course, you need not bother with setting ranges. Record this current value along with the resistance and voltage values previously recorded.
Taking the measured figures for voltage and resistance, use the Ohm’s Law equation to calculate circuit current. Compare this calculated figure with the measured figure for circuit current:
What you should find is a marked difference between measured current and calculated current: the calculated figure is much greater. Why is this?
To make things more interesting, try measuring the lamp’s resistance again, this time using a different model of meter. You will need to disconnect the lamp from the battery circuit in order to obtain a resistance reading, because voltages outside of the meter interfere with resistance measurement. This is a general rule that should be remembered: measure resistance only on an unpowered component!
Using a different ohmmeter, the lamp will probably register as a different value of resistance. Usually, analog meters give higher lamp resistance readings than digital meters.
This behavior is very different from that of the resistors in the last experiment. Why? What factor(s) might influence the resistance of the lamp filament, and how might those factors be different between conditions of lit and unlit, or between resistance measurements taken with different types of meters?
This problem is a good test case for the application of scientific method. Once you’ve thought of a possible reason for the lamp’s resistance changing between lit and unlit conditions, try to duplicate that cause by some other means. For example, if you think the lamp resistance might change as it is exposed to light (its own light, when lit), and that this accounts for the difference between the measured and calculated circuit currents, try exposing the lamp to an external source of light while measuring its resistance. If you measure substantial resistance change as a result of light exposure, then your hypothesis has some evidential support. If not, then your hypothesis has been falsified, and another cause must be responsible for the change in circuit current. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/02%3A_Basic_Concepts_and_Test_Equipment/2.06%3A_Nonlinear_Resistance.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Calculator (or pencil and paper for doing arithmetic)
• 6 volt battery
• Two 1/4 watt resistors: 10 Ω and 330 Ω.
• Small thermometer
The resistor values need not be exact, but within five percent of the figures specified (+/- 0.5 Ω for the 10 Ω resistor; +/- 16.5 Ω for the 330 Ω resistor). Color codes for 5% tolerance 10 Ω and 330 Ω resistors are as follows: Brown, Black, Black, Gold (10, +/- 5%), and Orange, Orange, Brown, Gold (330, +/- 5%).
Do not use any battery size other than 6 volts for this experiment.
The thermometer should be as small as possible, to facilitate rapid detection of heat produced by the resistor. I recommend a medical thermometer, the type used to take body temperature.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 2: “Ohm’s Law”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Voltmeter use
• Ammeter use
• Ohmmeter use
• Use of Joule’s Law
• Importance of component power ratings
• Significance of electrically common points
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
Measure each resistor’s resistance with your ohmmeter, noting the exact values on a piece of paper for later reference.
Connect the 330 Ω resistor to the 6 volt battery using a pair of jumper wires as shown in the illustration. Connect the jumper wires to the resistor terminals before connecting the other ends to the battery. This will ensure your fingers are not touching the resistor when battery power is applied.
You might be wondering why I advise no bodily contact with the powered resistor. This is because it will become hot when powered by the battery. You will use the thermometer to measure the temperature of each resistor when powered.
With the 330 Ω resistor connected to the battery, measure voltage with a voltmeter. In measuring voltage, there is more than one way to obtain a proper reading. Voltage may be measured directly across the battery, or directly across the resistor. Battery voltage is the same as resistor voltage in this circuit, since those two components share the same set of electrically common points: one side of the resistor is directly connected to one side of the battery, and the other side of the resistor is directly connected to the other side of the battery.
All points of contact along the upper wire in the illustration (colored red) are electrically common to each other. All points of contact along the lower wire (colored black) are likewise electrically common to each other. Voltage measured between any point on the upper wire and any point on the lower wire should be the same. Voltage measured between any two common points, however, should be zero.
Using an ammeter, measure current through the circuit. Again, there is no one “correct” way to measure current, so long as the ammeter is placed within the flow-path of electrons through the resistor and not across a source of voltage. To do this, make a break in the circuit, and place the ammeter within that break: connect the two test probes to the two wire or terminal ends left open from the break. One viable option is shown in the following illustration:
Now that you’ve measured and recorded resistor resistance, circuit voltage, and circuit current, you are ready to calculate power dissipation. Whereas voltage is the measure of electrical “push” motivating electrons to move through a circuit, and current is the measure of electron flow rate, power is the measure of work-rate: how fast work is being done in the circuit. It takes a certain amount of work to push electrons through a resistance, and power is a description of how rapidly that work is taking place. In mathematical equations, power is symbolized by the letter “P” and measured in the unit of the Watt (W).
Power may be calculated by any one of three equations—collectively referred to as Joule’s Law—given any two out of three quantities of voltage, current, and resistance:
Try calculating power in this circuit, using the three measured values of voltage, current, and resistance. Any way you calculate it, the power dissipation figure should be roughly the same. Assuming a battery with 6.000 volts and a resistor of exactly 330 Ω, the power dissipation will be 0.1090909 watts, or 109.0909 milli-watts (mW), to use a metric prefix. Since the resistor has a power rating of 1/4 watt (0.25 watts, or 250 mW), it is more than capable of sustaining this level of power dissipation. Because the actual power level is almost half the rated power, the resistor should become noticeably warm but it should not overheat. Touch the thermometer end to the middle of the resistor and see how warm it gets.
The power rating of any electrical component does not tell us how much power it will dissipate, but simply how much power it may dissipate without sustaining damage. If the actual amount of dissipated power exceeds a component’s power rating, that component will increase temperature to the point of damage.
To illustrate, disconnect the 330 Ω resistor and replace it with the 10 Ω resistor. Again, avoid touching the resistor once the circuit is complete, as it will heat up rapidly. The safest way to do this is to disconnect one jumper wire from a battery terminal, then disconnect the 330 Ω resistor from the two alligator clips, then connect the 10 Ω resistor between the two clips, and finally reconnect the jumper wire back to the battery terminal.
Caution: keep the 10 Ω resistor away from any flammable materials when it is powered by the battery!
You may not have enough time to take voltage and current measurements before the resistor begins to smoke. At the first sign of distress, disconnect one of the jumper wires from a battery terminal to interrupt circuit current, and give the resistor a few moments to cool down. With power still disconnected, measure the resistor’s resistance with an ohmmeter and note any substantial deviation from its original value. If the resistor still measures within +/- 5% of its advertised value (between 9.5 and 10.5 Ω), re-connect the jumper wire and let it smoke a bit more.
What trend do you notice with the resistor’s value as it is damaged more and more by overpowering? It is typical of resistors to fail with a greater-than-normal resistance when overheated. This is often a self-protective mode of failure, as an increased resistance results in less current and (generally) less power dissipation, cooling it down again. However, the resistor’s normal resistance value will not return if sufficiently damaged.
Performing some Joule’s Law calculations for resistor power again, we find that a 10 Ω resistor connected to a 6 volt battery dissipates about 3.6 watts of power, about 14.4 times its rated power dissipation. Little wonder it smokes so quickly after connection to the battery! | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/02%3A_Basic_Concepts_and_Test_Equipment/2.07%3A_Power_Dissipation.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• 6-volt battery
• Low-voltage incandescent lamp (Radio Shack catalog # 272-1130 or equivalent)
• Long lengths of wire, 22-gauge or larger
• Household light switch (these are readily available at any hardware store)
Household light switches are a bargain for students of basic electricity. They are readily available, very inexpensive, and almost impossible to damage with battery power. Do not get “dimmer” switches, just the simple on-off “toggle” variety used for ordinary household wall-mounted light controls.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 1: “Basic Concepts of Electricity”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Switch behavior
• Using an ohmmeter to check switch action
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
Build a one-battery, one-switch, one-lamp circuit as shown in the schematic diagram and in the illustration. This circuit is most impressive when the wires are long, as it shows how the switch is able to control circuit current no matter how physically large the circuit may be.
Measure voltage across the battery, across the switch (measure from one screw terminal to another with the voltmeter), and across the lamp with the switch in both positions. When the switch is turned off, it is said to be open, and the lamp will go out just the same as if a wire were pulled loose from a terminal. As before, any break in the circuit at any location causes the lamp to immediately de-energize (darken).
2.09: Electromagnetism Experiment
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• 6-volt battery
• Magnetic compass
• Small permanent magnet
• Spool of 28-gauge magnet wire
• Large bolt, nail, or steel rod
• Electrical tape
Magnet wire is a term for thin-gauge copper wire with enamel insulation instead of rubber or plastic insulation. Its small size and very thin insulation allow for many “turns” to be wound in a compact coil. You will need enough magnet wire to wrap hundreds of turns around the bolt, nail, or other rod-shaped steel form.
Be sure to select a bolt, nail, or rod that is magnetic. Stainless steel, for example, is non-magnetic and will not function for the purpose of an electromagnet coil! The ideal material for this experiment is soft iron, but any commonly available steel will suffice.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 14: “Magnetism and Electromagnetism”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Application of the left-hand rule
• Electromagnet construction
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
Wrap a single layer of electrical tape around the steel bar (or bolt, or mail) to protect the wire from abrasion. Proceed to wrap several hundred turns of wire around the steel bar, making the coil as even as possible. It is okay to overlap wire, and it is okay to wrap in the same style that a fishing reel wraps line around the spool. The only rule you must follow is that all turns must be wrapped around the bar in the same direction (no reversing from clockwise to counter-clockwise!). I find that a drill press works as a great tool for coil winding: clamp the rod in the drill’s chuck as if it were a drill bit, then turn the drill motor on at a slow speed and let it do the wrapping! This allows you to feed wire onto the rod in a very steady, even manner.
After you’ve wrapped several hundred turns of wire around the rod, wrap a layer or two of electrical tape over the wire coil to secure the wire in place. Scrape the enamel insulation off the ends of the coil wires for connection to jumper leads, then connect the coil to a battery.
When electric current goes through the coil, it will produce a strong magnetic field: one “pole” at each end of the rod. This phenomenon is known as electromagnetism. The magnetic compass is used to identify the “North” and “South” poles of the electromagnet.
With the electromagnet energized (connected to the battery), place a permanent magnet near one pole and note whether there is an attractive or repulsive force. Reverse the orientation of the permanent magnet and note the difference in force.
Electromagnetism has many applications, including relays, electric motors, solenoids, doorbells, buzzers, computer printer mechanisms, and magnetic media “write” heads (tape recorders, disk drives).
You might notice a significant spark whenever the battery is disconnected from the electromagnet coil: much greater than the spark produced if the battery is simply short-circuited. This spark is the result of a high-voltage surge created whenever current is suddenly interrupted through the coil. The effect is known as inductive “kickback” and is capable of delivering a small but harmless electric shock! To avoid receiving this shock, do not place your body across the break in the circuit when de-energizing! Use one hand at a time when un-powering the coil and you’ll be perfectly safe. This phenomenon will be explored in greater detail in the next chapter (DC Circuits).
2.10: Electromagnetic Induction Experiment
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Electromagnet from previous experiment
• Permanent magnet
See previous experiment for instructions on electromagnet construction.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 14: “Magnetism and Electromagnetism”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Relationship between magnetic field strength and induced voltage
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
Electromagnetic induction is the complementary phenomenon to electromagnetism. Instead of producing a magnetic field from electricity, we produce electricity from a magnetic field. There is one important difference, though: whereas electromagnetism produces a steady magnetic field from a steady electric current, electromagnetic induction requires motion between the magnet and the coil to produce a voltage.
Connect the multimeter to the coil, and set it to the most sensitive DC voltage range available. Move the magnet slowly to and from one end of the electromagnet, noting the polarity and magnitude of the induced voltage. Experiment with moving the magnet, and discover for yourself what factor(s) determine the amount of voltage induced. Try the other end of the coil and compare results. Try the other end of the permanent magnet and compare.
If using an analog multimeter, be sure to use long jumper wires and locate the meter far away from the coil, as the magnetic field from the permanent magnet may affect the meter’s operation and produce false readings. Digital meters are unaffected by magnetic fields. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/02%3A_Basic_Concepts_and_Test_Equipment/2.08%3A_Circuit_With_a_Switch.txt |
“DC” stands for Direct Current, which can refer to either voltage or current in a constant polarity or direction, respectively. These experiments are designed to introduce you to several important concepts of electricity related to DC circuits.
3.02: Series Batteries
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Two 6-volt batteries
• One 9-volt battery
Actually, any size batteries will suffice for this experiment, but it is recommended to have at least two different voltages available to make it more interesting.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 5: “Series and Parallel Circuits”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 11: “Batteries and Power Systems”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• How to connect batteries to obtain different voltage levels
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
Connecting components in series means to connect them in-line with each other, so that there is but a single path for electrons to flow through them all. If you connect batteries so that the positive of one connects to the negative of the other, you will find that their respective voltages add. Measure the voltage across each battery individually as they are connected, then measure the total voltage across them both, like this:
Try connecting batteries of different sizes in series with each other, for instance a 6-volt battery with a 9-volt battery. What is the total voltage in this case? Try reversing the terminal connections of just one of these batteries, so that they are opposing each other like this:
How does the total voltage compare in this situation to the previous one with both batteries “aiding?” Note the polarity of the total voltage as indicated by the voltmeter indication and test probe orientation. Remember, if the meter’s digital indication is a positive number, the red probe is positive (+) and the black probe negative (-); if the indication is a negative number, the polarity is “backward” (red=negative, black=positive). Analog meters simply will not read properly if reverse-connected, because the needle tries to move the wrong direction (left instead of right). Can you predict what the overall voltage polarity will be, knowing the polarities of the individual batteries and their respective strengths.
3.03: Parallel Batteries
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Four 6-volt batteries
• 12-volt light bulb, 25 or 50 watt
• Lamp socket
High-wattage 12-volt lamps may be purchased from recreational vehicle (RV) and boating supply stores. Common sizes are 25 watt and 50 watt. This lamp will be used as a “heavy” load for your batteries (heavyload = one that draws substantial current).
A regular household (120 volt) lamp socket will work just fine for these low-voltage “RV” lamps.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 5: “Series and Parallel Circuits”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 11: “Batteries and Power Systems”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Voltage source regulation
• Boosting current capacity through parallel connections
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
Begin this experiment by connecting one 6-volt battery to the lamp. The lamp, designed to operate on 12 volts, should glow dimly when powered by the 6-volt battery. Use your voltmeter to read voltage across the lamp like this:
The voltmeter should register a voltage lower than the usual voltage of the battery. If you use your voltmeter to read the voltage directly at the battery terminals, you will measure a low voltage there as well. Why is this? The large current drawn by the high-power lamp causes the voltage at the battery terminals to “sag” or “droop,” due to voltage dropped across resistance internal to the battery.
We may overcome this problem by connecting batteries in parallel with each other, so that each battery only has to supply a fraction of the total current demanded by the lamp. Parallel connections involve making all the positive (+) battery terminals electrically common to each other by connection through jumper wires, and all negative (-) terminals common to each other as well. Add one battery at a time in parallel, noting the lamp voltage with the addition of each new, parallel-connected battery:
There should also be a noticeable difference in light intensity as the voltage “sag” is improved.
Try measuring the current of one battery and comparing it to the total current (light bulb current). Shown here is the easiest way to measure single-battery current:
By breaking the circuit for just one battery, and inserting our ammeter within that break, we intercept the current of that one battery and are therefore able to measure it. Measuring total current involves a similar procedure: make a break somewhere in the path that total current must take, then insert the ammeter within than break:
Note the difference in current between the single-battery and total measurements.
To obtain maximum brightness from the light bulb, a series-parallel connection is required. Two 6-volt batteries connected series-aiding will provide 12 volts. Connecting two of these series-connected battery pairs in parallel improves their current-sourcing ability for minimum voltage sag: | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/03%3A_DC_Circuits/3.01%3A_Introduction_to_DC_Circuits.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Calculator (or pencil and paper for doing arithmetic)
• 6-volt battery
• Assortment of resistors between 1 KΩ and 100 kΩ in value
I’m purposely restricting the resistance values between 1 kΩ and 100 kΩ for the sake of obtaining accurate voltage and current readings with your meter. With very low resistance values, the internal resistance of the ammeter has a significant impact on measurement accuracy. Very high resistance values may cause problems for voltage measurement, the internal resistance of the voltmeter substantially changing circuit resistance when it is connected in parallel with a high-value resistor.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 6: “Divider Circuits and Kirchhoff’s Laws”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Voltmeter use
• Ammeter use
• Ohmmeter use
• Use of Ohm’s Law
• Use of Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (“KVL”)
• Voltage divider design
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
Shown here are three different methods of circuit construction: on a breadboard, on a terminal strip, and “free-form.” Try building the same circuit each way to familiarize yourself with the different construction techniques and their respective merits. The “free-form” method—where all components are connected together with “alligator-” style jumper wires—is the least professional, but appropriate for a simple experiment such as this. Breadboard construction is versatile and allows for high component density (many parts in a small space), but is quite temporary. Terminal strips offer a much more permanent form of construction at the cost of low component density.
Select three resistors from your resistor assortment and measure the resistance of each one with an ohmmeter. Note these resistance values with pen and paper, for reference in your circuit calculations.
Connect the three resistors in series, and to the 6-volt battery, as shown in the illustrations. Measure battery voltage with a voltmeter after the resistors have been connected to it, noting this voltage figure on paper as well. It is advisable to measure battery voltage while its powering the resistor circuit because this voltage may differ slightly from a no-load condition. We saw this effect exaggerated in the “parallel battery” experiment while powering a high-wattage lamp: battery voltage tends to “sag” or “droop” under load. Although this three-resistor circuit should not present a heavy enough load (not enough current drawn) to cause significant voltage “sag,” measuring battery voltage under load is a good scientific practice because it provides more realistic data.
Use Ohm’s Law (I=E/R) to calculate circuit current, then verify this calculated value by measuring current with an ammeter like this (“terminal strip” version of the circuit shown as an arbitrary choice in construction method):
If your resistor values are indeed between 1 kΩ and 100 kΩ, and the battery voltage approximately 6 volts, the current should be a very small value, in the milliamp (mA) or microamp (µA) range. When you measure current with a digital meter, the meter may show the appropriate metric prefix symbol (m or µ) in some corner of the display. These metric prefix telltales are easy to overlook when reading the display of a digital meter, so pay close attention!
The measured value of current should agree closely with your Ohm’s Law calculation. Now, take that calculated value for current and multiply it by the respective resistances of each resistor to predict their voltage drops (E=IR). Switch you multimeter to the “voltage” mode and measure the voltage dropped across each resistor, verifying the accuracy of your predictions. Again, there should be close agreement between the calculated and measured voltage figures.
Each resistor voltage drop will be some fraction or percentage of the total voltage, hence the name voltage divider given to this circuit. This fractional value is determined by the resistance of the particular resistor and the total resistance. If a resistor drops 50% of the total battery voltage in a voltage divider circuit, that proportion of 50% will remain the same as long as the resistor values are not altered. So, if the total voltage is 6 volts, the voltage across that resistor will be 50% of 6, or 3 volts. If the total voltage is 20 volts, that resistor will drop 10 volts, or 50% of 20 volts.
The next part of this experiment is a validation of Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law. For this, you need to identify each unique point in the circuit with a number. Points that are electrically common (directly connected to each other with insignificant resistance between) must bear the same number. An example using the numbers 0 through 3 is shown here in both illustrative and schematic form. In the illustration, I show how points in the circuit may be labeled with small pieces of tape, numbers written on the tape:
Using a digital voltmeter (this is important!), measure voltage drops around the loop formed by the points 0-1-2-3-0. Write on paper each of these voltages, along with its respective sign as indicated by the meter. In other words, if the voltmeter registers a negative voltage such as -1.325 volts, you should write that figure as a negative number. Do not reverse the meter probe connections with the circuit to make the number read “correctly.” Mathematical sign is very significant in this phase of the experiment! Here is a sequence of illustrations showing how to “step around” the circuit loop, starting and ending at point 0:
Using the voltmeter to “step” around the circuit in this manner yields three positive voltage figures and one negative:
These figures, algebraically added (“algebraically” = respecting the signs of the numbers), should equal zero. This is the fundamental principle of Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law: that the algebraic sum of all voltage drops in a “loop” add to zero.
It is important to realize that the “loop” stepped around does not have to be the same path that current takes in the circuit, or even a legitimate current path at all. The loop in which we tally voltage drops can be any collection of points, so long as it begins and ends with the same point. For example, we may measure and add the voltages in the loop 1-2-3-1, and they will form a sum of zero as well:
Try stepping between any set of points, in any order, around your circuit and see for yourself that the algebraic sum always equals zero. This Law holds true no matter what the configuration of the circuit: series, parallel, series-parallel, or even an irreducible network.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law is a powerful concept, allowing us to predict the magnitude and polarity of voltages in a circuit by developing mathematical equations for analysis based on the truth of all voltages in a loop adding up to zero. This experiment is intended to give empirical evidence for and a deep understanding of Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law as a general principle.
COMPUTER SIMULATION
Netlist (make a text file containing the following text, verbatim):
This computer simulation is based on the point numbers shown in the previous diagrams for illustrating Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (points 0 through 3). Resistor values were chosen to provide 50%, 30%, and 20% proportions of total voltage across R1, R2, and R3, respectively. Feel free to modify the voltage source value (in the “.dc” line, shown here as 6 volts), and/or the resistor values.
When run, SPICE will print a line of text containing four voltage figures, then another line of text containing three voltage figures, along with lots of other text lines describing the analysis process. Add the voltage figures in each line to see that the sum is zero. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/03%3A_DC_Circuits/3.04%3A_Voltage_Divider.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Calculator (or pencil and paper for doing arithmetic)
• 6-volt battery
• Assortment of resistors between 1 KΩ and 100 kΩ in value
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 6: “Divider Circuits and Kirchhoff’s Laws”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Voltmeter use
• Ammeter use
• Ohmmeter use
• Use of Ohm’s Law
• Use of Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
• Current divider design
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
Normally, it is considered improper to secure more than two wires under a single terminal strip screw. In this illustration, I show three wires joining at the top screw of the rightmost lug used on this strip. This is done for the ease of proving a concept (of current summing at a circuit node), and does not represent professional assembly technique.
The non-professional nature of the “free-form” construction method merits no further comment.
INSTRUCTIONS
Once again, I show different methods of constructing the same circuit: breadboard, terminal strip, and “free-form.” Experiment with all these construction formats and become familiar with their respective advantages and disadvantages.
Select three resistors from your resistor assortment and measure the resistance of each one with an ohmmeter. Note these resistance values with pen and paper, for reference in your circuit calculations.
Connect the three resistors in parallel to and each other, and with the 6-volt battery, as shown in the illustrations. Measure battery voltage with a voltmeter after the resistors have been connected to it, noting this voltage figure on paper as well. It is advisable to measure battery voltage while its powering the resistor circuit because this voltage may differ slightly from a no-load condition.
Measure voltage across each of the three resistors. What do you notice? In a series circuit, current is equal through all components at any given time. In a parallel circuit, voltage is the common variable between all components.
Use Ohm’s Law (I=E/R) to calculate current through each resistor, then verify this calculated value by measuring current with a digital ammeter. Place the red probe of the ammeter at the point where the positive (+) ends of the resistors connect to each other and lift one resistor wire at a time, connecting the meter’s black probe to the lifted wire. In this manner, measure each resistor current, noting both the magnitude of the current and the polarity. In these illustrations, I show an ammeter used to measure the current through R1:
Measure current for each of the three resistors, comparing with the current figures calculated previously. With the digital ammeter connected as shown, all three indications should be positive, not negative.
Now, measure total circuit current, keeping the ammeter’s red probe on the same point of the circuit, but disconnecting the wire leading to the positive (+) side of the battery and touching the black probe to it:
Note both the magnitude and the sign of the current as indicated by the ammeter. Add this figure (algebraically) to the three resistor currents. What do you notice about the result that is similar to the Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law experiment? Kirchhoff’s Current Law is to currents “summing” at a point (node) in a circuit, just as Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law is to voltages adding in a series loop: in both cases, the algebraic sum is equal to zero.
This Law is also very useful in the mathematical analysis of circuits. Along with Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, it allows us to generate equations describing several variables in a circuit, which may then be solved using a variety of mathematical techniques.
Now consider the four current measurements as all positive numbers: the first three representing the current through each resistor, and the fourth representing total circuit current as a positive sum of the three “branch” currents. Each resistor (branch) current is a fraction, or percentage, of the total current. This is why a parallel resistor circuit is often called a current divider.
Disconnect the battery from the rest of the circuit, and measure resistance across the parallel resistors. You may read total resistance across any of the individual resistors’ terminals and obtain the same indication: it will be a value less than any of the individual resistor values. This is often surprising to new students of electricity, that you read the exact same (total) resistance figure when connecting an ohmmeter across any one of a set of parallel-connected resistors. It makes sense, though, if you consider the points in a parallel circuit in terms of electrical commonality. All parallel components are connected between two sets of electrically common points. Since the meter cannot distinguish between points common to each other by way of direct connection, to read resistance across one resistor is to read the resistance of them all. The same is true for voltage, which is why battery voltage could be read across any one of the resistors as easily as it could be read across the battery terminals directly.
If you divide the battery voltage (previously measured) by this total resistance figure, you should obtain a figure for total current (I=E/R) closely matching the measured figure.
The ratio of resistor current to total current is the same as the ratio of total resistance to individual resistance. For example, if a 10 kΩ resistor is part of a current divider circuit with a total resistance of 1 kΩ, that resistor will conduct 1/10 of the total current, whatever value that current total happens to be.
COMPUTER SIMULATION
Schematic with SPICE node numbers:
Ammeters in SPICE simulations are actually zero-voltage sources inserted in the paths of electron flow. You will notice the voltage sources Vir1, Vir2, and Vir3 are set to 0 volts in the netlist. When electrons enter the negative side of one of these “dummy” batteries and out the positive, the battery’s current indication will be a positive number. In other words, these 0-volt sources are to be regarded as ammeters with the red probe on the long-line side of the battery symbol and the black probe on the short-line side.
Netlist (make a text file containing the following text, verbatim):
When run, SPICE will print a line of text containing four current figures, the first current representing the total as a negative quantity, and the other three representing currents for resistors R1, R2, and R3. When algebraically added, the one negative figure and the three positive figures will form a sum of zero, as described by Kirchhoff’s Current Law. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/03%3A_DC_Circuits/3.05%3A_Current_Divider.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Two 6-volt batteries
• Carbon pencil “lead” for a mechanical-style pencil
• Potentiometer, single turn, 5 kΩ to 50 kΩ, linear taper (Radio Shack catalog # 271-1714 through 271-1716)
• Potentiometer, multi turn, 1 kΩ to 20 kΩ, (Radio Shack catalog # 271-342, 271-343, 900-8583, or 900-8587 through 900-8590)
Potentiometers are variable voltage dividers with a shaft or slide control for setting the division ratio. They are manufactured in panel-mount as well as breadboard (printed-circuit board) mount versions. Any style of potentiometer will suffice for this experiment.
If you salvage a potentiometer from an old radio or other audio device, you will likely be getting what is called an audio taper potentiometer. These potentiometers exhibit a logarithmic relationship between division ratio and shaft position. By contrast, a linear potentiometer exhibits a direct correlation between shaft position and voltage division ratio. I highly recommend a linear potentiometer for this experiment, and for most experiments in general.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 6: “Divider Circuits and Kirchhoff’s Laws”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Voltmeter use
• Ohmmeter use
• Voltage divider design and function
• How voltages add in series
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
Begin this experiment with the pencil “lead” circuit. Pencils use a rod made of a graphite-clay mixture, not lead (the metal), to make black marks on paper. Graphite, being a mediocre electrical conductor, acts as a resistor connected across the battery by the two alligator-clip jumper wires. Connect the voltmeter as shown and touch the red test probe to the graphite rod. Move the red probe along the length of the rod and notice the voltmeter’s indication change. What probe position gives the greatest voltage indication?
Essentially, the rod acts as a pair of resistors, the ratio between the two resistances established by the position of the red test probe along the rod’s length:
Now, change the voltmeter connection to the circuit so as to measure voltage across the “upper resistor” of the pencil lead, like this:
Move the black test probe position along the length of the rod, noting the voltmeter indication. Which position gives the greatest voltage drop for the meter to measure? Does this differ from the previous arrangement? Why?
Manufactured potentiometers enclose a resistive strip inside a metal or plastic housing, and provide some kind of mechanism for moving a “wiper” across the length of that resistive strip. Here is an illustration of a rotary potentiometer’s construction:
Some rotary potentiometers have a spiral resistive strip, and a wiper that moves axially as it rotates, so as to require multiple turns of the shaft to drive the wiper from one end of the potentiometer’s range to the other. Multi-turn potentiometers are used in applications where precise setting is important.
Linear potentiometers also contain a resistive strip, the only difference being the wiper’s direction of travel. Some linear potentiometers use a slide mechanism to move the wiper, while others a screw, to facilitate multiple-turn operation:
It should be noted that not all linear potentiometers have the same pin assignments. On some, the middle pin is the wiper.
Set up a circuit using a manufactured potentiometer, not the “home-made” one made from a pencil lead. You may use any form of construction that is convenient.
Measure battery voltage while powering the potentiometer, and make note of this voltage figure on paper. Measure voltage between the wiper and the potentiometer end connected to the negative (-) side of the battery. Adjust the potentiometer mechanism until the voltmeter registers exactly 1/3 of total voltage. For a 6-volt battery, this will be approximately 2 volts.
Now, connect two batteries in a series-aiding configuration, to provide approximately 12 volts across the potentiometer. Measure the total battery voltage, and then measure the voltage between the same two points on the potentiometer (wiper and negative side). Divide the potentiometer’s measured output voltage by the measured total voltage. The quotient should be 1/3, the same voltage division ratio as was set previously: | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/03%3A_DC_Circuits/3.06%3A_Potentiometer_as_a_Voltage_Divider.txt |
Learning Objectives
• Rheostat use
• Wiring a potentiometer as a rheostat
• Simple motor speed control
• Use of voltmeter over ammeter to verify a continuous circuit
Parts and Materials
• 6-volt battery
• Potentiometer, single turn, 5 kΩ, linear taper (Radio Shack catalog # 271-1714)
• Small “hobby” motor, permanent-magnet type (Radio Shack catalog # 273-223 or equivalent)
For this experiment, you will need a relatively low-value potentiometer, certainly not more than 5 kΩ.
Instructions for Potentiometer Wiring
Potentiometers find their most sophisticated application as voltage dividers, where shaft position determines a specific voltage division ratio. However, there are applications where we don’t necessarily need a variable voltage divider, but merely a variable resistor: a two-terminal device. Technically, a variable resistor is known as a rheostat, but potentiometers can be made to function as rheostats quite easily.
In its simplest configuration, a potentiometer may be used as a rheostat by simply using the wiper terminal and one of the other terminals, the third terminal left unconnected and unused:
Moving the potentiometer control in the direction that brings the wiper closest to the other used terminal results in a lower resistance. The direction of motion required to increase or decrease resistance may be changed by using a different set of terminals:
Be careful, though, that you don’t use the two outer terminals, as this will result in no change in resistance as the potentiometer shaft is turned. In other words, it will no longer function as a variable resistance:
Build the circuit as shown in the schematic and illustration, using just two terminals on the potentiometer, and see how motor speed may be controlled by adjusting shaft position. Experiment with different terminal connections on the potentiometer, noting the changes in motor speed control. If your potentiometer has a high resistance (as measured between the two outer terminals), the motor might not move at all until the wiper is brought very close to the connected outer terminal.
As you can see, motor speed may be made variable using a series-connected rheostat to change total circuit resistance and limit total current. This simple method of motor speed control, however, is inefficient, as it results in substantial amounts of power being dissipated (wasted) by the rheostat. A much more efficient means of motor control relies on fast “pulsing” of power to the motor, using a high-speed switching device such as a transistor. A similar method of power control is used in household light “dimmer” switches. Unfortunately, these techniques are much too sophisticated to explore at this point in the experiments.
When a potentiometer is used as a rheostat, the “unused” terminal is often connected to the wiper terminal, like this:
At first, this seems rather pointless, as it has no impact on resistance control. You may verify this fact for yourself by inserting another wire in your circuit and comparing motor behavior before and after the change:
If the potentiometer is in good working order, this additional wire makes no difference whatsoever. However, if the wiper ever loses contact with the resistive strip inside the potentiometer, this connection ensures the circuit does not completely open: that there will still be a resistive path for current through the motor. In some applications, this may be an important. Old potentiometers tend to suffer from intermittent losses of contact between the wiper and the resistive strip, and if a circuit cannot tolerate the complete loss of continuity (infinite resistance) created by this condition, that “extra” wire provides a measure of protection by maintaining circuit continuity.
You may simulate such a wiper contact “failure” by disconnecting the potentiometer’s middle terminal from the terminal strip, measuring voltage across the motor to ensure there is still power getting to it, however small:
Using Motor Voltage is a Safer Alternative to Measuring Circuit Current
It would have been valid to measure circuit current instead of motor voltage to verify a completed circuit, but this is a safer method because it does not involve breaking the circuit to insert an ammeter in series. Whenever an ammeter is used, there is risk of causing a short circuit by connecting it across a substantial voltage source, possibly resulting in instrument damage or personal injury. Voltmeters lack this inherent safety risk, and so whenever a voltage measurement may be made instead of a current measurement to verify the same thing, it is the wiser choice. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/03%3A_DC_Circuits/3.07%3A_Potentiometer_as_a_Rheostat.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Two single-turn, linear-taper potentiometers, 5 kΩ each (Radio Shack catalog # 271-1714)
• One single-turn, linear-taper potentiometer, 50 kΩ (Radio Shack catalog # 271-1716)
• Plastic or metal mounting box
• Three “banana” jack style binding posts, or other terminal hardware, for connection to potentiometer circuit (Radio Shack catalog # 274-662 or equivalent)
This is a project useful to those who want a precision potentiometer without spending a lot of money. Ordinarily, multi-turn potentiometers are used to obtain precise voltage division ratios, but a cheaper alternative exists using multiple, single-turn (sometimes called “3/4-turn”) potentiometers connected together in a compound divider network.
Because this is a useful project, I recommend building it in permanent form using some form of project enclosure. Suppliers such as Radio Shack offer nice project boxes, but boxes purchased at a general hardware store are much less expensive, if a bit ugly. The ultimate in low cost for a new box are the plastic boxes sold as light switch and receptacle boxes for household electrical wiring.
“Banana” jacks allow for the temporary connection of test leads and jumper wires equipped with matching “banana” plug ends. Most multimeter test leads have this style of plug for insertion into the meter jacks. Banana plugs are so named because of their oblong appearance formed by spring steel strips, which maintain firm contact with the jack walls when inserted. Some banana jacks are called binding postsbecause they also allow plain wires to be firmly attached. Binding posts have screw-on sleeves that fit over a metal post. The sleeve is used as a nut to secure a wire wrapped around the post, or inserted through a perpendicular hole drilled through the post. A brief inspection of any binding post will clarify this verbal description.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 6: “Divider Circuits and Kirchhoff’s Laws”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Soldering practice
• Potentiometer function and operation
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
It is essential that the connecting wires be soldered to the potentiometer terminals, not twisted or taped. Since potentiometer action is dependent on resistance, the resistance of all wiring connections must be carefully controlled to a bare minimum. Soldering ensures a condition of low resistance between joined conductors, and also provides very good mechanical strength for the connections.
When the circuit is assembled, connect a 6-volt battery to the outer two binding posts. Connect a voltmeter between the “wiper” post and the battery’s negative (-) terminal. This voltmeter will measure the “output” of the circuit.
The circuit works on the principle of compressed range: the voltage output range of this circuit available by adjusting potentiometer R3 is restricted between the limits set by potentiometers R1 and R2. In other words, if R1 and R2 were set to output 5 volts and 3 volts, respectively, from a 6-volt battery, the range of output voltages obtainable by adjusting R3 would be restricted from 3 to 5 volts for the full rotation of that potentiometer. If only a single potentiometer were used instead of this three-potentiometer circuit, full rotation would produce an output voltage from 0 volts to full battery voltage. The “range compression” afforded by this circuit allows for more precise voltage adjustment than would be normally obtainable using a single potentiometer.
Operating this potentiometer network is more complex than using a single potentiometer. To begin, turn the R3 potentiometer fully clockwise, so that its wiper is in the full “up” position as referenced to the schematic diagram (electrically “closest” to R1‘s wiper terminal). Adjust potentiometer R1 until the upper voltage limit is reached, as indicated by the voltmeter.
Turn the R3 potentiometer fully counter-clockwise, so that its wiper is in the full “down” position as referenced to the schematic diagram (electrically “closest” to R2‘s wiper terminal). Adjust potentiometer R2until the lower voltage limit is reached, as indicated by the voltmeter.
When either the R1 or the R2 potentiometer is adjusted, it interferes with the prior setting of the other. In other words, if R1 is initially adjusted to provide an upper voltage limit of 5.000 volts from a 6 volt battery, and then R2 is adjusted to provide some lower limit voltage different from what it was before, R1 will no longer be set to 5.000 volts.
To obtain precise upper and lower voltage limits, turn R3 fully clockwise to read and adjust the voltage of R1, then turn R3 fully counter-clockwise to read and adjust the voltage of R2, repeating as necessary.
Technically, this phenomenon of one adjustment affecting the other is known as interaction, and it is usually undesirable due to the extra effort required to set and re-set the adjustments. The reason that R1 and R2were specified as 10 times less resistance than R3 is to minimize this effect. If all three potentiometers were of equal resistance value, the interaction between R1 and R2 would be more severe, though manageable with patience. Bear in mind that the upper and lower voltage limits need not be set precisely in order for this circuit to achieve its goal of increased precision. So long as R3‘s adjustment range is compressed to some lesser value than full battery voltage, we will enjoy greater precision than a single potentiometer could provide.
Once the upper and lower voltage limits have been set, potentiometer R3 may be adjusted to produce an output voltage anywhere between those limits. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/03%3A_DC_Circuits/3.08%3A_Precision_Potentiometer.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Several 10 kΩ resistors
• One 10 kΩ potentiometer, linear taper (Radio Shack catalog # 271-1715)
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 5: “Series and Parallel Circuits”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 7: “Series-Parallel Combination Circuits”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 8: “DC Metering Circuits”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Series-parallel resistances
• Calibration theory and practice
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
This experiment explores the different resistance ranges obtainable from combining fixed-value resistors with a potentiometer connected as a rheostat. To begin, connect a 10 kΩ potentiometer as a rheostat with no other resistors connected. Adjusting the potentiometer through its full range of travel should result in a resistance that varies smoothly from 0 Ω to 10,000 Ω:
Suppose we wanted to elevate the lower end of this resistance range so that we had an adjustable range from 10 kΩ to 20 kΩ with a full sweep of the potentiometer’s adjustment. This could be easily accomplished by adding a 10 kΩ resistor in series with the potentiometer. Add one to the circuit as shown and re-measure total resistance while adjusting the potentiometer:
A shift in the low end of an adjustment range is called a zero calibration, in metrological terms. With the addition of a series 10 kΩ resistor, the “zero point” was shifted upward by 10,000 Ω. The difference between high and low ends of a range—called the span of the circuit—has not changed, though: a range of 10 kΩ to 20 kΩ has the same 10,000 Ω span as a range of 0 Ω to 10 kΩ. If we wish to shift the span of this rheostat circuit as well, we must change the range of the potentiometer itself. We could replace the potentiometer with one of another value, or we could simulate a lower-value potentiometer by placing a resistor in parallel with it, diminishing its maximum obtainable resistance. This will decrease the span of the circuit from 10 kΩ to something less.
Add a 10 kΩ resistor in parallel with the potentiometer, to reduce the span to one-half of its former value: from 10 KΩ to 5 kΩ. Now the calibrated resistance range of this circuit will be 10 kΩ to 15 kΩ:
There is nothing we can do to increase the span of this rheostat circuit, short of replacing the potentiometer with another of greater total resistance. Adding resistors in parallel can only decrease the span. However, there is no such restriction with calibrating the zero point of this circuit, as it began at 0 Ω and may be made as great as we wish by adding resistance in series.
A multitude of resistance ranges may be obtained using only 10 KΩ fixed-value resistors, if we are creative with series-parallel combinations of them. For instance, we can create a range of 7.5 kΩ to 10 kΩ by building the following circuit:
Creating a custom resistance range from fixed-value resistors and a potentiometer is a very useful technique for producing precise resistances required for certain circuits, especially meter circuits. In many electrical instruments—multimeters especially—resistance is the determining factor for the instrument’s range of measurement. If an instrument’s internal resistance values are not precise, neither will its indications be. Finding a fixed-value resistor of just the right resistance for placement in an instrument circuit design is unlikely, so custom resistance “networks” may need to be built to provide the desired resistance. Having a potentiometer as part of the resistor network provides a means of correction if the network’s resistance should “drift” from its original value. Designing the network for minimum span ensures that the potentiometer’s effect will be small, so that precise adjustment is possible and so that accidental movement of its mechanism will not result in severe calibration errors.
Experiment with different resistor “networks” and note the effects on total resistance range.
3.10: Thermoelectricity
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Length of bare (uninsulated) copper wire
• Length of bare (uninsulated) iron wire
• Candle
• Ice cubes
Iron wire may be obtained from a hardware store. If some cannot be found, aluminum wire also works.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 9: “Electrical Instrumentation Signals”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Thermocouple function and purpose
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
Twist one end of the iron wire together with one end of the copper wire. Connect the free ends of these wires to respective terminals on a terminal strip. Set your voltmeter to its most sensitive range and connect it to the terminals where the wires attach. The meter should indicate nearly zero voltage.
What you have just constructed is a thermocouple: a device which generates a small voltage proportional to the temperature difference between the tip and the meter connection points. When the tip is at a temperature equal to the terminal strip, there will be no voltage produced, and thus no indication seen on the voltmeter.
Light a candle and insert the twisted-wire tip into the flame. You should notice an indication on your voltmeter. Remove the thermocouple tip from the flame and let cool until the voltmeter indication is nearly zero again. Now, touch the thermocouple tip to an ice cube and note the voltage indicated by the meter. Is it a greater or lesser magnitude than the indication obtained with the flame? How does the polarity of this voltage compare with that generated by the flame?
After touching the thermocouple tip to the ice cube, warm it by holding it between your fingers. It may take a short while to reach body temperature, so be patient while observing the voltmeter’s indication.
A thermocouple is an application of the Seebeck effect: the production of a small voltage proportional to a temperature gradient along the length of a wire. This voltage is dependent upon the magnitude of the temperature difference and the type of wire. Directly measuring the Seebeck voltage produced along a length of continuous wire from a temperature gradient is quite difficult, and so will not be attempted in this experiment.
Thermocouples, being made of two dissimilar metals joined at one end, produce a voltage proportional to the temperature of the junction. The temperature gradient along both wires resulting from a constant temperature at the junction produces different Seebeck voltages along those wires’ lengths, because the wires are made of different metals. The resultant voltage between the two free wire ends is the difference between the two Seebeck voltages:
Thermocouples are widely used as temperature-sensing devices because the mathematical relationship between temperature difference and resultant voltage is both repeatable and fairly linear. By measuring voltage, it is possible to infer temperature. Different ranges of temperature measurement are possible by selecting different metal pairs to be joined together. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/03%3A_DC_Circuits/3.09%3A_Rheostat_Range_Limiting.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Sensitive meter movement (Radio Shack catalog # 22-410)
• Selector switch, single-pole, multi-throw, break-before-make (Radio Shack catalog # 275-1386 is a 2-pole, 6-position unit that works well)
• Multi-turn potentiometers, PCB mount (Radio Shack catalog # 271-342 and 271-343 are 15-turn, 1 kΩ and 10 kΩ “trimmer” units, respectively)
• Assorted resistors, preferably high-precision metal film or wire-wound types (Radio Shack catalog # 271-309 is an assortment of metal-film resistors, +/- 1% tolerance)
• Plastic or metal mounting box
• Three “banana” jack style binding posts, or other terminal hardware, for connection to potentiometer circuit (Radio Shack catalog # 274-662 or equivalent)
The most important and expensive component in a meter is the movement: the actual needle-and-scale mechanism whose task it is to translate an electrical current into mechanical displacement where it may be visually interpreted. The ideal meter movement is physically large (for ease of viewing) and as sensitive as possible (requires minimal current to produce full-scale deflection of the needle). High-quality meter movements are expensive, but Radio Shack carries some of acceptable quality that are reasonably priced. The model recommended in the parts list is sold as a voltmeter with a 0-15 volt range, but is actually a milliammeter with a range (“multiplier”) resistor included separately.
It may be cheaper to purchase an inexpensive analog meter and disassemble it for the meter movement alone. Although the thought of destroying a working multimeter in order to have parts to make your own may sound counter-productive, the goal here is learning, not meter function.
I cannot specify resistor values for this experiment, as these depend on the particular meter movement and measurement ranges chosen. Be sure to use high-precision fixed-value resistors rather than carbon-composition resistors. Even if you happen to find carbon-composition resistors of just the right value(s), those values will change or “drift” over time due to aging and temperature fluctuations. Of course, if you don’t care about the long-term stability of this meter but are building it just for the learning experience, resistor precision matters little.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 8: “DC Metering Circuits”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Voltmeter design and use
• Ammeter design and use
• Rheostat range limiting
• Calibration theory and practice
• Soldering practice
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
First, you need to determine the characteristics of your meter movement. Most important is to know the full-scale deflection in milliamps or microamps. To determine this, connect the meter movement, a potentiometer, battery, and digital ammeter in series. Adjust the potentiometer until the meter movement is deflected exactly to full-scale. Read the ammeter’s display to find the full-scale current value:
Be very careful not to apply too much current to the meter movement, as movements are very sensitive devices and easily damaged by overcurrent. Most meter movements have full-scale deflection current ratings of 1 mA or less, so choose a potentiometer value high enough to limit current appropriately, and begin testing with the potentiometer turned to maximum resistance. The lower the full-scale current rating of a movement, the more sensitive it is.
After determining the full-scale current rating of your meter movement, you must accurately measure its internal resistance. To do this, disconnect all components from the previous testing circuit and connect your digital ohmmeter across the meter movement terminals. Record this resistance figure along with the full-scale current figure obtained in the last procedure.
Perhaps the most challenging portion of this project is determining the proper range resistance values and implementing those values in the form of rheostat networks. The calculations are outlined in chapter 8 of volume 1 (“Metering Circuits”), but an example is given here. Suppose your meter movement had a full-scale rating of 1 mA and an internal resistance of 400 Ω. If we wanted to determine the necessary range resistance (“Rmultiplier”) to give this movement a range of 0 to 15 volts, we would have to divide 15 volts (total applied voltage) by 1 mA (full-scale current) to obtain the total probe-to-probe resistance of the voltmeter (R=E/I). For this example, that total resistance is 15 kΩ. From this total resistance figure, we subtract the movement’s internal resistance, leaving 14.6 kΩ for the range resistor value. A simple rheostat network to produce 14.6 kΩ (adjustable) would be a 10 kΩ potentiometer in parallel with a 10 kΩ fixed resistor, all in series with another 10 kΩ fixed resistor:
One position of the selector switch directly connects the meter movement between the black Common binding post and the red V/mA binding post. In this position, the meter is a sensitive ammeter with a range equal to the full-scale current rating of the meter movement. The far clockwise position of the switch disconnects the positive (+) terminal of the movement from either red binding post and shorts it directly to the negative (-) terminal. This protects the meter from electrical damage by isolating it from the red test probe, and it “dampens” the needle mechanism to further guard against mechanical shock.
The shunt resistor (Rshunt) necessary for a high-current ammeter function needs to be a low-resistance unit with a high power dissipation. You will definitely not be using any 1/4 watt resistors for this unless you form a resistance network with several smaller resistors in parallel combination. If you plan on having an ammeter range in excess of 1 amp, I recommend using a thick piece of wire or even a skinny piece of sheet metal as the “resistor,” suitably filed or notched to provide just the right amount of resistance.
To calibrate a home-made shunt resistor, you will need to connect the your multimeter assembly to a calibrated source of high current, or a high-current source in series with a digital ammeter for reference. Use a small metal file to shave off shunt wire thickness or to notch the sheet metal strip in small, careful amounts. The resistance of your shunt will increase with every stroke of the file, causing the meter movement to deflect more strongly. Remember that you can always approach the exact value in slower and slower steps (file strokes), but you cannot go “backward” and decrease the shunt resistance!
Build the multimeter circuit on a breadboard first while determining proper range resistance values, and perform all calibration adjustments there. For final construction, solder the components onto a printed circuit board. Radio Shack sells printed circuit boards that have the same layout as a breadboard, for convenience (catalog # 276-170). Feel free to alter the component layout from what is shown.
I strongly recommend that you mount the circuit board and all components in a sturdy box so that the meter is durably finished. Despite the limitations of this multimeter (no resistance function, inability to measure alternating current, and lower precision than most purchased analog multimeters), it is an excellent project to assist learning fundamental instrument principles and circuit function. A far more accurate and versatile multimeter may be constructed using many of the same parts if an amplifier circuit is added to it, so save the parts and pieces for a later experiment! | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/03%3A_DC_Circuits/3.11%3A_Make_Your_Own_Multimeter.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• High-quality “closed-cup” audio headphones
• Headphone jack: female receptacle for headphone plug (Radio Shack catalog # 274-312)
• Small step-down power transformer (Radio Shack catalog # 273-1365 or equivalent, using the 6-volt secondary winding tap)
• Two 1N4001 rectifying diodes (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1101)
• 1 kΩ resistor
• 100 kΩ potentiometer (Radio Shack catalog # 271-092)
• Two “banana” jack style binding posts, or other terminal hardware, for connection to potentiometer circuit (Radio Shack catalog # 274-662 or equivalent)
• Plastic or metal mounting box
Regarding the headphones, the higher the “sensitivity” rating in decibels (dB), the better, but listening is believing: if you’re serious about building a detector with maximum sensitivity for small electrical signals, you should try a few different headphone models at a high-quality audio store and “listen” for which ones produce an audible sound for the lowest volume setting on a radio or CD player. Beware, as you could spend hundreds of dollars on a pair of headphones to get the absolute best sensitivity! Take heart, though: I’ve used an old pair of Radio Shack “Realistic” brand headphones with perfectly adequate results, so you don’t need to buy the best.
A transformer is a device normally used with alternating current (“AC”) circuits, used to convert high-voltage AC power into low-voltage AC power, and for many other purposes. It is not important that you understand its intended function in this experiment, other than it makes the headphones become more sensitive to low-current electrical signals.
Normally, the transformer used in this type of application (audio speaker impedance matching) is called an “audio transformer,” with its primary and secondary windings represented by impedance values (1000 Ω : 8 Ω) instead of voltages. An audio transformer will work, but I’ve found small step-down power transformers of 120/6 volt ratio to be perfectly adequate for the task, cheaper (especially when taken from an old thrift-store alarm clock radio), and far more rugged.
The tolerance (precision) rating for the 1 kΩ resistor is irrelevant. The 100 kΩ potentiometer is a recommended option for incorporation into this project, as it gives the user control over the loudness for any given signal. Even though an audio-taper potentiometer would be appropriate for this application, it is not necessary. A linear-taper potentiometer works quite well.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 8: “DC Metering Circuits”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 10: “DC Network Analysis” (in regard to the Maximum Power Transfer Theorem)
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 2, chapter 9: “Transformers”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 2, chapter 12: “AC Metering Circuits”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Soldering practice
• Detection of extremely small electrical signals
• Using a potentiometer as a voltage divider/signal attenuator
• Using diodes to “clip” voltage at some maximum level
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
The headphones, most likely being stereo units (separate left and right speakers) will have a three-contact plug. You will be connecting to only two of those three contact points. If you only have a “mono” headphone set with a two-contact plug, just connect to those two contact points. You may either connect the two stereo speakers in series or in parallel. I’ve found the series connection to work best, that is, to produce the most sound from a small signal:
Solder all wire connections well. This detector system is extremely sensitive, and any loose wire connections in the circuit will add unwanted noise to the sounds produced by the measured voltage signal. The two diodes (arrow-like component symbols) connected in parallel with the transformer’s primary winding, along with the series-connected 1 kΩ resistor, work together to prevent any more than about 0.7 volts from being dropped across the primary coil of the transformer. This does one thing and one thing only: limit the amount of sound the headphones can produce. The system will work without the diodes and resistor in place, but there will be no limit to sound volume in the circuit, and the resulting sound caused by accidently connecting the test leads across a substantial voltage source (like a battery) can be deafening!
Binding posts provide points of connection for a pair of test probes with banana-style plugs, once the detector components are mounted inside a box. You may use ordinary multimeter probes, or make your own probes with alligator clips at the ends for a secure connection to a circuit.
Detectors are intended to be used for balancing bridge measurement circuits, potentiometric (null-balance) voltmeter circuits, and detect extremely low-amplitude AC (“alternating current”) signals in the audio frequency range. It is a valuable piece of test equipment, especially for the low-budget experimenter without an oscilloscope. It is also valuable in that it allows you to use a different bodily sense in interpreting the behavior of a circuit.
For connection across any non-trivial source of voltage (1 volt and greater), the detector’s extremely high sensitivity should be attenuated. This may be accomplished by connecting a voltage divider to the “front” of the circuit:
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
Adjust the 100 kΩ voltage divider potentiometer to about mid-range when initially sensing a voltage signal of unknown magnitude. If the sound is too loud, turn the potentiometer down and try again. If too soft, turn it up and try again. The detector produces a “click” sound whenever the test leads make or break contact with the voltage source under test. With my cheap headphones, I’ve been able to detect currents of less than 1/10 of a microamp (
< 0.1 µA).
A good demonstration of the detector’s sensitivity is to touch both tests leads to the end of your tongue, with the sensitivity adjustment set to maximum. The voltage produced by metal-to-electrolyte contact (called galvanic voltage) is very small, but enough to produce soft “clicking” sounds every time the leads make and break contact on the wet skin of your tongue.
Try unplugging the headphone plug from the jack (receptacle) and similarly touching it to the end of your tongue. You should still hear soft clicking sounds, but they will be much smaller in amplitude. Headphone speakers are “low impedance” devices: they require low voltage and “high” current to deliver substantial sound power. Impedance is a measure of opposition to any and all forms of electric current, including alternating current (AC). Resistance, by comparison, is a strict measure of opposition to direct current (DC). Like resistance, impedance is measured in the unit of the Ohm (Ω), but it is symbolized in equations by the capital letter “Z” rather than the capital letter “R”. We use the term “impedance” to describe the headphone’s opposition to current because it is primarily AC signals that headphones are normally subjected to, not DC.
Most small signal sources have high internal impedances, some much higher than the nominal 8 Ω of the headphone speakers. This is a technical way of saying that they are incapable of supplying substantial amounts of current. As the Maximum Power Transfer Theorem predicts, maximum sound power will be delivered by the headphone speakers when their impedance is “matched” to the impedance of the voltage source. The transformer does this. The transformer also helps aid the detection of small DC signals by producing inductive “kickback” every time the test lead circuit is broken, thus “amplifying” the signal by magnetically storing up electrical energy and suddenly releasing it to the headphone speakers.
I recommend building this detector in a permanent fashion (mounting all components inside of a box and providing nice test lead wires) so it may be easily used in the future. Constructed as such, it might look something like this: | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/03%3A_DC_Circuits/3.12%3A_Sensitive_Voltage_Detector.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Two 6 volt batteries
• One potentiometer, single turn, 10 kΩ, linear taper (Radio Shack catalog # 271-1715)
• Two high-value resistors (at least 1 MΩ each)
• Sensitive voltage detector (from the previous experiment)
• Analog voltmeter (from the previous experiment)
The potentiometer value is not critical: anything from 1 kΩ to 100 kΩ is acceptable. If you have built the “precision potentiometer” described earlier in this chapter, it is recommended that you use it in this experiment.
Likewise, the actual values of the resistors are not critical. In this particular experiment, the greater the value, the better the results. They need not be precisely equal value, either.
If you have not yet built the sensitive voltage detector, it is recommended that you build one before proceeding with this experiment! It is a very useful, yet simple, a piece of test equipment that you should not be without. You can use a digital multimeter set to the “DC millivolt” (DC mV) range in lieu of a voltage detector, but the headphone-based voltage detector is more appropriate because it demonstrates how you can make precise voltage measurements without using expensive or advanced meter equipment. I recommend using your home-made multimeter for the same reason, although any voltmeter will suffice for this experiment.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 8: “DC Metering Circuits”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Voltmeter loading: its causes and its solution
• Using a potentiometer as a source of variable voltage
• Potentiometric method of voltage measurement
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
Build the two-resistor voltage divider circuit shown on the left of the schematic diagram and of the illustration. If the two high-value resistors are of equal value, the battery’s voltage should be split in half, with approximately 3 volts dropped across each resistor.
Measure the battery voltage directly with a voltmeter, then measure each resistor’s voltage drop. Do you notice anything unusual about the voltmeter’s readings? Normally, series voltage drops add to equal the total applied voltage, but in this case, you will notice a serious discrepancy. Is Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law untrue? Is this an exception to one of the most fundamental laws of electric circuits? No! What is happening is this: when you connect a voltmeter across either resistor, the voltmeter itself alters the circuit so that the voltage is not the same as with no meter connected.
I like to use the analogy of an air pressure gauge used to check the pressure of a pneumatic tire. When a gauge is connected to the tire’s fill valve, it releases some air out of the tire. This affects the pressure in the tire, and so the gauge reads a slightly lower pressure than what was in the tire before the gauge was connected. In other words, the act of measuring tire pressure alters the tire’s pressure. Hopefully, though, there is so little air released from the tire during the act of measurement that the reduction in pressure is negligible. Voltmeters similarly impact the voltage they measure, by bypassing some current around the component whose voltage drop is being measured. This affects the voltage drop, but the effect is so slight that you usually don’t notice it.
In this circuit, though, the effect is very pronounced. Why is this? Try replacing the two high-value resistors with two of 100 kΩ value each and repeat the experiment. Replace those resistors with two 10 KΩ units and repeat. What do you notice about the voltage readings with lower-value resistors? What does this tell you about voltmeter “impact” on a circuit in relation to that circuit’s resistance? Replace any low-value resistors with the original, high-value (>= 1 MΩ) resistors before proceeding.
Try measuring voltage across the two high-value resistors—one at a time—with a digital voltmeter instead of an analog voltmeter. What do you notice about the digital meter’s readings versus the analog meter’s? Digital voltmeters typically have greater internal (probe-to-probe) resistance, meaning they draw less current than a comparable analog voltmeter when measuring the same voltage source. An ideal voltmeter would draw zero current from the circuit under test, and thus suffer no voltage “impact” problems.
If you happen to have two voltmeters, try this: connect one voltmeter across one resistor, and the other voltmeter across the other resistor. The voltage readings you get will add up to the total voltage this time, no matter what the resistor values are, even though they’re different from the readings obtained from a single meter used twice. Unfortunately, though, it is unlikely that the voltage readings obtained this way are equal to the true voltage drops with no meters connected, and so it is not a practical solution to the problem.
Is there any way to make a “perfect” voltmeter: one that has infinite resistance and draws no current from the circuit under test? Modern laboratory voltmeters approach this goal by using semiconductor “amplifier” circuits, but this method is too technologically advanced for the student or hobbyist to duplicate. A much simpler and much older technique is called the potentiometric or null-balance method. This involves using an adjustable voltage source to “balance” the measured voltage. When the two voltages are equal, as indicated by a very sensitive null detector, the adjustable voltage source is measured with an ordinary voltmeter. Because the two voltage sources are equal to each other, measuring the adjustable source is the same as measuring across the test circuit, except that there is no “impact” error because the adjustable source provides any current needed by the voltmeter. Consequently, the circuit under test remains unaffected, allowing measurement of its true voltage drop.
Examine the following schematic to see how the potentiometric voltmeter method is implemented:
The circle symbol with the word “null” written inside represents the null detector. This can be any arbitrarily sensitive meter movement or voltage indicator. Its sole purpose in this circuit is to indicate when there is zero voltage: when the adjustable voltage source (potentiometer) is precisely equal to the voltage drop in the circuit under test. The more sensitive this null detector is, the more precisely the adjustable source may be adjusted to equal the voltage under test, and the more precisely that test voltage may be measured.
Build this circuit as shown in the illustration and test its operation measuring the voltage drop across one of the high-value resistors in the test circuit. It may be easier to use a regular multimeter as a null detector at first, until you become familiar with the process of adjusting the potentiometer for a “null” indication, then reading the voltmeter connected across the potentiometer.
If you are using the headphone-based voltage detector as your null meter, you will need to intermittently make and break contact with the circuit under test and listen for “clicking” sounds. Do this by firmly securing one of the test probes to the test circuit and momentarily touching the other test probe to the other point in the test circuit again and again, listening for sounds in the headphones indicating a difference of voltage between the test circuit and the potentiometer. Adjust the potentiometer until no clicking sounds can be heard from the headphones. This indicates a “null” or “balanced” condition, and you may read the voltmeter indication to see how much voltage is dropped across the test circuit resistor. Unfortunately, the headphone-based null detector provides no indication of whether the potentiometer voltage is greater than, or less than the test circuit voltage, so you will have to listen for decreasing “click” intensity while turning the potentiometer to determine if you need to adjust the voltage higher or lower.
You may find that a single-turn (“3/4 turn”) potentiometer is too coarse of an adjustment device to accurately “null” the measurement circuit. A multi-turn potentiometer may be used instead of the single-turn unit for greater adjustment precision, or the “precision potentiometer” circuit described in an earlier experiment may be used.
Prior to the advent of amplified voltmeter technology, the potentiometric method was the only method for making highly accurate voltage measurements. Even now, electrical standards laboratories make use of this technique along with the latest meter technology to minimize meter “impact” errors and maximize measurement accuracy. Although the potentiometric method requires more skill to use than simply connecting a modern digital voltmeter across a component, and is considered obsolete for all but the most precise measurement applications, it is still a valuable learning process for the new student of electronics, and a useful technique for the hobbyist who may lack expensive instrumentation in their home laboratory.
COMPUTER SIMULATION
Schematic with SPICE node numbers:
Netlist (make a text file containing the following text, verbatim):
This SPICE simulation shows the actual voltage across R2 of the test circuit, the null detector’s voltage, and the voltage across the adjustable voltage source, as that source is adjusted from 0 volts to 6 volts in 0.5 volt steps. In the output of this simulation, you will notice that the voltage across R2 is impacted significantly when the measurement circuit is unbalanced, returning to its true voltage only when there is practically zero voltage across the null detector. At that point, of course, the adjustable voltage source is at a value of 3.000 volts: precisely equal to the (unaffected) test circuit voltage drop.
What is the lesson to be learned from this simulation? That a potentiometric voltmeter avoids impacting the test circuit only when it is in a condition of perfect balance (“null”) with the test circuit ! | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/03%3A_DC_Circuits/3.13%3A_Potentiometric_Voltmeter.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• 6-volt battery
• Electromagnet made from experiment in previous chapter, or a large spool of wire
It would be ideal in this experiment to have two meters: one voltmeter and one ammeter. For experimenters on a budget, this may not be possible. Whatever ammeter is used should be capable measuring at least a few amps of current. A 6-volt “lantern” battery essentially short-circuited by a long piece of wire may produce currents of this magnitude, and your ammeter needs to be capable of measuring it without blowing a fuse or sustaining other damage. Make sure the highest current range on the meter is at least 5 amps!
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 8: “DC Metering Circuits”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Operating principle of Kelvin (4-wire) resistance measurement
• How to measure low resistances with common test equipment
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
Although this experiment is best performed with two meters, and indeed is shown as such in the schematic diagram and illustration, one multimeter is sufficient.
Most ohmmeters operate on the principle of applying a small voltage across an unknown resistance (Runknown) and inferring resistance from the amount of current drawn by it. Except in special cases such as the megger, both the voltage and current quantities employed by the meter are quite small.
This presents a problem for measurement of low resistances, as a low resistance specimen may be of much smaller resistance value than the meter circuitry itself. Imagine trying to measure the diameter of a cotton thread with a yardstick, or measuring the weight of a coin with a scale built for weighing freight trucks, and you will appreciate the problem at hand.
One of the many sources of error in measuring small resistances with an ordinary ohmmeter is the resistance of the ohmmeter’s own test leads. Being part of the measurement circuit, the test leads may contain more resistance than the resistance of the test specimen, incurring significant measurement error by their presence:
One solution is called the Kelvin, or 4-wire, resistance measurement method. It involves the use of an ammeter and voltmeter, determining specimen resistance by Ohm’s Law calculation. A current is passed through the unknown resistance and measured. The voltage dropped across the resistance is measured by the voltmeter, and resistance calculated using Ohm’s Law (R=E/I). Very small resistances may be measured easily by using large current, providing a more easily measured voltage drop from which to infer resistance than if a small current were used.
Because only the voltage dropped by the unknown resistance is factored into the calculation—not the voltage dropped across the ammeter’s test leads or any other connecting wires carrying the main current—errors otherwise caused by these stray resistances are completely eliminated.
First, select a suitably low resistance specimen to use in this experiment. I suggest the electromagnet coil specified in the last chapter or a spool of wire where both ends may be accessed. Connect a 6-volt battery to this specimen, with an ammeter connected in series. WARNING: the ammeter used should be capable of measuring at least 5 amps of current so that it will not be damaged by the (possibly) high current generated in this near-short circuit condition. If you have a second meter, use it to measure the voltage across the specimen’s connection points, as shown in the illustration, and record both meters’ indications.
If you have only one meter, use it to measure current first, recording its indication as quickly as possible, then immediately opening (breaking) the circuit. Switch the meter to its voltage mode, connect it across the specimen’s connection points, and re-connect the battery, quickly noting the voltage indication. You don’t want to leave the battery connected to the specimen for any longer than necessary for obtaining meter measurements, as it will begin to rapidly discharge due to the high circuit current, thus compromising measurement accuracy when the meter is re-configured and the circuit closed once more for the next measurement. When two meters are used, this is not as significant an issue, because the current and voltage indications may be recorded simultaneously.
Take the voltage measurement and divide it by the current measurement. The quotient will be equal to the specimen’s resistance in ohms. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/03%3A_DC_Circuits/3.14%3A_4-wire_Resistance_Measurement.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Three batteries, each one with a different voltage
• Three equal-value resistors, between 10 kΩ and 47 kΩ each
When selecting resistors, measure each one with an ohmmeter and choose three that are the closest in value to each other. Precision is very important for this experiment!
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 10: “DC Network Analysis”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• How a resistor network can function as a voltage signal averager
• Application of Millman’s Theorem
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
This deceptively crude circuit performs the function of mathematically averaging three voltage signals together and so fulfills a specialized computational role. In other words, it is a computer that can only do one mathematical operation: averaging three quantities together.
Build this circuit as shown and measure all battery voltages with a voltmeter. Write these voltage figures on paper and average them together (E1 + E2 + E3, divided by three). When you measure each battery voltage, keep the black test probe connected to the “ground” point (the side of the battery directly joined to the other batteries by jumper wires), and touch the red probe to the other battery terminal. Polarity is important here! You will notice one battery in the schematic diagram connected “backward” to the other two, negative side “up.” This battery’s voltage should read as a negative quantity when measured by a properly connected digital meter, the other batteries measuring positive.
When the voltmeter is connected to the circuit at the point shown in the schematic and illustrations, it should register the algebraic average of the three batteries’ voltages. If the resistor values are chosen to match each other very closely, the “output” voltage of this circuit should match the calculated average very closely as well.
If one battery is disconnected, the output voltage will equal the average voltage of the remaining batteries. If the jumper wires formerly connecting the removed battery to the average circuit are connected to each other, the circuit will average the two remaining voltages together with 0 volts, producing a smaller output signal:
The sheer simplicity of this circuit deters most people from calling it a “computer,” but it undeniably performs the mathematical function of averaging. Not only does it perform this function, but it performs it much faster than any modern digital computer can! Digital computers, such as personal computers (PCs) and pushbutton calculators, perform mathematical operations in a series of discrete steps. Analog computers perform calculations in continuous fashion, exploiting Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s Laws for an arithmetic purpose, the “answer” computed as fast as voltage propagates through the circuit (ideally, at the speed of light!).
With the addition of circuits called amplifiers, voltage signals in analog computer networks may be boosted and re-used in other networks to perform a wide variety of mathematical functions. Such analog computers excel at performing the calculus operations of numerical differentiation and integration, and as such may be used to simulate the behavior of complex mechanical, electrical, and even chemical systems. At one time, analog computers were the ultimate tool for engineering research, but since then have been largely supplanted by digital computer technology. Digital computers enjoy the advantage of performing mathematical operations with much better precision than analog computers, albeit at much slower theoretical speeds.
COMPUTER SIMULATION
Schematic with SPICE node numbers:
Netlist (make a text file containing the following text, verbatim):
With this SPICE netlist, we can force a digital computer to simulate an analog computer, which averages three numbers together. Obviously, we aren’t doing this for the practical task of averaging numbers, but rather to learn more about circuits and more about computer simulation of circuits!
3.16: Potato Battery
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• One large potato
• One lemon (optional)
• Strip of zinc, or galvanized metal
• Piece of thick copper wire
The basic experiment is based on the use of a potato, but many fruits and vegetables work as potential batteries!
For the zinc electrode, a large galvanized nail works well. Nails with a thick, rough zinc texture are preferable to galvanized nails that are smooth.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 11: “Batteries and Power Systems”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• The importance of chemical activity in battery operation
• How electrode surface area affects battery operation
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
Push both the nail and the wire deep into the potato. Measure voltage output by the potato battery with a voltmeter. Now, wasn’t that easy?
Seriously, though, experiment with different metals, electrode depths, and electrode spacings to obtain the greatest voltage possible from the potato. Try other vegetables or fruits and compare voltage output with the same electrode metals.
It can be difficult to power a load with a single “potato” battery, so don’t expect to light up an incandescent lamp or power a hobby motor or do anything like that. Even if the voltage output is adequate, a potato battery has a fairly high internal resistance which causes its voltage to “sag” badly under even a light load. With multiple potato batteries connected in series, parallel, or series-parallel arrangement, though, it is possible to obtain enough voltage and current capacity to power a small load. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/03%3A_DC_Circuits/3.15%3A_A_Very_Simple_Computer.txt |
In this experiment, we will aim to learn about the following concepts:
• Capacitor charging action
• Capacitor discharging action
• Time constant calculation
• Series and parallel capacitance
Capacitor Charging and Discharging Experiment Parts and Materials
To do this experiment, you will need the following:
• 6-volt battery
• Two large electrolytic capacitors, 1000 µF minimum (Radio Shack catalog # 272-1019, 272-1032, or equivalent)
• Two 1 kΩ resistors
• One toggle switch, SPST (“Single-Pole, Single-Throw”)
Large-value capacitors are required for this experiment to produce time constants slow enough to track with a voltmeter and stopwatch. Be warned that most large capacitors are of the “electrolytic” type, and they are polarity sensitive! One terminal of each capacitor should be marked with a definite polarity sign. Usually, capacitors of the size specified to have a negative (-) marking or series of negative markings pointing toward the negative terminal. Very large capacitors are often polarity-labeled by a positive (+) marking next to one terminal.
Failure to heed proper polarity will almost surely result in capacitor failure, even with a source voltage as low as 6 volts. When electrolytic capacitors fail, they typically explode, spewing caustic chemicals and emitting foul odors. Please, try to avoid this!
I recommend a household light switch for the “SPST toggle switch” specified in the parts list.
Further Reading
• Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 13: “Capacitors”
• Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 16: “RC and L/R Time Constants”
Experiment Instructions
Measuring Voltage of Your Circuit
Build the “charging” circuit and measure voltage across the capacitor when the switch is closed. Notice how it increases slowly over time, rather than suddenly as would be the case with a resistor. You can “reset” the capacitor back to a voltage of zero by shorting across its terminals with a piece of wire.
The “time constant” (τ) of a resistor-capacitor circuit is calculated by taking the circuit resistance and multiplying it by the circuit capacitance. For a 1 kΩ resistor and a 1000 µF capacitor, the time constant should be 1 second. This is the amount of time it takes for the capacitor voltage to increase approximately 63.2% from its present value to its final value: the voltage of the battery.
It is educational to plot the voltage of a charging capacitor over time on a sheet of graph paper, to see how the inverse exponential curve develops. In order to plot the action of this circuit, though, we must find a way of slowing it down. A one-second time constant doesn’t provide much time to take voltmeter readings!
Changing a Circuit’s Time Constant
We can increase this circuit’s time constant two different ways:
• Changing the total circuit resistance, and/or
• Changing the total circuit capacitance.
Given a pair of identical resistors and a pair of identical capacitors, experiment with various series and parallel combinations to obtain the slowest charging action. You should already know by now how multiple resistors need to be connected to form a greater total resistance, but what about capacitors?
This circuit will demonstrate to you how capacitance changes with series and parallel capacitor connections. Just be sure that you insert the capacitor(s) in the proper direction: with the ends labeled negative (-) electrically “closest” to the battery’s negative terminal!
The discharging circuit provides the same kind of changing capacitor voltage, except this time the voltage jumps to full battery voltage when the switch closes and slowly falls when the switch is opened.
Experiment once again with different combinations of resistors and capacitors, making sure as always that the capacitor’s polarity is correct.
Computer Simulation
Schematic with SPICE node numbers:
Netlist (make a text file containing the following text, verbatim):
3.18: Rate-of-change Indicator
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Two 6 volt batteries
• Capacitor, 0.1 µF (Radio Shack catalog # 272-135)
• 1 MΩ resistor
• Potentiometer, single turn, 5 kΩ, linear taper (Radio Shack catalog # 271-1714)
The potentiometer value is not especially critical, although lower-resistance units will, in theory, work better for this experiment than high-resistance units. I’ve used a 10 kΩ potentiometer for this circuit with excellent results.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 13: “Capacitors”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• How to build a differentiator circuit
• Obtain an empirical understanding of the derivative calculus function
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
Measure voltage between the potentiometer’s wiper terminal and the “ground” point shown in the schematic diagram (the negative terminal of the lower 6-volt battery). This is the input voltage for the circuit, and you can see how it smoothly varies between zero and 12 volts as the potentiometer control is turned full-range. Since the potentiometer is used here as a voltage divider, this behavior should be unsurprising to you.
Now, measure voltage across the 1 MΩ resistor while moving the potentiometer control. A digital voltmeter is highly recommended, and I advise setting it to a very sensitive (millivolt) range to obtain the strongest indications. What does the voltmeter indicate while the potentiometer is not being moved? Turn the potentiometer slowly clockwise and note the voltmeter’s indication. Turn the potentiometer slowly counter-clockwise and note the voltmeter’s indication. What difference do you see between the two different directions of potentiometer control motion?
Try moving the potentiometer in such a way that the voltmeter gives a steady, small indication. What kind of potentiometer motion provides the steadiest voltage across the 1 MΩ resistor?
In calculus, a function representing the rate of change of one variable as compared to another is called the derivative. This simple circuit illustrates the concept of the derivative by producing an output voltage proportional to the input voltage’s rate of change over time. Because this circuit performs the calculus function of differentiation with respect to time (outputting the time-derivative of an incoming signal), it is called a differentiator circuit.
Like the average circuit shown earlier in this chapter, the differentiator circuit is a kind of analog computer. Differentiation is a far more complex mathematical function than averaging, especially when implemented in a digital computer, so this circuit is an excellent demonstration of the elegance of analog circuitry in performing mathematical computations.
More accurate differentiator circuits may be built by combining resistor-capacitor networks with electronic amplifier circuits. For more detail on computational circuitry, go to the “Analog Integrated Circuits” chapter in this Experiments volume. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/03%3A_DC_Circuits/3.17%3A_Capacitor_Charging_and_Discharging.txt |
“AC” stands for Alternating Current, which can refer to either voltage or current that alternates in polarity or direction, respectively. These experiments are designed to introduce you to several important concepts specific to AC.
A convenient source of AC voltage is household wall-socket power, which presents significant shock hazard. In order to minimize this hazard while taking advantage of the convenience of this source of AC, a small power supply will be the first project, consisting of a transformer that steps the hazardous voltage (110 to 120 volts AC, RMS) down to 12 volts or less. The title of “power supply” is somewhat misleading. This device does not really act as a source or supply of power, but rather as a power converter, to reduce the hazardous voltage of wall-socket power to a much safer level.
4.02: Transformer—Power Supply
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Power transformer, 120VAC step-down to 12VAC, with the center-tapped secondary winding (Radio Shack catalog # 273-1365, 273-1352, or 273-1511).
• Terminal strip with at least three terminals.
• Household wall-socket power plug and cord.
• Line cord switch.
• Box (optional).
• Fuse and fuse holder (optional).
Power transformers may be obtained from old radios, which can usually be obtained from a thrift store for a few dollars (or less!). The radio would also provide the power cord and plug necessary for this project. Line cord switches may be obtained from a hardware store. If you want to be absolutely sure what kind of transformer you’re getting, though, you should purchase one from an electronics supply store.
If you decide to equip your power supply with a fuse, be sure to get a slow-acting, or slow-blow fuse. Transformers may draw high “surge” currents when initially connected to an AC source, and these transient currents will blow a fast-acting fuse. Determine the proper current rating of the fuse by dividing the transformer’s “VA” rating by 120 volts: in other words, calculate the full allowable primary winding current and size the fuse accordingly.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 2, chapter 1: “Basic AC Theory”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 2, chapter 9: “Transformers”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Transformer voltage step-down behavior.
• Purpose of tapped windings.
• Safe wiring techniques for power cords.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
Warning! This project involves the use of dangerous voltages. You must make sure all high-voltage (120-volt household power) conductors are safely insulated from accidental contact. No bare wires should be seen anywhere on the “primary” side of the transformer circuit. Be sure to solder all wire connections so that they’re secure, and use real electrical tape (not duct tape, scotch tape, packing tape, or any other kind!) to insulate your soldered connections.
If you wish to enclose the transformer inside of a box, you may use an electrical “junction” box, obtained from a hardware store or electrical supply house. If the enclosure used is metal rather than plastic, a three-prong plug should be used, with the “ground” prong (the longest one on the plug) connected directly to the metal case for maximum safety.
Before plugging the plug into a wall socket, do a safety check with an ohmmeter. With the line switch in the “on” position, measure resistance between either plug prong and the transformer case. There should be infinite (maximum) resistance. If the meter registers continuity (some resistance value less than infinity), then you have a “short” between one of the power conductors and the case, which is dangerous!
Next, check the transformer windings themselves for continuity. With the line switch in the “on” position, there should be a small amount of resistance between the two plug prongs. When the switch is turned “off,” the resistance indication should increase to infinity (open circuit—no continuity). Measure resistance between pairs of wires on the secondary side. These secondary windings should register much lower resistance than the primary. Why is this?
Plug the cord into a wall socket and turn the switch on. You should be able to measure AC voltage at the secondary side of the transformer, between pairs of terminals. Between two of these terminals, you should measure about 12 volts. Between either of these two terminals and the third terminal, you should measure half that. This third wire is the “center-tap” wire of the secondary winding.
It would be advisable to keep this project assembled for use in powering other experiments shown in this book. From here on, I will designate this “low-voltage AC power supply” using this illustration:
COMPUTER SIMULATION
Schematic with SPICE node numbers:
Netlist (make a text file containing the following text, verbatim): | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/04%3A_AC_Circuits/4.01%3A_Introduction_to_AC_Circuits.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Steel flat bar, 4 pieces
• Miscellaneous bolts, nuts, washers
• 28 gauge “magnet” wire
• Low-voltage AC power supply
“Magnet wire” is small-gauge wire insulated with a thin enamel coating. It is intended to be used to make electromagnets, because many “turns” of wire may be wrapped in a relatively small-diameter coil. Any gauge of wire will work, but 28 gauge is recommended so as to make a coil with as many turns as possible in a small diameter.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 2, chapter 9: “Transformers”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Effects of electromagnetism.
• Effects of electromagnetic induction.
• Effects of magnetic coupling on voltage regulation.
• Effects of a winding turn on “step” ratio.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
Wrap two, equal-length bars of steel with a thin layer of electrically-insulating tape. Wrap several hundred turns of magnet wire around these two bars. You may make these windings with an equal or unequal number of turns, depending on whether or not you want the transformer to be able to “step” voltage up or down. I recommend equal turns, to begin with, then experiment later with coils of unequal turn count.
Join those bars together in a rectangle with two other, shorter, bars of steel. Use bolts to secure the bars together (it is recommended that you drill bolt holes through the bars before you wrap the wire around them).
Check for shorted windings (ohmmeter reading between wire ends and steel bar) after you’re finished wrapping the windings. There should be no continuity (infinite resistance) between the winding and the steel bar. Check for continuity between winding ends to ensure that the wire isn’t broken open somewhere within the coil. If either resistance measurements indicate a problem, the winding must be re-made.
Power your transformer with the low-voltage output of the “power supply” described at the beginning of this chapter. Do not power your transformer directly from wall-socket voltage (120 volts), as your home-made windings really aren’t rated for any significant voltage!
Measure the output voltage (secondary winding) of your transformer with an AC voltmeter. Connect a load of some kind (light bulbs are good!) to the secondary winding and re-measure voltage. Note the degree of voltage “sag” at the secondary winding as the load current is increased.
Loosen or remove the connecting bolts from one of the short bar pieces, thus increasing the reluctance(analogous to resistance) of the magnetic “circuit” coupling the two windings together. Note the effect on the output voltage and voltage “sag” under load.
If you’ve made your transformer with unequal-turn windings. try it in step-up versus step-down mode, powering different AC loads.
4.04: Variable Inductor
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Paper tube, from a toilet-paper roll
• Bar of iron or steel, large enough to almost fill diameter of paper tube
• 28 gauge “magnet” wire
• Low-voltage AC power supply
• Incandescent lamp, rated for power supply voltage
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 14: “Magnetism and Electromagnetism”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 15: “Inductors”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 2, chapter 3: “Reactance and Impedance—Inductive”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Effects of magnetic permeability on inductance.
• How inductive reactance can control current in an AC circuit.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
Wrap hundreds of turns of magnet wire around the paper tube. Connect this home-made inductor in series with an AC power supply and lamp to form a circuit. When the tube is empty, the lamp should glow brightly. When the steel bar is inserted in the tube, the lamp dims from increased inductance (L) and consequently increased inductive reactance (XL).
Try using bars of different materials, such as copper and stainless steel, if available. Not all metals have the same effect, due to differences in magnetic permeability. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/04%3A_AC_Circuits/4.03%3A_Build_a_Transformer.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• High-quality “closed-cup” audio headphones
• Headphone jack: female receptacle for headphone plug (Radio Shack catalog # 274-312)
• Small step-down power transformer (Radio Shack catalog # 273-1365 or equivalent, using the 6-volt secondary winding tap)
• Two 1N4001 rectifying diodes (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1101)
• 1 kΩ resistor
• 100 kΩ potentiometer (Radio Shack catalog # 271-092)
• Two “banana” jack style binding posts, or other terminal hardware, for connection to potentiometer circuit (Radio Shack catalog # 274-662 or equivalent)
• Plastic or metal mounting box
Regarding the headphones, the higher the “sensitivity” rating in decibels (dB), the better, but listening is believing: if you’re serious about building a detector with maximum sensitivity for small electrical signals, you should try a few different headphone models at a high-quality audio store and “listen” for which ones produce an audible sound for the lowest volume setting on a radio or CD player. Beware, as you could spend hundreds of dollars on a pair of headphones to get the absolute best sensitivity! Take heart, though: I’ve used an old pair of Radio Shack “Realistic” brand headphones with perfectly adequate results, so you don’t need to buy the best.
Normally, the transformer used in this type of application (audio speaker impedance matching) is called an “audio transformer,” with its primary and secondary windings represented by impedance values (1000 Ω: 8 Ω) instead of voltages. An audio transformer will work, but I’ve found small step-down power transformers of 120/6 volt ratio to be perfectly adequate for the task, cheaper (especially when taken from an old thrift-store alarm clock radio), and far more rugged.Ω: 8 Ω) instead of voltages. An audio transformer will work, but I’ve found small step-down power transformers of 120/6 volt ratio to be perfectly adequate for the task, cheaper (especially when taken from an old thrift-store alarm clock radio), and far more rugged.
The tolerance (precision) rating for the 1 kΩ resistor is irrelevant. The 100 kΩ potentiometer is a recommended option for incorporation into this project, as it gives the user control over the loudness for any given signal. Even though an audio-taper potentiometer would be appropriate for this application, it is not necessary. A linear-taper potentiometer works quite well.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 8: “DC Metering Circuits”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 2, chapter 9: “Transformers”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 2, chapter 12: “AC Metering Circuits”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Soldering practice
• Use of a transformer for impedance matching
• Detection of extremely small electrical signals
• Using diodes to “clip” voltage at some maximum level
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
This experiment is identical in construction to the “Sensitive Voltage Detector” described in the DC experiments chapter. If you’ve already built this detector, you may skip this experiment.
The headphones, most likely being stereo units (separate left and right speakers) will have a three-contact plug. You will be connecting to only two of those three contact points. If you only have a “mono” headphone set with a two-contact plug, just connect to those two contact points. You may either connect the two stereo speakers in series or in parallel. I’ve found the series connection to work best, that is, to produce the most sound from a small signal:
Solder all wire connections well. This detector system is extremely sensitive, and any loose wire connections in the circuit will add unwanted noise to the sounds produced by the measured voltage signal. The two diodes connected in parallel with the transformer’s primary winding, along with the series-connected 1 kΩ resistor, work together to “clip” the input voltage to a maximum of about 0.7 volts. This does one thing and one thing only: limit the amount of sound the headphones can produce. The system will work without the diodes and resistor in place, but there will be no limit to sound volume in the circuit, and the resulting sound caused by accidentally connecting the test leads across a substantial voltage source (like a battery) can be deafening!
Binding posts provide points of connection for a pair of test probes with banana-style plugs, once the detector components are mounted inside a box. You may use ordinary multimeter probes, or make your own probes with alligator clips at the ends for secure connection to a circuit.
Detectors are intended to be used for balancing bridge measurement circuits, potentiometric (null-balance) voltmeter circuits, and detect extremely low-amplitude AC (“alternating current”) signals in the audio frequency range. It is a valuable piece of test equipment, especially for the low-budget experimenter without an oscilloscope. It is also valuable in that it allows you to use a different bodily sense in interpreting the behavior of a circuit.
For connection across any non-trivial source of voltage (1 volt and greater), the detector’s extremely high sensitivity should be attenuated. This may be accomplished by connecting a voltage divider to the “front” of the circuit:
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
Adjust the 100 kΩ voltage divider potentiometer to about mid-range when initially sensing a voltage signal of unknown magnitude. If the sound is too loud, turn the potentiometer down and try again. If too soft, turn it up and try again. This detector even senses DC and radio-frequency signals (frequencies below and above the audio range, respectively), a “click” is heard whenever the test leads make or break contact with the source under test. With my cheap headphones, I’ve been able to detect currents of less than 1/10 of a microamp (
< 0.1 µA) DC, and similarly low-magnitude RF signals up to 2 MHz.
A good demonstration of the detector’s sensitivity is to touch both tests leads to the end of your tongue, with the sensitivity adjustment set to maximum. The voltage produced by metal-to-electrolyte contact (called
galvanic voltage) is very small, but enough to produce soft “clicking” sounds every time the leads make and break contact on the wet skin of your tongue.
Try unplugging the headphone plug from the jack (receptacle) and similarly touching it to the end of your tongue. You should still hear soft clicking sounds, but they will be much smaller in amplitude. Headphone speakers are “low impedance” devices: they require low voltage and “high” current to deliver substantial sound power. Impedance is a measure of opposition to any and all forms of electric current, including alternating current (AC). Resistance, by comparison, is a strict measure of opposition to direct current (DC). Like resistance, impedance is measured in the unit of the Ohm (Ω), but it is symbolized in equations by the capital letter “Z” rather than the capital letter “R”. We use the term “impedance” to describe the headphone’s opposition to current because it is primarily AC signals that headphones are normally subjected to, not DC.
Most small signal sources have high internal impedances, some much higher than the nominal 8 Ω of the headphone speakers. This is a technical way of saying that they are incapable of supplying substantial amounts of current. As the Maximum Power Transfer Theorem predicts, maximum sound power will be delivered by the headphone speakers when their impedance is “matched” to the impedance of the voltage source. The transformer does this. The transformer also helps aid the detection of small DC signals by producing inductive “kickback” every time the test lead circuit is broken, thus “amplifying” the signal by magnetically storing up electrical energy and suddenly releasing it to the headphone speakers.
As with the low-voltage AC power supply experiment, I recommend building this detector in a permanent fashion (mounting all components inside of a box and providing nice test lead wires) so it can be easily used in the future. Constructed as such, it might look something like this: | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/04%3A_AC_Circuits/4.05%3A_Sensitive_Audio_Detector.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Audio detector with headphones
• Electromagnet coil from relay or solenoid
What is needed for an electromagnet coil is a coil with many turns of wire, so as to produce the most voltage possible from induction with stray magnetic fields? The coil taken from an old relay or solenoid works well for this purpose.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 2, chapter 7: “Mixed-Frequency AC Signals”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Effects of electromagnetic induction.
• Electromagnetic shielding techniques.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
Using the audio detector circuit explained earlier to detect AC voltage in the audio frequencies, a coil of wire may serve as a sensor of AC magnetic fields. The voltages produced by the coil will be quite small, so it is advisable to adjust the detector’s sensitivity control to “maximum.”
There are many sources of AC magnetic fields to be found in the average home. Try, for instance, holding the coil close to a television screen or circuit-breaker box. The coil’s orientation is every bit as important as its proximity to the source, as you will soon discover on your own! If you want to listen to more interesting tones, try holding the coil close to the motherboard of an operating computer (be careful not to “short” any connections together on the computer’s circuit board with any exposed metal parts on the sensing coil!), or to its hard drive while a read/write operation is taking place.
One very strong source of AC magnetic fields is the home-made transformer project described earlier. Try experimenting with various degrees of “coupling” between the coils (the steel bars tightly fastened together, versus loosely fastened, versus dismantled). Another source is the variable inductor and lamp circuit described in another section of this chapter.
Note that physical contact with a magnetic field source is unnecessary: magnetic fields extend through space quite easily. You may also want to try “shielding” the coil from a strong source using various materials. Try aluminum foil, paper, sheet steel, plastic, or whatever other materials you can think of. What materials work best? Why? What angles (orientations) of coil position minimize magnetic coupling (result in a minimum of detected signal)? What does this tell us regarding inductor positioning if inter-circuit interference from other inductors is a bad thing?
Whether or not stray magnetic fields like these pose any health hazard to the human body is a hotly debated subject. One thing is clear: in today’s modern society, low-level magnetic fields of all frequencies are easy to find!
4.07: Sensing AC Electric Fields
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Audio detector with headphones
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 2, chapter 7: “Mixed-Frequency AC Signals”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Effects of electrostatic (capacitive) coupling.
• Electrostatic shielding techniques.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
“Ground” one lead of the detector to a metal object in contact with the earth (dirt). Most any water pipe or faucet in a house will suffice. Take the other lead and hold it close to an electrical appliance or lamp fixture. Do not try to make contact with the appliance or with any conductors within! Any AC electric fields produced by the appliance will be heard in the headphones as a buzzing tone.
Try holding the wire in different positions next to a good, strong source of electric fields. Try using a piece of aluminum foil clipped to the wire’s end to maximize capacitance (and therefore its ability to intercept an electric field). Try using different types of material to “shield” the wire from an electric field source. What material(s) work best? How does this compare with the AC magnetic field experiment?
As with magnetic fields, there is controversy whether or not stray electric fields like these pose any health hazard to the human body. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/04%3A_AC_Circuits/4.06%3A_Sensing_AC_Magnetic_Fields.txt |
Project Parts and Materials
• Automotive alternator (one required, but two recommended)
Old alternators may be obtained for low prices at automobile wrecking yards. Many yards have alternators already removed from the automobile, for your convenience. I do not recommend paying full price for a new alternator, as used units cost far less money and function just as well for the purposes of this experiment.
I highly recommend using a Delco-Remy brand of the alternator. This is the type used on General Motors (GMC, Chevrolet, Cadillac, Buick, Oldsmobile) vehicles. One particular model has been produced by Delco-Remy since the early 1960’s with little design change. It is a very common unit to locate in a wrecking yard, and very easy to work with.
If you obtain two alternators, you may use one as a generator and the other as a motor. The steps needed to prepare an alternator as a three-phase generator and as a three-phase motor are the same.
Learning Objectives
• Effects of electromagnetism
• Effects of electromagnetic induction
• Construction of real electromagnetic machines
• Construction and application of three-phase windings
Automotive Alternator Schematic Diagram
An automotive alternator is a three-phase generator with a built-in rectifier circuit consisting of six diodes. As the sheave (most people call it a “pulley”) is rotated by a belt connected to the automobile engine’s crankshaft, a magnet is spun past a stationary set of three-phase windings (called the stator), usually connected in a Y configuration. The spinning magnet is actually an electromagnet, not a permanent magnet. Alternators are designed this way so that the magnetic field strength can be controlled, in order that output voltage may be controlled independently of rotor speed. This rotor magnet coil (called the field coil, or simply field) is energized by battery power so that it takes a small amount of electrical power input to the alternator to get it to generate a lot of output power.
Electrical power is conducted to the rotating field coil through a pair of copper “slip rings” mounted concentrically on the shaft, contacted by stationary carbon “brushes.” The brushes are held in firm contact with the slip rings by spring pressure.
Many modern alternators are equipped with built-in “regulator” circuits that automatically switch battery power on and off to the rotor coil to regulate output voltage. This circuit, if present in the alternator you choose for the experiment, is unnecessary and will only impede your study if left in place. Feel free to “surgically remove” it, just make sure you leave access to the brush terminals so that you can power the field coil with the alternator fully assembled.
Experiment Instructions
First, consult an automotive repair manual on the specific details of your alternator. The documentation provided in the book you’re reading now is as general as possible to accommodate different brands of alternators. You may need more specific information, and a service manual is the best place to obtain it.
For this experiment, you’ll be connecting wires to the coils inside the alternator and extending them outside the alternator case, for easy connection to test equipment and circuits. Unfortunately, the connection terminals provided by the manufacturer won’t suit our needs here, so you need to make your own connections.
Disassemble the unit and locate terminals for connecting to the two carbon brushes. Solder a pair of wires to these terminals (at least 20 gauge in size) and extend these wires through vent holes in the alternator case, making sure they won’t get snagged on the spinning rotor when the alternator is re-assembled and used.
Locate the three-phase line connections coming from the stator windings and connect wires to them as well, extending these wires outside the alternator case through some vent holes. Use the largest gauge wire that is convenient to work with for these wires, as they may be carrying substantial current. As with the field wires, route them in such a way that the rotor will turn freely with the alternator reassembled. The stator winding line terminals are easy to locate: the three of them connect to three terminals on the diode assembly, usually with “ring-lug” terminals soldered to the ends of the wires.
I recommend that you solder ring-lug terminals to your wires, and attach them underneath the terminal nuts along with the stator wire ends so that each diode block terminal is securing two ring lugs.
Re-assemble the alternator, taking care to secure the carbon brushes in a retracted position so that the rotor doesn’t damage them upon re-insertion. On Delco-Remy alternators, a small hole is provided on the back case half, and also at the front of the brush holder assembly, through which a paper clip or thin-gauge wire may be inserted to hold the brushes back against their spring pressure. Consult the service manual for more details on alternator assembly.
When the alternator has been assembled, try spinning the shaft and listen for any sounds indicative of colliding parts or snagged wires. If there is any such trouble, take it apart again and correct whatever is wrong.
If and when it spins freely as it should, connect the two “field” wires to a 6-volt battery. Connect a voltmeter to any two of the three-phase line connections:
With the multimeter set to the “DC volts” function, slowly rotate the alternator shaft. The voltmeter reading should alternate between positive and negative as the shaft it turned: a demonstration of very slow alternating voltage (AC voltage) being generated. If this test is successful, switch the multimeter to the “AC volts” setting and try again. Try spinning the shaft slow and fast, comparing voltmeter readings between the two conditions.
Short-circuit any two of the three-phase line wires and try spinning the alternator. What you should notice is that the alternator shaft becomes more difficult to spin. The heavy electrical load you’ve created via the short circuit causes a heavy mechanical load on the alternator, as mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy.
Now, try connecting 12 volts DC to the field wires. Repeat the DC voltmeter, AC voltmeter, and short-circuit tests described above. What difference(s) do you notice?
Find some sort of polarity-insensitive 6 or 12 volts loads, such as small incandescent lamps, and connect them to the three-phase line wires. Wrap a thin rope or heavy string around the groove of the sheave (“pulley”) and spin the alternator rapidly, and the loads should function.
If you have a second alternator, modify it as you modified the first one, connecting five of your own wires to the field brushes and stator line terminals, respectively. You can then use it as a three-phase motor, powered by the first alternator.
Connect each of the three-phase line wires of the first alternator to the respective wires of the second alternator. Connect the field wires of one alternator to a 6-volt battery. This alternator will be the generator. Wrap rope around the sheave in preparation to spin it. Take the two field wires of the second alternator and short them together. This alternator will be the motor:
Spin the generator shaft while watching the motor shaft’s rotation. Try reversing any two of the three-phase line connections between the two units and spin the generator again. What is different this time?
Connect the field wires of the motor unit to the 6-volt battery (you may parallel-connect this field with the field of the generator unit, across the same battery terminals, if the battery is strong enough to deliver the several amps of current both coils will draw together). This will magnetize the rotor of the motor. Try spinning the generator again and note any differences in operation.
In the first motor setup, where the field wires were simple shorted together, the motor was functioning as an induction motor. In the second setup, where the motor’s rotor was magnetized, it functioned as a synchronous motor.
Take your Modified Alternator to the Next Level
If you are feeling particularly ambitious and are skilled in metal fabrication techniques, you may make your own high-power generator platform by connecting the modified alternator to a bicycle. I’ve built an arrangement that looks like this:
The rear wheel drives the generator sheave with a long v-belt. This belt also supports the rear of the bicycle, maintaining a constant tension when a rider is pedaling the bicycle. The generator hangs from a steel support structure (I used welded 2-inch square tubing, but a frame could be made out of lumber). Not only is this machine practical, but it is reliable enough to be used as an exercise machine, and it is inexpensive to make:
You can see a bank of three 12-volt “RV” light bulbs behind the bicycle unit (in the lower-left corner of the photograph), which I use for a load when riding the bicycle as an exercise machine. A set of three switches is mounted at the front of the bicycle, where I can turn loads on and off while riding.
By rectifying the three-phase AC power produced, it is possible to have the alternator power its own field coil with DC voltage, eliminating the need for a battery. However, some independent source of DC voltage will still be necessary for start-up, as the field coil must be energized before any AC power can be produced. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/04%3A_AC_Circuits/4.08%3A_Automotive_Alternator.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• AC power source: 120VAC
• Capacitor, 3.3 µF (or 2.2 µF) 120VAC or 350VDC, non-polarized
• 15 to 25 watt incandescent lamp or 820Ω 25 watt resistors
• #32 AWG magnet wire
• wooden board approx. 5 in. square.
• AC line cord with plug
• 1.75 inch dia. cardboard tubing (toilet paper roll)
• lamp socket
• AC power source: 220VAC
• Capacitor, 1.5 µF 240VAC or 680VDC, non-polarized
• 25 to 40 watt incandescent lamp or 820Ω 25 watt resistors
• #32 AWG magnet wire
• wooden board approx. 15 cm. square.
• AC line cord with plug
• 4.5 to 5 cm. dia. cardboard tubing.
• lamp socket
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 2, chapter 13: “AC motors”, “Single Phase induction motors”,“Permanent split-capacitor motor”.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• To build an AC permanent capacitor split-phase induction motor.
• To illustrate the simplicity of the AC induction motor.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
There are two parts lists to choose from depending upon the availability of 120VAC or 220VAC. Choose the one for your location. This set of instructions is for the 120VAC version.
This is a simplified version of a “permanent capacitor split-phase induction motor”. By simplifying, we mean the coils only requires a few hundred turns of wire instead of a few thousand. This is easier to wind. Though, the larger few thousand turns model is impressive. There are two stator coils as shown in the illustration above. Approximately 440 turns of #32 AWG (American wire gauge) enameled magnet wire are wound over a one-inch length of a slightly longer section of 1.75-inch diameter toilet paper tube. To avoid counting the turns, close-wind four layers of magnet wire over a one-inch width of the tube. See (b) above. Leave a few inches of magnet wire for the leads. Tape the beginning lead near the end of the tube so that the windings will cover and anchor the tape. Do not cut the final width of the cardboard tube until the winding is finished. Close wind a single layer. Tape or cement the first layer to prevent unwinding before proceeding to the second layer. Though it is possible to wind additional layers directly over existing layers, consider applying tape or paper between the layers as shown in schematic (b). After four layers are wound, glue the windings in place.
If close winding four layers of magnet wire it too difficult, scramble wind 440 turns of the magnet wire over the end of the cardboard tube. However, the close-wound style coil mounts more easily to the baseboard. Keep the windings within a one-inch length.
Cut the finished winding from the end of the cardboard tube with a razor knife allowing the form to extend a little beyond the winding. Strip the enamel from an inch off the ends of the pair of lead wires with sandpaper. Splice the bare ends to heavier gauge insulated hook-up wire. Solder the splice. Insulate with tape or heat-shrink tubing. Secure the splice to the coil body. Then proceed with a second identical coil.
Refer to both the schematic diagram and the illustration for assembly. Note that the coils are mounted at right angles. They may be cemented to an insulating baseboard like wood. The 25-watt lamp is wired in series with one coil. This limits the current flowing through the coil. The lamp is a substitute for an 820 Ω power resistor. The capacitor is wired in series with the other coil. It also limits the current through the coil. In addition, it provides a leading phase shift of the current with respect to voltage. The schematic and illustration show no power switch or fuse. Add these if desired.
The rotor must be made of a ferromagnetic material like a steel can lid or bottle cap. The illustration below shows how to make the rotor. Select a circular rotor either smaller than the coil forms or a little larger. Use geometry to locate and mark the center. The center needs to be dimpled. Select an eighth-inch diameter (a few mm) nail (a) and file or grind the point round as shown at (b). Place the rotor atop a piece of softwood (c) and hammer the rounded point into the center (d). Practice on a piece of similar scrap metal. Take care not to pierce the rotor. A dished rotor (f) or a lid (g) balance better than the flat rotor (e). The pivot point (e) may be a straight pin driven through a movable wooden pedestal, or through the main board. The tip of a ball-point pen also works. If the rotor does not balance atop the pivot, remove metal from the heavy side.
Double check the wiring. Check that any bare wire has been insulated. The circuit may be powered-up without the rotor. The lamp should light. Both coils will warm within a few minutes. The excessive heating means that a lower wattage (higher resistance) lamp and a lower value capacitor should be substituted in series with the respective coils.
Place the rotor atop the pivot and move it between both coils. It should spin. The closer it is, the faster it should spin. Both coils should be warm, indicating power. Try different size and style rotors. Try a small rotor on the opposite side of the coils compared to the illustration.
For lack of #32 AWG magnet wire try 440 turns of slightly a larger diameter (lesser AWG number) wire. This will require more than 4 layers for the required turns. A night-light fixture might be less expensive than the full-size lamp socket illustrated. Though night-light bulbs are too low a wattage at 3 or 7 watts, 15-watt bulbs fit the socket. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/04%3A_AC_Circuits/4.09%3A_Induction_Motor.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• AC power source: 120VAC
• Capacitor, 3.3 µF 120VAC or 350VDC, non-polarized
• #33 AWG magnet wire, 2 pounds
• wooden board approx. 6 to 12 in. square.
• AC line cord with plug
• 5.1-inch dia. plastic 3-liter soda bottle
• discarded ballpoint pen
• misc. small wood blocks
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 2, chapter 13: “AC motors”, “Single Phase induction motors”,“Permanent split-capacitor motor”.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• To build a large exhibit size AC permanent split-capacitor induction motor.
• To illustrate the simplicity of the AC induction motor.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
This is a larger version of a “permanent capacitor split-phase induction motor”. There are two different stator coils. The 1.0 inch wide 3200 turn L2 winding is shown in the illustration above (b), wound over a section of 5.1-inch diameter plastic 3-liter soda bottle. L1 is approximately 3800 turns of #33 AWG (American wire gauge) enameled magnet wire wound over a 1.25 width of a section of a soda bottle, wider than shown at (b). Mark a 1.25-inch wide cylinder with 0.25-inch margins on each end. The wire will be wound on the 1.25-inch zone. The form is cut from the bottle on the outside edges of the margin. Cuts of 0.25 inch from the margin to the winding zone are spaced at 1-inch intervals around the circumference of both ends so that the margin may be bent up at 90o to hold the wire on the form. To avoid counting the 3800 turns, scramble wind a 1/8 inch thickness of magnet wire over the one-inch width of the form. Else, count the turns. Scrape the enamel from 1-inch on the free end, and scrape only a small section from the lead to the spool. Do NOT cut the lead to the spool. Measure the resistance, and estimate how much more wire to wind to achieve 894 Ω. Apply enamel, nail polish, tape, or other insulation to the bare spot on the spool lead. Continue winding, and recheck the resistance. Once the approximate 894 Ω is achieved, leave a few inches of magnet wire for the lead. Cut the lead from the spool. Secure the windings to the form with lacing twine or other means.
The L1 winding of 3200 turns is approximately 744 Ω and is wound on a 1.0-inch wide form as shown at (b) in a manner similar to the previous L2 winding.
Strip the enamel off 1-inch of the ends of magnet wire leads if not already done. Splice the bare ends to heavier gauge insulated hook-up wire. Solder the splice. Insulate with tape or heat-shrink tubing. Secure the splice to the coil body. Then proceed with the second coil. The coils may be mounted in one corner of the wooden base. Alternatively, for more flexibility in use, they may be mounted to movable pallets.
Refer to both the schematic diagram and the illustration for assembly. Note that the coils are mounted at right angles. L2, the smaller coil is wired to both sides of the 120 Vac line. The capacitor is wired in series with the wider coil L1. The capacitor provides a leading phase shift of the current with respect to voltage. The schematic and illustration show no power switch or fuse. Add these additions are recommended.
If this device is intended for use by non-technicians as an unsupervised exhibit, all exposed bare terminations like the capacitor must be made finger safe by covering with shields. The switch and fuse mentioned above are necessary. Finally, the enamel on the coils only provides a single layer of insulation. For safety, a second layer such as an insulating wrapping, Plexiglas box, or other means is called for. Replace all wooden components with Plexiglas for superior fire safety in an unsupervised exhibit.
The rotor must be made of a ferromagnetic material like a steel vegetable can, fruitcake can, etc. A too long vegetable can may be cut in half. The illustration for the previous small induction motor shows rotor dimpled bearing and pivot details. The rotor may be smaller than the coil forms as in the case of a cut down the vegetable can. It can even be as small as the can lid rotor used with the previous small motor. It is also possible to drive a rotor larger than the coils, which is the case with the fruitcake can. Locate and mark the center of the rotor. The center needs to be dimpled. Select an eighth-inch diameter (a few mm) nail (a) and file or grind the point round. Use this and a block of wood to dimple the rotor as shown in the previous small motor A fairly long can balances better than a flat rotor due to the lower center of gravity. The tip of a ballpoint pen works well as a pivot for larger rotors. Mount the pivot to a movable wooden pedestal.
Double check the wiring. Check that any bare wire has been insulated. The circuit may be powered-up without the rotor. Excessive heating in L2 indicates that more turns are required. Excessive heat in L1 calls for a reduction in the capacitance of C1. No heat at all indicates an open circuit to the affected coil.
Place the rotor atop the pivot and move it between both energized coils. It should spin. The closer it is, the faster it should spin. Both coils should be warm, indicating power. Try different size and style rotors. Try a small rotor on the opposite side of the coils compared to the illustration.
Three models of this motor have been built using #33 AWG magnet wire because a large spool was on hand. AWG #32 magnet wire is probably easier to get. It should work. Although the current will be higher due to the lower resistance of the larger diameter #32 wire. If a 3.3µF capacitor is not available, use something close as long as it has an adequate voltage rating. A discarded AC motor run capacitor (bathtub shaped) was used by the author. Do no use a motor start capacitor (black cylinder). These are only usable for a few seconds of motor starting and may explode if used longer than that.
Try this: It is possible to simultaneously spin more than one rotor. For example, in addition to the main rotor inside the right angle formed by the coils, place a second smaller rotor (can or bottle lid) near the pair of coils outside the right angle at the vertex.
It is possible to reverse the direction of rotation by reversing one of the coils. If the coils are mounted to movable pallets, rotate one coil 180o. Another method, especially useful with fixed coils, is to wire one of the coils to a DPDT polarity reversing switch. For example, disconnect L2 and wire it to the wipers (center contacts) of the DPDT switch. The top contacts go to the 120 Vac. The top contacts also go to the bottom contacts in an X-crossover pattern. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/04%3A_AC_Circuits/4.10%3A_Induction_Motor%2C_Large.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Low-voltage AC power supply
• Two capacitors, 0.1 µF each, non-polarized (Radio Shack catalog # 272-135)
• Two 27 kΩ resistors
I recommend ceramic disk capacitors because they are insensitive to polarity (non-polarized), inexpensive, and durable. Avoid capacitors with any kind of polarity marking, as these will be destroyed when powered by AC!
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 2, chapter 1: “Basic AC Theory”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 2, chapter 4: “Reactance and Impedance—Capacitive”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• How out-of-phase AC voltages do not add algebraically, but according to vector (phasor) arithmetic
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
Build the circuit and measure voltage drops across each component with an AC voltmeter. Measure total (supply) voltage with the same voltmeter. You will discover that the voltage drops do not add up to equal the total voltage. This is due to phase shifts in the circuit: voltage dropped across the capacitors is out-of-phase with voltage dropped across the resistors, and thus the voltage drop figures do not add up as one might expect. Taking phase angle into consideration, they do add up to equal the total, but a voltmeter doesn’t provide phase angle measurements, only amplitude.
Try measuring voltage dropped across both resistors at once. This voltage drop will equal the sum of the voltage drops measured across each resistor separately. This tells you that both the resistors’ voltage drop waveforms are in-phase with each other since they add simply and directly.
Measure voltage dropped across both capacitors at once. This voltage drop, like the drop measured across the two resistors, will equal the sum of the voltage drops measured across each capacitor separately. Likewise, this tells you that both the capacitors’ voltage drop waveforms are in-phase with each other.
Given that the power supply frequency is 60 Hz (household power frequency in the United States), calculate impedances for all components and determine all voltage drops using Ohm’s Law (E=IZ ; I=E/Z ; Z=E/I). The polar magnitudes of the results should closely agree with your voltmeter readings.
COMPUTER SIMULATION
Schematic with SPICE node numbers:
The two large-value resistors Rbogus1 and Rbogus1 are connected across the capacitors to provide a DC path to ground in order that SPICE will work. This is a “fix” for one of SPICE’s quirks, to avoid it from seeing the capacitors as open circuits in its analysis. These two resistors are entirely unnecessary in the real circuit.
Netlist (make a text file containing the following text, verbatim):
4.12: Sound Cancellation
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Low-voltage AC power supply
• Two audio speakers
• Two 220 Ω resistors
Large, low-frequency (“woofer”) speakers are most appropriate for this experiment. For optimum results, the speakers should be identical and mounted in enclosures.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 2, chapter 1: “Basic AC Theory”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• How phase shift can cause waves to either reinforce or interfere with each other
• The importance of speaker “phasing” in stereo systems
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
Connect each speaker to the low-voltage AC power supply through a 220 Ω resistor. The resistor limits the amount of power delivered to each speaker by the power supply. A low-pitched, 60-Hertz tone should be heard from the speakers. If the tone sounds too loud, use higher-value resistors.
With both speakers connected and producing sound, position them so that they are only a foot or two away, facing toward each other. Listen to the volume of the 60-Hertz tone. Now, reverse the connections (the “polarity”) of just one of the speakers and note the volume again. Try switching the polarity of one speaker back and forth from original to reversed, comparing volume levels each way. What do you notice?
By reversing wire connections to one speaker, you are reversing the phase of that speaker’s sound wave in reference to the other speaker. In one mode, the sound waves will reinforce one another for a strong volume. In the other mode, the sound waves will destructively interfere, resulting in diminished volume. This phenomenon is common to all wave events: sound waves, electrical signals (voltage “waves”), waves in water, and even light waves!
Multiple speakers in a stereo sound system must be properly “phased” so that their respective sound waves don’t cancel each other, leaving less total sound level for the listener(s) to hear. So, even in an AC system where there really is no such thing as constant “polarity,” the sequence of wire connections may make a significant difference in system performance.
This principle of volume reduction by destructive interference may be exploited for noise cancellation. Such systems sample the waveform of the ambient noise, then produce an identical sound signal 180o out of phase with the noise. When the two sound signals meet, they cancel each other out, ideally eliminating all the noise. As one might guess, this is much easier accomplished with noise sources of steady frequency and amplitude. Cancellation of random, broad-spectrum noise is very difficult, as some sort of signal-processing circuit must sample the noise and generate precisely the right amount of cancellation sound at just the right time in order to be effective. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/04%3A_AC_Circuits/4.11%3A_Phase_Shift.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Electronic “keyboard” (musical)
• “Mono” (not stereo) headphone-type plug
• Impedance matching transformer (1k Ω to 8 Ω ratio; Radio Shack catalog # 273-1380)
• 10 kΩ resistor
In this experiment, you’ll learn how to use an electronic musical keyboard as a source of variable-frequency AC voltage signals. You need not purchase an expensive keyboard for this—but one with at least a few dozen “voice” selections (piano, flute, harp, etc.) would be good. The “mono” plug will be plugged into the headphone jack of the musical keyboard, so get a plug that’s the correct size for the keyboard.
The “impedance matching transformer” is a small-size transformer easily obtained from an electronics supply store. One may be scavenged from a small, junk radio: it connects between the speaker and the circuit board (amplifier), so is easily identifiable by location. The primary winding is rated in ohms of impedance (1000 Ω), and is usually center-tapped. The secondary winding is 8 Ω and not center-tapped. These impedance figures are not the same as DC resistance, so don’t expect to read 1000 Ω and 8 Ω with your ohmmeter—however, the 1000 Ω winding will read more resistance than the 8 Ω winding, because it has more turns.
If such a transformer cannot be obtained for the experiment, a regular 120V/6V step-down power transformer works fairly well, too.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 2, chapter 1: “Basic AC Theory”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 2, chapter 7: “Mixed-Frequency AC Signals”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Difference between amplitude and frequency
• Measuring AC voltage, current with a meter
• Transformer operation, step-up
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
Normally, a student of electronics in a school would have access to a device called a signal generator, or function generator used to make variable-frequency voltage waveforms to power AC circuits. An inexpensive electronic keyboard is a cheaper alternative to a regular signal generator and provides features that most signal generators cannot match, such as producing mixed-frequency waves.
To “tap in” to the AC voltage produced by the keyboard, you’ll need to insert a plug into the headphone jack (sometimes just labeled “phone” on the keyboard) complete with two wires for connection to circuits of your own design. When you insert the plug into the jack, the normal speaker built into the keyboard will be disconnected (assuming the keyboard is equipped with one), and the signal that used to power that speaker will be available at the plug wires. In this particular experiment, I recommend using the keyboard to power the 8 Ω side of an audio “output” transformer to step up voltage to a higher level. If using a power transformer instead of an audio output transformer, connect the keyboard to the low-voltage winding so that it operates as a step-up device. Keyboards produce very low voltage signals, so there is no shock hazard in this experiment.
Using an inexpensive Yamaha keyboard, I have found that the “panflute” voice setting produces the truest sine-wave waveform. This waveform, or something close to it (flute, for example), is recommended to start experimenting with since it is relatively free of harmonics (many waveforms mixed together, of integer-multiple frequency). Being composed of just one frequency, it is a less complex waveform for your multimeter to measure. Make sure the keyboard is set to a mode where the note will be sustained as any key is held down—otherwise, the amplitude (voltage) of the waveform will be constantly changing (high when the key is first pressed, then decaying rapidly to zero).
Using an AC voltmeter, read the voltage direct from the headphone plug. Then, read the voltage as stepped up by the transformer, noting the step ratio. If your multimeter has a “frequency” function, use it to measure the frequency of the waveform produced by the keyboard. Try different notes on the keyboard and record their frequencies. Do you notice a pattern in frequency as you activate different notes, especially keys that are similar to each other (notice the 12-key black-and-white pattern repeated on the keyboard from left to right)? If you don’t mind making marks on your keyboard, write the frequencies in Hertz in black ink on the white keys, near the tops where fingers are less likely to rub the numbers off.
Ideally, there should be no change in signal amplitude (voltage) as different frequencies (notes on the keyboard) are tried. If you adjust the volume up and down, you should discover that changes in amplitude should have little or no impact on frequency measurement. Amplitude and frequency are two completely independent aspects of an AC signal.
Try connecting the keyboard output to a 10 kΩ load resistance (through the headphone plug), and measure AC current with your multimeter. If your multimeter has a frequency function, you can measure the frequency of this current as well. It should be the same as for the voltage for any given note (keyboard key). | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/04%3A_AC_Circuits/4.13%3A_Musical_Keyboard_as_a_Signal_Generator.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• IBM-compatible personal computer with sound card, running Windows 3.1 or better
• Winscope software, downloaded free from internet
• Electronic “keyboard” (musical)
• “Mono” (not stereo) headphone-type plug for keyboard
• “Mono” (not stereo) headphone-type plug for computer sound card microphone input
• 10 kΩ potentiometer
The Winscope program I’ve used was written by Dr. Constantin Zeldovich, for free personal and academic use. It plots waveforms on the computer screen in response to AC voltage signals interpreted by the sound card microphone input. A similar program, called Oscope, is made for the Linux operating system. If you don’t have access to either software, you may use the “sound recorder” utility that comes stock with most versions of Microsoft Windows to display crude waveshapes.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 2, chapter 7: “Mixed-Frequency AC Signals”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 2, chapter 12: “AC Metering Circuits”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Computer use
• Basic oscilloscope function
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
The oscilloscope is an indispensable test instrument for the electronics student and professional. No serious electronics lab should be without one (or two!). Unfortunately, commercial oscilloscopes tend to be expensive, and it is almost impossible to design and build your own without another oscilloscope to troubleshoot it! However, the sound card of a personal computer is capable of “digitizing” low-voltage AC signals from a range of a few hundred Hertz to several thousand Hertz with respectable resolution, and free software is available for displaying these signals in oscilloscope form on the computer screen. Since most people either have a personal computer or can obtain one for less cost than an oscilloscope, this becomes a viable alternative for the experimenter on a budget.
One word of caution: you can cause significant hardware damage to your computer if signals of excessive voltage are connected to the sound card’s microphone input! The AC voltages produced by a musical keyboard are too low to cause damage to your computer through the sound card, but other voltage sources might be hazardous to your computer’s health. Use this “oscilloscope” at your own risk!
Using the keyboard and plug arrangement described in the previous experiment, connect the keyboard output to the outer terminals of a 10 kΩ potentiometer. Solder two wires to the connection points on the sound card microphone input plug, so that you have a set of “test leads” for the “oscilloscope.” Connect these test leads to the potentiometer: between the middle terminal (the wiper) and either of the outer terminals.
Start the Winscope program and click on the “arrow” icon in the upper-left corner (it looks like the “play” arrow seen on tape player and CD player control buttons). If you press a key on the musical keyboard, you should see some kind of waveform displayed on the screen. Choose the “panflute” or some other flute-like voice on the musical keyboard for the best sine-wave shape. If the computer displays a waveform that looks kind of like a square wave, you need to adjust the potentiometer for a lower-amplitude signal. Almost any waveshape will be “clipped” to look like a square wave if it exceeds the amplitude limit of the sound card.
Test different instrument “voices” on the musical keyboard and note the different waveshapes. Note how complex some of the waveshapes are, compared to the panflute voice. Experiment with the different controls in the Winscope window, noting how they change the appearance of the waveform.
As a test instrument, this “oscilloscope” is quite poor. It has almost no capability to make precision measurements of voltage, although its frequency precision is surprisingly good. It is very limited in the range of voltage and frequency it can display, relegating it to the analysis of low- and mid-range audio tones. I have had very little success getting the “oscilloscope” to display good square waves, presumably because of its limited frequency response. Also, the coupling capacitor found in sound card microphone input circuits prevents it from measuring DC voltage: it is as though the “AC coupling” feature of a normal oscilloscope were stuck “on.”
Despite these shortcomings, it is useful as a demonstration tool, and for initial explorations into waveform analysis for the beginning student of electronics. For those who are interested, there are several professional-quality oscilloscope adapter devices manufactured for personal computers whose performance is far beyond that of a sound card, and they are typically sold at less cost than a complete stand-alone oscilloscope (around \$400, the year 2002). Radio Shack sells one made by Velleman, catalog # 910-3914. Having a computer serve as the display medium brings many advantages, not the least of which is the ability to easily store waveform pictures as digital files. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/04%3A_AC_Circuits/4.14%3A_PC_Oscilloscope.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• IBM-compatible personal computer with sound card, running Windows 3.1 or better
• Winscope software, downloaded free from internet
• Electronic “keyboard” (musical)
• “Mono” (not stereo) headphone-type plug for keyboard
• “Mono” (not stereo) headphone-type plug for computer sound card microphone input, with wires for connecting to voltage sources
• 10 kΩ potentiometer
Parts and equipment for this experiment are identical to those required for the “PC oscilloscope” experiment.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 2, chapter 7: “Mixed-Frequency AC Signals”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Understand the difference between time-domain and frequency-domain plots
• Develop a qualitative sense of Fourier analysis
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
The Winscope program comes with another feature other than the typical “time-domain” oscilloscope display: “frequency-domain” display, which plots amplitude (vertical) over frequency (horizontal). An oscilloscope’s “time-domain” display plots amplitude (vertical) over time (horizontal), which is fine for displaying waveshape. However, when it is desirable to see the harmonic constituency of a complex wave, a frequency-domain plot is the best tool.
If using Winscope, click on the “rainbow” icon to switch to frequency-domain mode. Generate a sine-wave signal using the musical keyboard (panflute or flute voice), and you should see a single “spike” on the display, corresponding to the amplitude of the single-frequency signal. Moving the mouse cursor beneath the peak should result in the frequency being displayed numerically at the bottom of the screen.
If two notes are activated on the musical keyboard, the plot should show two distinct peaks, each one corresponding to a particular note (frequency). Basic chords (three notes) produce three spikes on the frequency-domain plot, and so on. Contrast this with a normal oscilloscope (time-domain) plot by clicking once again on the “rainbow” icon. A musical chord displayed in time-domain format is a very complex waveform but is quite simple to resolve into constituent notes (frequencies) on a frequency-domain display.
Experiment with different instrument “voices” on the musical keyboard, correlating the time-domain plot with the frequency-domain plot. Waveforms that are symmetrical above and below their centerlines contain only odd-numbered harmonics (odd-integer multiples of the base, or fundamental frequency), while non symmetrical waveforms contain even-numbered harmonics as well. Use the cursor to locate the specific frequency of each peak on the plot, and a calculator to determine whether each peak is even- or odd-numbered.
4.16: Inductor-Capacitor “tank” Circuit
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Oscilloscope
• Assortment of non-polarized capacitors (0.1 µF to 10 µF)
• Step-down power transformer (120V / 6 V)
• 10 kΩ resistors
• Six-volt battery
The power transformer is used simply as an inductor, with only one winding connected. The unused winding should be left open. A simple iron core, single-winding inductor (sometimes known as a choke) may also be used, but such inductors are more difficult to obtain than power transformers.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 2, chapter 6: “Resonance”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• How to build a resonant circuit
• Effects of capacitor size on resonant frequency
• How to produce antiresonance
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
If an inductor and a capacitor are connected in parallel with each other, and then briefly energized by connection to a DC voltage source, oscillations will ensue as energy is exchanged from the capacitor to inductor and vice versa. These oscillations may be viewed with an oscilloscope connected in parallel with the inductor/capacitor circuit. Parallel inductor/capacitor circuits are commonly known as tank circuits.
Important note: I recommend against using a PC/sound card as an oscilloscope for this experiment because very high voltages can be generated by the inductor when the battery is disconnected (inductive “kickback”). These high voltages will surely damage the sound card’s input, and perhaps other portions of the computer as well.
A tank circuit’s natural frequency, called the resonant frequency, is determined by the size of the inductor and the size of the capacitor, according to the following equation:
Many small power transformers have primary (120 volts) winding inductance of approximately 1 H. Use this figure as a rough estimate of inductance for your circuit to calculate expected oscillation frequency.
Ideally, the oscillations produced by a tank circuit continue indefinitely. Realistically, oscillations will decay in amplitude over the course of several cycles due to the resistive and magnetic losses of the inductor. Inductors with a high “Q” rating will, of course, produce longer-lasting oscillations than low-Q inductors.
Try changing capacitor values and noting the effect on oscillation frequency. You might notice changes in the duration of oscillations as well, due to capacitor size. Since you know how to calculate resonant frequency from inductance and capacitance, can you figure out a way to calculate inductor inductance from known values of circuit capacitance (as measured by a capacitance meter) and resonant frequency (as measured by an oscilloscope)?
Resistance may be intentionally added to the circuit—either in series or parallel—for the express purpose of dampening oscillations. This effect of resistance dampening tank circuit oscillation is known as antiresonance. It is analogous to the action of a shock absorber in dampening the bouncing of a car after striking a bump in the road.
COMPUTER SIMULATION
Schematic with SPICE node numbers:
Rstray is placed in the circuit to dampen oscillations and produce a more realistic simulation. A lower Rstrayvalue causes longer-lived oscillations because less energy is dissipated. Eliminating this resistor from the circuit results in endless oscillation.
Netlist (make a text file containing the following text, verbatim): | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/04%3A_AC_Circuits/4.15%3A_Waveform_Analysis.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• 6 volt battery
• One capacitor, 0.22 µF (Radio Shack catalog # 272-1070 or equivalent)
• One capacitor, 0.047 µF (Radio Shack catalog # 272-134 or equivalent)
• Small “hobby” motor, permanent-magnet type (Radio Shack catalog # 273-223 or equivalent)
• Audio detector with headphones
• Length of telephone cable, several feet long (Radio Shack catalog # 278-872)
Telephone cable is also available from hardware stores. Any unshielded multiconductor cable will suffice for this experiment. Cables with thin conductors (telephone cable is typically 24-gauge) produce a more pronounced effect.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 2, chapter 7: “Mixed-Frequency AC Signals”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 2, chapter 8: “Filters”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• How to “couple” AC signals and block DC signals to a measuring instrument
• How stray coupling happens in cables
• Techniques to minimize inter-cable coupling
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
Connect the motor to the battery using two of the telephone cable’s four conductors. The motor should run, as expected. Now, connect the audio signal detector across the motor terminals, with the 0.047 µF capacitor in series, like this:
You should be able to hear a “buzz” or “whine” in the headphones, representing the AC “noise” voltage produced by the motor as the brushes make and break contact with the rotating commutator bars. The purpose of the series capacitor is to act as a high-pass filter so that the detector only receives the AC voltage across the motor’s terminals, not any DC voltage. This is precisely how oscilloscopes provide an “AC coupling” feature for measuring the AC content of a signal without any DC bias voltage: a capacitor is connected in series with one test probe.
Ideally, one would expect nothing but pure DC voltage at the motor’s terminals, because the motor is connected directly in parallel with the battery. Since the motor’s terminals are electrically common with the respective terminals of the battery, and the battery’s nature is to maintain a constant DC voltage, nothing but DC voltage should appear at the motor terminals, right? Well, because of resistance internal to the battery and along the conductor lengths, current pulses drawn by the motor produce oscillating voltage “dips” at the motor terminals, causing the AC “noise” heard by the detector:
Use the audio detector to measure “noise” voltage directly across the battery. Since the AC noise is produced in this circuit by pulsating voltage drops along stray resistances, the less resistance we measure across, the less noise voltage we should detect:
You may also measure noise voltage dropped along either of the telephone cable conductors supplying power to the motor, by connecting the audio detector between both ends of a single cable conductor. The noise detected here originates from current pulses through the resistance of the wire:
Now that we have established how AC noise is created and distributed in this circuit, let’s explore how it is coupled to adjacent wires in the cable. Use the audio detector to measure voltage between one of the motor terminals and one of the unused wires in the telephone cable. The 0.047 µF capacitor is not needed in this exercise, because there is no DC voltage between these points for the detector to detect anyway:
The noise voltage detected here is due to stray capacitance between adjacent cable conductors creating an AC current “path” between the wires. Remember that no current actually goes through a capacitance, but the alternate charging and discharging action of a capacitance, whether it be intentional or unintentional, provides alternating current a pathway of sorts.
If we were to try and conduct a voltage signal between one of the unused wires and a point common with the motor, that signal would become tainted with noise voltage from the motor. This could be quite detrimental, depending on how much noise was coupled between the two circuits and how sensitive one circuit was to the other’s noise. Since the primary coupling phenomenon in this circuit is capacitive in nature, higher-frequency noise voltages are more strongly coupled than lower-frequency noise voltages.
If the additional signal was a DC signal, with no AC expected in it, we could mitigate the problem of coupled noise by “decoupling” the AC noise with a relatively large capacitor connected across the DC signal’s conductors. Use the 0.22 µF capacitor for this purpose, as shown:
The decoupling capacitor acts as a practical short-circuit to any AC noise voltage, while not affecting DC voltage signals between those two points at all. So long as the decoupling capacitor value is significantly larger than the stray “coupling” capacitance between the cable’s conductors, the AC noise voltage will be held to a minimum.
Another way of minimizing coupled noise in a cable is to avoid having two circuits share a common conductor. To illustrate, connect the audio detector between the two unused wires and listen for a noise signal:
There should be far less noise detected between any two of the unused conductors than between one unused conductor and one used in the motor circuit. The reason for this drastic reduction in noise is that stray capacitance between cable conductors tends to couple the same noise voltage to both of the unused conductors in approximately equal proportions. Thus, when measuring voltage between those two conductors, the detector only “sees” the difference between two approximately identical noise signals. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/04%3A_AC_Circuits/4.17%3A_Signal_Coupling.txt |
A semiconductor device is one made of silicon or any number of other specially prepared materials designed to exploit the unique properties of electrons in a crystal lattice, where electrons are not as free to move as in a conductor but are far more mobile than in an insulator. A discrete device is one contained in its own package, not built on a common semiconductor substrate with other components, as is the case with ICs, or integrated circuits. Thus, “discrete semiconductor circuits” are circuits built out of individual semiconductor components, connected together on some kind of circuit board or terminal strip. These circuits employ all the components and concepts explored in the previous chapters, so a firm comprehension of DC and AC electricity is essential before embarking on these experiments.
Just for fun, one circuit is included in this section using a vacuum tube for amplification instead of a semiconductor transistor. Before the advent of transistors, “vacuum tubes” were the workhorses of the electronics industry: used to make rectifiers, amplifiers, oscillators, and many other circuits. Though now considered obsolete for most purposes, there are still some applications for vacuum tubes, and it can be fun building and operating circuits using these devices.
5.02: Commutating Diode
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• 6 volt battery
• Power transformer, 120VAC step-down to 12VAC (Radio Shack catalog # 273-1365, 273-1352, or 273-1511).
• One 1N4001 rectifying diode (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1101)
• One neon lamp (Radio Shack catalog # 272-1102)
• Two toggle switches, SPST (“Single-Pole, Single-Throw”)
A power transformer is specified, but any iron-core inductor will suffice, even the home-made inductor or transformer from the AC experiments chapter!
The diode need not be an exact model 1N4001. Any of the “1N400X” series of rectifying diodes are suitable for the task, and they are quite easy to obtain.
I recommend household light switches for their low cost and durability.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 16: “RC and L/R Time Constants”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 3: “Diodes and Rectifiers”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Review inductive “kickback”
• Learn how to suppress “kickback” using a diode
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
When assembling the circuit, be very careful of the diode’s orientation. The cathode end of the diode (the end marked with a single band) must face the positive (+) side of the battery. The diode should be reverse-biased and nonconducting with switch #1 in the “on” position. Use the high-voltage (120 V) winding of the transformer for the inductor coil. The primary winding of a step-down transformer has more inductance than the secondary winding and will give a greater lamp-flashing effect.
Set switch #2 to the “off” position. This disconnects the diode from the circuit so that it has no effect. Quickly close and open (turn “on” and then “off”) switch #1. When that switch is opened, the neon bulb will flash from the effect of inductive “kickback.” Rapid current decrease caused by the switch’s opening causes the inductor to create a large voltage drop as it attempts to keep current at the same magnitude and going in the same direction.
Inductive kickback is detrimental to switch contacts, as it causes excessive arcing whenever they are opened. In this circuit, the neon lamp actually diminishes the effect by providing an alternate current path for the inductor’s current when the switch opens, dissipating the inductor’s stored energy harmlessly in the form of light and heat. However, there is still a fairly high voltage dropped across the opening contacts of switch #1, causing undue arcing and shortened switch life.
If switch #2 is closed (turned “on”), the diode will now be a part of the circuit. Quickly close and open switch #1 again, noting the difference in circuit behavior. This time, the neon lamp does not flash. Connect a voltmeter across the inductor to verify that the inductor is still receiving full battery voltage with switch #1 closed. If the voltmeter registers only a small voltage with switch #1 “on,” the diode is probably connected backward, creating a short-circuit. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/05%3A_Discrete_Semiconductor_Circuits/5.01%3A_Introduction_to_Discrete_Semiconductor_Circuits.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Low-voltage AC power supply (6-volt output)
• 6-volt battery
• One 1N4001 rectifying diode (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1101)
• Small “hobby” motor, permanent-magnet type (Radio Shack catalog # 273-223 or equivalent)
• Audio detector with headphones
• 0.1 µF capacitor (Radio Shack catalog # 272-135 or equivalent)
The diode need not be an exact model 1N4001. Any of the “1N400X” series of rectifying diodes are suitable for the task, and they are quite easy to obtain.
See the AC experiments chapter for detailed instructions on building the “audio detector” listed here. If you haven’t built one already, you’re missing a simple and valuable tool for experimentation.
A 0.1 µF capacitor is specified for “coupling” the audio detector to the circuit so that only AC reaches the detector circuit. This capacitor’s value is not critical. I’ve used capacitors ranging from 0.27 µF to 0.015 µF with success. Lower capacitor values attenuate low-frequency signals to a greater degree, resulting in less sound intensity from the headphones, so use a greater-value capacitor value if you experience difficulty hearing the tone(s).
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 3: “Diodes and Rectifiers”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Function of a diode as a rectifier
• Permanent-magnet motor operation on AC versus DC power
• Measuring “ripple” voltage with a voltmeter
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
Connect the motor to the low-voltage AC power supply through the rectifying diode as shown. The diode only allows current to pass through during one half-cycle of a full positive-and-negative cycle of power supply voltage, eliminating one half-cycle from ever reaching the motor. As a result, the motor only “sees” current in one direction, albeit a pulsating current, allowing it to spin in one direction.
Take a jumper wire and short past the diode momentarily, noting the effect on the motor’s operation:
As you can see, permanent-magnet “DC” motors do not function well on alternating current. Remove the temporary jumper wire and reverse the diode’s orientation in the circuit. Note the effect on the motor.
Measure DC voltage across the motor like this:
Then, measure AC voltage across the motor as well:
Most digital multimeters do a good job of discriminating AC from DC voltage, and these two measurements show the DC average and AC “ripple” voltages, respectively of the power “seen” by the motor. Ripple voltage is the varying portion of the voltage, interpreted as an AC quantity by measurement equipment although the voltage waveform never actually reverses polarity. Ripple may be envisioned as an AC signal superimposed on a steady DC “bias” or “offset” signal. Compare these measurements of DC and AC with voltage measurements taken across the motor while powered by a battery:
Batteries give very “pure” DC power, and as a result, there should be very little AC voltage measured across the motor in this circuit. Whatever AC voltage is measured across the motor is due to the motor’s pulsating current draw as the brushes make and break contact with the rotating commutator bars. This pulsating current causes pulsating voltages to be dropped across any stray resistances in the circuit, resulting in pulsating voltage “dips” at the motor terminals.
A qualitative assessment of ripple voltage may be obtained by using the sensitive audio detector described in the AC experiments chapter (the same device described as a “sensitive voltage detector” in the DC experiments chapter). Turn the detector’s sensitivity down for low volume, and connect it across the motor terminals through a small (0.1 µF) capacitor, like this:
The capacitor acts as a high-pass filter, blocking DC voltage from reaching the detector and allowing easier “listening” of the remaining AC voltage. This is the exact same technique used in oscilloscope circuitry for “AC coupling,” where DC signals are blocked from viewing by a series-connected capacitor. With a battery powering the motor, the ripple should sound like a high-pitched “buzz” or “whine.” Try replacing the battery with the AC power supply and rectifying diode, “listening” with the detector to the low-pitched “buzz” of the half-wave rectified power:
COMPUTER SIMULATION
Schematic with SPICE node numbers:
Netlist (make a text file containing the following text, verbatim):
This simulation plots the input voltage as a sine wave and the output voltage as a series of “humps” corresponding to the positive half-cycles of the AC source voltage. The dynamics of a DC motor are far too complex to be simulated using SPICE, unfortunately.
AC source voltage is specified as 8.485 instead of 6 volts because SPICE understands AC voltage in terms of peak value only. A 6 volt RMS sine-wave voltage is actually 8.485 volts peak. In simulations where the distinction between RMS and peak value isn’t relevant, I will not bother with a RMS-to-peak conversion like this. To be truthful, the distinction is not terribly important in this simulation, but I discuss it here for your edification. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/05%3A_Discrete_Semiconductor_Circuits/5.03%3A_Half-wave_Rectifier.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Low-voltage AC power supply (6 volt output)
• Four 1N4001 rectifying diodes (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1101)
• Small “hobby” motor, permanent-magnet type (Radio Shack catalog # 273-223 or equivalent)
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 3: “Diodes and Rectifiers”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Design of a bridge rectifier circuit
• Advantages and disadvantages of the bridge rectifier circuit, compared to the center-tap circuit
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
This circuit provides full-wave rectification without the necessity of a center-tapped transformer. In applications where a center-tapped, or split-phase, source is unavailable, this is the only practical method of full-wave rectification.
In addition to requiring more diodes than the center-tap circuit, the full-wave bridge suffers a slight performance disadvantage as well: the additional voltage drop caused by current having to go through two diodes in each half-cycle rather than through only one. With a low-voltage source such as the one you’re using (6 volts RMS), this disadvantage is easily measured. Compare the DC voltage reading across the motor terminals with the reading obtained from the last experiment, given the same AC power supply and the same motor.
COMPUTER SIMULATION
Schematic with SPICE node numbers:
Netlist (make a text file containing the following text, verbatim):
5.05: Full-wave Center-tap Rectifier
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Low-voltage AC power supply (6-volt output)
• Two 1N4001 rectifying diodes (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1101)
• Small “hobby” motor, permanent-magnet type (Radio Shack catalog # 273-223 or equivalent)
• Audio detector with headphones
• 0.1 µF capacitor
• One toggle switch, SPST (“Single-Pole, Single-Throw”)
It is essential for this experiment that the low-voltage AC power supply is equipped with a center tap. A transformer with a non-tapped secondary winding simply will not work for this circuit.
The diodes need not be exact model 1N4001 units. Any of the “1N400X” series of rectifying diodes are suitable for the task, and they are quite easy to obtain.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 3: “Diodes and Rectifiers”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Design of a center-tap rectifier circuit
• Measuring “ripple” voltage with a voltmeter
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
This rectifier circuit is called full-wave because it makes use of the entire waveform, both positive and negative half-cycles, of the AC source voltage in powering the DC load. As a result, there is less “ripple” voltage seen at the load. The RMS (Root-Mean-Square) value of the rectifier’s output is also greater for this circuit than for the half-wave rectifier.
Use a voltmeter to measure both the DC and AC voltage delivered to the motor. You should notice the advantages of the full-wave rectifier immediately by the greater DC and lower AC indications as compared to the last experiment.
An experimental advantage of this circuit is the ease of which it may be “de-converted” to a half-wave rectifier: simply disconnect the short jumper wire connecting the two diodes’ cathode ends together on the terminal strip. Better yet, for a quick comparison between half and full-wave rectification, you may add a switch in the circuit to open and close this connection at will:
With the ability to quickly switch between half- and full-wave rectification, you may easily perform qualitative comparisons between the two different operating modes. Use the audio signal detector to “listen” to the ripple voltage present between the motor terminals for half-wave and full-wave rectification modes, noting both the intensity and the quality of the tone. Remember to use a coupling capacitor in series with the detector so that it only receives the AC “ripple” voltage and not DC voltage:
COMPUTER SIMULATION
Schematic with SPICE node numbers:
Netlist (make a text file containing the following text, verbatim): | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/05%3A_Discrete_Semiconductor_Circuits/5.04%3A_Full-wave_Bridge_Rectifier.txt |
This page was auto-generated because a user created a sub-page to this page.
5.06: Rectifier
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Low-voltage AC power supply
• Bridge rectifier pack (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1185 or equivalent)
• Electrolytic capacitor, 1000 µF, at least 25 WVDC (Radio Shack catalog # 272-1047 or equivalent)
• Four “banana” jack style binding posts, or other terminal hardware, for connection to potentiometer circuit (Radio Shack catalog # 274-662 or equivalent)
• Metal box
• 12-volt light bulb, 25 watt
• Lamp Socket
A bridge rectifier “pack” is highly recommended over constructing a bridge rectifier circuit from individual diodes, because such “packs” are made to bolt onto a metal heat sink. A metal box is recommended over a plastic box for its ability to function as a heat sink for the rectifier.
A larger capacitor value is fine to use in this experiment, so long as its working voltage is high enough. To be safe, choose a capacitor with a working voltage rating at least twice the RMS AC voltage output of the low-voltage AC power supply.
High-wattage 12-volt lamps may be purchased from a recreational vehicle (RV) and boating supply store. Common sizes are 25 watts and 50 watts. This lamp will be used as a “heavy” load for the power supply.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 2, chapter 8: “Filters”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Capacitive filter function in an AC/DC power supply
• Importance of heat sinks for power semiconductors
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
This experiment involves constructing a rectifier and filter circuit for attachment to the low-voltage AC power supply constructed earlier. With this device, you will have a source of low-voltage, DC power suitable as a replacement for a battery in battery-powered experiments. If you would like to make this device its own, self-contained 120VAC/DC power supply, you may add all the componentry of the low-voltage AC supply to the “AC in” side of this circuit: a transformer, power cord, and plug. Even if you don’t choose to do this, I recommend using a metal box larger than necessary to provide room for additional voltage regulation circuitry you might choose to add to this project later.
The bridge rectifier unit should be rated for a current at least as high as the transformer’s secondary winding is rated for, and for a voltage at least twice as high as the RMS voltage of the transformer’s output (this allows for peak voltage, plus an additional safety margin). The Radio Shack rectifier specified in the parts list is rated for 25 amps and 50 volts, more than enough for the output of the low-voltage AC power supply specified in the AC experiments chapter.
Rectifier units of this size are often equipped with “quick-disconnect” terminals. Complimentary “quick-disconnect” lugs are sold that crimp onto the bare ends of a wire. This is the preferred method of terminal connection. You may solder wires directly to the lugs of the rectifier, but I recommend against direct soldering to any semiconductor component for two reasons: possible heat damage during soldering, and difficulty of replacing the component in the event of failure.
Semiconductor devices are more prone to failure than most of the components covered in these experiments thus far, and so if you have any intention of making a circuit permanent, you should build it to be maintained. “Maintainable construction” involves, among other things, making all delicate components replaceable. It also means making “test points” accessible to meter probes throughout the circuit, so that troubleshooting may be executed with a minimum of inconvenience. Terminal strips inherently provide test points for taking voltage measurements, and they also allow for easy disconnection of wires without sacrificing connection durability.
Bolt the rectifier unit to the inside of the metal box. The box’s surface area will act as a radiator, keeping the rectifier unit cool as it passes high currents. Any metal radiator surface designed to lower the operating temperature of an electronic component is called a heat sink. Semiconductor devices, in general, are prone to damage from overheating, so providing a path for heat transfer from the device(s) to the ambient air is very important when the circuit in question may handle large amounts of power.
A capacitor is included in the circuit to act as a filter to reduce ripple voltage. Make sure that you connect the capacitor properly across the DC output terminals of the rectifier so that the polarities match. Being an electrolytic capacitor, it is sensitive to damage by polarity reversal. In this circuit especially, where the internal resistance of the transformer and rectifier are low and the short-circuit current consequently is high, the potential for damage is great. Warning: a failed capacitor in this circuit will likely explode with alarming force!
After the rectifier/filter circuit is built, connect it to the low-voltage AC power supply like this:
Measure the AC voltage output by the low-voltage power supply. Your meter should indicate approximately 6 volts if the circuit is connected as shown. This voltage measurement is the RMS voltage of the AC power supply.
Now, switch your multimeter to the DC voltage function and measure the DC voltage output by the rectifier/filter circuit. It should read substantially higher than the RMS voltage of the AC input measured before. The filtering action of the capacitor provides a DC output voltage equal to the peak AC voltage, hence the greater voltage indication:
Measure the AC ripple voltage magnitude with a digital voltmeter set to AC volts (or AC millivolts). You should notice a much smaller ripple voltage in this circuit than what was measured in any of the unfiltered rectifier circuits previously built. Feel free to use your audio detector to “listen” to the AC ripple voltage output by the rectifier/filter unit. As usual, connect a small “coupling” capacitor in series with the detector so that it does not respond to the DC voltage, but only the AC ripple. Very little sound should be heard.
After taking unloaded AC ripple voltage measurements, connect the 25 watt light bulb to the output of the rectifier/filter circuit like this:
Re-measure the ripple voltage present between the rectifier/filter unit’s “DC out” terminals. With a heavy load, the filter capacitor becomes discharged between rectified voltage peaks, resulting in greater ripple than before:
If less ripple is desired under heavy-load conditions, a larger capacitor may be used, or a more complex filter circuit may be built using two capacitors and an inductor:
If you choose to build such a filter circuit, be sure to use an iron-core inductor for maximum inductance, and one with thick enough wire to safely handle the full rated current of power supply. Inductors used for the purpose of filtering are sometimes referred to as chokes because they “choke” AC ripple voltage from getting to the load. If a suitable choke cannot be obtained, the secondary winding of a step-down power transformer like the type used to step 120 volts AC down to 12 or 6 volts AC in the low-voltage power supply may be used. Leave the primary (120 volts) winding open:
COMPUTER SIMULATION
Schematic with SPICE node numbers:
Netlist (make a text file containing the following text, verbatim):
You may decrease the value of Rload in the simulation from 10 kΩ to some lower value to explore the effects of loading on ripple voltage. As it is with a 10 kΩ load resistor, the ripple is undetectable on the waveform plotted by SPICE. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/05%3A_Discrete_Semiconductor_Circuits/5.06%3A_Rectifier/Filter_Circuit.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Four 6 volt batteries
• Zener diode, 12 volt—type 1N4742 (Radio Shack catalog # 276-563 or equivalent)
• One 10 kΩ resistor
Any low-voltage zener diode is appropriate for this experiment. The 1N4742 model listed here (zener voltage = 12 volts) is but one suggestion. Whatever diode model you choose, I highly recommend one with a zener voltage rating greater than the voltage of a single battery, for a maximum learning experience. It is important that you see how a zener diode functions when exposed to a voltage less than its breakdown rating.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 3: “Diodes and Rectifiers”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Zener diode function
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
Build this simple circuit, being sure to connect the diode in “reverse-bias” fashion (cathode positive and anode negative), and measure the voltage across the diode with one battery as a power source. Record this voltage drop for future reference. Also, measure and record the voltage drop across the 10 kΩ resistors.
Modify the circuit by connecting two 6-volt batteries in series, for 12 volts total power source voltage. Re-measure the diode’s voltage drop, as well as the resistor’s voltage drop, with a voltmeter:
Connect three, then four 6-volt batteries together in series, forming an 18 volt and 24-volt power source, respectively. Measure and record the diode’s and resistor’s voltage drops for each new power supply voltage. What do you notice about the diode’s voltage drop for these four different source voltages? Do you see how the diode voltage never exceeds a level of 12 volts? What do you notice about the resistor’s voltage drop for these four different source voltage levels?
Zener diodes are frequently used as voltage regulating devices because they act to clamp the voltage drop across themselves at a predetermined level. Whatever excess voltage is supplied by the power source becomes dropped across the series resistor. However, it is important to note that a zener diode cannot make up for a deficiency in source voltage. For instance, this 12-volt zener diode does not drop 12 volts when the power source is only 6 volts strong. It is helpful to think of a zener diode as a voltage limiter: establishing a maximum voltage drop, but not a minimum voltage drop.
COMPUTER SIMULATION
Schematic with SPICE node numbers:
Netlist (make a text file containing the following text, verbatim):
A zener diode may be simulated in SPICE with a normal diode, the reverse breakdown parameter (bv=12) set to the desired zener breakdown voltage.
5.08: Transistor as a Switch
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Two 6-volt batteries
• One NPN transistor—models 2N2222 or 2N3403 recommended (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1617 is a package of fifteen NPN transistors ideal for this and other experiments)
• One 100 kΩ resistor
• One 560 Ω resistor
• One light-emitting diode (Radio Shack catalog # 276-026 or equivalent)
Resistor values are not critical for this experiment. Neither is the particular light emitting diode (LED) selected.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 4: “Bipolar Junction Transistors”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Current amplification of a bipolar junction transistor
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
The red wire shown in the diagram (the one terminating in an arrowhead, connected to one end of the 100 kΩ resistor) is intended to remain loose, so that you may touch it momentarily to other points in the circuit.resistor) is intended to remain loose, so that you may touch it momentarily to other points in the circuit.
If you touch the end of the loose wire to any point in the circuit more positive than it, such as the positive side of the DC power source, the LED should light up. It takes 20 mA to fully illuminate a standard LED, so this behavior should strike you as interesting because the 100 kΩ resistor to which the loose wire is attached restricts current through it to a far lesser value than 20 mA. At most, a total voltage of 12 volts across a 100 kΩ resistance yields a current of only 0.12 mA, or 120 µA! The connection made by your touching the wire to a positive point in the circuit conducts far less current than 1 mA, yet through the amplifying action of the transistor, is able to control a much greater current through the LED.
Try using an ammeter to connect the loose wire to the positive side of the power source, like this:
You may have to select the most sensitive current range on the meter to measure this small flow. After measuring this controlling current, try measuring the LED’s current (the controlled current) and compare magnitudes. Don’t be surprised if you find a ratio in excess of 200 (the controlled current 200 times as great as the controlling current)!
As you can see, the transistor is acting as a kind of electrically-controlled switch, switching current on and off to the LED at the command of a much smaller current signal conducted through its base terminal.
To further illustrate just how minuscule the controlling current is, remove the loose wire from the circuit and try “bridging” the unconnected end of the 100 kΩ resistor to the power source’s positive pole with two fingers of one hand. You may need to wet the ends of those fingers to maximize conductivity:
Try varying the contact pressure of your fingers with these two points in the circuit to vary the amount of resistance in the controlling current’s path. Can you vary the brightness of the LED by doing so? What does this indicate about the transistor’s ability to act as more than just a switch; i.e. as a variable
COMPUTER SIMULATION
Schematic with SPICE node numbers:
Netlist (make a text file containing the following text, verbatim):
In this simulation, the voltage drop across the 560 Ω resistor v(1,3) turns out to be 10.26 volts, indicating a LED current of 18.32 mA by Ohm’s Law (I=E/R). R1‘s voltage drop (voltage between nodes 1 and 2) ends up being 11.15 volts, which across 100 kΩ gives a current of only 111.5 µA. Obviously, a very small current is exerting control over a much larger current in this circuit.
In case you were wondering, the is=1e-28 parameter in the diode’s .model line is there to make the diode act more like an LED with a higher forward voltage drop. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/05%3A_Discrete_Semiconductor_Circuits/5.07%3A_Voltage_Regulator.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• One N-channel junction field-effect transistor, models 2N3819 or J309 recommended (Radio Shack catalog # 276-2035 is the model 2N3819)
• One 6 volt battery
• One 100 kΩ resistor
• One light-emitting diode (Radio Shack catalog # 276-026 or equivalent)
• Plastic Comb
The particular junction field-effect transistor, or JFET, model used in this experiment is not critical. P-channel JFETs are also okay to use but are not as popular as N-channel transistors.
Beware that not all transistors share the same terminal designations, or pinouts, even if they share the same physical appearance. This will dictate how you connect the transistors together and to other components, so be sure to check the manufacturer’s specifications (component datasheet), easily obtained from the manufacturer’s website. Beware that it is possible for the transistor’s package and even the manufacturer’s datasheet to show incorrect terminal identification diagrams! Double-checking pin identities with your multimeter’s “diode check” function is highly recommended. For details on how to identify junction field-effect transistor terminals using a multimeter, consult chapter 5 of the Semiconductor volume (volume III) of this book series.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 5: “Junction Field-Effect Transistors”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• How the JFET is used as an on/off switch
• How JFET current gain differs from a bipolar transistor
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
This experiment is very similar to the previous experiment using a bipolar junction transistor (BJT) as a switching device to control current through an LED. In this experiment, a junction field-effect transistor is used instead, giving dramatically improved sensitivity.
Build this circuit and touch the loose wire end (the wire shown in red on the schematic diagram and in the illustration, connected to the 100 kΩ resistor) with your hand. Simply touching this wire will likely have an effect on the LED’s status. This circuit makes a fine sensor of static electricity! Try scuffing your feet on a carpet and then touching the wire end if no effect on the light is seen yet.
For a more controlled test, touch the wire with one hand and alternately touch the positive (+) and negative (-) terminals of the battery with one finger of your other hand. Your body acts as a conductor (albeit a poor one), connecting the gate terminal of the JFET to either terminal of the battery as you touch them. Make a note which terminal makes the LED turn on and which makes the LED turn off. Try to relate this behavior with what you’ve read about JFETs in chapter 5 of the Semiconductor volume.
The fact that a JFET is turned on and off so easily (requiring so little control current), as evidenced by full on-and-off control simply by conduction of a control current through your body, demonstrates how great of a current gain it has. With the BJT “switch” experiment, a much more “solid” connection between the transistor’s gate terminal and a source of voltage was needed to turn it on. Not so with the JFET. In fact, the mere presence of static electricity can turn it on and off at a distance.
To further experiment with the effects of static electricity on this circuit, brush your hair with the plastic comb and then wave the comb near the transistor, watching the effect on the LED. The action of combing your hair with a plastic object creates a high static voltage between the comb and your body. The strong electric field produced between these two objects should be detectable by this circuit from a significant distance!
In case you’re wondering why there is no 560 Ω “dropping” resistor to limit current through the LED, many small-signal JFETs tend to self-limit their controlled current to a level acceptable by LEDs. The model 2N3819, for example, has a typical saturated drain current (IDSS) of 10 mA and a maximum of 20 mA. Since most LEDs are rated at a forward current of 20 mA, there is no need for a dropping resistor to limit circuit current: the JFET does it intrinsically.
5.10: Pulsed-light Sensor
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Two 6-volt batteries
• One NPN transistor—models 2N2222 or 2N3403 recommended (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1617 is a package of fifteen NPN transistors ideal for this and other experiments)
• One light-emitting diode (Radio Shack catalog # 276-026 or equivalent)
• Audio detector with headphones
If you don’t have an audio detector already constructed, you can use a nice set of audio headphones (closed-cup style, that completely covers your ears) and a 120V/6V step-down transformer to build a sensitive audio detector without volume control or overvoltage protection, just for this experiment.
Connect these portions of the headphone stereo plug to the transformer’s secondary (6 volts) winding:
Try both the series and the parallel connection schemes for the loudest sound.
If you haven’t made an audio detector as outlined in both the DC and AC experiments chapters, you really should—it is a valuable piece of test equipment for your collection.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 4: “Bipolar Junction Transistors”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• How to use a transistor as a crude common-emitter amplifier
• How to use an LED as a light sensor
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
This circuit detects pulses of light striking the LED and converts them into relatively strong audio signals to be heard through the headphones. Forrest Mims teaches that LEDs have the ability to produce current when exposed to light, in a manner not unlike a semiconductor solar cell. [MIM] By itself, the LED does not produce enough electrical power to drive the audio detector circuit, so a transistor is used to amplify the LED’s signals. If the LED is exposed to a pulsing source of light, a tone will be heard in the headphones.
Sources of light suitable for this experiment include fluorescent and neon lamps, which blink rapidly with the 60 Hz AC power energizing them. You may also try using bright sunlight for a steady light source, then waving your fingers in front of the LED. The rapidly passing shadows will cause the LED to generate pulses of voltage, creating a brief “buzzing” sound in the headphones.
LEDs serving as photo-detectors are narrow-band devices, responding to a narrow band of wavelengths close, but not identical, to that normally emitted. Infrared remote controls are a good illumination source for near-infrared LEDs employed as photo-sensors, producing a receiver sound. [MIM3]
With a little imagination, it is not difficult to grasp the concept of transmitting audio information—such as music or speech—over a beam of pulsing light. Given a suitable “transmitter” circuit to pulse an LED on and off with the positive and negative crests of an audio waveform from a microphone, the “receiver” circuit shown here would convert those light pulses back into audio signals. [MIM2] | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/05%3A_Discrete_Semiconductor_Circuits/5.09%3A_Static_Electricity_Sensor.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• One NPN transistor—models 2N2222 or 2N3403 recommended (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1617 is a package of fifteen NPN transistors ideal for this and other experiments)
• Two 6-volt batteries
• Two 1 kΩ resistors
• One 10 kΩ potentiometer, single-turn, linear taper (Radio Shack catalog # 271-1715)
Beware that not all transistors share the same terminal designations, or pinouts, even if they share the same physical appearance. This will dictate how you connect the transistors together and to other components, so be sure to check the manufacturer’s specifications (component datasheet), easily obtained from the manufacturer’s website. Beware that it is possible for the transistor’s package and even the manufacturer’s datasheet to show incorrect terminal identification diagrams! Double-checking pin identities with your multimeter’s “diode check” function is highly recommended. For details on how to identify bipolar transistor terminals using a multimeter, consult chapter 4 of the Semiconductor volume (volume III) of this book series.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 4: “Bipolar Junction Transistors”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Purpose of circuit “ground” when there is no actual connection to earth ground
• Using a shunt resistor to measure current with a voltmeter
• Measure amplifier voltage gain
• Measure amplifier current gain
• Amplifier impedance transformation
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
Again, beware that the transistor you select for this experiment may not have the same terminal designations shown here, and so the breadboard layout shown in the illustration may not be correct for you. In my illustrations, I show all TO-92 package transistors with terminals labeled “CBE”: Collector, Base, and Emitter, from left to right. This is correct for the model 2N2222 transistor and some others, but not for all; not even for all NPN-type transistors! As usual, check with the manufacturer for details on the particular component(s) you choose for a project. With bipolar junction transistors, it is easy enough to verify terminal assignments with a multimeter.
The voltage follower is the safest and easiest transistor amplifier circuit to build. Its purpose is to provide approximately the same voltage to a load as what is input to the amplifier but at a much greater current. In other words, it has no voltage gain, but it does have current gain.
Note that the negative (-) side of the power supply is shown in the schematic diagram to be connected to ground, as indicated by the symbol in the lower-left corner of the diagram. This does not necessarily represent a connection to the actual earth. What it means is that this point in the circuit—and all points electrically common to it—constitute the default reference point for all voltage measurements in the circuit. Since voltage is by necessity a quantity relative between two points, a “common” point of reference designated in a circuit gives us the ability to speak meaningfully of voltage at particular, single points in that circuit.
For example, if I were to speak of voltage at the base of the transistor (VB), I would mean the voltage measured between the transistor’s base terminal and the negative side of the power supply (ground), with the red probe touching the base terminal and the black probe touching ground. Normally, it is nonsense to speak of voltage at a single point, but having an implicit reference point for voltage measurements makes such statements meaningful:
Build this circuit, and measure output voltage versus input voltage for several different potentiometer settings. Input voltage is the voltage at the potentiometer’s wiper (voltage between the wiper and circuit ground), while output voltage is the load resistor voltage (voltage across the load resistor, or emitter voltage: between the emitter and circuit ground). You should see a close correlation between these two voltages: one is just a little bit greater than the other (about 0.6 volts or so?), but a change in the input voltage gives almost equal change in the output voltage. Because the relationship between input change and output change is almost 1:1, we say that the AC voltage gain of this amplifier is nearly 1.
Not very impressive, is it? Now measure current through the base of the transistor (input current) versus current through the load resistor (output current). Before you break the circuit and insert your ammeter to take these measurements, consider an alternative method: measure voltage across the base and load resistors, whose resistance values are known. Using Ohm’s Law, current through each resistor may be easily calculated: divide the measured voltage by the known resistance (I=E/R). This calculation is particularly easy with resistors of 1 kΩ value: there will be 1 milliamp of current for every volt of drop across them. For best precision, you may measure the resistance of each resistor rather than assume an exact value of 1 kΩ, but it really doesn’t matter much for the purposes of this experiment. When resistors are used to take current measurements by “translating” a current into a corresponding voltage, they are often referred to as shunt resistors.
You should expect to find huge differences between input and output currents for this amplifier circuit. In fact, it is not uncommon to experience current gains well in excess of 200 for a small-signal transistor operating at low current levels. This is the primary purpose of a voltage follower circuit: to boost the current capacity of a “weak” signal without altering its voltage.
Another way of thinking of this circuit’s function is in terms of impedance. The input side of this amplifier accepts a voltage signal without drawing much current. The output side of this amplifier delivers the same voltage, but at a current limited only by load resistance and the current-handling ability of the transistor. Cast in terms of impedance, we could say that this amplifier has a high input impedance (voltage dropped with very little current drawn) and a low output impedance (voltage dropped with almost unlimited current-sourcing capacity).
COMPUTER SIMULATION
Schematic with SPICE node numbers:
Netlist (make a text file containing the following text, verbatim):
When this simulation is run through the SPICE program, it shows an input voltage of 5.937 volts and an output voltage of 5.095 volts, with an input current of 25.35 µA (2.535E-02 volts dropped across the 1 kΩ Rbase resistor). Output current is, of course, 5.095 mA, inferred from the output voltage of 5.095 volts dropped across a load resistance of exactly 1 kΩ. You may change the “potentiometer” setting in this circuit by adjusting the values of Rpot1 and Rpot2, always keeping their sum at 10 kΩ. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/05%3A_Discrete_Semiconductor_Circuits/5.11%3A_Voltage_Follower.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• One NPN transistor—model 2N2222 or 2N3403 recommended (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1617 is a package of fifteen NPN transistors ideal for this and other experiments)
• Two 6-volt batteries
• One 10 kΩ potentiometer, single-turn, linear taper (Radio Shack catalog # 271-1715)
• One 1 MΩ resistor
• One 100 kΩ resistor
• One 10 kΩ resistor
• One 1.5 kΩ resistor
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 4: “Bipolar Junction Transistors”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Design of a simple common-emitter amplifier circuit
• How to measure amplifier voltage gain
• The difference between an inverting and a noninverting amplifier
• Ways to introduce negative feedback in an amplifier circuit
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
Build this circuit and measure output voltage (voltage measured between the transistor’s collector terminal and ground) and input voltage (voltage measured between the potentiometer’s wiper terminal and ground) for several position settings of the potentiometer. I recommend determining the output voltage range as the potentiometer is adjusted through its entire range of motion, then choosing several voltages spanning that output range to take measurements at. For example, if full rotation on the potentiometer drives the amplifier circuit’s output voltage from 0.1 volts (low) to 11.7 volts (high), choose several voltage levels between those limits (1 volt, 3 volts, 5 volts, 7 volts, 9 volts, and 11 volts). Measuring the output voltage with a meter, adjust the potentiometer to obtain each of these predetermined voltages at the output, noting the exact figure for later reference. Then, measure the exact input voltage producing that output voltage, and record that voltage figure as well.
In the end, you should have a table of numbers representing several different output voltages along with their corresponding input voltages. Take any two pairs of voltage figures and calculate voltage gain by dividing the difference in output voltages by the difference in input voltages. For example, if an input voltage of 1.5 volts gives me an output voltage of 7.0 volts and an input voltage of 1.66 volts gives me an output voltage of 1.0 volt, the amplifier’s voltage gain is (7.0 - 1.0)/(1.66 - 1.5), or 6 divided by 0.16: a gain ratio of 37.50.
You should immediately notice two characteristics while taking these voltage measurements: first, that the input-to-output effect is “reversed;” that is, an increasing input voltage results in a decreasing output voltage. This effect is known as signal inversion, and this kind of amplifier as an inverting amplifier. Secondly, this amplifier exhibits a very strong voltage gain: a small change in input voltage results in a large change in output voltage. This should stand in stark contrast to the “voltage follower” amplifier circuit discussed earlier, which had a voltage gain of about 1.
Common-emitter amplifiers are widely used due to their high voltage gain, but they are rarely used in as crude a form as this. Although this amplifier circuit works to demonstrate the basic concept, it is very susceptible to changes in temperature. Try leaving the potentiometer in one position and heating the transistor by grasping it firmly with your hand or heating it with some other source of heat such as an electric hair dryer (WARNING: be careful not to get it so hot that your plastic breadboard melts!). You may also explore temperature effects by cooling the transistor: touch an ice cube to its surface and note the change in output voltage.
When the transistor’s temperature changes, its base-emitter diode characteristics change, resulting in different amounts of base current for the same input voltage. This, in turn, alters the controlled current through the collector terminal, thus affecting output voltage. Such changes may be minimized through the use of signal feedback, whereby a portion of the output voltage is “fed back” to the amplifier’s input so as to have a negative, or canceling, effect on voltage gain. Stability is improved at the expense of voltage gain, a compromise solution, but practical nonetheless.
Perhaps the simplest way to add negative feedback to a common-emitter amplifier is to add some resistance between the emitter terminal and ground so that the input voltage becomes divided between the base-emitter PN junction and the voltage drop across the new resistance:
Repeat the same voltage measurement and recording exercise with the 1.5 kΩ resistor installed, calculating the new (reduced) voltage gain. Try altering the transistor’s temperature again and noting the output voltage for a steady input voltage. Does it change more or less than without the 1.5 kΩ resistor?
Another method of introducing negative feedback to this amplifier circuit is to “couple” the output to the input through a high-value resistor. Connecting a 1 MΩ resistor between the transistor’s collector and base terminals works well:
Although this different method of feedback accomplishes the same goal of increased stability by diminishing gain, the two feedback circuits will not behave identically. Note the range of possible output voltages with each feedback scheme (the low and high voltage values obtained with a full sweep of the input voltage potentiometer), and how this differs between the two circuits.
COMPUTER SIMULATION
Schematic with SPICE node numbers:
Netlist (make a text file containing the following text, verbatim):
This SPICE simulation sets up a circuit with a variable DC voltage source (vin) as the input signal and measures the corresponding output voltage between nodes 2 and 0. The input voltage is varied, or “swept,” from 0 to 2 volts in 0.05-volt increments. Results are shown on a plot, with the input voltage appearing as a straight line and the output voltage as a “step” figure where the voltage begins and ends level, with a steep change in the middle where the transistor is in its active mode of operation. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/05%3A_Discrete_Semiconductor_Circuits/5.12%3A_Common-Emitter_Amplifier.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Three NPN transistors—model 2N2222 or 2N3403 recommended (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1617 is a package of fifteen NPN transistors ideal for this and other experiments)
• Two 6-volt batteries
• One 10 kΩ potentiometer, single-turn, linear taper (Radio Shack catalog # 271-1715)
• One 1 MΩ resistor
• Three 100 kΩ resistors
• Three 10 kΩ resistors
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 4: “Bipolar Junction Transistors”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Design of a multi-stage, direct-coupled common-emitter amplifier circuit
• Effect of negative feedback in an amplifier circuit
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
By connecting three common-emitter amplifier circuit together—the collector terminal of the previous transistor to the base (resistor) of the next transistor—the voltage gains of each stage compound to give a very high overall voltage gain. I recommend building this circuit without the 1 MΩ feedback resistor, to begin with, to see for yourself just how high the unrestricted voltage gain is. You may find it impossible to adjust the potentiometer for a stable output voltage (that isn’t saturated at full supply voltage or zero), the gain is so high.
Even if you can’t adjust the input voltage fine enough to stabilize the output voltage in the active range of the last transistor, you should be able to tell that the output-to-input relationship is inverting; that is, the output tends to drive to a high voltage when the input goes low, and vice versa. Since any one of the common-emitter “stages” is inverting in itself, an even number of staged common-emitter amplifiers gives noninverting response, while an odd number of stages gives inverting. You may experience these relationships by measuring the collector-to-ground voltage at each transistor while adjusting the input voltage potentiometer, noting whether or not the output voltage increases or decreases with an increase in input voltage.
Connect the 1 MΩ feedback resistor into the circuit, coupling the collector of the last transistor to the base of the first. Since the overall response of this three-stage amplifier is inverting, the feedback signal provided through the 1 MΩ resistor from the output of the last transistor to the input of the first should be negative in nature. As such, it will act to stabilize the amplifier’s response and minimize the voltage gain. You should notice the reduction in gain immediately by the decreased sensitivity of the output signal on input signal changes (changes in potentiometer position). Simply put, the amplifier isn’t nearly as “touchy” as it was without the feedback resistor in place.
As with the simple common-emitter amplifier discussed in an earlier experiment, it is a good idea here to make a table of input versus output voltage figures with which you may calculate voltage gain.
Experiment with different values of feedback resistance. What effect do you think a decrease in feedback resistance has on voltage gain? What about an increase in feedback resistance? Try it and find out!
An advantage of using negative feedback to “tame” a high-gain amplifier circuit is that the resulting voltage gain becomes more dependent upon the resistor values and less dependent upon the characteristics of the constituent transistors. This is good because it is far easier to manufacture consistent resistors than consistent transistors. Thus, it is easier to design an amplifier with predictable gain by building a staged network of transistors with an arbitrarily high voltage gain, then mitigate that gain precisely through negative feedback. It is this same principle that is used to make operational amplifier circuits behave so predictably.
This amplifier circuit is a bit simplified from what you will normally encounter in practical multi-stage circuits. Rarely is a pure common-emitter configuration (i.e. with no emitter-to-ground resistor) used, and if the amplifier’s service is for AC signals, the inter-stage coupling is often capacitive with voltage divider networks connected to each transistor base for proper biasing of each stage. Radio-frequency amplifier circuits are often transformer-coupled, with capacitors connected in parallel with the transformer windings for resonant tuning.
COMPUTER SIMULATION
Schematic with SPICE node numbers:
Netlist (make a text file containing the following text, verbatim):
This simulation plots output voltage against input voltage and allows comparison between those variables in numerical form: a list of voltage figures printed to the left of the plot. You may calculate voltage gain by taking any two analysis points and dividing the difference in output voltages by the difference in input voltages, just like you do for the real circuit.
Experiment with different feedback resistance values (rf) and see the impact on overall voltage gain. Do you notice a pattern? Here’s a hint: the overall voltage gain may be closely approximated by using the resistance figures of r1 and rf, without reference to any other circuit component! | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/05%3A_Discrete_Semiconductor_Circuits/5.13%3A_Multi-Stage_Amplifier.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Two NPN transistors—models 2N2222 or 2N3403 recommended (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1617 is a package of fifteen NPN transistors ideal for this and other experiments)
• Two 6-volt batteries
• One 10 kΩ potentiometer, single-turn, linear taper (Radio Shack catalog # 271-1715)
• Two 10 kΩ resistors
• Four 1.5 kΩ resistors
Small signal transistors are recommended so as to be able to experience “thermal runaway” in the latter portion of the experiment. Larger “power” transistors may not exhibit the same behavior at these low current levels. However, any pair of identical NPN transistors may be used to build a current mirror.
Beware that not all transistors share the same terminal designations, or pinouts, even if they share the same physical appearance. This will dictate how you connect the transistors together and to other components, so be sure to check the manufacturer’s specifications (component datasheet), easily obtained from the manufacturer’s website. Beware that it is possible for the transistor’s package and even the manufacturer’s datasheet to show incorrect terminal identification diagrams! Double-checking pin identities with your multimeter’s “diode check” function is highly recommended. For details on how to identify bipolar transistor terminals using a multimeter, consult chapter 4 of the Semiconductor volume (volume III) of this book series.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 4: “Bipolar Junction Transistors”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• How to build a current mirror circuit
• Current limitations of a current mirror circuit
• Temperature dependence of BJTs
• Experience a controlled “thermal runaway” situation
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
A current mirror may be thought of as an adjustable current regulator, the current limit being easily set by a single resistance. It is a rather crude current regulator circuit, but one that finds wide use due to its simplicity. In this experiment, you will get the opportunity to build one of these circuits, explore its current-regulating properties, and also experience some of its practical limitations firsthand.
Build the circuit as shown in the schematic and illustration. You will have one extra 1.5 kΩ fixed-value resistor from the parts specified in the parts list. You will be using it in the last part of this experiment.
The potentiometer sets the amount of current through transistor Q1. This transistor is connected to act as a simple diode: just a PN junction. Why use a transistor instead of a regular diode? Because it is important to match the junction characteristics of these two transistors when using them in a current mirror circuit. Voltage dropped across the base-emitter junction of Q1 is impressed across the base-emitter junction of the other transistor, Q2, causing it to turn “on” and likewise conduct current.
Since voltage across the two transistors’ base-emitter junctions is the same—the two junction pairs being connected in parallel with each other—so should the current be through their base terminals, assuming identical junction characteristics and identical junction temperatures. Matched transistors should have the same β ratios, as well, so equal base currents means equal collector currents. The practical result of all this is Q2‘s collector current mimicking whatever current magnitude has been established through the collector of Q1 by the potentiometer. In other words, current through Q2 mirrors the current through Q1.
Changes in load resistance (resistance connecting the collector of Q2 to the positive side of the battery) have no effect on Q1‘s current, and consequently, have no effect upon the base-emitter voltage or base current of Q2. With a constant base current and a nearly constant β ratio, Q2 will drop as much or as little collector-emitter voltage as necessary to hold its collector (load) current constant. Thus, the current mirror circuit acts to regulate current at a value set by the potentiometer, without regard to load resistance.
Well, that is how it is supposed to work, anyway. Reality isn’t quite so simple, as you are about to see. In the circuit diagram shown, the load circuit of Q2 is completed to the positive side of the battery through an ammeter, for easy current measurement. Rather than solidly connect the ammeter’s black probe to a definite point in the circuit, I’ve marked five test points, TP1 through TP5, for you to touch the black test probe to while measuring current. This allows you to quickly and effortlessly change load resistance: touching the probe to TP1 results in practically no load resistance, while touching it to TP5 results in approximately 14.5 kΩ of load resistance.
To begin the experiment, touch the test probe to TP4 and adjust the potentiometer through its range of travel. You should see a small, changing current indicated by your ammeter as you move the potentiometer mechanism: no more than a few milliamps. Leave the potentiometer set to a position giving a round number of milliamps and move the meter’s black test probe to TP3. The current indication should be very nearly the same as before. Move the probe to TP2, then TP1. Again, you should see a nearly unchanged amount of current. Try adjusting the potentiometer to another position, giving a different current indication, and touch the meter’s black probe to test points TP1 through TP4, noting the stability of the current indications as you change load resistance. This demonstrates the current regulating behavior of this circuit.
You should note that the current regulation isn’t perfect. Despite regulating the current at nearly the value for load resistances between 0 and 4.5 kΩ, there is some variation over this range. The regulation may be much worse if load resistance is allowed to rise too high. Try adjusting the potentiometer so that maximum current is obtained, as indicated with the ammeter test probe connected to TP1. Leaving the potentiometer at that position, move the meter probe to TP2, then TP3, then TP4, and finally TP5, noting the meter’s indication at each connection point. The current should be regulated at a nearly constant value until the meter probe is moved to the last test point, TP5. There, the current indication will be substantially lower than at the other test points. Why is this? Because too much load resistance has been inserted into Q2‘s circuit. Simply put, Q2 cannot “turn on” any more than it already has, to maintain the same amount of current with this great a load resistance as with lesser load resistances.
This phenomenon is common to all current-regulator circuits: there is a limited amount of resistance a current regulator can handle before it saturates. This stands to reason, as any current regulator circuit capable of supplying a constant amount of current through any load resistance imaginable would require an unlimited source of voltage to do it! Ohm’s Law (E=IR) dictates the amount of voltage needed to push a given amount of current through a given amount of resistance, and with only 12 volts of power supply voltage at our disposal, a finite limit of load current and load resistance definitely exists for this circuit. For this reason, it may be helpful to think of current regulator circuits as being current limiter circuits, for all they can really do is limit current to some maximum value.
An important caveat for current mirror circuits, in general, is that of equal temperature between the two transistors. The current “mirroring” taking place between the two transistors’ collector circuits depends on the base-emitter junctions of those two transistors having the exact same properties. As the “diode equation” describes, the voltage/current relationship for a PN junction strongly depends on junction temperature. The hotter a PN junction is, the more current it will pass for a given amount of voltage drop. If one transistor should become hotter than the other, it will pass more collector current than the other, and the circuit will no longer “mirror” current as expected. When building a real current mirror circuit using discrete transistors, the two transistors should be epoxy-glued together (back-to-back) so that they remain at approximately the same temperature.
To illustrate this dependence on equal temperature, try grasping one transistor between your fingers to heat it up. What happens to the current through the load resistors as the transistor’s temperature increases? Now, let go of the transistor and blow on it to cool it down to ambient temperature. Grasp the other transistor between your fingers to heat it up. What does the load current do now?
In this next phase of the experiment, we will intentionally allow one of the transistors to overheat and note the effects. To avoid damaging a transistor, this procedure should be conducted no longer than is necessary to observe load current begin to “run away.” To begin, adjust the potentiometer for minimum current. Next, replace the 10 kΩ Rlimit resistor with a 1.5 kΩ resistor. This will allow a higher current to pass through Q1, and consequently through Q2 as well.
Place the ammeter’s black probe on TP1 and observe the current indication. Move the potentiometer in the direction of increasing current until you read about 10 mA through the ammeter. At that point, stop moving the potentiometer and just observe the current. You will notice current begin to increase all on its own, without further potentiometer motion! Break the circuit by removing the meter probe from TP1 when the current exceeds 30 mA, to avoid damaging transistor Q2.
If you carefully touch both transistors with a finger, you should notice Q2 is warm, while Q1 is cool. Warning:if Q2‘s current has been allowed to “run away” too far or for too long a time, it may become very hot! You can receive a bad burn on your fingertip by touching an overheated semiconductor component, so be careful here!
What just happened to make Q2 overheat and lose current control? By connecting the ammeter to TP1, all load resistance was removed, so Q2 had to drop full battery voltage between collector and emitter as it regulated current. Transistor Q1 at least had the 1.5 kΩ resistance of Rlimit in place to drop most of the battery voltage, so its power dissipation was far less than that of Q2. This gross imbalance of power dissipation caused Q2 to heat more than Q1. As the temperature increased, Q2 began to pass more current for the same amount of base-emitter voltage drop. This caused it to heat up even faster, as it was passing more collector current while still dropping the full 12 volts between collector and emitter. The effect is known as thermal runaway, and it is possible in many bipolar junction transistor circuits, not just current mirrors.
COMPUTER SIMULATION
Schematic with SPICE node numbers:
Netlist (make a text file containing the following text, verbatim):
Vammeter is nothing more than a zero-volt DC battery strategically placed to intercept load current. This is nothing more than a trick to measure current in a SPICE simulation, as no dedicated “ammeter” component exists in the SPICE language.
It is important to remember that SPICE only recognizes the first eight characters of a component’s name. The name “vammeter” is okay, but if we were to incorporate more than one current-measuring voltage source in the circuit and name them “vammeter1” and “vammeter2”, respectively, SPICE would see them as being two instances of the same component “vammeter” (seeing only the first eight characters) and halt with an error. Something to bear in mind when altering the netlist or programming your own SPICE simulation!
You will have to experiment with different resistance values of Rload in this simulation to appreciate the current-regulating nature of the circuit. With Rlimit set to 10 kΩ and a power supply voltage of 12 volts, the regulated current through Rload will be 1.1 mA. SPICE shows the regulation to be perfect (isn’t the virtual world of computer simulation so nice?), the load current remaining at 1.1 mA for a wide range of load resistances. However, if the load resistance is increased beyond 10 kΩ, even this simulation shows the load current suffering a decrease as in real life. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/05%3A_Discrete_Semiconductor_Circuits/5.14%3A_How_to_Build_a_Current_Mirror_Circuit.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• One N-channel junction field-effect transistor, models 2N3819 or J309 recommended (Radio Shack catalog # 276-2035 is the model 2N3819)
• Two 6-volt batteries
• One 10 kΩ potentiometer, single-turn, linear taper (Radio Shack catalog # 271-1715)
• One 1 kΩ resistor
• One 10 kΩ resistor
• Three 1.5 kΩ resistors
For this experiment you will need an N-channel JFET, not a P-channel!experiment you will need an N-channel JFET, not a P-channel!
Beware that not all transistors share the same terminal designations, or pinouts, even if they share the same physical appearance. This will dictate how you connect the transistors together and to other components, so be sure to check the manufacturer’s specifications (component datasheet), easily obtained from the manufacturer’s website. Beware that it is possible for the transistor’s package and even the manufacturer’s datasheet to show incorrect terminal identification diagrams! Double-checking pin identities with your multimeter’s “diode check” function is highly recommended. For details on how to identify junction field-effect transistor terminals using a multimeter, consult chapter 5 of the Semiconductor volume (volume III) of this book series.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 5: “Junction Field-Effect Transistors”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 3: “Diodes and Rectifiers”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• How to use a JFET as a current regulator
• How the JFET is relatively immune to changes in temperature
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
Previously in this chapter, you saw how a pair of bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) could be used to form a current mirror, whereby one transistor would try to maintain the same current through it as though the other, the other’s current level is established by a variable resistance. This circuit performs the same task of regulating current but uses a single junction field-effect transistor (JFET) instead of two BJTs.
The two series resistors Radjust and Rlimit set the current regulation point, while the load resistors and the test points between them serve only to demonstrate constant current despite changes in load resistance.
To begin the experiment, touch the test probe to TP4 and adjust the potentiometer through its range of travel. You should see a small, changing current indicated by your ammeter as you move the potentiometer mechanism: no more than a few milliamps. Leave the potentiometer set to a position giving a round number of milliamps and move the meter’s black test probe to TP3. The current indication should be very nearly the same as before. Move the probe to TP2, then TP1. Again, you should see a nearly unchanged amount of current. Try adjusting the potentiometer to another position, giving a different current indication, and touch the meter’s black probe to test points TP1 through TP4, noting the stability of the current indications as you change load resistance. This demonstrates the current regulating behavior of this circuit.
TP5, at the end of a 10 kΩ resistor, is provided for introducing a large change in load resistance. Connecting the black test probe of your ammeter to that test point gives a combined load resistance of 14.5 kΩ, which will be too much resistance for the transistor to maintain the maximum regulated current through. To experience what I’m describing here, touch the black test probe to TP1 and adjust the potentiometer for maximum current. Now, move the black test probe to TP2, then TP3, then TP4. For all these test point positions, the current will remain approximately constant. However, when you touch the black probe to TP5, the current will fall dramatically. Why? Because at this level of load resistance, there is an insufficient voltage drop across the transistor to maintain regulation. In other words, the transistor will be saturated as it attempts to provide more current than the circuit resistance will allow.
Move the black test probe back to TP1 and adjust the potentiometer for minimum current. Now, touch the black test probe to TP2, then TP3, then TP4, and finally TP5. What do you notice about the current indication at all these points? When the current regulation point is adjusted to a lesser value, the transistor is able to maintain regulation over a much larger range of load resistance.
An important caveat with the BJT current mirror circuit is that both transistors must be at equal temperature for the two currents to be equal. With this circuit, however, transistor temperature is almost irrelevant. Try grasping the transistor between your fingers to heat it up, noting the load current with your ammeter. Try cooling it down afterward by blowing on it. Not only is the requirement of transistor matching eliminated (due to the use of just one transistor), but the thermal effects are all but eliminated as well due to the relative thermal immunity of the field-effect transistor. This behavior also makes field-effect transistors immune to thermal runaway; a decided advantage over bipolar junction transistors.
An interesting application of this current-regulator circuit is the so-called constant-current diode. Described in the “Diodes and Rectifiers” chapter of volume III, this diode isn’t really a PN junction device at all. Instead, it is a JFET with a fixed resistance connected between the gate and source terminals:
A normal PN-junction diode is included in series with the JFET to protect the transistor against damage from reverse-bias voltage, but otherwise the current-regulating facility of this device is entirely provided by the field-effect transistor.
COMPUTER SIMULATION
Schematic with SPICE node numbers:
Netlist (make a text file containing the following text, verbatim):
SPICE does not allow for “sweeping” resistance values, so to demonstrate the current regulation of this circuit over a wide range of conditions, I’ve elected to sweep the source voltage from 6 to 12 volts in 0.1-volt steps. If you wish, you can set rload to different resistance values and verify that the circuit current remains constant. With an rlimit value of 1 kΩ, the regulated current will be 291.8 µA. This current figure will most likely not be the same as your actual circuit current, due to differences in JFET parameters.
Many manufacturers give SPICE model parameters for their transistors, which may be typed in the .modelline of the netlist for a more accurate circuit simulation. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/05%3A_Discrete_Semiconductor_Circuits/5.15%3A_JFET_Current_Regulator.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Two 6-volt batteries
• Two NPN transistors—models 2N2222 or 2N3403 recommended (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1617 is a package of fifteen NPN transistors ideal for this and other experiments)
• Two 10 kΩ potentiometers, single-turn, linear taper (Radio Shack catalog # 271-1715)
• Two 22 kΩ resistors
• Two 10 kΩ resistors
• One 100 kΩ resistor
• One 1.5 kΩ resistor
Resistor values are not especially critical in this experiment, but have been chosen to provide high voltage gain for a “comparator-like” differential amplifier behavior.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 4: “Bipolar Junction Transistors”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 8: “Operational Amplifiers”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Basic design of a differential amplifier circuit.
• Working definitions of differential and common-mode voltages
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
This circuit forms the heart of most operational amplifier circuits: the differential pair. In the form shown here, it is a rather crude differential amplifier, quite nonlinear and unsymmetrical with regard to output voltage versus input voltage(s). With a high voltage gain created by a large collector/emitter resistor ratio (100 kΩ/1.5 kΩ), though, it acts primarily as a comparator: the output voltage rapidly changing value as the two input voltage signals approach equality.
Measure the output voltage (voltage at the collector of Q2 with respect to ground) as the input voltages are varied. Note how the two potentiometers have different effects on the output voltage: one input tends to drive the output voltage in the same direction (noninverting), while the other tends to drive the output voltage in the opposite direction (inverting). This is the essential nature of a differential amplifier: two complementary inputs, with contrary effects on the output signal. Ideally, the output voltage of such an amplifier is strictly a function of the difference between the two input signals. This circuit falls considerably short of the ideal, as even a cursory test will reveal.
An ideal differential amplifier ignores all common-mode voltage, which is whatever level of voltage common to both inputs. For example, if the inverting input is at 3 volts and the noninverting input at 2.5 volts, the differential voltage will be 0.5 volts (3 - 2.5) but the common-mode voltage will be 2.5 volts since that is the lowest input signal level. Ideally, this condition should produce the same output signal voltage as if the inputs were set at 3.5 and 3 volts, respectively (0.5 volts differential, with a 3-volt common-mode voltage). However, this circuit does not give the same result for the two different input signal scenarios. In other words, its output voltage depends on both the differential voltage and the common-mode voltage.
As imperfect as this differential amplifier is, its behavior could be worse. Note how the input signal potentiometers have been limited by 22 kΩ resistors to an adjustable range of approximately 0 to 4 volts, given a power supply voltage of 12 volts. If you’d like to see how this circuit behaves without any input signal limiting, just bypass the 22 kΩ resistors with jumper wires, allowing full 0 to 12-volt adjustment range from each potentiometer.
Do not worry about building up excessive heat while adjusting potentiometers in this circuit! Unlike the current mirror circuit, this circuit is protected from thermal runaway by the emitter resistor (1.5 kΩ), which doesn’t allow enough transistor current to cause any problem | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/05%3A_Discrete_Semiconductor_Circuits/5.16%3A_Differential_Amplifier.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Two 6-volt batteries
• Four NPN transistors—models 2N2222 or 2N3403 recommended (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1617 is a package of fifteen NPN transistors ideal for this and other experiments)
• Two PNP transistors—models 2N2907 or 2N3906 recommended (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1604 is a package of fifteen PNP transistors ideal for this and other experiments)
• Two 10 kΩ potentiometers, single-turn, linear taper (Radio Shack catalog # 271-1715)
• One 270 kΩ resistor
• Three 100 kΩ resistors
• One 10 kΩ resistor
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 4: “Bipolar Junction Transistors”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 8: “Operational Amplifiers”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Design of a differential amplifier circuit using current mirrors.
• Effects of negative feedback on a high-gain differential amplifier.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
This circuit design improves on the differential amplifier shown previously. Rather than use resistors to drop voltage in the differential pair circuit, a set of current mirrors is used instead, the result being higher voltage gain and more predictable performance. With a higher voltage gain, this circuit is able to function as a working operational amplifier or op-amp. Op-amps form the basis of a great many modern analog semiconductor circuits, so understanding the internal workings of an operational amplifier is important.
PNP transistors Q1 and Q2 form a current mirror which tries to keep current split equally through the two differential pair transistors Q3 and Q4. NPN transistors Q5 and Q6 form another current mirror, setting the total differential pair current at a level predetermined by resistor Rprg.
Measure the output voltage (voltage at the collector of Q4 with respect to ground) as the input voltages are varied. Note how the two potentiometers have different effects on the output voltage: one input tends to drive the output voltage in the same direction (noninverting), while the other tends to drive the output voltage in the opposite direction (inverting). You will notice that the output voltage is most responsive to changes in the input when the two input signals are nearly equal to each other.
Once the circuit’s differential response has been proven (the output voltage sharply transitioning from one extreme level to another when one input is adjusted above and below the other input’s voltage level), you are ready to use this circuit as a real op-amp. A simple op-amp circuit called a voltage follower is a good configuration to try first. To make a voltage follower circuit, directly connect the output of the amplifier to its inverting input. This means connecting the collector and base terminals of Q4 together, and discarding the “inverting” potentiometer:
Note the triangular symbol of the op-amp shown in the lower schematic diagram. The inverting and noninverting inputs are designated with (-) and (+) symbols, respectively, with the output terminal at the right apex. The feedback wire connecting output to inverting input is shown in red in the above diagrams.
As a voltage follower, the output voltage should “follow” the input voltage very closely, deviating no more than a few hundredths of a volt. This is a much more precise follower circuit than that of a single common-collector transistor, described in an earlier experiment!
A more complex op-amp circuit is called the noninverting amplifier, and it uses a pair of resistors in the feedback loop to “feedback” a fraction of the output voltage to the inverting input, causing the amplifier to output a voltage equal to some multiple of the voltage at the noninverting input. If we use two equal-value resistors, the feedback voltage will be 1/2 the output voltage, causing the output voltage to become twice the voltage impressed at the noninverting input. Thus, we have a voltage amplifier with a precise gain of 2:
As you test this noninverting amplifier circuit, you may notice slight discrepancies between the output and input voltages. According to the feedback resistor values, the voltage gain should be exactly 2. However, you may notice deviations in the order of several hundredths of a volt between what the output voltage is and what it should be. These deviations are due to imperfections of the differential amplifier circuit and may be greatly diminished if we add more amplification stages to increase the differential voltage gain. However, one way we can maximize the precision of the existing circuit is to change the resistance of Rprg. This resistor sets the lower current mirror’s control point, and in so doing influences many performance parameters of the op-amp. Try substituting difference resistance values, ranging from 10 kΩ to 1 MΩ. Do not use a resistance less than 10 kΩ, or else the current mirror transistors may begin to overheat and thermally “run away.”
Some operational amplifiers available in prepackaged units provide a way for the user to similarly “program” the differential pair’s current mirror and are called programmable op-amps. Most op-amps are not programmable and have their internal current mirror control points fixed by an internal resistance, trimmed to precise value at the factory. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/05%3A_Discrete_Semiconductor_Circuits/5.17%3A_Simple_Op-Amp.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Two 6-volt batteries
• Three NPN transistors—models 2N2222 or 2N3403 recommended (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1617 is a package of fifteen NPN transistors ideal for this and other experiments)
• Two 0.1 µF capacitors (Radio Shack catalog # 272-135 or equivalent)
• One 1 MΩ resistor
• Two 100 kΩ resistors
• One 1 kΩ resistor
• Assortment of resistor pairs, less than 100 kΩ (ex: two 10 kΩ, two 5 kΩ, two 1 kΩ)
• One light-emitting diode (Radio Shack catalog # 276-026 or equivalent)
• Audio detector with headphones
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 4: “Bipolar Junction Transistors”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 4, chapter 10: “Multivibrators”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• How to build an astable multivibrator circuit using discrete transistors
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
The proper name for this circuit is “astable multivibrator”. It is a simple, free-running oscillator circuit timed by the sizes of the resistors, capacitors, and power supply voltage. Unfortunately, its output waveform is very distorted, neither sine wave nor square. For the simple purpose of making an audio tone, however, distortion doesn’t matter much.
With a 12 volt supply, 100 kΩ resistors, and 0.1 µF capacitors, the oscillation frequency will be in the low audio range. You may listen to this signal with the audio detector connected with one test probe to ground and the other to one of the transistor’s collector terminals. I recommend placing a 1 MΩ resistor in series with the audio detector to minimize both circuit loading effects and headphone loudness:
The multivibrator itself is just two transistors, two resistors, and two cross-connecting capacitors. The third transistor shown in the schematic and illustration is there for driving the LED, to be used as a visual indicator of oscillator action. Use the probe wire connected to the base of this common-emitter amplifier to detect voltage at different parts of the circuit with respect to ground. Given the low oscillating frequency of this multivibrator circuit, you should be able to see the LED blink rapidly with the probe wire connected to the collector terminal of either multivibrator transistor.
You may notice that the LED fails to blink with its probe wire touching the base of either multivibrator transistor, yet the audio detector tells you there is an oscillating voltage there. Why is this? The LED’s common-collector transistor amplifier is a voltage follower, meaning that it doesn’t amplify voltage. Thus, if the voltage under test is less than the minimum required by the LED to light up, it will not glow. Since the forward-biased base-emitter junction of an active transistor drops only about 0.7 volts, there is insufficient voltage at either transistor base to energize the LED. The audio detector, being extraordinarily sensitive, though, detects this low voltage signal easily.
Feel free to substitute lower-value resistors in place of the two 100 kΩ units shown. What happens to the oscillation frequency when you do so? I recommend using resistors at least 1 kΩ in size to prevent excessive transistor current.
One shortcoming of many oscillator circuits is its dependence on a minimum amount of power supply voltage. Too little voltage and the circuit ceases to oscillate. This circuit is no exception. You might want to experiment with lower supply voltages and determine the minimum voltage necessary for oscillation, as well as experience the effect supply voltage change has on oscillation frequency.
One shortcoming specific to this circuit is the dependence on mismatched components for successful starting. In order for the circuit to begin oscillating, one transistor must turn on before the other one. Usually, there is enough mismatch in the various component values to enable this to happen, but it is possible for the circuit to “freeze” and fail to oscillate at power-up. If this happens, try different components (same values, but different units) in the circuit. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/05%3A_Discrete_Semiconductor_Circuits/5.18%3A_Audio_Oscillator.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• One 12AX7 dual triode vacuum tube
• Two power transformers, 120VAC step-down to 12VAC (Radio Shack catalog # 273-1365, 273-1352, or 273-1511).
• Bridge rectifier module (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1173)
• Electrolytic capacitor, at least 47 µF, with a working voltage of at least 200 volts DC.
• Automotive ignition coil
• Audio speaker, 8 Ω impedance
• Two 100 kΩ resistors
• One 0.1 µF capacitor, 250 WVDC (Radio Shack catalog # 272-1053)
• “Low-voltage AC power supply” as shown in AC Experiments chapter
• One toggle switch, SPST (“Single-Pole, Single-Throw”)
• Radio, tape player, musical keyboard, or other sources of audio voltage signal
Where can you obtain a 12AX7 tube, you ask? These tubes are very popular for use in the “preamplifier” stages of many professional electric guitar amplifiers. Go to any good music store and you will find them available for a modest price (\$12 US or less). A Russian manufacturer named Sovtek makes these tubes new, so you need not rely on “New-Old-Stock” (NOS) components left over from defunct American manufacturers. This model of tube was very popular in its day and may be found in old “tubed” electronic test equipment (oscilloscopes, oscillators) if you happen to have access to such equipment. However, I strongly suggest buying a tube new rather than taking chances with tubes salvaged from antique equipment.
It is important to select an electrolytic capacitor with sufficient working voltage (WVDC) to withstand the output of this amplifier’s power supply circuit (about 170 volts). I strongly recommend choosing a capacitor with a voltage rating well in excess of the expected operating voltage, so as to handle unexpected voltage surges or any other event that may tax the capacitor. I purchased the Radio Shack electrolytic capacitor assortment (catalog # 272-802), and it happened to contain two 47 µF, 250 WVDC capacitors. If you are not as fortunate, you may build this circuit using five capacitors, each rated at 50 WVDC, to substitute for one 250 WVDC unit:
Bear in mind that the total capacitance for this five-capacitor network will be 1/5, or 20%, of each capacitor’s value. Also, to ensure even charging of capacitors in the network, be sure all capacitor values (in µF) and all resistor values are identical.
An automotive ignition coil is a special-purpose high-voltage transformer used in car engines to produce tens of thousands of volts to “fire” the spark plugs. In this experiment, it is used (very unconventionally, I might add!) as an impedance-matching transformer between the vacuum tube and an 8 Ω audio speaker. The specific choice of “coil” is not critical, so long as it is in good operating condition. Here is a photograph of the coil I used for this experiment:
The audio speaker need not be extravagant. I’ve used small “bookshelf” speakers, automotive (6"x9”) speakers, as well as a large (100 watt) 3-way stereo speaker for this experiment, and they all work fine. Do not use a set of headphones under any circumstances, as the ignition coil does not provide electrical isolation between the 170 volts DC of the “plate” power supply and the speaker, thus elevating the speaker connections to that voltage with respect to ground. Since obviously placing wires on your head with high voltage to ground would be very hazardous, please do not use headphones!
You will need some source of audio-frequency AC as an input signal to this amplifier circuit. I recommend a small battery-powered radio or musical keyboard, with an appropriate cable plugged into the “headphone” or “audio out” jack to convey the signal to your amplifier.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 13: “Electron Tubes”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 3: “Diodes and Rectifiers”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 2, chapter 9: “Transformers”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Using a vacuum tube (triode) as an audio amplifier
• Using transformers in both step-down and step-up operation
• How to build a high-voltage DC power supply
• Using a transformer to match impedances
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
Welcome to the world of vacuum tube electronics! While not exactly an application of semiconductor technology (power supply rectifier excepted), this circuit is used as an introduction to vacuum tube technology, and an interesting application for impedance-matching transformers. It should be noted that building and operating this circuit involves work with lethal voltages! You must exhibit the utmost care while working with this circuit, as 170 volts DC is capable of electrocuting you!! It is recommended that beginners seek qualified assistance (experienced electricians, electronics technicians, or engineers) if attempting to build this amplifier.
WARNING: do not touch any wires or terminals while the amplifier circuit is energized! If you must make contact with the circuit at any point, turn off the “plate” power supply switch and wait for the filter capacitor to discharge below 30 volts before touching any part of the circuit. If testing circuit voltages with the power on, use only one hand if possible to avoid the possibility of an arm-to-arm electric shock.
Building the high-voltage power supply Vacuum tubes require fairly high DC voltage applied between plate and cathode terminals in order to function efficiently. Although it is possible to operate the amplifier circuit described in this experiment on as low as 24 volts DC, the power output will be minuscule and the sound quality poor. The 12AX7 triode is rated at a maximum “plate voltage” (voltage applied between plate and cathode terminals) of 330 volts, so our power supply of 170 volts DC specified here is well within that maximum limit. I’ve operated this amplifier on as high as 235 volts DC and discovered that both sound quality and intensity improved slightly, but not enough in my estimation to warrant the additional hazard to experimenters.
The power supply actually has two different power outputs: the “B+” DC output for plate power, and the “filament” power, which is only 12 volts AC. Tubes require power applied to a small filament (sometimes called a heater) in order to function, as the cathode must be hot enough to thermally emit electrons, and that doesn’t happen at room temperature! Using one power transformer to step household 120 volt AC power down to 12 volts AC provides low-voltage for the filaments, and another transformer connected in step-up fashion brings the voltage back up to 120 volts. You might be wondering, “why step the voltage back up to 120 volts with another transformer? Why not just tap off the wall socket plug to obtain 120 volt AC power directly, and then rectify that into 170 volts DC?” The answer to this is twofold: first, running power through two transformers inherently limits the amount of current that may be sent into an accidental short-circuit on the plate-side of the amplifier circuit. Second, it electrically isolates the plate circuit from the wiring system of your house. If we were to rectify wall-socket power with a diode bridge, it would make both DC terminals (+ and -) elevated in voltage from the safety ground connection of your house’s electrical system, thereby increasing the shock hazard.
Note the toggle switch connected between the 12-volt windings of the two transformers, labeled “Plate supply switch.” This switch controls power to the step-up transformer, thereby controlling plate voltage to the amplifier circuit. Why not just use the main power switch connected to the 120-volt plug? Why has a second switch to shut off the DC high voltage, when shutting off one main switch would accomplish the same thing? The answer lies in proper vacuum tube operation: like incandescent light bulbs, vacuum tubes “wear” when their filaments are powered up and down repeatedly, so having this additional switch in the circuit allows you to shut off the DC high voltage (for safety when modifying or adjusting the circuit) without having to shut off the filament. Also, it is a good habit to wait for the tube to reach full operating temperature before applying plate voltage, and this second switch allows you to delay the application of plate voltage until the tube has had time to reach operating temperature.
During operation, you should have a voltmeter connected to the “B+” output of the power supply (between the B+ terminal and ground), continuously providing indication of the power supply voltage. This meter will show you when the filter capacitor has discharged below the shock-hazard limit (30 volts) when you turn off the “Plate supply switch” to service the amplifier circuit.
The “ground” terminal shown on the DC output of the power supply circuit need not connect to earth ground. Rather, it is merely a symbol showing a common connection with a corresponding ground terminal symbol in the amplifier circuit. In the circuit you build, there will be a piece of wire connecting these two “ground” points together. As always, the designation of certain common points in a circuit by means of a shared symbol is standard practice in electronic schematics.
You will note that the schematic diagram shows a 100 kΩ resistor in parallel with the filter capacitor. This resistor is quite necessary, as it provides the capacitor a path for discharge when the AC power is turned off. Without this “bleeder” resistor in the circuit, the capacitor would likely retain a dangerous charge for a long time after “power-down,” posing an additional shock hazard to you. In the circuit I built—with a 47 µF capacitor and a 100 kΩ bleeder resistor—the time constant of this RC circuit was a brief 4.7 seconds. If you happen to find a larger filter capacitor value (good for minimizing unwanted power supply “hum” in the speaker), you will need to use a correspondingly smaller value of bleeder resistor, or wait longer for the voltage to bleed off each time you turn the “Plate supply” switch off.
Be sure you have the power supply safely constructed and working reliably before attempting to power the amplifier circuit with it. This is good circuit-building practice in general: build and troubleshoot the power supply first, then build the circuit you intend to power with it. If the power supply does not function as it should, then neither will the powered circuit, no matter how well it may be designed and built.
Building the amplifier One of the problems with building vacuum tube circuits in the 21st century is that sockets for these components can be difficult to find. Given the limited lifetime of most “receiver” tubes (a few years), most “tubed” electronic devices used sockets for mounting the tubes, so that they could be easily removed and replaced. Though tubes may still be obtained (from music supply stores) with relative ease, the sockets they plug into are considerably scarcer—your local Radio Shack will not have them in stock! How, then, do we build circuits with tubes, if we might not be able to obtain sockets for them to plug into?
For small tubes, this problem may be circumvented by directly soldering short lengths of 22-gauge solid copper wire to the pins of the tube, thus enabling you to “plug” the tube into a solderless breadboard. Here is a photograph of my tube amplifier, showing the 12AX7 in an inverted position (pin-side-up). Please disregard the 10-segment LED bar graph to the left and the 8-position DIP switch assembly to the right in the photograph, as these are leftover components from a digital circuit experiment assembled previously on my breadboard.
One benefit of mounting the tube in this position is ease of pin identification since most “pin connection diagrams” for tubes are shown from a bottom view:
You will notice on the amplifier schematic that both triode elements inside the 12AX7’s glass envelope are being used, in parallel: plate connected to plate, grid-connected to grid, and cathode connected to cathode. This is done to maximize power output from the tube, but it is not necessary for demonstrating basic operation. You may use just one of the triodes, for simplicity, if you wish.
The 0.1 µF capacitor shown on the schematic “couples” the audio signal source (radio, musical keyboard, etc.) to the tube’s grid(s), allowing AC to pass but blocking DC. The 100 kΩ resistor ensures that the average DC voltage between grid and cathode is zero, and cannot “float” to some high level. Typically, bias circuits are used to keep the grid slightly negative with respect to ground, but for this purpose, a bias circuit would introduce more complexity than its worth.
When I tested my amplifier circuit, I used the output of a radio receiver, and later the output of a compact disk (CD) player, as the audio signal source. Using a “mono”-to-“phono” connector extension cord plugged into the headphone jack of the receiver/CD player, and alligator clip jumper wires connecting the “mono” tip of the cord to the input terminals of the tube amplifier, I was able to easily send the amplifier audio signals of varying amplitude to test its performance over a wide range of conditions:
A transformer is essential at the output of the amplifier circuit for “matching” the impedances of vacuum tube and speaker. Since the vacuum tube is a high-voltage, low-current device, and most speakers are low-voltage, high-current devices, the mismatch between them would result in very audio low power output if they were directly connected. To successfully match the high-voltage, low-current source to the low-voltage, high current load, we must use a step-down transformer.
Since the vacuum tube circuit’s Thevenin resistance ranges in the tens of thousands of ohms, and the speaker only has about 8 ohms impedance, we will need a transformer with an impedance ratio of about 10,000:1. Since the impedance ratio of a transformer is the square of its turns ratio (or voltage ratio), we’re looking for a transformer with a turns ratio of about 100:1. A typical automotive ignition coil has approximately this turns ratio, and it is also rated for extremely high voltage on the high-voltage winding, making it well suited for this application.
The only bad aspect of using an ignition coil is that it provides no electrical isolation between primary and secondary windings, since the device is actually an autotransformer, with each winding sharing a common terminal at one end. This means that the speaker wires will be at a high DC voltage with respect to circuit ground. So long as we know this, and avoid touching those wires during operation, there will be no problem. Ideally, though, the transformer would provide complete isolation as well as impedance matching, and the speaker wires would be perfectly safe to touch during use.
Remember, make all connections in the circuit with the power turned off! After checking connections visually and with an ohmmeter to ensure that the circuit is built as per the schematic diagram, apply power to the filaments of the tube and wait about 30 seconds for it to reach operating temperature. The both filaments should emit a soft, orange glow, visible from both the top and bottom views of the tube.
Turn the volume control of your radio/CD player/musical keyboard signal source to minimum, then turn on the plate supply switch. The voltmeter you have connected between the power supply’s B+ output terminal and “ground” should register full voltage (about 170 volts). Now, increase the volume control on the signal source and listen to the speaker. If all is well, you should hear the correct sounds clearly through the speaker.
Troubleshooting this circuit is best done with the sensitive audio detector described in the DC and AC chapters of this Experiments volume. Connect a 0.1 µF capacitor in series with each test lead to block DC from the detector, then connect one of the test leads to ground, while using the other test lead to check for audio signal at various points in the circuit. Use capacitors with a high voltage rating, like the one used on the input of the amplifier circuit:
Using two coupling capacitors instead of just one adds an additional degree of safety, in helping to isolate the unit from any (high) DC voltage. Even without the extra capacitor, though, the detector’s internal transformer should provide sufficient electrical isolation for your safety in using it to test for signals in a high-voltage circuit like this, especially if you built your detector using a 120-volt power transformer (rather than an “audio output” transformer) as suggested. Use it to test for a good signal at the input, then at the grid pin(s) of the tube, then at the plate of the tube, etc. until the problem is found. Being capacitively coupled, the detector is also able to test for excessive power supply “hum:” touch the free test lead to the supply’s B+ terminal and listen for a loud 60 Hz humming noise. The noise should be very soft, not loud. If it is loud, the power supply is not filtered adequately enough and may need additional filter capacitance.
After testing a point in the amplifier circuit with large DC voltage to ground, the coupling capacitors on the detector may build up substantial voltage. To discharge this voltage, briefly, touch the free test lead to the grounded test lead. A “pop” sound should be heard in the headphones as the coupling capacitors discharge.
If you would rather use a voltmeter to test for the presence of audio signal, you may do so, setting it to a sensitive AC voltage range. The indication you get from a voltmeter, though, doesn’t tell you anything about the quality of the signal, just its mere presence. Bear in mind that most AC voltmeters will register a transient voltage when initially connected across a source of DC voltage, so don’t be surprised to see a “spike” (a strong, momentary voltage indication) at the very moment contact is made with the meter’s probes to the circuit, rapidly decreasing to the true AC signal value.
You may be pleasantly surprised at the quality and depth of tone from this little amplifier circuit, especially given its low power output: less than 1 watt of audio power. Of course, the circuit is quite crude and sacrifices quality for simplicity and parts availability, but it serves to demonstrate the basic principle of vacuum tube amplification. Advanced hobbyists and students may wish to experiment with biasing networks, negative feedback, different output transformers, different power supply voltages, and even different tubes, to obtain more power and/or better sound quality.
Here is a photo of a very similar amplifier circuit, built by the husband-and-wife team of Terry and Cheryl Goetz, illustrating what can be done when care and craftsmanship are applied to a project like this. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/05%3A_Discrete_Semiconductor_Circuits/5.19%3A_Vacuum_Tube_Audio_Amplifier.txt |
Analog circuits are circuits dealing with signals free to vary from zero to full power supply voltage. This stands in contrast to digital circuits, which almost exclusively employ “all or nothing” signals: voltages restricted to values of zero and full supply voltage, with no valid state in between those extreme limits. Analog circuits are often referred to as linear circuits to emphasize the valid continuity of signal range forbidden in digital circuits, but this label is unfortunately misleading. Just because a voltage or current signal is allowed to vary smoothly between the extremes of zero and full power supply limits does not necessarily mean that all mathematical relationships between these signals are linear in the “straight-line” or “proportional” sense of the word. As you will see in this chapter, many so-called “linear” circuits are quite nonlinear in their behavior, either by the necessity of physics or by design.
The circuits in this chapter make use of IC, or integrated circuit, components. Such components are actually networks of interconnected components manufactured on a single wafer of semiconducting material. Integrated circuits providing a multitude of pre-engineered functions are available at very low cost, benefitting students, hobbyists and professional circuit designers alike. Most integrated circuits provide the same functionality as “discrete” semiconductor circuits at higher levels of reliability and at a fraction of the cost. Usually, the discrete-component circuit construction is favored only when power dissipation levels are too high for integrated circuits to handle.
Perhaps the most versatile and important analog integrated circuit for the student to master is the operational amplifier or op-amp. Essentially nothing more than a differential amplifier with very high voltage gain, op-amps are the workhorse of the analog design world. By cleverly applying feedback from the output of an op-amp to one or more of its inputs, a wide variety of behaviors may be obtained from this single device. Many different models of op-amp are available at low cost, but circuits described in this chapter will incorporate only commonly available op-amp models.
6.02: Voltage Comparator
Parts and Materials
• Operational amplifier, model 1458 or 353 recommended (Radio Shack catalog # 276-038 and 900-6298, respectively)
• Three 6 volt batteries
• Two 10 kΩ potentiometers, linear taper (Radio Shack catalog # 271-1715)
• One light-emitting diode (Radio Shack catalog # 276-026 or equivalent)
• One 330 Ω resistor
• One 470 Ω resistor
This experiment only requires a single operational amplifier. The model 1458 and 353 are both “dual” op-amp units, with two complete amplifier circuits housed in the same 8-pin DIP package. I recommend that you purchase and use “dual” op-amps over “single” op-amps even if a project only requires one, because they are more versatile (the same op-amp unit can function in projects requiring only one amplifier as well as in projects requiring two). In the interest of purchasing and stocking the least number of components for your home laboratory, this makes sense.
Leaning Objectives
• How to use an op-amp as a comparator
Instructions for Comparator Circuit
A comparator circuit compares two voltage signals and determines which one is greater. The result of this comparison is indicated by the output voltage: if the op-amp’s output is saturated in the positive direction, the noninverting input (+) is a greater, or more positive, voltage than the inverting input (-), all voltages measured with respect to ground. If the op-amp’s voltage is near the negative supply voltage (in this case, 0 volts, or ground potential), it means the inverting input (-) has a greater voltage applied to it than the noninverting input (+).
This behavior is much easier understood by experimenting with a comparator circuit than it is by reading someone’s verbal description of it. In this experiment, two potentiometers supply variable voltages to be compared by the op-amp. The output status of the op-amp is indicated visually by the LED. By adjusting the two potentiometers and observing the LED, one can easily comprehend the function of a comparator circuit.
For greater insight into this circuit’s operation, you might want to connect a pair of voltmeters to the op-amp input terminals (both voltmeters referenced to ground) so that both input voltages may be numerically compared with each other, these meter indications compared to the LED status:
Comparator circuits are widely used to compare physical measurements, provided those physical variables can be translated into voltage signals. For instance, if a small generator were attached to an anemometer wheel to produce a voltage proportional to wind speed, that wind speed signal could be compared with a “set-point” voltage and compared by an op-amp to drive a high wind speed alarm: | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/06%3A_Analog_Integrated_Circuits/6.01%3A_Introduction_to_Analog_Integrated_Circuits.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Operational amplifier, model 1458 or 353 recommended (Radio Shack catalog # 276-038 and 900-6298, respectively)
• Three 6 volt batteries
• One 10 kΩ potentiometer, linear taper (Radio Shack catalog # 271-1715)
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 8: “Operational Amplifiers”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• How to use an op-amp as a voltage follower
• Purpose of negative feedback
• Troubleshooting strategy
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
In the previous op-amp experiment, the amplifier was used in “open-loop” mode; that is, without any feedback from output to input. As such, the full voltage gain of the operational amplifier was available, resulting in the output voltage saturating for virtually any amount of differential voltage applied between the two input terminals. This is good if we desire comparator operation, but if we want the op-amp to behave as a true amplifier, we need it to exhibit a manageable voltage gain.
Since we do not have the luxury of disassembling the integrated circuitry of the op-amp and changing resistor values to give a lesser voltage gain, we are limited to external connections and componentry. Actually, this is not a disadvantage as one might think, because the combination of extremely high open-loop voltage gain coupled with feedback allows us to use the op-amp for a much wider variety of purposes, much easier than if we were to exercise the option of modifying its internal circuitry.think, because the combination of extremely high open-loop voltage gain coupled with feedback allows us to use the op-amp for a much wider variety of purposes, much easier than if we were to exercise the option of modifying its internal circuitry.
If we connect the output of an op-amp to its inverting (-) input, the output voltage will seek whatever level is necessary to balance the inverting input’s voltage with that applied to the noninverting (+) input. If this feedback connection is direct, as, in a straight piece of wire, the output voltage will precisely “follow” the noninverting input’s voltage. Unlike the voltage follower circuit made from a single transistor (see chapter 5: Discrete Semiconductor Circuits), which approximated the input voltage to within several tenths of a volt, this voltage follower circuit will output a voltage accurate to within mere microvolts of the input voltage!
Measure the input voltage of this circuit with a voltmeter connected between the op-amp’s noninverting (+) input terminal and circuit ground (the negative side of the power supply), and the output voltage between the op-amp’s output terminal and circuit ground. Watch the op-amp’s output voltage follow the input voltage as you adjust the potentiometer through its range.
You may directly measure the difference, or error, between output and input voltages by connecting the voltmeter between the op-amp’s two input terminals. Throughout most of the potentiometer’s range, this error voltage should be almost zero.
Try moving the potentiometer to one of its extreme positions, far clockwise or far counterclockwise. Measure error voltage, or compare output voltage against input voltage. Do you notice anything unusual? If you are using the model 1458 or model 353 op-amp for this experiment, you should measure a substantial error voltage, or difference between output and input. Many op-amps, the specified models included, cannot “swing” their output voltage exactly to full power supply (“rail”) voltage levels. In this case, the “rail” voltages are +18 volts and 0 volts, respectively. Due to limitations in the 1458’s internal circuitry, its output voltage is unable to exactly reach these high and low limits. You may find that it can only go within a volt or two of the power supply “rails.” This is a very important limitation to understand when designing circuits using operational amplifiers. If full “rail-to-rail” output voltage swing is required in a circuit design, other op-amp models may be selected which offer this capability. The model 3130 is one such op-amp.
Precision voltage follower circuits are useful if the voltage signal to be amplified cannot tolerate “loading;” that is, if it has a high source impedance. Since a voltage follower by definition has a voltage gain of 1, its purpose has nothing to do with amplifying voltage, but rather with amplifying a signal’s capacity to deliver current to a load.
Voltage follower circuits have another important use for circuit builders: they allow for simple linear testing of an op-amp. One of the troubleshooting techniques I recommend is to simplify and rebuild. Suppose that you are building a circuit using one or more op-amps to perform some advanced function. If one of those op-amps seems to be causing a problem and you suspect it may be faulty, try re-connecting it as a simple voltage follower and see if it functions in that capacity. An op-amp that fails to work as a voltage follower certainly won’t work as anything more complex!
COMPUTER SIMULATION
Schematic with SPICE node numbers:
Netlist (make a text file containing the following text, verbatim):
An ideal operational amplifier may be simulated in SPICE using a dependent voltage source (e1 in the netlist). The output nodes are specified first (2 0), then the two input nodes, non-inverting input first (1 2). Open-loop gain is specified last (999meg) in the dependent voltage source line.
Because SPICE views the input impedance of a dependent source as infinite, some finite amount of resistance must be included to avoid an analysis error. This is the purpose of Rbogus: to provide DC path to ground for the Vinput voltage source. Such “bogus” resistances should be arbitrarily large. In this simulation, I chose 1 MΩ for an Rbogus value.
A load resistor is included in the circuit for much the same reason: to provide a DC path for current at the output of the dependent voltage source. As you can see, SPICE doesn’t like open circuits!
6.04: Noninverting Amplifier
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Operational amplifier, model 1458 or 353 recommended (Radio Shack catalog # 276-038 and 900-6298, respectively)
• Three 6 volt batteries
• Two 10 kΩ potentiometers, linear taper (Radio Shack catalog # 271-1715)
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 8: “Operational Amplifiers”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• How to use an op-amp as a single-ended amplifier
• Using divided, negative feedback
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
This circuit differs from the voltage follower in only one respect: output voltage is “fed back” to the inverting (-) input through a voltage-dividing potentiometer rather than being directly connected. With only a fractionof the output voltage fed back to the inverting input, the op-amp will output a corresponding multiple of the voltage sensed at the noninverting (+) input in keeping the input differential voltage near zero. In other words, the op-amp will now function as an amplifier with a controllable voltage gain, that gain is established by the position of the feedback potentiometer (R2).
Set R2 to approximately mid-position. This should give a voltage gain of about 2. Measure both input and output voltage for several positions of the input potentiometer R1. Move R2 to a different position and re-take voltage measurements for several positions of R1. For any given R2 position, the ratio between output and input voltage should be the same.
You will also notice that the input and output voltages are always positive with respect to ground. Because of the output voltage increases in a positive direction for a positive increase of the input voltage, this amplifier is referred to as noninverting. If the output and input voltages were related to one another in an inverse fashion (i.e. positive increasing input voltage results in positive decreasing or negative increasing output), then the amplifier would be known as an inverting type.
The ability to leverage an op-amp in this fashion to create an amplifier with controllable voltage gain makes this circuit an extremely useful one. It would take quite a bit more design and troubleshooting effort to produce a similar circuit using discrete transistors.
Try adjusting R2 for maximum and minimum voltage gain. What is the lowest voltage gain attainable with this amplifier configuration? Why do you think this is?
COMPUTER SIMULATION
Schematic with SPICE node numbers:
Netlist (make a text file containing the following text, verbatim):
With R1 and R2 set equally to 5 kΩ in the simulation, it mimics the feedback potentiometer of the real circuit at mid-position (50%). To simulate the potentiometer at the 75% position, set R2 to 7.5 kΩ and R1 to 2.5 kΩ. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/06%3A_Analog_Integrated_Circuits/6.03%3A_Precision_Voltage_Follower.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Operational amplifier, model TL082 recommended (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1715)
• Operational amplifier, model LM1458 recommended (Radio Shack catalog # 276-038)
• Four 6 volt batteries
• One meter movement, 1 mA full-scale deflection (Radio Shack catalog #22-410)
• 15 kΩ precision resistor
• Four 1 MΩ resistors
The 1 mA meter movement sold by Radio Shack is advertised as a 0-15 VDC meter but is actually a 1 mA movement sold with a 15 kΩ +/- 1% tolerance multiplier resistor. If you get this Radio Shack meter movement, you can use the included 15 kΩ resistor for the resistor specified in the parts list.
This meter experiment is based on a JFET-input op-amp such as the TL082. The other op-amp (model 1458) is used in this experiment to demonstrate the absence of latch-up: a problem inherent to the TL082.
You don’t need 1 MΩ resistors, exactly. Any very high resistance resistors will suffice.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 8: “Operational Amplifiers”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Voltmeter loading: its causes and its solution
• How to make a high-impedance voltmeter using an op-amp
• What op-amp “latch-up” is and how to avoid it
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
An ideal voltmeter has infinite input impedance, meaning that it draws zero current from the circuit under test. This way, there will be no “impact” on the circuit as the voltage is being measured. The more current a voltmeter draws from the circuit under test, the more the measured voltage will “sag” under the loading effect of the meter, like a tire-pressure gauge releasing air out of the tire being measured: the more air released from the tire, the more the tire’s pressure will be impacted by the act of measurement. This loading is more pronounced on circuits of high resistance, like the voltage divider made of 1 MΩ resistors, shown in the schematic diagram.
If you were to build a simple 0-15 volt range voltmeter by connecting the 1 mA meter movement in series with the 15 kΩ precision resistor, and try to use this voltmeter to measure the voltage at TP1, TP2, or TP3 (with respect to ground), you’d encounter severe measurement errors induced by meter “impact:”
Try using the meter movement and 15 kΩ resistor as shown to measure these three voltages. Does the meter read falsely high or falsely low? Why do you think this is?
If we were to increase the meter’s input impedance, we would diminish its current draw or “load” on the circuit under test and consequently improve its measurement accuracy. An op-amp with high-impedance inputs (using a JFET transistor input stage rather than a BJT input stage) works well for this application.
Note that the meter movement is part of the op-amp’s feedback loop from output to inverting input. This circuit drives the meter movement with a current proportional to the voltage impressed at the noninverting (+) input, the requisite current supplied directly from the batteries through the op-amp’s power supply pins, not from the circuit under test through the test probe. The meter’s range is set by the resistor connecting the inverting (-) input to ground.
Build the op-amp meter circuit as shown and re-take voltage measurements at TP1, TP2, and TP3. You should enjoy far better success this time, with the meter movement accurately measuring these voltages (approximately 3, 6, and 9 volts, respectively).
You may witness the extreme sensitivity of this voltmeter by touching the test probe with one hand and the most positive battery terminal with the other. Notice how you can drive the needle upward on the scale simply by measuring battery voltage through your body resistance: an impossible feat with the original, unamplified voltmeter circuit. If you touch the test probe to ground, the meter should read exactly 0 volts.
After you’ve proven this circuit to work, modify it by changing the power supply from dual to split. This entails removing the center-tap ground connection between the 2nd and 3rd batteries, and grounding the far negative battery terminal instead:
This alteration in the power supply increases the voltages at TP1, TP2, and TP3 to 6, 12, and 18 volts, respectively. With a 15 kΩ range resistor and a 1 mA meter movement, measuring 18 volts will gently “peg” the meter, but you should be able to measure the 6 and 12-volt test points just fine.
Try touching the meter’s test probe to ground. This should drive the meter needle to exactly 0 volts as before, but it will not! What is happening here is an op-amp phenomenon called latch-up: where the op-amp output drives to a positive voltage when the input common-mode voltage exceeds the allowable limit. In this case, as with many JFET-input op-amps, neither input should be allowed to come close to either power supply rail voltage. With a single supply, the op-amp’s negative power rail is at ground potential (0 volts), so grounding the test probe brings the noninverting (+) input exactly to that rail voltage. This is bad for a JFET op-amp, and drives the output strongly positive, even though it doesn’t seem like it should, based on how op-amps are supposed to function.
When the op-amp ran on a “dual” supply (+12/-12 volts, rather than a “single” +24 volt supply), the negative power supply rail was 12 volts away from ground (0 volts), so grounding the test probe didn’t violate the op-amp’s common-mode voltage limit. However, with the “single” +24 volt supply, we have a problem. Note that some op-amps do not “latch-up” the way the model TL082 does. You may replace the TL082 with an LM1458 op-amp, which is pin-for-pin compatible (no breadboard wiring changes needed). The model 1458 will not “latch-up” when the test probe is grounded, although you may still get incorrect meter readings with the measured voltage exactly equal to the negative power supply rail. As a general rule, you should always be sure the op-amp’s power supply rail voltages exceed the expected input voltages. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/06%3A_Analog_Integrated_Circuits/6.05%3A_High-impedance_Voltmeter.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Four 6 volt batteries
• Operational amplifier, model 1458 recommended (Radio Shack catalog # 276-038)
• One 10 kΩ potentiometer, linear taper (Radio Shack catalog # 271-1715)
• Two capacitors, 0.1 µF each, non-polarized (Radio Shack catalog # 272-135)
• Two 100 kΩ resistors
• Three 1 MΩ resistors
Just about any operational amplifier model will work fine for this integrator experiment, but I’m specifying the model 1458 over the 353 because the 1458 has much higher input bias currents. Normally, high input bias current is a bad characteristic for an op-amp to have in a precision DC amplifier circuit (and especially an integrator circuit!). However, I want the bias current to be high in order that its bad effects may be exaggerated, and so that you will learn one method of counteracting its effects.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 8: “Operational Amplifiers”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Method for limiting the span of a potentiometer
• Purpose of an integrator circuit
• How to compensate for op-amp bias current
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
As you can see from the schematic diagram, the potentiometer is connected to the “rails” of the power source through 100 kΩ resistors, one on each end. This is to limit the span of the potentiometer so that full movement produces a fairly small range of input voltages for the op-amp to operate on. At one extreme of the potentiometer’s motion, a voltage of about 0.5 volts (with respect the ground point in the middle of the series battery string) will be produced at the potentiometer wiper. At the other extreme of motion, a voltage of about -0.5 volts will be produced. When the potentiometer is positioned dead-center, the wiper voltage should measure zero volts.
Connect a voltmeter between the op-amp’s output terminal and the circuit ground point. Slowly move the potentiometer control while monitoring the output voltage. The output voltage should be changing at a rate established by the potentiometer’s deviation from zero (center) position. To use calculus terms, we would say that the output voltage represents the integral (with respect to time) of the input voltage function. That is, the input voltage level establishes the output voltage rate of change over time. This is precisely the opposite of differentiation, where the derivative of a signal or function is its instantaneous rate of change.
If you have two voltmeters, you may readily see this relationship between input voltage and output voltage rate of change by measuring the wiper voltage (between the potentiometer wiper and ground) with one meter and the output voltage (between the op-amp output terminal and ground) with the other. Adjusting the potentiometer to give zero volts should result in the lowest output voltage rate-of-change. Conversely, the more voltage input to this circuit, the faster its output voltage will change, or “ramp.”
Try connecting the second 0.1 µF capacitor in parallel with the first. This will double the amount of capacitance in the op-amp’s feedback loop. What effect does this have on the circuit’s integration rate for any given potentiometer position?
Try connecting another 1 MΩ resistor in parallel with the input resistor (the resistor connecting the potentiometer wiper to the inverting terminal of the op-amp). This will half the integrator’s input resistance. What effect does this have on the circuit’s integration rate?
Integrator circuits are one of the fundamental “building-block” functions of an analog computer. By connecting integrator circuits with amplifiers, summers, and potentiometers (dividers), almost any differential equation could be modeled, and solutions obtained by measuring voltages produced at various points in the network of circuits. Because differential equations describe so many physical processes, analog computers are used as simulators. Before the advent of modern digital computers, engineers used analog computers to simulate such processes as machinery vibration, rocket trajectory, and control system response. Even though analog computers are considered obsolete by modern standards, their constituent components still work well as learning tools for calculus concepts.
Move the potentiometer until the op-amp’s output voltage is as close to zero as you can get it, and moving as slowly as you can make it. Disconnect the integrator input from the potentiometer wiper terminal and connect it instead to ground, like this:
Applying exactly zero voltage to the input of an integrator circuit should, ideally, cause the output voltage rate-of-change to be zero. When you make this change to the circuit, you should notice the output voltage remaining at a constant level or changing very slowly.
With the integrator input still shorted to ground, short past the 1 MΩ resistor connecting the op-amp’s noninverting (+) input to ground. There should be no need for this resistor in an ideal op-amp circuit, so by shorting past it, we will see what function it provides in this very real op-amp circuit:
As soon as the “grounding” resistor is shorted with a jumper wire, the op-amp’s output voltage will start to change, or drift. Ideally, this should not happen, because the integrator circuit still has an input signal of zero volts. However, real operational amplifiers have a very small amount of current entering each input terminal called the bias current. These bias currents will drop voltage across any resistance in their path. Since the 1 MΩ input resistor conducts some amount of bias current regardless of input signal magnitude, it will drop voltage across its terminals due to bias current, thus “offsetting” the amount of signal voltage seen at the inverting terminal of the op-amp. If the other (noninverting) input is connected directly to ground as we have done here, this “offset” voltage incurred by voltage drop generated by bias current will cause the integrator circuit to slowly “integrate” as though it were receiving a very small input signal.
The “grounding” resistor is better known as a compensating resistor because it acts to compensate for voltage errors created by bias current. Since the bias currents through each op-amp input terminal are approximately equal to each other, an equal amount of resistance placed in the path of each bias current will produce approximately the same voltage drop. Equal voltage drops seen at the complementary inputs of an op-amp cancel each other out, thus nulling the error otherwise induced by bias current.
Remove the jumper wire shorting past the compensating resistor and notice how the op-amp output returns to a relatively stable state. It may still drift some, most likely due to bias voltage error in the op-amp itself, but that is another subject altogether!
COMPUTER SIMULATION
Schematic with SPICE node numbers:
Netlist (make a text file containing the following text, verbatim): | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/06%3A_Analog_Integrated_Circuits/6.06%3A_Integrator.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Two 6 volt batteries
• One capacitor, 0.1 µF, non-polarized (Radio Shack catalog # 272-135)
• One 555 timer IC (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1723)
• Two light-emitting diodes (Radio Shack catalog # 276-026 or equivalent)
• One 1 MΩ resistor
• One 100 kΩ resistor
• Two 510 Ω resistors
• Audio detector with headphones
• Oscilloscope (recommended, but not necessary)
An oscilloscope would be useful in analyzing the waveforms produced by this circuit, but it is not essential. An audio detector is a very useful piece of test equipment for this experiment, especially if you don’t have an oscilloscope.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 4, chapter 10: “Multivibrators”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• How to use the 555 timer as an astable multivibrator
• Working knowledge of duty cycle
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
The “555” integrated circuit is a general-purpose timer useful for a variety of functions. In this experiment, we explore its use as an astable multivibrator or oscillator. Connected to a capacitor and two resistors as shown, it will oscillate freely, driving the LEDs on and off with a square-wave output voltage.
This circuit works on the principle of alternately charging and discharging a capacitor. The 555 begins to discharge the capacitor by grounding the Disch terminal when the voltage detected by the Thresh terminal exceeds 2/3 the power supply voltage (Vcc). It stops discharging the capacitor when the voltage detected by the Trig terminal falls below 1/3 the power supply voltage. Thus, when both Thresh and Trig terminals are connected to the capacitor’s positive terminal, the capacitor voltage will cycle between 1/3 and 2/3 power supply voltage in a “sawtooth” pattern.
During the charging cycle, the capacitor receives charging current through the series combination of the 1 MΩ and 100 kΩ resistors. As soon as the Disch terminal on the 555 timer goes to ground potential (a transistor inside the 555 connected between that terminal and ground turns on), the capacitor’s discharging current only has to go through the 100 kΩ resistor. The result is an RC time constant that is much longer for charging than for discharging, resulting in a charging time greatly exceeding the discharging time.
The 555’s Out terminal produces a square-wave voltage signal that is “high” (nearly Vcc) when the capacitor is charging, and “low” (nearly 0 volts) when the capacitor is discharging. This alternating high/low voltage signal drives the two LEDs in opposite modes: when one is on, the other will be off. Because the capacitor’s charging and discharging times are unequal, the “high” and “low” times of the output’s square-wave waveform will be unequal as well. This can be seen in the relative brightness of the two LEDs: one will be much brighter than the other because it is on for a longer period of time during each cycle.
The equality or inequality between “high” and “low” times of a square wave is expressed as that wave’s duty cycle. A square wave with a 50% duty cycle is perfectly symmetrical: its “high” time is precisely equal to its “low” time. A square wave that is “high” 10% of the time and “low” 90% of the time is said to have a 10% duty cycle. In this circuit, the output waveform has a “high” time exceeding the “low” time, resulting in a duty cycle greater than 50%.
Use the audio detector (or an oscilloscope) to investigate the different voltage waveforms produced by this circuit. Try different resistor values and/or capacitor values to see what effects they have on output frequency or charge/discharge times. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/06%3A_Analog_Integrated_Circuits/6.07%3A_555_Audio_Oscillator.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Two 6 volt batteries
• One capacitor, 470 µF electrolytic, 35 WVDC (Radio Shack catalog # 272-1030 or equivalent)
• One capacitor, 0.1 µF, non-polarized (Radio Shack catalog # 272-135)
• One 555 timer IC (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1723)
• Two PNP transistors—models 2N2907 or 2N3906 recommended (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1604 is a package of fifteen PNP transistors ideal for this and other experiments)
• Two light-emitting diodes (Radio Shack catalog # 276-026 or equivalent)
• One 100 kΩ resistor
• One 47 kΩ resistor
• Two 510 Ω resistors
• Audio detector with headphones
The voltage rating on the 470 µF capacitor is not critical, so long as it generously exceeds the maximum power supply voltage. In this particular circuit, that maximum voltage is 12 volts. Be sure you connect this capacitor in the circuit properly, respecting polarity!
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 13: “Capacitors”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 4, chapter 10: “Multivibrators”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• How to use the 555 timer as an astable multivibrator
• A practical use for a current mirror circuit
• Understanding the relationship between capacitor current and capacitor voltage rate-of-change
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
Again, we are using a 555 timer IC as an astable multivibrator, or oscillator. This time, however, we will compare its operation in two different capacitor-charging modes: traditional RC and constant-current.
Connecting test point #1 (TP1) to test point #3 (TP3) using a jumper wire. This allows the capacitor to charge through a 47 kΩ resistor. When the capacitor has reached 2/3 supply voltage, the 555 timer switches to “discharge” mode and discharges the capacitor to a level of 1/3 supply voltage almost immediately. The charging cycle begins again at this point. Measure voltage directly across the capacitor with a voltmeter (a digital voltmeter is preferred), and note the rate of capacitor charging over time. It should rise quickly at first, then taper off as it builds up to 2/3 supply voltage, just as you would expect from an RC charging circuit.
Remove the jumper wire from TP3, and re-connect it to TP2. This allows the capacitor to be charged through the controlled-current leg of a current mirror circuit formed by the two PNP transistors. Measure voltage directly across the capacitor again, noting the difference in charging rate over time as compared to the last circuit configuration.
By connecting TP1 to TP2, the capacitor receives a nearly constant charging current. Constant capacitor charging current yields a voltage curve that is linear, as described by the equation i = C(de/dt). If the capacitors current is constant, so will be its rate-of-change of voltage over time. The result is a “ramp” waveform rather than a “sawtooth” waveform:
The capacitor’s charging current may be directly measured by substituting an ammeter in place of the jumper wire. The ammeter will need to be set to measure a current in the range of hundreds of microamps (tenths of a milliamp). Connected between TP1 and TP3, you should see a current that starts at a relatively high value at the beginning of the charging cycle, and tapers off toward the end. Connected between TP1 and TP2, however, the current will be much more stable.
It is an interesting experiment at this point to change the temperature of either current mirror transistor by touching it with your finger. As the transistor warms, it will conduct more collector current for the same base-emitter voltage. If the controlling transistor (the one connected to the 100 kΩ resistor) is touched, the current decreases. If the controlled transistor is touched, the current increases. For the most stable current mirror operation, the two transistors should be cemented together so that their temperatures never differ by any substantial amount.
This circuit works just as well at high frequencies as it does at low frequencies. Replace the 470 µF capacitor with a 0.1 µF capacitor, and use an audio detector to sense the voltage waveform at the 555’s output terminal. The detector should produce an audio tone that is easy to hear. The capacitor’s voltage will now be changing much too fast to view with a voltmeter in the DC mode, but we can still measure capacitor current with an ammeter.
With the ammeter connected between TP1 and TP3 (RC mode), measure both DC microamps and AC microamps. Record these current figures on paper. Now, connect the ammeter between TP1 and TP2 (constant-current mode). Measure both DC microamps and AC microamps, noting any differences in current readings between this circuit configuration and the last one. Measuring AC current in addition to DC current is an easy way to determine which circuit configuration gives the most stable charging current. If the current mirror circuit were perfect—the capacitor charging current absolutely constant—there would be zero AC current measured by the meter. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/06%3A_Analog_Integrated_Circuits/6.08%3A_555_Ramp_Generator.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Four 6 volt batteries
• One capacitor, 100 µF electrolytic, 35 WVDC (Radio Shack catalog # 272-1028 or equivalent)
• One capacitor, 0.1 µF, non-polarized (Radio Shack catalog # 272-135)
• One 555 timer IC (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1723)
• Dual operational amplifier, model 1458 recommended (Radio Shack catalog # 276-038)
• One NPN power transistor—(Radio Shack catalog # 276-2041 or equivalent)
• Three 1N4001 rectifying diodes (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1101)
• One 10 kΩ potentiometer, linear taper (Radio Shack catalog # 271-1715)
• One 33 kΩ resistor
• 12-volt automotive tail-light lamp
• Audio detector with headphones
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 8: “Operational Amplifiers”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 2, chapter 7: “Mixed-Frequency AC Signals”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• How to use the 555 timer as an astable multivibrator
• How to use an op-amp as a comparator
• How to use diodes to drop unwanted DC voltage
• How to control power to a load by pulse-width modulation
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
This circuit uses a 555 timer to generate a sawtooth voltage waveform across a capacitor, then compares that signal against a steady voltage provided by a potentiometer, using an op-amp as a comparator. The comparison of these two voltage signals produces a square-wave output from the op-amp, varying in duty cycle according to the potentiometer’s position. This variable duty cycle signal then drives the base of a power transistor, switching current on and off through the load. The 555’s oscillation frequency is much higher than the lamp filament’s ability to thermally cycle (heat and cool), so any variation in duty cycle, or pulse width, has the effect of controlling the total power dissipated by the load over time.
Controlling electrical power through a load by means of quickly switching it on and off, and varying the “on” time, is known as pulse-width modulation, or PWM. It is a very efficient means of controlling electrical power because the controlling element (the power transistor) dissipates comparatively little power in switching on and off, especially if compared to the wasted power dissipated of a rheostat in a similar situation. When the transistor is in cutoff, its power dissipation is zero because there is no current through it. When the transistor is saturated, its dissipation is very low because there is little voltage dropped between collector and emitter while it is conducting current.
PWM is a concept easier understood through experimentation than reading. It would be nice to view the capacitor voltage, potentiometer voltage, and op-amp output waveforms all on one (triple-trace) oscilloscope to see how they relate to one another, and to the load power. However, most of us have no access to a triple-trace oscilloscope, much less any oscilloscope at all, so an alternative method is to slow the 555 oscillator down enough that the three voltages may be compared with a simple DC voltmeter. Replace the 0.1 µF capacitor with one that is 100 µF or larger. This will slow the oscillation frequency down by a factor of at least a thousand, enabling you to measure the capacitor voltage slowly rise over time, and the op-amp output transition from “high” to “low” when the capacitor voltage becomes greater than the potentiometer voltage. With such a slow oscillation frequency, the load power will not be proportioned as before. Rather, the lamp will turn on and off at regular intervals. Feel free to experiment with other capacitor or resistor values to speed up the oscillations enough so the lamp never fully turns on or off, but is “throttled” by quick on-and-off pulsing of the transistor.
When you examine the schematic, you will notice two operational amplifiers connected in parallel. This is done to provide maximum current output to the base terminal of the power transistor. A single op-amp (one-half of a 1458 IC) may not be able to provide sufficient output current to drive the transistor into saturation, so two op-amps are used in tandem. This should only be done if the op-amps in question are overload-protected, which the 1458 series of op-amps are. Otherwise, it is possible (though unlikely) that one op-amp could turn on before the other, and damage result from the two outputs short-circuiting each other (one driving “high” and the other driving “low” simultaneously). The inherent short-circuit protection offered by the 1458 allows for direct driving of the power transistor base without any need for a current-limiting resistor.
The three diodes in series connecting the op-amps’ outputs to the transistor’s base are there to drop voltage and ensure the transistor falls into cutoff when the op-amp outputs go “low.” Because the 1458 op-amp cannot swing its output voltage all the way down to ground potential, but only to within about 2 volts of ground, a direct connection from the op-amp to the transistor would mean the transistor would never fully turn off. Adding three silicon diodes in series drops approximately 2.1 volts (0.7 volts times 3) to ensure there is minimal voltage at the transistor’s base when the op-amp outputs go “low.”
It is interesting to listen to the op-amp output signal through an audio detector as the potentiometer is adjusted through its full range of motion. Adjusting the potentiometer has no effect on signal frequency, but it greatly affects duty cycle. Note the difference in tone quality, or timbre, as the potentiometer varies the duty cycle from 0% to 50% to 100%. Varying the duty cycle has the effect of changing the harmonic content of the waveform, which makes the tone sound different.
You might notice a particular uniqueness to the sound heard through the detector headphones when the potentiometer is in the center position (50% duty cycle—50% load power), versus a kind of similarity in sound just above or below 50% duty cycle. This is due to the absence or presence of even-numbered harmonics. Any waveform that is symmetrical above and below its centerline, such as a square wave with a 50% duty cycle, contains no even-numbered harmonics, only odd-numbered. If the duty cycle is below or above 50%, the waveform will not exhibit this symmetry, and there will be even-numbered harmonics. The presence of these even-numbered harmonic frequencies can be detected by the human ear, as some of them correspond to octaves of the fundamental frequency and thus “fit” more naturally into the tone scheme. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/06%3A_Analog_Integrated_Circuits/6.09%3A_PWM_Power_Controller.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Four 6 volt batteries
• Dual operational amplifier, model TL082 recommended (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1715)
• One NPN power transistor in a TO-220 package—(Radio Shack catalog # 276-2020 or equivalent)
• One PNP power transistor in a TO-220 package—(Radio Shack catalog # 276-2027 or equivalent)
• One 1N914 switching diode (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1620)
• One capacitor, 47 µF electrolytic, 35 WVDC (Radio Shack catalog # 272-1015 or equivalent)
• Two capacitors, 0.22 µF, non-polarized (Radio Shack catalog # 272-1070)
• One 10 kΩ potentiometer, linear taper (Radio Shack catalog # 271-1715)
Be sure to use an op-amp that has a high slew rate. Avoid the LM741 or LM1458 for this reason.
The closer matched the two transistors are, the better. If possible, try to obtain TIP41 and TIP42 transistors, which are closely matched NPN and PNP power transistors with dissipation ratings of 65 watts each. If you cannot get a TIP41 NPN transistor, the TIP3055 (available from Radio Shack) is a good substitute. Do not use very large (i.e. TO-3 case) power transistors, as the op-amp may have trouble driving enough current to their bases for good operation.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 4: “Bipolar Junction Transistors”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 8: “Operational Amplifiers”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• How to build a “push-pull” class B amplifier using complementary bipolar transistors
• The effects of “crossover distortion” in a push-pull amplifier circuit
• Using negative feedback via an op-amp to correct circuit nonlinearities
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
This project is an audio amplifier suitable for amplifying the output signal from a small radio, tape player, CD player, or any other source of audio signals. For stereo operation, two identical amplifiers must be built, one for the left channel and other for the right channel. To obtain an input signal for this amplifier to amplify, just connect it to the output of a radio or other audio device like this:
This amplifier circuit also works well in amplifying “line-level” audio signals from high-quality, modular stereo components. It provides a surprising amount of sound power when played through a large speaker, and maybe run without heatsinks on the transistors (though you should experiment with it a bit before deciding to forego heat sinks, as the power dissipation varies according to the type of speaker used).
The goal of any amplifier circuit is to reproduce the input waveshape as accurately as possible. Perfect reproduction is impossible, of course, and any differences between the output and input waveshapes are known as distortion. In an audio amplifier, distortion may cause unpleasant tones to be superimposed on the true sound. There are many different configurations of audio amplifier circuitry, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. This particular circuit is called a “class B,” push-pull circuit.
Most audio “power” amplifiers use a class B configuration, where one transistor provides power to the load during one-half of the waveform cycle (it pushes) and a second transistor provides power to the load for the other half of the cycle (it pulls). In this scheme, neither transistor remains “on” for the entire cycle, giving each one a time to “rest” and cool during the waveform cycle. This makes for a power-efficient amplifier circuit, but leads to a distinct type of nonlinearity known as “crossover distortion.”
Shown here is a sine-wave shape, equivalent to a constant audio tone of constant volume:
In a push-pull amplifier circuit, the two transistors take turns amplifying the alternate half-cycles of the waveform like this:
If the “hand-off” between the two transistors is not precisely synchronized, though, the amplifier’s output waveform may look something like this instead of a pure sine wave:
Here, distortion results from the fact that there is a delay between the time one transistor turns off and the other transistor turns on. This type of distortion, where the waveform “flattens” at the crossover point between positive and negative half-cycles, is called crossover distortion. One common method of mitigating crossover distortion is to bias the transistors so that their turn-on/turn-off points actually overlap, so that both transistors are in a state of conduction for a brief moment during the crossover period:
This form of amplification is technically known as class AB rather than class B because each transistor is “on” for more than 50% of the time during a complete waveform cycle. The disadvantage to doing this, though, is increased power consumption of the amplifier circuit, because during the moments of time where both transistors are conducting, there is current conducted through the transistors that are not going through the load, but is merely being “shorted” from one power supply rail to the other (from -V to +V). Not only is this a waste of energy, but it dissipates more heat energy in the transistors. When transistors increase in temperature, their characteristics change (Vbe forward voltage drop, β, junction resistances, etc.), making proper biasing difficult.
In this experiment, the transistors operate in pure class B mode. That is, they are never conducting at the same time. This saves energy and decreases heat dissipation, but lends itself to crossover distortion. The solution taken in this circuit is to use an op-amp with negative feedback to quickly drive the transistors through the “dead” zone producing crossover distortion and reduce the amount of “flattening” of the waveform during crossover.
The first (leftmost) op-amp shown in the schematic diagram is nothing more than a buffer. A buffer helps to reduce the loading of the input capacitor/resistor network, which has been placed in the circuit to filter out any DC bias voltage out of the input signal, preventing any DC voltage from becoming amplified by the circuit and sent to the speaker where it might cause damage. Without the buffer op-amp, the capacitor/resistor filtering circuit reduces the low-frequency (“bass”) response of the amplifier and accentuates the high-frequency (“treble”).
The second op-amp functions as an inverting amplifier whose gain is controlled by the 10 kΩ potentiometer. This does nothing more than providing a volume control for the amplifier. Usually, inverting op-amp circuits have their feedback resistor(s) connected directly from the op-amp output terminal to the inverting input terminal like this:
If we were to use the resulting output signal to drive the base terminals of the push-pull transistor pair, though, we would experience significant crossover distortion, because there would be a “dead” zone in the transistors’ operation as the base voltage went from + 0.7 volts to - 0.7 volts:
If you have already constructed the amplifier circuit in its final form, you may simplify it to this form and listen to the difference in sound quality. If you have not yet begun construction of the circuit, the schematic diagram shown above would be a good starting point. It will amplify an audio signal, but it will sound horrible!
The reason for the crossover distortion is that when the op-amp output signal is between + 0.7 volts and - 0.7 volts, neither transistor will be conducting, and the output voltage to the speaker will be 0 volts for the entire 1.4 volts span of base voltage swing. Thus, there is a “zone” in the input signal range where no change in speaker output voltage will occur. Here is where intricate biasing techniques are usually introduced to the circuit to reduce this 1.4-volt “gap” in transistor input signal response. Usually, something like this is done:
The two series-connected diodes will drop approximately 1.4 volts, equivalent to the combined Vbe forward voltage drops of the two transistors, resulting in a scenario where each transistor is just on the verge of turning on when the input signal is zero volts, eliminating the 1.4 volt “dead” signal zone that existed before.
Unfortunately, though, this solution is not perfect: as the transistors heat up from conducting power to the load, their Vbe forward voltage drops will decrease from 0.7 volts to something less, such as 0.6 volts or 0.5 volts. The diodes, which are not subject to the same heating effect because they do not conduct any substantial current, will not experience the same change in forward voltage drop. Thus, the diodes will continue to provide the same 1.4-volt bias voltage even though the transistors require less bias voltage due to heating. The result will be that the circuit drifts into class AB operation, where both transistors will be in a state of conduction part of the time. This, of course, will result in more heat dissipation through the transistors, exacerbating the problem of forward voltage drop change.
A common solution to this problem is the insertion of temperature-compensation “feedback” resistors in the emitter legs of the push-pull transistor circuit:
This solution doesn’t prevent simultaneous turn-on of the two transistors, but merely reduces the severity of the problem and prevents thermal runaway. It also has the unfortunate effect of inserting resistance in the load current path, limiting the output current of the amplifier. The solution I opted for in this experiment is one that capitalizes on the principle of op-amp negative feedback to overcome the inherent limitations of the push-pull transistor output circuit. I use one diode to provide a 0.7-volt bias voltage for the push-pull pair. This is not enough to eliminate the “dead” signal zone, but it reduces it by at least 50%:
Since the voltage drop of a single diode will always be less than the combined voltage drops of the two transistors’ base-emitter junctions, the transistors can never turn on simultaneously, thereby preventing class AB operation. Next, to help get rid of the remaining crossover distortion, the feedback signal of the op-amp is taken from the output terminal of the amplifier (the transistors’ emitter terminals) like this:
The op-amp’s function is to output whatever voltage signal it has to in order to keep its two input terminals at the same voltage (0 volts differential). By connecting the feedback wire to the emitter terminals of the push-pull transistors, the op-amp has the ability to sense any “dead” zone where neither transistor is conducting, and output an appropriate voltage signal to the bases of the transistors to quickly drive them into conduction again to “keep up” with the input signal waveform. This requires an op-amp with a high slew rate (the ability to produce a fast-rising or fast-falling output voltage), which is why the TL082 op-amp was specified for this circuit. Slower op-amps such as the LM741 or LM1458 may not be able to keep up with the high dv/dt (voltage rate-of-change over time, also known as de/dt) necessary for low-distortion operation.
Only a couple of capacitors are added to this circuit to bring it into its final form: a 47 µF capacitor connected in parallel with the diode helps to keep the 0.7 volt bias voltage constant despite large voltage swings in the op-amp’s output, while a 0.22 µF capacitor connected between the base and emitter of the NPN transistor helps reduce crossover distortion at low volume settings: | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/06%3A_Analog_Integrated_Circuits/6.10%3A_Class_B_Audio_Amplifier.txt |
Digital circuits are circuits dealing with signals restricted to the extreme limits of zero and some full amount. This stands in contrast to analog circuits, in which signals are free to vary continuously between the limits imposed by power supply voltage and circuit resistances. These circuits find use in “true/false” logical operations and digital computation.
The circuits in this chapter make use of IC, or integrated circuit, components. Such components are actually networks of interconnected components manufactured on a single wafer of semiconducting material. Integrated circuits providing a multitude of pre-engineered functions are available at very low cost, benefitting students, hobbyists and professional circuit designers alike. Most integrated circuits provide the same functionality as “discrete” semiconductor circuits at higher levels of reliability and at a fraction of the cost.
Circuits in this chapter will primarily use CMOS technology, as this form of IC design allows for a broad range of power supply voltage while maintaining generally low power consumption levels. Though CMOS circuitry is susceptible to damage from static electricity (high voltages will puncture the insulating barriers in the MOSFET transistors), modern CMOS ICs are far more tolerant of electrostatic discharge than the CMOS ICs of the past, reducing the risk of chip failure by mishandling. Proper handling of CMOS involves the use of anti-static foam for storage and transport of IC’s, and measures to prevent static charge from building up on your body (use of a grounding wrist strap, or frequently touching a grounded object).
Circuits using TTL technology require a regulated power supply voltage of 5 volts, and will not tolerate any substantial deviation from this voltage level. Any TTL circuits in this chapter will be adequately labeled as such, and it will be expected that you realize its unique power supply requirements.
When building digital circuits using integrated circuit “chips,” it is highly recommended that you use a breadboard with power supply “rail” connections along the length. These are sets of holes in the breadboard that are electrically common along the entire length of the board. Connect one to the positive terminal of a battery, and the other to the negative terminal, and DC power will be available to any area of the breadboard via connection through short jumper wires:
With so many of these integrated circuits having “reset,” “enable,” and “disable” terminals needing to be maintained in a “high” or “low” state, not to mention the VDD (or VCC) and ground power terminals which require connection to the power supply, having both terminals of the power supply readily available for connection at any point along the board’s length is very useful.
Most breadboards that I have seen have these power supply “rail” holes, but some do not. Up until this point, I’ve been illustrating circuits using a breadboard lacking this feature, just to show how it isn’t absolutely necessary. However, digital circuits seem to require more connections to the power supply than other types of breadboard circuits, making this feature more than just a convenience.
7.02: Basic Gate Function
Parts and Materials
• 4011 quad NAND gate (Radio Shack catalog # 276-2411)
• Eight-position DIP switch (Radio Shack catalog # 275-1301)
• Ten-segment bar graph LED (Radio Shack catalog # 276-081)
• One 6 volt battery
• Two 10 kΩ resistors
• Three 470 Ω resistors
Caution! The 4011 IC is CMOS, and therefore sensitive to static electricity!
Further Reading
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 4, chapter 3: “Logic Gates”
Learning Objectives
• Purpose of a “pulldown” resistor
• How to experimentally determine the truth table of a gate
• How to connect logic gates together
• How to create different logical functions by using NAND gates
Experiment Instructions
To begin, connect a single NAND gate to two input switches and one LED, as shown. At first, the use of an 8-position switch and a 10-segment LED bar graph may seem excessive since only two switches and one LED are needed to show the operation of a single NAND gate. However, the presence of those extra switches and LEDs make it very convenient to expand the circuit and help make the circuit layout both clean and compact.
It is highly recommended that you have a datasheet for the 4011 chip available when you build your circuit. Don’t just follow the illustration shown above! It is important that you develop the skill of reading datasheets, especially “pinout” diagrams when connecting IC terminals to other circuit elements. The datasheet’s connection diagram is an essential piece of information to have. Shown here is my own rendition of what any 4011 datasheet shows:
In the breadboard illustration, I’ve shown the circuit built using the lower-left NAND gate: pin #‘s 1 and 2 are the inputs, and pin #3 is the output. Pin #‘s 14 and 7 conduct DC power to all four gate circuits inside the IC chip, “VDD” representing the positive side of the power supply (+V), and “Gnd” representing the negative side of the power supply (-V), or ground. Sometimes the negative power supply terminal will be labeled “VSS” instead of “Gnd” on a datasheet, but it means the same thing.
Digital logic circuitry does not make use of split power supplies as op-amps do. Like op-amp circuits, though, ground is still the implicit point of reference for all voltage measurements. If I were to speak of a “high” signal being present on a certain pin of the chip, I would mean that there was full voltage between that pin and the negative side of the power supply (ground).
Note how all inputs of the unused gates inside the 4011 chip are connected either to VDD or ground. This is not a mistake, but an act of intentional design. Since the 4011 is a CMOS integrated circuit, and CMOS circuit inputs left unconnected (floating) can assume any voltage level merely from intercepting a static electric charge from a nearby object, leaving inputs floating means that those unused gates may receive any random combinations of “high” and “low” signals.
Why is this undesirable, if we aren’t using those gates? Who cares what signals they receive, if we are not doing anything with their outputs? The problem is if static voltage signals appear at the gate inputs that are not fully “high” or fully “low,” the gates’ internal transistors may begin to turn on in such a way as to draw excessive current. At worst, this could lead to damage of the chip. At best it means excessive power consumption. It matters little if we choose to connect these unused gate inputs “high” (VDD) or “low” (ground), so long as we connect them to one of those two places. In the breadboard illustration, I show all the top inputs connected to VDD, and all the bottom inputs (of the unused gates) connected to ground. This was done merely because those power supply rail holes were closer and did not require long jumper wires!
Please note that none of the unused gate outputs have been connected to VDD or ground, and for good reason! If I were to do that, I may be forcing a gate to assume the opposite output state that it’s trying to achieve, which is a complicated way of saying that I would have created a short-circuit. Imagine a gate that is supposed to output a “high” logic level (for a NAND gate, this would be true if any of its inputs were “low”). If such a gate were to have its output terminal directly connected to ground, it could never reach a “high” state (being made electrically common to ground through the jumper wire connection). Instead, its upper (P-channel) output transistor would be turned on in vain, sourcing maximum current to a nonexistent load. This would very likely damage the gate! Gate output terminals, by their very nature, generate their own logic levels and never “float” in the same way that CMOS gate inputs do.
The two 10 kΩ resistors are placed in the circuit to avoid floating input conditions on the used gate. With a switch closed, the respective input will be directly connected to VDD and therefore be “high.” With a switch open, the 10 kΩ “pulldown” resistor provides a resistive connection to ground, ensuring a secure “low” state at the gate’s input terminal. This way, the input will not be susceptible to stray static voltages.
With the NAND gate connected to the two switches and one LED as shown, you are ready to develop a “truth table” for the NAND gate. Even if you already know what a NAND gate truth table looks like, this is a good exercise in experimentation: discovering a circuit’s behavioral principles by induction. Draw a truth table on a piece of paper like this:
The “A” and “B” columns represent the two input switches, respectively. When the switch is on, its state is “high” or 1. When the switch is off, its state is “low,” or 0, as ensured by its pulldown resistor. The gate’s output, of course, is represented by the LED: whether it is lit (1) or unlit (0). After placing the switches in every possible combination of states and recording the LED’s status, compare the resulting truth table with what a NAND gate’s truth table should be.
As you can imagine, this breadboard circuit is not limited to testing NAND gates. Any gate type may be tested with two switches, two pulldown resistors, and an LED to indicate output status. Just be sure to double-check the chip’s “pinout” diagram before substituting it pin-for-pin in place of the 4011. Not all “quad” gate chips have the same pin assignments!
Additional Improvement
An improvement you might want to make to this circuit is to assign a couple of LEDs to indicate input status, in addition to the one LED assigned to indicate the output. This makes operation a little more interesting to observe, and has the further benefit of indicating if a switch fails to close (or open) by showing the true input signal to the gate, rather than forcing you to infer input status from switch position: | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/07%3A_Digital_Integrated_Circuits/7.01%3A_Introduction_to_Digital_Integrated_Circuits.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• 4001 quad NOR gate (Radio Shack catalog # 276-2401)
• Eight-position DIP switch (Radio Shack catalog # 275-1301)
• Ten-segment bar graph LED (Radio Shack catalog # 276-081)
• One 6 volt battery
• Two 10 kΩ resistors
• Two 470 Ω resistors
• Two 100 Ω resistors
Caution! The 4001 IC is CMOS, and therefore sensitive to static electricity!
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 4, chapter 3: “Logic Gates”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 4, chapter 10: “Multivibrators”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• The effects of positive feedback in a digital circuit
• What is meant by the “invalid” state of a latch circuit
• What a race condition is in a digital circuit
• The importance of valid “high” CMOS signal voltage levels
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
The 4001 integrated circuit is a CMOS quad NOR gate, identical in input, output, and power supply pin assignments to the 4011 quad NAND gate. Its “pinout,” or “connection,” diagram is as such:
When two NOR gates are cross-connected as shown in the schematic diagram, there will be positive feedback from output to input. That is, the output signal tends to maintain the gate in its last output state. Just as in op-amp circuits, positive feedback creates hysteresis. This tendency for the circuit to remain in its last output state gives it a sort of “memory.” In fact, there are solid-state computer memory technologies based on circuitry like this!
If we designate the left switch as the “Set” input and the right switch as the “Reset,” the left LED will be the “Q” output and the right LED the “Q-not” output. With the Set input “high” (switch on) and the Reset input “low,” Q will go “high” and Q-not will go “low.” This is known as the set state of the circuit. Making the Reset input “high” and the Set input “low” reverses the latch circuit’s output state: Q “low” and Q-not “high.” This is known as the reset state of the circuit. If both inputs are placed into the “low” state, the circuit’s Q and Q-not outputs will remain in their last states, “remembering” their prior settings. This is known as the latched state of the circuit.
Because the outputs have been designated “Q” and “Q-not,” it is implied that their states will always be complementary (opposite). Thus, if something were to happen that forced both outputs to the same state, we would be inclined to call that mode of the circuit “invalid.” This is exactly what will happen if we make both Set and Reset inputs “high:” both Q and Q-not outputs will be forced to the same “low” logic state. This is known as the invalid or illegal state of the circuit, not because something has gone wrong, but because the outputs have failed to meet the expectations established by their labels.
Since the “latched” state is a hysteretic condition whereby the last output states are “remembered,” one might wonder what will happen if the circuit powers up this way, with no previous state to hold. To experiment, place both switches in their off positions, making both Set and Reset inputs low, then disconnect one of the battery wires from the breadboard. Then, quickly make and break contact between that battery wire and its proper connection point on the breadboard, noting the status of the two LEDs as the circuit is powered up again and again:
When a latch circuit such as this is powered up into its “latched” state, the gates race against each other for control. Given the “low” inputs, both gates try to output “high” signals. If one of the gates reaches its “high” output state before the other, that “high” state will be fed back to the other gate’s input to force its output “low,” and the race is won by the faster gate.
Invariably, one gate wins the race, due to internal variations between gates in the chip, and/or external resistances and capacitances that act to delay one gate more than the other. What this usually means is that the circuit tends to power up in the same mode, over and over again. However, if you are persistent in your powering/un-powering cycles, you should see at least a few times where the latch circuit powers up latched in the opposite state from normal.
Race conditions are generally undesirable in any kind of system, as they lead to unpredictable operation. They can be particularly troublesome to locate, as this experiment shows, because of the unpredictability they create. Imagine a scenario, for instance, where one of the two NOR gates was exceptionally slow-acting, due to a defect in the chip. This handicap would cause the other gate to win the power-up race every time. In other words, the circuit will be very predictable on power-up with both inputs “low.” However, suppose that the unusual chip was to be replaced by one with more evenly matched gates, or by a chip where the other NOR gate were consistently slower. Normal circuit behavior is not supposed to change when a component is replaced, but if race conditions are present, a change of components may very well do just that.
Due to the inherent race tendency of an S-R latch, one should not design a circuit with the expectation of a consistent power-up state, but rather use external means to “force” the race so that the desired gate always “wins.”
An interesting modification to try in this circuit is to replace one of the 470 Ω LED “dropping” resistors with a lower-value unit, such as 100 Ω. The obvious effect of this alteration will be increased LED brightness, as more current is allowed through. A not-so-obvious effect will also result, and it is this effect which holds great learning value. Try replacing one of the 470 Ω resistors with a 100 Ω resistor, and operate the input signal switches through all four possible setting combinations, noting the behavior of the circuit.
You should note that the circuit refuses to latch in one of its states (either Set or Reset), but only in the other state, when the input switches are both set “low” (the “latch” mode). Why is this? Take a voltmeter and measure the output voltage of the gate whose output is “high” when both inputs are “low.” Note this voltage indication, then set the input switches in such a way that the other state (either Reset or Set) is forced, and measure the output voltage of the other gate when its output is “high.” Note the difference between the two gate output voltage levels, one gate loaded by an LED with a 470 Ω resistor, and the other loaded by an LED with a 100 Ω resistor. The one loaded down by the “heavier” load (100 Ω resistor) will be much less: so much less than this voltage will not be interpreted by the other NOR gate’s input as a “high” signal at all as it is fed back! All logic gates have permissible “high” and “low” input signal voltage ranges, and if the voltage of a digital signal falls outside this permissible range, it might not be properly interpreted by the receiving gate. In a latch circuit such as this, which depends on a solid “high” signal fed back from the output of one gate to the input of the other, a “weak” signal will not be able to maintain the positive feedback necessary to keep the circuit latched in one of its states.
This is one reason I favor the use of a voltmeter as a logic “probe” for determining digital signal levels, rather than an actual logic probe with “high” and “low” lights. A logic probe may not indicate the presence of a “weak” signal, whereas a voltmeter definitely will by means of its quantitative indication. This type of problem, common in circuits where different “families” of integrated circuits are mixed (TTL and CMOS, for example), can only be found with test equipment providing quantitative measurements of signal level. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/07%3A_Digital_Integrated_Circuits/7.03%3A_NOR_Gate_S-R_Latch.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• 4011 quad NAND gate (Radio Shack catalog # 276-2411)
• Eight-position DIP switch (Radio Shack catalog # 275-1301)
• Ten-segment bar graph LED (Radio Shack catalog # 276-081)
• One 6 volt battery
• Three 10 kΩ resistors
• Two 470 Ω resistors
Caution! The 4011 IC is CMOS, and therefore sensitive to static electricity!
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 4, chapter 3: “Logic Gates”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 4, chapter 10: “Multivibrators”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Principle and function of an enabled latch circuit
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
Although this circuit uses NAND gates instead of NOR gates, its behavior is identical to that of the NOR gate S-R latch (a “high” Set input drives Q “high,” and a “high” Reset input drives Q-not “high”), except for the presence of a third input: the Enable. The purpose of the Enable input is to enable or disable the Set and Reset inputs from having effect over the circuit’s output status. When the Enable input is “high,” the circuit acts just like the NOR gate S-R latch. When the Enable input is “low,” the Set and Reset inputs are disabled and have no effect whatsoever on the outputs, leaving the circuit in its latched state.
This kind of latch circuit (also called a gated S-R latch), may be constructed from two NOR gates and two AND gates, but the NAND gate design is easier to build since it makes use of all four gates in a single integrated circuit.
7.05: NAND Gate S-R Flip-Flop
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• 4011 quad NAND gate (Radio Shack catalog # 276-2411)
• 4001 quad NOR gate (Radio Shack catalog # 276-2401)
• Eight-position DIP switch (Radio Shack catalog # 275-1301)
• Ten-segment bar graph LED (Radio Shack catalog # 276-081)
• One 6 volt battery
• Three 10 kΩ resistors
• Two 470 Ω resistors
Caution! The 4011 IC is CMOS, and therefore sensitive to static electricity! Although the parts list calls for a ten-segment LED unit, the illustration shows two individual LEDs being used instead. This is due to lack of room on my breadboard to mount the switch assembly, two integrated circuits, and the bar graph. If you have room on your breadboard, feel free to use the bar graph as called for in the parts list, and as shown in prior latch circuits.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 4, chapter 3: “Logic Gates”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 4, chapter 10: “Multivibrators”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• The difference between a gated latch and a flip-flop
• How to build a “pulse detector” circuit
• Learn the effects of switch contact “bounce” on digital circuits
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
The only difference between a gated (or enabled) latch and a flip-flop is that a flip-flop is enabled only on the rising or falling edge of a “clock” signal, rather than for the entire duration of a “high” enable signal. Converting an enabled latch into a flip-flop simply requires that a “pulse detector” circuit be added to the Enable input so that the edge of a clock pulse generates a brief “high” Enable pulse:
The single NOR gate and three inverter gates create this effect by exploiting the propagation delay time of multiple, cascaded gates. In this experiment, I use three NOR gates with paralleled inputs to create three inverters, thus using all four NOR gates of a 4001 integrated circuit:
Normally, when using a NOR gate as an inverter, one input would be grounded while the other acts as the inverter input, to minimize input capacitance and increase speed. Here, however, slow response is desired, and so I parallel the NOR inputs to make inverters rather than use the more conventional method. Please note that this particular pulse detector circuit produces a “high” output pulse at every falling edge of the clock (input) signal. This means that the flip-flop circuit should be responsive to the Set and Reset input states only when the middle switch is moved from “on” to “off,” not from “off” to “on.”
When you build this circuit, though, you may discover that the outputs respond to Set and Reset input signals during both transitions of the Clock input, not just when it is switched from a “high” state to a “low” state. The reason for this is contact bounce: the effect of a mechanical switch rapidly making-and-breaking when its contacts are first closed, due to the elastic collision of the metal contact pads. Instead of the Clock switch producing a single, clean low-to-high signal transition when closed, there will most likely be several low-high-low “cycles” as the contact pads “bounce” upon off-to-on actuation. The first high-to-low transition caused by bouncing will trigger the pulse detector circuit, enabling the S-R latch for that moment in time, making it responsive to the Set and Reset inputs. Ideally, of course, switches are perfect and bounce-free. In the real world, though, contact bounce is a very common problem for digital gate circuits operated by switch inputs and must be understood well if it is to be overcome. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/07%3A_Digital_Integrated_Circuits/7.04%3A_NAND_Gate_S-R_Enabled_Latch.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• 4017 decade counter/divider (Radio Shack catalog # 276-2417)
• 555 timer IC (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1723)
• Ten-segment bargraph LED (Radio Shack catalog # 276-081)
• One SPST switch
• One 6 volt battery
• 10 kΩ resistor
• 1 MΩ resistor
• 0.1 µF capacitor (Radio Shack catalog # 272-135 or equivalent)
• Coupling capacitor, 0.047 to 0.001 µF
• Ten 470 Ω resistors
• Audio detector with headphones
Caution! The 4017 IC is CMOS, and therefore sensitive to static electricity!
Any single-pole, single-throw switch is adequate. A household light switch will work fine and is readily available at any hardware store.
The audio detector will be used to assess signal frequency. If you have access to an oscilloscope, the audio detector is unnecessary.
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 4, chapter 3: “Logic Gates”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 4, chapter 4: “Switches”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 4, chapter 11: “Counters”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Use of a 555 timer circuit to produce “clock” pulses (astable multivibrator)
• Use of a 4017 decade counter/divider circuit to produce a sequence of pulses
• Use of a 4017 decade counter/divider circuit for frequency division
• Using a frequency divider and timepiece (watch) to measure frequency
• Purpose of a “pulldown” resistor
• Learn the effects of switch contact “bounce” on digital circuits
• Use of a 555 timer circuit to “debounce” a mechanical switch (monostable multivibrator)
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
The model 4017 integrated circuit is a CMOS counter with ten output terminals. One of these ten terminals will be in a “high” state at any given time, with all others being “low,” giving a “one-of-ten” output sequence. If low-to-high voltage pulses are applied to the “clock” (Clk) terminal of the 4017, it will increment its count, forcing the next output into a “high” state.
With a 555 timer connected as an astable multivibrator (oscillator) of low frequency, the 4017 will cycle through its ten-count sequence, lighting up each LED, one at a time, and “recycling” back to the first LED. The result is a visually pleasing sequence of flashing lights. Feel free to experiment with resistor and capacitor values on the 555 timer to create different flash rates.
Try disconnecting the jumper wire leading from the 4017’s “Clock” terminal (pin #14) to the 555’s “Output” terminal (pin #3) where it connects to the 555 timer chip, and hold its end in your hand. If there is sufficient 60 Hz power-line “noise” around you, the 4017 will detect it as a fast clock signal, causing the LEDs to blink very rapidly.
Two terminals on the 4017 chip, “Reset” and “Clock Enable,” are maintained in a “low” state by means of a connection to the negative side of the battery (ground). This is necessary if the chip is to count freely. If the “Reset” terminal is made “high,” the 4017’s output will be reset back to 0 (pin #3 “high,” all other output pins “low”). If the “Clock Enable” is made “high,” the chip will stop responding to the clock signal and pause in its counting sequence.
If the 4017’s “Reset” terminal is connected to one of its ten output terminals, its counting sequence will be cut short or truncated. You may experiment with this by disconnecting the “Reset” terminal from ground, then connecting a long jumper wire to the “Reset” terminal for easy connection to the outputs at the ten-segment LED bargraph. Notice how many (or how few) LEDs light up with the “Reset” connected to any one of the outputs:
Counters such as the 4017 may be used as digital frequency dividers, to take a clock signal and produce a pulse occurring at some integer factor of the clock frequency. For example, if the clock signal from the 555 timer is 200 Hz, and the 4017 is configured for a full-count sequence (the “Reset” terminal connected to ground, giving a full, ten-step count), a signal with a period ten times as long (20 Hz) will be present at any of the 4017’s output terminals. In other words, each output terminal will cycle once for every ten cycles of the clock signal: a frequency ten times as slow.
To experiment with this principle, connect your audio detector between output 0 (pin #3) of the 4017 and ground, through a very small capacitor (0.047 µF to 0.001 µF). The capacitor is used for “coupling” AC signals only, to that you may audibly detect pulses without placing a DC (resistive) load on the counter chip output. With the 4017 “Reset” terminal grounded, you will have a full-count sequence, and you will hear a “click” in the headphones every time the “0” LED lights up, corresponding to 1/10 of the 555’s actual output frequency:
In fact, knowing this mathematical relationship between clicks heard in the headphone and the clock frequency allows us to measure the clock frequency to a fair degree of precision. Using a stopwatch or other timepiece, count the number of clicks heard in one full minute while connected to the 4017’s “0” output. Using a 1 MΩ resistor and 0.1 µF capacitor in the 555 timing circuit, and a power supply voltage of 13 volts (instead of 6), I counted 79 clicks in one minute from my circuit. Your circuit may produce slightly different results. Multiply the number of pulses counted at the “0” output by 10 to obtain the number of cycles produced by the 555 timer during that same time (my circuit: 79 x 10 = 790 cycles). Divide this number by 60 to obtain the number of timer cycles elapsed in each second (my circuit: 790/60 = 13.17). This final figure is the clock frequency in Hz.
Now, leaving one test probe of the audio detector connected to ground, take the other test probe (the one with the coupling capacitor connected in series) and connect it to pin #3 of the 555 timer. The buzzing you hear is the undivided clock frequency:
By connecting the 4017’s “Reset” terminal to one of the output terminals, a truncated sequence will result. If we are using the 4017 as a frequency divider, this means the output frequency will be a different factor of the clock frequency: 1/9, 1/8, 1/7, 1/6, 1/5, 1/4, 1/3, or 1/2, depending on which output terminal we connect the “Reset” jumper wire to. Re-connect the audio detector test probe to output “0” of the 4017 (pin #3), and connect the “Reset” terminal jumper to the sixth LED from the left on the bargraph. This should produce a 1/5 frequency division ratio:
Counting the number of clicks heard in one minute again, you should obtain a number approximately twice as large as what was counted with the 4017 configured for a 1/10 ratio, because 1/5 is twice as large a ratio as 1/10. If you do not obtain a count that is exactly twice what you obtained before, it is because of error inherent to the method of counting cycles: coordinating your sense of hearing with the display of a stopwatch or other time-keeping device.
Try replacing the 1 MΩ timing resistor in the 555 circuit with one of greatly lesser value, such as 10 kΩ. This will increase the clock frequency driving the 4017 chip. Use the audio detector to listen to the divided frequency at pin #3 of the 4017, noting the different tones produced as you move the “Reset” jumper wire to different outputs, creating different frequency division ratios. See if you can produce octaves by dividing the original frequency by 2, then by 4, and then by 8 (each descending octave represents one-half the previous frequency). Octaves are readily distinguished from other divided frequencies by their similar pitches to the original tone.
A final lesson that may be learned from this circuit is that of switch contact “bounce.” For this, you will need a switch to provide clock signals to the 4017 chip, instead of the 555 timer. Re-connect the “Reset” jumper wire to ground to enable a full ten-step count sequence, and disconnect the 555’s output from the 4017’s “Clock” input terminal. Connect a switch in series with a 10 kΩ pulldown resistor, and connect this assembly to the 4017 “Clock” input as shown:
The purpose of a “pulldown” resistor is to provide a definite “low” logic state when the switch contact opens. Without this resistor in place, the 4017’s “Clock” input wire would be floating whenever the switch contact was opened, leaving it susceptible to interference from stray static voltages or electrical “noise,” either one capable of making the 4017 count randomly. With the pulldown resistor in place, the 4017’s “Clock” input will have a definite, albeit resistive, connection to ground, providing a stable “low” logic state that precludes any interference from static electricity or “noise” coupled from nearby AC circuit wiring.
Actuate the switch on and off, noting the action of the LEDs. With each off-to-on switch transition, the 4017 should increment once in its count. However, you may notice some strange behavior: sometimes, the LED sequence will “skip” one or even several steps with a single switch closure. Why is this? It is due to very rapid, mechanical “bouncing” of the switch contacts. When two metallic contacts are brought together rapidly as does happen inside most switches, there will be an elastic collision. This collision results in the contacts making and breaking very rapidly as they “bounce” off one another. Normally, this “bouncing” is much to rapid for you to see its effects, but in a digital circuit such as this where the counter chip is able to respond to very quick clock pulses, these “bounces” are interpreted as distinct clock signals, and the count incremented accordingly.
One way to combat this problem is to use a timing circuit to produce a single pulse for any number of input pulse signals received within a short amount of time. The circuit is called a monostable multivibrator, and any technique eliminating the false pulses caused by switch contact “bounce” is called debouncing.
The 555 timer circuit is capable of functioning as a debouncer, if the “Trigger” input is connected to the switch as such:
Please note that since we are using the 555 once again to provide a clock signal to the 4017, we must re-connect pin #3 of the 555 chip to pin #14 of the 4017 chip! Also, if you have altered the values of the resistor or capacitor in the 555 timer circuit, you should return to the original 1 MΩ and 0.1 µF components.
Actuate the switch again and note the counting behavior of the 4017. There should be no more “skipped” counts as there were before because the 555 timer outputs a single, crisp pulse for every on-to-off actuation (notice the inversion of operation here!) of the switch. It is important that the timing of the 555 circuit be appropriate: the time to charge the capacitor should be longer than the “settling” period of the switch (the time required for the contacts to stop bouncing), but not so long that the timer would “miss” a rapid sequence of switch actuation, if they were to occur. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/07%3A_Digital_Integrated_Circuits/7.06%3A_LED_Sequencer.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• 4001 quad NOR gate (Radio Shack catalog # 276-2401)
• 4070 quad XOR gate (Radio Shack catalog # 900-6906)
• Two, eight-position DIP switches (Radio Shack catalog # 275-1301)
• Two light-emitting diodes (Radio Shack catalog # 276-026 or equivalent)
• Four 1N914 “switching” diodes (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1122)
• Ten 10 kΩ resistors
• Two 470 Ω resistors
• Pushbutton switch, normally open (Radio Shack catalog # 275-1556)
• Two 6 volt batteries
Caution! Both the 4001 and 4070 ICs are CMOS, and therefore sensitive to static electricity!
This experiment may be built using only one 8-position DIP switch, but the concept is easier to understand if two switch assemblies are used. The idea is, one switch acts to hold the correct code for unlocking the lock, while the other switch serves as a data entry point for the person trying to open the lock. In real life, of course, the switch assembly with the “key” code set on it must be hidden from the sight of the person opening the lock, which means it must be physically located elsewhere from where the data entry switch assembly is. This requires two switch assemblies. However, if you understand this concept clearly, you may build a working circuit with only one 8-position switch, using the left four switches for data entry and the right four switches to hold the “key” code.
For extra effect, choose different colors of LED: green for “Go” and red for “No go.”
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 4, chapter 3: “Logic Gates”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Using XOR gates as bit comparators
• How to build simple gate functions with diodes and a pull-up/down resistor
• Using NOR gates as controlled inverters
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
This circuit illustrates the use of XOR (Exclusive-OR) gates as bit comparators. Four of these XOR gates compare the respective bits of two 4-bit binary numbers, each number “entered” into the circuit via a set of switches. If the two numbers match, bit for bit, the green “Go” LED will light up when the “Enter” pushbutton switch is pressed. If the two numbers do not exactly match, the red “No go” LED will light up when the “Enter” pushbutton is pressed.
Because four bits provides a mere sixteen possible combinations, this lock circuit is not very sophisticated. If it were used in a real application such as a home security system, the “No go” output would have to be connected to some kind of siren or other alarming device so that the entry of an incorrect code would deter an unauthorized person from attempting another code entry. Otherwise, it would not take much time to try all combinations (0000 through 1111) until the correct one was found! In this experiment, I do not describe how to work this circuit into a real security system or lock mechanism, but only how to make it recognize a pre-entered code.
The “key” code that must be matched at the data entry switch array should be hidden from view, of course. If this were part of a real security system, the data entry switch assembly would be located outside the door and the key code switch assembly behind the door with the rest of the circuitry. In this experiment, you will likely locate the two switch assemblies on two different breadboards, but it is entirely possible to build the circuit using just a single (8-position) DIP switch assembly. Again, the purpose of the experiment is not to make a real security system, but merely to introduce you to the principle of XOR gate code comparison.
It is the nature of an XOR gate to output a “high” (1) signal if the input signals are not the same logic state. The four XOR gates’ output terminals are connected through a diode network which functions as a four-input OR gate: if any of the four XOR gates outputs a “high” signal—indicating that the entered code and the key code are not identical—then a “high” signal will be passed on to the NOR gate logic. If the two 4-bit codes are identical, then none of the XOR gate outputs will be “high,” and the pull-down resistor connected to the common sides of the diodes will provide a “low” signal state to the NOR logic.
The NOR gate logic performs a simple task: prevent either of the LEDs from turning on if the “Enter” pushbutton is not pressed. Only when this pushbutton is pressed can either of the LEDs energize. If the Enter switch is pressed and the XOR outputs are all “low,” the “Go” LED will light up, indicating that the correct code has been entered. If the Enter switch is pressed and any of the XOR outputs are “high,” the “No go” LED will light up, indicating that an incorrect code has been entered. Again, if this were a real security system, it would be wise to have the “No go” output do something that deters an unauthorized person from discovering the correct code by trial-and-error. In other words, there should be some sort of penalty for entering an incorrect code. Let your imagination guide your design of this detail! | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/07%3A_Digital_Integrated_Circuits/7.07%3A_Simple_Combination_Lock.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• 555 timer IC (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1723)
• One 1N914 “switching” diode (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1122)
• Two 10 kΩ resistors
• One 100 µF capacitor (Radio Shack catalog # 272-1028)
• 4027 dual J-K flip-flop (Radio Shack catalog # 900-4394)
• Ten-segment bargraph LED (Radio Shack catalog # 276-081)
• Three 470 Ω resistors
• One 6 volt battery
Caution! The 4027 IC is CMOS, and therefore sensitive to static electricity!
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 4, chapter 10: “Multivibrators”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 4, chapter 11: “Counters”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Using the 555 timer as a square-wave oscillator
• How to make an asynchronous counter using J-K flip-flops
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
In a sense, this circuit “cheats” by using only two J-K flip-flops to make a three-bit binary counter. Ordinarily, three flip-flops would be used—one for each binary bit—but in this case, we can use the clock pulse (555 timer output) as a bit of its own. When you build this circuit, you will find that it is a “down” counter. That is, its count sequence goes from 111 to 110 to 101 to 100 to 011 to 010 to 001 to 000 and then back to 111. While it is possible to construct an “up” counter using J-K flip-flops, this would require additional components and introduce more complexity into the circuit.
The 555 timer operates as a slow, square-wave oscillator with a duty cycle of approximately 50 percent. This duty cycle is made possible by the use of a diode to “bypass” the lower resistor during the capacitor’s charging cycle, so that the charging time constant is only RC and not 2RC as it would be without the diode in place.
It is highly recommended, in this experiment as in all experiments, to build the circuit in stages: identify portions of the circuit with specific functions, and build those portions one at a time, testing each one and verifying its performance before building the next. A very common mistake of new electronics students is to build an entire circuit at once without testing sections of it during the construction process and then be faced with the possibility of several problems simultaneously when it comes time to finally apply power to it. Remember that a small amount of extra attention paid to detail near the beginning of a project is worth an enormous amount of troubleshooting work near the end! Students who make the mistake of not testing circuit portions before attempting to operate the entire circuit often (falsely) think that the time it would take to test those sections is not worth it, and then spend days trying to figure out what the problem(s) might be with their experiment.
Following this philosophy, build the 555 timer circuit first, before even plugging the 4027 IC into the breadboard. Connect the 555’s output (pin #3) to the “Least Significant Bit” (LSB) LED so that you have visual indication of its status. Make sure that the output oscillates in a slow, square-wave pattern (LED is “lit” for about as long as it is “off” in a cycle), and that it is a reliable signal (no erratic behavior, no unexplained pauses). If the 555 timer is not working properly, neither will the rest of the counter circuit! Once the timer circuit has been proven good, proceed to plug the 4027 IC into the breadboard and complete the rest of the necessary connections between it, the 555 timer circuit, and the LED assembly. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/07%3A_Digital_Integrated_Circuits/7.08%3A_3-bit_Binary_Counter.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• 4511 BCD-to-7seg latch/decoder/driver (Radio Shack catalog # 900-4437)
• Common-cathode 7-segment LED display (Radio Shack catalog # 276-075)
• Eight-position DIP switch (Radio Shack catalog # 275-1301)
• Four 10 kΩ resistors
• Seven 470 Ω resistors
• One 6 volt battery
Caution! The 4511 IC is CMOS, and therefore sensitive to static electricity!
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 4, chapter 9: “Combinational Logic Functions”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• How to use the 4511 7-segment decoder/display driver IC
• Gain familiarity with the BCD code
• How to use 7-segment LED assemblies to create decimal digit displays
• How to identify and use both “active-low” and “active-high” logic inputs
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
This experiment is more of an introduction to the 4511 decoder/display driver IC than it is a lesson in how to “build up” a digital function from lower-level components. Since 7-segment displays are very common components of digital devices, it is good to be familiar with the “driving” circuits behind them, and the 4511 is a good example of a typical driver IC.
Its operating principle is to input a four-bit BCD (Binary-Coded Decimal) value and energize the proper output lines to form the corresponding decimal digit on the 7-segment LED display. The BCD inputs are designated A, B, C, and D in order from least-significant to most-significant. Outputs are labeled a, b, c, d, e, f, and g, each letter corresponding to a standardized segment designation for 7-segment displays. Of course, since each LED segment requires its own dropping resistor, we must use seven 470 Ω resistors placed in series between the 4511’s output terminals and the corresponding terminals of the display unit.
Most 7-segment displays also provide for a decimal point (sometimes two!), a separate LED and terminal designated for its operation. All LEDs inside the display unit are made common to each other on one side, either cathode or anode. The 4511 display driver IC requires a common-cathode 7-segment display unit, and so that is what is used here.
After building the circuit and applying power, operate the four switches in a binary counting sequence (0000 to 1111), noting the 7-segment display. A 0000 input should result in a decimal “0” display, a 0001 input should result in a decimal “1” display, and so on through 1001 (decimal “9”). What happens for the binary numbers 1010 (10) through 1111 (15)? Read the datasheet on the 4511 IC and see what the manufacturer specifies for operation above an input value of 9. In the BCD code, there is no real meaning for 1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110, or 1111. These are binary values beyond the range of a single decimal digit, and so have no function in a BCD system. The 4511 IC is built to recognize this, and output (or not output!) accordingly.
Three inputs on the 4511 chip have been permanently connected to either Vdd or ground: the “Lamp Test,” “Blanking Input,” and “Latch Enable.” To learn what these inputs do, remove the short jumpers connecting them to either power supply rail (one at a time!), and replace the short jumper with a longer one that can reach the other power supply rail. For example, remove the short jumper connecting the “Latch Enable” input (pin #5) to ground, and replace it with a long jumper wire that can reach all the way to the Vdd power supply rail. Experiment with making this input “high” and “low,” observing the results on the 7-segment display as you alter the BCD code with the four input switches. After you’ve learned what the input’s function is, connect it to the power supply rail enabling normal operation, and proceed to experiment with the next input (either “Lamp Test” or “Blanking Input”).
Once again, the manufacturer’s datasheet will be informative as to the purpose of each of these three inputs. Note that the “Lamp Test” (LT) and “Blanking Input” (BI) input labels are written with boolean complementation bars over the abbreviations. Bar symbols designate these inputs as active-low, meaning that you must make each one “low” in order to invoke its particular function. Making an active-low input “high” places that particular input into a “passive” state where its function will not be invoked. Conversely, the “Latch Enable” (LE) input has no complementation bar written over its abbreviation, and correspondingly it is shown connected to ground (“low”) in the schematic so as to not invoke that function. The “Latch Enable” input is an active-high input, which means it must be made “high” (connected to Vdd) in order to invoke its function. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/07%3A_Digital_Integrated_Circuits/7.09%3A_7-segment_Display.txt |
The 555 integrated circuit is the most popular chip ever manufactured. Independently manufactured by more than 10 manufacturers, still in current production, and almost 40 years old, this little circuit has withstood the test of time. It has been redesigned, improved, and reconfigured in many ways, yet the original design can be bought from many vendors. The design of this chip was right the first time.
Originally conceived in 1970 and created by Hans R. Camenzind in 1971, over 1 billion of these ICs were made in 2003 with no apparent reduction in demand. It has been used in everything from toys to spacecraft. Due to its versatility, availability, and low cost it remains a hobbyist favorite.
One of the secrets to its success is it is a true black box, its symbolized schematic is simple and accurate enough that designs using this simplification as a reference tend to work first time. You don’t need to understand every transistor in the base schematic to make it work.
It has been used to derive the 556, a dual 555, each independent of the other in one 14 pin package, and is the inspiration of the 558, a quad timer in a 16 pin package. What few weak points the original design has have been addressed by redesigns into CMOS technology, with its dramatically reduced current and expanded voltage requirements, and yet the original version remains.
Originally conceived as a simple timer, the 555 has been used for oscillators, waveform generators, VCO’s, FM discrimination, and a lot more. It really is an all purpose circuit.
SOURCES
8.02: 555 Schmitt Trigger
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• One 9V Battery
• Battery Clip (Radio Shack catalog # 270-325)
• Mini Hook Clips (soldered to Battery Clip, Radio Shack catalog # 270-372)
• One Potentiometer, 10 KΩ, 15-Turn (Radio Shack catalog # 271-343)
• One 555 timer IC (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1723)
• One red light-emitting diode (Radio Shack catalog # 276-041 or equivalent)
• One green light-emitting diode (Radio Shack catalog # 276-022 or equivalent)
• Two 1 KΩ Resistors
• One DVM (Digital Volt Meter) or VOM (Volt Ohm Meter)
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 8: “Positive Feedback”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 4, chapter 3: “Logic Signal Voltage Levels”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Learn how a Schmitt Trigger works
• How to use the 555 timer as an Schmitt Trigger
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
Schmitt Triggers have a convention to show a gate that is also a Schmitt Trigger, shown below.
The same schematic redrawn to reflect this convention looks something like this:
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
The 555 timer is probably one of the more versatile “black box” chips. Its 3 resistor voltage divider, 2 comparators, and built-in set-reset flip-flop are wired to form a Schmitt Trigger in this design. It’s interesting to note that the configuration isn’t even close to the op-amp configuration shown elsewhere, but the end result is identical.
Try adjusting the potentiometer until the lights flip states, then measure the voltage. Compare this voltage to the power supply voltage. Adjust the potentiometer the other way until the LED’s flip states again, and measure the voltage. How close to the 1/3 and 2/3 marks did you get?
Try substituting the 9V battery with a 6-volt battery, or two 6 volt batteries, and see how close the thresholds are to the 1/3 and 2/3 marks.
Schmitt Triggers are a fundamental circuit with several uses. One is signal processing, they can pull digital data out of some extremely noisy environments. Other big uses will be shown in following projects, such as an extremely simple RC oscillator.
THEORY OF OPERATION
The defining characteristic of any Schmitt Trigger is its hysteresis. In this case, it is 1/3 and 2/3 of the power supply voltage, defined by the built-in resistor voltage divider on the 555. The built-in comparators C1 and C2 compare the input voltage to the references provided by the voltage divider and use the comparison to trip the built-in flip-flop, which drives the output driver, another nice feature of the 555. The 555 can drive up to 200ma off either side of the power supply rail, the output driver creates a very low conduction path to either side of the power supply connections. The circuit “shorts” each side of the LED circuit, leaving the other side to light up.
The 5KΩ resistors are not very accurate. It is interesting to note that IC fabrication doesn’t generally allow precision resistors, but the resistors compared to each other are extremely close in value, which is critical to the circuit’s operation. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/08%3A_555_Timer_Circuits/8.01%3A_The_555_IC.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• One 9V Battery
• Battery Clip (Radio Shack catalog # 270-325)
• Mini Hook Clips (soldered to Battery Clip, Radio Shack catalog # 270-372)
• U1 - 555 timer IC (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1723)
• D1 - Red light-emitting diode (Radio Shack catalog # 276-041 or equivalent)
• D2 - Green light-emitting diode (Radio Shack catalog # 276-022 or equivalent)
• R1,R2 - 1 KΩ 1/4W Resistors
• R3 - 10 Ω 1/4W Resistor
• R4 - 10 KΩ, 15-Turn Potentiometer (Radio Shack catalog # 271-343)
• C1 - 1 µF Capacitor (Radio Shack catalog 272-1434 or equivalent)
• C1 - 100 µF Capacitor (Radio Shack catalog 272-1028 or equivalent)
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric CircuitsVolume 1, chapter 16: Voltage and current calculations
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 16: Solving for unknown time
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 4, chapter 10: Multivibrators
Lessons in Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 8: Positive Feedback
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Learn how to use a Schmitt Trigger for a simple RC Oscillator
• Learn a practical application for a RC time constant
• Learn one of several 555 timer Astable Multivibrator Configurations
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
Here is one way of drawing the schematic:
As mentioned in the previous experiment, there is also another convention, shown below:
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
This is one of the most basic RC oscillators. It is simple and very predictable. Any inverting Schmitt Trigger will work in this design, although the frequency will shift somewhat depending on the hysteresis of the gate.
This circuit has a lower end frequency of 0.7 Hertz, which means each LED will alternate and be lit for just under a second each. As you turn the potentiometer counterclockwise the frequency will increase, going well into the high end audio range. You can verify this with the Audio Detector (Vol. VI, Chapter 3, Section 12) or a piezoelectric speaker, as you continue to turn the potentiometer the pitch of the sound will rise. You can increase the frequency 100 times by replacing the capacitor with the 1µF capacitor, which will also raise the maximum frequency well into the ultrasonic range, around 70Khz.
The 555 does not go rail to rail (it doesn’t quite reach the upper supply voltage) because of its output Darlington transistors, and this causes the oscillators square wave to be not quite symmetrical. Can you see this looking at the LEDs? The higher the power supply voltage, the less pronounced this asymmetry is, while it gets worse with lower power supply voltages. If the output were true rail to rail it would be a 50% square wave, which can be attained if one uses the CMOS version of the 555, such as the TLC555 (Radio Shack P/N 276-1718).
R3 was added to prevent shorting the IC output through C1, as the capacitor shorts the AC portion of the 555 output to ground. On a discharged battery it is not noticeable, but with a fresh 9V the 555 IC will get very hot. If you eliminate the resistor and adjust R4 for maximum frequency you can test this, it is not good for the battery or the 555, but they will survive a short test.
THEORY OF OPERATION
This is a hysteretic oscillator, which is a type of relaxation oscillator. It is also an astable multivibrator. It is a logical offshoot of the 555 Schmitt Trigger experiment shown earlier.
The formula to calculate the frequency with this configuration using a 555 is:
The 555 hysteresis is dependent on the supply voltage, so the frequency of the oscillator would be relatively independent of the supply voltage if it weren’t for the lack of rail to rail output.
The output of a 555 either goes to ground, or relatively close to the plus voltage. This allows the resistor and capacitor to charge and discharge through the output pin. Since this is a digital type signal, the LEDs interact very little in its operation. The first pulse generated by the oscillator is a bit longer than the rest. This and the charge/discharge curves are shown in the following illustration, which also shows why the asymmetrical square wave is created. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/08%3A_555_Timer_Circuits/8.03%3A_555_Hysteretic_Oscillator.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• One 9V Battery
• Battery Clip (Radio Shack catalog # 270-325)
• Mini Hook Clips (soldered to Battery Clip, Radio Shack catalog # 270-372)
• A Watch with a second hand/display or a Stop Watch
• A wire, 11/2” to 2” (3.8 mm to 5 mm) long, folded in half (shown as red wire in illustration)
• U1 - 555 timer IC (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1723)
• D1 - Red light-emitting diode (Radio Shack catalog # 276-041 or equivalent)
• D2 - Green light-emitting diode (Radio Shack catalog # 276-022 or equivalent)
• R1,R2 - 1 KΩ 1/4W Resistors
• Rt - 27 KΩ 1/4W Resistor
• Rt - 270 KΩ 1/4W Resistor
• C1,C2 - 0.1 µF Capacitor (Radio Shack catalog 272-1069 or equivalent)
• Ct - 10 µF Capacitor (Radio Shack catalog 272-1025 or equivalent)
• Ct - 100 µF Capacitor (Radio Shack catalog 272-1028 or equivalent)
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 13: “Electric fields and capacitance”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 13: “Capacitors and calculus”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 16: “Voltage and current calculations”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 16: “Solving for unknown time”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 4, chapter 10: “Monostable multivibrators”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Learn how a Monostable Multivibrator works
• Learn a practical application for a RC time constant
• How to use the 555 timer as a Monostable Multivibrator
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
This is one of the most basic 555 circuits. This circuit is part of this chips datasheet, complete with the math needed to design to specification, and is one of the reasons a 555 is referred to as a timer. The green LED shown on the illustration lights when the 555 output is high (i.e., switched to Vcc), and the red LED lights when the 555 output is low (switched to ground).
This particular monostable multivibrator (also known as a monostable or timer) is not a retriggerable type. This means once triggered it will ignore further inputs during a timing cycle, with one exception, which will be discussed in the next paragraph. The timer starts when the input goes low or switched to the ground level, and the output goes high. You can prove this by connecting the red wire shown on the illustration between ground and point B, disconnecting it, and reconnecting it.
It is an illegal condition for the input to stay low for this design past timeout. For this reason, R3 and C1 were added to create a signal conditioner, which will allow edge only triggering and prevent the illegal input. You can prove this by connecting the red wire between ground and point A. The timer will start when the wire is inserted into the protoboard between these two points, and ignore further contacts. If you force the timer input to stay low past timeout the output will stay high, even though the timer has finished. As soon as this ground is removed the timer will go low.
Rt and Ct were selected for 3 seconds timing duration. You can verify this with a watch, 3 seconds is long enough that we slow humans can actually measure it. Try swapping Rt and Ct with the 27 KO resistor and the 100 µF capacitors. Since the answer to the formula is the same there should be no difference in how it operates. Next try swapping Rt with the 270 KO resistor, since the RC time constant is now 10 times greater you should get close to 30 seconds. The resistor and capacitor are probably 5% and 20% tolerance respectively, so the calculated times you measure can vary as much as 25%, though it will usually be much closer.
Another nice feature of the 555 is its immunity from the power supply voltage. If you were to swap the 9V battery with a 6V or 12 battery you should get identical results, though the LED light intensity will change.
C2 isn’t actually necessary. The 555 IC has this option in case the timer is being used in an environment where the power supply line is noisy. You can remove it and not notice a difference. The 555 itself is a source of noise since there is a very brief period of time that the transistors on both sides of the output are both conducting, creating a power surge (measured in nanoseconds) from the power supply.
THEORY OF OPERATION
Looking at the functional schematic shown (Figure below), you can see that pin 7 is a transistor going to ground.
This transistor is simply a switch that normally conducts until pin 2 (which is connected through the comparator C1, which feeds the internal flip-flop) is brought low, allowing the capacitor Ct to start charging. Pin 7 stays off until the voltage on Ct charges to 2/3 of the power supply voltage, where the timer times out and pin 7 transistor turns on again, its normal state in this circuit.
The following (Figure below) will show the sequence of switching, with red being the higher voltages and green being ground (0 volts), with the spectrum in between since this is fundamentally an analog circuit.
This graph shows the charge curve across the Ct.
Figure 1 is the starting and ending point for this circuit, where it is waiting for a trigger to start a timing cycle. At this point the pin 7 transistor is on, keeping the capacitor Ct discharged.
Figure 2 shows what happens when the 555 receives a trigger, starting the sequence. Ct hasn’t had time to accumulate voltage, but the charging has started.
Figure 3 shows the capacitor charging, during this time the circuit is in a stable configuration and the output is high.
Figure 4 shows the circuit in the middle of switching off when it hits timeout. The capacitor has charged to 67%, the upper limit of the 555 circuit, causing its internal flip-flop to switch states. As shown, the transistor hasn’t switched yet, which will discharge Ct when it does.
Figure 5 shows the circuit after it has settled down, which is basically the same as shown in Figure 1. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/08%3A_555_Timer_Circuits/8.04%3A_555_Monostable_Multivibrator.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Two AAA Batteries
• Battery Clip (Radio Shack catalog # 270-398B)
• One DVM or VOM
• U1 - T One CMOS TLC555 timer IC (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1718 or equivalent)
• D1 - Red light-emitting diode (Radio Shack catalog # 276-041 or equivalent)
• R1 - 1.5 MΩ 1/4W 5% Resistor
• R2 - 47 KΩ 1/4W 5% Resistor
• C1 - 1 µF Tantalum Capacitor (Radio Shack catalog 272-1025 or equivalent)
• C2 - 100 µF Electrolytic Capacitor (Radio Shack catalog 272-1028 or equivalent)
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 16: “Voltage and current calculations”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 16: “Solving for unknown time”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 9 : “ElectroStatic Discharge”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 4, chapter 10: “Multivibrators”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Learn a practical application for a RC time constant
• Learn one of several 555 timer Astable Multivibrator Configurations
• Working knowledge of duty cycle
• Learn how to handle ESD sensitive parts
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
NOTE! This project uses a static sensitive part, the CMOS 555. If you do not use protection as described in Volume 3, Chapter 9, ElectroStatic Discharge, you run the risk of destroying it.
The 555 is not a power hog, but it is a child of the 1970’s, created in 1971. It will suck a battery dry in days, if not hours. Fortunately, the design has been reinvented using CMOS technology. The new implementation isn’t perfect, as it lacks the fantastic current drive of the original, but for a CMOS device the output current is still very good. The main advantages include wider supply voltage range (power supply specifications are 2V to 18V, and it will work using an 11/2V battery) and low power. This project uses the TLC555, a Texas Instruments design. There are other CMOS 555’s out there, very similar but with some differences. These chips are designed to be drop-in replacements and do very well as long as the output is not substantially loaded.
This design turns a deficit into an advantage as the current drive only gets worse at lower power supply voltages, its specifications are not more than 3ma for 2VDC. This design tries to make the batteries last as absolutely long as possible using several different approaches. The CMOS IC is extremely low current, and sends the LED a pulse of 30ms (which is a very short time but within persistence of human vision) as well as using a slow flash rate (1 second) using really large resistors to minimize current. With a duty cycle of 3%, this circuit spends most of its time off, and (assuming 20ma for the LED) the average current is 0.6ma. The big problem is using the built-in current limitation of this IC, as is it is not rated for a specific current, and the LED current can vary a lot between different CMOS ICs.
It is possible to run into problems with electrolytic capacitors when dealing with very low currents (2µa in this case) in that the leakage can be excessive, a borderline failure condition. If your experiment seems to do this it might be fixed by charging across the battery, then discharging the capacitor C1 across any conductor several times.
When you complete this circuit the LED should start flashing and would continue to do so for several months. If you use larger batteries, such as D cells, this duration will increase dramatically.
To measure the current draw feeding the LED, connect C1+ to Vcc with a jumper (shown in red on the Illustration), which will turn the TLC555 on. Measure the amperage flowing from the battery to the circuit. The target current is 20ma, I measured 9ma to 24ma using different CMOS 555s. This isn’t critical, though it will affect the battery life.
THEORY OF OPERATION
An observant reader will note that this is fundamentally the same circuit that was used in the 555 AUDIO OSCILLATOR experiment. Many designs use the same basic designs and concepts several different ways, this is such a case. A conventional 555 IC would work in this design if the power supply weren’t so low and a LED current limiting resistor is used. Other than the type of transistors used the block diagram shown in Figure 1 is basically the same as a conventional 555.
This particular oscillator depends on the pin 7 transistor, much like the 555 Monostable Multivibrator shown in an earlier experiment. The startup condition is with the capacitor discharged, the output high, and pin 7 transistor off. The capacitor starts charging as shown in Figure 2.
When the voltage across pins 2 and 6 reaches 2/3 of the power supply the flip flop is reset via internal comparator C1, which turns on the Pin 7 transistor, and starts the capacitor C1 discharging through R2 as shown in Figure 3. The current shown through R1 is incidental, and not important other than it drains the battery. This is why this resistor value is so large.
When the voltage across pins 2 and 6 reaches 1/3 of the power supply the flip-flop is set via internal comparator C2, when turns off the pin 7 transistor, allowing the capacitor to start charging again through R1 and R2, as shown in Figure 2. This cycle repeats.
Capacitor C2 extends the life of the batteries, since it will store the voltage during the 97% of time the circuit is off, and provide the current during the 3% it is on. This simple addition will take the batteries beyond their useful life by a large margin.
In running this experiment there was a feedback mechanism I hadn’t anticipated. The output current of the TLC555 is not proportional, as the power supply voltage goes down the output current reduces a lot more. My flasher lasted for 6 months before I terminated the experiment. It was still flashing, it was just very dim. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/08%3A_555_Timer_Circuits/8.05%3A_CMOS_555_Long_Duration_Minimum_Parts_Red_LED_Flasher.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Two AAA Batteries
• Battery Clip (Radio Shack catalog # 270-398B)
• U1 - 1CMOS TLC555 timer IC (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1718 or equivalent)
• Q1 - 2N3906 PNP Transistor (Radio Shack catalog #276-1604 (15 pack) or equivalent)
• Q2 - 2N2222 NPN Transistor (Radio Shack catalog #276-1617 (15 pack) or equivalent)
• CR1 - 1N914 Diode (Radio Shack catalog #276-1122 (10 pack) or equivalent, see Instructions)
• D1 - Blue light-emitting diode (Radio Shack catalog # 276-311 or equivalent)
• R1 - 1.5 MΩ 1/4W 5% Resistor
• R2 - 47 KΩ 1/4W 5% Resistor
• R3 - 2.2 KΩ 1/4W 5% Resistor
• R4 - 620 Ω 1/4W 5% Resistor
• R5 - 82 Ω 1/4W 5% Resistor
• C1 - 1 µF Tantalum Capacitor (Radio Shack catalog 272-1025 or equivalent)
• C2 - 100 µF Electrolytic Capacitor (Radio Shack catalog 272-1028 or equivalent)
• C3 - 470 µF Electrolytic Capacitor (Radio Shack catalog 272-1030 or equivalent)
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 16: “Voltage and current calculations“
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 16: “Solving for unknown time”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 4 : “Bipolar Junction Transistors”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 9 : “ElectroStatic Discharge”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 4, chapter 10: “Multivibrators”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Learn a practical application for a RC time constant
• Learn one of several 555 timer Astable Multivibrator Configurations
• Working knowledge of duty cycle
• How to handle ESD sensitive parts
• How to use transistors to improve current gain
• How to use a capacitor to double voltage with a switch
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
NOTE! This project uses a static sensitive part, the CMOS 555. If you do not use protection as described in Volume 3, Chapter 9, ElectroStatic Discharge, you run the risk of destroying it.
This circuit builds on the previous two experiments, using their features and adding to them. Blue and white LEDs have a higher Vf (forward dropping voltage) than most, around 3.6V. 3V batteries can’t drive them without help, so extra circuitry is required.
As in the previous circuits, the LED is given a 0.03 second (30ms) pulse. C3 is used to double the voltage of this pulse, but it can only do this for a short time. Measuring the current though the LED is impractical with this circuit because of this short duration, but blue LEDs are generally more predictable because they were invented later.
This particular design can also be used with a single 1 1/2V battery. The base concept was created with a now obsolete IC, the LM3909, which used a red LED, the IC, and a capacitor. As with this circuit, it could flash a red LED for over a year with a single D cell. When newer red LEDs increased their Vf from 1.5V to 2.5V this old chip was no longer practical, and is still missed by many hobbyists. If you want to try a 11/2V battery change R5 to 10Ω and use a red LED with a better CR1 (see next paragraph) .
CR1 is not the best choice for this component, it was selected because it is a common part and it works. Almost any diode will work in this application. Schottky and germanium diodes drop much less voltage, a silicon diode drops 0.6-0.7V, while a Schottky diode drops 0.1-0.2V, and a germanium diode drops 0.2V-0.3V. If these components are used the reduced voltage drop would translate into brighter LED intensity, as the circuits efficiency is increased.
THEORY OF OPERATION
Q2 is a switch, which this circuit uses. When Q2 is off C3 is charged to the battery voltage, minus the diode drop, as shown in Figure 1. Since the blue LED Vf is 3.4V to 3.6V it is effectively out of the circuit.
Figure 2 shows what happens when Q2 turns on. The capacitor C3 + side is grounded, which moves the - side to -2.4V. The diode CR1 is now back biased, and is out of the circuit. The -2.4V is discharged through R5 and D1 to the +3.0V of the batteries. The 5.4V provides lots of extra voltage to light the blue LED. Long before C3 is discharged the circuit switches back and C3 starts charging again.
In the LM3909 CR1 was a resistor. The diode was used to minimize current, by allowing R4 to be its maximum value.
You may notice a dim blue glow in the blue LED when it is off. This demonstrates the difference between theory and practice, 3V is enough to cause some leakage through the blue LED, even though it is not conducting. If you were to measure this current it would be very small. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/08%3A_555_Timer_Circuits/8.06%3A_CMOS_555_Long_Duration_Blue_LED_Flasher.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Two AAA Batteries
• Battery Clip (Radio Shack catalog # 270-398B)
• U1, U2 - CMOS TLC555 timer IC (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1718 or equivalent)
• Q1 - 2N3906 PNP Transistor (Radio Shack catalog #276-1604 (15 pack) or equivalent)
• Q2 - 2N2222 NPN Transistor (Radio Shack catalog #276-1617 (15 pack) or equivalent)
• D1 - Red light-emitting diode (Radio Shack catalog # 276-041 or equivalent)
• D2 - Blue light-emitting diode (Radio Shack catalog # 276-311 or equivalent)
• R1 - 1.5 MΩ 1/4W 5% Resistor
• R2 - 47 KΩ 1/4W 5% Resistor
• R3,R5 - 10 KΩ 1/4W 5% Resistor
• R4 - 1 MΩ 1/4W 5% Resisto
• r
• R6 - 100 KΩ 1/4W 5% Resistor
• R7 - 1 KΩ 1/4W 5% Resistor
• C1 - 1 µF Tantalum Capacitor (Radio Shack catalog # 272-1025 or equivalent)
• C2 - 100 pF Ceramic Disc Capacitor (Radio Shack catalog # 272-123)
• C3 - 100 µF Electrolytic Capacitor (Radio Shack catalog 272-1028 or equivalent)
• L1 - 200 µH Choke or Inductor (Exact value not critical, see end of chapter)
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 16: Title “Inductor transient response”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 16: Title “Why L/R and not LR?”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 4: Title “The common-emitter amplifier”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 9: Title “Electrostatic Discharge”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 4, chapter 10: Title “Monostable multivibrators”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Learn another mode of operation for the 555
• How to handle ESD Parts
• How to use a transistor for a simple gate (resistor transistor inverter)
• How inductors can convert power using inductive flyback
• How to make an inductor
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
NOTE! This project uses a static sensitive part, the CMOS 555. If you do not use protection as described in Volume 3, Chapter 9, ElectroStatic Discharge, you run the risk of destroying it.
This particular experiment builds on another experiment, “Commutating diode” (Volume 6, chapter 5). It is worth reviewing that section before proceeding.
This is the last of the long duration LED flasher series. They have shown how to use a CMOS 555 to flash an LED, and how to boost the voltage of the batteries to allow an LED with more voltage drop than the batteries to be used. Here we are doing the same thing, but with an inductor instead of a capacitor.
The basic concept is adapted from another invention, the Joule Thief. A joule thief is a simple transistor oscillator that also uses inductive kickback to light an white light LED from a 11/2 battery, and the LED needs at least 3.6 volts to start conducting! Like the joule thief, it is possible to use 11/2 volts to get this circuit to work. However, since a CMOS 555 is rated for 2 volts minimum 11/2 volts is not recommended, but we can take advantage of the extreme efficiency of this circuit. If you want to learn more about the joule thief plenty of information can be found on the web.
This circuit can also drive more that 1 or 2 LEDs in series. As the numbers of LEDs go up the ability of the batteries to last a long duration goes down, as the amount of voltage the inductor can generate is somewhat dependent on battery voltage. For the purposes of this experiment two dissimilar LEDs were used to demonstrate its independence of LED voltage drop. The high intensity of the blue LED swamps the red LED, but if you look closely you will find the red LED is at its maximum brightness. You can use pretty much whatever color of LEDs you choose for this experiment.
Generally the high voltage created by inductive kickback is something to be eliminated. This circuit uses it, but if you make a mistake with the polarity of the LEDs the blue LED, which is more ESD sensitive, will likely die (this has been verified). An uncontrolled pulse from a coil resembles an ESD event. The transistor and the TLC555 can also be at risk.
The inductor in this circuit is probably the least critical part in the design. The term inductor is generic, you can also find this component called a choke or a coil. A solenoid coil would also work, since that is also a type of inductor. So would the coil from a relay. Of all the components I have used, this is probably the least critical I’ve come across. Indeed, coils are probably the most practical component you can make yourself that exists. I’ll cover how to make a coil that will work in this design after the Theory of Operation, but the part shown on the illustration is a 200µH choke I bought from a local electronics retailer.
THEORY OF OPERATION
Both capacitors and inductors store energy. Capacitors try to maintain constant voltage, whereas inductors try to maintain constant current. Both resist change to their respective aspect. This is the basis for the flyback transformer, which is a common circuit used in old CRT circuits and other uses where high voltage is needed with a minimum of fuss. When you charge a coil a magnetic field expands around it, basically it is an electromagnet, and the magnetic field is stored energy. When the current stops this magnetic field collapses, created electricity as the field crosses the wires in the coil.
This circuit uses two astable multivibrators. The first multivibrator controls the second. Both are designed for minimum current, as well as the inverter made using Q1. Both the oscillators are very similar, the first has been covered in previous experiments. The problem is it stays on, or is high, 97% of the time. On the previous circuits we used the low state to light the LED, in this case the high is what turns the second multivibrator on. Using a simple transistor inverter designed for extra low current solves this problem. This is actually a very old logic family, RTL, which is short for resistor transistor logic.
The second multivibrator oscillates at 68.6 KHz, with a square wave that is around 50%. This circuit uses the exact same principals as is shown in the Minimum Parts LED Flasher. Again, the largest practical resistors are used to minimize current, and this means a really small capacitor for C2. This high frequency square wave is used to turn Q2 on and off as a simple switch.
Figure 1 shows what happens when the Q2 is conducting, and the coil starts to charge. If Q2 were to stay on then an effective short across the batteries would result, but since this is part of an oscillator this won’t happen. Before the coil can reach it’s maximum current Q2 switches, and the switch is open.
Figure 2 shows Q2 when it opens, and the coil is charged. The coil tries to maintain the current, but if there is no discharge path it can not do this. If there were no discharge path is the coil would create a high voltage pulse, seeking to maintain the current that was flowing through it, and this voltage would be quite high. However, we have a couple of LEDs in the discharge path, so the coils pulse quickly goes to the voltage drop of the combined LEDs, then dumps the rest of its charge as current. As a result there is no high voltage generated, but there is a conversion to the voltage required to light the LEDs.
The LEDs are pulsed, and the light curve follows the discharge curve of the coil fairly closely. However, the human eye averages this light output to something we perceive as continuous light.
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• 26 Feet (8 Meters) of 26AWG Magnet Wire (Radio Shack catalog #278-1345 or equivalent)
• 6/32X1.5 inch screw, a M4X30mm screw, or a nail of similar diameter cut down to size, steel or iron, but not stainless
• Matching lock nut (optional)
• Transparent Tape (optional, needed if using screws)
• Super Glue
• Soldering Iron, Solder
As has been mentioned before, this is not a precision part. Inductors in general can have a large variance for many applications, and this one specifically can be off on the high side a large amount. The target here is greater than 220µH.
If you are using a screw, use one layer of the transparent tape between the threads and the wire. This is to prevent the threads of the screw from cutting into the wire and shorting the coil out. If you are using a lock nut put it on the screw 1” (25mm) from the head of the screw. Starting around 1” from one end of the wire, use the glue to tack the wire on the head of the nail or screw as shown. Let the glue set.
Wind the wire neatly and tightly 1” the length of screw, again tacking it in place with super glue. (Figure above). You can use a variable speed drill to help with this, as long as you are careful. Like all power appliances, it can bite you. Hold the wire tight until the glue sets, then start winding a second layer over the first. Continue this process until all of the wire except the last 1” is used, using the glue to occasionally tack the wire down. Arrange the wire on the last layer so the second inductor lead is on the other end of the screw away from the first. Tack this down for a final time with the glue. Let dry completely.
Gently take a sharp blade and scrap the enamel off each end of the two leads. Tin the exposed copper with the soldering iron and the solder, and you now have a functional inductor that can be used in this experiment.
Here is what the one I made looked like: Figure below.
The connections shown are being used to measure the inductance, which worked out pretty close to 220µH. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/08%3A_555_Timer_Circuits/8.07%3A_CMOS_555_Long_Duration_Flyback_LED_Flasher.txt |
PARTS AND MATERIALS
• Two AAA Batteries
• Battery Clip (Radio Shack catalog # 270-398B)
• A DVM or VOM
• U1 - CMOS TLC555 timer IC (Radio Shack catalog # 276-1718 or equivalent)
• Q1 - 2N3906 PNP Transistor (Radio Shack catalog #276-1604 (15 pack) or equivalent)
• Q2 - 2N2222 NPN Transistor (Radio Shack catalog #276-1617 (15 pack) or equivalent)
• D1 - Red light-emitting diode (Radio Shack catalog # 276-041 or equivalent)
• R1 - 1.5 MΩ 1/4W 5% Resistor
• R2 - 47 KΩ 1/4W 5% Resistor
• R3 - 2.2 KΩ 1/4W 5% Resistor
• R4 - 27 Ω 1/4W 5% Resistor (or test select a better value)
• C1 - 1 µF Tantalum Capacitor (Radio Shack catalog 272-1025 or equivalent)
• C2 - 100 µF Electrolytic Capacitor (Radio Shack catalog 272-1028 or equivalent)
CROSS-REFERENCES
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 16: “Voltage and current calculations”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 1, chapter 16: “Solving for unknown time”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 4 : “Bipolar Junction Transistors”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 3, chapter 9 : “ElectroStatic Discharge”
Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume 4, chapter 10: “Multivibrators”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Learn a practical application for a RC time constant
• Learn one of several 555 timer Astable Multivibrator Configurations
• Working knowledge of duty cycle
• How to handle ESD sensitive parts
• How to use transistors to improve current gain
• How to calculate the correct resistor for a LED
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATION
INSTRUCTIONS
NOTE! This project uses a static sensitive part, the CMOS 555. If you do not use protection as described in Volume 3, Chapter 9, ElectroStatic Discharge, you run the risk of destroying it.
The circuit shown in the previous experiment, CMOS 555 Long Duration Minimum Parts Red LED Flasher, has one big drawback, which is a lack of LED current control. This experiment uses the same basic 555 schematic and adds transistorized drivers to correct this.
The parts used for this transistor driver are non critical. It is designed to load the TLC555 to an absolute minimum and still turn on Q2 fully. This is important because as the battery voltage approaches 2V the drive from the TLC555 is reduced to its minimum values. Bipolar transistors can be good switches.
Since LEDs can have so much variation R4 should be tweaked to match the specific LED used. The current is limited to 18.5ma with 27Ω and a Vf (LED forward dropping voltage) of 2.5V, an LED Vf of 2.1V will draw 33ma, and a LED Vf of 1.5 will draw 56ma. The latter is too much current, not to mention what that would do for the battery life. To correct this use 47Ω if the Vf is 2.1V, and 75Ω if the Vf is 1.5V, assuming the target current is 20ma.
You can measure Vf by using the jumper shown in red in the illustration, which will turn the LED on full time. You can calculate the value of R4 by using the equation:
R4 = (3V-Vf) / 0.02A
It was mentioned in the previous experiment that capacitor C2 extended the life of the batteries. An interesting experiment is to remove this part periodically and see what happens. At first you will notice a dimming of the LED, and after a week or two the circuit will die without it, and resume working in a couple of seconds when it is replaced. This flasher will work for 3 months using fresh alkaline AAA batteries.
THEORY OF OPERATION
The CMOS 555 oscillator was explained fully in the previous experiment, so the transistor driver will be the focus of this explanation.
The transistor driver combines elements of a common collector configuration on Q1, along with common emitter configuration on Q2. This allows for very high input resistance while allowing Q2 to turn on fully. The input resistance of the transistor is the β (gain) of the transistor times the emitter resistor. If Q1 has a gain of 50 (a minimum value) then the driver loads the TLC555 with more than 100KΩ. Transistors can have large variations in gain, even within the same family.
When Q1 turns on 1ma is sent to Q2. This is more than enough to turn Q2 fully, which is referred to as saturation. Q2 is used as a simple switch for the LED. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_VI_-_Experiments_(Kuphaldt)/08%3A_555_Timer_Circuits/8.08%3A_CMOS_555_Long_Duration_Red_LED_Flasher.txt |
Power Equation of Ohm’s Law and Joule’s Law
NOTE: the symbol “V” (“U” in Europe) is sometimes used to represent voltage instead of “E”. In some cases, an author or circuit designer may choose to exclusively use “V” for voltage, never using the symbol “E.” Other times the two symbols are used interchangeably, or “E” is used to represent voltage from a power source while “V” is used to represent voltage across a load (voltage “drop”).
Kirchhoff’s Voltage and Current Laws
“The algebraic sum of all voltages in a loop must equal zero.”
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
“The algebraic sum of all currents entering and exiting a node must equal zero.”
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
1.02: Series Circuit Rules
• Components in a series circuit share the same current:
• Itotal = I1 = I2 = . . . In
• Total resistance in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual resistances, making it greater than any of the individual resistances:
• Rtotal = R1 + R2 + . . . Rn
• Total voltage in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual voltage drops:
• Etotal = E1 + E2 + . . . En
1.03: Parallel Circuit Rules
• Components in a parallel circuit share the same voltage:
• Etotal = E1 = E2 = . . . En
• Total resistance in a parallel circuit is less than any of the individual resistances:
• Rtotal = 1 / (1/R1 + 1/R2 + . . . 1/Rn)
• Total current in a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of the individual branch currents:
• Itotal = I1 + I2 + . . . In
1.05: Capacitor Sizing Equation
A formula for capacitance in picofarads using practical dimensions:
1.06: Inductor Sizing Equation
The Inductance Formula
Wheeler’s formulas for inductance of air core coils which follow are useful for radio frequency inductors. The following formula for the inductance of a single layer air core solenoid coil is accurate to approximately 1% for 2r/l < 3. The thick coil formula is 1% accurate when the denominator terms are approximately equal. Wheeler’s spiral formula is 1% accurate for c>0.2r. While this is a “round wire” formula, it may still be applicable to printed circuit spiral inductors at reduced accuracy.
The inductance in henries of a square printed circuit inductor is given by two formulas where p=q, and p≠q.
The wire table provides “turns per inch” for enamel magnet wire for use with the inductance formulas for coils.
1.07: Time Constant Equations
Value of time constant in series RC and RL circuits
Time constant in seconds = RC
Time constant in seconds = L/R
1.08: AC Circuit Equations
ZL = R + jXL
ZC = R - jXC
Series and Parallel Impedances
NOTE: All impedances must be calculated in complex number form for these equations to work.
Resonance
NOTE: This equation applies to a non-resistive LC circuit. In circuits containing resistance as well as inductance and capacitance, this equation applies only to series configurations and to parallel configurations where R is very small. | textbooks/workforce/Electronics_Technology/Book%3A_Electric_Circuits_V_-_References_(Kuphaldt)/01%3A_Useful_Equations_And_Conversion_Factors/1.01%3A_DC_Circuit_Equations_and_Laws.txt |
Subsets and Splits
No saved queries yet
Save your SQL queries to embed, download, and access them later. Queries will appear here once saved.