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Kirkpatrick concluded that while the United States should encourage liberalization and democracy in autocratic countries, it should not do so when the government is facing violent overthrow and should expect gradual change rather than immediate transformation.
AFL–CIO's Tom Kahn criticized conceptual problems and strategic consequences in Kirkpatrick's analysis.
In particular, Kahn suggested that policy should promote democracy even in the countries dominated by Soviet communism.
Kahn argued that the Polish labor-union Solidarity deserved United States support and even in its first years demonstrated that civil society could expand and that free labor unions could be organized despite Communist regimes.
Kirkpatrick's analysis of Communism underestimated the democratic potential of the working class.
Ted Galen Carpenter of the Cato Institute noted that while Communist movements tend to depose rival authoritarians, the traditional authoritarian regimes supported by the United States came to power by overthrowing democracies.
Thus, he concludes that while Communist regimes are more difficult to eradicate, traditional autocratic regimes "pose the more lethal threat to functioning democracies".
W. Arthur Lewis
Sir William Arthur Lewis (23 January 1915 – 15 June 1991) was an economist well known for his contributions in the field of economic development.
In 1979 he was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences.
He had dual Saint Lucian and British citizenships.
Arthur Lewis was born in Castries, Saint Lucia, then still part of the British Windward Islands federal colony, as the fourth of five children of George and Ida Lewis.
His parents had migrated from Antigua shortly after the turn of the century.
George Lewis died when Arthur turned seven, and Ida raised their five children alone.
Arthur was a gifted student and was promoted two classes ahead of his age.
After finishing school at the age of 14, Lewis worked as a clerk, while waiting to take his university entrance exam.
During this time he became friends with Eric Williams, the future first prime minister of Trinidad and Tobago, and the two remained lifelong friends.
After graduating, Lewis’ initial career choice was to become an engineer.
He made the eventual switch to economics because the governments and companies of British Colonies, such as St. Lucia, refused to hire blacks.
At the age of 18, he would go on to earn a scholarship to attend the London School of Economics.
Not only was this an opportunity for Lewis to study at perhaps the most prestigious University for Economics in the world, but he would also be the first black individual to ever gain acceptance at LSE.
While enrolled, Lewis would achieve similar success here as he did in grade in school.
Lewis’ academic superiority was noticed and admired by his peers and professors.
While at LSE, Lewis had the opportunity to study under the likes of John Hicks, Arnold Plant, Lionel Robbins, and Friedrich Hayek.
After gaining his Bachelor of Science degree in 1937 and a Ph.D. degree in 1940 at the London School of Economics (LSE) under supervision of Arnold Plant, Lewis worked as a member of the staff at the LSE until 1948.
In 1947, he married Gladys Jacobs, and they had two daughters together.
That year he was selected as a lecturer at the University of Manchester, and moved there with his family.
He taught at Manchester until 1957.
During this period, he developed some of his most important concepts about the patterns of capital and wages in developing countries.
He particularly became known for his contributions to development economics, of great interest as former colonies began to gain independence from European nations.
Lewis served as an Economic advisor to numerous African and Caribbean governments, i.e.
Nigeria, Ghana, Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica and Barbados.
When Ghana gained independence in 1957, its government appointed Lewis as their first economic advisor.
He helped draw up its first Five-Year Development Plan (1959–63).
In 1959 Lewis returned to the Caribbean region when appointed Vice Chancellor of the University of the West Indies.
In 1963 he was knighted for his contributions to economics.
That year, he was also appointed a University Professor at Princeton University and moved to the United States.
Lewis worked at Princeton for the next two decades, teaching generations of students until his retirement in 1983.
In 1970 Lewis also was selected as the first president of the Caribbean Development Bank, serving in that capacity until 1973.
Lewis received the Nobel prize in Economics in 1979, sharing it with Theodore Schultz.
He died on 15 June 1991 in Bridgetown, Barbados.
He was buried in the grounds of the St Lucian community college named in his honour.
He was survived by his wife, Gladys Jacobs, Lady Lewis of Barbados and Princeton, NJ; two daughters, Elizabeth Lewis of Cranbury, NJ, and Barbara Virgil of Brooklyn; and four brothers: Stanley Lewis of Ghana, Earl Lewis of Trinidad, Allen Montgomery Lewis, a former Governor General of St Lucia, and Victor Lewis of St Lucia.
Lewis published in 1954 what was to be his most influential development economics article, "Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labour" (Manchester School).
In this publication, he introduced what came to be called the dual sector model, or the "Lewis model".
Lewis combined an analysis of the historical experience of developed countries with the central ideas of the classical economists to produce a broad picture of the development process.
In his theory, a "capitalist" sector develops by taking labour from a non-capitalist backward "subsistence" sector.
The subsistence sector is governed by informal institutions and social norms so that producers do not maximise profits and workers can be paid above their marginal product.
At an early stage of development, the "unlimited" supply of labour from the subsistence economy means that the capitalist sector can expand for some time without the need to raise wages.
This results in higher returns to capital, which are reinvested in capital accumulation.
In turn, the increase in the capital stock leads the "capitalists" to expand employment by drawing further labour from the subsistence sector.
Given the assumptions of the model (for example, that the profits are reinvested and that capital accumulation does not substitute for skilled labour in production), the process becomes self-sustaining and leads to modernization and economic development.
The point at which the excess labour in the subsistence sector is fully absorbed into the modern sector, and where further capital accumulation begins to increase wages, is sometimes called the Lewisian turning point.
It has recently been widely discussed in the context of economic development in China.
Lewis published "The Theory of Economic Growth" in 1955 in which he sought to “provide an appropriate framework for studying economic development,” driven by a combination of “curiosity and of practical need.”
Influenced by 19th Century England or the Industrial Revolution.
During the Industrial Revolution, England was experiencing the worst economic turmoil of its time.
It wouldn’t be until an economic enlightenment would take place cities began to shift towards factories and labor intensive methods of production as they experienced giant shifts in the labor and agriculture markets.
Thus, eventually leading to higher production, and higher income.
Lewis theorized if England could turn its misfortune around, the same could be done for developing countries around the world.
His theories would prove true for some countries such as Nigeria and Barbados as they would see some economic development
Figueroa, M. (2005).
W. Arthur Lewis’s Social Analysis and the Transformation of Tropical Economies.
Social and Economic Studies, 54(4), 72–90.
https://doi.org/http://www.mona.uwi.edu/ses/archives
Lyrical Ballads
Lyrical Ballads, with a Few Other Poems is a collection of poems by William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, first published in 1798 and generally considered to have marked the beginning of the English Romantic movement in literature.
The immediate effect on critics was modest, but it became and remains a landmark, changing the course of English literature and poetry.
Most of the poems in the 1798 edition were written by Wordsworth, with Coleridge contributing only four poems to the collection (although these made about a third of the book in length), including one of his most famous works, "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner".
A second edition was published in 1800, in which Wordsworth included additional poems and a preface detailing the pair's avowed poetical principles.
For another edition, published in 1802, Wordsworth added an appendix titled "Poetic Diction" in which he expanded the ideas set forth in the preface.
A third edition was published in 1802, with substantial additions made to its "Preface," and a fourth edition was published in 1805.
Wordsworth and Coleridge set out to overturn what they considered the priggish, learned, and highly sculpted forms of 18th-century English poetry and to make poetry accessible to the average person via verse written in common, everyday language.
These two major poets emphasize the vitality of the living voice used by the poor to express their reality.
This language also helps assert the universality of human emotions.
Even the title of the collection recalls rustic forms of art – the word "lyrical" links the poems with the ancient rustic bards and lends an air of spontaneity, while "ballads" are an oral mode of storytelling used by the common people.
In the 'Advertisement' included in the 1798 edition, Wordsworth explained his poetical concept:
The majority of the following poems are to be considered as experiments.
They were written chiefly with a view to ascertain how far the language of conversation in the middle and lower classes of society is adapted to the purpose of poetic pleasure.
If the experiment with vernacular language was not enough of a departure from the norm, the focus on simple, uneducated country people as the "subject" of poetry was a signal shift to modern literature.
One of the main themes of "Lyrical Ballads" is the return to the original state of nature, in which people led a purer and more innocent existence.
Wordsworth subscribed to Rousseau's belief that humanity was essentially good but was corrupted by the influence of society.
This may be linked with the sentiments spreading through Europe just prior to the French Revolution.
Poems marked (Coleridge) were written by Coleridge; all other poems were written by Wordsworth.
In first edition, 1798 there were 19 poems written by Wordsworth and 4 poems by Coleridge.
For the 1800 edition, Wordsworth added several poems which make up Volume II.
The poem "The Convict" (Wordsworth) was in the 1798 edition but Wordsworth omitted it from the 1800 edition, replacing it with Coleridge's "Love".
"Lewti or the Circassian Love-chaunt" (Coleridge) exists in some 1798 editions in place of "The Convict".
The poems "Lines written when sailing in a Boat at evening" and "Lines written near Richmond, upon the Thames" are one poem in the 1798 edition entitled "Lines written near Richmond, upon the Thames, at Evening".
Granulocyte
Granulocytes are a category of white blood cells in the innate immune system characterized by the presence of granules in their cytoplasm.
They are also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes or polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN, PML, or PMNL) because of the varying shapes of the nucleus, which is usually lobed into three segments.
This distinguishes them from the mononuclear agranulocytes.
In common parlance, the term "polymorphonuclear leukocyte" often refers specifically to "neutrophil granulocytes", the most abundant of the granulocytes; the other types (eosinophils, basophils, and mast cells) have lower numbers.
Granulocytes are produced via granulopoiesis in the bone marrow.
There are four types of granulocytes (full name polymorphonuclear granulocytes):
Except for the mast cells, their names are derived from their staining characteristics; for example, the most abundant granulocyte is the neutrophil granulocyte, which has neutrally staining cytoplasmic granules.
Neutrophils are normally found in the bloodstream and are the most abundant type of phagocyte, constituting 60% to 65% of the total circulating white blood cells, and consisting of two subpopulations: neutrophil-killers and neutrophil-cagers.
One litre of human blood contains about five billion (5x10) neutrophils, which are about 12–15 micrometres in diameter.
Once neutrophils have received the appropriate signals, it takes them about thirty minutes to leave the blood and reach the site of an infection.