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formula_13 Multiplication with "alephs" is commutative.
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formula_17. Multiplication with "omegas" is not commutative.
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formula_21 Otherwise, division by infinity is not meaningful. Subtraction with infinity is not meaningful.
January
January (Jan.) is the first month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars, coming between December (of the previous year) and February (of the current year). It has 31 days.
January begins on the same day of the week as October in common years, and April and July in leap years. January ends on the same day of the week as February and October in common years, and July in leap years.
January is named for Janus, the Roman god of doors and gates.
January and February were put on the calendar after all the other months. This is because in the original Roman calendar, winter did not have months. Although March was originally the first month, January became the new first month because that was when people chose the new consuls (Roman leaders). The month has 31 days.
January is a winter month in the Northern Hemisphere and a summer month in the Southern Hemisphere. In each hemisphere, it is the seasonal equivalent of July in the other. Perihelion, the point in its orbit where the Earth is closest to the Sun, also occurs in this month, between January 2 and January 5. January begins on the same day of the week as October in common years and on the same day of the week as April and July in leap years. January ends on the same day of the week as February and October in common years and on the same day of the week as July in leap years. January is the only month of the year that always has a "twin" - a month that both begins and ends on the same day of the week as it does. In a common year, this is October, and in a leap year, July.
Every year, January both starts and finishes on the same day of the week as May of the previous year, as each other's first and last days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart.
In common years immediately before other common years, January starts on the same day of the week as April and July of the following year, and in leap years and years immediately before that, September and December of the following year. In common years immediately before other common years, January finishes on the same day of the week as July of the following year, and in leap years and years immediately before that, April and December of the following year.
January's flower is the carnation with its birthstone being the garnet. The meaning of the garnet is constancy.
The first day of January is called New Year's Day. It is said that it became this date when Roman consuls took office on this day in 153 BC. Different calendars across Europe made this the start of the New Year at different times, as some observed it on March 25.
Reaching over from December, the Christmas season in Christianity also extends into this month. Eastern churches celebrate Christmas on January 6 or January 7, and Epiphany on January 18 or January 19 - In Western Christianity this occurs on January 6, with Christmas occurring on December 25.
January 1 is celebrated the Solemnity of Mary, the Mother of God, that is a feast day of precept of the Blessed Virgin Mary.
June
June is the sixth month of the year, coming between May and July. It has 30 days. In Sweden in 1732 the month had 31 days. June never begins on the same day of the week as any other month, but always ends on the same day of the week as March.
June comes between May and July and is the sixth month of the year in the Gregorian calendar. It is one of four months to have 30 days.
No other month of any year, common or leap year, begins on the same day of the week as June. June ends on the same day of the week as March every year, as each other's last days are 13 weeks (91 days) apart.
In common years, June starts on the same day of the week as September and December of the previous year, and in leap years, April and July of the previous year. In common years, June finishes on the same day of the week as September of the previous year, and in leap years, April and December of the previous year.
Every year, June starts on the same day of the week as February of the following year, as each other's first days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart. In years immediately before common years, June starts on the same day of the week as March and November of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, August of the following year. In years immediately before common years, June finishes on the same day of the week as August and November of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, May of the following year.
June is one of two months to have a solstice (the other is December, its seasonal equivalent in both hemispheres), and in this month the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere is turned towards the Sun, meaning that June 20 or June 21 is the Northern Summer Solstice and the Southern Winter Solstice. This means that this date would have the most daylight of any day in the Northern hemisphere, and the least in the Southern Hemisphere. There are 24 hours of daylight at the North Pole and 24 hours of darkness at the South Pole.
July
July is the seventh month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, coming between June and August. It has 31 days. July was named after Julius Caesar. The mid-way point of the year is either on July 2 or in the night of July 1-2.
July always begins on the same day of the week as April, and additionally, January in leap years. July doesn't end on the same day of the week as any other month in common years, but ends on the same day of the week as January in leap years.
In each hemisphere, it is the seasonal equivalent of January in the other hemisphere. In the North, it is summer and in the South it is winter.
In the Northern Hemisphere, July is often the warmest month of the year, and major sporting events and music festivals are held around this time. In the Southern Hemisphere, it is a winter month, with the coldest-recorded temperature having been measured in Antarctica in this month.
July begins on the same day of the week as April every year and on the same day of the week as January in leap years. No other month in common years ends on the same day of the week as July, but July ends on the same day of the week as January in leap years.
In common years, July starts on the same day of the week as October of the previous year, and in leap years, May of the previous year. In common years, July finishes on the same day of the week as February and October of the previous year, and in leap years, May of the previous year. In common years immediately after other common years, July both starts and finishes on the same day of the week as January of the previous year.
In years immediately before common years, July starts on the same day of the week as September and December of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, June of the following year. In years immediately before common years, July finishes on the same day of the week as April and December of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, September of the following year.
July's flower is a variety of the water lily. Its birthstone is the ruby. The meaning for the birthstone ruby is contented mind. Astrological signs for July are Cancer (June 21 - July 21) and Leo (July 22 - August 21).
In the old Roman calendar, July was called "Quintilis", meaning "Fifth Month", because, in the old calendar, the year began in March. Augustus later renamed it July in honor of Julius Caesar, whose birthday was in this month. Augustus later also named the following month, August, after himself.
Japan
Japan (; Romanised as "nihon" or "nippon") is a country in East Asia. It is a group of many islands close to the east coast of Korea, China and Russia. The Pacific Ocean is to the east of Japan and the Sea of Japan is to the west. Most people in Japan live on one of four of the islands. The biggest of these islands, Honshu, has the most people. Honshu is the 7th largest island in the world. Tokyo is the capital of Japan and its biggest city.
The Japanese people call their country "Nihon" or "Nippon", which means "the origin of the Sun" in Japanese. Japan is a monarchy whose head of state is called the Emperor.
The first people in Japan were the Ainu people and other Jōmon people. They were closer related to Europeans or Arabs. They were later conquered and replaced by the Yayoi people (early Japanese and Ryukyuans). The Yayoi were an ancient ethnic group that migrated to the Japanese archipelago mainly from southeastern China during the Yayoi period (300 BCE–300 CE). Modern Japanese people have primarily Yayoi ancestry at an average of 97%. The indigenous Ryukyuan and Ainu peoples have more Jōmon ancestry on the other hand.
The earliest records on Japan are from Chinese documents. One of those records said there were many small countries (in Japan) which had wars between them and later a country, ruled by a queen, became the strongest, unified others, and brought peace.
The Japanese began to write their own history after the 5th and 6th centuries, when people from Korea and China taught Japan about the Chinese writing system. Japan's neighbours also taught them Buddhism. The Japanese changed Buddhism in many ways. For example, Japanese Buddhists used ideas such as Zen more than other Buddhists.
Japan had some contact with the Europeans in the 16th century. The Portuguese were the first Europeans to visit Japan. Later, the Spanish and Dutch came to Japan to trade. Also, they brought Christianity. Japan's leaders welcomed them at first, but because Europeans had conquered many places in the world, the Japanese were scared they would conquer Japan too. So the Japanese did not let the Europeans come into Japan anymore, except in a small area in Nagasaki city. Many Christians were killed. Only the Chinese, Korean and Dutch people were allowed to visit Japan, in the end, and they were under careful control of the Japanese government. Japan was opened for visitors again in 1854 by Commodore Matthew Perry, when the Americans wanted to use Japanese ports for American whale boats. Perry brought steamships with guns, which scared the Japanese into making an agreement with him.
This new contact with Europeans and Americans changed the Japanese culture. The Meiji Restoration of 1868 stopped some old ways and added many new ones. The Empire of Japan was created, and it became a very powerful nation and tried to invade the countries next to it. It invaded and annexed Ryukyu Kingdom, Taiwan, and Korea. It had wars with China and Russia: the First Sino-Japanese War, the Boxer Rebellion, the Russo-Japanese War, and the Second Sino-Japanese War, which grew to become a part of World War II when Japan became allies with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy.
In 1941, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, a water base of the United States, and destroyed or damaged many ships and airplanes. This started the United States' involvement in World War II. American and Japanese forces fought each other in the Pacific. Once airbases were established within range of the Japanese mainland, America began to win, and started dropping bombs on Japanese cities. America was able to bomb most of the important cities and quickly brought Japan close to defeat. To make Japan surrender, the United States dropped two atomic bombs on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, killing 150,000 Japanese citizens. Soon after this the Soviet Union began to fight against Japan, and the Japanese army in Manchuria lost. Japan surrendered and gave up all the places it took from other countries, accepting the Potsdam Proclamation. The United States occupied Japan and forced it to write a new constitution, in which it promised to never go to war again.
Japan is a group of islands in the Western Pacific, off the coast of China. The four biggest islands are Honshu, Hokkaido, Shikoku, and Kyushu, and there are about 6,000 smaller islands there. Japan is separated from the Asian continent by the Sea of Japan and the East China Sea. Honshu, which means 'Mainland' in the Japanese language, is the biggest island. Hokkaido is the island north of Honshu. Kyushu is the island west of Honshu. Shikoku is the island to the south-west of Honshu.
In the middle of Japan there are mountains. They cover the middle of the islands and leave a very narrow strip of flat land on most coasts. Many of the mountains are extinct volcanoes, but some are still active. The highest of these mountains is the beautiful, volcano-shaped Mt Fuji (3,776 metres or 12,389 feet high). Japan has many earthquakes, in fact there are about 1500 of these every year. The biggest earthquake recorded in Japan was in 2011 - called '2011 Tohoku Earthquake'. It caused great damage to several power plants forcing Japan to shut down all its nuclear plants. There was nuclear core meltdown which caused a serious health risk to nearby villages and cities.
90% of the people living in Japan live in just 10% of the land, near the coast. The other 10% of the people in Japan live away from the coast.
Over 10 cities have more than a million people in them. The biggest city in Japan is Tokyo, which is the capital.
The ruling party is the Liberal Democratic Party (Japan) and the prime minister is Yoshihide Suga. The legislature of Japan is called the National Diet.
In the past, the Japanese learned science by way of China or from Europe in the Meiji Era. However, in recent decades Japan has been a leading innovator in several fields, including chemical engineering, nanotechnology, and robotics. There are many technological companies in Japan, and these companies make products for export.
The robot Asimo was made and introduced in 2000. It was manufactured by Honda.
Many things in Japanese culture originated in China, like Go and bonsai.
Japan's traditional food is seafood, rice, miso soup, and vegetables. Noodles and tofu are also common. Sushi, a Japanese food made of cooked rice with vinegar with other ingredients such as raw fish, is popular around the world.
The religion in Japan is mostly Shinto and Buddhist. Due to the tolerant nature of the two main Japanese religions, and the resulting intermixing of the two, many Japanese identify as both Shinto and Buddhist at the same time. There are small numbers of Christians and Muslims, and a few Jews.
When it comes to popular culture, Japan is famous for making video games. Many of the biggest companies that make games, like Nintendo, Namco, and Sega, are Japanese. Other well-known parts of Japanese arts are comics, called manga, and digital animation, or anime. Many people get to know Japanese or how life in Japan is like by reading manga or watching anime on television.
The Ryukyuans and the Ainu both have their own separate cultures, languages and religion.
The biggest cities in Japan are:
In Japan there are seven traditional regions:
Since Japan is an island nation, Japan has several problems over territory because maritime boundaries can be hard to protect. These days, Japan is competing for at least 4 different territories. It cannot agree with some neighbouring countries on whether the land belongs to Japan or the other country.
There are several important international airports in Japan. Narita is the major international airport in the Tokyo area. Kansai International Airport serves as the main airport for Osaka, Kobe, and Kyoto. Chūbu Centrair International Airport near Nagoya is the newest of the three. Haneda Airport is close to central Tokyo and is the largest domestic airport in the country.
The Shinkansen is one of the fastest trains in the world and connects cities in Honshu and Kyushu. Networks of public and private railways are almost all over the country. People mostly travel between cities in buses.
Modern Japan is divided into 47 prefectures. Before the Meiji period (1868-1912), the nation was divided into provinces which were consolidated in the prefectural system.
Japan has many traditional sports such as sumo, judo, karate, kyudo, aikido, iaido and kendo. Also, there are sports which were imported from the West such as baseball, soccer, rugby, golf and skiing.
Japan has taken part in the Olympic Games since 1912. It hosted the Olympic Games in 1964, 1972 and 1998. From 1912 until now, Japanese sportspeople have won 398 medals in total.
Professional sports are also popular and many sports such as baseball (see Pacific League and Central League), soccer (see List of Japanese football teams), sumo, American football, basketball and volleyball, are played professionally.
Jargon
Jargon is a special way to use words that are shared only by a certain group of people. They do not mean what the dictionary says they mean. They have different meanings to the people using them than their everyday meaning.
For example, the ordinary words "boot", "net", and "web" also have special meanings for users of computers, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. These, and to flame, to ping and many acronyms are part of net jargon.
An "acronym" means that only some of the letters in the word or phrase are used. Often this is the first letter of each word. Other acronyms found online are simply common shorthand.
Usually, more jargon is created over time.
Jargon is also common in the military. It includes phrases like SNAFU.
Jargon can be used by a clique to prevent others from joining or understanding, but it also is often just used because it is shorter.
Jupiter
Jupiter is the largest planet in the Solar System. It is the fifth planet from the Sun. Jupiter is a gas giant, both because it is so large and made up of gas. The other gas giants are Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
Jupiter has a mass of 1.8986×10 kg. (318 earths). This is more than twice the mass of all the other planets in the Solar System put together.
Jupiter can be seen even without using a telescope. The ancient Romans named the planet after their god Jupiter (Latin: "Iuppiter"). Jupiter is the third brightest object in the night sky. Only the Earth's moon and Venus are brighter.
Jupiter has 79 moons. Of these, around 50 are very small and less than five kilometres wide. The four largest moons of Jupiter are Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. They are called the Galilean moons, because Galileo Galilei discovered them. Ganymede is the largest moon in the Solar System. It is larger in diameter than Mercury. In 2018 another ten very small moons were discovered
Jupiter is the biggest planet in the Solar System with a diameter of 142,984 km. This is eleven times bigger than the diameter of Earth.
The atmosphere near the surface of Jupiter is about 88 to 92% hydrogen, 8 to 12% helium, and 1% other gases.
The lower atmosphere is so heated and the pressure so high that helium changes to liquid. It rains down onto the planet. Based on spectroscopy, Jupiter seems to be made of the same gases as Saturn. It is different from Neptune or Uranus. These two planets have much less hydrogen and helium gas.
The very high temperatures and pressures in Jupiter's core mean scientists cannot tell what materials would be there. This cannot be found out, because it is not possible to create the same amount of pressure on Earth.
Above the unknown inner core is an outer core. The outer core of Jupiter is thick, liquid hydrogen. The pressure is high enough to make the hydrogen solid, but then it melts because of the heat.
The planet Jupiter is sometimes called a failed star because it is made of the same elements (hydrogen and helium) as is the Sun, but it is not large enough to have the internal pressure and temperature necessary to cause hydrogen to fuse to helium, the energy source that powers the sun and most other stars.
Jupiter is twice as massive as all the other planets in the Solar System put together. It gives off more heat than it gets from the sun.
Jupiter is 11 times the width of Earth and 318 times as massive. The volume of Jupiter is 1,317 times the volume of Earth. In other words, 1,317 Earth-sized objects could fit inside it.
Jupiter has many bands of clouds going horizontally across its surface. The light parts are zones and the darker are belts. The zones and belts often interact with each other. This causes huge storms. Wind speeds of 360 kilometres per hour (km/h) are common on Jupiter. To show the difference the strongest tropical storms on Earth are about 100 km/h.
Most of the clouds on Jupiter are made of ammonia. There may also be clouds of water vapour like clouds on Earth. Spacecrafts such as Voyager 1 have seen lightning on the surface of the planet. Scientists think it was water vapour because lightning needs water vapour. These lightning bolts have been measured as up 1,000 times as powerful as those on Earth.
The brown and orange colours are caused when sunlight passes through or refracts with the many gases in the atmosphere.
One of the biggest features in Jupiter's atmosphere is the Great Red Spot. It is a huge storm which is bigger than the entire Earth. It is on record since at least 1831, and as early as 1665. Images by the Hubble Space Telescope have shown as many as two smaller "red spots" right next to the Great Red Spot. Storms can last for hours or as long as hundreds of years in the case of the Great Red Spot.
Jupiter has a magnetic field like Earth's but 11 times stronger. It also has a "magnetosphere" much bigger and stronger than Earth's. The field traps radiation belts much stronger than Earth's Van Allen radiation belts, strong enough to endanger any spacecraft travelling past or to Jupiter. The magnetic field is probably caused by the large amounts of liquid metallic hydrogen in the core of Jupiter. The four largest moons of Jupiter and many of the smaller ones orbit or go around the planet within the magnetic field. This protects them from the solar wind. Jupiter's magnetic field is so large, it reaches the orbit of Saturn 7.7 million miles (12 million km) away. The Earth's magnetosphere does not even cover its moon, less than a quarter of a million miles (400,000 km) away.
Jupiter also has a thin planetary ring system. These rings are difficult to see and were not discovered until 1979 by NASA's Voyager 1 probe. There are four parts to Jupiter's rings. The closest ring to Jupiter is called the Halo Ring. The next ring is called the Main Ring. It is about wide and only thick. The Main and Halo rings of Jupiter are made of small, dark particles. The third and fourth rings, called the "Gossamer" Rings, are transparent (see through) and are made from microscopic debris and dust. This dust probably comes from small meteors striking the surface of Jupiter's moons. The third ring is called the Amalthea Gossamer Ring, named after moon Amalthea. The outer ring, the Thebe Gossamer Ring, is named after the moon Thebe. The outer edge of this ring is about from Jupiter.
The orbit of a planet is the time and path it takes to go around the Sun. In the amount of time it takes for Jupiter to orbit the Sun one time, the Earth orbits the Sun 11.86 times. One year on Jupiter is equal to 11.86 years on Earth. The average distance between Jupiter and the Sun is 778 million kilometres. This is five times the distance between Earth and the Sun. Jupiter is not tilted on its axis as much as Earth or Mars. This causes it to have no seasons, for example summer or winter. Jupiter rotates, or spins around very quickly. This causes the planet to bulge in the middle. Jupiter is the fastest spinning planet in the Solar System. It completes one rotation or spin in 10 hours. Because of the bulge, the length of the equator of Jupiter is much longer than the length from pole to pole.
Jupiter is the third brightest object in the night sky, after the Moon and Venus. Because of that, people have always been able to see it from Earth. The first person known to really study the planet was Galileo Galilei in 1610. He was the first person to see Jupiter's moons Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. This was because he used a telescope, unlike anyone before him.
No new moons were discovered for more than two hundred years. In 1892, astronomer E.E Barnard found a new moon using his observatory in California. He called the moon Amalthea. It was the last of Jupiter's 67 moons to be discovered by human observation through a telescope.
In 1994, bits of the comet Shoemaker Levy-9 hit Jupiter. It was the first time people saw a collision between two Solar System objects.
Seven spacecraft have flown past Jupiter since 1973. These were Pioneer 10 (1973), Pioneer 11 (1974), Voyagers 1 and 2 (1979), Ulysses (1992 and 2004), Cassini (2000) and New Horizons (2007).