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"Normal" beers have around 3-5 % alcohol (for the volume, i.e. in 100ml beer there is 3-5ml alcohol). In brewing beer, the amount of alcohol can be made more or less quite easily. The Belgian types of beer are made by adding more sugar. Through the fermentation, this will then turn to alcohol. Today, there are beers with between 2% and about 16% of alcohol (about the same alcohol content as wine). Spirits can have up to 80% alcohol. Some beer labels say there is no alcohol in them because it was taken out later. This is not completely true, though. Beers "without alcohol" usually do have less than 1% of alcohol.
IP address
An IP address (short for Internet Protocol address) is a label which is used to identify one or more devices on a computer network, such as the internet. It can be compared to a postal address. An IP address is a long
number written in binary. Since such numbers are difficult to communicate, IP addresses are usually written as a set of numbers in a given order. Devices using IP addresses use the internet protocol to communicate.
The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority assigns IP addresses to regional internet registries (RIRs). The RIRs assign them to Internet Service Providers. Internet Service Providers then assign IP addresses to their customers. Very often, people have a router or gateway at home, to which they connect computers, printers, and other devices. These routers or gateways are often configured to assign "local" IP addresses to the devices that are connected.
Each address has two parts: One that specifies the computer or group of computers, and another which specifies the network. A device can have more than one IP address. Certain types of IP addresses are used to address a group of devices, while others are used to address only one device. Certain types of addresses are unique, others can be re-used. A number of IP addresses are used for special purposes, for example to obtain an IP address automatically.
An IP address is converted to physical or Media Access Control Address using the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP). If an IP address is your phone number, then your MAC address is your name. You may change your phone number, but your name will not change.
Suppose one of our friends wants to meet us but they don’t know our address. He asks for our address and then we give our address (Example: 123 Main Street, Anytown, USA). After giving the address, he or she can easily locate our address. The same thing is done in case of internet. Every network is assigned an address.
IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority) allocates the IP address. IANA is responsible for the IP addressing system.
An IP address is a long binary number, made of ones and zeros. An IPv4 address is 32 binary digits (or bits) long. An IPv6 is 128 bits long, allowing many more IP addresses to be used. IP addresses are usually written in human-readable form, where 8 bits are grouped into one octet. IPv4 addresses are usually written as a group of four numbers. Each number can take a value from 0 to 255. IPv6 addresses are written as a group of eight hexadecimal numbers. Many Ipv6 addresses contain many zeroes. There are special rules which say that in certain cases, these zeroes do not need to be written.
Certain IP addresses can be assigned freely on the local area network. Since they are not unique, they are not routed on the internet. The addresses which can be freely assigned are called private IP addresses, and the ones which are unique are called public. To be routed, a private address needs to be translated into a public one. This process of translating between private and public addresses is called network address translation, or NAT. Routers and firewalls often also perform this task.
There are three different types of addresses:
There are different ways of getting a new IP address. One of them is called Bootstrap Protocol (usually shortened to BOOTP). The device that needs a new address, does not know what network it is in, so it uses an IP address of all zeroes (0.0.0.0) which it sends as a broadcast to the current network, on a special port. In addition, it sends the MAC address of the network card, plus a 4 byte random number. The BOOTP server will send a reply, also as broadcast, addressed to a different port. The reply will contain the mac address of the client, the random number, and the IP address of the client. When the client receives the data, it will set the address specified. If the BOOTP server is configured that way, it will also send the IP address and hostname of the BOOTP Server, the name and path to a file which should be loaded to boot the client (using TFTP) or the name of a directory, which the client should mount using NFS.
DHCP extends BOOTP, and allows to send more information, such as the address of a time server, or information which is useful for routing.
IP addresses obtained automatically can be dynamic or static. Static addressing means the same machine will always get the same IP address. With dynamic addresses, a device will get the next address which is not used. Dynamic addresses which are used need to be reviewed from time to time. If they are not renewed, they can be used for other devices.
With IPv4, each address consists of four 8-digit binary numbers, called octets. An IPv4 address is 32 bits in total. The biggest number one can make with 8 regular digits is 99,999,999, but the biggest number one can make with 8 binary digits is 255 (11111111 in binary), so each octet can be any number from 0 to 255.
An IPv4 address could look something like this:
Each octet is converted to its decimal form and separated by a period.
There are are also special meanings associated with two different ending numbers. In general, a last number of 0 stands for the network (called "base address"), and a last number of 255 stands for all hosts on that network (called "broadcast address"). Computers that are on the same local network share 3 of the 4 numbers. A computer can be on more than one network. It can also have several names.
The problem with IPv4 is that it only allows for 4.3 billion addresses, and we've almost used them all. To delay this, Network Address Translation (NAT) was created. Network Address Translation has a network share one "public" IP address and give every computer on the network a "private" IP address. Everyone living in the same house uses the same address, but mail can be meant for multiple different people living in the house.
There are some IP addresses that are reserved for special purposes. For example, the address "127.0.0.1" is called the Loopback Address and will "loop back" any packets sent to this address back to the computer that sent them, like sending mail to yourself. Although this may not seem useful, it is used to test servers.
It identifies the class of a network.
It identifies the host on a network.
It is a permanent internet address. It has to be configured manually. It is used in smaller networks. All servers use static IP addresses. It is a simple way for communication.
It is a temporary internet address. It is assigned by a DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) server from a specific range of IP address.
To make a network work faster, it is split up into subnets. To do this, an IP address contains a "network" ID, "subnet" ID, and a "host" ID. A special binary number called a Subnet Mask is used to determine the size of the network, subnet, and host IDs.
The original IPv4 only supported 254 networks, so in 1981 the Internet addressing specification was changed to a classful network architecture. Classful network design allowed for a larger number of individual networks. The first three bits of an IP address determined its "class". Three classes ("A", "B", and "C") were defined for normal computer communication (Unicast). The size of the network ID was based on the class of the IP address. Each class used more octets for the network ID, making the host ID smaller and reducing the number of possible hosts.
Classful networks have been replaced by Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) since 1993. CIDR also provides a network address and host address. CIDR does not have classes, which means network and host address sizes don't have to be in octets.
An IPv4 Address in CIDR notation looks like192.168.0.14/24The slash and number represent the amount of bits that the network id uses, in this case 24 or 3 octets.
Because IPv4 is only 32 bits, the number of available addresses will run out. To prevent this, an organization called the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) created IP Version 6 (IPv6), which will eventually finish replacing IPv4.
IP Version 6 uses 16 octets, or 128 bits in total. Octets in IPv6 are written in hexadecimal, and separated by colons (:). An IPv6 address might look like this:
An IPv6 address can be long and this can lead to mistakes when typing them into the computer or writing them down. There are two ways in which an IPv6 address can be made shorter without leaving anything out:
DNS stands for Domain Name System
It is also called a service server, and is based on client server network architecture. Like a phonebook, it contains a database of public IP addresses.
Versions before IPv4 were experimental and never widely used. Version 5 was used exclusively for the , which was also never widely used.
Eurasia
Eurasia is the combined landmass of Europe and Asia in the northern part of Earth. It has the Atlantic Ocean on its west, and the Pacific Ocean to the east. The Arctic Ocean is to its north, and the Mediterranean and Pacific Ocean to its south. It is the largest of the continents. Its name comes from adding the "Eur" from "Europe" to "Asia". It and Africa form a part of the world called "Afro-Eurasia".
Some geographers say Eurasia is one continent, because Europe and Asia are mostly on the same tectonic plate and do not have a sea between them. The Ancient Greeks divided the world they knew into Europe, Asia and Africa. To them, the Aegean Sea was the division between the Balkan Peninsula in Europe and Asia Minor in Asia. North of the Sea of Marmara, the Greeks thought the lands on the western side of the Black Sea was Europe and the eastern side was Asia. The ancient Greeks did not know very much about the lands north of the Black Sea. Since Classical Antiquity, people have talked about Asia and Europe as two continents, so it is now a tradition.
Some other continents, which are not completely divided by sea, are joined together by a thin strip of land (called an isthmus). An example is North America and South America, which are connected by the Isthmus of Panama. Europe and Asia are not divided by a sea, nor by any isthmus.
Outside of geological definitions, Eurasia also includes the Indian subcontinent and the Arabian Peninsula.
Sometimes Eurasia is divided into West Eurasia and East Eurasia. The dividing line is sometimes the Ural Mountains. West Eurasia includes Europe and the Middle East. Historians sometimes add North Africa to West Eurasia, because the Sahara Desert divides North Africa from Sub-Saharan Africa, and it is as difficult to cross as a sea. Also, North Africa is culturally linked to Europe by the Mediterranean Sea.
The OECD’s Eurasia activities involve 13 countries extending from the borders of the European Union to the Far East:
North Pole
The North Pole is the point that is farthest north on Earth. It is the point on which axis of Earth turns. It is in the Arctic Ocean and it is cold there because the sun does not shine there for about half a year and never rises very high. The ocean around the pole is always very cold and it is covered by a thick sheet of ice.
There is also a Magnetic North Pole. It is near the physical North Pole. A compass points toward the magnetic North Pole.
There is a star called the North Star (or Polaris) that is always in the sky above the North Pole. People can tell how far north they are by seeing how high the North Star appears in the sky.
Plural
In linguistics, noun phrases have grammatical number. Plural is one kind of grammatical number. In English, plural noun phrases are counted as more or less than one (e.g., "32 degrees, no bananas", "0.5 liters", "1.2 grams", "two times", "three fish", "20 mothers"). In contrast, a singular noun phrase usually refers to something that you would count as one only (e.g., "one time", "a glass", "the sun", "my mother", "Jennifer"). Noun phrases that cannot be counted are also singular in English (e.g., "water", "the meat", "some space", etc.).
In many languages, a suffix (word ending) is added to a word to show that the word is plural. In English, the normal plural suffix "i"s "-s" (e.g., "cat" is singular, and "cats" is plural).
There are a number of exceptions:
It is fair to say that most native English-speakers make mistakes in this area, which is one of the more troublesome aspects of English.
All European languages have plural forms. The suffix that is used in each language is different from the one that is applied to English nouns.
In other languages, such as Chinese, Korean and Japanese, there is usually no plural ending.
Alexander Gode
Alexander Gottfried Friedrich Gode-von-Aesch or simply Alexander Gode (October 30, 1906 - August 10, 1970) a German-American linguist and translator. He helped create Interlingua.
Oceania
Oceania is a name used in geography for the region made up of Australia, Polynesia, Melanesia, and several other island nations in the surrounding area. It is often listed as one of the continents of the world.
The term "Oceania" does not have one single agreed definition. The widest definition of Oceania includes the entire region between continental Asia and the Americas, including Australasia, as well as islands in the Pacific Rim such as the Japanese archipelago, Taiwan, and the Aleutian islands.
On the other hand, the Oceania ecozone includes all of Micronesia, Fiji, and all of Polynesia except New Zealand. Sometimes, people use the term 'Oceania' to include only the Polynesian and Melanesian islands in the Pacific Ocean, as separate from Australasia. When Oceania is treated seperately from Australia, the region of Oceania is referred to as "Australia and Oceania".
In the United Nations' geographic regions, Oceania includes Australia and the nations of the Pacific from Papua New Guinea east, but not the Malay Archipelago or Indonesian New Guinea.
A smaller usage of Oceania as a continent includes only Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea, and the islands between them. This part of the world is usually called Australasia instead. For these reasons, it is "not" correct to say that Australasia is part of Oceania, because what is meant by 'Oceania' is not clear. Australasia has an exact definition in biogeography and geology; Australasia includes New Zealand, Australia (including Tasmania), and Melanesia, New Guinea, and the islands just north and east of Australia. All these are south-east of the Bali–Lombok line, also known as the Wallace Line.
Southern Ocean
The Southern Ocean is the ocean around Antarctica. It means the waters of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans around the continent of Antarctica. Since the 1770s geographers have discussed its limits. Nowadays, sixty degrees south latitude is often accepted. Some people call this ocean the Antarctic Ocean.
The total area is 20,327,000 km², and the coastline length is 17,968 km.
Catalan language
The Catalan language is a Romance language spoken in Catalonia, Valencian Community, the eastern part of Aragon, the Balearic Islands, a small zone of Murcia (all of them in Spain), Andorra, North Catalonia (in France) and the Italian city of L'Alguer. Together, those places are often called the Catalan Countries.
The language that most similar is Occitan. Catalan also has similarities to other Romance languages, such as Spanish, Italian, French and Portuguese. It came from Vulgar Latin and was first spoken in the in the Eastern Pyrenees in the Middle Ages.
There are about 4 million people who speak Catalan as a first language and about 6 million people as a second language. Catalan is the sixth-most-spoken Romance language and also the most-spoken language that is not an official language in the European Union.
Corset
A corset is a body covering undergarment (clothes worn under others).
It is made in many forms.
Pop music
Modern pop music grew out of 1950s rock and roll, (for example Chuck Berry, Bo Diddley and Little Richard) and rockabilly (for example Elvis Presley and Buddy Holly). In the 1960s, The Beatles became a famous pop music group. In the 1970s, other styles of music were mixed with pop music, such as funk and soul music. Pop music generally has a heavy (strong) beat, so that it is good for dancing. Pop singers normally sing with microphones that are plugged into an amplifier and a loudspeaker.
There are also many more people working on pop music who are not seen on the stage or in the video. These people include the studio staff (people who help the musicians to record CDs and music videos in music studios), production staff (people who help make the music recordings sound good), distribution staff (people who help sell the music to stores) and retail staff (people that sell the music to people at CD stores).
Tour staff help the band to travel around the country (or around the world) for their concert tours. Some tour staff help by carrying heavy musical instruments onto the stage. Other tour staff drive buses or cars, so that the band can get to the concert. Some tour staff operate sound equipment, such as the large amplifiers and loudspeakers that are used to amplify (make louder) the band's music for the audience.
Promotional staff help to market or promote the band's music, so that more people will know about the band, and buy the band's CDs. Some promotional staff travel to radio stations and give the band's CD to radio station managers or DJs (disk jockeys: the people who announce songs on the radio). Other promotional staff write press releases (short articles) about the band which are sent to the newspapers.
Pop music came from the Rock and Roll movement of the early 1950s, when record companies recorded songs that they thought that teenagers would like. Pop music usually uses musical from the other types of music that are popular at the time. Many different styles of music have become pop music during different time periods. Often, music companies create pop music styles by taking a style of music that only a small number of people were listening to, and then making that music more popular by marketing it to teenagers and young adults.
In the 1950s, recording companies took blues-influenced rock and roll (for example Chuck Berry and Bo Diddley) and rockabilly (for example Carl Perkins and Buddy Holly) and promoted them as pop music. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, record companies took folk music bands and musicians and helped them to create a new type of music called folk rock or acid rock. Folk rock and acid rock mixed folk music, blues and rock and roll (for example The Byrds and Janis Joplin). In the 1970s, record companies created several harder, louder type of blues called blues rock or heavy metal, which became a type of pop music (for example the bands Led Zeppelin and Judas Priest).
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, a type of nightclub dance music called Disco turned into a popular type of pop music. Record companies took an experimental, strange-sounding type of music called New Wave music from the 1980s and turned it into pop music bands such as "The Cars." In the 1990s record companies took an underground type of hard rock called Grunge (for example the band Nirvana). Michael Jackson was also a very influential artist for pop music. His album, "Thriller", is the best-selling album of all time. He also wrote some other very influential songs, such as "Bad", "Give In to Me", "Will You Be There", "Heal the World", "We Are the World", "Black or White", and "Billie Jean", just to name a few. By the 21st century (after the demise of disco in the 1980s) Contemporary R&B became pop music. Examples of Contemporary R&B artists that have a wide pop appeal are Usher, Beyoncé, Rihanna, Chris Brown and more. Pop rappers Flo Rida and Kesha were mainstream in the late 2000s and the early 2010s. Modern pop singers include Ariana Grande, Katy Perry and Lady Gaga. Nicki Minaj blended pop and hip hop in the early 2010s.
Many bands and artists are looked as influential in music history, but the English band The Beatles are the most looked upon band in history because of many of their songs being different types of pop and rock music (even metal and punk). Michael Jackson, The Bee Gees, Nirvana (band) are many of the artists and bands that look at The Beatles as a massive influence on their music.
General semantics
General semantics is a philosophy that deals with how people react to things that happen around them based on meaning. It was created by Alfred Korzybski during the 1920s and early 1930s.
The goal of general semantics is for people to know that when we simplify something, either mentally or in language, that simplification is not the same thing as the thing simplified. How people understand reality is not the same as what reality is because people do not know everything about reality. General semantics teaches that there is always more to something than what is seen, heard, felt, or believed.
Semiotics
Semiotics (or semiology) is a theoretical framework for the study of the meaning of language, signs and symbols. It was first developed in the early 20th century, separately, by the Swiss Ferdinand Saussure and Charles Sanders Peirce of the U.S.A. It can be described as both a science and a technique: a science because it has its own theories and a technique because it is a way of studying systems of representation and meaning. The meaning can be intentional such as a word uttered with a specific meaning, or unintentional, such as a symptom being a sign of a particular medical condition. Signs can communicate through any of the senses, visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, or gustatory.
The importance of signs and signification has been recognized throughout much of the history of philosophy, and in psychology as well. The term derives from the Greek: σημειωτικός, "sēmeiōtikos", "observant of signs" (from σημεῖον "sēmeion", "a sign, a mark"). For the Greeks, "signs" occurred in the world of nature, and "symbols" in the world of culture. As such, Plato and Aristotle explored the relationship between signs and the world.
The general study of signs that began in Latin with Augustine culminated with the 1632 "Tractatus de Signis" of John Poinsot, and then began anew in late modernity with the attempt in 1867 by Charles Sanders Peirce to draw up a "new list of categories." More recently, Umberto Eco, in his "Semiotics and the Philosophy of Language", has argued that semiotic theories are implicit in the work of most, perhaps all, major thinkers.
Semiotics is usually divided into three parts:
The major branches of semiotics include:
Nitrogen
Nitrogen is a nonmetal chemical element. The atmosphere contains more than 78 percent of nitrogen. It has the chemical symbol N and atomic number 7. Its stable inside typically contains 14 nucleons (7 protons and 7 neutrons). It has 5 electrons in its outer shell.
Nitrogen is a colorless odorless gas at normal temperature. It is normally attached to another nitrogen atom, making a nitrogen molecule (N). This bond is very strong. That is why many explosives contain nitrogen. The bond is broken when the explosive is made. When it explodes the bond forms, releasing a lot of energy.
It turns into a liquid at -195.8°C and turns into a solid at -210°C. If it is compressed, it can be turned into a liquid without making it cold.
It usually does not combine with other atoms because its strong bond prevents it from reacting. Lithium is one of the few chemical elements that react with nitrogen without being heated. Magnesium can burn in nitrogen. Nitrogen also makes blue electric sparks. The blue color is caused by the atoms being excited. When they get normal again, they release light. When nitrogen is excited, it reacts with many things that it does not normally react with.
Many chemical compounds that are important for industrial purposes contain nitrogen ions. These include ammonia, nitric acid, nitrates and cyanides. Nitrogen comes in several oxidation states; -3, -2, -/, +1, +3, +4, and +5. Each of those oxidation states has its set of compounds.
Compounds in the -3 oxidation state are weak reducing agents. These include ammonia, ammonium, amide and nitrides. Amino acids and proteins contain nitrogen in this oxidation state. Hydrazine, a compound in the -2 oxidation state, is a strong reducing agent. Azides contain nitrogen in the -/ oxidation state. They are extremely powerful reducing agents, and most are very toxic.
Nitrous oxide contains nitrogen in the +1 oxidation state. It is used as an anesthetic. Compounds containing nitrogen in the +2 oxidation state, such as nitric oxide, are reducing agents. +3 oxidation state compounds are strong oxidizing agents and weak reducing agents. Nitrites are the most common +3 compounds. Compounds in the +4 oxidation state are strong oxidizing agents. They include nitrogen dioxide and dinitrogen tetroxide.
Compounds containing nitrogen in the +5 oxidation state are strong oxidizing agents. They are one of the more common groups of nitrogen compounds. They include nitric acid and dinitrogen pentoxide. They also include nitrates, which are used in explosives such as dynamite, nitroglycerin and trinitrotoluene.
Air is made up of about 78% nitrogen and about 20.95% oxygen, < 1% argon, and traces of other gasses such as carbon dioxide, and water vapor, among others. It is also in a few nitrates in the ground. Ammonium minerals are rare. Nitrogen is in proteins.
Pure liquid nitrogen can be made by cooling air. The nitrogen turns into a liquid at a different temperature than the oxygen. It can also be made by heating certain chemical compounds, such as sodium azide.