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1508.07909
| 1 |
# Abstract
Neural machine translation (NMT) mod- els typically operate with a ï¬xed vocabu- lary, but translation is an open-vocabulary Previous work addresses the problem. translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a dictionary. In this pa- per, we introduce a simpler and more ef- fective approach, making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare and unknown words as se- quences of subword units. This is based on the intuition that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via com- positional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and morpho- logical transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word segmentation techniques, including simple character n- gram models and a segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algo- rithm, and empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks EnglishâGerman and EnglishâRussian by up to 1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
# 1 Introduction
|
1508.07909#1
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 1,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "# Abstract\nNeural machine translation (NMT) mod- els typically operate with a ï¬xed vocabu- lary, but translation is an open-vocabulary Previous work addresses the problem. translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a dictionary. In this pa- per, we introduce a simpler and more ef- fective approach, making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare and unknown words as se- quences of subword units. This is based on the intuition that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via com- positional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and morpho- logical transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word segmentation techniques, including simple character n- gram models and a segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algo- rithm, and empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks EnglishâGerman and EnglishâRussian by up to 1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.\n# 1 Introduction",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 2 |
# 1 Introduction
Neural machine translation has recently shown impressive results (Kalchbrenner and Blunsom, 2013; Sutskever et al., 2014; Bahdanau et al., 2015). However, the translation of rare words is an open problem. The vocabulary of neu- ral models is typically limited to 30 000â50 000 words, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem, and especially for languages with produc- tive word formation processes such as aggluti- nation and compounding, translation models re- quire mechanisms that go below the word level. As an example, consider compounds such as the German Abwasser|behandlungs|anlange âsewage water treatment plantâ, for which a segmented, variable-length representation is intuitively more appealing than encoding the word as a ï¬xed-length vector.
|
1508.07909#2
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 2,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "# 1 Introduction\nNeural machine translation has recently shown impressive results (Kalchbrenner and Blunsom, 2013; Sutskever et al., 2014; Bahdanau et al., 2015). However, the translation of rare words is an open problem. The vocabulary of neu- ral models is typically limited to 30 000â50 000 words, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem, and especially for languages with produc- tive word formation processes such as aggluti- nation and compounding, translation models re- quire mechanisms that go below the word level. As an example, consider compounds such as the German Abwasser|behandlungs|anlange âsewage water treatment plantâ, for which a segmented, variable-length representation is intuitively more appealing than encoding the word as a ï¬xed-length vector.",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 3 |
the translation of out-of-vocabulary words has been addressed through a back-off to a dictionary look-up (Jean et al., 2015; Luong et al., 2015b). We note that such techniques make assumptions that often do not hold true in practice. For instance, there is not al- ways a 1-to-1 correspondence between source and target words because of variance in the degree of morphological synthesis between languages, like in our introductory compounding example. Also, word-level models are unable to translate or gen- erate unseen words. Copying unknown words into the target text, as done by (Jean et al., 2015; Luong et al., 2015b), is a reasonable strategy for names, but morphological changes and transliteration is often required, especially if alphabets differ.
We investigate NMT models that operate on the level of subword units. Our main goal is to model open-vocabulary translation in the NMT network itself, without requiring a back-off model for rare words. In addition to making the translation pro- cess simpler, we also ï¬nd that the subword models achieve better accuracy for the translation of rare words than large-vocabulary models and back-off dictionaries, and are able to productively generate new words that were not seen at training time. Our analysis shows that the neural networks are able to learn compounding and transliteration from sub- word representations.
|
1508.07909#3
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 3,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "the translation of out-of-vocabulary words has been addressed through a back-off to a dictionary look-up (Jean et al., 2015; Luong et al., 2015b). We note that such techniques make assumptions that often do not hold true in practice. For instance, there is not al- ways a 1-to-1 correspondence between source and target words because of variance in the degree of morphological synthesis between languages, like in our introductory compounding example. Also, word-level models are unable to translate or gen- erate unseen words. Copying unknown words into the target text, as done by (Jean et al., 2015; Luong et al., 2015b), is a reasonable strategy for names, but morphological changes and transliteration is often required, especially if alphabets differ.\nWe investigate NMT models that operate on the level of subword units. Our main goal is to model open-vocabulary translation in the NMT network itself, without requiring a back-off model for rare words. In addition to making the translation pro- cess simpler, we also ï¬nd that the subword models achieve better accuracy for the translation of rare words than large-vocabulary models and back-off dictionaries, and are able to productively generate new words that were not seen at training time. Our analysis shows that the neural networks are able to learn compounding and transliteration from sub- word representations.",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 4 |
The research presented in this publication was conducted in cooperation with Samsung Electronics Polska sp. z o.o. - Samsung R&D Institute Poland.
This paper has two main contributions:
⢠We show that open-vocabulary neural machine translation is possible by encoding (rare) words via subword units. We ï¬nd our architecture simpler and more effective than using large vocabularies and back-off dictio- naries (Jean et al., 2015; Luong et al., 2015b).
⢠We adapt byte pair encoding (BPE) (Gage, 1994), a compression algorithm, to the task of word segmentation. BPE allows for the representation of an open vocabulary through a ï¬xed-size vocabulary of variable-length character sequences, making it a very suit- able word segmentation strategy for neural network models.
# 2 Neural Machine Translation
We follow the neural machine translation archi- tecture by Bahdanau et al. (2015), which we will brieï¬y summarize here. However, we note that our approach is not speciï¬c to this architecture.
The neural machine translation system is imple- mented as an encoder-decoder network with recur- rent neural networks.
|
1508.07909#4
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 4,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "The research presented in this publication was conducted in cooperation with Samsung Electronics Polska sp. z o.o. - Samsung R&D Institute Poland.\nThis paper has two main contributions:\n⢠We show that open-vocabulary neural machine translation is possible by encoding (rare) words via subword units. We ï¬nd our architecture simpler and more effective than using large vocabularies and back-off dictio- naries (Jean et al., 2015; Luong et al., 2015b).\n⢠We adapt byte pair encoding (BPE) (Gage, 1994), a compression algorithm, to the task of word segmentation. BPE allows for the representation of an open vocabulary through a ï¬xed-size vocabulary of variable-length character sequences, making it a very suit- able word segmentation strategy for neural network models.\n# 2 Neural Machine Translation\nWe follow the neural machine translation archi- tecture by Bahdanau et al. (2015), which we will brieï¬y summarize here. However, we note that our approach is not speciï¬c to this architecture.\nThe neural machine translation system is imple- mented as an encoder-decoder network with recur- rent neural networks.",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 5 |
The neural machine translation system is imple- mented as an encoder-decoder network with recur- rent neural networks.
The encoder is a bidirectional neural network with gated recurrent units (Cho et al., 2014) that reads an input sequence x = (x1, ..., xm) and calculates a forward sequence of hidden ââ h m), and a backward sequence states ( ââ ââ h j are h 1, ..., ( concatenated to obtain the annotation vector hj.
The decoder is a recurrent neural network that predicts a target sequence y = (y1, ..., yn). Each word yi is predicted based on a recurrent hidden state si, the previously predicted word yiâ1, and a context vector ci. ci is computed as a weighted sum of the annotations hj. The weight of each annotation hj is computed through an alignment model αij, which models the probability that yi is aligned to xj. The alignment model is a single- layer feedforward neural network that is learned jointly with the rest of the network through back- propagation.
A detailed description can be found in (Bah- danau et al., 2015). Training is performed on a parallel corpus with stochastic gradient descent. For translation, a beam search with small beam size is employed.
# 3 Subword Translation
The main motivation behind this paper is that the translation of some words is transparent in
|
1508.07909#5
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 5,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "The neural machine translation system is imple- mented as an encoder-decoder network with recur- rent neural networks.\nThe encoder is a bidirectional neural network with gated recurrent units (Cho et al., 2014) that reads an input sequence x = (x1, ..., xm) and calculates a forward sequence of hidden ââ h m), and a backward sequence states ( ââ ââ h j are h 1, ..., ( concatenated to obtain the annotation vector hj.\nThe decoder is a recurrent neural network that predicts a target sequence y = (y1, ..., yn). Each word yi is predicted based on a recurrent hidden state si, the previously predicted word yiâ1, and a context vector ci. ci is computed as a weighted sum of the annotations hj. The weight of each annotation hj is computed through an alignment model αij, which models the probability that yi is aligned to xj. The alignment model is a single- layer feedforward neural network that is learned jointly with the rest of the network through back- propagation.\nA detailed description can be found in (Bah- danau et al., 2015). Training is performed on a parallel corpus with stochastic gradient descent. For translation, a beam search with small beam size is employed.\n# 3 Subword Translation\nThe main motivation behind this paper is that the translation of some words is transparent in",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 6 |
# 3 Subword Translation
The main motivation behind this paper is that the translation of some words is transparent in
that they are translatable by a competent transla- tor even if they are novel to him or her, based on a translation of known subword units such as morphemes or phonemes. Word categories whose translation is potentially transparent include:
⢠named entities. Between languages that share an alphabet, names can often be copied from source to target text. Transcription or translit- eration may be required, especially if the al- phabets or syllabaries differ. Example: Barack Obama (English; German) ÐаÑак Ðбама (Russian) ãã©ã¯ã»ãªãã (ba-ra-ku o-ba-ma) (Japanese)
⢠cognates and loanwords. Cognates and loan- words with a common origin can differ in regular ways between languages, so that character-level translation rules are sufï¬cient (Tiedemann, 2012). Example: claustrophobia (English) Klaustrophobie (German) ÐлаÑÑÑÑоÑÐ¾Ð±Ð¸Ñ (Klaustrofobiâ) (Russian)
|
1508.07909#6
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 6,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "# 3 Subword Translation\nThe main motivation behind this paper is that the translation of some words is transparent in\nthat they are translatable by a competent transla- tor even if they are novel to him or her, based on a translation of known subword units such as morphemes or phonemes. Word categories whose translation is potentially transparent include:\n⢠named entities. Between languages that share an alphabet, names can often be copied from source to target text. Transcription or translit- eration may be required, especially if the al- phabets or syllabaries differ. Example: Barack Obama (English; German) ÐаÑак Ðбама (Russian) ãã©ã¯ã»ãªãã (ba-ra-ku o-ba-ma) (Japanese)\n⢠cognates and loanwords. Cognates and loan- words with a common origin can differ in regular ways between languages, so that character-level translation rules are sufï¬cient (Tiedemann, 2012). Example: claustrophobia (English) Klaustrophobie (German) ÐлаÑÑÑÑоÑÐ¾Ð±Ð¸Ñ (Klaustrofobiâ) (Russian)",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 7 |
⢠morphologically complex words. Words con- for instance taining multiple morphemes, formed via compounding, afï¬xation, or in- ï¬ection, may be translatable by translating the morphemes separately. Example: solar system (English) Sonnensystem (Sonne + System) (German) Naprendszer (Nap + Rendszer) (Hungarian)
In an analysis of 100 rare tokens (not among the 50 000 most frequent types) in our German training data1, the majority of tokens are poten- tially translatable from English through smaller units. We ï¬nd 56 compounds, 21 names, 6 loanwords with a common origin (emanci- pateâemanzipieren), 5 cases of transparent afï¬x- ation (sweetish âsweetâ + â-ishâ â süÃlich âsüÃâ + â-lichâ), 1 number and 1 computer language iden- tiï¬er.
|
1508.07909#7
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 7,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "⢠morphologically complex words. Words con- for instance taining multiple morphemes, formed via compounding, afï¬xation, or in- ï¬ection, may be translatable by translating the morphemes separately. Example: solar system (English) Sonnensystem (Sonne + System) (German) Naprendszer (Nap + Rendszer) (Hungarian)\nIn an analysis of 100 rare tokens (not among the 50 000 most frequent types) in our German training data1, the majority of tokens are poten- tially translatable from English through smaller units. We ï¬nd 56 compounds, 21 names, 6 loanwords with a common origin (emanci- pateâemanzipieren), 5 cases of transparent afï¬x- ation (sweetish âsweetâ + â-ishâ â süÃlich âsüÃâ + â-lichâ), 1 number and 1 computer language iden- tiï¬er.",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 8 |
Our hypothesis is that a segmentation of rare words into appropriate subword units is sufï¬- cient to allow for the neural translation network to learn transparent translations, and to general- ize this knowledge to translate and produce unseen words.2 We provide empirical support for this hy1Primarily parliamentary proceedings and web crawl data. 2Not every segmentation we produce is transparent. While we expect no performance beneï¬t from opaque seg- mentations, i.e. segmentations where the units cannot be translated independently, our NMT models show robustness towards oversplitting.
pothesis in Sections 4 and 5. First, we discuss dif- ferent subword representations.
# 3.1 Related Work
For Statistical Machine Translation (SMT), the translation of unknown words has been the subject of intensive research.
A large proportion of unknown words are names, which can just be copied into the tar- get text if both languages share an alphabet. If alphabets differ, transliteration is required (Dur- rani et al., 2014). Character-based translation has also been investigated with phrase-based models, which proved especially successful for closely re- lated languages (Vilar et al., 2007; Tiedemann, 2009; Neubig et al., 2012).
|
1508.07909#8
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 8,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "Our hypothesis is that a segmentation of rare words into appropriate subword units is sufï¬- cient to allow for the neural translation network to learn transparent translations, and to general- ize this knowledge to translate and produce unseen words.2 We provide empirical support for this hy1Primarily parliamentary proceedings and web crawl data. 2Not every segmentation we produce is transparent. While we expect no performance beneï¬t from opaque seg- mentations, i.e. segmentations where the units cannot be translated independently, our NMT models show robustness towards oversplitting.\npothesis in Sections 4 and 5. First, we discuss dif- ferent subword representations.\n# 3.1 Related Work\nFor Statistical Machine Translation (SMT), the translation of unknown words has been the subject of intensive research.\nA large proportion of unknown words are names, which can just be copied into the tar- get text if both languages share an alphabet. If alphabets differ, transliteration is required (Dur- rani et al., 2014). Character-based translation has also been investigated with phrase-based models, which proved especially successful for closely re- lated languages (Vilar et al., 2007; Tiedemann, 2009; Neubig et al., 2012).",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 9 |
The segmentation of morphologically complex words such as compounds is widely used for SMT, and various algorithms for morpheme segmen- tation have been investigated (NieÃen and Ney, 2000; Koehn and Knight, 2003; Virpioja et al., 2007; Stallard et al., 2012). Segmentation al- gorithms commonly used for phrase-based SMT tend to be conservative in their splitting decisions, whereas we aim for an aggressive segmentation that allows for open-vocabulary translation with a compact network vocabulary, and without having to resort to back-off dictionaries.
The best choice of subword units may be task- speciï¬c. For speech recognition, phone-level lan- guage models have been used (Bazzi and Glass, 2000). Mikolov et al. (2012) investigate subword language models, and propose to use syllables. For multilingual segmentation tasks, multilingual algorithms have been proposed (Snyder and Barzi- lay, 2008). We ï¬nd these intriguing, but inapplica- ble at test time.
|
1508.07909#9
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 9,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "The segmentation of morphologically complex words such as compounds is widely used for SMT, and various algorithms for morpheme segmen- tation have been investigated (NieÃen and Ney, 2000; Koehn and Knight, 2003; Virpioja et al., 2007; Stallard et al., 2012). Segmentation al- gorithms commonly used for phrase-based SMT tend to be conservative in their splitting decisions, whereas we aim for an aggressive segmentation that allows for open-vocabulary translation with a compact network vocabulary, and without having to resort to back-off dictionaries.\nThe best choice of subword units may be task- speciï¬c. For speech recognition, phone-level lan- guage models have been used (Bazzi and Glass, 2000). Mikolov et al. (2012) investigate subword language models, and propose to use syllables. For multilingual segmentation tasks, multilingual algorithms have been proposed (Snyder and Barzi- lay, 2008). We ï¬nd these intriguing, but inapplica- ble at test time.",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 10 |
Various techniques have been proposed to pro- duce ï¬xed-length continuous word vectors based on characters or morphemes (Luong et al., 2013; Botha and Blunsom, 2014; Ling et al., 2015a; Kim et al., 2015). An effort to apply such techniques to NMT, parallel to ours, has found no signiï¬cant improvement over word-based approaches (Ling et al., 2015b). One technical difference from our work is that the attention mechanism still oper- ates on the level of words in the model by Ling et al. (2015b), and that the representation of each word is ï¬xed-length. We expect that the attention mechanism beneï¬ts from our variable-length rep- resentation: the network can learn to place attention on different subword units at each step. Re- call our introductory example Abwasserbehand- lungsanlange, for which a subword segmentation avoids the information bottleneck of a ï¬xed-length representation.
|
1508.07909#10
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 10,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "Various techniques have been proposed to pro- duce ï¬xed-length continuous word vectors based on characters or morphemes (Luong et al., 2013; Botha and Blunsom, 2014; Ling et al., 2015a; Kim et al., 2015). An effort to apply such techniques to NMT, parallel to ours, has found no signiï¬cant improvement over word-based approaches (Ling et al., 2015b). One technical difference from our work is that the attention mechanism still oper- ates on the level of words in the model by Ling et al. (2015b), and that the representation of each word is ï¬xed-length. We expect that the attention mechanism beneï¬ts from our variable-length rep- resentation: the network can learn to place attention on different subword units at each step. Re- call our introductory example Abwasserbehand- lungsanlange, for which a subword segmentation avoids the information bottleneck of a ï¬xed-length representation.",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 11 |
Neural machine translation differs from phrase- based methods in that there are strong incentives to minimize the vocabulary size of neural models to increase time and space efï¬ciency, and to allow for translation without back-off models. At the same time, we also want a compact representation of the text itself, since an increase in text length reduces efï¬ciency and increases the distances over which neural models need to pass information.
A simple method to manipulate the trade-off be- tween vocabulary size and text size is to use short- lists of unsegmented words, using subword units only for rare words. As an alternative, we pro- pose a segmentation algorithm based on byte pair encoding (BPE), which lets us learn a vocabulary that provides a good compression rate of the text.
# 3.2 Byte Pair Encoding (BPE)
Byte Pair Encoding (BPE) (Gage, 1994) is a sim- ple data compression technique that iteratively re- places the most frequent pair of bytes in a se- quence with a single, unused byte. We adapt this algorithm for word segmentation. Instead of merg- ing frequent pairs of bytes, we merge characters or character sequences.
|
1508.07909#11
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 11,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "Neural machine translation differs from phrase- based methods in that there are strong incentives to minimize the vocabulary size of neural models to increase time and space efï¬ciency, and to allow for translation without back-off models. At the same time, we also want a compact representation of the text itself, since an increase in text length reduces efï¬ciency and increases the distances over which neural models need to pass information.\nA simple method to manipulate the trade-off be- tween vocabulary size and text size is to use short- lists of unsegmented words, using subword units only for rare words. As an alternative, we pro- pose a segmentation algorithm based on byte pair encoding (BPE), which lets us learn a vocabulary that provides a good compression rate of the text.\n# 3.2 Byte Pair Encoding (BPE)\nByte Pair Encoding (BPE) (Gage, 1994) is a sim- ple data compression technique that iteratively re- places the most frequent pair of bytes in a se- quence with a single, unused byte. We adapt this algorithm for word segmentation. Instead of merg- ing frequent pairs of bytes, we merge characters or character sequences.",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 12 |
Firstly, we initialize the symbol vocabulary with the character vocabulary, and represent each word as a sequence of characters, plus a special end-of- word symbol â·â, which allows us to restore the original tokenization after translation. We itera- tively count all symbol pairs and replace each oc- currence of the most frequent pair (âAâ, âBâ) with a new symbol âABâ. Each merge operation pro- duces a new symbol which represents a charac- ter n-gram. Frequent character n-grams (or whole words) are eventually merged into a single sym- bol, thus BPE requires no shortlist. The ï¬nal sym- bol vocabulary size is equal to the size of the initial vocabulary, plus the number of merge operations â the latter is the only hyperparameter of the algo- rithm.
For efï¬ciency, we do not consider pairs that cross word boundaries. The algorithm can thus be run on the dictionary extracted from a text, with each word being weighted by its frequency. A minimal Python implementation is shown in Al
# Algorithm 1 Learn BPE operations
import re, collections
|
1508.07909#12
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 12,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "Firstly, we initialize the symbol vocabulary with the character vocabulary, and represent each word as a sequence of characters, plus a special end-of- word symbol â·â, which allows us to restore the original tokenization after translation. We itera- tively count all symbol pairs and replace each oc- currence of the most frequent pair (âAâ, âBâ) with a new symbol âABâ. Each merge operation pro- duces a new symbol which represents a charac- ter n-gram. Frequent character n-grams (or whole words) are eventually merged into a single sym- bol, thus BPE requires no shortlist. The ï¬nal sym- bol vocabulary size is equal to the size of the initial vocabulary, plus the number of merge operations â the latter is the only hyperparameter of the algo- rithm.\nFor efï¬ciency, we do not consider pairs that cross word boundaries. The algorithm can thus be run on the dictionary extracted from a text, with each word being weighted by its frequency. A minimal Python implementation is shown in Al\n# Algorithm 1 Learn BPE operations\nimport re, collections",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 13 |
# Algorithm 1 Learn BPE operations
import re, collections
def get_stats(vocab): pairs = collections.defaultdict(int) for word, freq in vocab.items(): symbols = word.split() for i in range(len(symbols)-1): pairs[symbols[i],symbols[i+1]] += freq return pairs def merge_vocab(pair, v_in): v_out = {} bigram = re.escape(' '.join(pair)) p = re.compile(r'(?<!\S)' + bigram + r'(?!\S)') for word in v_in: w_out = p.sub(''.join(pair), word) v_out[w_out] = v_in[word] return v_out vocab = {'l o w </w>' : 5, 'l o w e r </w>' : 2, 'n e w e s t </w>':6, 'w i d e s t </w>':3} num_merges = 10 for i in range(num_merges): pairs = get_stats(vocab) best = max(pairs, key=pairs.get) vocab = merge_vocab(best, vocab) print(best)
|
1508.07909#13
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 13,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "# Algorithm 1 Learn BPE operations\nimport re, collections\ndef get_stats(vocab): pairs = collections.defaultdict(int) for word, freq in vocab.items(): symbols = word.split() for i in range(len(symbols)-1): pairs[symbols[i],symbols[i+1]] += freq return pairs def merge_vocab(pair, v_in): v_out = {} bigram = re.escape(' '.join(pair)) p = re.compile(r'(?<!\\S)' + bigram + r'(?!\\S)') for word in v_in: w_out = p.sub(''.join(pair), word) v_out[w_out] = v_in[word] return v_out vocab = {'l o w </w>' : 5, 'l o w e r </w>' : 2, 'n e w e s t </w>':6, 'w i d e s t </w>':3} num_merges = 10 for i in range(num_merges): pairs = get_stats(vocab) best = max(pairs, key=pairs.get) vocab = merge_vocab(best, vocab) print(best)",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 14 |
r · l o lo w â low e r· â er·
Figure 1: BPE merge operations learned from dic- tionary {âlowâ, âlowestâ, ânewerâ, âwiderâ}.
gorithm 1. In practice, we increase efï¬ciency by indexing all pairs, and updating data structures in- crementally.
The main difference to other compression al- gorithms, such as Huffman encoding, which have been proposed to produce a variable-length en- coding of words for NMT (Chitnis and DeNero, 2015), is that our symbol sequences are still in- terpretable as subword units, and that the network can generalize to translate and produce new words (unseen at training time) on the basis of these sub- word units.
Figure 1 shows a toy example of learned BPE operations. At test time, we ï¬rst split words into sequences of characters, then apply the learned op- erations to merge the characters into larger, known symbols. This is applicable to any word, and allows for open-vocabulary networks with ï¬xed symbol vocabularies.3 In our example, the OOV âlowerâ would be segmented into âlow er·â.
|
1508.07909#14
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 14,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "r · l o lo w â low e r· â er·\nFigure 1: BPE merge operations learned from dic- tionary {âlowâ, âlowestâ, ânewerâ, âwiderâ}.\ngorithm 1. In practice, we increase efï¬ciency by indexing all pairs, and updating data structures in- crementally.\nThe main difference to other compression al- gorithms, such as Huffman encoding, which have been proposed to produce a variable-length en- coding of words for NMT (Chitnis and DeNero, 2015), is that our symbol sequences are still in- terpretable as subword units, and that the network can generalize to translate and produce new words (unseen at training time) on the basis of these sub- word units.\nFigure 1 shows a toy example of learned BPE operations. At test time, we ï¬rst split words into sequences of characters, then apply the learned op- erations to merge the characters into larger, known symbols. This is applicable to any word, and allows for open-vocabulary networks with ï¬xed symbol vocabularies.3 In our example, the OOV âlowerâ would be segmented into âlow er·â.",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 15 |
3The only symbols that will be unknown at test time are unknown characters, or symbols of which all occurrences in the training text have been merged into larger symbols, like âsafeguarâ, which has all occurrences in our training text merged into âsafeguardâ. We observed no such symbols at test time, but the issue could be easily solved by recursively reversing speciï¬c merges until all symbols are known.
|
1508.07909#15
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 15,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "3The only symbols that will be unknown at test time are unknown characters, or symbols of which all occurrences in the training text have been merged into larger symbols, like âsafeguarâ, which has all occurrences in our training text merged into âsafeguardâ. We observed no such symbols at test time, but the issue could be easily solved by recursively reversing speciï¬c merges until all symbols are known.",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 16 |
We evaluate two methods of applying BPE: learning two independent encodings, one for the source, one for the target vocabulary, or learning the encoding on the union of the two vocabular- ies (which we call joint BPE).4 The former has the advantage of being more compact in terms of text and vocabulary size, and having stronger guaran- tees that each subword unit has been seen in the training text of the respective language, whereas the latter improves consistency between the source and the target segmentation. If we apply BPE in- dependently, the same name may be segmented differently in the two languages, which makes it harder for the neural models to learn a mapping between the subword units. To increase the con- sistency between English and Russian segmenta- tion despite the differing alphabets, we transliter- ate the Russian vocabulary into Latin characters with ISO-9 to learn the joint BPE encoding, then transliterate the BPE merge operations back into Cyrillic to apply them to the Russian training text.5
# 4 Evaluation
We aim to answer the following empirical ques- tions:
⢠Can we improve the translation of rare and unseen words in neural machine translation by representing them via subword units?
⢠Which segmentation into subword units per- forms best in terms of vocabulary size, text size, and translation quality?
|
1508.07909#16
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 16,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "We evaluate two methods of applying BPE: learning two independent encodings, one for the source, one for the target vocabulary, or learning the encoding on the union of the two vocabular- ies (which we call joint BPE).4 The former has the advantage of being more compact in terms of text and vocabulary size, and having stronger guaran- tees that each subword unit has been seen in the training text of the respective language, whereas the latter improves consistency between the source and the target segmentation. If we apply BPE in- dependently, the same name may be segmented differently in the two languages, which makes it harder for the neural models to learn a mapping between the subword units. To increase the con- sistency between English and Russian segmenta- tion despite the differing alphabets, we transliter- ate the Russian vocabulary into Latin characters with ISO-9 to learn the joint BPE encoding, then transliterate the BPE merge operations back into Cyrillic to apply them to the Russian training text.5\n# 4 Evaluation\nWe aim to answer the following empirical ques- tions:\n⢠Can we improve the translation of rare and unseen words in neural machine translation by representing them via subword units?\n⢠Which segmentation into subword units per- forms best in terms of vocabulary size, text size, and translation quality?",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 17 |
⢠Which segmentation into subword units per- forms best in terms of vocabulary size, text size, and translation quality?
We perform experiments on data from the shared translation task of WMT 2015. For EnglishâGerman, our training set consists of 4.2 million sentence pairs, or approximately 100 mil- lion tokens. For EnglishâRussian, the training set consists of 2.6 million sentence pairs, or approx- imately 50 million tokens. We tokenize and true- case the data with the scripts provided in Moses (Koehn et al., 2007). We use newstest2013 as de- velopment set, and report results on newstest2014 and newstest2015.
We report results with BLEU (mteval-v13a.pl), and CHRF3 (Popovi´c, 2015), a character n-gram F3 score which was found to correlate well with
|
1508.07909#17
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 17,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "⢠Which segmentation into subword units per- forms best in terms of vocabulary size, text size, and translation quality?\nWe perform experiments on data from the shared translation task of WMT 2015. For EnglishâGerman, our training set consists of 4.2 million sentence pairs, or approximately 100 mil- lion tokens. For EnglishâRussian, the training set consists of 2.6 million sentence pairs, or approx- imately 50 million tokens. We tokenize and true- case the data with the scripts provided in Moses (Koehn et al., 2007). We use newstest2013 as de- velopment set, and report results on newstest2014 and newstest2015.\nWe report results with BLEU (mteval-v13a.pl), and CHRF3 (Popovi´c, 2015), a character n-gram F3 score which was found to correlate well with",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 18 |
4In practice, we simply concatenate the source and target side of the training set to learn joint BPE.
5Since the Russian training text also contains words that use the Latin alphabet, we also apply the Latin BPE opera- tions.
human judgments, especially for translations out of English (Stanojevi´c et al., 2015). Since our main claim is concerned with the translation of rare and unseen words, we report separate statis- tics for these. We measure these through unigram F1, which we calculate as the harmonic mean of clipped unigram precision and recall.6
We perform all experiments with Groundhog7 (Bahdanau et al., 2015). We generally follow set- tings by previous work (Bahdanau et al., 2015; Jean et al., 2015). All networks have a hidden layer size of 1000, and an embedding layer size of 620. Following Jean et al. (2015), we only keep a shortlist of Ï = 30000 words in memory.
|
1508.07909#18
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 18,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "4In practice, we simply concatenate the source and target side of the training set to learn joint BPE.\n5Since the Russian training text also contains words that use the Latin alphabet, we also apply the Latin BPE opera- tions.\nhuman judgments, especially for translations out of English (Stanojevi´c et al., 2015). Since our main claim is concerned with the translation of rare and unseen words, we report separate statis- tics for these. We measure these through unigram F1, which we calculate as the harmonic mean of clipped unigram precision and recall.6\nWe perform all experiments with Groundhog7 (Bahdanau et al., 2015). We generally follow set- tings by previous work (Bahdanau et al., 2015; Jean et al., 2015). All networks have a hidden layer size of 1000, and an embedding layer size of 620. Following Jean et al. (2015), we only keep a shortlist of Ï = 30000 words in memory.",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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1508.07909
| 19 |
During training, we use Adadelta (Zeiler, 2012), a minibatch size of 80, and reshufï¬e the train- ing set between epochs. We train a network for approximately 7 days, then take the last 4 saved models (models being saved every 12 hours), and continue training each with a ï¬xed embedding layer (as suggested by (Jean et al., 2015)) for 12 hours. We perform two independent training runs for each models, once with cut-off for gradient clipping (Pascanu et al., 2013) of 5.0, once with a cut-off of 1.0 â the latter produced better single models for most settings. We report results of the system that performed best on our development set (newstest2013), and of an ensemble of all 8 mod- els.
We use a beam size of 12 for beam search, with probabilities normalized by sentence length. We use a bilingual dictionary based on fast-align (Dyer et al., 2013). For our baseline, this serves as back-off dictionary for rare words. We also use the dictionary to speed up translation for all ex- periments, only performing the softmax over a ï¬l- tered list of candidate translations (like Jean et al. (2015), we use K = 30000; K â² = 10).
# 4.1 Subword statistics
|
1508.07909#19
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 19,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "During training, we use Adadelta (Zeiler, 2012), a minibatch size of 80, and reshufï¬e the train- ing set between epochs. We train a network for approximately 7 days, then take the last 4 saved models (models being saved every 12 hours), and continue training each with a ï¬xed embedding layer (as suggested by (Jean et al., 2015)) for 12 hours. We perform two independent training runs for each models, once with cut-off for gradient clipping (Pascanu et al., 2013) of 5.0, once with a cut-off of 1.0 â the latter produced better single models for most settings. We report results of the system that performed best on our development set (newstest2013), and of an ensemble of all 8 mod- els.\nWe use a beam size of 12 for beam search, with probabilities normalized by sentence length. We use a bilingual dictionary based on fast-align (Dyer et al., 2013). For our baseline, this serves as back-off dictionary for rare words. We also use the dictionary to speed up translation for all ex- periments, only performing the softmax over a ï¬l- tered list of candidate translations (like Jean et al. (2015), we use K = 30000; K â² = 10).\n# 4.1 Subword statistics",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 20 |
# 4.1 Subword statistics
Apart from translation quality, which we will ver- ify empirically, our main objective is to represent an open vocabulary through a compact ï¬xed-size subword vocabulary, and allow for efï¬cient train- ing and decoding.8
Statistics for different segmentations of the Ger6Clipped unigram precision is essentially 1-gram BLEU without brevity penalty.
7github.com/sebastien-j/LV_groundhog 8The time complexity of encoder-decoder architectures is at least linear to sequence length, and oversplitting harms ef- ï¬ciency.
|
1508.07909#20
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 20,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "# 4.1 Subword statistics\nApart from translation quality, which we will ver- ify empirically, our main objective is to represent an open vocabulary through a compact ï¬xed-size subword vocabulary, and allow for efï¬cient train- ing and decoding.8\nStatistics for different segmentations of the Ger6Clipped unigram precision is essentially 1-gram BLEU without brevity penalty.\n7github.com/sebastien-j/LV_groundhog 8The time complexity of encoder-decoder architectures is at least linear to sequence length, and oversplitting harms ef- ï¬ciency.",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 21 |
man side of the parallel data are shown in Table 1. A simple baseline is the segmentation of words into character n-grams.9 Character n-grams allow for different trade-offs between sequence length (# tokens) and vocabulary size (# types), depend- ing on the choice of n. The increase in sequence length is substantial; one way to reduce sequence length is to leave a shortlist of the k most frequent word types unsegmented. Only the unigram repre- sentation is truly open-vocabulary. However, the unigram representation performed poorly in pre- liminary experiments, and we report translation re- sults with a bigram representation, which is empir- ically better, but unable to produce some tokens in the test set with the training set vocabulary.
We report statistics for several word segmenta- tion techniques that have proven useful in previous SMT research, including frequency-based com- pound splitting (Koehn and Knight, 2003), rule- based hyphenation (Liang, 1983), and Morfessor (Creutz and Lagus, 2002). We ï¬nd that they only moderately reduce vocabulary size, and do not solve the unknown word problem, and we thus ï¬nd them unsuitable for our goal of open-vocabulary translation without back-off dictionary.
|
1508.07909#21
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 21,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "man side of the parallel data are shown in Table 1. A simple baseline is the segmentation of words into character n-grams.9 Character n-grams allow for different trade-offs between sequence length (# tokens) and vocabulary size (# types), depend- ing on the choice of n. The increase in sequence length is substantial; one way to reduce sequence length is to leave a shortlist of the k most frequent word types unsegmented. Only the unigram repre- sentation is truly open-vocabulary. However, the unigram representation performed poorly in pre- liminary experiments, and we report translation re- sults with a bigram representation, which is empir- ically better, but unable to produce some tokens in the test set with the training set vocabulary.\nWe report statistics for several word segmenta- tion techniques that have proven useful in previous SMT research, including frequency-based com- pound splitting (Koehn and Knight, 2003), rule- based hyphenation (Liang, 1983), and Morfessor (Creutz and Lagus, 2002). We ï¬nd that they only moderately reduce vocabulary size, and do not solve the unknown word problem, and we thus ï¬nd them unsuitable for our goal of open-vocabulary translation without back-off dictionary.",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 22 |
BPE meets our goal of being open-vocabulary, and the learned merge operations can be applied to the test set to obtain a segmentation with no unknown symbols.10 Its main difference from the character-level model is that the more com- pact representation of BPE allows for shorter se- quences, and that the attention model operates on variable-length units.11 Table 1 shows BPE with 59 500 merge operations, and joint BPE with 89 500 operations.
In practice, we did not include infrequent sub- word units in the NMT network vocabulary, since there is noise in the subword symbol sets, e.g. because of characters from foreign alphabets. Hence, our network vocabularies in Table 2 are typically slightly smaller than the number of types in Table 1.
|
1508.07909#22
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 22,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "BPE meets our goal of being open-vocabulary, and the learned merge operations can be applied to the test set to obtain a segmentation with no unknown symbols.10 Its main difference from the character-level model is that the more com- pact representation of BPE allows for shorter se- quences, and that the attention model operates on variable-length units.11 Table 1 shows BPE with 59 500 merge operations, and joint BPE with 89 500 operations.\nIn practice, we did not include infrequent sub- word units in the NMT network vocabulary, since there is noise in the subword symbol sets, e.g. because of characters from foreign alphabets. Hence, our network vocabularies in Table 2 are typically slightly smaller than the number of types in Table 1.",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 23 |
9Our character n-grams do not cross word boundaries. We mark whether a subword is word-ï¬nal or not with a special character, which allows us to restore the original tokenization. 10Joint BPE can produce segments that are unknown be- cause they only occur in the English training text, but these are rare (0.05% of test tokens).
11We highlighted the limitations of word-level attention in section 3.1. At the other end of the spectrum, the character level is suboptimal for alignment (Tiedemann, 2009).
BLEU vocabulary CHRF3 target single ens-8 single ens-8 segmentation shortlist source name syntax-based (Sennrich and Haddow, 2015) WUnk WDict C2-50k BPE-60k BPE BPE-J90k BPE (joint) 55.3 47.2 50.5 51.9 52.0 51.7 24.4 20.6 22.0 22.8 21.5 22.8 - 22.8 24.2 25.3 24.5 24.7 - - char-bigram - 300 000 500 000 - 300 000 500 000 60 000 60 000 90 000 60 000 60 000 90 000 50 000 -
|
1508.07909#23
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 23,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "9Our character n-grams do not cross word boundaries. We mark whether a subword is word-ï¬nal or not with a special character, which allows us to restore the original tokenization. 10Joint BPE can produce segments that are unknown be- cause they only occur in the English training text, but these are rare (0.05% of test tokens).\n11We highlighted the limitations of word-level attention in section 3.1. At the other end of the spectrum, the character level is suboptimal for alignment (Tiedemann, 2009).\nBLEU vocabulary CHRF3 target single ens-8 single ens-8 segmentation shortlist source name syntax-based (Sennrich and Haddow, 2015) WUnk WDict C2-50k BPE-60k BPE BPE-J90k BPE (joint) 55.3 47.2 50.5 51.9 52.0 51.7 24.4 20.6 22.0 22.8 21.5 22.8 - 22.8 24.2 25.3 24.5 24.7 - - char-bigram - 300 000 500 000 - 300 000 500 000 60 000 60 000 90 000 60 000 60 000 90 000 50 000 -",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 24 |
Table 2: EnglishâGerman translation performance (BLEU, CHRF3 and unigram F1) on newstest2015. Ens-8: ensemble of 8 models. Best NMT system in bold. Unigram F1 (with ensembles) is computed for all words (n = 44085), rare words (not among top 50 000 in training set; n = 2900), and OOVs (not in training set; n = 1168).
# tokens # types 100 m 1 750 000 3000 550 m 20 000 306 m 214 m 120 000 102 m 1 100 000 544 000 109 m 404 000 186 m 63 000 112 m 82 000 111 m # UNK 1079 0 34 59 643 237 230 0 32 129 m 69 000 34
Unigram F1 scores indicate that learning the BPE symbols on the vocabulary union (BPE- J90k) is more effective than learning them sep- arately (BPE-60k), and more effective than using character bigrams with a shortlist of 50 000 unseg- mented words (C2-50k), but all reported subword segmentations are viable choices and outperform the back-off dictionary baseline.
|
1508.07909#24
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 24,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "Table 2: EnglishâGerman translation performance (BLEU, CHRF3 and unigram F1) on newstest2015. Ens-8: ensemble of 8 models. Best NMT system in bold. Unigram F1 (with ensembles) is computed for all words (n = 44085), rare words (not among top 50 000 in training set; n = 2900), and OOVs (not in training set; n = 1168).\n# tokens # types 100 m 1 750 000 3000 550 m 20 000 306 m 214 m 120 000 102 m 1 100 000 544 000 109 m 404 000 186 m 63 000 112 m 82 000 111 m # UNK 1079 0 34 59 643 237 230 0 32 129 m 69 000 34\nUnigram F1 scores indicate that learning the BPE symbols on the vocabulary union (BPE- J90k) is more effective than learning them sep- arately (BPE-60k), and more effective than using character bigrams with a shortlist of 50 000 unseg- mented words (C2-50k), but all reported subword segmentations are viable choices and outperform the back-off dictionary baseline.",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 25 |
Table 1: Corpus statistics for German training corpus with different word segmentation tech- niques. #UNK: number of unknown tokens in newstest2013. â³: (Koehn and Knight, 2003); *: (Creutz and Lagus, 2002); â: (Liang, 1983).
# 4.2 Translation experiments
EnglishâGerman translation results are shown in Table 2; EnglishâRussian results in Table 3.
Our baseline WDict is a word-level model with a back-off dictionary. It differs from WUnk in that the latter uses no back-off dictionary, and just rep- resents out-of-vocabulary words as UNK12. The back-off dictionary improves unigram F1 for rare and unseen words, although the improvement is smaller for EnglishâRussian, since the back-off dictionary is incapable of transliterating names.
All subword systems operate without a back-off dictionary. We ï¬rst focus on unigram F1, where all systems improve over the baseline, especially for rare words (36.8%â41.8% for ENâDE; 26.5%â29.7% for ENâRU). For OOVs, the baseline strategy of copying unknown words works well for EnglishâGerman. However, when alphabets differ, the subword models do much better.
|
1508.07909#25
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 25,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "Table 1: Corpus statistics for German training corpus with different word segmentation tech- niques. #UNK: number of unknown tokens in newstest2013. â³: (Koehn and Knight, 2003); *: (Creutz and Lagus, 2002); â: (Liang, 1983).\n# 4.2 Translation experiments\nEnglishâGerman translation results are shown in Table 2; EnglishâRussian results in Table 3.\nOur baseline WDict is a word-level model with a back-off dictionary. It differs from WUnk in that the latter uses no back-off dictionary, and just rep- resents out-of-vocabulary words as UNK12. The back-off dictionary improves unigram F1 for rare and unseen words, although the improvement is smaller for EnglishâRussian, since the back-off dictionary is incapable of transliterating names.\nAll subword systems operate without a back-off dictionary. We ï¬rst focus on unigram F1, where all systems improve over the baseline, especially for rare words (36.8%â41.8% for ENâDE; 26.5%â29.7% for ENâRU). For OOVs, the baseline strategy of copying unknown words works well for EnglishâGerman. However, when alphabets differ, the subword models do much better.",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 26 |
12We use UNK for words that are outside the model vo- cabulary, and OOV for those that do not occur in the training text.
Our subword representations cause big im- provements in the translation of rare and unseen words, but these only constitute 9-11% of the test sets. Since rare words tend to carry central in- formation in a sentence, we suspect that BLEU and CHRF3 underestimate their effect on transla- tion quality. Still, we also see improvements over the baseline in total unigram F1, as well as BLEU and CHRF3, and the subword ensembles outper- form the WDict baseline by 0.3â1.3 BLEU and 0.6â2 CHRF3. There is some inconsistency be- tween BLEU and CHRF3, which we attribute to the fact that BLEU has a precision bias, and CHRF3 a recall bias.
|
1508.07909#26
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 26,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "12We use UNK for words that are outside the model vo- cabulary, and OOV for those that do not occur in the training text.\nOur subword representations cause big im- provements in the translation of rare and unseen words, but these only constitute 9-11% of the test sets. Since rare words tend to carry central in- formation in a sentence, we suspect that BLEU and CHRF3 underestimate their effect on transla- tion quality. Still, we also see improvements over the baseline in total unigram F1, as well as BLEU and CHRF3, and the subword ensembles outper- form the WDict baseline by 0.3â1.3 BLEU and 0.6â2 CHRF3. There is some inconsistency be- tween BLEU and CHRF3, which we attribute to the fact that BLEU has a precision bias, and CHRF3 a recall bias.",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 27 |
For EnglishâGerman, we observe the best BLEU score of 25.3 with C2-50k, but the best CHRF3 score of 54.1 with BPE-J90k. For com- parison to the (to our knowledge) best non-neural MT system on this data set, we report syntax- based SMT results (Sennrich and Haddow, 2015). We observe that our best systems outperform the syntax-based system in terms of BLEU, but not in terms of CHRF3. Regarding other neural sys- tems, Luong et al. (2015a) report a BLEU score of 25.9 on newstest2015, but we note that they use an ensemble of 8 independently trained models, and also report strong improvements from applying dropout, which we did not use. We are conï¬dent that our improvements to the translation of rare words are orthogonal to improvements achievable through other improvements in the network architecture, training algorithm, or better ensembles.
For EnglishâRussian,
|
1508.07909#27
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 27,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "For EnglishâGerman, we observe the best BLEU score of 25.3 with C2-50k, but the best CHRF3 score of 54.1 with BPE-J90k. For com- parison to the (to our knowledge) best non-neural MT system on this data set, we report syntax- based SMT results (Sennrich and Haddow, 2015). We observe that our best systems outperform the syntax-based system in terms of BLEU, but not in terms of CHRF3. Regarding other neural sys- tems, Luong et al. (2015a) report a BLEU score of 25.9 on newstest2015, but we note that they use an ensemble of 8 independently trained models, and also report strong improvements from applying dropout, which we did not use. We are conï¬dent that our improvements to the translation of rare words are orthogonal to improvements achievable through other improvements in the network architecture, training algorithm, or better ensembles.\nFor EnglishâRussian,",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 28 |
For EnglishâRussian,
the state of the art is the phrase-based system by Haddow et al. (2015). It outperforms our WDict baseline by 1.5 BLEU. The subword models are a step towards closing this gap, and BPE-J90k yields an improvement of 1.3 BLEU, and 2.0 CHRF3, over WDict.
As a further comment on our translation results, we want to emphasize that performance variabil- ity is still an open problem with NMT. On our de- velopment set, we observe differences of up to 1 BLEU between different models. For single sys- tems, we report the results of the model that per- forms best on dev (out of 8), which has a stabi- lizing effect, but how to control for randomness deserves further attention in future research.
# 5 Analysis
# 5.1 Unigram accuracy
|
1508.07909#28
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 28,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "For EnglishâRussian,\nthe state of the art is the phrase-based system by Haddow et al. (2015). It outperforms our WDict baseline by 1.5 BLEU. The subword models are a step towards closing this gap, and BPE-J90k yields an improvement of 1.3 BLEU, and 2.0 CHRF3, over WDict.\nAs a further comment on our translation results, we want to emphasize that performance variabil- ity is still an open problem with NMT. On our de- velopment set, we observe differences of up to 1 BLEU between different models. For single sys- tems, we report the results of the model that per- forms best on dev (out of 8), which has a stabi- lizing effect, but how to control for randomness deserves further attention in future research.\n# 5 Analysis\n# 5.1 Unigram accuracy",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 29 |
# 5 Analysis
# 5.1 Unigram accuracy
Our main claims are that the translation of rare and unknown words is poor in word-level NMT mod- els, and that subword models improve the trans- lation of these word types. To further illustrate the effect of different subword segmentations on the translation of rare and unseen words, we plot target-side words sorted by their frequency in the training set.13 To analyze the effect of vocabulary size, we also include the system C2-3/500k, which is a system with the same vocabulary size as the WDict baseline, and character bigrams to repre- sent unseen words.
Figure 2 shows results for the EnglishâGerman ensemble systems on newstest2015. Unigram F1 of all systems tends to decrease for lower- frequency words. The baseline system has a spike in F1 for OOVs, i.e. words that do not occur in the training text. This is because a high propor- tion of OOVs are names, for which a copy from the source to the target text is a good strategy for EnglishâGerman.
|
1508.07909#29
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 29,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "# 5 Analysis\n# 5.1 Unigram accuracy\nOur main claims are that the translation of rare and unknown words is poor in word-level NMT mod- els, and that subword models improve the trans- lation of these word types. To further illustrate the effect of different subword segmentations on the translation of rare and unseen words, we plot target-side words sorted by their frequency in the training set.13 To analyze the effect of vocabulary size, we also include the system C2-3/500k, which is a system with the same vocabulary size as the WDict baseline, and character bigrams to repre- sent unseen words.\nFigure 2 shows results for the EnglishâGerman ensemble systems on newstest2015. Unigram F1 of all systems tends to decrease for lower- frequency words. The baseline system has a spike in F1 for OOVs, i.e. words that do not occur in the training text. This is because a high propor- tion of OOVs are names, for which a copy from the source to the target text is a good strategy for EnglishâGerman.",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
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] |
1508.07909
| 30 |
The systems with a target vocabulary of 500 000 words mostly differ in how well they translate words with rank > 500 000. A back-off dictionary is an obvious improvement over producing UNK, but the subword system C2-3/500k achieves better performance. Note that all OOVs that the back- off dictionary produces are words that are copied from the source, usually names, while the subword
13We perform binning of words with the same training set frequency, and apply bezier smoothing to the graph.
systems can productively form new words such as compounds.
|
1508.07909#30
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 30,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "The systems with a target vocabulary of 500 000 words mostly differ in how well they translate words with rank > 500 000. A back-off dictionary is an obvious improvement over producing UNK, but the subword system C2-3/500k achieves better performance. Note that all OOVs that the back- off dictionary produces are words that are copied from the source, usually names, while the subword\n13We perform binning of words with the same training set frequency, and apply bezier smoothing to the graph.\nsystems can productively form new words such as compounds.",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 31 |
systems can productively form new words such as compounds.
For the 50 000 most frequent words, the repre- sentation is the same for all neural networks, and all neural networks achieve comparable unigram F1 for this category. For the interval between fre- quency rank 50 000 and 500 000, the comparison between C2-3/500k and C2-50k unveils an inter- esting difference. The two systems only differ in the size of the shortlist, with C2-3/500k represent- ing words in this interval as single units, and C2- 50k via subword units. We ï¬nd that the perfor- mance of C2-3/500k degrades heavily up to fre- quency rank 500 000, at which point the model switches to a subword representation and perfor- mance recovers. The performance of C2-50k re- mains more stable. We attribute this to the fact that subword units are less sparse than words. In our training set, the frequency rank 50 000 corre- sponds to a frequency of 60 in the training data; the frequency rank 500 000 to a frequency of 2. Because subword representations are less sparse, reducing the size of the network vocabulary, and representing more words via subword units, can lead to better performance.
|
1508.07909#31
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 31,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "systems can productively form new words such as compounds.\nFor the 50 000 most frequent words, the repre- sentation is the same for all neural networks, and all neural networks achieve comparable unigram F1 for this category. For the interval between fre- quency rank 50 000 and 500 000, the comparison between C2-3/500k and C2-50k unveils an inter- esting difference. The two systems only differ in the size of the shortlist, with C2-3/500k represent- ing words in this interval as single units, and C2- 50k via subword units. We ï¬nd that the perfor- mance of C2-3/500k degrades heavily up to fre- quency rank 500 000, at which point the model switches to a subword representation and perfor- mance recovers. The performance of C2-50k re- mains more stable. We attribute this to the fact that subword units are less sparse than words. In our training set, the frequency rank 50 000 corre- sponds to a frequency of 60 in the training data; the frequency rank 500 000 to a frequency of 2. Because subword representations are less sparse, reducing the size of the network vocabulary, and representing more words via subword units, can lead to better performance.",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 32 |
The F1 numbers hide some qualitative differ- ences between systems. For EnglishâGerman, WDict produces few OOVs (26.5% recall), but with high precision (60.6%) , whereas the subword systems achieve higher recall, but lower precision. We note that the character bigram model C2-50k produces the most OOV words, and achieves rel- atively low precision of 29.1% for this category. However, it outperforms the back-off dictionary in recall (33.0%). BPE-60k, which suffers from transliteration (or copy) errors due to segmenta- tion inconsistencies, obtains a slightly better pre- cision (32.4%), but a worse recall (26.6%). In con- trast to BPE-60k, the joint BPE encoding of BPE- J90k improves both precision (38.6%) and recall (29.8%).
For EnglishâRussian, unknown names can only rarely be copied, and usually require translit- eration. Consequently, the WDict baseline per- forms more poorly for OOVs (9.2% precision; 5.2% recall), and the subword models improve both precision and recall (21.9% precision and 15.6% recall for BPE-J90k). The full unigram F1 plot is shown in Figure 3.
|
1508.07909#32
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 32,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "The F1 numbers hide some qualitative differ- ences between systems. For EnglishâGerman, WDict produces few OOVs (26.5% recall), but with high precision (60.6%) , whereas the subword systems achieve higher recall, but lower precision. We note that the character bigram model C2-50k produces the most OOV words, and achieves rel- atively low precision of 29.1% for this category. However, it outperforms the back-off dictionary in recall (33.0%). BPE-60k, which suffers from transliteration (or copy) errors due to segmenta- tion inconsistencies, obtains a slightly better pre- cision (32.4%), but a worse recall (26.6%). In con- trast to BPE-60k, the joint BPE encoding of BPE- J90k improves both precision (38.6%) and recall (29.8%).\nFor EnglishâRussian, unknown names can only rarely be copied, and usually require translit- eration. Consequently, the WDict baseline per- forms more poorly for OOVs (9.2% precision; 5.2% recall), and the subword models improve both precision and recall (21.9% precision and 15.6% recall for BPE-J90k). The full unigram F1 plot is shown in Figure 3.",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 33 |
CHRF3 BLEU vocabulary unigram F1 (%) rare OOV all 16.5 - 56.0 31.3 0.0 49.9 54.2 25.2 6.6 51.0 54.8 26.5 17.4 51.6 55.2 27.8 15.6 52.7 55.3 29.7 18.3 53.0 55.8 29.7 source target single ens-8 single ens-8 segmentation shortlist name phrase-based (Haddow et al., 2015) WUnk WDict C2-50k BPE-60k BPE BPE-J90k BPE (joint) 53.8 46.5 47.5 49.0 49.8 49.7 24.3 18.8 19.1 20.9 20.5 20.4 - 22.4 22.8 24.1 23.6 24.1 - - char-bigram - 300 000 500 000 - 300 000 500 000 60 000 60 000 60 000 60 000 90 000 100 000 50 000 - Table 3: EnglishâRussian translation performance (BLEU, CHRF3 and unigram F1) on newstest2015. Ens-8: ensemble of 8 models. Best NMT system in bold. Unigram F1 (with ensembles) is computed for all words (n = 55654),
|
1508.07909#33
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 33,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "CHRF3 BLEU vocabulary unigram F1 (%) rare OOV all 16.5 - 56.0 31.3 0.0 49.9 54.2 25.2 6.6 51.0 54.8 26.5 17.4 51.6 55.2 27.8 15.6 52.7 55.3 29.7 18.3 53.0 55.8 29.7 source target single ens-8 single ens-8 segmentation shortlist name phrase-based (Haddow et al., 2015) WUnk WDict C2-50k BPE-60k BPE BPE-J90k BPE (joint) 53.8 46.5 47.5 49.0 49.8 49.7 24.3 18.8 19.1 20.9 20.5 20.4 - 22.4 22.8 24.1 23.6 24.1 - - char-bigram - 300 000 500 000 - 300 000 500 000 60 000 60 000 60 000 60 000 90 000 100 000 50 000 - Table 3: EnglishâRussian translation performance (BLEU, CHRF3 and unigram F1) on newstest2015. Ens-8: ensemble of 8 models. Best NMT system in bold. Unigram F1 (with ensembles) is computed for all words (n = 55654),",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 36 |
Figure 2: EnglishâGerman unigram F1 on new- stest2015 plotted by training set frequency rank for different NMT systems.
Table 4 shows two translation examples for the translation direction EnglishâGerman, Ta- ble 5 for EnglishâRussian. The baseline sys- tem fails for all of the examples, either by delet- ing content (health), or by copying source words that should be translated or transliterated. The subword translations of health research insti- tutes show that the subword systems are capa- ble of learning translations when oversplitting (re- searchâFo|rs|ch|un|g), or when the segmentation does not match morpheme boundaries: the seg- mentation Forschungs|instituten would be linguis- tically more plausible, and simpler to align to the English research institutes, than the segmentation Forsch|ungsinstitu|ten in the BPE-60k system, but still, a correct translation is produced. If the sys- tems have failed to learn a translation due to data sparseness, like for asinine, which should be trans- lated as dumm, we see translations that are wrong, but could be plausible for (partial) loanwords (asi- nine SituationâAsinin-Situation).
|
1508.07909#36
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 36,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "Figure 2: EnglishâGerman unigram F1 on new- stest2015 plotted by training set frequency rank for different NMT systems.\nTable 4 shows two translation examples for the translation direction EnglishâGerman, Ta- ble 5 for EnglishâRussian. The baseline sys- tem fails for all of the examples, either by delet- ing content (health), or by copying source words that should be translated or transliterated. The subword translations of health research insti- tutes show that the subword systems are capa- ble of learning translations when oversplitting (re- searchâFo|rs|ch|un|g), or when the segmentation does not match morpheme boundaries: the seg- mentation Forschungs|instituten would be linguis- tically more plausible, and simpler to align to the English research institutes, than the segmentation Forsch|ungsinstitu|ten in the BPE-60k system, but still, a correct translation is produced. If the sys- tems have failed to learn a translation due to data sparseness, like for asinine, which should be trans- lated as dumm, we see translations that are wrong, but could be plausible for (partial) loanwords (asi- nine SituationâAsinin-Situation).",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 38 |
Figure 3: EnglishâRussian unigram F1 on new- stest2015 plotted by training set frequency rank for different NMT systems.
The EnglishâRussian examples show that the subword systems are capable of translitera- tion. However, transliteration errors do occur, either due to ambiguous transliterations, or be- cause of non-consistent segmentations between source and target text which make it hard for the system to learn a transliteration mapping. Note that the BPE-60k system encodes Mirza- yeva inconsistently for the two language pairs (Mirz|ayevaâÐиÑ|за|ева Mir|za|eva). This ex- ample is still translated correctly, but we observe spurious insertions and deletions of characters in the BPE-60k system. An example is the translit- eration of rakï¬sk, where a п is inserted and a к is deleted. We trace this error back to transla- tion pairs in the training data with inconsistent segmentations, such as (p|rak|ri|tiâпÑа|кÑиÑ|и
|
1508.07909#38
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 38,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "Figure 3: EnglishâRussian unigram F1 on new- stest2015 plotted by training set frequency rank for different NMT systems.\nThe EnglishâRussian examples show that the subword systems are capable of translitera- tion. However, transliteration errors do occur, either due to ambiguous transliterations, or be- cause of non-consistent segmentations between source and target text which make it hard for the system to learn a transliteration mapping. Note that the BPE-60k system encodes Mirza- yeva inconsistently for the two language pairs (Mirz|ayevaâÐиÑ|за|ева Mir|za|eva). This ex- ample is still translated correctly, but we observe spurious insertions and deletions of characters in the BPE-60k system. An example is the translit- eration of rakï¬sk, where a п is inserted and a к is deleted. We trace this error back to transla- tion pairs in the training data with inconsistent segmentations, such as (p|rak|ri|tiâпÑа|кÑиÑ|и",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 39 |
sentence system health research institutes source reference Gesundheitsforschungsinstitute Forschungsinstitute WDict C2-50k Fo|rs|ch|un|gs|in|st|it|ut|io|ne|n Gesundheits|forsch|ungsinstitu|ten BPE-60k Gesundheits|forsch|ungsin|stitute BPE-J90k asinine situation source reference dumme Situation asinine situation â UNK â asinine WDict as|in|in|e situation â As|in|en|si|tu|at|io|n C2-50k as|in|ine situation â A|in|line-|Situation BPE-60k BPE-J90K as|in|ine situation â As|in|in-|Situation
Table 4: EnglishâGerman translation example. â|â marks subword boundaries.
|
1508.07909#39
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 39,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "sentence system health research institutes source reference Gesundheitsforschungsinstitute Forschungsinstitute WDict C2-50k Fo|rs|ch|un|gs|in|st|it|ut|io|ne|n Gesundheits|forsch|ungsinstitu|ten BPE-60k Gesundheits|forsch|ungsin|stitute BPE-J90k asinine situation source reference dumme Situation asinine situation â UNK â asinine WDict as|in|in|e situation â As|in|en|si|tu|at|io|n C2-50k as|in|ine situation â A|in|line-|Situation BPE-60k BPE-J90K as|in|ine situation â As|in|in-|Situation\nTable 4: EnglishâGerman translation example. â|â marks subword boundaries.",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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0.04630031
] |
1508.07909
| 40 |
Table 4: EnglishâGerman translation example. â|â marks subword boundaries.
sentence system source Mirzayeva reference ÐиÑзаева (Mirzaeva) Mirzayeva â UNK â Mirzayeva WDict Mi|rz|ay|ev|a â Ðи|Ñз|ае|ва (Mi|rz|ae|va) C2-50k BPE-60k Mirz|ayeva â ÐиÑ|за|ева (Mir|za|eva) BPE-J90k Mir|za|yeva â ÐиÑ|за|ева (Mir|za|eva) source reference WDict C2-50k BPE-60k BPE-J90k
Table 5: EnglishâRussian translation examples. â|â marks subword boundaries.
(pra|krit|i)), from which the translation (rakâпÑа) is erroneously learned. The segmentation of the joint BPE system (BPE-J90k) is more consistent (pra|krit|iâпÑа|кÑиÑ|и (pra|krit|i)).
# 6 Conclusion
|
1508.07909#40
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 40,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "Table 4: EnglishâGerman translation example. â|â marks subword boundaries.\nsentence system source Mirzayeva reference ÐиÑзаева (Mirzaeva) Mirzayeva â UNK â Mirzayeva WDict Mi|rz|ay|ev|a â Ðи|Ñз|ае|ва (Mi|rz|ae|va) C2-50k BPE-60k Mirz|ayeva â ÐиÑ|за|ева (Mir|za|eva) BPE-J90k Mir|za|yeva â ÐиÑ|за|ева (Mir|za|eva) source reference WDict C2-50k BPE-60k BPE-J90k\nTable 5: EnglishâRussian translation examples. â|â marks subword boundaries.\n(pra|krit|i)), from which the translation (rakâпÑа) is erroneously learned. The segmentation of the joint BPE system (BPE-J90k) is more consistent (pra|krit|iâпÑа|кÑиÑ|и (pra|krit|i)).\n# 6 Conclusion",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 41 |
# 6 Conclusion
The main contribution of this paper is that we show that neural machine translation systems are capable of open-vocabulary translation by repre- senting rare and unseen words as a sequence of subword units.14 This is both simpler and more effective than using a back-off translation model. We introduce a variant of byte pair encoding for word segmentation, which is capable of encod- ing open vocabularies with a compact symbol vo- cabulary of variable-length subword units. We show performance gains over the baseline with both BPE segmentation, and a simple character bi- gram segmentation.
Our analysis shows that not only out-of- vocabulary words, but also rare in-vocabulary words are translated poorly by our baseline NMT
|
1508.07909#41
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 41,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "# 6 Conclusion\nThe main contribution of this paper is that we show that neural machine translation systems are capable of open-vocabulary translation by repre- senting rare and unseen words as a sequence of subword units.14 This is both simpler and more effective than using a back-off translation model. We introduce a variant of byte pair encoding for word segmentation, which is capable of encod- ing open vocabularies with a compact symbol vo- cabulary of variable-length subword units. We show performance gains over the baseline with both BPE segmentation, and a simple character bi- gram segmentation.\nOur analysis shows that not only out-of- vocabulary words, but also rare in-vocabulary words are translated poorly by our baseline NMT",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 42 |
the segmentation algorithms is available at https://github.com/rsennrich/ subword-nmt.
system, and that reducing the vocabulary size of subword models can actually improve perfor- mance. In this work, our choice of vocabulary size is somewhat arbitrary, and mainly motivated by comparison to prior work. One avenue of future research is to learn the optimal vocabulary size for a translation task, which we expect to depend on the language pair and amount of training data, au- tomatically. We also believe there is further po- tential in bilingually informed segmentation algo- rithms to create more alignable subword units, al- though the segmentation algorithm cannot rely on the target text at runtime.
While the relative effectiveness will depend on language-speciï¬c factors such as vocabulary size, we believe that subword segmentations are suit- able for most language pairs, eliminating the need for large NMT vocabularies or back-off models.
# Acknowledgments
|
1508.07909#42
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 42,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "the segmentation algorithms is available at https://github.com/rsennrich/ subword-nmt.\nsystem, and that reducing the vocabulary size of subword models can actually improve perfor- mance. In this work, our choice of vocabulary size is somewhat arbitrary, and mainly motivated by comparison to prior work. One avenue of future research is to learn the optimal vocabulary size for a translation task, which we expect to depend on the language pair and amount of training data, au- tomatically. We also believe there is further po- tential in bilingually informed segmentation algo- rithms to create more alignable subword units, al- though the segmentation algorithm cannot rely on the target text at runtime.\nWhile the relative effectiveness will depend on language-speciï¬c factors such as vocabulary size, we believe that subword segmentations are suit- able for most language pairs, eliminating the need for large NMT vocabularies or back-off models.\n# Acknowledgments",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 43 |
# Acknowledgments
We thank Maja Popovi´c for her implementa- tion of CHRF, with which we veriï¬ed our re- implementation. The research presented in this publication was conducted in cooperation with Samsung Electronics Polska sp. z o.o. - Sam- sung R&D Institute Poland. This project received funding from the European Unionâs Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement 645452 (QT21).
# References
Dzmitry Bahdanau, Kyunghyun Cho, and Yoshua Ben- gio. 2015. Neural Machine Translation by Jointly Learning to Align and Translate. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Learning Represen- tations (ICLR).
Issam Bazzi and James R. Glass. 2000. Modeling out- of-vocabulary words for robust speech recognition. In Sixth International Conference on Spoken Lan- guage Processing, ICSLP 2000 / INTERSPEECH 2000, pages 401â404, Beijing, China.
Jan A. Botha and Phil Blunsom. 2014. Compositional Morphology for Word Representations and Lan- guage Modelling. In Proceedings of the 31st Inter- national Conference on Machine Learning (ICML), Beijing, China.
|
1508.07909#43
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 43,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "# Acknowledgments\nWe thank Maja Popovi´c for her implementa- tion of CHRF, with which we veriï¬ed our re- implementation. The research presented in this publication was conducted in cooperation with Samsung Electronics Polska sp. z o.o. - Sam- sung R&D Institute Poland. This project received funding from the European Unionâs Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement 645452 (QT21).\n# References\nDzmitry Bahdanau, Kyunghyun Cho, and Yoshua Ben- gio. 2015. Neural Machine Translation by Jointly Learning to Align and Translate. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Learning Represen- tations (ICLR).\nIssam Bazzi and James R. Glass. 2000. Modeling out- of-vocabulary words for robust speech recognition. In Sixth International Conference on Spoken Lan- guage Processing, ICSLP 2000 / INTERSPEECH 2000, pages 401â404, Beijing, China.\nJan A. Botha and Phil Blunsom. 2014. Compositional Morphology for Word Representations and Lan- guage Modelling. In Proceedings of the 31st Inter- national Conference on Machine Learning (ICML), Beijing, China.",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 44 |
Rohan Chitnis and John DeNero. 2015. Variable- Length Word Encodings for Neural Translation Models. In Proceedings of the 2015 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP).
Kyunghyun Cho, Bart van Merrienboer, Caglar Gul- cehre, Dzmitry Bahdanau, Fethi Bougares, Hol- ger Schwenk, and Yoshua Bengio. 2014. Learn- ing Phrase Representations using RNN Encoderâ Decoder for Statistical Machine Translation. In Pro- ceedings of the 2014 Conference on Empirical Meth- ods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP), pages 1724â1734, Doha, Qatar. Association for Computational Linguistics.
Mathias Creutz and Krista Lagus. 2002. Unsupervised Discovery of Morphemes. In Proceedings of the ACL-02 Workshop on Morphological and Phonolog- ical Learning, pages 21â30. Association for Compu- tational Linguistics.
|
1508.07909#44
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 44,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "Rohan Chitnis and John DeNero. 2015. Variable- Length Word Encodings for Neural Translation Models. In Proceedings of the 2015 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP).\nKyunghyun Cho, Bart van Merrienboer, Caglar Gul- cehre, Dzmitry Bahdanau, Fethi Bougares, Hol- ger Schwenk, and Yoshua Bengio. 2014. Learn- ing Phrase Representations using RNN Encoderâ Decoder for Statistical Machine Translation. In Pro- ceedings of the 2014 Conference on Empirical Meth- ods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP), pages 1724â1734, Doha, Qatar. Association for Computational Linguistics.\nMathias Creutz and Krista Lagus. 2002. Unsupervised Discovery of Morphemes. In Proceedings of the ACL-02 Workshop on Morphological and Phonolog- ical Learning, pages 21â30. Association for Compu- tational Linguistics.",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 45 |
Nadir Durrani, Hassan Sajjad, Hieu Hoang, and Philipp Koehn. 2014. Integrating an Unsupervised Translit- eration Model into Statistical Machine Translation. In Proceedings of the 14th Conference of the Euro- pean Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics, EACL 2014, pages 148â153, Gothen- burg, Sweden.
Chris Dyer, Victor Chahuneau, and Noah A. Smith. 2013. A Simple, Fast, and Effective Reparame- terization of IBM Model 2. In Proceedings of the 2013 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Hu- man Language Technologies, pages 644â648, At- lanta, Georgia. Association for Computational Lin- guistics.
Philip Gage. 1994. A New Algorithm for Data Com- pression. C Users J., 12(2):23â38, February.
Barry Haddow, Matthias Huck, Alexandra Birch, Niko- lay Bogoychev, and Philipp Koehn. 2015. The Edinburgh/JHU Phrase-based Machine Translation Systems for WMT 2015. In Proceedings of the Tenth Workshop on Statistical Machine Translation, pages 126â133, Lisbon, Portugal. Association for Computational Linguistics.
|
1508.07909#45
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 45,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "Nadir Durrani, Hassan Sajjad, Hieu Hoang, and Philipp Koehn. 2014. Integrating an Unsupervised Translit- eration Model into Statistical Machine Translation. In Proceedings of the 14th Conference of the Euro- pean Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics, EACL 2014, pages 148â153, Gothen- burg, Sweden.\nChris Dyer, Victor Chahuneau, and Noah A. Smith. 2013. A Simple, Fast, and Effective Reparame- terization of IBM Model 2. In Proceedings of the 2013 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Hu- man Language Technologies, pages 644â648, At- lanta, Georgia. Association for Computational Lin- guistics.\nPhilip Gage. 1994. A New Algorithm for Data Com- pression. C Users J., 12(2):23â38, February.\nBarry Haddow, Matthias Huck, Alexandra Birch, Niko- lay Bogoychev, and Philipp Koehn. 2015. The Edinburgh/JHU Phrase-based Machine Translation Systems for WMT 2015. In Proceedings of the Tenth Workshop on Statistical Machine Translation, pages 126â133, Lisbon, Portugal. Association for Computational Linguistics.",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 46 |
Sébastien Jean, Kyunghyun Cho, Roland Memisevic, and Yoshua Bengio. 2015. On Using Very Large Target Vocabulary for Neural Machine Translation. In Proceedings of the 53rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the 7th International Joint Conference on Natural Lan- guage Processing (Volume 1: Long Papers), pages 1â10, Beijing, China. Association for Computa- tional Linguistics.
Nal Kalchbrenner and Phil Blunsom. 2013. Recurrent Continuous Translation Models. In Proceedings of the 2013 Conference on Empirical Methods in Nat- ural Language Processing, Seattle. Association for Computational Linguistics.
Yoon Kim, Yacine Jernite, David Sontag, and Alexan- der M. Rush. 2015. Character-Aware Neural Lan- guage Models. CoRR, abs/1508.06615.
Philipp Koehn and Kevin Knight. 2003. Empirical In EACL â03: Methods for Compound Splitting. Proceedings of the Tenth Conference on European Chapter of the Association for Computational Lin- guistics, pages 187â193, Budapest, Hungary. Asso- ciation for Computational Linguistics.
|
1508.07909#46
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 46,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "Sébastien Jean, Kyunghyun Cho, Roland Memisevic, and Yoshua Bengio. 2015. On Using Very Large Target Vocabulary for Neural Machine Translation. In Proceedings of the 53rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the 7th International Joint Conference on Natural Lan- guage Processing (Volume 1: Long Papers), pages 1â10, Beijing, China. Association for Computa- tional Linguistics.\nNal Kalchbrenner and Phil Blunsom. 2013. Recurrent Continuous Translation Models. In Proceedings of the 2013 Conference on Empirical Methods in Nat- ural Language Processing, Seattle. Association for Computational Linguistics.\nYoon Kim, Yacine Jernite, David Sontag, and Alexan- der M. Rush. 2015. Character-Aware Neural Lan- guage Models. CoRR, abs/1508.06615.\nPhilipp Koehn and Kevin Knight. 2003. Empirical In EACL â03: Methods for Compound Splitting. Proceedings of the Tenth Conference on European Chapter of the Association for Computational Lin- guistics, pages 187â193, Budapest, Hungary. Asso- ciation for Computational Linguistics.",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 47 |
Philipp Koehn, Hieu Hoang, Alexandra Birch, Chris Callison-Burch, Marcello Federico, Nicola Bertoldi, Brooke Cowan, Wade Shen, Christine Moran, Richard Zens, Chris Dyer, OndËrej Bojar, Alexandra Constantin, and Evan Herbst. 2007. Moses: Open Source Toolkit for Statistical Machine Translation. In Proceedings of the ACL-2007 Demo and Poster Sessions, pages 177â180, Prague, Czech Republic. Association for Computational Linguistics.
Franklin M. Liang. 1983. Word hy-phen-a-tion by com-put-er. Ph.D. thesis, Stanford University, De- partment of Linguistics, Stanford, CA.
Wang Ling, Chris Dyer, Alan W. Black, Isabel Tran- coso, Ramon Fermandez, Silvio Amir, Luis Marujo, and Tiago Luis. 2015a. Finding Function in Form: Compositional Character Models for Open Vocab- ulary Word Representation. In Proceedings of the 2015 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natu- ral Language Processing (EMNLP), pages 1520â 1530, Lisbon, Portugal. Association for Computa- tional Linguistics.
|
1508.07909#47
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 47,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "Philipp Koehn, Hieu Hoang, Alexandra Birch, Chris Callison-Burch, Marcello Federico, Nicola Bertoldi, Brooke Cowan, Wade Shen, Christine Moran, Richard Zens, Chris Dyer, OndËrej Bojar, Alexandra Constantin, and Evan Herbst. 2007. Moses: Open Source Toolkit for Statistical Machine Translation. In Proceedings of the ACL-2007 Demo and Poster Sessions, pages 177â180, Prague, Czech Republic. Association for Computational Linguistics.\nFranklin M. Liang. 1983. Word hy-phen-a-tion by com-put-er. Ph.D. thesis, Stanford University, De- partment of Linguistics, Stanford, CA.\nWang Ling, Chris Dyer, Alan W. Black, Isabel Tran- coso, Ramon Fermandez, Silvio Amir, Luis Marujo, and Tiago Luis. 2015a. Finding Function in Form: Compositional Character Models for Open Vocab- ulary Word Representation. In Proceedings of the 2015 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natu- ral Language Processing (EMNLP), pages 1520â 1530, Lisbon, Portugal. Association for Computa- tional Linguistics.",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 48 |
Wang Ling, Isabel Trancoso, Chris Dyer, and Alan W. Black. 2015b. Character-based Neural Machine Translation. ArXiv e-prints, November.
Thang Luong, Richard Socher, and Christopher D. Manning. 2013. Better Word Representations with Recursive Neural Networks for Morphology. In Proceedings of the Seventeenth Conference on Computational Natural Language Learning, CoNLL 2013, Soï¬a, Bulgaria, August 8-9, 2013, pages 104â 113.
Thang Luong, Hieu Pham, and Christopher D. Man- ning. 2015a. Effective Approaches to Attention- based Neural Machine Translation. In Proceed- ings of the 2015 Conference on Empirical Meth- ods in Natural Language Processing, pages 1412â 1421, Lisbon, Portugal. Association for Computa- tional Linguistics.
Thang Luong, Ilya Sutskever, Quoc Le, Oriol Vinyals, and Wojciech Zaremba. 2015b. Addressing the Rare Word Problem in Neural Machine Translation. In Proceedings of the 53rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the 7th International Joint Conference on Natural Lan- guage Processing (Volume 1: Long Papers), pages 11â19, Beijing, China. Association for Computa- tional Linguistics.
|
1508.07909#48
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 48,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "Wang Ling, Isabel Trancoso, Chris Dyer, and Alan W. Black. 2015b. Character-based Neural Machine Translation. ArXiv e-prints, November.\nThang Luong, Richard Socher, and Christopher D. Manning. 2013. Better Word Representations with Recursive Neural Networks for Morphology. In Proceedings of the Seventeenth Conference on Computational Natural Language Learning, CoNLL 2013, Soï¬a, Bulgaria, August 8-9, 2013, pages 104â 113.\nThang Luong, Hieu Pham, and Christopher D. Man- ning. 2015a. Effective Approaches to Attention- based Neural Machine Translation. In Proceed- ings of the 2015 Conference on Empirical Meth- ods in Natural Language Processing, pages 1412â 1421, Lisbon, Portugal. Association for Computa- tional Linguistics.\nThang Luong, Ilya Sutskever, Quoc Le, Oriol Vinyals, and Wojciech Zaremba. 2015b. Addressing the Rare Word Problem in Neural Machine Translation. In Proceedings of the 53rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the 7th International Joint Conference on Natural Lan- guage Processing (Volume 1: Long Papers), pages 11â19, Beijing, China. Association for Computa- tional Linguistics.",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 49 |
Tomas Mikolov, Ilya Sutskever, Anoop Deoras, Hai- Son Le, Stefan Kombrink, and Jan Cernocký. 2012. Subword Language Modeling with Neural Net- works. Unpublished.
Graham Neubig, Taro Watanabe, Shinsuke Mori, and 2012. Machine Translation Tatsuya Kawahara. without Words through Substring Alignment. In The 50th Annual Meeting of the Association for Compu- tational Linguistics, Proceedings of the Conference, July 8-14, 2012, Jeju Island, Korea - Volume 1: Long Papers, pages 165â174.
Improving SMT quality with morpho-syntactic analysis. In 18th Int. Conf. on Computational Linguistics, pages 1081â1085.
Razvan Pascanu, Tomas Mikolov, and Yoshua Ben- gio. 2013. On the difï¬culty of training recurrent neural networks. In Proceedings of the 30th Inter- national Conference on Machine Learning, ICML 2013, pages 1310â1318, Atlanta, USA.
Maja Popovi´c. 2015. chrF: character n-gram F-score for automatic MT evaluation. In Proceedings of the Tenth Workshop on Statistical Machine Translation, pages 392â395, Lisbon, Portugal. Association for Computational Linguistics.
|
1508.07909#49
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 49,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "Tomas Mikolov, Ilya Sutskever, Anoop Deoras, Hai- Son Le, Stefan Kombrink, and Jan Cernocký. 2012. Subword Language Modeling with Neural Net- works. Unpublished.\nGraham Neubig, Taro Watanabe, Shinsuke Mori, and 2012. Machine Translation Tatsuya Kawahara. without Words through Substring Alignment. In The 50th Annual Meeting of the Association for Compu- tational Linguistics, Proceedings of the Conference, July 8-14, 2012, Jeju Island, Korea - Volume 1: Long Papers, pages 165â174.\nImproving SMT quality with morpho-syntactic analysis. In 18th Int. Conf. on Computational Linguistics, pages 1081â1085.\nRazvan Pascanu, Tomas Mikolov, and Yoshua Ben- gio. 2013. On the difï¬culty of training recurrent neural networks. In Proceedings of the 30th Inter- national Conference on Machine Learning, ICML 2013, pages 1310â1318, Atlanta, USA.\nMaja Popovi´c. 2015. chrF: character n-gram F-score for automatic MT evaluation. In Proceedings of the Tenth Workshop on Statistical Machine Translation, pages 392â395, Lisbon, Portugal. Association for Computational Linguistics.",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
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Rico Sennrich and Barry Haddow. 2015. A Joint Dependency Model of Morphological and Syntac- tic Structure for Statistical Machine Translation. In Proceedings of the 2015 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, pages 2081â2087, Lisbon, Portugal. Association for Com- putational Linguistics.
Benjamin Snyder and Regina Barzilay. 2008. Unsu- pervised Multilingual Learning for Morphological Segmentation. In Proceedings of ACL-08: HLT, pages 737â745, Columbus, Ohio. Association for Computational Linguistics.
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|
1508.07909#50
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 50,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "Rico Sennrich and Barry Haddow. 2015. A Joint Dependency Model of Morphological and Syntac- tic Structure for Statistical Machine Translation. In Proceedings of the 2015 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, pages 2081â2087, Lisbon, Portugal. Association for Com- putational Linguistics.\nBenjamin Snyder and Regina Barzilay. 2008. Unsu- pervised Multilingual Learning for Morphological Segmentation. In Proceedings of ACL-08: HLT, pages 737â745, Columbus, Ohio. Association for Computational Linguistics.\nJacob Devlin, Michael Kayser, Yoong Keok Lee, and Regina Barzilay. 2012. Unsu- pervised Morphology Rivals Supervised Morphol- ogy for Arabic MT. In The 50th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, Pro- ceedings of the Conference, July 8-14, 2012, Jeju Island, Korea - Volume 2: Short Papers, pages 322â 327.\nMiloÅ¡ Stanojevi´c, Amir Kamran, Philipp Koehn, and OndËrej Bojar. 2015. Results of the WMT15 Met- rics Shared Task. In Proceedings of the Tenth Work- shop on Statistical Machine Translation, pages 256â 273, Lisbon, Portugal. Association for Computa- tional Linguistics.",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.07909
| 51 |
Ilya Sutskever, Oriol Vinyals, and Quoc V. Le. 2014. Sequence to Sequence Learning with Neural Net- works. In Advances in Neural Information Process- ing Systems 27: Annual Conference on Neural Infor- mation Processing Systems 2014, pages 3104â3112, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
Jörg Tiedemann. 2009. Character-based PSMT for Closely Related Languages. In Proceedings of 13th Annual Conference of the European Association for Machine Translation (EAMTâ09), pages 12â19.
Jörg Tiedemann. 2012. Character-Based Pivot Trans- lation for Under-Resourced Languages and Do- mains. In Proceedings of the 13th Conference of the European Chapter of the Association for Computa- tional Linguistics, pages 141â151, Avignon, France. Association for Computational Linguistics.
David Vilar, Jan-Thorsten Peter, and Hermann Ney. 2007. Can We Translate Letters? In Second Work- shop on Statistical Machine Translation, pages 33â 39, Prague, Czech Republic. Association for Com- putational Linguistics.
|
1508.07909#51
|
Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units
|
Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed
vocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work
addresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a
dictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,
making the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare
and unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition
that various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for
instance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via
compositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and
morphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word
segmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a
segmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and
empirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary
baseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by
1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909
|
Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch
|
cs.CL
|
accepted at ACL 2016; new in this version: figure 3
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150831
|
20160610
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, Alexandra Birch",
"chunk_id": 51,
"doc_id": "1508.07909",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150831,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.07909",
"summary": "Neural machine translation (NMT) models typically operate with a fixed\nvocabulary, but translation is an open-vocabulary problem. Previous work\naddresses the translation of out-of-vocabulary words by backing off to a\ndictionary. In this paper, we introduce a simpler and more effective approach,\nmaking the NMT model capable of open-vocabulary translation by encoding rare\nand unknown words as sequences of subword units. This is based on the intuition\nthat various word classes are translatable via smaller units than words, for\ninstance names (via character copying or transliteration), compounds (via\ncompositional translation), and cognates and loanwords (via phonological and\nmorphological transformations). We discuss the suitability of different word\nsegmentation techniques, including simple character n-gram models and a\nsegmentation based on the byte pair encoding compression algorithm, and\nempirically show that subword models improve over a back-off dictionary\nbaseline for the WMT 15 translation tasks English-German and English-Russian by\n1.1 and 1.3 BLEU, respectively.",
"text": "Ilya Sutskever, Oriol Vinyals, and Quoc V. Le. 2014. Sequence to Sequence Learning with Neural Net- works. In Advances in Neural Information Process- ing Systems 27: Annual Conference on Neural Infor- mation Processing Systems 2014, pages 3104â3112, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.\nJörg Tiedemann. 2009. Character-based PSMT for Closely Related Languages. In Proceedings of 13th Annual Conference of the European Association for Machine Translation (EAMTâ09), pages 12â19.\nJörg Tiedemann. 2012. Character-Based Pivot Trans- lation for Under-Resourced Languages and Do- mains. In Proceedings of the 13th Conference of the European Chapter of the Association for Computa- tional Linguistics, pages 141â151, Avignon, France. Association for Computational Linguistics.\nDavid Vilar, Jan-Thorsten Peter, and Hermann Ney. 2007. Can We Translate Letters? In Second Work- shop on Statistical Machine Translation, pages 33â 39, Prague, Czech Republic. Association for Com- putational Linguistics.",
"title": "Neural Machine Translation of Rare Words with Subword Units",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 0 |
5 1 0 2
g u A 1 2 ] L C . s c [
1 v 6 2 3 5 0 . 8 0 5 1 : v i X r a
# A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
# Samuel R. Bowmanââ [email protected]
# Gabor Angeliâ â¡ [email protected]
# Christopher Pottsâ [email protected]
Christopher D. Manningââ â¡ [email protected]
âStanford Linguistics â Stanford NLP Group â¡Stanford Computer Science
# Abstract
|
1508.05326#0
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 0,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "5 1 0 2\ng u A 1 2 ] L C . s c [\n1 v 6 2 3 5 0 . 8 0 5 1 : v i X r a\n# A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference\n# Samuel R. Bowmanââ [email protected]\n# Gabor Angeliâ â¡ [email protected]\n# Christopher Pottsâ [email protected]\nChristopher D. Manningââ â¡ [email protected]\nâStanford Linguistics â Stanford NLP Group â¡Stanford Computer Science\n# Abstract",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 1 |
Christopher D. Manningââ â¡ [email protected]
âStanford Linguistics â Stanford NLP Group â¡Stanford Computer Science
# Abstract
Understanding entailment and contradic- tion is fundamental to understanding nat- ural language, and inference about entail- ment and contradiction is a valuable test- ing ground for the development of seman- tic representations. However, machine learning research in this area has been dra- matically limited by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection of labeled sentence pairs, written by hu- mans doing a novel grounded task based on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than all other resources of its type. This in- crease in scale allows lexicalized classi- ï¬ers to outperform some sophisticated ex- isting entailment models, and it allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural language infer- ence benchmarks for the ï¬rst time.
# Introduction
|
1508.05326#1
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 1,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "Christopher D. Manningââ â¡ [email protected]\nâStanford Linguistics â Stanford NLP Group â¡Stanford Computer Science\n# Abstract\nUnderstanding entailment and contradic- tion is fundamental to understanding nat- ural language, and inference about entail- ment and contradiction is a valuable test- ing ground for the development of seman- tic representations. However, machine learning research in this area has been dra- matically limited by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection of labeled sentence pairs, written by hu- mans doing a novel grounded task based on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than all other resources of its type. This in- crease in scale allows lexicalized classi- ï¬ers to outperform some sophisticated ex- isting entailment models, and it allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural language infer- ence benchmarks for the ï¬rst time.\n# Introduction",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 2 |
# Introduction
for approaches employing distributed word and phrase representations. Distributed representa- tions excel at capturing relations based in similar- ity, and have proven effective at modeling simple dimensions of meaning like evaluative sentiment (e.g., Socher et al. 2013), but it is less clear that they can be trained to support the full range of logical and commonsense inferences required for NLI (Bowman et al., 2015; Weston et al., 2015b; In a SemEval 2014 task Weston et al., 2015a). aimed at evaluating distributed representations for NLI, the best-performing systems relied heavily on additional features and reasoning capabilities (Marelli et al., 2014a).
Our ultimate objective is to provide an empiri- cal evaluation of learning-centered approaches to NLI, advancing the case for NLI as a tool for the evaluation of domain-general approaches to semantic representation. However, in our view, existing NLI corpora do not permit such an as- sessment. They are generally too small for train- ing modern data-intensive, wide-coverage models, many contain sentences that were algorithmically generated, and they are often beset with indeter- minacies of event and entity coreference that sig- niï¬cantly impact annotation quality.
|
1508.05326#2
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 2,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "# Introduction\nfor approaches employing distributed word and phrase representations. Distributed representa- tions excel at capturing relations based in similar- ity, and have proven effective at modeling simple dimensions of meaning like evaluative sentiment (e.g., Socher et al. 2013), but it is less clear that they can be trained to support the full range of logical and commonsense inferences required for NLI (Bowman et al., 2015; Weston et al., 2015b; In a SemEval 2014 task Weston et al., 2015a). aimed at evaluating distributed representations for NLI, the best-performing systems relied heavily on additional features and reasoning capabilities (Marelli et al., 2014a).\nOur ultimate objective is to provide an empiri- cal evaluation of learning-centered approaches to NLI, advancing the case for NLI as a tool for the evaluation of domain-general approaches to semantic representation. However, in our view, existing NLI corpora do not permit such an as- sessment. They are generally too small for train- ing modern data-intensive, wide-coverage models, many contain sentences that were algorithmically generated, and they are often beset with indeter- minacies of event and entity coreference that sig- niï¬cantly impact annotation quality.",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 3 |
The semantic concepts of entailment and contra- diction are central to all aspects of natural lan- guage meaning (Katz, 1972; van Benthem, 2008), from the lexicon to the content of entire texts. Thus, natural language inference (NLI) â charac- terizing and using these relations in computational systems (Fyodorov et al., 2000; Condoravdi et al., 2003; Bos and Markert, 2005; Dagan et al., 2006; MacCartney and Manning, 2009) â is essential in tasks ranging from information retrieval to seman- tic parsing to commonsense reasoning.
NLI has been addressed using a variety of tech- niques, including those based on symbolic logic, knowledge bases, and neural networks. In recent years, it has become an important testing ground
|
1508.05326#3
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 3,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "The semantic concepts of entailment and contra- diction are central to all aspects of natural lan- guage meaning (Katz, 1972; van Benthem, 2008), from the lexicon to the content of entire texts. Thus, natural language inference (NLI) â charac- terizing and using these relations in computational systems (Fyodorov et al., 2000; Condoravdi et al., 2003; Bos and Markert, 2005; Dagan et al., 2006; MacCartney and Manning, 2009) â is essential in tasks ranging from information retrieval to seman- tic parsing to commonsense reasoning.\nNLI has been addressed using a variety of tech- niques, including those based on symbolic logic, knowledge bases, and neural networks. In recent years, it has become an important testing ground",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 4 |
NLI has been addressed using a variety of tech- niques, including those based on symbolic logic, knowledge bases, and neural networks. In recent years, it has become an important testing ground
To address this, this paper introduces the Stan- ford Natural Language Inference (SNLI) corpus, a collection of sentence pairs labeled for entail- ment, contradiction, and semantic independence. At 570,152 sentence pairs, SNLI is two orders of magnitude larger than all other resources of its type. And, in contrast to many such resources, all of its sentences and labels were written by hu- mans in a grounded, naturalistic context. In a sepa- rate validation phase, we collected four additional judgments for each label for 56,941 of the exam- ples. Of these, 98% of cases emerge with a three- annotator consensus, and 58% see a unanimous consensus from all ï¬ve annotators.
In this paper, we use this corpus to evaluate
|
1508.05326#4
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 4,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "NLI has been addressed using a variety of tech- niques, including those based on symbolic logic, knowledge bases, and neural networks. In recent years, it has become an important testing ground\nTo address this, this paper introduces the Stan- ford Natural Language Inference (SNLI) corpus, a collection of sentence pairs labeled for entail- ment, contradiction, and semantic independence. At 570,152 sentence pairs, SNLI is two orders of magnitude larger than all other resources of its type. And, in contrast to many such resources, all of its sentences and labels were written by hu- mans in a grounded, naturalistic context. In a sepa- rate validation phase, we collected four additional judgments for each label for 56,941 of the exam- ples. Of these, 98% of cases emerge with a three- annotator consensus, and 58% see a unanimous consensus from all ï¬ve annotators.\nIn this paper, we use this corpus to evaluate",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 5 |
In this paper, we use this corpus to evaluate
A man inspects the uniform of a ï¬gure in some East Asian country. contradiction C C C C C The man is sleeping An older and younger man smiling. neutral N N E N N Two men are smiling and laughing at the cats play- ing on the ï¬oor. A black race car starts up in front of a crowd of people. contradiction C C C C C A man is driving down a lonely road. A soccer game with multiple males playing. entailment E E E E E Some men are playing a sport. A smiling costumed woman is holding an um- brella. neutral N N E C N A happy woman in a fairy costume holds an um- brella.
Table 1: Randomly chosen examples from the development section of our new corpus, shown with both the selected gold labels and the full set of labels (abbreviated) from the individual annotators, including (in the ï¬rst position) the label used by the initial author of the pair.
|
1508.05326#5
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 5,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "In this paper, we use this corpus to evaluate\nA man inspects the uniform of a ï¬gure in some East Asian country. contradiction C C C C C The man is sleeping An older and younger man smiling. neutral N N E N N Two men are smiling and laughing at the cats play- ing on the ï¬oor. A black race car starts up in front of a crowd of people. contradiction C C C C C A man is driving down a lonely road. A soccer game with multiple males playing. entailment E E E E E Some men are playing a sport. A smiling costumed woman is holding an um- brella. neutral N N E C N A happy woman in a fairy costume holds an um- brella.\nTable 1: Randomly chosen examples from the development section of our new corpus, shown with both the selected gold labels and the full set of labels (abbreviated) from the individual annotators, including (in the ï¬rst position) the label used by the initial author of the pair.",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 6 |
a variety of models for natural language infer- ence, including rule-based systems, simple lin- ear classiï¬ers, and neural network-based models. We ï¬nd that two models achieve comparable per- formance: a feature-rich classiï¬er model and a neural network model centered around a Long Short-Term Memory network (LSTM; Hochreiter and Schmidhuber 1997). We further evaluate the LSTM model by taking advantage of its ready sup- port for transfer learning, and show that it can be adapted to an existing NLI challenge task, yielding the best reported performance by a neural network model and approaching the overall state of the art.
# 2 A new corpus for NLI
|
1508.05326#6
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 6,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "a variety of models for natural language infer- ence, including rule-based systems, simple lin- ear classiï¬ers, and neural network-based models. We ï¬nd that two models achieve comparable per- formance: a feature-rich classiï¬er model and a neural network model centered around a Long Short-Term Memory network (LSTM; Hochreiter and Schmidhuber 1997). We further evaluate the LSTM model by taking advantage of its ready sup- port for transfer learning, and show that it can be adapted to an existing NLI challenge task, yielding the best reported performance by a neural network model and approaching the overall state of the art.\n# 2 A new corpus for NLI",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 7 |
To date, the primary sources of annotated NLI cor- pora have been the Recognizing Textual Entail- ment (RTE) challenge tasks.1 These are generally high-quality, hand-labeled data sets, and they have stimulated innovative logical and statistical mod- els of natural language reasoning, but their small size (fewer than a thousand examples each) limits their utility as a testbed for learned distributed rep- resentations. The data for the SemEval 2014 task called Sentences Involving Compositional Knowl- edge (SICK) is a step up in terms of size, but only to 4,500 training examples, and its partly automatic construction introduced some spurious patterns into the data (Marelli et al. 2014a, §6). The Denotation Graph entailment set (Young et al., 2014) contains millions of examples of en- tailments between sentences and artiï¬cially con- structed short phrases, but it was labeled using fully automatic methods, and is noisy enough that it is probably suitable only as a source of supplementary training data. Outside the domain of sentence-level entailment, Levy et al. (2014) intro- duce a large corpus of semi-automatically
|
1508.05326#7
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 7,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "To date, the primary sources of annotated NLI cor- pora have been the Recognizing Textual Entail- ment (RTE) challenge tasks.1 These are generally high-quality, hand-labeled data sets, and they have stimulated innovative logical and statistical mod- els of natural language reasoning, but their small size (fewer than a thousand examples each) limits their utility as a testbed for learned distributed rep- resentations. The data for the SemEval 2014 task called Sentences Involving Compositional Knowl- edge (SICK) is a step up in terms of size, but only to 4,500 training examples, and its partly automatic construction introduced some spurious patterns into the data (Marelli et al. 2014a, §6). The Denotation Graph entailment set (Young et al., 2014) contains millions of examples of en- tailments between sentences and artiï¬cially con- structed short phrases, but it was labeled using fully automatic methods, and is noisy enough that it is probably suitable only as a source of supplementary training data. Outside the domain of sentence-level entailment, Levy et al. (2014) intro- duce a large corpus of semi-automatically",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 8 |
training data. Outside the domain of sentence-level entailment, Levy et al. (2014) intro- duce a large corpus of semi-automatically anno- tated entailment examples between subjectâverbâ object relation triples, and the second release of the Paraphrase Database (Pavlick et al., 2015) in- cludes automatically generated entailment anno- tations over a large corpus of pairs of words and short phrases.
|
1508.05326#8
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 8,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "training data. Outside the domain of sentence-level entailment, Levy et al. (2014) intro- duce a large corpus of semi-automatically anno- tated entailment examples between subjectâverbâ object relation triples, and the second release of the Paraphrase Database (Pavlick et al., 2015) in- cludes automatically generated entailment anno- tations over a large corpus of pairs of words and short phrases.",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 9 |
Existing resources suffer from a subtler issue impacts even projects using only human- that provided annotations: indeterminacies of event and entity coreference lead to insurmountable in- determinacy concerning the correct semantic la- bel (de Marneffe et al. 2008 §4.3; Marelli et al. 2014b). For an example of the pitfalls surround- ing entity coreference, consider the sentence pair A boat sank in the Paciï¬c Ocean and A boat sank in the Atlantic Ocean. The pair could be labeled as a contradiction if one assumes that the two sen- tences refer to the same single event, but could also be reasonably labeled as neutral if that as- sumption is not made. In order to ensure that our labeling scheme assigns a single correct label to every pair, we must select one of these approaches across the board, but both choices present prob- lems. If we opt not to assume that events are coreferent, then we will only ever ï¬nd contradic- tions between sentences that make broad univer- sal assertions, but if we opt to assume coreference, new counterintuitive predictions emerge. For ex- ample, Ruth Bader Ginsburg was appointed to the US Supreme Court and I had a sandwich
|
1508.05326#9
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 9,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "Existing resources suffer from a subtler issue impacts even projects using only human- that provided annotations: indeterminacies of event and entity coreference lead to insurmountable in- determinacy concerning the correct semantic la- bel (de Marneffe et al. 2008 §4.3; Marelli et al. 2014b). For an example of the pitfalls surround- ing entity coreference, consider the sentence pair A boat sank in the Paciï¬c Ocean and A boat sank in the Atlantic Ocean. The pair could be labeled as a contradiction if one assumes that the two sen- tences refer to the same single event, but could also be reasonably labeled as neutral if that as- sumption is not made. In order to ensure that our labeling scheme assigns a single correct label to every pair, we must select one of these approaches across the board, but both choices present prob- lems. If we opt not to assume that events are coreferent, then we will only ever ï¬nd contradic- tions between sentences that make broad univer- sal assertions, but if we opt to assume coreference, new counterintuitive predictions emerge. For ex- ample, Ruth Bader Ginsburg was appointed to the US Supreme Court and I had a sandwich",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 11 |
# 1http://aclweb.org/aclwiki/index.php?
title=Textual_Entailment_Resource_Pool
York and A tourist visited the city. Assuming coreference between New York and the city justi- ï¬es labeling the pair as an entailment, but with- out that assumption the city could be taken to refer to a speciï¬c unknown city, leaving the pair neu- tral. This kind of indeterminacy of label can be re- solved only once the questions of coreference are resolved.
With SNLI, we sought to address the issues of size, quality, and indeterminacy. To do this, we employed a crowdsourcing framework with the following crucial innovations. First, the exam- ples were grounded in speciï¬c scenarios, and the premise and hypothesis sentences in each exam- ple were constrained to describe that scenario from the same perspective, which helps greatly in con- trolling event and entity coreference.2 Second, the prompt gave participants the freedom to produce entirely novel sentences within the task setting, which led to richer examples than we see with the more proscribed string-editing techniques of ear- lier approaches, without sacriï¬cing consistency. Third, a subset of the resulting sentences were sent to a validation task aimed at providing a highly re- liable set of annotations over the same data, and at identifying areas of inferential uncertainty.
|
1508.05326#11
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 11,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "# 1http://aclweb.org/aclwiki/index.php?\ntitle=Textual_Entailment_Resource_Pool\nYork and A tourist visited the city. Assuming coreference between New York and the city justi- ï¬es labeling the pair as an entailment, but with- out that assumption the city could be taken to refer to a speciï¬c unknown city, leaving the pair neu- tral. This kind of indeterminacy of label can be re- solved only once the questions of coreference are resolved.\nWith SNLI, we sought to address the issues of size, quality, and indeterminacy. To do this, we employed a crowdsourcing framework with the following crucial innovations. First, the exam- ples were grounded in speciï¬c scenarios, and the premise and hypothesis sentences in each exam- ple were constrained to describe that scenario from the same perspective, which helps greatly in con- trolling event and entity coreference.2 Second, the prompt gave participants the freedom to produce entirely novel sentences within the task setting, which led to richer examples than we see with the more proscribed string-editing techniques of ear- lier approaches, without sacriï¬cing consistency. Third, a subset of the resulting sentences were sent to a validation task aimed at providing a highly re- liable set of annotations over the same data, and at identifying areas of inferential uncertainty.",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 12 |
# 2.1 Data collection
We used Amazon Mechanical Turk for data col- lection. In each individual task (each HIT), a worker was presented with premise scene descrip- tions from a pre-existing corpus, and asked to supply hypotheses for each of our three labelsâ entailment, neutral, and contradictionâforcing the data to be balanced among these classes.
The instructions that we provided to the work- ers are shown in Figure 1. Below the instructions were three ï¬elds for each of three requested sen- tences, corresponding to our entailment, neutral, and contradiction labels, a fourth ï¬eld (marked optional) for reporting problems, and a link to an FAQ page. That FAQ grew over the course of data collection. It warned about disallowed tech- niques (e.g., reusing the same sentence for many different prompts, which we saw in a few cases), provided guidance concerning sentence length and
2 Issues of coreference are not completely solved, but greatly mitigated. For example, with the premise sentence A dog is lying in the grass, a worker could safely assume that the dog is the most prominent thing in the photo, and very likely the only dog, and build contradicting sentences assum- ing reference to the same dog.
We will show you the caption for a photo. We will not show you the photo. Using only the caption and what you know about the world:
|
1508.05326#12
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 12,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "# 2.1 Data collection\nWe used Amazon Mechanical Turk for data col- lection. In each individual task (each HIT), a worker was presented with premise scene descrip- tions from a pre-existing corpus, and asked to supply hypotheses for each of our three labelsâ entailment, neutral, and contradictionâforcing the data to be balanced among these classes.\nThe instructions that we provided to the work- ers are shown in Figure 1. Below the instructions were three ï¬elds for each of three requested sen- tences, corresponding to our entailment, neutral, and contradiction labels, a fourth ï¬eld (marked optional) for reporting problems, and a link to an FAQ page. That FAQ grew over the course of data collection. It warned about disallowed tech- niques (e.g., reusing the same sentence for many different prompts, which we saw in a few cases), provided guidance concerning sentence length and\n2 Issues of coreference are not completely solved, but greatly mitigated. For example, with the premise sentence A dog is lying in the grass, a worker could safely assume that the dog is the most prominent thing in the photo, and very likely the only dog, and build contradicting sentences assum- ing reference to the same dog.\nWe will show you the caption for a photo. We will not show you the photo. Using only the caption and what you know about the world:",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 13 |
We will show you the caption for a photo. We will not show you the photo. Using only the caption and what you know about the world:
⢠Write one alternate caption that is deï¬nitely a true description of the photo. Example: For the caption âTwo dogs are running through a ï¬eld.â you could write âThere are animals outdoors.â
⢠Write one alternate caption that might be a true description of the photo. Example: For the cap- tion âTwo dogs are running through a ï¬eld.â you could write âSome puppies are running to catch a stick.â
⢠Write one alternate caption that is deï¬nitely a false description of the photo. Example: For the caption âTwo dogs are running through a ï¬eld.â you could write âThe pets are sitting on a couch.â This is different from the maybe correct category because itâs impossible for the dogs to be both running and sitting.
Figure 1: The instructions used on Mechanical Turk for data collection.
complexity (we did not enforce a minimum length, and we allowed bare NPs as well as full sen- tences), and reviewed logistical issues around pay- ment timing. About 2,500 workers contributed.
|
1508.05326#13
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 13,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "We will show you the caption for a photo. We will not show you the photo. Using only the caption and what you know about the world:\n⢠Write one alternate caption that is deï¬nitely a true description of the photo. Example: For the caption âTwo dogs are running through a ï¬eld.â you could write âThere are animals outdoors.â\n⢠Write one alternate caption that might be a true description of the photo. Example: For the cap- tion âTwo dogs are running through a ï¬eld.â you could write âSome puppies are running to catch a stick.â\n⢠Write one alternate caption that is deï¬nitely a false description of the photo. Example: For the caption âTwo dogs are running through a ï¬eld.â you could write âThe pets are sitting on a couch.â This is different from the maybe correct category because itâs impossible for the dogs to be both running and sitting.\nFigure 1: The instructions used on Mechanical Turk for data collection.\ncomplexity (we did not enforce a minimum length, and we allowed bare NPs as well as full sen- tences), and reviewed logistical issues around pay- ment timing. About 2,500 workers contributed.",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 14 |
For the premises, we used captions from the Flickr30k corpus (Young et al., 2014), a collection of approximately 160k captions (corresponding to about 30k images) collected in an earlier crowd- sourced effort.3 The captions were not authored by the photographers who took the source images, and they tend to contain relatively literal scene de- scriptions that are suited to our approach, rather than those typically associated with personal pho- tographs (as in their example: Our trip to the Olympic Peninsula). In order to ensure that the la- bel for each sentence pair can be recovered solely based on the available text, we did not use the im- ages at all during corpus collection.
Table 2 reports some key statistics about the col- lected corpus, and Figure 2 shows the distributions of sentence lengths for both our source hypotheses and our newly collected premises. We observed that while premise sentences varied considerably in length, hypothesis sentences tended to be as
3 We additionally include about 4k sentence pairs from a pilot study in which the premise sentences were instead drawn from the VisualGenome corpus (under construction; visualgenome.org). These examples appear only in the training set, and have pair identiï¬ers preï¬xed with vg in our corpus.
|
1508.05326#14
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 14,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "For the premises, we used captions from the Flickr30k corpus (Young et al., 2014), a collection of approximately 160k captions (corresponding to about 30k images) collected in an earlier crowd- sourced effort.3 The captions were not authored by the photographers who took the source images, and they tend to contain relatively literal scene de- scriptions that are suited to our approach, rather than those typically associated with personal pho- tographs (as in their example: Our trip to the Olympic Peninsula). In order to ensure that the la- bel for each sentence pair can be recovered solely based on the available text, we did not use the im- ages at all during corpus collection.\nTable 2 reports some key statistics about the col- lected corpus, and Figure 2 shows the distributions of sentence lengths for both our source hypotheses and our newly collected premises. We observed that while premise sentences varied considerably in length, hypothesis sentences tended to be as\n3 We additionally include about 4k sentence pairs from a pilot study in which the premise sentences were instead drawn from the VisualGenome corpus (under construction; visualgenome.org). These examples appear only in the training set, and have pair identiï¬ers preï¬xed with vg in our corpus.",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 15 |
Data set sizes: Training pairs Development pairs Test pairs 550,152 10,000 10,000 Sentence length: Premise mean token count Hypothesis mean token count 14.1 8.3 Parser output: Premise âSâ-rooted parses Hypothesis âSâ-rooted parses Distinct words (ignoring case) 74.0% 88.9% 37,026
Table 2: Key statistics for the raw sentence pairs in SNLI. Since the two halves of each pair were collected separately, we report some statistics for both.
short as possible while still providing enough in- formation to yield a clear judgment, clustering at around seven words. We also observed that the bulk of the sentences from both sources were syn- tactically complete rather than fragments, and the frequency with which the parser produces a parse rooted with an âSâ (sentence) node attests to this.
# 2.2 Data validation
|
1508.05326#15
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 15,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "Data set sizes: Training pairs Development pairs Test pairs 550,152 10,000 10,000 Sentence length: Premise mean token count Hypothesis mean token count 14.1 8.3 Parser output: Premise âSâ-rooted parses Hypothesis âSâ-rooted parses Distinct words (ignoring case) 74.0% 88.9% 37,026\nTable 2: Key statistics for the raw sentence pairs in SNLI. Since the two halves of each pair were collected separately, we report some statistics for both.\nshort as possible while still providing enough in- formation to yield a clear judgment, clustering at around seven words. We also observed that the bulk of the sentences from both sources were syn- tactically complete rather than fragments, and the frequency with which the parser produces a parse rooted with an âSâ (sentence) node attests to this.\n# 2.2 Data validation",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 16 |
# 2.2 Data validation
In order to measure the quality of our corpus, and in order to construct maximally useful test- ing and development sets, we performed an addi- tional round of validation for about 10% of our data. This validation phase followed the same basic form as the Mechanical Turk labeling task used to label the SICK entailment data: we pre- sented workers with pairs of sentences in batches of ï¬ve, and asked them to choose a single label for each pair. We supplied each pair to four an- notators, yielding ï¬ve labels per pair including the label used by the original author. The instructions were similar to the instructions for initial data col- lection shown in Figure 1, and linked to a similar FAQ. Though we initially used a very restrictive qualiï¬cation (based on past approval rate) to se- lect workers for the validation task, we nonethe- less discovered (and deleted) some instances of random guessing in an early batch of work, and subsequently instituted a fully closed qualiï¬cation restricted to about 30 trusted workers.
For each pair that we validated, we assigned a gold label. If any one of the three labels was cho- sen by at least three of the ï¬ve annotators, it was
|
1508.05326#16
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 16,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "# 2.2 Data validation\nIn order to measure the quality of our corpus, and in order to construct maximally useful test- ing and development sets, we performed an addi- tional round of validation for about 10% of our data. This validation phase followed the same basic form as the Mechanical Turk labeling task used to label the SICK entailment data: we pre- sented workers with pairs of sentences in batches of ï¬ve, and asked them to choose a single label for each pair. We supplied each pair to four an- notators, yielding ï¬ve labels per pair including the label used by the original author. The instructions were similar to the instructions for initial data col- lection shown in Figure 1, and linked to a similar FAQ. Though we initially used a very restrictive qualiï¬cation (based on past approval rate) to se- lect workers for the validation task, we nonethe- less discovered (and deleted) some instances of random guessing in an early batch of work, and subsequently instituted a fully closed qualiï¬cation restricted to about 30 trusted workers.\nFor each pair that we validated, we assigned a gold label. If any one of the three labels was cho- sen by at least three of the ï¬ve annotators, it was",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 17 |
For each pair that we validated, we assigned a gold label. If any one of the three labels was cho- sen by at least three of the ï¬ve annotators, it was
ââ Premise â Hypothesis 100,000 90,000 80,000 70,000 60,000 50,000 40,000 30,000 20,000 Number of sentences 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Sentence length (tokens)
Figure 2: The distribution of sentence length.
chosen as the gold label. If there was no such con- sensus, which occurred in about 2% of cases, we assigned the placeholder label â-â. While these un- labeled examples are included in the corpus dis- tribution, they are unlikely to be helpful for the standard NLI classiï¬cation task, and we do not in- clude them in either training or evaluation in the experiments that we discuss in this paper.
|
1508.05326#17
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 17,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "For each pair that we validated, we assigned a gold label. If any one of the three labels was cho- sen by at least three of the ï¬ve annotators, it was\nââ Premise â Hypothesis 100,000 90,000 80,000 70,000 60,000 50,000 40,000 30,000 20,000 Number of sentences 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Sentence length (tokens)\nFigure 2: The distribution of sentence length.\nchosen as the gold label. If there was no such con- sensus, which occurred in about 2% of cases, we assigned the placeholder label â-â. While these un- labeled examples are included in the corpus dis- tribution, they are unlikely to be helpful for the standard NLI classiï¬cation task, and we do not in- clude them in either training or evaluation in the experiments that we discuss in this paper.",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 18 |
The results of this validation process are sum- marized in Table 3. Nearly all of the examples received a majority label, indicating broad con- sensus about the nature of the data and categories. The gold-labeled examples are very nearly evenly distributed across the three labels. The Fleiss κ scores (computed over every example with a full ï¬ve annotations) are likely to be conservative given our large and unevenly distributed pool of annotators, but they still provide insights about the levels of disagreement across the three semantic classes. This disagreement likely reï¬ects not just the limitations of large crowdsourcing efforts but also the uncertainty inherent in naturalistic NLI. Regardless, the overall rate of agreement is ex- tremely high, suggesting that the corpus is sufï¬- ciently high quality to pose a challenging but real- istic machine learning task.
# 2.3 The distributed corpus
Table 1 shows a set of randomly chosen validated examples from the development set with their la- bels. Qualitatively, we ï¬nd the data that we col- lected draws fairly extensively on commonsense knowledge, and that hypothesis and premise sen- tences often differ structurally in signiï¬cant ways, suggesting that there is room for improvement be- yond superï¬cial word alignment models. We also ï¬nd the sentences that we collected to be largely
|
1508.05326#18
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 18,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "The results of this validation process are sum- marized in Table 3. Nearly all of the examples received a majority label, indicating broad con- sensus about the nature of the data and categories. The gold-labeled examples are very nearly evenly distributed across the three labels. The Fleiss κ scores (computed over every example with a full ï¬ve annotations) are likely to be conservative given our large and unevenly distributed pool of annotators, but they still provide insights about the levels of disagreement across the three semantic classes. This disagreement likely reï¬ects not just the limitations of large crowdsourcing efforts but also the uncertainty inherent in naturalistic NLI. Regardless, the overall rate of agreement is ex- tremely high, suggesting that the corpus is sufï¬- ciently high quality to pose a challenging but real- istic machine learning task.\n# 2.3 The distributed corpus\nTable 1 shows a set of randomly chosen validated examples from the development set with their la- bels. Qualitatively, we ï¬nd the data that we col- lected draws fairly extensively on commonsense knowledge, and that hypothesis and premise sen- tences often differ structurally in signiï¬cant ways, suggesting that there is room for improvement be- yond superï¬cial word alignment models. We also ï¬nd the sentences that we collected to be largely",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 19 |
General: Validated pairs Pairs w/ unanimous gold label 56,951 58.3% Individual annotator label agreement: Individual label = gold label 89.0% Individual label = authorâs label 85.8% Gold label/authorâs label agreement: Gold label = authorâs label 91.2% Gold label 4 authorâs label 6.8% No gold label (no 3 labels match) 2.0% Fleiss «: contradiction 0.77 entailment 0.72 neutral 0.60 Overall 0.70
Table 3: Statistics for the validated pairs. The au- thorâs label is the label used by the worker who wrote the premise to create the sentence pair. A gold label reï¬ects a consensus of three votes from among the author and the four annotators.
ï¬uent, correctly spelled English, with a mix of full sentences and caption-style noun phrase frag- ments, though punctuation and capitalization are often omitted.
The corpus is available under a CreativeCom- mons Attribution-ShareAlike license, the same li- cense used for the Flickr30k source captions. It can be downloaded at: nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
|
1508.05326#19
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 19,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "General: Validated pairs Pairs w/ unanimous gold label 56,951 58.3% Individual annotator label agreement: Individual label = gold label 89.0% Individual label = authorâs label 85.8% Gold label/authorâs label agreement: Gold label = authorâs label 91.2% Gold label 4 authorâs label 6.8% No gold label (no 3 labels match) 2.0% Fleiss «: contradiction 0.77 entailment 0.72 neutral 0.60 Overall 0.70\nTable 3: Statistics for the validated pairs. The au- thorâs label is the label used by the worker who wrote the premise to create the sentence pair. A gold label reï¬ects a consensus of three votes from among the author and the four annotators.\nï¬uent, correctly spelled English, with a mix of full sentences and caption-style noun phrase frag- ments, though punctuation and capitalization are often omitted.\nThe corpus is available under a CreativeCom- mons Attribution-ShareAlike license, the same li- cense used for the Flickr30k source captions. It can be downloaded at: nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 20 |
Partition We distribute the corpus with a pre- speciï¬ed train/test/development split. The test and development sets contain 10k examples each. Each original ImageFlickr caption occurs in only one of the three sets, and all of the examples in the test and development sets have been validated.
Parses The distributed corpus includes parses produced by the Stanford PCFG Parser 3.5.2 (Klein and Manning, 2003), trained on the stan- dard training set as well as on the Brown Corpus (Francis and Kucera 1979), which we found to im- prove the parse quality of the descriptive sentences and noun phrases found in the descriptions.
# 3 Our data as a platform for evaluation
The most immediate application for our corpus is in developing models for the task of NLI. In parSystem SNLI SICK RTE-3 Edit Distance Based 71.9 65.4 61.9 Classiï¬er Based 72.2 71.4 61.5 + Lexical Resources 75.0 78.8 63.6
Table 4: 2-class test accuracy for two simple baseline systems included in the Excitement Open Platform, as well as SICK and RTE results for a model making use of more sophisticated lexical resources.
|
1508.05326#20
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 20,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "Partition We distribute the corpus with a pre- speciï¬ed train/test/development split. The test and development sets contain 10k examples each. Each original ImageFlickr caption occurs in only one of the three sets, and all of the examples in the test and development sets have been validated.\nParses The distributed corpus includes parses produced by the Stanford PCFG Parser 3.5.2 (Klein and Manning, 2003), trained on the stan- dard training set as well as on the Brown Corpus (Francis and Kucera 1979), which we found to im- prove the parse quality of the descriptive sentences and noun phrases found in the descriptions.\n# 3 Our data as a platform for evaluation\nThe most immediate application for our corpus is in developing models for the task of NLI. In parSystem SNLI SICK RTE-3 Edit Distance Based 71.9 65.4 61.9 Classiï¬er Based 72.2 71.4 61.5 + Lexical Resources 75.0 78.8 63.6\nTable 4: 2-class test accuracy for two simple baseline systems included in the Excitement Open Platform, as well as SICK and RTE results for a model making use of more sophisticated lexical resources.",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 21 |
ticular, since it is dramatically larger than any ex- isting corpus of comparable quality, we expect it to be suitable for training parameter-rich models like neural networks, which have not previously been competitive at this task. Our ability to evaluate standard classiï¬er-base NLI models, however, was limited to those which were designed to scale to SNLIâs size without modiï¬cation, so a more com- plete comparison of approaches will have to wait for future work. In this section, we explore the per- formance of three classes of models which could scale readily: (i) models from a well-known NLI system, the Excitement Open Platform; (ii) vari- ants of a strong but simple feature-based classi- ï¬er model, which makes use of both unlexicalized and lexicalized features, and (iii) distributed repre- sentation models, including a baseline model and neural network sequence models.
# 3.1 Excitement Open Platform models
|
1508.05326#21
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 21,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "ticular, since it is dramatically larger than any ex- isting corpus of comparable quality, we expect it to be suitable for training parameter-rich models like neural networks, which have not previously been competitive at this task. Our ability to evaluate standard classiï¬er-base NLI models, however, was limited to those which were designed to scale to SNLIâs size without modiï¬cation, so a more com- plete comparison of approaches will have to wait for future work. In this section, we explore the per- formance of three classes of models which could scale readily: (i) models from a well-known NLI system, the Excitement Open Platform; (ii) vari- ants of a strong but simple feature-based classi- ï¬er model, which makes use of both unlexicalized and lexicalized features, and (iii) distributed repre- sentation models, including a baseline model and neural network sequence models.\n# 3.1 Excitement Open Platform models",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 22 |
# 3.1 Excitement Open Platform models
The ï¬rst class of models is from the Excitement Open Platform (EOP, Pad´o et al. 2014; Magnini et al. 2014)âan open source platform for RTE re- search. EOP is a tool for quickly developing NLI systems while sharing components such as com- mon lexical resources and evaluation sets. We evaluate on two algorithms included in the dis- tribution: a simple edit-distance based algorithm and a classiï¬er-based algorithm, the latter both in a bare form and augmented with EOPâs full suite of lexical resources.
Our initial goal was to better understand the dif- ï¬culty of the task of classifying SNLI corpus in- ferences, rather than necessarily the performance of a state-of-the-art RTE system. We approached this by running the same system on several data sets: our own test set, the SICK test data, and the standard RTE-3 test set (Giampiccolo et al., 2007). We report results in Table 4. Each of the models
|
1508.05326#22
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 22,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "# 3.1 Excitement Open Platform models\nThe ï¬rst class of models is from the Excitement Open Platform (EOP, Pad´o et al. 2014; Magnini et al. 2014)âan open source platform for RTE re- search. EOP is a tool for quickly developing NLI systems while sharing components such as com- mon lexical resources and evaluation sets. We evaluate on two algorithms included in the dis- tribution: a simple edit-distance based algorithm and a classiï¬er-based algorithm, the latter both in a bare form and augmented with EOPâs full suite of lexical resources.\nOur initial goal was to better understand the dif- ï¬culty of the task of classifying SNLI corpus in- ferences, rather than necessarily the performance of a state-of-the-art RTE system. We approached this by running the same system on several data sets: our own test set, the SICK test data, and the standard RTE-3 test set (Giampiccolo et al., 2007). We report results in Table 4. Each of the models",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 23 |
was separately trained on the training set of each corpus. All models are evaluated only on 2-class entailment. To convert 3-class problems like SICK and SNLI to this setting, all instances of contradic- tion and unknown are converted to nonentailment. This yields a most-frequent-class baseline accu- racy of 66% on SNLI, and 71% on SICK. This is intended primarily to demonstrate the difï¬culty of the task, rather than necessarily the performance of a state-of-the-art RTE system. The edit dis- tance algorithm tunes the weight of the three case- insensitive edit distance operations on the train- In addition ing set, after removing stop words. to the base classiï¬er-based system distributed with the platform, we train a variant which includes in- formation from WordNet (Miller, 1995) and Verb- Ocean (Chklovski and Pantel, 2004), and makes use of features based on tree patterns and depen- dency tree skeletons (Wang and Neumann, 2007).
# 3.2 Lexicalized Classiï¬er
|
1508.05326#23
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 23,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "was separately trained on the training set of each corpus. All models are evaluated only on 2-class entailment. To convert 3-class problems like SICK and SNLI to this setting, all instances of contradic- tion and unknown are converted to nonentailment. This yields a most-frequent-class baseline accu- racy of 66% on SNLI, and 71% on SICK. This is intended primarily to demonstrate the difï¬culty of the task, rather than necessarily the performance of a state-of-the-art RTE system. The edit dis- tance algorithm tunes the weight of the three case- insensitive edit distance operations on the train- In addition ing set, after removing stop words. to the base classiï¬er-based system distributed with the platform, we train a variant which includes in- formation from WordNet (Miller, 1995) and Verb- Ocean (Chklovski and Pantel, 2004), and makes use of features based on tree patterns and depen- dency tree skeletons (Wang and Neumann, 2007).\n# 3.2 Lexicalized Classiï¬er",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 24 |
# 3.2 Lexicalized Classiï¬er
Unlike the RTE datasets, SNLIâs size supports ap- proaches which make use of rich lexicalized fea- tures. We evaluate a simple lexicalized classiï¬er to explore the ability of non-specialized models to exploit these features in lieu of more involved lan- guage understanding. Our classiï¬er implements 6 feature types; 3 unlexicalized and 3 lexicalized:
1. The BLEU score of the hypothesis with re- spect to the premise, using an n-gram length between 1 and 4.
2. The length difference between the hypothesis and the premise, as a real-valued feature. 3. The overlap between words in the premise and hypothesis, both as an absolute count and a percentage of possible overlap, and both over all words and over just nouns, verbs, ad- jectives, and adverbs.
4. An indicator for every unigram and bigram in
# the hypothesis. 5. Cross-unigrams:
for every pair of words across the premise and hypothesis which share a POS tag, an indicator feature over the two words. 6. Cross-bigrams:
for every pair of bigrams across the premise and hypothesis which share a POS tag on the second word, an in- dicator feature over the two bigrams.
|
1508.05326#24
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 24,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "# 3.2 Lexicalized Classiï¬er\nUnlike the RTE datasets, SNLIâs size supports ap- proaches which make use of rich lexicalized fea- tures. We evaluate a simple lexicalized classiï¬er to explore the ability of non-specialized models to exploit these features in lieu of more involved lan- guage understanding. Our classiï¬er implements 6 feature types; 3 unlexicalized and 3 lexicalized:\n1. The BLEU score of the hypothesis with re- spect to the premise, using an n-gram length between 1 and 4.\n2. The length difference between the hypothesis and the premise, as a real-valued feature. 3. The overlap between words in the premise and hypothesis, both as an absolute count and a percentage of possible overlap, and both over all words and over just nouns, verbs, ad- jectives, and adverbs.\n4. An indicator for every unigram and bigram in\n# the hypothesis. 5. Cross-unigrams:\nfor every pair of words across the premise and hypothesis which share a POS tag, an indicator feature over the two words. 6. Cross-bigrams:\nfor every pair of bigrams across the premise and hypothesis which share a POS tag on the second word, an in- dicator feature over the two bigrams.",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 25 |
for every pair of bigrams across the premise and hypothesis which share a POS tag on the second word, an in- dicator feature over the two bigrams.
We report results in Table 5, along with abla- tion studies for removing the cross-bigram fea- tures (leaving only the cross-unigram feature) and
System SNLI SICK Train Test Train Test Lexicalized Unigrams Only Unlexicalized 99.7 78.2 93.1 71.6 49.4 50.4 90.4 77.8 88.1 77.0 69.9 69.6
Table 5: 3-class accuracy, training on either our data or SICK, including models lacking cross- bigram features (Feature 6), and lacking all lexical features (Features 4â6). We report results both on the test set and the training set to judge overï¬tting.
|
1508.05326#25
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 25,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "for every pair of bigrams across the premise and hypothesis which share a POS tag on the second word, an in- dicator feature over the two bigrams.\nWe report results in Table 5, along with abla- tion studies for removing the cross-bigram fea- tures (leaving only the cross-unigram feature) and\nSystem SNLI SICK Train Test Train Test Lexicalized Unigrams Only Unlexicalized 99.7 78.2 93.1 71.6 49.4 50.4 90.4 77.8 88.1 77.0 69.9 69.6\nTable 5: 3-class accuracy, training on either our data or SICK, including models lacking cross- bigram features (Feature 6), and lacking all lexical features (Features 4â6). We report results both on the test set and the training set to judge overï¬tting.",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 26 |
for removing all lexicalized features. On our large corpus in particular, there is a substantial jump in accuracy from using lexicalized features, and an- other from using the very sparse cross-bigram fea- tures. The latter result suggests that there is value in letting the classiï¬er automatically learn to rec- ognize structures like explicit negations and adjec- tive modiï¬cation. A similar result was shown in Wang and Manning (2012) for bigram features in sentiment analysis.
It is surprising that the classiï¬er performs as well as it does without any notion of alignment or tree transformations. Although we expect that richer models would perform better, the results suggest that given enough data, cross bigrams with the noisy part-of-speech overlap constraint can produce an effective model.
# 3.3 Sentence embeddings and NLI
|
1508.05326#26
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 26,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "for removing all lexicalized features. On our large corpus in particular, there is a substantial jump in accuracy from using lexicalized features, and an- other from using the very sparse cross-bigram fea- tures. The latter result suggests that there is value in letting the classiï¬er automatically learn to rec- ognize structures like explicit negations and adjec- tive modiï¬cation. A similar result was shown in Wang and Manning (2012) for bigram features in sentiment analysis.\nIt is surprising that the classiï¬er performs as well as it does without any notion of alignment or tree transformations. Although we expect that richer models would perform better, the results suggest that given enough data, cross bigrams with the noisy part-of-speech overlap constraint can produce an effective model.\n# 3.3 Sentence embeddings and NLI",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 27 |
# 3.3 Sentence embeddings and NLI
SNLI is suitably large and diverse to make it pos- sible to train neural network models that produce distributed representations of sentence meaning. In this section, we compare the performance of three such models on the corpus. To focus specif- ically on the strengths of these models at produc- ing informative sentence representations, we use sentence embedding as an intermediate step in the NLI classiï¬cation task: each model must produce a vector representation of each of the two sen- tences without using any context from the other sentence, and the two resulting vectors are then passed to a neural network classiï¬er which pre- dicts the label for the pair. This choice allows us to focus on existing models for sentence embedding, and it allows us to evaluate the ability of those models to learn useful representations of mean- ing (which may be independently useful for sub- sequent tasks), at the cost of excluding from con3-way softmax classiï¬er 200d tanh layer 200d tanh layer 200d tanh layer 100d premise 100d hypothesis sentence model with premise input sentence model with hypothesis input
|
1508.05326#27
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 27,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "# 3.3 Sentence embeddings and NLI\nSNLI is suitably large and diverse to make it pos- sible to train neural network models that produce distributed representations of sentence meaning. In this section, we compare the performance of three such models on the corpus. To focus specif- ically on the strengths of these models at produc- ing informative sentence representations, we use sentence embedding as an intermediate step in the NLI classiï¬cation task: each model must produce a vector representation of each of the two sen- tences without using any context from the other sentence, and the two resulting vectors are then passed to a neural network classiï¬er which pre- dicts the label for the pair. This choice allows us to focus on existing models for sentence embedding, and it allows us to evaluate the ability of those models to learn useful representations of mean- ing (which may be independently useful for sub- sequent tasks), at the cost of excluding from con3-way softmax classiï¬er 200d tanh layer 200d tanh layer 200d tanh layer 100d premise 100d hypothesis sentence model with premise input sentence model with hypothesis input",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 29 |
Our neural network classiï¬er, depicted in Fig- ure 3 (and based on a one-layer model in Bow- man et al. 2015), is simply a stack of three 200d tanh layers, with the bottom layer taking the con- catenated sentence representations as input and the top layer feeding a softmax classiï¬er, all trained jointly with the sentence embedding model itself. We test three sentence embedding models, each set to use 100d phrase and sentence embeddings. Our baseline sentence embedding model simply sums the embeddings of the words in each sen- tence. In addition, we experiment with two simple sequence embedding models: a plain RNN and an LSTM RNN (Hochreiter and Schmidhuber, 1997). The word embeddings for all of the models are initialized with the 300d reference GloVe vectors (840B token version, Pennington et al. 2014) and ï¬ne-tuned as part of training. In addition, all of the models use an additional tanh neural net- work layer to map these 300d embeddings into the lower-dimensional phrase and sentence em- bedding space. All of the models are randomly initialized using standard techniques and trained using AdaDelta (Zeiler,
|
1508.05326#29
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 29,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "Our neural network classiï¬er, depicted in Fig- ure 3 (and based on a one-layer model in Bow- man et al. 2015), is simply a stack of three 200d tanh layers, with the bottom layer taking the con- catenated sentence representations as input and the top layer feeding a softmax classiï¬er, all trained jointly with the sentence embedding model itself. We test three sentence embedding models, each set to use 100d phrase and sentence embeddings. Our baseline sentence embedding model simply sums the embeddings of the words in each sen- tence. In addition, we experiment with two simple sequence embedding models: a plain RNN and an LSTM RNN (Hochreiter and Schmidhuber, 1997). The word embeddings for all of the models are initialized with the 300d reference GloVe vectors (840B token version, Pennington et al. 2014) and ï¬ne-tuned as part of training. In addition, all of the models use an additional tanh neural net- work layer to map these 300d embeddings into the lower-dimensional phrase and sentence em- bedding space. All of the models are randomly initialized using standard techniques and trained using AdaDelta (Zeiler,",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 30 |
embeddings into the lower-dimensional phrase and sentence em- bedding space. All of the models are randomly initialized using standard techniques and trained using AdaDelta (Zeiler, 2012) minibatch SGD un- til performance on the development set stops im- proving. We applied L2 regularization to all mod- els, manually tuning the strength coefï¬cient λ for each, and additionally applied dropout (Srivastava et al., 2014) to the inputs and outputs of the senSentence model Train Test 100d Sum of words 100d RNN 100d LSTM RNN 79.3 73.1 84.8 75.3 72.2 77.6
|
1508.05326#30
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 30,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "embeddings into the lower-dimensional phrase and sentence em- bedding space. All of the models are randomly initialized using standard techniques and trained using AdaDelta (Zeiler, 2012) minibatch SGD un- til performance on the development set stops im- proving. We applied L2 regularization to all mod- els, manually tuning the strength coefï¬cient λ for each, and additionally applied dropout (Srivastava et al., 2014) to the inputs and outputs of the senSentence model Train Test 100d Sum of words 100d RNN 100d LSTM RNN 79.3 73.1 84.8 75.3 72.2 77.6",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 32 |
The results are shown in Table 6. The sum of words model performed slightly worse than the fundamentally similar lexicalized classiï¬erâ while the sum of words model can use pretrained word embeddings to better handle rare words, it lacks even the rudimentary sensitivity to word or- der that the lexicalized modelâs bigram features provide. Of the two RNN models, the LSTMâs more robust ability to learn long-term dependen- cies serves it well, giving it a substantial advan- tage over the plain RNN, and resulting in perfor- mance that is essentially equivalent to the lexical- ized classiï¬er on the test set (LSTM performance near the stopping iteration varies by up to 0.5% between evaluation steps). While the lexicalized model ï¬ts the training set almost perfectly, the gap between train and test set accuracy is relatively small for all three neural network models, suggest- ing that research into signiï¬cantly higher capacity versions of these models would be productive.
# 3.4 Analysis and discussion
|
1508.05326#32
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 32,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "The results are shown in Table 6. The sum of words model performed slightly worse than the fundamentally similar lexicalized classiï¬erâ while the sum of words model can use pretrained word embeddings to better handle rare words, it lacks even the rudimentary sensitivity to word or- der that the lexicalized modelâs bigram features provide. Of the two RNN models, the LSTMâs more robust ability to learn long-term dependen- cies serves it well, giving it a substantial advan- tage over the plain RNN, and resulting in perfor- mance that is essentially equivalent to the lexical- ized classiï¬er on the test set (LSTM performance near the stopping iteration varies by up to 0.5% between evaluation steps). While the lexicalized model ï¬ts the training set almost perfectly, the gap between train and test set accuracy is relatively small for all three neural network models, suggest- ing that research into signiï¬cantly higher capacity versions of these models would be productive.\n# 3.4 Analysis and discussion",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 33 |
# 3.4 Analysis and discussion
Figure 4 shows a learning curve for the LSTM and the lexicalized and unlexicalized feature-based models. It shows that the large size of the corpus is crucial to both the LSTM and the lexicalized model, and suggests that additional data would yield still better performance for both. In addi- tion, though the LSTM and the lexicalized model show similar performance when trained on the cur- rent full corpus, the somewhat steeper slope for the LSTM hints that its ability to learn arbitrar- ily structured representations of sentence mean- ing may give it an advantage over the more con- strained lexicalized model on still larger datasets. We were struck by the speed with which the lexicalized classiï¬er outperforms its unlexicalized
Unlexicalized â4~ Lexicalized LSTM ca i=) % Accuracy w oN x 36 tJ S L 3S 30 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 â 100,000 1,000,000 Training pairs used (log scale)
|
1508.05326#33
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 33,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "# 3.4 Analysis and discussion\nFigure 4 shows a learning curve for the LSTM and the lexicalized and unlexicalized feature-based models. It shows that the large size of the corpus is crucial to both the LSTM and the lexicalized model, and suggests that additional data would yield still better performance for both. In addi- tion, though the LSTM and the lexicalized model show similar performance when trained on the cur- rent full corpus, the somewhat steeper slope for the LSTM hints that its ability to learn arbitrar- ily structured representations of sentence mean- ing may give it an advantage over the more con- strained lexicalized model on still larger datasets. We were struck by the speed with which the lexicalized classiï¬er outperforms its unlexicalized\nUnlexicalized â4~ Lexicalized LSTM ca i=) % Accuracy w oN x 36 tJ S L 3S 30 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 â 100,000 1,000,000 Training pairs used (log scale)",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 34 |
Figure 4: A learning curve showing how the baseline classiï¬ers and the LSTM perform when trained to convergence on varied amounts of train- ing data. The y-axis starts near a random-chance accuracy of 33%. The minibatch size of 64 that we used to tune the LSTM sets a lower bound on data for that model.
counterpart. With only 100 training examples, the cross-bigram classiï¬er is already performing bet- ter. Empirically, we ï¬nd that the top weighted features for the classiï¬er trained on 100 examples tend to be high precision entailments; e.g., playing â outside (most scenes are outdoors), a banana â person eating. If relatively few spurious entail- ments get high weightâas it appears is the caseâ then it makes sense that, when these do ï¬re, they boost accuracy in identifying entailments.
|
1508.05326#34
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 34,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "Figure 4: A learning curve showing how the baseline classiï¬ers and the LSTM perform when trained to convergence on varied amounts of train- ing data. The y-axis starts near a random-chance accuracy of 33%. The minibatch size of 64 that we used to tune the LSTM sets a lower bound on data for that model.\ncounterpart. With only 100 training examples, the cross-bigram classiï¬er is already performing bet- ter. Empirically, we ï¬nd that the top weighted features for the classiï¬er trained on 100 examples tend to be high precision entailments; e.g., playing â outside (most scenes are outdoors), a banana â person eating. If relatively few spurious entail- ments get high weightâas it appears is the caseâ then it makes sense that, when these do ï¬re, they boost accuracy in identifying entailments.",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 35 |
There are revealing patterns in the errors com- mon to all the models considered here. Despite the large size of the training corpus and the distri- butional information captured by GloVe initializa- tion, many lexical relationships are still misana- lyzed, leading to incorrect predictions of indepen- dent, even for pairs that are common in the train- ing corpus like beach/surf and sprinter/runner. Semantic mistakes at the phrasal level (e.g., pre- dicting contradiction for A male is placing an order in a deli/A man buying a sandwich at a deli) indicate that additional attention to composi- tional semantics would pay off. However, many of the persistent problems run deeper, to inferences that depend on world knowledge and context- speciï¬c inferences, as in the entailment pair A race car driver leaps from a burning car/A race car driver escaping danger, for which both the lex- icalized classiï¬er and the LSTM predict neutral. In other cases, the modelsâ attempts to shortcut
|
1508.05326#35
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 35,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "There are revealing patterns in the errors com- mon to all the models considered here. Despite the large size of the training corpus and the distri- butional information captured by GloVe initializa- tion, many lexical relationships are still misana- lyzed, leading to incorrect predictions of indepen- dent, even for pairs that are common in the train- ing corpus like beach/surf and sprinter/runner. Semantic mistakes at the phrasal level (e.g., pre- dicting contradiction for A male is placing an order in a deli/A man buying a sandwich at a deli) indicate that additional attention to composi- tional semantics would pay off. However, many of the persistent problems run deeper, to inferences that depend on world knowledge and context- speciï¬c inferences, as in the entailment pair A race car driver leaps from a burning car/A race car driver escaping danger, for which both the lex- icalized classiï¬er and the LSTM predict neutral. In other cases, the modelsâ attempts to shortcut",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 37 |
Analysis of the modelsâ predictions also yields insights into the extent to which they grapple with event and entity coreference. For the most part, the original image prompts contained a focal element that the caption writer identiï¬ed with a syntac- tic subject, following information structuring con- ventions associating subjects and topics in English (Ward and Birner, 2004). Our annotators generally followed suit, writing sentences that, while struc- turally diverse, share topic/focus (theme/rheme) structure with their premises. This promotes a coherent, situation-speciï¬c construal of each sen- tence pair. This is information that our models can easily take advantage of, but it can lead them astray. For instance, all of them stumble with the amusingly simple case A woman prepares ingre- dients for a bowl of soup/A soup bowl prepares a woman, in which prior expectations about paral- lelism are not met. Another headline example of this type is A man wearing padded arm protec- tion is being bitten by a German shepherd dog/A man bit a dog, which all the models wrongly di- agnose as entailment, though the sentences report two very different stories. A model with access to explicit information about syntactic or semantic structure should perform better on cases like these.
# 4 Transfer learning with SICK
|
1508.05326#37
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 37,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "Analysis of the modelsâ predictions also yields insights into the extent to which they grapple with event and entity coreference. For the most part, the original image prompts contained a focal element that the caption writer identiï¬ed with a syntac- tic subject, following information structuring con- ventions associating subjects and topics in English (Ward and Birner, 2004). Our annotators generally followed suit, writing sentences that, while struc- turally diverse, share topic/focus (theme/rheme) structure with their premises. This promotes a coherent, situation-speciï¬c construal of each sen- tence pair. This is information that our models can easily take advantage of, but it can lead them astray. For instance, all of them stumble with the amusingly simple case A woman prepares ingre- dients for a bowl of soup/A soup bowl prepares a woman, in which prior expectations about paral- lelism are not met. Another headline example of this type is A man wearing padded arm protec- tion is being bitten by a German shepherd dog/A man bit a dog, which all the models wrongly di- agnose as entailment, though the sentences report two very different stories. A model with access to explicit information about syntactic or semantic structure should perform better on cases like these.\n# 4 Transfer learning with SICK",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 38 |
# 4 Transfer learning with SICK
To the extent that successfully training a neural network model like our LSTM on SNLI forces that model to encode broadly accurate representations of English scene descriptions and to build an en- tailment classiï¬er over those relations, we should expect it to be readily possible to adapt the trained model for use on other NLI tasks. In this section, we evaluate on the SICK entailment task using a simple transfer learning method (Pratt et al., 1991) and achieve competitive results.
To perform transfer, we take the parameters of the LSTM RNN model trained on SNLI and use them to initialize a new model, which is trained from that point only on the training portion of SICK. The only newly initialized parameters are
Training sets Train Test Our data only SICK only Our data and SICK (transfer) 42.0 100.0 99.9 46.7 71.3 80.8
Table 7: LSTM 3-class accuracy on the SICK train and test sets under three training regimes.
|
1508.05326#38
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 38,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "# 4 Transfer learning with SICK\nTo the extent that successfully training a neural network model like our LSTM on SNLI forces that model to encode broadly accurate representations of English scene descriptions and to build an en- tailment classiï¬er over those relations, we should expect it to be readily possible to adapt the trained model for use on other NLI tasks. In this section, we evaluate on the SICK entailment task using a simple transfer learning method (Pratt et al., 1991) and achieve competitive results.\nTo perform transfer, we take the parameters of the LSTM RNN model trained on SNLI and use them to initialize a new model, which is trained from that point only on the training portion of SICK. The only newly initialized parameters are\nTraining sets Train Test Our data only SICK only Our data and SICK (transfer) 42.0 100.0 99.9 46.7 71.3 80.8\nTable 7: LSTM 3-class accuracy on the SICK train and test sets under three training regimes.",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 39 |
Table 7: LSTM 3-class accuracy on the SICK train and test sets under three training regimes.
softmax layer parameters and the embeddings for words that appear in SICK, but not in SNLI (which are populated with GloVe embeddings as above). We use the same model hyperparameters that were used to train the original model, with the excep- tion of the L2 regularization strength, which is re-tuned. We additionally transfer the accumula- tors that are used by AdaDelta to set the learn- ing rates. This lowers the starting learning rates, and is intended to ensure that the model does not learn too quickly in its ï¬rst few epochs after trans- fer and destroy the knowledge accumulated in the pre-transfer phase of training.
|
1508.05326#39
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 39,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "Table 7: LSTM 3-class accuracy on the SICK train and test sets under three training regimes.\nsoftmax layer parameters and the embeddings for words that appear in SICK, but not in SNLI (which are populated with GloVe embeddings as above). We use the same model hyperparameters that were used to train the original model, with the excep- tion of the L2 regularization strength, which is re-tuned. We additionally transfer the accumula- tors that are used by AdaDelta to set the learn- ing rates. This lowers the starting learning rates, and is intended to ensure that the model does not learn too quickly in its ï¬rst few epochs after trans- fer and destroy the knowledge accumulated in the pre-transfer phase of training.",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 40 |
The results are shown in Table 7. Training on SICK alone yields poor performance, and the model trained on SNLI fails when tested on SICK data, labeling more neutral examples as contradic- tions than correctly, possibly as a result of subtle differences in how the labeling task was presented. In contrast, transferring SNLI representations to SICK yields the best performance yet reported for an unaugmented neural network model, surpasses the available EOP models, and approaches both the overall state of the art at 84.6% (Lai and Hock- enmaier, 2014) and the 84% level of interannota- tor agreement, which likely represents an approx- imate performance ceiling. This suggests that the introduction of a large high-quality corpus makes it possible to train representation-learning models for sentence meaning that are competitive with the best hand-engineered models on inference tasks.
We attempted to apply this same transfer evalu- ation technique to the RTE-3 challenge, but found that the small training set (800 examples) did not allow the model to adapt to the unfamiliar genre of text used in that corpus, such that no training con- ï¬guration yielded competitive performance. Fur- ther research on effective transfer learning on small data sets with neural models might facilitate improvements here.
# 5 Conclusion
|
1508.05326#40
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 40,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "The results are shown in Table 7. Training on SICK alone yields poor performance, and the model trained on SNLI fails when tested on SICK data, labeling more neutral examples as contradic- tions than correctly, possibly as a result of subtle differences in how the labeling task was presented. In contrast, transferring SNLI representations to SICK yields the best performance yet reported for an unaugmented neural network model, surpasses the available EOP models, and approaches both the overall state of the art at 84.6% (Lai and Hock- enmaier, 2014) and the 84% level of interannota- tor agreement, which likely represents an approx- imate performance ceiling. This suggests that the introduction of a large high-quality corpus makes it possible to train representation-learning models for sentence meaning that are competitive with the best hand-engineered models on inference tasks.\nWe attempted to apply this same transfer evalu- ation technique to the RTE-3 challenge, but found that the small training set (800 examples) did not allow the model to adapt to the unfamiliar genre of text used in that corpus, such that no training con- ï¬guration yielded competitive performance. Fur- ther research on effective transfer learning on small data sets with neural models might facilitate improvements here.\n# 5 Conclusion",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 41 |
# 5 Conclusion
Natural languages are powerful vehicles for rea- soning, and nearly all questions about meaning- fulness in language can be reduced to questions of entailment and contradiction in context. This sug- gests that NLI is an ideal testing ground for the- ories of semantic representation, and that training for NLI tasks can provide rich domain-general se- mantic representations. To date, however, it has not been possible to fully realize this potential due to the limited nature of existing NLI resources. This paper sought to remedy this with a new, large- scale, naturalistic corpus of sentence pairs labeled for entailment, contradiction, and independence. We used this corpus to evaluate a range of models, and found that both simple lexicalized models and neural network models perform well, and that the representations learned by a neural network model on our corpus can be used to dramatically improve performance on a standard challenge dataset. We hope that SNLI presents valuable training data and a challenging testbed for the continued application of machine learning to semantic representation.
# Acknowledgments
|
1508.05326#41
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 41,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "# 5 Conclusion\nNatural languages are powerful vehicles for rea- soning, and nearly all questions about meaning- fulness in language can be reduced to questions of entailment and contradiction in context. This sug- gests that NLI is an ideal testing ground for the- ories of semantic representation, and that training for NLI tasks can provide rich domain-general se- mantic representations. To date, however, it has not been possible to fully realize this potential due to the limited nature of existing NLI resources. This paper sought to remedy this with a new, large- scale, naturalistic corpus of sentence pairs labeled for entailment, contradiction, and independence. We used this corpus to evaluate a range of models, and found that both simple lexicalized models and neural network models perform well, and that the representations learned by a neural network model on our corpus can be used to dramatically improve performance on a standard challenge dataset. We hope that SNLI presents valuable training data and a challenging testbed for the continued application of machine learning to semantic representation.\n# Acknowledgments",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 42 |
# Acknowledgments
We gratefully acknowledge support from a Google Faculty Research Award, a gift from Bloomberg L.P., the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) Deep Exploration and Filter- ing of Text (DEFT) Program under Air Force Re- search Laboratory (AFRL) contract no. FA8750- 13-2-0040, the National Science Foundation un- der grant no. IIS 1159679, and the Department of the Navy, Ofï¬ce of Naval Research, under grant no. N00014-10-1-0109. Any opinions, ï¬nd- ings, and conclusions or recommendations ex- pressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reï¬ect the views of Google, Bloomberg L.P., DARPA, AFRL NSF, ONR, or the US government. We also thank our many ex- cellent Mechanical Turk contributors.
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Samuel R. Bowman, Christopher Potts, and Christo- pher D. Manning. 2015. Recursive neural networks In Proc. of the 3rd can learn logical semantics. Workshop on Continuous Vector Space Models and their Compositionality.
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1508.05326#42
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A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 42,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "# Acknowledgments\nWe gratefully acknowledge support from a Google Faculty Research Award, a gift from Bloomberg L.P., the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) Deep Exploration and Filter- ing of Text (DEFT) Program under Air Force Re- search Laboratory (AFRL) contract no. FA8750- 13-2-0040, the National Science Foundation un- der grant no. IIS 1159679, and the Department of the Navy, Ofï¬ce of Naval Research, under grant no. N00014-10-1-0109. Any opinions, ï¬nd- ings, and conclusions or recommendations ex- pressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reï¬ect the views of Google, Bloomberg L.P., DARPA, AFRL NSF, ONR, or the US government. We also thank our many ex- cellent Mechanical Turk contributors.\n# References\nJohan Bos and Katja Markert. 2005. Recognising In Proc. textual entailment with logical inference. EMNLP.\nSamuel R. Bowman, Christopher Potts, and Christo- pher D. Manning. 2015. Recursive neural networks In Proc. of the 3rd can learn logical semantics. Workshop on Continuous Vector Space Models and their Compositionality.",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 43 |
Timothy Chklovski and Patrick Pantel. 2004. Verb- Ocean: Mining the web for ï¬ne-grained semantic verb relations. In Proc. EMNLP.
Cleo Condoravdi, Dick Crouch, Valeria de Paiva, Rein- hard Stolle, and Daniel G. Bobrow. 2003. En- In tailment, intensionality and text understanding. Proc. of the HLT-NAACL 2003 Workshop on Text Meaning.
Ido Dagan, Oren Glickman, and Bernardo Magnini. 2006. The PASCAL recognising textual entailment challenge. In Machine learning challenges. Evalu- ating predictive uncertainty, visual object classiï¬ca- tion, and recognising tectual entailment, pages 177â 190. Springer.
Marie-Catherine de Marneffe, Anna N. Rafferty, and Christopher D. Manning. 2008. Finding contradic- tions in text. In Proc. ACL.
W. Nelson Francis and Henry Kucera. 1979. Brown corpus manual. Brown University.
Yaroslav Fyodorov, Yoad Winter, and Nissim Francez. In Proc. 2000. A natural logic inference system. of the 2nd Workshop on Inference in Computational Semantics.
|
1508.05326#43
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 43,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "Timothy Chklovski and Patrick Pantel. 2004. Verb- Ocean: Mining the web for ï¬ne-grained semantic verb relations. In Proc. EMNLP.\nCleo Condoravdi, Dick Crouch, Valeria de Paiva, Rein- hard Stolle, and Daniel G. Bobrow. 2003. En- In tailment, intensionality and text understanding. Proc. of the HLT-NAACL 2003 Workshop on Text Meaning.\nIdo Dagan, Oren Glickman, and Bernardo Magnini. 2006. The PASCAL recognising textual entailment challenge. In Machine learning challenges. Evalu- ating predictive uncertainty, visual object classiï¬ca- tion, and recognising tectual entailment, pages 177â 190. Springer.\nMarie-Catherine de Marneffe, Anna N. Rafferty, and Christopher D. Manning. 2008. Finding contradic- tions in text. In Proc. ACL.\nW. Nelson Francis and Henry Kucera. 1979. Brown corpus manual. Brown University.\nYaroslav Fyodorov, Yoad Winter, and Nissim Francez. In Proc. 2000. A natural logic inference system. of the 2nd Workshop on Inference in Computational Semantics.",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 44 |
Danilo Giampiccolo, Bernardo Magnini, Ido Dagan, and Bill Dolan. 2007. The third PASCAL recog- nizing textual entailment challenge. In Proc. of the ACL-PASCAL workshop on textual entailment and paraphrasing.
Sepp Hochreiter and J¨urgen Schmidhuber. 1997. Neural computation, Long short-term memory. 9(8):1735â1780.
Jerrold J. Katz. 1972. Semantic Theory. Harper & Row, New York.
Dan Klein and Christopher D. Manning. 2003. Accu- rate unlexicalized parsing. In Proc. ACL.
Alice Lai and Julia Hockenmaier. 2014. Illinois-LH: A denotational and distributional approach to seman- tics. In Proc. SemEval.
Hector J. Levesque. 2013. On our best behaviour. In Proc. AAAI.
Omer Levy, Ido Dagan, and Jacob Goldberger. 2014. Focused entailment graphs for open IE propositions. In Proc. CoNLL.
Bill MacCartney and Christopher D Manning. 2009. An extended model of natural logic. In Proc. of the Eighth International Conference on Computational Semantics.
|
1508.05326#44
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 44,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "Danilo Giampiccolo, Bernardo Magnini, Ido Dagan, and Bill Dolan. 2007. The third PASCAL recog- nizing textual entailment challenge. In Proc. of the ACL-PASCAL workshop on textual entailment and paraphrasing.\nSepp Hochreiter and J¨urgen Schmidhuber. 1997. Neural computation, Long short-term memory. 9(8):1735â1780.\nJerrold J. Katz. 1972. Semantic Theory. Harper & Row, New York.\nDan Klein and Christopher D. Manning. 2003. Accu- rate unlexicalized parsing. In Proc. ACL.\nAlice Lai and Julia Hockenmaier. 2014. Illinois-LH: A denotational and distributional approach to seman- tics. In Proc. SemEval.\nHector J. Levesque. 2013. On our best behaviour. In Proc. AAAI.\nOmer Levy, Ido Dagan, and Jacob Goldberger. 2014. Focused entailment graphs for open IE propositions. In Proc. CoNLL.\nBill MacCartney and Christopher D Manning. 2009. An extended model of natural logic. In Proc. of the Eighth International Conference on Computational Semantics.",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 45 |
Bill MacCartney and Christopher D Manning. 2009. An extended model of natural logic. In Proc. of the Eighth International Conference on Computational Semantics.
Bernardo Magnini, Roberto Zanoli, Ido Dagan, Kathrin Eichler, G¨unter Neumann, Tae-Gil Noh, Sebastian Pado, Asher Stern, and Omer Levy. 2014. The Ex- citement Open Platform for textual inferences. Proc. ACL.
Marco Marelli, Luisa Bentivogli, Marco Baroni, Raf- faella Bernardi, Stefano Menini, and Roberto Zam- parelli. 2014a. SemEval-2014 task 1: Evaluation of compositional distributional semantic models on full sentences through semantic relatedness and tex- tual entailment. In Proc. SemEval.
Marco Marelli, Stefano Menini, Marco Baroni, Luisa Bentivogli, Raffaella Bernardi, and Roberto Zam- parelli. 2014b. A SICK cure for the evaluation of compositional distributional semantic models. In Proc. LREC.
a lexical database for english. Communications of the ACM, 38(11):39â41.
|
1508.05326#45
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 45,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "Bill MacCartney and Christopher D Manning. 2009. An extended model of natural logic. In Proc. of the Eighth International Conference on Computational Semantics.\nBernardo Magnini, Roberto Zanoli, Ido Dagan, Kathrin Eichler, G¨unter Neumann, Tae-Gil Noh, Sebastian Pado, Asher Stern, and Omer Levy. 2014. The Ex- citement Open Platform for textual inferences. Proc. ACL.\nMarco Marelli, Luisa Bentivogli, Marco Baroni, Raf- faella Bernardi, Stefano Menini, and Roberto Zam- parelli. 2014a. SemEval-2014 task 1: Evaluation of compositional distributional semantic models on full sentences through semantic relatedness and tex- tual entailment. In Proc. SemEval.\nMarco Marelli, Stefano Menini, Marco Baroni, Luisa Bentivogli, Raffaella Bernardi, and Roberto Zam- parelli. 2014b. A SICK cure for the evaluation of compositional distributional semantic models. In Proc. LREC.\na lexical database for english. Communications of the ACM, 38(11):39â41.",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 46 |
a lexical database for english. Communications of the ACM, 38(11):39â41.
Sebastian Pad´o, Tae-Gil Noh, Asher Stern, Rui Wang, and Roberto Zanoli. 2014. Design and realization of a modular architecture for textual entailment. Jour- nal of Natural Language Engineering.
Ellie Pavlick, Johan Bos, Malvina Nissim, Charley Beller, Ben Van Durme, and Chris Callison-Burch. 2015. PPDB 2.0: Better paraphrase ranking, ï¬ne- grained entailment relations, word embeddings, and style classiï¬cation. In Proc. ACL.
Jeffrey Pennington, Richard Socher, and Christopher D Manning. 2014. GloVe: Global vectors for word representation. In Proc. EMNLP.
Lorien Y Pratt, Jack Mostow, Candace A Kamm, and Ace A Kamm. 1991. Direct transfer of learned in- formation among neural networks. In Proc. AAAI.
Richard Socher, Alex Perelygin, Jean Y Wu, Jason Chuang, Christopher D Manning, Andrew Y Ng, and Christopher Potts. 2013. Recursive deep mod- els for semantic compositionality over a sentiment treebank. In Proc. EMNLP.
|
1508.05326#46
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 46,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "a lexical database for english. Communications of the ACM, 38(11):39â41.\nSebastian Pad´o, Tae-Gil Noh, Asher Stern, Rui Wang, and Roberto Zanoli. 2014. Design and realization of a modular architecture for textual entailment. Jour- nal of Natural Language Engineering.\nEllie Pavlick, Johan Bos, Malvina Nissim, Charley Beller, Ben Van Durme, and Chris Callison-Burch. 2015. PPDB 2.0: Better paraphrase ranking, ï¬ne- grained entailment relations, word embeddings, and style classiï¬cation. In Proc. ACL.\nJeffrey Pennington, Richard Socher, and Christopher D Manning. 2014. GloVe: Global vectors for word representation. In Proc. EMNLP.\nLorien Y Pratt, Jack Mostow, Candace A Kamm, and Ace A Kamm. 1991. Direct transfer of learned in- formation among neural networks. In Proc. AAAI.\nRichard Socher, Alex Perelygin, Jean Y Wu, Jason Chuang, Christopher D Manning, Andrew Y Ng, and Christopher Potts. 2013. Recursive deep mod- els for semantic compositionality over a sentiment treebank. In Proc. EMNLP.",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 47 |
Nitish Srivastava, Geoffrey Hinton, Alex Krizhevsky, Ilya Sutskever, and Ruslan Salakhutdinov. 2014. Dropout: A simple way to prevent neural networks from overï¬tting. JMLR.
Johan van Benthem. 2008. A brief history of natural In M. Chakraborty, B. L¨owe, M. Nath Mi- logic. tra, and S. Sarukki, editors, Logic, Navya-Nyaya and Applications: Homage to Bimal Matilal. Col- lege Publications.
2012. Baselines and bigrams: Simple, good sentiment and topic classiï¬cation. In Proc. ACL.
Rui Wang and G¨unter Neumann. 2007. Recognizing textual entailment using sentence similarity based on dependency tree skeletons. In ACL-PASCAL Work- shop on Textual Entailment and Paraphrasing.
Information structure and non-canonical syntax. In Laurence R. Horn and Gregory Ward, editors, Handbook of Prag- matics, pages 153â174. Blackwell, Oxford.
Jason Weston, Antoine Bordes, Sumit Chopra, and 2015a. Towards AI-complete Tomas Mikolov. question answering: A set of prerequisite toy tasks. arXiv:1502.05698.
|
1508.05326#47
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 47,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "Nitish Srivastava, Geoffrey Hinton, Alex Krizhevsky, Ilya Sutskever, and Ruslan Salakhutdinov. 2014. Dropout: A simple way to prevent neural networks from overï¬tting. JMLR.\nJohan van Benthem. 2008. A brief history of natural In M. Chakraborty, B. L¨owe, M. Nath Mi- logic. tra, and S. Sarukki, editors, Logic, Navya-Nyaya and Applications: Homage to Bimal Matilal. Col- lege Publications.\n2012. Baselines and bigrams: Simple, good sentiment and topic classiï¬cation. In Proc. ACL.\nRui Wang and G¨unter Neumann. 2007. Recognizing textual entailment using sentence similarity based on dependency tree skeletons. In ACL-PASCAL Work- shop on Textual Entailment and Paraphrasing.\nInformation structure and non-canonical syntax. In Laurence R. Horn and Gregory Ward, editors, Handbook of Prag- matics, pages 153â174. Blackwell, Oxford.\nJason Weston, Antoine Bordes, Sumit Chopra, and 2015a. Towards AI-complete Tomas Mikolov. question answering: A set of prerequisite toy tasks. arXiv:1502.05698.",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.05326
| 48 |
Jason Weston, Sumit Chopra, and Antoine Bordes. 2015b. Memory networks. In Proc. ICLR.
Terry Winograd. 1972. Understanding natural lan- guage. Cognitive Psychology, 3(1):1â191.
Peter Young, Alice Lai, Micah Hodosh, and Julia Hockenmaier. 2014. From image descriptions to vi- sual denotations: New similarity metrics for seman- tic inference over event descriptions. TACL, 2:67â 78.
Matthew D. Zeiler. 2012. adaptive learning rate method. arXiv:1212.5701. ADADELTA: an arXiv preprint
|
1508.05326#48
|
A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference
|
Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding
natural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a
valuable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.
However, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited
by the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the
Stanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection
of labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based
on image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than
all other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized
classifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it
allows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural
language inference benchmarks for the first time.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326
|
Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning
|
cs.CL
|
To appear at EMNLP 2015. The data will be posted shortly before the
conference (the week of 14 Sep) at http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/snli/
| null |
cs.CL
|
20150821
|
20150821
|
[
{
"id": "1502.05698"
}
] |
{
"authors": "Samuel R. Bowman, Gabor Angeli, Christopher Potts, Christopher D. Manning",
"chunk_id": 48,
"doc_id": "1508.05326",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150821,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05326",
"summary": "Understanding entailment and contradiction is fundamental to understanding\nnatural language, and inference about entailment and contradiction is a\nvaluable testing ground for the development of semantic representations.\nHowever, machine learning research in this area has been dramatically limited\nby the lack of large-scale resources. To address this, we introduce the\nStanford Natural Language Inference corpus, a new, freely available collection\nof labeled sentence pairs, written by humans doing a novel grounded task based\non image captioning. At 570K pairs, it is two orders of magnitude larger than\nall other resources of its type. This increase in scale allows lexicalized\nclassifiers to outperform some sophisticated existing entailment models, and it\nallows a neural network-based model to perform competitively on natural\nlanguage inference benchmarks for the first time.",
"text": "Jason Weston, Sumit Chopra, and Antoine Bordes. 2015b. Memory networks. In Proc. ICLR.\nTerry Winograd. 1972. Understanding natural lan- guage. Cognitive Psychology, 3(1):1â191.\nPeter Young, Alice Lai, Micah Hodosh, and Julia Hockenmaier. 2014. From image descriptions to vi- sual denotations: New similarity metrics for seman- tic inference over event descriptions. TACL, 2:67â 78.\nMatthew D. Zeiler. 2012. adaptive learning rate method. arXiv:1212.5701. ADADELTA: an arXiv preprint",
"title": "A large annotated corpus for learning natural language inference",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.00305
| 0 |
5 1 0 2
g u A 3 ] L C . s c [
1 v 5 0 3 0 0 . 8 0 5 1 : v i X r a
# Compositional Semantic Parsing on Semi-Structured Tables
# Panupong Pasupat Computer Science Department Stanford University [email protected]
# Percy Liang Computer Science Department Stanford University [email protected]
# Abstract
Two important aspects of semantic pars- ing for question answering are the breadth of the knowledge source and the depth of logical compositionality. While existing work trades off one aspect for another, this paper simultaneously makes progress on both fronts through a new task: answering complex questions on semi-structured ta- bles using question-answer pairs as super- vision. The central challenge arises from two compounding factors: the broader do- main results in an open-ended set of re- lations, and the deeper compositionality results in a combinatorial explosion in the space of logical forms. We propose a logical-form driven parsing algorithm guided by strong typing constraints and show that it obtains signiï¬cant improve- ments over natural baselines. For evalua- tion, we created a new dataset of 22,033 complex questions on Wikipedia tables, which is made publicly available.
|
1508.00305#0
|
Compositional Semantic Parsing on Semi-Structured Tables
|
Two important aspects of semantic parsing for question answering are the
breadth of the knowledge source and the depth of logical compositionality.
While existing work trades off one aspect for another, this paper
simultaneously makes progress on both fronts through a new task: answering
complex questions on semi-structured tables using question-answer pairs as
supervision. The central challenge arises from two compounding factors: the
broader domain results in an open-ended set of relations, and the deeper
compositionality results in a combinatorial explosion in the space of logical
forms. We propose a logical-form driven parsing algorithm guided by strong
typing constraints and show that it obtains significant improvements over
natural baselines. For evaluation, we created a new dataset of 22,033 complex
questions on Wikipedia tables, which is made publicly available.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.00305
|
Panupong Pasupat, Percy Liang
|
cs.CL
| null | null |
cs.CL
|
20150803
|
20150803
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Panupong Pasupat, Percy Liang",
"chunk_id": 0,
"doc_id": "1508.00305",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150803,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.00305",
"summary": "Two important aspects of semantic parsing for question answering are the\nbreadth of the knowledge source and the depth of logical compositionality.\nWhile existing work trades off one aspect for another, this paper\nsimultaneously makes progress on both fronts through a new task: answering\ncomplex questions on semi-structured tables using question-answer pairs as\nsupervision. The central challenge arises from two compounding factors: the\nbroader domain results in an open-ended set of relations, and the deeper\ncompositionality results in a combinatorial explosion in the space of logical\nforms. We propose a logical-form driven parsing algorithm guided by strong\ntyping constraints and show that it obtains significant improvements over\nnatural baselines. For evaluation, we created a new dataset of 22,033 complex\nquestions on Wikipedia tables, which is made publicly available.",
"text": "5 1 0 2\ng u A 3 ] L C . s c [\n1 v 5 0 3 0 0 . 8 0 5 1 : v i X r a\n# Compositional Semantic Parsing on Semi-Structured Tables\n# Panupong Pasupat Computer Science Department Stanford University [email protected]\n# Percy Liang Computer Science Department Stanford University [email protected]\n# Abstract\nTwo important aspects of semantic pars- ing for question answering are the breadth of the knowledge source and the depth of logical compositionality. While existing work trades off one aspect for another, this paper simultaneously makes progress on both fronts through a new task: answering complex questions on semi-structured ta- bles using question-answer pairs as super- vision. The central challenge arises from two compounding factors: the broader do- main results in an open-ended set of re- lations, and the deeper compositionality results in a combinatorial explosion in the space of logical forms. We propose a logical-form driven parsing algorithm guided by strong typing constraints and show that it obtains signiï¬cant improve- ments over natural baselines. For evalua- tion, we created a new dataset of 22,033 complex questions on Wikipedia tables, which is made publicly available.",
"title": "Compositional Semantic Parsing on Semi-Structured Tables",
"year": 2015
}
|
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1508.00305
| 1 |
Year 1896 1900 1904 . . . 2004 2008 2012 City Athens Paris St. Louis USA . . . Athens Beijing London Country Nations Greece France 14 24 12 . . . 201 204 204 . . . Greece China UK
x1: âGreece held its last Summer Olympics in which year?â y1: {2004} x2: âIn which cityâs the ï¬rst time with at least 20 nations?â y2: {Paris} x3: âWhich years have the most participating countries?â y3: {2008, 2012} x4: âHow many events were in Athens, Greece?â y4: {2} x5: âHow many more participants were there in 1900 than
in the ï¬rst year?â
y5: {10}
Figure 1: Our task is to answer a highly composi- tional question from an HTML table. We learn a semantic parser from question-table-answer triples {(xi, ti, yi)}.
rigid schema over entities and relation types, thus restricting the scope of answerable questions.
# Introduction
|
1508.00305#1
|
Compositional Semantic Parsing on Semi-Structured Tables
|
Two important aspects of semantic parsing for question answering are the
breadth of the knowledge source and the depth of logical compositionality.
While existing work trades off one aspect for another, this paper
simultaneously makes progress on both fronts through a new task: answering
complex questions on semi-structured tables using question-answer pairs as
supervision. The central challenge arises from two compounding factors: the
broader domain results in an open-ended set of relations, and the deeper
compositionality results in a combinatorial explosion in the space of logical
forms. We propose a logical-form driven parsing algorithm guided by strong
typing constraints and show that it obtains significant improvements over
natural baselines. For evaluation, we created a new dataset of 22,033 complex
questions on Wikipedia tables, which is made publicly available.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.00305
|
Panupong Pasupat, Percy Liang
|
cs.CL
| null | null |
cs.CL
|
20150803
|
20150803
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Panupong Pasupat, Percy Liang",
"chunk_id": 1,
"doc_id": "1508.00305",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150803,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.00305",
"summary": "Two important aspects of semantic parsing for question answering are the\nbreadth of the knowledge source and the depth of logical compositionality.\nWhile existing work trades off one aspect for another, this paper\nsimultaneously makes progress on both fronts through a new task: answering\ncomplex questions on semi-structured tables using question-answer pairs as\nsupervision. The central challenge arises from two compounding factors: the\nbroader domain results in an open-ended set of relations, and the deeper\ncompositionality results in a combinatorial explosion in the space of logical\nforms. We propose a logical-form driven parsing algorithm guided by strong\ntyping constraints and show that it obtains significant improvements over\nnatural baselines. For evaluation, we created a new dataset of 22,033 complex\nquestions on Wikipedia tables, which is made publicly available.",
"text": "Year 1896 1900 1904 . . . 2004 2008 2012 City Athens Paris St. Louis USA . . . Athens Beijing London Country Nations Greece France 14 24 12 . . . 201 204 204 . . . Greece China UK\nx1: âGreece held its last Summer Olympics in which year?â y1: {2004} x2: âIn which cityâs the ï¬rst time with at least 20 nations?â y2: {Paris} x3: âWhich years have the most participating countries?â y3: {2008, 2012} x4: âHow many events were in Athens, Greece?â y4: {2} x5: âHow many more participants were there in 1900 than\nin the ï¬rst year?â\ny5: {10}\nFigure 1: Our task is to answer a highly composi- tional question from an HTML table. We learn a semantic parser from question-table-answer triples {(xi, ti, yi)}.\nrigid schema over entities and relation types, thus restricting the scope of answerable questions.\n# Introduction",
"title": "Compositional Semantic Parsing on Semi-Structured Tables",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.00305
| 2 |
rigid schema over entities and relation types, thus restricting the scope of answerable questions.
# Introduction
In semantic parsing for question answering, nat- ural language questions are converted into logi- cal forms, which can be executed on a knowl- edge source to obtain answer denotations. Early semantic parsing systems were trained to answer highly compositional questions, but the knowl- edge sources were limited to small closed-domain databases (Zelle and Mooney, 1996; Wong and Mooney, 2007; Zettlemoyer and Collins, 2007; Kwiatkowski et al., 2011). More recent work sacriï¬ces compositionality in favor of using more open-ended knowledge bases such as Freebase (Cai and Yates, 2013; Berant et al., 2013; Fader et al., 2014; Reddy et al., 2014). However, even these broader knowledge sources still deï¬ne a
To simultaneously increase both the breadth of the knowledge source and the depth of logical compositionality, we propose a new task (with an associated dataset): answering a question using an HTML table as the knowledge source. Figure 1 shows several question-answer pairs and an ac- companying table, which are typical of those in our dataset. Note that the questions are logically quite complex, involving a variety of operations such as comparison (x2), superlatives (x3), aggre- gation (x4), and arithmetic (x5).
|
1508.00305#2
|
Compositional Semantic Parsing on Semi-Structured Tables
|
Two important aspects of semantic parsing for question answering are the
breadth of the knowledge source and the depth of logical compositionality.
While existing work trades off one aspect for another, this paper
simultaneously makes progress on both fronts through a new task: answering
complex questions on semi-structured tables using question-answer pairs as
supervision. The central challenge arises from two compounding factors: the
broader domain results in an open-ended set of relations, and the deeper
compositionality results in a combinatorial explosion in the space of logical
forms. We propose a logical-form driven parsing algorithm guided by strong
typing constraints and show that it obtains significant improvements over
natural baselines. For evaluation, we created a new dataset of 22,033 complex
questions on Wikipedia tables, which is made publicly available.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.00305
|
Panupong Pasupat, Percy Liang
|
cs.CL
| null | null |
cs.CL
|
20150803
|
20150803
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Panupong Pasupat, Percy Liang",
"chunk_id": 2,
"doc_id": "1508.00305",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150803,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.00305",
"summary": "Two important aspects of semantic parsing for question answering are the\nbreadth of the knowledge source and the depth of logical compositionality.\nWhile existing work trades off one aspect for another, this paper\nsimultaneously makes progress on both fronts through a new task: answering\ncomplex questions on semi-structured tables using question-answer pairs as\nsupervision. The central challenge arises from two compounding factors: the\nbroader domain results in an open-ended set of relations, and the deeper\ncompositionality results in a combinatorial explosion in the space of logical\nforms. We propose a logical-form driven parsing algorithm guided by strong\ntyping constraints and show that it obtains significant improvements over\nnatural baselines. For evaluation, we created a new dataset of 22,033 complex\nquestions on Wikipedia tables, which is made publicly available.",
"text": "rigid schema over entities and relation types, thus restricting the scope of answerable questions.\n# Introduction\nIn semantic parsing for question answering, nat- ural language questions are converted into logi- cal forms, which can be executed on a knowl- edge source to obtain answer denotations. Early semantic parsing systems were trained to answer highly compositional questions, but the knowl- edge sources were limited to small closed-domain databases (Zelle and Mooney, 1996; Wong and Mooney, 2007; Zettlemoyer and Collins, 2007; Kwiatkowski et al., 2011). More recent work sacriï¬ces compositionality in favor of using more open-ended knowledge bases such as Freebase (Cai and Yates, 2013; Berant et al., 2013; Fader et al., 2014; Reddy et al., 2014). However, even these broader knowledge sources still deï¬ne a\nTo simultaneously increase both the breadth of the knowledge source and the depth of logical compositionality, we propose a new task (with an associated dataset): answering a question using an HTML table as the knowledge source. Figure 1 shows several question-answer pairs and an ac- companying table, which are typical of those in our dataset. Note that the questions are logically quite complex, involving a variety of operations such as comparison (x2), superlatives (x3), aggre- gation (x4), and arithmetic (x5).",
"title": "Compositional Semantic Parsing on Semi-Structured Tables",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.00305
| 3 |
The HTML tables are semi-structured and not normalized. For example, a cell might contain multiple parts (e.g., âBeijing, Chinaâ or â200 kmâ). Additionally, we mandate that the train- ing and test tables are disjoint, so at test time, we will see relations (column headers; e.g., âNa- tionsâ) and entities (table cells; e.g., âSt. Louisâ)
that were not observed during training. This is in contrast to knowledge bases like Freebase, which have a global ï¬xed relation schema with normal- ized entities and relations.
Our task setting produces two main challenges. Firstly, the increased breadth in the knowledge source requires us to generate logical forms from novel tables with previously unseen relations and entities. We therefore cannot follow the typical semantic parsing strategy of constructing or learn- ing a lexicon that maps phrases to relations ahead of time. Secondly, the increased depth in com- positionality and additional logical operations ex- acerbate the exponential growth of the number of possible logical forms.
|
1508.00305#3
|
Compositional Semantic Parsing on Semi-Structured Tables
|
Two important aspects of semantic parsing for question answering are the
breadth of the knowledge source and the depth of logical compositionality.
While existing work trades off one aspect for another, this paper
simultaneously makes progress on both fronts through a new task: answering
complex questions on semi-structured tables using question-answer pairs as
supervision. The central challenge arises from two compounding factors: the
broader domain results in an open-ended set of relations, and the deeper
compositionality results in a combinatorial explosion in the space of logical
forms. We propose a logical-form driven parsing algorithm guided by strong
typing constraints and show that it obtains significant improvements over
natural baselines. For evaluation, we created a new dataset of 22,033 complex
questions on Wikipedia tables, which is made publicly available.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.00305
|
Panupong Pasupat, Percy Liang
|
cs.CL
| null | null |
cs.CL
|
20150803
|
20150803
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Panupong Pasupat, Percy Liang",
"chunk_id": 3,
"doc_id": "1508.00305",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150803,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.00305",
"summary": "Two important aspects of semantic parsing for question answering are the\nbreadth of the knowledge source and the depth of logical compositionality.\nWhile existing work trades off one aspect for another, this paper\nsimultaneously makes progress on both fronts through a new task: answering\ncomplex questions on semi-structured tables using question-answer pairs as\nsupervision. The central challenge arises from two compounding factors: the\nbroader domain results in an open-ended set of relations, and the deeper\ncompositionality results in a combinatorial explosion in the space of logical\nforms. We propose a logical-form driven parsing algorithm guided by strong\ntyping constraints and show that it obtains significant improvements over\nnatural baselines. For evaluation, we created a new dataset of 22,033 complex\nquestions on Wikipedia tables, which is made publicly available.",
"text": "The HTML tables are semi-structured and not normalized. For example, a cell might contain multiple parts (e.g., âBeijing, Chinaâ or â200 kmâ). Additionally, we mandate that the train- ing and test tables are disjoint, so at test time, we will see relations (column headers; e.g., âNa- tionsâ) and entities (table cells; e.g., âSt. Louisâ)\nthat were not observed during training. This is in contrast to knowledge bases like Freebase, which have a global ï¬xed relation schema with normal- ized entities and relations.\nOur task setting produces two main challenges. Firstly, the increased breadth in the knowledge source requires us to generate logical forms from novel tables with previously unseen relations and entities. We therefore cannot follow the typical semantic parsing strategy of constructing or learn- ing a lexicon that maps phrases to relations ahead of time. Secondly, the increased depth in com- positionality and additional logical operations ex- acerbate the exponential growth of the number of possible logical forms.",
"title": "Compositional Semantic Parsing on Semi-Structured Tables",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.00305
| 4 |
We trained a semantic parser for this task from question-answer pairs based on the framework il- lustrated in Figure 2. First, relations and entities from the semi-structured HTML table are encoded in a graph. Then, the system parses the question into candidate logical forms with a high-coverage grammar, reranks the candidates with a log-linear model, and then executes the highest-scoring logi- cal form to produce the answer denotation. We use beam search with pruning strategies based on type and denotation constraints to control the combina- torial explosion.
To evaluate the system, we created a new dataset, WIKITABLEQUESTIONS, consisting of 2,108 HTML tables from Wikipedia and 22,033 question-answer pairs. When tested on unseen ta- bles, the system achieves an accuracy of 37.1%, which is signiï¬cantly higher than the information retrieval baseline of 12.7% and a simple semantic parsing baseline of 24.3%.
# 2 Task
|
1508.00305#4
|
Compositional Semantic Parsing on Semi-Structured Tables
|
Two important aspects of semantic parsing for question answering are the
breadth of the knowledge source and the depth of logical compositionality.
While existing work trades off one aspect for another, this paper
simultaneously makes progress on both fronts through a new task: answering
complex questions on semi-structured tables using question-answer pairs as
supervision. The central challenge arises from two compounding factors: the
broader domain results in an open-ended set of relations, and the deeper
compositionality results in a combinatorial explosion in the space of logical
forms. We propose a logical-form driven parsing algorithm guided by strong
typing constraints and show that it obtains significant improvements over
natural baselines. For evaluation, we created a new dataset of 22,033 complex
questions on Wikipedia tables, which is made publicly available.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.00305
|
Panupong Pasupat, Percy Liang
|
cs.CL
| null | null |
cs.CL
|
20150803
|
20150803
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Panupong Pasupat, Percy Liang",
"chunk_id": 4,
"doc_id": "1508.00305",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150803,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.00305",
"summary": "Two important aspects of semantic parsing for question answering are the\nbreadth of the knowledge source and the depth of logical compositionality.\nWhile existing work trades off one aspect for another, this paper\nsimultaneously makes progress on both fronts through a new task: answering\ncomplex questions on semi-structured tables using question-answer pairs as\nsupervision. The central challenge arises from two compounding factors: the\nbroader domain results in an open-ended set of relations, and the deeper\ncompositionality results in a combinatorial explosion in the space of logical\nforms. We propose a logical-form driven parsing algorithm guided by strong\ntyping constraints and show that it obtains significant improvements over\nnatural baselines. For evaluation, we created a new dataset of 22,033 complex\nquestions on Wikipedia tables, which is made publicly available.",
"text": "We trained a semantic parser for this task from question-answer pairs based on the framework il- lustrated in Figure 2. First, relations and entities from the semi-structured HTML table are encoded in a graph. Then, the system parses the question into candidate logical forms with a high-coverage grammar, reranks the candidates with a log-linear model, and then executes the highest-scoring logi- cal form to produce the answer denotation. We use beam search with pruning strategies based on type and denotation constraints to control the combina- torial explosion.\nTo evaluate the system, we created a new dataset, WIKITABLEQUESTIONS, consisting of 2,108 HTML tables from Wikipedia and 22,033 question-answer pairs. When tested on unseen ta- bles, the system achieves an accuracy of 37.1%, which is signiï¬cantly higher than the information retrieval baseline of 12.7% and a simple semantic parsing baseline of 24.3%.\n# 2 Task",
"title": "Compositional Semantic Parsing on Semi-Structured Tables",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.00305
| 5 |
# 2 Task
Our task is as follows: given a table t and a ques- tion x about the table, output a list of values y that answers the question according to the table. Example inputs and outputs are shown in Fig- ure 1. The system has access to a training set D = {(xi, ti, yi)}N i=1 of questions, tables, and an- swers, but the tables in test data do not appear dur- ing training.
The only restriction on the question x is that a person must be able to answer it using just the ta- ble t. Other than that, the question can be of any type, ranging from a simple table lookup question to a more complicated one that involves various logical operations.
> @ Greece held the last ! (1) Conversion Summer Olympics in which year? @)â (2) Parsing +âââ(w) AN @) ime (3) Ranking | : (2) (4) Execution |) AlYear....].argmax(...Greece, Index) {2004}
|
1508.00305#5
|
Compositional Semantic Parsing on Semi-Structured Tables
|
Two important aspects of semantic parsing for question answering are the
breadth of the knowledge source and the depth of logical compositionality.
While existing work trades off one aspect for another, this paper
simultaneously makes progress on both fronts through a new task: answering
complex questions on semi-structured tables using question-answer pairs as
supervision. The central challenge arises from two compounding factors: the
broader domain results in an open-ended set of relations, and the deeper
compositionality results in a combinatorial explosion in the space of logical
forms. We propose a logical-form driven parsing algorithm guided by strong
typing constraints and show that it obtains significant improvements over
natural baselines. For evaluation, we created a new dataset of 22,033 complex
questions on Wikipedia tables, which is made publicly available.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.00305
|
Panupong Pasupat, Percy Liang
|
cs.CL
| null | null |
cs.CL
|
20150803
|
20150803
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Panupong Pasupat, Percy Liang",
"chunk_id": 5,
"doc_id": "1508.00305",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150803,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.00305",
"summary": "Two important aspects of semantic parsing for question answering are the\nbreadth of the knowledge source and the depth of logical compositionality.\nWhile existing work trades off one aspect for another, this paper\nsimultaneously makes progress on both fronts through a new task: answering\ncomplex questions on semi-structured tables using question-answer pairs as\nsupervision. The central challenge arises from two compounding factors: the\nbroader domain results in an open-ended set of relations, and the deeper\ncompositionality results in a combinatorial explosion in the space of logical\nforms. We propose a logical-form driven parsing algorithm guided by strong\ntyping constraints and show that it obtains significant improvements over\nnatural baselines. For evaluation, we created a new dataset of 22,033 complex\nquestions on Wikipedia tables, which is made publicly available.",
"text": "# 2 Task\nOur task is as follows: given a table t and a ques- tion x about the table, output a list of values y that answers the question according to the table. Example inputs and outputs are shown in Fig- ure 1. The system has access to a training set D = {(xi, ti, yi)}N i=1 of questions, tables, and an- swers, but the tables in test data do not appear dur- ing training.\nThe only restriction on the question x is that a person must be able to answer it using just the ta- ble t. Other than that, the question can be of any type, ranging from a simple table lookup question to a more complicated one that involves various logical operations.\n> @ Greece held the last ! (1) Conversion Summer Olympics in which year? @)â (2) Parsing +âââ(w) AN @) ime (3) Ranking | : (2) (4) Execution |) AlYear....].argmax(...Greece, Index) {2004}",
"title": "Compositional Semantic Parsing on Semi-Structured Tables",
"year": 2015
}
|
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] |
1508.00305
| 6 |
Figure 2: The prediction framework: (1) the table t is deterministically converted into a knowledge graph w as shown in Figure 3; (2) with informa- tion from w, the question x is parsed into candi- date logical forms in Zx; (3) the highest-scoring candidate z â Zx is chosen; and (4) z is executed on w, yielding the answer y.
Dataset. We created a new dataset, WIK- ITABLEQUESTIONS, of question-answer pairs on HTML tables as follows. We randomly selected data tables from Wikipedia with at least 8 rows and 5 columns. We then created two Amazon Mechan- ical Turk tasks. The ï¬rst task asks workers to write trivia questions about the table. For each question, we put one of the 36 generic prompts such as âThe question should require calculationâ or âcontains the word âï¬rstâ or its synonymâ to encourage more complex utterances. Next, we submit the result- ing questions to the second task where the work- ers answer each question based on the given table. We only keep the answers that are agreed upon by at least two workers. After this ï¬ltering, approxi- mately 69% of the questions remains.
|
1508.00305#6
|
Compositional Semantic Parsing on Semi-Structured Tables
|
Two important aspects of semantic parsing for question answering are the
breadth of the knowledge source and the depth of logical compositionality.
While existing work trades off one aspect for another, this paper
simultaneously makes progress on both fronts through a new task: answering
complex questions on semi-structured tables using question-answer pairs as
supervision. The central challenge arises from two compounding factors: the
broader domain results in an open-ended set of relations, and the deeper
compositionality results in a combinatorial explosion in the space of logical
forms. We propose a logical-form driven parsing algorithm guided by strong
typing constraints and show that it obtains significant improvements over
natural baselines. For evaluation, we created a new dataset of 22,033 complex
questions on Wikipedia tables, which is made publicly available.
|
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.00305
|
Panupong Pasupat, Percy Liang
|
cs.CL
| null | null |
cs.CL
|
20150803
|
20150803
|
[] |
{
"authors": "Panupong Pasupat, Percy Liang",
"chunk_id": 6,
"doc_id": "1508.00305",
"primary_category": "cs.CL",
"published": 20150803,
"source": "http://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.00305",
"summary": "Two important aspects of semantic parsing for question answering are the\nbreadth of the knowledge source and the depth of logical compositionality.\nWhile existing work trades off one aspect for another, this paper\nsimultaneously makes progress on both fronts through a new task: answering\ncomplex questions on semi-structured tables using question-answer pairs as\nsupervision. The central challenge arises from two compounding factors: the\nbroader domain results in an open-ended set of relations, and the deeper\ncompositionality results in a combinatorial explosion in the space of logical\nforms. We propose a logical-form driven parsing algorithm guided by strong\ntyping constraints and show that it obtains significant improvements over\nnatural baselines. For evaluation, we created a new dataset of 22,033 complex\nquestions on Wikipedia tables, which is made publicly available.",
"text": "Figure 2: The prediction framework: (1) the table t is deterministically converted into a knowledge graph w as shown in Figure 3; (2) with informa- tion from w, the question x is parsed into candi- date logical forms in Zx; (3) the highest-scoring candidate z â Zx is chosen; and (4) z is executed on w, yielding the answer y.\nDataset. We created a new dataset, WIK- ITABLEQUESTIONS, of question-answer pairs on HTML tables as follows. We randomly selected data tables from Wikipedia with at least 8 rows and 5 columns. We then created two Amazon Mechan- ical Turk tasks. The ï¬rst task asks workers to write trivia questions about the table. For each question, we put one of the 36 generic prompts such as âThe question should require calculationâ or âcontains the word âï¬rstâ or its synonymâ to encourage more complex utterances. Next, we submit the result- ing questions to the second task where the work- ers answer each question based on the given table. We only keep the answers that are agreed upon by at least two workers. After this ï¬ltering, approxi- mately 69% of the questions remains.",
"title": "Compositional Semantic Parsing on Semi-Structured Tables",
"year": 2015
}
|
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