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Finally, one more reason why Chomsky dislikes statistical models is that they tend to make linguistics an empirical science (a science about how people actually use language) rather than a mathematical science (an investigation of the mathematical properties of models of formal language). Chomsky prefers the later, as evidenced by his statement in Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965):
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Linguistic theory is mentalistic, since it is concerned with discovering a mental reality underlying actual behavior. Observed use of language ... may provide evidence ... but surely cannot constitute the subject-matter of linguistics, if this is to be a serious discipline.
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Plato's cave Plato's cave
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Plato's answer was that the knowledge is 'remembered' from an earlier existence. The answer calls for a mechanism: perhaps the immortal soul ... rephrasing Plato's answer in terms more congenial to us today, we will say that the basic properties of cognitive systems are innate to the mind, part of human biological endowment.
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Lascaux Horse Lascaux Horse
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It was reasonable for Plato to think that the ideal of, say, a horse, was more important than any individual horse we can perceive in the world. In 400BC, species were thought to be eternal and unchanging. We now know that is not true; that the horses on another cave wall—in Lascaux—are now extinct, and that current horses continue to evolve slowly over time. Thus there is no such thing as a single ideal eternal "horse" form.
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We also now know that language is like that as well: languages are complex, random, contingent biological processes that are subject to the whims of evolution and cultural change. What constitutes a language is not an eternal ideal form, represented by the settings of a small number of parameters, but rather is the contingent outcome of complex processes. Since they are contingent, it seems they can only be analyzed with probabilistic models. Since people have to continually understand the uncertain. ambiguous, noisy speech of others, it seems they must be using something like probabilistic reasoning. Chomsky for some reason wants to avoid this, and therefore he must declare the actual facts of language use out of bounds and declare that true linguistics only exists in the mathematical realm, where he can impose the formalism he wants. Then, to get language from this abstract, eternal, mathematical realm into the heads of people, he must fabricate a mystical facility that is exactly tuned to the eternal realm. This may be very interesting from a mathematical point of view, but it misses the point about what language is, and how it works.
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Thanks
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Annotated Bibliography<|endoftext|>RAMALLAH and JERUSALEM — Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas called on Hamas to end its hail of rockets on Israel as Israeli leaders signalled they were preparing to invade the Gaza Strip to stop the barrages.
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Mr. Abbas spoke Thursday as the Palestinian death toll from three days of intensified Israeli air strikes in Hamas-controlled Gaza neared 90.
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Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu said in a televised address there would be “additional phases” to the military operation and that a “difficult, complex” battle lies ahead.
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“What are you trying to achieve by sending rockets?” Mr. Abbas asked on Palestine TV, without explicitly naming Hamas, which recently lent its backing to his government after a seven-year rift. “We prefer to fight with wisdom and politics.”
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It was the first time he has openly criticized Hamas for firing hundreds of rockets into Israel over the past month. The public nature of his critique may further strain his political alliance with the hardline Islamists, which has already developed cracks over finances and his denunciation of the abduction of three Israeli teenagers, whose killing Israel has blamed on the militant group.
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Israeli aircraft stepped up weeks of strikes on the territory this week after the rocket fire grew heavier, reaching farther into Israel than ever before.
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In New York, United Nations chief Ban Ki-moon warned the Security Council of the “risk of an all-out escalation in Israel and Gaza, with the threat of a ground offensive still palpable.”
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“It is unacceptable for citizens on both sides to permanently live in fear of the next aerial attack,” he said. “My paramount concern is the safety and well-being of all civilians, no matter where they are.”
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He also condemned the “indiscriminate” rocket fire at Israel.
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Mr. Abbas said Egyptian efforts to reach a truce have failed, and he was in contact with Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan in an attempt to end the violence. Israel’s current military campaign is the third in less than six years.
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“It’s not important who wins or loses,” Mr. Abbas said. “What’s important is to end this bloodshed.”
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He patched up his breach with Hamas as peace negotiations with Israel collapsed. The Hamas-backed Palestinian government, formed June 2, has been beset by disputes over finances, with Mr. Abbas declining to pick up the payroll for 58,000 employees of the former Hamas government in Gaza for fear the terrorist taint would scare off donors. Canada, the U.S. and the European Union consider Hamas a terrorist organization.
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Mr. Abbas delivered his appeal to end the bloodshed just hours after Israel disclosed it is mobilizing 20,000 soldiers for a possible ground invasion.
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“Where is this leading, is it leading to a ground force incursion? I can’t confirm that,” Israel army spokesman Lieutenant-Colonel Peter Lerner said. “I can confirm we are making all the necessary preparations to be ready for that.”
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This week, the military was authorized to call up as many as 40,000 reserve troops.
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Meanwhile, the Iron Dome defence system has intercepted more than 100 of the projectiles destined for major Israeli cities. It is designed to shoot down rockets headed toward populated areas, while allowing others to fall where they can do no harm.
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In southern Israel, the area hit hardest by the rockets, people have been ordered to stay in close range of shelter. Summer camps have been cancelled, motorists have been forced to jump out of their cars, and high school students took their final exams in bomb shelters. Many people are using a smartphone application that alerts them to incoming rockets when they can’t hear air-raid sirens.
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Lian Assayag had planned a big wedding in Ashkelon. But her special day was dashed because of the rocket fire. She decided instead to get married Thursday night inside a bomb shelter at a synagogue in nearby Ashdod.
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“I have mixed feelings. Everything got messed up,” she told Channel 10 TV. “It’ll be OK.”
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Bloomberg News, with files from The Associated Press<|endoftext|>Toronto FC goalkeeper Clint Irwin will make a homecoming of sorts this weekend when his new club visits the Colorado Rapids (8 pm ET, TSN, MLS Live). Irwin spent three seasons with the Rapids, becoming one of Colorado’s rare bright spots during some lean years.
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During that time, Irwin also became a fan favorite. His actions on the field certainly earned him that reputation, but it was what he did with his time off the pitch that truly set him apart: Irwin sat down at his computer and penned thoughtful, candid pieces about his life as a professional athlete.
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During TFC’s preseason stay in Orlando, MLSsoccer.com sat down with Irwin for a wide-ranging conversation. Here it is:
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You’re coming to Toronto from Colorado. I think it’s fair to say that, while expectations did exist in Colorado, they were tempered – now you’re at one of the league’s glamour franchises, playing with arguably the best player in league history and a pair of US national team stars. Do you feel the weight of expectations?
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I don’t necessarily feel the weight of expectations. I think the expectations are really healthy. It’s one of the things that excited me about the move – you have more attention, there are more people watching. Throughout my career, when the expectations are higher, I’ve always risen to them. They make me a better player. It’s important as a player to embrace those expectations and set goals that are going to exceed those expectations.
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You’ve been on the periphery of the national team picture for a while, and there’s been turnover recently in the goalkeeper pool with the USMNT. How much do you think about that as a next step?
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It’s always in the back of your mind, [trying to] work your way into that player pool. It’s definitely a goal of mine. I think it can only help when you have very big players on the national team on your own roster. You can learn what it takes to get to that level and lean on them for any sort of guidance that they have. Its another thing that’s excited me about the move -- being around those good players and guys who are getting called up week in and week out to the national team.
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I’ve read articles you’ve written and interviews you’ve given where you talk about your leaner days playing lower-division soccer. Your career trajectory has been pretty linear, as opposed to some of these guys who come out of college and are comfortable straight away. How has that shaped your thought process on your success nowadays?
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I definitely am more appreciative of the opportunity that’s in front of me now, having been to probably the bottom of the soccer pyramid in North America. I do think it offers some sort of perspective as a player to know that there are players playing here, plying their trade, going through the day in day out just like anyone else but maybe not in the same environment, same training facility that we have up here. It’s a lot different, it makes me appreciative of every opportunity that I got and every opportunity that I have to step out there and play because you never know when you might be going back down the pyramid. It’s kind of a kick in the backside.
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Do you miss the struggle?
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You don’t necessarily miss the soccer struggle part. But sometimes you miss the camaraderie part of it, when you’re living with seven other guys in a house – those relationships by necessity become close. You bond over those struggles and develop strong friendships. You look back and you still keep in contact with those guys and that’s sort of what binds it all together throughout the course of your careers.
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There’s a perception of you, one that certainly you helped create, that you’re a “thinking man’s player.” You’ve written a number of columns for a few different sites, you’re very active on Twitter. Is this a thing where it’s just an interest of yours? Or do you feel the need to speak out for other athletes who maybe don’t write?
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It’s a bit of both. I think for one, sometimes Twitter isn’t the best medium to express those longer thoughts. It’s great in some regards, but firing off two or three sentence missives – it doesn’t leave much room for nuance, there’s not much room for discussion or to really delve into things. In that respect, writing a column or an account, however you want to say it, gives you a little bit more room to describe things that you really want to address.
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I think, still, the media landscape in Colorado was a little younger – not younger in terms of the age of the reporters but I’d say younger in terms of covering the game. I think a lot of times reporters come up to us and just ask us, “What are you guys working on this week for the game on Saturday” or “What did you think about the game yesterday?” Those are fine questions, but a lot of guys that I know, myself included, we have thoughts on subjects that are maybe outside of just the beat reporter’s questions. Herculez Gomez is a guy I think who’s really thoughtful about a lot of things happening around the game and outside of it.
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Why do you think more guys don’t take to writing or maybe expressing their thoughts to the media – is there a fear of public perception, or how that public perception might affect their career?
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I’ll speak from my own personal experience. I think you’re seeing it more with the Players' Tribune. I always watch Richard Sherman’s press conferences now because they’ve become an open forum for him to just say whatever he wants to say, which I think is awesome. I think it’s really cool that he takes that opportunity to say what he wants to say rather than have a narrative that’s driven by the people on the other side asking him questions. But I think, from my personal experience, in this league as a player you represent so many different things. You have to be so aware of what you’re saying.
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As a player you represent yourself, your family, the club you’re employed by. The club is owned by an ownership group, the club is part of MLS so you represent MLS. If you play for the national team, or have a desire to, you represent US Soccer. If you have sponsors or endorsements, you represent them. There’s a lot at stake and a lot of interests; you almost have to tread very lightly in terms of keeping people happy and keeping the people who are paying you happy. Very few players are in that position where they can say whatever they want without repercussions.
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Do you think most clubs in this league would prefer that their players stick to the boilerplate stuff – tough game, could’ve gotten a couple breaks, etc. – and not venture outside of that bubble to speak their mind?
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I think it’s a two-way street. I think good questions get good answers. One of the things that is driving me to write more is are the questions that I’m getting. I’ll get asked, “What did you think about the game?” Well, it was a good game, we didn’t get the result, we gotta improve next week. That’s your standard answer. I think most people want to hear more from the athletes. I want to hear more from the other players – what are they thinking? I just don’t think that players are getting that opportunity. Either the expectations are set so low or we’ve just gotten into this routine.
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Let’s talk about something less depressing. The election. What do you make of Donald Trump’s rise to political relevance?
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It’s almost like a reality show. I’m more of an interested observer than a willing participant. I studied political science in college so I try and take more of a detached view on why these things are happening, not necessarily [opining that] ‘this is terrible, this is awesome.’ It’s definitely interesting for sure. I’ve been trying to figure out for each candidate how things are viewed in Canada. It’s interesting to get the outsider’s perspective.
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What do you think [Canadians] make of all of this?
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I’m sure they think that [Trump is] a typical American blowhard. But for me, it’s how did we get to this point? What has contributed to the rise of Trump and even [Bernie] Sanders on the other side. People are obviously dissatisfied with Washington [D.C.] in general and how things have played out. Not too many guys in the locker room are just saying things like “Trump is crazy” or “Sanders is a communist or whatever.” It’s more observational.
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