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{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Features", "Inputs", "2D vector graphics", "3D geometry", "Volumetric data", "Photogrammetry and scanning", "Neural approximations and light fields", "Outputs", "Techniques", "Rasterization<span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Rasterization\"></span><span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Scanline rendering and rasterization\"></span>", "Ray casting", "Ray tracing", "Radiosity", "Path tracing", "Neural rendering", "Scientific and mathematical basis", "The rendering equation", "The bidirectional reflectance distribution function", "Geometric optics", "Visual perception", "Sampling and filtering", "Hardware", "History", "GPUs", "Chronology of algorithms and techniques<span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Chronology of concepts\"></span>", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n[thumb\\|A variety of rendering techniques applied to a single 3D scene](/wiki/File:Render_Types.png \"Render Types.png\")\n[thumb\\|An image created by using [POV\\-Ray](/wiki/POV-Ray \"POV-Ray\") 3\\.6](/wiki/Image:Glasses_800_edit.png \"Glasses 800 edit.png\")\n**Rendering** or **image synthesis** is the process of generating a [photorealistic](/wiki/Physically-based_rendering \"Physically-based rendering\") or [non\\-photorealistic](/wiki/Non-photorealistic_rendering \"Non-photorealistic rendering\") image from a [2D](/wiki/2D_model \"2D model\") or [3D model](/wiki/3D_model \"3D model\") by means of a [computer program](/wiki/Computer_program \"Computer program\"). The resulting image is referred to as a **rendering**. Multiple models can be defined in a *scene file* containing objects in a strictly defined language or [data structure](/wiki/Data_structure \"Data structure\"). The scene file contains geometry, viewpoint, [textures](/wiki/Texture_mapping \"Texture mapping\"), [lighting](/wiki/Computer_graphics_lighting \"Computer graphics lighting\"), and [shading](/wiki/Shading \"Shading\") information describing the virtual scene. The data contained in the scene file is then passed to a rendering program to be processed and output to a [digital image](/wiki/Digital_image \"Digital image\") or [raster graphics](/wiki/Raster_graphics \"Raster graphics\") image file. The term \"rendering\" is analogous to the concept of an [artist's impression](/wiki/Artist%27s_impression \"Artist's impression\") of a scene. The term \"rendering\" is also used to describe the process of calculating effects in a video editing program to produce the final video output.\n\nA [software application](/wiki/Application_software \"Application software\") or [component](/wiki/Component-based_software_engineering \"Component-based software engineering\") that performs rendering is called a **rendering [engine](/wiki/Software_engine \"Software engine\")**, **render engine**, **[rendering system](/wiki/Rendering_systems \"Rendering systems\")**, **graphics engine**, or simply a **renderer**.\n\nRendering is one of the major sub\\-topics of [3D computer graphics](/wiki/3D_computer_graphics \"3D computer graphics\"), and in practice it is always connected to the others. It is the last major step in the [graphics pipeline](/wiki/Graphics_pipeline \"Graphics pipeline\"), giving models and animation their final appearance. With the increasing sophistication of computer graphics since the 1970s, it has become a more distinct subject.\n\nRendering has uses in [architecture](/wiki/Architectural_rendering \"Architectural rendering\"), [video games](/wiki/Video_game \"Video game\"), [simulators](/wiki/Simulation \"Simulation\"), movie and TV [visual effects](/wiki/Visual_effects \"Visual effects\"), and design visualization, each employing a different balance of features and techniques. A wide variety of renderers are available for use. Some are integrated into larger modeling and animation packages, some are stand\\-alone, and some are free open\\-source projects. On the inside, a renderer is a carefully engineered program based on multiple disciplines, including [light physics](/wiki/Optics \"Optics\"), [visual perception](/wiki/Visual_system \"Visual system\"), [mathematics](/wiki/Mathematics \"Mathematics\"), and [software development](/wiki/Software_engineering \"Software engineering\").\n\nThough the technical details of rendering methods vary, the general challenges to overcome in producing a 2D image on a screen from a 3D representation stored in a scene file are handled by the [graphics pipeline](/wiki/Graphics_pipeline \"Graphics pipeline\") in a rendering device such as a [GPU](/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit \"Graphics processing unit\"). A GPU is a purpose\\-built device that assists a [CPU](/wiki/Central_processing_unit \"Central processing unit\") in performing complex rendering calculations. If a scene is to look relatively realistic and predictable under virtual lighting, the rendering software must solve the [rendering equation](/wiki/Rendering_equation \"Rendering equation\"). The rendering equation does not account for all lighting phenomena, but instead acts as a general lighting model for computer\\-generated imagery.\n\nIn the case of 3D graphics, scenes can be [pre\\-rendered](/wiki/Pre-rendered \"Pre-rendered\") or generated in realtime. Pre\\-rendering is a slow, computationally intensive process that is typically used for movie creation, where scenes can be generated ahead of time, while [real\\-time](/wiki/Real-time_computer_graphics \"Real-time computer graphics\") rendering is often done for 3D video games and other applications that must dynamically create scenes. 3D [hardware accelerators](/wiki/Hardware_accelerators \"Hardware accelerators\") can improve realtime rendering performance.\n\n", "Features\n--------\n\nA rendered image can be understood in terms of a number of visible features. Rendering [research and development](/wiki/Research_and_development \"Research and development\") has been largely motivated by finding ways to simulate these efficiently. Some relate directly to particular algorithms and techniques, while others are produced together.\n\n* [Shading](/wiki/Shading \"Shading\") how the color and brightness of a surface varies with lighting\n* [Texture\\-mapping](/wiki/Texture_mapping \"Texture mapping\") a method of applying detail to surfaces\n* [Bump\\-mapping](/wiki/Bump_mapping \"Bump mapping\") a method of simulating small\\-scale bumpiness on surfaces\n* [Fogging/participating medium](/wiki/Distance_fog \"Distance fog\") how light dims when passing through non\\-clear atmosphere or air\n* [Shadows](/wiki/Shadow \"Shadow\") the effect of obstructing light\n* [Soft shadows](/wiki/Soft_shadows \"Soft shadows\") varying darkness caused by partially obscured light sources\n* [Reflection](/wiki/Reflection_%28computer_graphics%29 \"Reflection (computer graphics)\") mirror\\-like or highly glossy reflection\n* [Transparency (optics)](/wiki/Transparency_%28optics%29 \"Transparency (optics)\"), [transparency (graphic)](/wiki/Transparency_%28graphic%29 \"Transparency (graphic)\") or [opacity](/wiki/Opacity_%28optics%29 \"Opacity (optics)\") sharp transmission of light through solid objects\n* [Translucency](/wiki/Translucency \"Translucency\") highly scattered transmission of light through solid objects\n* [Refraction](/wiki/Refraction \"Refraction\") bending of light associated with transparency\n* [Diffraction](/wiki/Diffraction \"Diffraction\") bending, spreading, and interference of light passing by an object or aperture that disrupts the ray\n* [Indirect illumination](/wiki/Global_illumination \"Global illumination\") surfaces illuminated by light reflected off other surfaces, rather than directly from a light source (also known as global illumination)\n* [Caustics](/wiki/Caustic_%28optics%29 \"Caustic (optics)\") (a form of indirect illumination) reflection of light off a shiny object, or focusing of light through a transparent object, to produce bright highlights on another object\n* [Depth of field](/wiki/Depth_of_field \"Depth of field\") objects appear blurry or out of focus when too far in front of or behind the object in focus\n* [Motion blur](/wiki/Motion_blur \"Motion blur\") objects appear blurry due to high\\-speed motion, or the motion of the camera\n* [Non\\-photorealistic rendering](/wiki/Non-photorealistic_rendering \"Non-photorealistic rendering\") rendering of scenes in an artistic style, intended to look like a painting or drawing\n", "Inputs\n------\n\nBefore a 3D scene or 2D image can be rendered, it must be described in a way that the rendering software can understand. Historically, inputs for both 2D and 3D rendering were usually [text files](/wiki/Text_file \"Text file\"), which are easier than binary files for humans to edit and understand. For 3D graphics, text formats have largely been supplanted by more efficient [binary formats](/wiki/Binary_file \"Binary file\"), and by [APIs](/wiki/API \"API\") which allow interactive applications to communicate directly with a rendering component without generating a file on disk (although a scene description is usually still created in memory prior to rendering).\n\nTraditional rendering algorithms use geometric descriptions of 3D scenes or 2D images. Applications and algorithms that render [visualizations](/wiki/Visualization_%28graphics%29 \"Visualization (graphics)\") of data scanned from the real world, or scientific [simulations](/wiki/Computer_simulation \"Computer simulation\"), may require different types of input data.\n\nThe [PostScript](/wiki/PostScript \"PostScript\") format (which is often credited with the rise of [desktop publishing](/wiki/Desktop_publishing \"Desktop publishing\")) provides a standardized, interoperable way to describe 2D graphics and [page layout](/wiki/Page_layout \"Page layout\"). The [Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG)](/wiki/SVG \"SVG\") format is also text\\-based, and the [PDF](/wiki/PDF \"PDF\") format uses the PostScript language internally. In contrast, although many 3D graphics file formats have been standardized (including text\\-based formats such as [VRML](/wiki/VRML \"VRML\") and [X3D](/wiki/X3D \"X3D\")), different rendering applications typically use formats tailored to their needs, and this has led to a proliferation of proprietary and open formats, with binary files being more common.\n\n### 2D vector graphics\n\nA [vector graphics](/wiki/Vector_graphics \"Vector graphics\") image description may include:\n* [Coordinates](/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate_system \"Cartesian coordinate system\") and [curvature](/wiki/Curvature \"Curvature\") information for [line segments](/wiki/Line_segments \"Line segments\"), [arcs](/wiki/Circular_arc \"Circular arc\"), and [Bézier curves](/wiki/B%C3%A9zier_curve \"Bézier curve\") (which may be used as boundaries of filled shapes)\n* Center coordinates, width, and height (or [bounding rectangle](/wiki/Minimum_bounding_rectangle \"Minimum bounding rectangle\") coordinates) of [basic](/wiki/Geometric_primitive \"Geometric primitive\") shapes such as [rectangles](/wiki/Rectangle \"Rectangle\"), [circles](/wiki/Circle \"Circle\") and [ellipses](/wiki/Ellipse \"Ellipse\")\n* Color, width and pattern (such as dashed or dotted) for rendering lines\n* Colors, patterns, and [gradients](/wiki/Color_gradient \"Color gradient\") for filling shapes\n* [Bitmap](/wiki/Bitmap \"Bitmap\") image data (either embedded or in an external file) along with scale and position information\n* [Text to be rendered](/wiki/Font_rasterization \"Font rasterization\") (along with size, position, orientation, color, and font)\n* [Clipping](/wiki/Clipping_%28computer_graphics%29 \"Clipping (computer graphics)\") information, if only part of a shape or bitmap image should be rendered\n* Transparency and [compositing](/wiki/Compositing \"Compositing\") information for rendering overlapping shapes\n* [Color space](/wiki/Color_space \"Color space\") information, allowing the image to be rendered consistently on different displays and printers\n\n### 3D geometry\n\nA geometric scene description may include:\n* Size, position, and orientation of [geometric primitives](/wiki/Geometric_primitive \"Geometric primitive\") such as spheres and cones (which may be [combined in various ways](/wiki/Constructive_solid_geometry \"Constructive solid geometry\") to create more complex objects)\n* [Vertex](/wiki/Vertex_%28geometry%29 \"Vertex (geometry)\") [coordinates](/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate_system \"Cartesian coordinate system\") and [surface normal](/wiki/Normal_%28geometry%29 \"Normal (geometry)\") [vectors](/wiki/Euclidean_vector \"Euclidean vector\") for [meshes](/wiki/Polygon_mesh \"Polygon mesh\") of triangles or polygons (often rendered as smooth surfaces by [subdividing](/wiki/Subdivision_surface \"Subdivision surface\") the mesh)\n* [Transformations](/wiki/Geometric_transformation \"Geometric transformation\") for positioning, rotating, and scaling objects within a scene (allowing parts of the scene to use different local coordinate systems).\n* \"Camera\" information describing how the scene is being viewed (position, direction, [focal length](/wiki/Focal_length \"Focal length\"), and [field of view](/wiki/Field_of_view \"Field of view\"))\n* Light information (location, type, brightness, and color)\n* Optical properties of surfaces, such as [albedo](/wiki/Albedo \"Albedo\"), [reflectance](/wiki/Reflectance \"Reflectance\"), and [refractive index](/wiki/Refractive_index \"Refractive index\"),\n* Optical properties of media through which light passes (transparent solids, liquids, clouds, smoke), e.g. [absorption](/wiki/Absorption_cross_section \"Absorption cross section\") and [scattering](/wiki/Cross_section_%28physics%29%23Scattering_of_light \"Cross section (physics)#Scattering of light\") cross sections\n* [Bitmap](/wiki/Bitmap \"Bitmap\") image data used as [texture maps](/wiki/Texture_mapping \"Texture mapping\") for surfaces\n* Small scripts or programs for generating complex 3D shapes or scenes [procedurally](/wiki/Procedural_generation \"Procedural generation\")\n* Description of how object and camera locations and other information change over time, for rendering an animation\n\nMany file formats exist for storing individual 3D objects or \"[models](/wiki/3D_modeling \"3D modeling\")\". These can be imported into a larger scene, or loaded on\\-demand by rendering software or games. A realistic scene may require hundreds of items like household objects, vehicles, and trees, and [3D artists](/wiki/Environment_artist \"Environment artist\") often utilize large libraries of models. In game production, these models (along with other data such as textures, audio files, and animations) are referred to as \"[assets](/wiki/Digital_asset \"Digital asset\")\".\n\n### Volumetric data\n\nScientific and engineering [visualization](/wiki/Visualization_%28graphics%29 \"Visualization (graphics)\") often requires rendering [volumetric data](/wiki/Voxel \"Voxel\") generated by 3D scans or [simulations](/wiki/Computer_simulation \"Computer simulation\"). Perhaps the most common source of such data is medical [CT](/wiki/CT_scan \"CT scan\") and [MRI](/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging \"Magnetic resonance imaging\") scans, which need to be rendered for diagnosis. Volumetric data can be extremely large, and requires [specialized data formats](/wiki/OpenVDB \"OpenVDB\") to store it efficiently, particularly if the volume is *[sparse](/wiki/Sparse_matrix \"Sparse matrix\")* (with empty regions that do not contain data).\n\nBefore rendering, [level sets](/wiki/Level_set \"Level set\") for volumetric data can be extracted and converted into a mesh of triangles, e.g. by using the [marching cubes](/wiki/Marching_cubes \"Marching cubes\") algorithm. Algorithms have also been developed that work directly with volumetric data, for example to render realistic depictions of the way light is scattered and absorbed by clouds and smoke, and this type of volumetric rendering is used extensively in visual effects for movies. When rendering lower\\-resolution volumetric data without interpolation, the individual cubes or \"[voxels](/wiki/Voxel \"Voxel\")\" may be visible, an effect sometimes used deliberately for game graphics.\n\n### Photogrammetry and scanning\n\nPhotographs of real world objects can be incorporated into a rendered scene by using them as [textures](/wiki/Texture_mapping \"Texture mapping\") for 3D objects. Photos of a scene can also be stitched together to create [panoramic images](/wiki/Panorama \"Panorama\") or [environment maps](/wiki/Reflection_mapping \"Reflection mapping\"), which allow the scene to be rendered very efficiently but only from a single viewpoint. Scanning of real objects and scenes using [structured light](/wiki/Structured-light_3D_scanner \"Structured-light 3D scanner\") or [lidar](/wiki/Lidar \"Lidar\") produces [point clouds](/wiki/Point_cloud \"Point cloud\") consisting of the coordinates of millions of individual points in space, sometimes along with color information. These point clouds may either be rendered directly or [converted into meshes](/wiki/Point_cloud%23Conversion_to_3D_surfaces \"Point cloud#Conversion to 3D surfaces\") before rendering. (Note: \"point cloud\" sometimes also refers to a minimalist rendering style that can be used for any 3D geometry, similar to wireframe rendering.)\n\n### Neural approximations and light fields\n\nA more recent, experimental approach is description of scenes using [radiance fields](/wiki/Neural_radiance_field \"Neural radiance field\") which define the color, intensity, and direction of incoming light at each point in space. (This is conceptually similar to, but not identical to, the [light field](/wiki/Light_field \"Light field\") recorded by a [hologram](/wiki/Holography \"Holography\").) For any useful resolution, the amount of data in a radiance field is so large that it is impractical to represent it directly as volumetric data, and an [approximation](/wiki/Approximation \"Approximation\") function must be found. [Neural networks](/wiki/Deep_learning \"Deep learning\") are typically used to generate and evaluate these approximations, sometimes using video frames, or a collection of photographs of a scene taken at different angles, as \"[training data](/wiki/Training%2C_validation%2C_and_test_data_sets%23Training_data_set \"Training, validation, and test data sets#Training data set\")\".\n\nAlgorithms related to neural networks have recently been used to find approximations of a scene as [3D Gaussians](/wiki/Gaussian_splatting \"Gaussian splatting\"). The resulting representation is similar to a [point cloud](/wiki/Point_cloud \"Point cloud\"), except that it uses fuzzy, partially\\-transparent blobs of varying dimensions and orientations instead of points. As with [neural radiance fields](/wiki/Neural_radiance_field \"Neural radiance field\"), these approximations are often generated from photographs or video frames.\n\n", "### 2D vector graphics\n\nA [vector graphics](/wiki/Vector_graphics \"Vector graphics\") image description may include:\n* [Coordinates](/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate_system \"Cartesian coordinate system\") and [curvature](/wiki/Curvature \"Curvature\") information for [line segments](/wiki/Line_segments \"Line segments\"), [arcs](/wiki/Circular_arc \"Circular arc\"), and [Bézier curves](/wiki/B%C3%A9zier_curve \"Bézier curve\") (which may be used as boundaries of filled shapes)\n* Center coordinates, width, and height (or [bounding rectangle](/wiki/Minimum_bounding_rectangle \"Minimum bounding rectangle\") coordinates) of [basic](/wiki/Geometric_primitive \"Geometric primitive\") shapes such as [rectangles](/wiki/Rectangle \"Rectangle\"), [circles](/wiki/Circle \"Circle\") and [ellipses](/wiki/Ellipse \"Ellipse\")\n* Color, width and pattern (such as dashed or dotted) for rendering lines\n* Colors, patterns, and [gradients](/wiki/Color_gradient \"Color gradient\") for filling shapes\n* [Bitmap](/wiki/Bitmap \"Bitmap\") image data (either embedded or in an external file) along with scale and position information\n* [Text to be rendered](/wiki/Font_rasterization \"Font rasterization\") (along with size, position, orientation, color, and font)\n* [Clipping](/wiki/Clipping_%28computer_graphics%29 \"Clipping (computer graphics)\") information, if only part of a shape or bitmap image should be rendered\n* Transparency and [compositing](/wiki/Compositing \"Compositing\") information for rendering overlapping shapes\n* [Color space](/wiki/Color_space \"Color space\") information, allowing the image to be rendered consistently on different displays and printers\n\n", "### 3D geometry\n\nA geometric scene description may include:\n* Size, position, and orientation of [geometric primitives](/wiki/Geometric_primitive \"Geometric primitive\") such as spheres and cones (which may be [combined in various ways](/wiki/Constructive_solid_geometry \"Constructive solid geometry\") to create more complex objects)\n* [Vertex](/wiki/Vertex_%28geometry%29 \"Vertex (geometry)\") [coordinates](/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate_system \"Cartesian coordinate system\") and [surface normal](/wiki/Normal_%28geometry%29 \"Normal (geometry)\") [vectors](/wiki/Euclidean_vector \"Euclidean vector\") for [meshes](/wiki/Polygon_mesh \"Polygon mesh\") of triangles or polygons (often rendered as smooth surfaces by [subdividing](/wiki/Subdivision_surface \"Subdivision surface\") the mesh)\n* [Transformations](/wiki/Geometric_transformation \"Geometric transformation\") for positioning, rotating, and scaling objects within a scene (allowing parts of the scene to use different local coordinate systems).\n* \"Camera\" information describing how the scene is being viewed (position, direction, [focal length](/wiki/Focal_length \"Focal length\"), and [field of view](/wiki/Field_of_view \"Field of view\"))\n* Light information (location, type, brightness, and color)\n* Optical properties of surfaces, such as [albedo](/wiki/Albedo \"Albedo\"), [reflectance](/wiki/Reflectance \"Reflectance\"), and [refractive index](/wiki/Refractive_index \"Refractive index\"),\n* Optical properties of media through which light passes (transparent solids, liquids, clouds, smoke), e.g. [absorption](/wiki/Absorption_cross_section \"Absorption cross section\") and [scattering](/wiki/Cross_section_%28physics%29%23Scattering_of_light \"Cross section (physics)#Scattering of light\") cross sections\n* [Bitmap](/wiki/Bitmap \"Bitmap\") image data used as [texture maps](/wiki/Texture_mapping \"Texture mapping\") for surfaces\n* Small scripts or programs for generating complex 3D shapes or scenes [procedurally](/wiki/Procedural_generation \"Procedural generation\")\n* Description of how object and camera locations and other information change over time, for rendering an animation\n\nMany file formats exist for storing individual 3D objects or \"[models](/wiki/3D_modeling \"3D modeling\")\". These can be imported into a larger scene, or loaded on\\-demand by rendering software or games. A realistic scene may require hundreds of items like household objects, vehicles, and trees, and [3D artists](/wiki/Environment_artist \"Environment artist\") often utilize large libraries of models. In game production, these models (along with other data such as textures, audio files, and animations) are referred to as \"[assets](/wiki/Digital_asset \"Digital asset\")\".\n\n", "### Volumetric data\n\nScientific and engineering [visualization](/wiki/Visualization_%28graphics%29 \"Visualization (graphics)\") often requires rendering [volumetric data](/wiki/Voxel \"Voxel\") generated by 3D scans or [simulations](/wiki/Computer_simulation \"Computer simulation\"). Perhaps the most common source of such data is medical [CT](/wiki/CT_scan \"CT scan\") and [MRI](/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging \"Magnetic resonance imaging\") scans, which need to be rendered for diagnosis. Volumetric data can be extremely large, and requires [specialized data formats](/wiki/OpenVDB \"OpenVDB\") to store it efficiently, particularly if the volume is *[sparse](/wiki/Sparse_matrix \"Sparse matrix\")* (with empty regions that do not contain data).\n\nBefore rendering, [level sets](/wiki/Level_set \"Level set\") for volumetric data can be extracted and converted into a mesh of triangles, e.g. by using the [marching cubes](/wiki/Marching_cubes \"Marching cubes\") algorithm. Algorithms have also been developed that work directly with volumetric data, for example to render realistic depictions of the way light is scattered and absorbed by clouds and smoke, and this type of volumetric rendering is used extensively in visual effects for movies. When rendering lower\\-resolution volumetric data without interpolation, the individual cubes or \"[voxels](/wiki/Voxel \"Voxel\")\" may be visible, an effect sometimes used deliberately for game graphics.\n\n", "### Photogrammetry and scanning\n\nPhotographs of real world objects can be incorporated into a rendered scene by using them as [textures](/wiki/Texture_mapping \"Texture mapping\") for 3D objects. Photos of a scene can also be stitched together to create [panoramic images](/wiki/Panorama \"Panorama\") or [environment maps](/wiki/Reflection_mapping \"Reflection mapping\"), which allow the scene to be rendered very efficiently but only from a single viewpoint. Scanning of real objects and scenes using [structured light](/wiki/Structured-light_3D_scanner \"Structured-light 3D scanner\") or [lidar](/wiki/Lidar \"Lidar\") produces [point clouds](/wiki/Point_cloud \"Point cloud\") consisting of the coordinates of millions of individual points in space, sometimes along with color information. These point clouds may either be rendered directly or [converted into meshes](/wiki/Point_cloud%23Conversion_to_3D_surfaces \"Point cloud#Conversion to 3D surfaces\") before rendering. (Note: \"point cloud\" sometimes also refers to a minimalist rendering style that can be used for any 3D geometry, similar to wireframe rendering.)\n\n", "### Neural approximations and light fields\n\nA more recent, experimental approach is description of scenes using [radiance fields](/wiki/Neural_radiance_field \"Neural radiance field\") which define the color, intensity, and direction of incoming light at each point in space. (This is conceptually similar to, but not identical to, the [light field](/wiki/Light_field \"Light field\") recorded by a [hologram](/wiki/Holography \"Holography\").) For any useful resolution, the amount of data in a radiance field is so large that it is impractical to represent it directly as volumetric data, and an [approximation](/wiki/Approximation \"Approximation\") function must be found. [Neural networks](/wiki/Deep_learning \"Deep learning\") are typically used to generate and evaluate these approximations, sometimes using video frames, or a collection of photographs of a scene taken at different angles, as \"[training data](/wiki/Training%2C_validation%2C_and_test_data_sets%23Training_data_set \"Training, validation, and test data sets#Training data set\")\".\n\nAlgorithms related to neural networks have recently been used to find approximations of a scene as [3D Gaussians](/wiki/Gaussian_splatting \"Gaussian splatting\"). The resulting representation is similar to a [point cloud](/wiki/Point_cloud \"Point cloud\"), except that it uses fuzzy, partially\\-transparent blobs of varying dimensions and orientations instead of points. As with [neural radiance fields](/wiki/Neural_radiance_field \"Neural radiance field\"), these approximations are often generated from photographs or video frames.\n\n", "Outputs\n-------\n\nThe output of rendering may be displayed immediately on the screen (many times a second, in the case of real\\-time rendering such as games) or saved in a [raster graphics](/wiki/Raster_graphics \"Raster graphics\") file format such as [JPEG](/wiki/JPEG \"JPEG\") or [PNG](/wiki/PNG \"PNG\"). High\\-end rendering applications commonly use the [OpenEXR](/wiki/OpenEXR \"OpenEXR\") file format, which can represent finer gradations of colors and [high dynamic range](/wiki/High_dynamic_range \"High dynamic range\") lighting, allowing [tone mapping](/wiki/Tone_mapping \"Tone mapping\") or other adjustments to be applied afterwards without loss of quality.\n\nQuickly rendered animations can be saved directly as video files, but for high\\-quality rendering, individual frames (which may be rendered by different computers in a [cluster](/wiki/Computer_cluster \"Computer cluster\") or *[render farm](/wiki/Render_farm \"Render farm\")* and may take hours or even days to render) are output as separate files and combined later into a video clip.\n\nThe output of a renderer sometimes includes more than just [RGB color values](/wiki/RGB_color_model%23Numeric_representations \"RGB color model#Numeric representations\"). For example, the spectrum can be sampled using multiple wavelengths of light, or additional information such as depth (distance from camera) or the material of each point in the image can be included (this data can be used during compositing or when generating [texture maps](/wiki/Texture_mapping \"Texture mapping\") for real\\-time rendering, or used to assist in [removing noise](/wiki/Noise_reduction%23In_images \"Noise reduction#In images\") from a path\\-traced image). Transparency information can be included, allowing rendered foreground objects to be composited with photographs or video. It is also sometimes useful to store the contributions of different lights, or of specular and diffuse lighting, as separate channels, so lighting can be adjusted after rendering. The [OpenEXR](/wiki/OpenEXR \"OpenEXR\") format allows storing many channels of data in a single file.\n\n", "Techniques\n----------\n\nChoosing how to render a 3D scene usually involves trade\\-offs between speed, memory usage, and realism (although realism is not always desired). The **** developed over the years follow a loose progression, with more advanced methods becoming practical as computing power and memory capacity increased. Multiple techniques may be used for a single final image.\n\nAn important distinction is between [image order](/wiki/Image_and_object_order_rendering \"Image and object order rendering\") algorithms, which iterate over pixels of the image plane, and [object order](/wiki/Image_and_object_order_rendering \"Image and object order rendering\") algorithms, which iterate over objects in the scene. For simple scenes, object order is usually more efficient, as there are fewer objects than pixels.\n\n [2D vector graphics](/wiki/Vector_graphics \"Vector graphics\")\n The [vector displays](/wiki/Vector_monitor \"Vector monitor\") of the 1960s\\-1970s used deflection of an [electron beam](/wiki/Cathode_ray \"Cathode ray\") to draw [line segments](/wiki/Line_segment \"Line segment\") directly on the screen. Nowadays, [vector graphics](/wiki/Vector_graphics \"Vector graphics\") are rendered by [rasterization](/wiki/Rasterization \"Rasterization\") algorithms that also support filled shapes. In principle, any 2D vector graphics renderer can be used to render 3D objects by first projecting them onto a 2D image plane. \n [3D rasterization](/wiki/Rasterisation%233D_images \"Rasterisation#3D images\")\n Adapts 2D rasterization algorithms so they can be used more efficiently for 3D rendering, handling [hidden surface removal](/wiki/Hidden-surface_determination \"Hidden-surface determination\") via [scanline](/wiki/Scanline_rendering \"Scanline rendering\") or [z\\-buffer](/wiki/Z-buffering \"Z-buffering\") techniques. Different realistic or stylized effects can be obtained by coloring the pixels covered by the objects in different ways. [Surfaces](/wiki/Computer_representation_of_surfaces \"Computer representation of surfaces\") are typically divided into [meshes](/wiki/Polygon_mesh \"Polygon mesh\") of triangles before being rasterized. Rasterization is usually synonymous with \"object order\" rendering (as described above).\n [Ray casting](/wiki/Ray_casting \"Ray casting\")\n Uses geometric formulas to compute the first object that a [ray](/wiki/Line_%28geometry%29%23Ray \"Line (geometry)#Ray\") intersects. It can be used to implement \"image order\" rendering by casting a ray for each pixel, and finding a corresponding point in the scene. Ray casting is a fundamental operation used for both graphical and non\\-graphical purposes, e.g. determining whether a point is in shadow, or checking what an enemy can see in a [game](/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_in_video_games \"Artificial intelligence in video games\").\n [Ray tracing](/wiki/Ray_tracing_%28graphics%29 \"Ray tracing (graphics)\")\n Simulates the bouncing paths of light caused by [specular reflection](/wiki/Specular_reflection \"Specular reflection\") and [refraction](/wiki/Refraction \"Refraction\"), requiring a varying number of ray casting operations for each path. Advanced forms use [Monte Carlo techniques](/wiki/Monte_Carlo_method \"Monte Carlo method\") to render effects such as area lights, [depth of field](/wiki/Depth_of_field \"Depth of field\"), blurry reflections, and [soft shadows](/wiki/Umbra%2C_penumbra_and_antumbra \"Umbra, penumbra and antumbra\"), but computing [global illumination](/wiki/Global_illumination \"Global illumination\") is usually in the domain of path tracing.\n [Radiosity](/wiki/Radiosity_%28computer_graphics%29 \"Radiosity (computer graphics)\")\n A [finite element analysis](/wiki/Finite_element_method \"Finite element method\") approach that breaks surfaces in the scene into pieces, and estimates the amount of light that each piece receives from light sources, or indirectly from other surfaces. Once the [irradiance](/wiki/Irradiance \"Irradiance\") of each surface is known, the scene can be rendered using rasterization or ray tracing.\n [Path tracing](/wiki/Path_tracing \"Path tracing\")\n Uses [Monte Carlo integration](/wiki/Monte_Carlo_method \"Monte Carlo method\") with a simplified form of ray tracing, computing the average brightness of a [sample](/wiki/Sampling_%28statistics%29 \"Sampling (statistics)\") of the possible paths that a photon could take when traveling from a light source to the camera (for some images, thousands of paths need to be sampled per pixel). It was introduced as a [statistically unbiased](/wiki/Unbiased_rendering \"Unbiased rendering\") way to solve the [rendering equation](/wiki/Rendering_equation \"Rendering equation\"), giving ray tracing a rigorous mathematical foundation.\nEach of the above approaches has many variations, and there is some overlap. Path tracing may be considered either a distinct technique or a particular type of ray tracing. Note that the [usage](/wiki/Usage_%28language%29 \"Usage (language)\") of terminology related to ray tracing and path tracing has changed significantly over time.\n\n[thumb\\|Rendering of a fractal terrain by [ray marching](/wiki/Ray_marching \"Ray marching\")](/wiki/File:Real-time_Raymarched_Terrain.png \"Real-time Raymarched Terrain.png\")\n[Ray marching](/wiki/Ray_marching \"Ray marching\") is a family of algorithms, used by ray casting, for finding intersections between a ray and a complex object, such as a [volumetric dataset](/wiki/Volume_ray_casting \"Volume ray casting\") or a surface defined by a [signed distance function](/wiki/Signed_distance_function \"Signed distance function\"). It is not, by itself, a rendering method, but it can be incorporated into ray tracing and path tracing, and is used by rasterization to implement screen\\-space reflection and other effects.\n\nA technique called [photon mapping](/wiki/Photon_mapping \"Photon mapping\") traces paths of photons from a light source to an object, accumulating data about [irradiance](/wiki/Irradiance \"Irradiance\") which is then used during conventional ray tracing or path tracing. Rendering a scene using only rays traced from the light source to the camera is impractical, even though it corresponds more closely to reality, because a huge number of photons would need to be simulated, only a tiny fraction of which actually hit the camera.\n\nSome authors call conventional ray tracing \"backward\" ray tracing because it traces the paths of photons backwards from the camera to the light source, and call following paths from the light source (as in photon mapping) \"forward\" ray tracing. However sometimes the meaning of these terms is reversed. Tracing rays starting at the light source can also be called *particle tracing* or *light tracing*, which avoids this ambiguity.\n\nReal\\-time rendering, including video game graphics, typically uses rasterization, but increasingly combines it with ray tracing and path tracing. To enable realistic [global illumination](/wiki/Global_illumination \"Global illumination\"), real\\-time rendering often relies on pre\\-rendered (\"baked\") lighting for stationary objects. For moving objects, it may use a technique called *light probes*, in which lighting is recorded by rendering omnidirectional views of the scene at chosen points in space (often points on a grid to allow easier [interpolation](/wiki/Interpolation \"Interpolation\")). These are similar to [environment maps](/wiki/Reflection_mapping \"Reflection mapping\"), but typically use a very low resolution or an approximation such as [spherical harmonics](/wiki/Spherical_harmonics \"Spherical harmonics\"). (Note: [Blender](/wiki/Blender_%28software%29 \"Blender (software)\") uses the term 'light probes' for a more general class of pre\\-recorded lighting data, including reflection maps.)\n\n### Rasterization\n\n[thumb\\|Rendering of the [Extremely Large Telescope](/wiki/Extremely_Large_Telescope \"Extremely Large Telescope\")](/wiki/File:Latest_Rendering_of_the_E-ELT.jpg \"Latest Rendering of the E-ELT.jpg\")\n\nThe term *rasterization* (in a broad sense) encompasses many techniques used for 2D rendering and [real\\-time](/wiki/Real-time_computer_graphics \"Real-time computer graphics\") 3D rendering. 3D [animated films](/wiki/Computer_animation \"Computer animation\") were rendered by rasterization before [ray tracing](/wiki/Ray_tracing_%28graphics%29 \"Ray tracing (graphics)\") and [path tracing](/wiki/Path_tracing \"Path tracing\") became practical.\n\nA renderer combines rasterization with *geometry processing* (which is not specific to rasterization) and *pixel processing* which computes the [RGB color values](/wiki/RGB_color_model \"RGB color model\") to be placed in the *[framebuffer](/wiki/Framebuffer \"Framebuffer\")* for display.\n\nThe main tasks of rasterization (including pixel processing) are:\n* Determining which pixels are covered by each geometric shape in the 3D scene or 2D image (this is the actual rasterization step, in the strictest sense)\n* Blending between colors and depths defined at the [vertices](/wiki/Vertex_%28computer_graphics%29 \"Vertex (computer graphics)\") of shapes, e.g. using [barycentric coordinates](/wiki/Barycentric_coordinate_system \"Barycentric coordinate system\") (*interpolation*)\n* Determining if parts of shapes are hidden by other shapes, due to 2D layering or 3D depth (*[hidden surface removal](/wiki/Hidden-surface_determination \"Hidden-surface determination\")*)\n* Evaluating a function for each pixel covered by a shape (*[shading](/wiki/Shading \"Shading\")*)\n* Smoothing edges of shapes so pixels are less visible (*[anti\\-aliasing](/wiki/Spatial_anti-aliasing \"Spatial anti-aliasing\")*)\n* Blending overlapping transparent shapes (*[compositing](/wiki/Compositing \"Compositing\")*)\n\n3D rasterization is typically part of a *[graphics pipeline](/wiki/Graphics_pipeline \"Graphics pipeline\")* in which an application provides [lists of triangles](/wiki/Triangle_mesh \"Triangle mesh\") to be rendered, and the rendering system transforms and [projects](/wiki/3D_projection \"3D projection\") their coordinates, determines which triangles are potentially visible in the *[viewport](/wiki/Viewport \"Viewport\")*, and performs the above rasterization and pixel processing tasks before displaying the final result on the screen.\n\nHistorically, 3D rasterization used algorithms like the *[Warnock algorithm](/wiki/Warnock_algorithm \"Warnock algorithm\")* and *[scanline rendering](/wiki/Scanline_rendering \"Scanline rendering\")* (also called \"scan\\-conversion\"), which can handle arbitrary polygons and can rasterize many shapes simultaneously. Although such algorithms are still important for 2D rendering, 3D rendering now usually divides shapes into triangles and rasterizes them individually using simpler methods.\n\n[High\\-performance algorithms](/wiki/Digital_differential_analyzer_%28graphics_algorithm%29 \"Digital differential analyzer (graphics algorithm)\") exist for rasterizing [2D lines](/wiki/Bresenham%27s_line_algorithm \"Bresenham's line algorithm\"), including [anti\\-aliased lines](/wiki/Xiaolin_Wu%27s_line_algorithm \"Xiaolin Wu's line algorithm\"), as well as [ellipses](/wiki/Midpoint_circle_algorithm \"Midpoint circle algorithm\") and filled triangles. An important special case of 2D rasterization is [text rendering](/wiki/Font_rasterization \"Font rasterization\"), which requires careful anti\\-aliasing and rounding of coordinates to avoid distorting the [letterforms](/wiki/Letterform \"Letterform\") and preserve spacing, density, and sharpness.\n\nAfter 3D coordinates have been [projected](/wiki/3D_projection \"3D projection\") onto the [image plane](/wiki/Image_plane \"Image plane\"), rasterization is primarily a 2D problem, but the 3rd dimension necessitates *[hidden surface removal](/wiki/Hidden-surface_determination \"Hidden-surface determination\")*. Early computer graphics used [geometric algorithms](/wiki/Computational_geometry \"Computational geometry\") or ray casting to remove the hidden portions of shapes, or used the *[painter's algorithm](/wiki/Painter%27s_algorithm \"Painter's algorithm\")*, which sorts shapes by depth (distance from camera) and renders them from back to front. Depth sorting was later avoided by incorporating depth comparison into the [scanline rendering](/wiki/Scanline_rendering \"Scanline rendering\") algorithm. The *[z\\-buffer](/wiki/Z-buffering \"Z-buffering\")* algorithm performs the comparisons indirectly by including a depth or \"z\" value in the [framebuffer](/wiki/Framebuffer \"Framebuffer\"). A pixel is only covered by a shape if that shape's z value is lower (indicating closer to the camera) than the z value currently in the buffer. The z\\-buffer requires additional memory (an expensive resource at the time it was invented) but simplifies the rasterization code and permits multiple passes. Memory is now faster and more plentiful, and a z\\-buffer is almost always used for real\\-time rendering.\n\nA drawback of the basic [z\\-buffer algorithm](/wiki/Z-buffering \"Z-buffering\") is that each pixel ends up either entirely covered by a single object or filled with the background color, causing jagged edges in the final image. Early *[anti\\-aliasing](/wiki/Spatial_anti-aliasing \"Spatial anti-aliasing\")* approaches addressed this by detecting when a pixel is partially covered by a shape, and calculating the covered area. The [A\\-buffer](/wiki/A-buffer \"A-buffer\") (and other [sub\\-pixel](/wiki/Subpixel_rendering \"Subpixel rendering\") and [multi\\-sampling](/wiki/Multisample_anti-aliasing \"Multisample anti-aliasing\") techniques) solve the problem less precisely but with higher performance. For real\\-time 3D graphics, it has become common to use [complicated heuristics](/wiki/Fast_approximate_anti-aliasing \"Fast approximate anti-aliasing\") (and even [neural\\-networks](/wiki/Deep_learning_anti-aliasing \"Deep learning anti-aliasing\")) to perform anti\\-aliasing.\n\nIn 3D rasterization, color is usually determined by a *[pixel shader](/wiki/Shader%23Pixel_shaders \"Shader#Pixel shaders\")* or *fragment shader*, a small program that is run for each pixel. The shader does not (or cannot) directly access 3D data for the entire scene (this would be very slow, and would result in an algorithm similar to ray tracing) and a variety of techniques have been developed to render effects like [shadows](/wiki/Shadow_mapping \"Shadow mapping\") and [reflections](/wiki/Reflection_%28computer_graphics%29 \"Reflection (computer graphics)\") using only [texture mapping](/wiki/Texture_mapping \"Texture mapping\") and multiple passes.\n\nOlder and more basic 3D rasterization implementations did not support shaders, and used simple shading techniques such as *[flat shading](/wiki/Shading%23Flat_shading \"Shading#Flat shading\")* (lighting is computed once for each triangle, which is then rendered entirely in one color), *[Gouraud shading](/wiki/Gouraud_shading \"Gouraud shading\")* (lighting is computed using [normal vectors](/wiki/Normal_%28geometry%29 \"Normal (geometry)\") defined at vertices and then colors are interpolated across each triangle), or *[Phong shading](/wiki/Phong_shading \"Phong shading\")* (normal vectors are interpolated across each triangle and lighting is computed for each pixel).\n\nUntil relatively recently, [Pixar](/wiki/Pixar \"Pixar\") used rasterization for rendering its [animated films](/wiki/Computer_animation \"Computer animation\"). Unlike the renderers commonly used for real\\-time graphics, the [Reyes rendering system](/wiki/Reyes_rendering \"Reyes rendering\") in Pixar's [RenderMan](/wiki/Pixar_RenderMan \"Pixar RenderMan\") software was optimized for rendering very small (pixel\\-sized) polygons, and incorporated [stochastic](/wiki/Stochastic \"Stochastic\") sampling techniques more typically associated with [ray tracing](/wiki/Ray_tracing_%28graphics%29 \"Ray tracing (graphics)\").\n\n### Ray casting\n\nOne of the simplest ways to render a 3D scene is to test if a [ray](/wiki/Line_%28geometry%29%23Ray \"Line (geometry)#Ray\") starting at the viewpoint (the \"eye\" or \"camera\") intersects any of the geometric shapes in the scene, repeating this test using a different ray direction for each pixel. This method, called *ray casting*, was important in early computer graphics, and is a fundamental building block for more advanced algorithms. Ray casting can be used to render shapes defined by *[constructive solid geometry](/wiki/Constructive_solid_geometry \"Constructive solid geometry\")* (CSG) operations.\n\nEarly ray casting experiments include the work of Arthur Appel in the 1960s. Appel rendered shadows by casting an additional ray from each visible surface point towards a light source. He also tried rendering the density of illumination by casting random rays from the light source towards the object and [plotting](/wiki/Plotter \"Plotter\") the intersection points (similar to the later technique called *[photon mapping](/wiki/Photon_mapping \"Photon mapping\")*).\n\n[thumb\\|[Ray marching](/wiki/Ray_marching \"Ray marching\") can be used to find the first intersection of a ray with an intricate shape such as this [Mandelbulb](/wiki/Mandelbulb \"Mandelbulb\") fractal.](/wiki/File:Mandelbulb_p8a.jpg \"Mandelbulb p8a.jpg\")\nWhen rendering scenes containing many objects, testing the intersection of a ray with every object becomes very expensive. Special [data structures](/wiki/Data_structure \"Data structure\") are used to speed up this process by allowing large numbers of objects to be excluded quickly (such as objects behind the camera). These structures are analogous to [database indexes](/wiki/Database_index \"Database index\") for finding the relevant objects. The most common are the *[bounding volume hierarchy](/wiki/Bounding_volume_hierarchy \"Bounding volume hierarchy\")* (BVH), which stores a pre\\-computed [bounding box or sphere](/wiki/Bounding_volume \"Bounding volume\") for each branch of a [tree](/wiki/Tree_%28data_structure%29 \"Tree (data structure)\") of objects, and the *[k\\-d tree](/wiki/K-d_tree \"K-d tree\")* which recursively divides space into two parts. Recent [GPUs](/wiki/GPU \"GPU\") include hardware acceleration for BVH intersection tests. K\\-d trees are a special case of *[binary space partitioning](/wiki/Binary_space_partitioning \"Binary space partitioning\")*, which was frequently used in early computer graphics (it can also generate a rasterization order for the [painter's algorithm](/wiki/Painter%27s_algorithm \"Painter's algorithm\")). *[Octrees](/wiki/Octree \"Octree\")*, another historically popular technique, are still often used for volumetric data.\n\nGeometric formulas are sufficient for finding the intersection of a ray with shapes like [spheres](/wiki/Sphere \"Sphere\"), [polygons](/wiki/Polygon \"Polygon\"), and [polyhedra](/wiki/Polyhedron \"Polyhedron\"), but for most curved surfaces there is no [analytic solution](/wiki/Closed-form_expression%23Analytic_expression \"Closed-form expression#Analytic expression\"), or the intersection is difficult to compute accurately using limited precision [floating point numbers](/wiki/Floating-point_arithmetic \"Floating-point arithmetic\"). [Root\\-finding algorithms](/wiki/Root-finding_algorithm \"Root-finding algorithm\") such as [Newton's method](/wiki/Newton%27s_method \"Newton's method\") can sometimes be used. To avoid these complications, curved surfaces are often approximated as [meshes of triangles](/wiki/Triangle_mesh \"Triangle mesh\"). [Volume rendering](/wiki/Volume_rendering \"Volume rendering\") (e.g. rendering clouds and smoke), and some surfaces such as [fractals](/wiki/Fractal \"Fractal\"), may require [ray marching](/wiki/Ray_marching \"Ray marching\") instead of basic ray casting.\n\n### Ray tracing\n\n[thumb\\|250px\\|*Spiral Sphere and Julia, Detail*, a computer\\-generated image created by visual artist Robert W. McGregor using only [POV\\-Ray](/wiki/POV-Ray \"POV-Ray\") 3\\.6 and its built\\-in scene description language](/wiki/Image:SpiralSphereAndJuliaDetail1.jpg \"SpiralSphereAndJuliaDetail1.jpg\")\n\n**Ray tracing** aims to simulate the natural flow of light, interpreted as particles. Often, ray tracing methods are utilized to approximate the solution to the [rendering equation](/wiki/Rendering_equation \"Rendering equation\") by applying [Monte Carlo methods](/wiki/Monte_Carlo_methods \"Monte Carlo methods\") to it. Some of the most used methods are [path tracing](/wiki/Path_tracing \"Path tracing\"), [bidirectional path tracing](/wiki/Path_tracing%23Bidirectional_path_tracing \"Path tracing#Bidirectional path tracing\"), or [Metropolis light transport](/wiki/Metropolis_light_transport \"Metropolis light transport\"), but also semi realistic methods are in use, like [Whitted Style Ray Tracing](/wiki/Whitted_Style_Ray_Tracing \"Whitted Style Ray Tracing\"), or hybrids. While most implementations let light propagate on straight lines, applications exist to simulate relativistic spacetime effects.\n\nIn a final, production quality rendering of a ray traced work, multiple rays are generally shot for each pixel, and traced not just to the first object of intersection, but rather, through a number of sequential 'bounces', using the known laws of optics such as \"angle of incidence equals angle of reflection\" and more advanced laws that deal with refraction and surface roughness.\n\nOnce the ray either encounters a light source, or more probably once a set limiting number of bounces has been evaluated, then the surface illumination at that final point is evaluated using techniques described above, and the changes along the way through the various bounces evaluated to estimate a value observed at the point of view. This is all repeated for each sample, for each pixel.\n\nIn [distribution ray tracing](/wiki/Distribution_ray_tracing \"Distribution ray tracing\"), at each point of intersection, multiple rays may be spawned. In [path tracing](/wiki/Path_tracing \"Path tracing\"), however, only a single ray or none is fired at each intersection, utilizing the statistical nature of [Monte Carlo](/wiki/Monte_Carlo_methods \"Monte Carlo methods\") experiments.\n\nAdvances in GPU technology have made real\\-time ray tracing possible in games, although it is currently almost always used in combination with rasterization. This enables visual effects that are difficult with only rasterization, including reflection from curved surfaces and interreflective objects, and shadows that are accurate over a wide range of distances and surface orientations. Ray tracing support is included in recent versions of the graphics APIs used by games, such as [DirectX](/wiki/DirectX_Raytracing \"DirectX Raytracing\"), [Metal](/wiki/Metal_%28API%29 \"Metal (API)\"), and [Vulkan](/wiki/Vulkan \"Vulkan\").\n\n### Radiosity\n\n[thumb\\|Classical radiosity demonstration. Surfaces are divided into 16x16 or 16x32 meshes. Top: direct light only. Bottom: radiosity solution (for [albedo](/wiki/Albedo \"Albedo\") 0\\.85\\).](/wiki/File:Classical_radiosity_example%2C_simple_scene%2C_no_interpolation%2C_direct_only_and_full.png \"Classical radiosity example, simple scene, no interpolation, direct only and full.png\")\n[thumb\\|Top: the same scene with a finer radiosity mesh, smoothing the patches during final rendering using [bilinear interpolation](/wiki/Bilinear_interpolation \"Bilinear interpolation\"). Bottom: the scene rendered with path tracing (using the PBRT renderer).](/wiki/File:Classical_radiosity_comparison_with_path_tracing%2C_simple_scene%2C_interpolated.png \"Classical radiosity comparison with path tracing, simple scene, interpolated.png\")\nRadiosity (named after the [radiometric quantity of the same name](/wiki/Radiosity_%28radiometry%29 \"Radiosity (radiometry)\")) is a method for rendering objects illuminated by light [bouncing off rough or matte surfaces](/wiki/Diffuse_reflection \"Diffuse reflection\"). This type of illumination is called *indirect light*, *environment lighting*, or *diffuse lighting*, and the problem of rendering it realistically is called *global illumination*. Rasterization and basic forms of ray tracing (other than distribution ray tracing and path tracing) can only roughly approximate indirect light, e.g. by adding a uniform \"ambient\" lighting amount chosen by the artist. Radiosity techniques are also suited to rendering scenes with *area lights* such as rectangular fluorescent lighting panels, which are difficult for rasterization and traditional ray tracing. Radiosity is considered a [physically\\-based method](/wiki/Physically_based_rendering \"Physically based rendering\"), meaning that it aims to simulate the flow of light in an environment using equations and experimental data from physics, however it often assumes that all surfaces are opaque and perfectly [Lambertian](/wiki/Lambertian_reflectance \"Lambertian reflectance\"), which reduces realism and limits its applicability.\n\nIn the original radiosity method (first proposed in 1984\\) now called *classical radiosity*, surfaces and lights in the scene are split into pieces called *patches*, a process called *[meshing](/wiki/Mesh_generation \"Mesh generation\")* (this step makes it a [finite element method](/wiki/Finite_element_method \"Finite element method\")). The rendering code must then determine what fraction of the light being emitted or [diffusely reflected](/wiki/Diffuse_reflection \"Diffuse reflection\") (scattered) by each patch is received by each other patch. These fractions are called *form factors* or *[view factors](/wiki/View_factor \"View factor\")* (first used in engineering to model [radiative heat transfer](/wiki/Thermal_radiation \"Thermal radiation\")). The form factors are multiplied by the [albedo](/wiki/Albedo \"Albedo\") of the receiving surface and put in a [matrix](/wiki/Matrix_%28mathematics%29 \"Matrix (mathematics)\"). The lighting in the scene can then be expressed as a matrix equation (or equivalently a [system of linear equations](/wiki/System_of_linear_equations \"System of linear equations\")) that can be solved by methods from [linear algebra](/wiki/Linear_algebra \"Linear algebra\").\n\nSolving the radiosity equation gives the total amount of light emitted and reflected by each patch, which is divided by area to get a value called *[radiosity](/wiki/Radiosity_%28radiometry%29 \"Radiosity (radiometry)\")* that can be used when rasterizing or ray tracing to determine the color of pixels corresponding to visible parts of the patch. For real\\-time rendering, this value (or more commonly the [irradiance](/wiki/Irradiance \"Irradiance\"), which does not depend on local surface albedo) can be pre\\-computed and stored in a texture (called an *irradiance map*) or stored as vertex data for 3D models. This feature was used in architectural visualization software to allow real\\-time walk\\-throughs of a building interior after computing the lighting.\n\nThe large size of the matrices used in classical radiosity (the square of the number of patches) causes problems for realistic scenes. Practical implementations may use [Jacobi](/wiki/Jacobi_method \"Jacobi method\") or [Gauss\\-Seidel](/wiki/Gauss%E2%80%93Seidel_method \"Gauss–Seidel method\") iterations, which is equivalent (at least in the Jacobi case) to simulating the propagation of light one bounce at a time until the amount of light remaining (not yet absorbed by surfaces) is insignificant. The number of iterations (bounces) required is dependent on the scene, not the number of patches, so the total work is proportional to the square of the number of patches (compared to the cube for [Gaussian elimination](/wiki/Gaussian_elimination \"Gaussian elimination\")). Form factors may be recomputed when they are needed, to avoid storing a complete matrix in memory.\n\nThe quality of rendering is often determined by the size of the patches, e.g. very fine meshes are needed to depict the edges of shadows accurately. An important improvement is *hierarchical radiosity*, which uses a coarser mesh (larger patches) for simulating the transfer of light between surfaces that are far away from one another, and adaptively sub\\-divides the patches as needed. This allows radiosity to be used for much larger and more complex scenes.\n\nAlternative and extended versions of the radiosity method support non\\-Lambertian surfaces, such as glossy surfaces and mirrors, and sometimes use volumes or \"clusters\" of objects as well as surface patches. Stochastic or [Monte Carlo](/wiki/Monte_Carlo_method \"Monte Carlo method\") radiosity uses [random sampling](/wiki/Sampling_%28statistics%29 \"Sampling (statistics)\") in various ways, e.g. taking samples of incident light instead of integrating over all patches, which can improve performance but adds noise (this noise can be reduced by using deterministic iterations as a final step, unlike path tracing noise). Simplified and partially precomputed versions of radiosity are widely used for real\\-time rendering, combined with techniques such as *[octree](/wiki/Octree \"Octree\") radiosity* that store approximations of the [light field](/wiki/Light_field \"Light field\").\n\n### Path tracing\n\nAs part of the approach known as *[physically based rendering](/wiki/Physically_based_rendering \"Physically based rendering\")*, **[path tracing](/wiki/Path_tracing \"Path tracing\")** has become the dominant technique for rendering realistic scenes, including effects for movies. For example, the popular open source 3D software [Blender](/wiki/Blender_%28software%29 \"Blender (software)\") uses path tracing in its Cycles renderer. Images produced using path tracing for [global illumination](/wiki/Global_illumination \"Global illumination\") are generally noisier than when using [radiosity](/wiki/Radiosity_%28computer_graphics%29 \"Radiosity (computer graphics)\") (the main competing algorithm for realistic lighting), but radiosity can be difficult to apply to complex scenes and is prone to artifacts that arise from using a [tessellated](/wiki/Tessellation_%28computer_graphics%29 \"Tessellation (computer graphics)\") representation of [irradiance](/wiki/Irradiance \"Irradiance\").\n\nLike *[distributed ray tracing](/wiki/Distributed_ray_tracing \"Distributed ray tracing\")*, path tracing is a kind of *[stochastic](/wiki/Stochastic \"Stochastic\")* or *[randomized](/wiki/Randomized_algorithm \"Randomized algorithm\")* [ray tracing](/wiki/Ray_tracing_%28graphics%29 \"Ray tracing (graphics)\") that uses [Monte Carlo](/wiki/Monte_Carlo_integration \"Monte Carlo integration\") or [Quasi\\-Monte Carlo](/wiki/Quasi-Monte_Carlo_method \"Quasi-Monte Carlo method\") integration. It was proposed and named in 1986 by [Jim Kajiya](/wiki/Jim_Kajiya \"Jim Kajiya\") in the same paper as the [rendering equation](/wiki/Rendering_equation \"Rendering equation\"). Kajiya observed that much of the complexity of [distributed ray tracing](/wiki/Distributed_ray_tracing \"Distributed ray tracing\") could be avoided by only tracing a single path from the camera at a time (in Kajiya's implementation, this \"no branching\" rule was broken by tracing additional rays from each surface intersection point to randomly chosen points on each light source). Kajiya suggested reducing the noise present in the output images by using *[stratified sampling](/wiki/Stratified_sampling \"Stratified sampling\")* and *[importance sampling](/wiki/Importance_sampling \"Importance sampling\")* for making random decisions such as choosing which ray to follow at each step of a path. Even with these techniques, path tracing would not have been practical for film rendering, using computers available at the time, because the computational cost of generating enough samples to reduce [variance](/wiki/Variance \"Variance\") to an acceptable level was too high. [Monster House](/wiki/Monster_House_%28film%29 \"Monster House (film)\"), the first feature film rendered entirely using path tracing, was not released until 20 years later.\n\nIn its basic form, path tracing is inefficient (requiring too many samples) for rendering [caustics](/wiki/Caustic_%28optics%29 \"Caustic (optics)\") and scenes where light enters indirectly through narrow spaces. Attempts were made to address these weaknesses in the 1990s. *[Bidirectional path tracing](/wiki/Path_tracing%23Bidirectional_path_tracing \"Path tracing#Bidirectional path tracing\")* has similarities to [photon mapping](/wiki/Photon_mapping \"Photon mapping\"), tracing rays from the light source and the camera separately, and then finding ways to connect these paths (but unlike photon mapping it usually samples new light paths for each pixel rather than using the same cached data for all pixels). *[Metropolis light transport](/wiki/Metropolis_light_transport \"Metropolis light transport\")* samples paths by modifying paths that were previously traced, spending more time exploring paths that are similar to other \"bright\" paths, which increases the chance of discovering even brighter paths. *Multiple importance sampling* provides a way to reduce [variance](/wiki/Variance \"Variance\") when combining samples from more than one sampling method, particularly when some samples are much noisier than the others.\n\nThis later work was summarized and expanded upon in [Eric Veach](/wiki/Eric_Veach \"Eric Veach\")'s 1997 PhD thesis, which helped raise interest in path tracing in the computer graphics community. The [Arnold renderer](/wiki/Autodesk_Arnold \"Autodesk Arnold\"), first released in 1998, proved that path tracing was practical for rendering frames for films, and that there was a demand for [unbiased](/wiki/Unbiased_rendering \"Unbiased rendering\") and [physically based](/wiki/Physically_based_rendering \"Physically based rendering\") rendering in the film industry; other commercial and open source path tracing renderers began appearing. Computational cost was addressed by rapid advances in [CPU](/wiki/CPU \"CPU\") and [cluster](/wiki/Computer_cluster \"Computer cluster\") performance.\n\nPath tracing's relative simplicity and its nature as a [Monte Carlo method](/wiki/Monte_Carlo_method \"Monte Carlo method\") (sampling hundreds or thousands of paths per pixel) have made it attractive to implement on a [GPU](/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit \"Graphics processing unit\"), especially on recent GPUs that support ray tracing acceleration technology such as Nvidia's [RTX](/wiki/Nvidia_RTX \"Nvidia RTX\") and [OptiX](/wiki/OptiX \"OptiX\"). However bidirectional path tracing and Metropolis light transport are more difficult to implement efficiently on a GPU.\n\nResearch into improving path tracing continues. Recent *path guiding* approaches construct approximations of the [light field](/wiki/Light_field \"Light field\") probability distribution in each volume of space, so paths can be sampled more effectively. Many techniques have been developed to [denoise](/wiki/Noise_reduction \"Noise reduction\") the output of path tracing, reducing the number of paths required to achieve acceptable quality, at the risk of losing some detail or introducing small\\-scale artifacts that are more objectionable than noise; [neural networks](/wiki/Artificial_neural_network \"Artificial neural network\") are now widely used for this purpose.\n\n### Neural rendering\n\n**Neural rendering** is a rendering method using [artificial neural networks](/wiki/Artificial_neural_network \"Artificial neural network\"). Neural rendering includes [image\\-based rendering](/wiki/Image-based_rendering \"Image-based rendering\") methods that are used to [reconstruct 3D models](/wiki/3D_reconstruction \"3D reconstruction\") from 2\\-dimensional images.One of these methods are [photogrammetry](/wiki/Photogrammetry \"Photogrammetry\"), which is a method in which a collection of images from multiple angles of an object are turned into a 3D model. There have also been recent developments in generating and rendering 3D models from text and coarse paintings by notably [Nvidia](/wiki/Nvidia \"Nvidia\"), [Google](/wiki/Google \"Google\") and various other companies.\n\n", "### Rasterization\n\n[thumb\\|Rendering of the [Extremely Large Telescope](/wiki/Extremely_Large_Telescope \"Extremely Large Telescope\")](/wiki/File:Latest_Rendering_of_the_E-ELT.jpg \"Latest Rendering of the E-ELT.jpg\")\n\nThe term *rasterization* (in a broad sense) encompasses many techniques used for 2D rendering and [real\\-time](/wiki/Real-time_computer_graphics \"Real-time computer graphics\") 3D rendering. 3D [animated films](/wiki/Computer_animation \"Computer animation\") were rendered by rasterization before [ray tracing](/wiki/Ray_tracing_%28graphics%29 \"Ray tracing (graphics)\") and [path tracing](/wiki/Path_tracing \"Path tracing\") became practical.\n\nA renderer combines rasterization with *geometry processing* (which is not specific to rasterization) and *pixel processing* which computes the [RGB color values](/wiki/RGB_color_model \"RGB color model\") to be placed in the *[framebuffer](/wiki/Framebuffer \"Framebuffer\")* for display.\n\nThe main tasks of rasterization (including pixel processing) are:\n* Determining which pixels are covered by each geometric shape in the 3D scene or 2D image (this is the actual rasterization step, in the strictest sense)\n* Blending between colors and depths defined at the [vertices](/wiki/Vertex_%28computer_graphics%29 \"Vertex (computer graphics)\") of shapes, e.g. using [barycentric coordinates](/wiki/Barycentric_coordinate_system \"Barycentric coordinate system\") (*interpolation*)\n* Determining if parts of shapes are hidden by other shapes, due to 2D layering or 3D depth (*[hidden surface removal](/wiki/Hidden-surface_determination \"Hidden-surface determination\")*)\n* Evaluating a function for each pixel covered by a shape (*[shading](/wiki/Shading \"Shading\")*)\n* Smoothing edges of shapes so pixels are less visible (*[anti\\-aliasing](/wiki/Spatial_anti-aliasing \"Spatial anti-aliasing\")*)\n* Blending overlapping transparent shapes (*[compositing](/wiki/Compositing \"Compositing\")*)\n\n3D rasterization is typically part of a *[graphics pipeline](/wiki/Graphics_pipeline \"Graphics pipeline\")* in which an application provides [lists of triangles](/wiki/Triangle_mesh \"Triangle mesh\") to be rendered, and the rendering system transforms and [projects](/wiki/3D_projection \"3D projection\") their coordinates, determines which triangles are potentially visible in the *[viewport](/wiki/Viewport \"Viewport\")*, and performs the above rasterization and pixel processing tasks before displaying the final result on the screen.\n\nHistorically, 3D rasterization used algorithms like the *[Warnock algorithm](/wiki/Warnock_algorithm \"Warnock algorithm\")* and *[scanline rendering](/wiki/Scanline_rendering \"Scanline rendering\")* (also called \"scan\\-conversion\"), which can handle arbitrary polygons and can rasterize many shapes simultaneously. Although such algorithms are still important for 2D rendering, 3D rendering now usually divides shapes into triangles and rasterizes them individually using simpler methods.\n\n[High\\-performance algorithms](/wiki/Digital_differential_analyzer_%28graphics_algorithm%29 \"Digital differential analyzer (graphics algorithm)\") exist for rasterizing [2D lines](/wiki/Bresenham%27s_line_algorithm \"Bresenham's line algorithm\"), including [anti\\-aliased lines](/wiki/Xiaolin_Wu%27s_line_algorithm \"Xiaolin Wu's line algorithm\"), as well as [ellipses](/wiki/Midpoint_circle_algorithm \"Midpoint circle algorithm\") and filled triangles. An important special case of 2D rasterization is [text rendering](/wiki/Font_rasterization \"Font rasterization\"), which requires careful anti\\-aliasing and rounding of coordinates to avoid distorting the [letterforms](/wiki/Letterform \"Letterform\") and preserve spacing, density, and sharpness.\n\nAfter 3D coordinates have been [projected](/wiki/3D_projection \"3D projection\") onto the [image plane](/wiki/Image_plane \"Image plane\"), rasterization is primarily a 2D problem, but the 3rd dimension necessitates *[hidden surface removal](/wiki/Hidden-surface_determination \"Hidden-surface determination\")*. Early computer graphics used [geometric algorithms](/wiki/Computational_geometry \"Computational geometry\") or ray casting to remove the hidden portions of shapes, or used the *[painter's algorithm](/wiki/Painter%27s_algorithm \"Painter's algorithm\")*, which sorts shapes by depth (distance from camera) and renders them from back to front. Depth sorting was later avoided by incorporating depth comparison into the [scanline rendering](/wiki/Scanline_rendering \"Scanline rendering\") algorithm. The *[z\\-buffer](/wiki/Z-buffering \"Z-buffering\")* algorithm performs the comparisons indirectly by including a depth or \"z\" value in the [framebuffer](/wiki/Framebuffer \"Framebuffer\"). A pixel is only covered by a shape if that shape's z value is lower (indicating closer to the camera) than the z value currently in the buffer. The z\\-buffer requires additional memory (an expensive resource at the time it was invented) but simplifies the rasterization code and permits multiple passes. Memory is now faster and more plentiful, and a z\\-buffer is almost always used for real\\-time rendering.\n\nA drawback of the basic [z\\-buffer algorithm](/wiki/Z-buffering \"Z-buffering\") is that each pixel ends up either entirely covered by a single object or filled with the background color, causing jagged edges in the final image. Early *[anti\\-aliasing](/wiki/Spatial_anti-aliasing \"Spatial anti-aliasing\")* approaches addressed this by detecting when a pixel is partially covered by a shape, and calculating the covered area. The [A\\-buffer](/wiki/A-buffer \"A-buffer\") (and other [sub\\-pixel](/wiki/Subpixel_rendering \"Subpixel rendering\") and [multi\\-sampling](/wiki/Multisample_anti-aliasing \"Multisample anti-aliasing\") techniques) solve the problem less precisely but with higher performance. For real\\-time 3D graphics, it has become common to use [complicated heuristics](/wiki/Fast_approximate_anti-aliasing \"Fast approximate anti-aliasing\") (and even [neural\\-networks](/wiki/Deep_learning_anti-aliasing \"Deep learning anti-aliasing\")) to perform anti\\-aliasing.\n\nIn 3D rasterization, color is usually determined by a *[pixel shader](/wiki/Shader%23Pixel_shaders \"Shader#Pixel shaders\")* or *fragment shader*, a small program that is run for each pixel. The shader does not (or cannot) directly access 3D data for the entire scene (this would be very slow, and would result in an algorithm similar to ray tracing) and a variety of techniques have been developed to render effects like [shadows](/wiki/Shadow_mapping \"Shadow mapping\") and [reflections](/wiki/Reflection_%28computer_graphics%29 \"Reflection (computer graphics)\") using only [texture mapping](/wiki/Texture_mapping \"Texture mapping\") and multiple passes.\n\nOlder and more basic 3D rasterization implementations did not support shaders, and used simple shading techniques such as *[flat shading](/wiki/Shading%23Flat_shading \"Shading#Flat shading\")* (lighting is computed once for each triangle, which is then rendered entirely in one color), *[Gouraud shading](/wiki/Gouraud_shading \"Gouraud shading\")* (lighting is computed using [normal vectors](/wiki/Normal_%28geometry%29 \"Normal (geometry)\") defined at vertices and then colors are interpolated across each triangle), or *[Phong shading](/wiki/Phong_shading \"Phong shading\")* (normal vectors are interpolated across each triangle and lighting is computed for each pixel).\n\nUntil relatively recently, [Pixar](/wiki/Pixar \"Pixar\") used rasterization for rendering its [animated films](/wiki/Computer_animation \"Computer animation\"). Unlike the renderers commonly used for real\\-time graphics, the [Reyes rendering system](/wiki/Reyes_rendering \"Reyes rendering\") in Pixar's [RenderMan](/wiki/Pixar_RenderMan \"Pixar RenderMan\") software was optimized for rendering very small (pixel\\-sized) polygons, and incorporated [stochastic](/wiki/Stochastic \"Stochastic\") sampling techniques more typically associated with [ray tracing](/wiki/Ray_tracing_%28graphics%29 \"Ray tracing (graphics)\").\n\n", "### Ray casting\n\nOne of the simplest ways to render a 3D scene is to test if a [ray](/wiki/Line_%28geometry%29%23Ray \"Line (geometry)#Ray\") starting at the viewpoint (the \"eye\" or \"camera\") intersects any of the geometric shapes in the scene, repeating this test using a different ray direction for each pixel. This method, called *ray casting*, was important in early computer graphics, and is a fundamental building block for more advanced algorithms. Ray casting can be used to render shapes defined by *[constructive solid geometry](/wiki/Constructive_solid_geometry \"Constructive solid geometry\")* (CSG) operations.\n\nEarly ray casting experiments include the work of Arthur Appel in the 1960s. Appel rendered shadows by casting an additional ray from each visible surface point towards a light source. He also tried rendering the density of illumination by casting random rays from the light source towards the object and [plotting](/wiki/Plotter \"Plotter\") the intersection points (similar to the later technique called *[photon mapping](/wiki/Photon_mapping \"Photon mapping\")*).\n\n[thumb\\|[Ray marching](/wiki/Ray_marching \"Ray marching\") can be used to find the first intersection of a ray with an intricate shape such as this [Mandelbulb](/wiki/Mandelbulb \"Mandelbulb\") fractal.](/wiki/File:Mandelbulb_p8a.jpg \"Mandelbulb p8a.jpg\")\nWhen rendering scenes containing many objects, testing the intersection of a ray with every object becomes very expensive. Special [data structures](/wiki/Data_structure \"Data structure\") are used to speed up this process by allowing large numbers of objects to be excluded quickly (such as objects behind the camera). These structures are analogous to [database indexes](/wiki/Database_index \"Database index\") for finding the relevant objects. The most common are the *[bounding volume hierarchy](/wiki/Bounding_volume_hierarchy \"Bounding volume hierarchy\")* (BVH), which stores a pre\\-computed [bounding box or sphere](/wiki/Bounding_volume \"Bounding volume\") for each branch of a [tree](/wiki/Tree_%28data_structure%29 \"Tree (data structure)\") of objects, and the *[k\\-d tree](/wiki/K-d_tree \"K-d tree\")* which recursively divides space into two parts. Recent [GPUs](/wiki/GPU \"GPU\") include hardware acceleration for BVH intersection tests. K\\-d trees are a special case of *[binary space partitioning](/wiki/Binary_space_partitioning \"Binary space partitioning\")*, which was frequently used in early computer graphics (it can also generate a rasterization order for the [painter's algorithm](/wiki/Painter%27s_algorithm \"Painter's algorithm\")). *[Octrees](/wiki/Octree \"Octree\")*, another historically popular technique, are still often used for volumetric data.\n\nGeometric formulas are sufficient for finding the intersection of a ray with shapes like [spheres](/wiki/Sphere \"Sphere\"), [polygons](/wiki/Polygon \"Polygon\"), and [polyhedra](/wiki/Polyhedron \"Polyhedron\"), but for most curved surfaces there is no [analytic solution](/wiki/Closed-form_expression%23Analytic_expression \"Closed-form expression#Analytic expression\"), or the intersection is difficult to compute accurately using limited precision [floating point numbers](/wiki/Floating-point_arithmetic \"Floating-point arithmetic\"). [Root\\-finding algorithms](/wiki/Root-finding_algorithm \"Root-finding algorithm\") such as [Newton's method](/wiki/Newton%27s_method \"Newton's method\") can sometimes be used. To avoid these complications, curved surfaces are often approximated as [meshes of triangles](/wiki/Triangle_mesh \"Triangle mesh\"). [Volume rendering](/wiki/Volume_rendering \"Volume rendering\") (e.g. rendering clouds and smoke), and some surfaces such as [fractals](/wiki/Fractal \"Fractal\"), may require [ray marching](/wiki/Ray_marching \"Ray marching\") instead of basic ray casting.\n\n", "### Ray tracing\n\n[thumb\\|250px\\|*Spiral Sphere and Julia, Detail*, a computer\\-generated image created by visual artist Robert W. McGregor using only [POV\\-Ray](/wiki/POV-Ray \"POV-Ray\") 3\\.6 and its built\\-in scene description language](/wiki/Image:SpiralSphereAndJuliaDetail1.jpg \"SpiralSphereAndJuliaDetail1.jpg\")\n\n**Ray tracing** aims to simulate the natural flow of light, interpreted as particles. Often, ray tracing methods are utilized to approximate the solution to the [rendering equation](/wiki/Rendering_equation \"Rendering equation\") by applying [Monte Carlo methods](/wiki/Monte_Carlo_methods \"Monte Carlo methods\") to it. Some of the most used methods are [path tracing](/wiki/Path_tracing \"Path tracing\"), [bidirectional path tracing](/wiki/Path_tracing%23Bidirectional_path_tracing \"Path tracing#Bidirectional path tracing\"), or [Metropolis light transport](/wiki/Metropolis_light_transport \"Metropolis light transport\"), but also semi realistic methods are in use, like [Whitted Style Ray Tracing](/wiki/Whitted_Style_Ray_Tracing \"Whitted Style Ray Tracing\"), or hybrids. While most implementations let light propagate on straight lines, applications exist to simulate relativistic spacetime effects.\n\nIn a final, production quality rendering of a ray traced work, multiple rays are generally shot for each pixel, and traced not just to the first object of intersection, but rather, through a number of sequential 'bounces', using the known laws of optics such as \"angle of incidence equals angle of reflection\" and more advanced laws that deal with refraction and surface roughness.\n\nOnce the ray either encounters a light source, or more probably once a set limiting number of bounces has been evaluated, then the surface illumination at that final point is evaluated using techniques described above, and the changes along the way through the various bounces evaluated to estimate a value observed at the point of view. This is all repeated for each sample, for each pixel.\n\nIn [distribution ray tracing](/wiki/Distribution_ray_tracing \"Distribution ray tracing\"), at each point of intersection, multiple rays may be spawned. In [path tracing](/wiki/Path_tracing \"Path tracing\"), however, only a single ray or none is fired at each intersection, utilizing the statistical nature of [Monte Carlo](/wiki/Monte_Carlo_methods \"Monte Carlo methods\") experiments.\n\nAdvances in GPU technology have made real\\-time ray tracing possible in games, although it is currently almost always used in combination with rasterization. This enables visual effects that are difficult with only rasterization, including reflection from curved surfaces and interreflective objects, and shadows that are accurate over a wide range of distances and surface orientations. Ray tracing support is included in recent versions of the graphics APIs used by games, such as [DirectX](/wiki/DirectX_Raytracing \"DirectX Raytracing\"), [Metal](/wiki/Metal_%28API%29 \"Metal (API)\"), and [Vulkan](/wiki/Vulkan \"Vulkan\").\n\n", "### Radiosity\n\n[thumb\\|Classical radiosity demonstration. Surfaces are divided into 16x16 or 16x32 meshes. Top: direct light only. Bottom: radiosity solution (for [albedo](/wiki/Albedo \"Albedo\") 0\\.85\\).](/wiki/File:Classical_radiosity_example%2C_simple_scene%2C_no_interpolation%2C_direct_only_and_full.png \"Classical radiosity example, simple scene, no interpolation, direct only and full.png\")\n[thumb\\|Top: the same scene with a finer radiosity mesh, smoothing the patches during final rendering using [bilinear interpolation](/wiki/Bilinear_interpolation \"Bilinear interpolation\"). Bottom: the scene rendered with path tracing (using the PBRT renderer).](/wiki/File:Classical_radiosity_comparison_with_path_tracing%2C_simple_scene%2C_interpolated.png \"Classical radiosity comparison with path tracing, simple scene, interpolated.png\")\nRadiosity (named after the [radiometric quantity of the same name](/wiki/Radiosity_%28radiometry%29 \"Radiosity (radiometry)\")) is a method for rendering objects illuminated by light [bouncing off rough or matte surfaces](/wiki/Diffuse_reflection \"Diffuse reflection\"). This type of illumination is called *indirect light*, *environment lighting*, or *diffuse lighting*, and the problem of rendering it realistically is called *global illumination*. Rasterization and basic forms of ray tracing (other than distribution ray tracing and path tracing) can only roughly approximate indirect light, e.g. by adding a uniform \"ambient\" lighting amount chosen by the artist. Radiosity techniques are also suited to rendering scenes with *area lights* such as rectangular fluorescent lighting panels, which are difficult for rasterization and traditional ray tracing. Radiosity is considered a [physically\\-based method](/wiki/Physically_based_rendering \"Physically based rendering\"), meaning that it aims to simulate the flow of light in an environment using equations and experimental data from physics, however it often assumes that all surfaces are opaque and perfectly [Lambertian](/wiki/Lambertian_reflectance \"Lambertian reflectance\"), which reduces realism and limits its applicability.\n\nIn the original radiosity method (first proposed in 1984\\) now called *classical radiosity*, surfaces and lights in the scene are split into pieces called *patches*, a process called *[meshing](/wiki/Mesh_generation \"Mesh generation\")* (this step makes it a [finite element method](/wiki/Finite_element_method \"Finite element method\")). The rendering code must then determine what fraction of the light being emitted or [diffusely reflected](/wiki/Diffuse_reflection \"Diffuse reflection\") (scattered) by each patch is received by each other patch. These fractions are called *form factors* or *[view factors](/wiki/View_factor \"View factor\")* (first used in engineering to model [radiative heat transfer](/wiki/Thermal_radiation \"Thermal radiation\")). The form factors are multiplied by the [albedo](/wiki/Albedo \"Albedo\") of the receiving surface and put in a [matrix](/wiki/Matrix_%28mathematics%29 \"Matrix (mathematics)\"). The lighting in the scene can then be expressed as a matrix equation (or equivalently a [system of linear equations](/wiki/System_of_linear_equations \"System of linear equations\")) that can be solved by methods from [linear algebra](/wiki/Linear_algebra \"Linear algebra\").\n\nSolving the radiosity equation gives the total amount of light emitted and reflected by each patch, which is divided by area to get a value called *[radiosity](/wiki/Radiosity_%28radiometry%29 \"Radiosity (radiometry)\")* that can be used when rasterizing or ray tracing to determine the color of pixels corresponding to visible parts of the patch. For real\\-time rendering, this value (or more commonly the [irradiance](/wiki/Irradiance \"Irradiance\"), which does not depend on local surface albedo) can be pre\\-computed and stored in a texture (called an *irradiance map*) or stored as vertex data for 3D models. This feature was used in architectural visualization software to allow real\\-time walk\\-throughs of a building interior after computing the lighting.\n\nThe large size of the matrices used in classical radiosity (the square of the number of patches) causes problems for realistic scenes. Practical implementations may use [Jacobi](/wiki/Jacobi_method \"Jacobi method\") or [Gauss\\-Seidel](/wiki/Gauss%E2%80%93Seidel_method \"Gauss–Seidel method\") iterations, which is equivalent (at least in the Jacobi case) to simulating the propagation of light one bounce at a time until the amount of light remaining (not yet absorbed by surfaces) is insignificant. The number of iterations (bounces) required is dependent on the scene, not the number of patches, so the total work is proportional to the square of the number of patches (compared to the cube for [Gaussian elimination](/wiki/Gaussian_elimination \"Gaussian elimination\")). Form factors may be recomputed when they are needed, to avoid storing a complete matrix in memory.\n\nThe quality of rendering is often determined by the size of the patches, e.g. very fine meshes are needed to depict the edges of shadows accurately. An important improvement is *hierarchical radiosity*, which uses a coarser mesh (larger patches) for simulating the transfer of light between surfaces that are far away from one another, and adaptively sub\\-divides the patches as needed. This allows radiosity to be used for much larger and more complex scenes.\n\nAlternative and extended versions of the radiosity method support non\\-Lambertian surfaces, such as glossy surfaces and mirrors, and sometimes use volumes or \"clusters\" of objects as well as surface patches. Stochastic or [Monte Carlo](/wiki/Monte_Carlo_method \"Monte Carlo method\") radiosity uses [random sampling](/wiki/Sampling_%28statistics%29 \"Sampling (statistics)\") in various ways, e.g. taking samples of incident light instead of integrating over all patches, which can improve performance but adds noise (this noise can be reduced by using deterministic iterations as a final step, unlike path tracing noise). Simplified and partially precomputed versions of radiosity are widely used for real\\-time rendering, combined with techniques such as *[octree](/wiki/Octree \"Octree\") radiosity* that store approximations of the [light field](/wiki/Light_field \"Light field\").\n\n", "### Path tracing\n\nAs part of the approach known as *[physically based rendering](/wiki/Physically_based_rendering \"Physically based rendering\")*, **[path tracing](/wiki/Path_tracing \"Path tracing\")** has become the dominant technique for rendering realistic scenes, including effects for movies. For example, the popular open source 3D software [Blender](/wiki/Blender_%28software%29 \"Blender (software)\") uses path tracing in its Cycles renderer. Images produced using path tracing for [global illumination](/wiki/Global_illumination \"Global illumination\") are generally noisier than when using [radiosity](/wiki/Radiosity_%28computer_graphics%29 \"Radiosity (computer graphics)\") (the main competing algorithm for realistic lighting), but radiosity can be difficult to apply to complex scenes and is prone to artifacts that arise from using a [tessellated](/wiki/Tessellation_%28computer_graphics%29 \"Tessellation (computer graphics)\") representation of [irradiance](/wiki/Irradiance \"Irradiance\").\n\nLike *[distributed ray tracing](/wiki/Distributed_ray_tracing \"Distributed ray tracing\")*, path tracing is a kind of *[stochastic](/wiki/Stochastic \"Stochastic\")* or *[randomized](/wiki/Randomized_algorithm \"Randomized algorithm\")* [ray tracing](/wiki/Ray_tracing_%28graphics%29 \"Ray tracing (graphics)\") that uses [Monte Carlo](/wiki/Monte_Carlo_integration \"Monte Carlo integration\") or [Quasi\\-Monte Carlo](/wiki/Quasi-Monte_Carlo_method \"Quasi-Monte Carlo method\") integration. It was proposed and named in 1986 by [Jim Kajiya](/wiki/Jim_Kajiya \"Jim Kajiya\") in the same paper as the [rendering equation](/wiki/Rendering_equation \"Rendering equation\"). Kajiya observed that much of the complexity of [distributed ray tracing](/wiki/Distributed_ray_tracing \"Distributed ray tracing\") could be avoided by only tracing a single path from the camera at a time (in Kajiya's implementation, this \"no branching\" rule was broken by tracing additional rays from each surface intersection point to randomly chosen points on each light source). Kajiya suggested reducing the noise present in the output images by using *[stratified sampling](/wiki/Stratified_sampling \"Stratified sampling\")* and *[importance sampling](/wiki/Importance_sampling \"Importance sampling\")* for making random decisions such as choosing which ray to follow at each step of a path. Even with these techniques, path tracing would not have been practical for film rendering, using computers available at the time, because the computational cost of generating enough samples to reduce [variance](/wiki/Variance \"Variance\") to an acceptable level was too high. [Monster House](/wiki/Monster_House_%28film%29 \"Monster House (film)\"), the first feature film rendered entirely using path tracing, was not released until 20 years later.\n\nIn its basic form, path tracing is inefficient (requiring too many samples) for rendering [caustics](/wiki/Caustic_%28optics%29 \"Caustic (optics)\") and scenes where light enters indirectly through narrow spaces. Attempts were made to address these weaknesses in the 1990s. *[Bidirectional path tracing](/wiki/Path_tracing%23Bidirectional_path_tracing \"Path tracing#Bidirectional path tracing\")* has similarities to [photon mapping](/wiki/Photon_mapping \"Photon mapping\"), tracing rays from the light source and the camera separately, and then finding ways to connect these paths (but unlike photon mapping it usually samples new light paths for each pixel rather than using the same cached data for all pixels). *[Metropolis light transport](/wiki/Metropolis_light_transport \"Metropolis light transport\")* samples paths by modifying paths that were previously traced, spending more time exploring paths that are similar to other \"bright\" paths, which increases the chance of discovering even brighter paths. *Multiple importance sampling* provides a way to reduce [variance](/wiki/Variance \"Variance\") when combining samples from more than one sampling method, particularly when some samples are much noisier than the others.\n\nThis later work was summarized and expanded upon in [Eric Veach](/wiki/Eric_Veach \"Eric Veach\")'s 1997 PhD thesis, which helped raise interest in path tracing in the computer graphics community. The [Arnold renderer](/wiki/Autodesk_Arnold \"Autodesk Arnold\"), first released in 1998, proved that path tracing was practical for rendering frames for films, and that there was a demand for [unbiased](/wiki/Unbiased_rendering \"Unbiased rendering\") and [physically based](/wiki/Physically_based_rendering \"Physically based rendering\") rendering in the film industry; other commercial and open source path tracing renderers began appearing. Computational cost was addressed by rapid advances in [CPU](/wiki/CPU \"CPU\") and [cluster](/wiki/Computer_cluster \"Computer cluster\") performance.\n\nPath tracing's relative simplicity and its nature as a [Monte Carlo method](/wiki/Monte_Carlo_method \"Monte Carlo method\") (sampling hundreds or thousands of paths per pixel) have made it attractive to implement on a [GPU](/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit \"Graphics processing unit\"), especially on recent GPUs that support ray tracing acceleration technology such as Nvidia's [RTX](/wiki/Nvidia_RTX \"Nvidia RTX\") and [OptiX](/wiki/OptiX \"OptiX\"). However bidirectional path tracing and Metropolis light transport are more difficult to implement efficiently on a GPU.\n\nResearch into improving path tracing continues. Recent *path guiding* approaches construct approximations of the [light field](/wiki/Light_field \"Light field\") probability distribution in each volume of space, so paths can be sampled more effectively. Many techniques have been developed to [denoise](/wiki/Noise_reduction \"Noise reduction\") the output of path tracing, reducing the number of paths required to achieve acceptable quality, at the risk of losing some detail or introducing small\\-scale artifacts that are more objectionable than noise; [neural networks](/wiki/Artificial_neural_network \"Artificial neural network\") are now widely used for this purpose.\n\n", "### Neural rendering\n\n**Neural rendering** is a rendering method using [artificial neural networks](/wiki/Artificial_neural_network \"Artificial neural network\"). Neural rendering includes [image\\-based rendering](/wiki/Image-based_rendering \"Image-based rendering\") methods that are used to [reconstruct 3D models](/wiki/3D_reconstruction \"3D reconstruction\") from 2\\-dimensional images.One of these methods are [photogrammetry](/wiki/Photogrammetry \"Photogrammetry\"), which is a method in which a collection of images from multiple angles of an object are turned into a 3D model. There have also been recent developments in generating and rendering 3D models from text and coarse paintings by notably [Nvidia](/wiki/Nvidia \"Nvidia\"), [Google](/wiki/Google \"Google\") and various other companies.\n\n", "Scientific and mathematical basis\n---------------------------------\n\nThe implementation of a realistic renderer always has some basic element of physical simulation or emulation some computation which resembles or abstracts a real physical process.\n\nThe term \"*[physically based](/wiki/Physically_based_rendering \"Physically based rendering\")*\" indicates the use of physical models and approximations that are more general and widely accepted outside rendering. A particular set of related techniques have gradually become established in the rendering community.\n\nThe basic concepts are moderately straightforward, but intractable to calculate; and a single elegant algorithm or approach has been elusive for more general purpose renderers. In order to meet demands of robustness, accuracy and practicality, an implementation will be a complex combination of different techniques.\n\nRendering research is concerned with both the adaptation of scientific models and their efficient application.\n\nMathematics used in rendering includes: [linear algebra](/wiki/Linear_algebra \"Linear algebra\"), [calculus](/wiki/Calculus \"Calculus\"), [numerical mathematics](/wiki/Numerical_analysis \"Numerical analysis\"), [signal processing](/wiki/Digital_signal_processing \"Digital signal processing\"), and [Monte Carlo methods](/wiki/Monte_Carlo_methods \"Monte Carlo methods\").\n\n### The rendering equation\n\nThis is the key academic/theoretical concept in rendering. It serves as the most abstract formal expression of the non\\-perceptual aspect of rendering. All more complete algorithms can be seen as solutions to particular formulations of this equation.\n\n L\\_o(x, \\\\omega) \\= L\\_e(x, \\\\omega) \\+ \\\\int\\_\\\\Omega L\\_i(x, \\\\omega') f\\_r(x, \\\\omega', \\\\omega) (\\\\omega' \\\\cdot n) \\\\, \\\\mathrm d \\\\omega'\nMeaning: at a particular position and direction, the outgoing light (Lo) is the sum of the emitted light (Le) and the reflected light. The reflected light being the sum of the incoming light (Li) from all directions, multiplied by the surface reflection and incoming angle. By connecting outward light to inward light, via an interaction point, this equation stands for the whole 'light transport' all the movement of light in a scene.\n### The bidirectional reflectance distribution function\n\nThe **[bidirectional reflectance distribution function](/wiki/Bidirectional_reflectance_distribution_function \"Bidirectional reflectance distribution function\")** (BRDF) expresses a simple model of light interaction with a surface as follows:\n\n f\\_r(x, \\\\omega', \\\\omega) \\= \\\\frac{\\\\mathrm d L\\_r(x, \\\\omega)}{L\\_i(x, \\\\omega')(\\\\omega' \\\\cdot \\\\vec n) \\\\mathrm d \\\\omega'}\nLight interaction is often approximated by the even simpler models: diffuse reflection and specular reflection, although both can ALSO be BRDFs.\n\n### Geometric optics\n\nRendering is practically exclusively concerned with the particle aspect of light physics known as [geometrical optics](/wiki/Geometrical_optics \"Geometrical optics\"). Treating light, at its basic level, as particles bouncing around is a simplification, but appropriate: the wave aspects of light are negligible in most scenes, and are significantly more difficult to simulate. Notable wave aspect phenomena include diffraction (as seen in the colours of [CDs](/wiki/Compact_disc \"Compact disc\") and [DVDs](/wiki/DVD \"DVD\")) and polarisation (as seen in [LCDs](/wiki/Liquid-crystal_display \"Liquid-crystal display\")). Both types of effect, if needed, are made by appearance\\-oriented adjustment of the reflection model.\n\n### Visual perception\n\nThough it receives less attention, an understanding of [human visual perception](/wiki/Human_visual_perception \"Human visual perception\") is valuable to rendering. This is mainly because image displays and human perception have restricted ranges. A renderer can simulate a wide range of light brightness and color, but current displays movie screen, computer monitor, etc. cannot handle so much, and something must be discarded or compressed. Human perception also has limits, and so does not need to be given large\\-range images to create realism. This can help solve the problem of fitting images into displays, and, furthermore, suggest what short\\-cuts could be used in the rendering simulation, since certain subtleties will not be noticeable. This related subject is [tone mapping](/wiki/Tone_mapping \"Tone mapping\").\n\n### Sampling and filtering\n\nOne problem that any rendering system must deal with, no matter which approach it takes, is the **sampling problem**. Essentially, the rendering process tries to depict a [continuous function](/wiki/Continuous_function \"Continuous function\") from image space to colors by using a finite number of pixels. As a consequence of the [Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem](/wiki/Nyquist%E2%80%93Shannon_sampling_theorem \"Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem\") (or Kotelnikov theorem), any spatial waveform that can be displayed must consist of at least two pixels, which is proportional to [image resolution](/wiki/Image_resolution \"Image resolution\"). In simpler terms, this expresses the idea that an image cannot display details, peaks or troughs in color or intensity, that are smaller than one pixel.\n\nIf a naive rendering algorithm is used without any filtering, high frequencies in the image function will cause ugly [aliasing](/wiki/Aliasing \"Aliasing\") to be present in the final image. Aliasing typically manifests itself as [jaggies](/wiki/Jaggies \"Jaggies\"), or jagged edges on objects where the pixel grid is visible. In order to remove aliasing, all rendering algorithms (if they are to produce good\\-looking images) must use some kind of [low\\-pass filter](/wiki/Low-pass_filter \"Low-pass filter\") on the image function to remove high frequencies, a process called [antialiasing](/wiki/Spatial_anti-aliasing \"Spatial anti-aliasing\").\n\n", "### The rendering equation\n\nThis is the key academic/theoretical concept in rendering. It serves as the most abstract formal expression of the non\\-perceptual aspect of rendering. All more complete algorithms can be seen as solutions to particular formulations of this equation.\n\n L\\_o(x, \\\\omega) \\= L\\_e(x, \\\\omega) \\+ \\\\int\\_\\\\Omega L\\_i(x, \\\\omega') f\\_r(x, \\\\omega', \\\\omega) (\\\\omega' \\\\cdot n) \\\\, \\\\mathrm d \\\\omega'\nMeaning: at a particular position and direction, the outgoing light (Lo) is the sum of the emitted light (Le) and the reflected light. The reflected light being the sum of the incoming light (Li) from all directions, multiplied by the surface reflection and incoming angle. By connecting outward light to inward light, via an interaction point, this equation stands for the whole 'light transport' all the movement of light in a scene.\n", "### The bidirectional reflectance distribution function\n\nThe **[bidirectional reflectance distribution function](/wiki/Bidirectional_reflectance_distribution_function \"Bidirectional reflectance distribution function\")** (BRDF) expresses a simple model of light interaction with a surface as follows:\n\n f\\_r(x, \\\\omega', \\\\omega) \\= \\\\frac{\\\\mathrm d L\\_r(x, \\\\omega)}{L\\_i(x, \\\\omega')(\\\\omega' \\\\cdot \\\\vec n) \\\\mathrm d \\\\omega'}\nLight interaction is often approximated by the even simpler models: diffuse reflection and specular reflection, although both can ALSO be BRDFs.\n\n", "### Geometric optics\n\nRendering is practically exclusively concerned with the particle aspect of light physics known as [geometrical optics](/wiki/Geometrical_optics \"Geometrical optics\"). Treating light, at its basic level, as particles bouncing around is a simplification, but appropriate: the wave aspects of light are negligible in most scenes, and are significantly more difficult to simulate. Notable wave aspect phenomena include diffraction (as seen in the colours of [CDs](/wiki/Compact_disc \"Compact disc\") and [DVDs](/wiki/DVD \"DVD\")) and polarisation (as seen in [LCDs](/wiki/Liquid-crystal_display \"Liquid-crystal display\")). Both types of effect, if needed, are made by appearance\\-oriented adjustment of the reflection model.\n\n", "### Visual perception\n\nThough it receives less attention, an understanding of [human visual perception](/wiki/Human_visual_perception \"Human visual perception\") is valuable to rendering. This is mainly because image displays and human perception have restricted ranges. A renderer can simulate a wide range of light brightness and color, but current displays movie screen, computer monitor, etc. cannot handle so much, and something must be discarded or compressed. Human perception also has limits, and so does not need to be given large\\-range images to create realism. This can help solve the problem of fitting images into displays, and, furthermore, suggest what short\\-cuts could be used in the rendering simulation, since certain subtleties will not be noticeable. This related subject is [tone mapping](/wiki/Tone_mapping \"Tone mapping\").\n\n", "### Sampling and filtering\n\nOne problem that any rendering system must deal with, no matter which approach it takes, is the **sampling problem**. Essentially, the rendering process tries to depict a [continuous function](/wiki/Continuous_function \"Continuous function\") from image space to colors by using a finite number of pixels. As a consequence of the [Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem](/wiki/Nyquist%E2%80%93Shannon_sampling_theorem \"Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem\") (or Kotelnikov theorem), any spatial waveform that can be displayed must consist of at least two pixels, which is proportional to [image resolution](/wiki/Image_resolution \"Image resolution\"). In simpler terms, this expresses the idea that an image cannot display details, peaks or troughs in color or intensity, that are smaller than one pixel.\n\nIf a naive rendering algorithm is used without any filtering, high frequencies in the image function will cause ugly [aliasing](/wiki/Aliasing \"Aliasing\") to be present in the final image. Aliasing typically manifests itself as [jaggies](/wiki/Jaggies \"Jaggies\"), or jagged edges on objects where the pixel grid is visible. In order to remove aliasing, all rendering algorithms (if they are to produce good\\-looking images) must use some kind of [low\\-pass filter](/wiki/Low-pass_filter \"Low-pass filter\") on the image function to remove high frequencies, a process called [antialiasing](/wiki/Spatial_anti-aliasing \"Spatial anti-aliasing\").\n\n", "Hardware\n--------\n\nRendering is usually limited by available computing power and memory [bandwidth](/wiki/Bandwidth_%28computing%29 \"Bandwidth (computing)\"), and so specialized [hardware](/wiki/Computer_hardware \"Computer hardware\") has been developed to speed it up (\"accelerate\" it), particularly for [real\\-time rendering](/wiki/Real-time_computer_graphics \"Real-time computer graphics\"). Hardware features such as a [framebuffer](/wiki/Framebuffer \"Framebuffer\") for raster graphics are required to display the output of rendering smoothly in real time.\n\n### History\n\nIn the era of [vector monitors](/wiki/Vector_monitor \"Vector monitor\") (also called *calligraphic displays*), a display processing unit (DPU) was a dedicated [CPU](/wiki/Central_processing_unit \"Central processing unit\") or [coprocessor](/wiki/Coprocessor \"Coprocessor\") that maintained a list of visual elements and redrew them continuously on the screen by controlling an [electron beam](/wiki/Cathode_ray \"Cathode ray\"). Advanced DPUs such as [Evans \\& Sutherland](/wiki/Evans_%26_Sutherland \"Evans & Sutherland\")'s [Line Drawing System\\-1](/wiki/Line_Drawing_System-1 \"Line Drawing System-1\") (and later models produced into the 1980s) incorporated 3D coordinate transformation features to accelerate rendering of [wire\\-frame images](/wiki/Wire-frame_model \"Wire-frame model\"). Evans \\& Sutherland also made the [Digistar](/wiki/Digistar \"Digistar\") [planetarium](/wiki/Planetarium \"Planetarium\") projection system, which was a vector display that could render both stars and wire\\-frame graphics (the vector\\-based Digistar and Digistar II were used in many planetariums, and a few may still be in operation). A Digistar prototype was used for rendering 3D star fields for the film [Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan](/wiki/Star_Trek_II:The_Wrath_of_Khan \"The Wrath of Khan\") – some of the first 3D computer graphics sequences ever seen in a feature film.\n\nShaded 3D graphics rendering in the 1970s and early 1980s was usually implemented on general\\-purpose computers, such as the [PDP\\-10](/wiki/PDP-10 \"PDP-10\") used by researchers at the University of Utah. It was difficult to speed up using specialized hardware because it involves a [pipeline](/wiki/Graphics_pipeline \"Graphics pipeline\") of complex steps, requiring data addressing, decision\\-making, and computation capabilities typically only provided by CPUs (although dedicated circuits for speeding up particular operations were proposed ). [Supercomputers](/wiki/Supercomputer \"Supercomputer\") or specially designed multi\\-CPU computers or [clusters](/wiki/Computer_cluster \"Computer cluster\") were sometimes used for ray tracing. In 1981, [James H. Clark](/wiki/James_H._Clark \"James H. Clark\") and [Marc Hannah](/wiki/Marc_Hannah \"Marc Hannah\") designed the Geometry Engine, a [VLSI](/wiki/Very-large-scale_integration \"Very-large-scale integration\") chip for performing some of the steps of the 3D rasterization pipeline, and started the company [Silicon Graphics](/wiki/Silicon_Graphics \"Silicon Graphics\") (SGI) to commercialize this technology.\n\n[Home computers](/wiki/Home_computer \"Home computer\") and [game consoles](/wiki/Video_game_console \"Video game console\") in the 1980s contained graphics [coprocessors](/wiki/Coprocessor \"Coprocessor\") that were capable of scrolling and filling areas of the display, and drawing [sprites](/wiki/Sprite_%28computer_graphics%29 \"Sprite (computer graphics)\") and lines, though they were not useful for rendering realistic images. Towards the end of the 1980s [PC graphics cards](/wiki/Graphics_card \"Graphics card\") and [arcade games](/wiki/Arcade_video_game \"Arcade video game\") with 3D rendering acceleration began to appear, and in the 1990s such technology became commonplace. Today, even low\\-power [mobile processors](/wiki/Mobile_processor \"Mobile processor\") typically incorporate 3D graphics acceleration features.\n\n### GPUs\n\nThe [3D graphics accelerators](/wiki/Graphics_card \"Graphics card\") of the 1990s evolved into modern GPUs. GPUs are general\\-purpose processors, like [CPUs](/wiki/Central_processing_unit \"Central processing unit\"), but they are designed for tasks that can be broken into many small, similar, mostly independent sub\\-tasks (such as rendering individual pixels) and performed in [parallel](/wiki/Parallel_computing \"Parallel computing\"). This means that a GPU can speed up any rendering algorithm that can be split into subtasks in this way, in contrast to 1990s 3D accelerators which were only designed to speed up specific rasterization algorithms and simple shading and lighting effects (although [tricks](/wiki/Kludge%23Computer_science \"Kludge#Computer science\") could be used to perform more general computations).\n\nDue to their origins, GPUs typically still provide specialized hardware acceleration for some steps of a traditional 3D rasterization [pipeline](/wiki/Graphics_pipeline \"Graphics pipeline\"), including hidden surface removal using a [z\\-buffer](/wiki/Z-buffering \"Z-buffering\"), and [texture mapping](/wiki/Texture_mapping \"Texture mapping\") with [mipmaps](/wiki/Mipmap \"Mipmap\"), but these features are no longer always used. Recent GPUs have features to accelerate finding the intersections of rays with a [bounding volume hierarchy](/wiki/Bounding_volume_hierarchy \"Bounding volume hierarchy\"), to help speed up all variants of [ray tracing](/wiki/Ray_tracing_%28graphics%29 \"Ray tracing (graphics)\") and [path tracing](/wiki/Path_tracing \"Path tracing\"), as well as [neural network](/wiki/Neural_network_%28machine_learning%29 \"Neural network (machine learning)\") acceleration features sometimes useful for rendering.\n\nGPUs are usually integrated with [high\\-bandwidth memory systems](/wiki/GDDR_SDRAM \"GDDR SDRAM\") to support the read and write [bandwidth](/wiki/Memory_bandwidth \"Memory bandwidth\") requirements of high\\-resolution, real\\-time rendering, particularly when multiple passes are required to render a frame, however memory [latency](/wiki/Memory_latency \"Memory latency\") may be higher than on a CPU, which can be a problem if the [critical path](/wiki/Analysis_of_parallel_algorithms%23Critical_path \"Analysis of parallel algorithms#Critical path\") in an algorithm involves many memory accesses. GPU design accepts high latency as inevitable (in part because a large number of [threads](/wiki/Thread_%28computing%29 \"Thread (computing)\") are sharing the [memory bus](/wiki/Bus_%28computing%29%23Memory_bus \"Bus (computing)#Memory bus\")) and attempts to \"hide\" it by efficiently switching between threads, so a different thread can be performing computations while the first thread is waiting for a read or write to complete.\n\nRendering algorithms will run efficiently on a GPU only if they can be implemented using small groups of threads that perform mostly the same operations. As an example of code that meets this requirement: when rendering a small square of pixels in a simple [ray\\-traced](/wiki/Ray_tracing_%28graphics%29 \"Ray tracing (graphics)\") image, all threads will likely be intersecting rays with the same object and performing the same lighting computations. For performance and architectural reasons, GPUs run groups of around 16\\-64 threads called *warps* or *wavefronts* in [lock\\-step](/wiki/Single_instruction%2C_multiple_threads \"Single instruction, multiple threads\") (all threads in the group are executing the same instructions at the same time). If not all threads in the group need to run particular blocks of code (due to conditions) then some threads will be idle, or the results of their computations will be discarded, causing degraded performance.\n\n", "### History\n\nIn the era of [vector monitors](/wiki/Vector_monitor \"Vector monitor\") (also called *calligraphic displays*), a display processing unit (DPU) was a dedicated [CPU](/wiki/Central_processing_unit \"Central processing unit\") or [coprocessor](/wiki/Coprocessor \"Coprocessor\") that maintained a list of visual elements and redrew them continuously on the screen by controlling an [electron beam](/wiki/Cathode_ray \"Cathode ray\"). Advanced DPUs such as [Evans \\& Sutherland](/wiki/Evans_%26_Sutherland \"Evans & Sutherland\")'s [Line Drawing System\\-1](/wiki/Line_Drawing_System-1 \"Line Drawing System-1\") (and later models produced into the 1980s) incorporated 3D coordinate transformation features to accelerate rendering of [wire\\-frame images](/wiki/Wire-frame_model \"Wire-frame model\"). Evans \\& Sutherland also made the [Digistar](/wiki/Digistar \"Digistar\") [planetarium](/wiki/Planetarium \"Planetarium\") projection system, which was a vector display that could render both stars and wire\\-frame graphics (the vector\\-based Digistar and Digistar II were used in many planetariums, and a few may still be in operation). A Digistar prototype was used for rendering 3D star fields for the film [Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan](/wiki/Star_Trek_II:The_Wrath_of_Khan \"The Wrath of Khan\") – some of the first 3D computer graphics sequences ever seen in a feature film.\n\nShaded 3D graphics rendering in the 1970s and early 1980s was usually implemented on general\\-purpose computers, such as the [PDP\\-10](/wiki/PDP-10 \"PDP-10\") used by researchers at the University of Utah. It was difficult to speed up using specialized hardware because it involves a [pipeline](/wiki/Graphics_pipeline \"Graphics pipeline\") of complex steps, requiring data addressing, decision\\-making, and computation capabilities typically only provided by CPUs (although dedicated circuits for speeding up particular operations were proposed ). [Supercomputers](/wiki/Supercomputer \"Supercomputer\") or specially designed multi\\-CPU computers or [clusters](/wiki/Computer_cluster \"Computer cluster\") were sometimes used for ray tracing. In 1981, [James H. Clark](/wiki/James_H._Clark \"James H. Clark\") and [Marc Hannah](/wiki/Marc_Hannah \"Marc Hannah\") designed the Geometry Engine, a [VLSI](/wiki/Very-large-scale_integration \"Very-large-scale integration\") chip for performing some of the steps of the 3D rasterization pipeline, and started the company [Silicon Graphics](/wiki/Silicon_Graphics \"Silicon Graphics\") (SGI) to commercialize this technology.\n\n[Home computers](/wiki/Home_computer \"Home computer\") and [game consoles](/wiki/Video_game_console \"Video game console\") in the 1980s contained graphics [coprocessors](/wiki/Coprocessor \"Coprocessor\") that were capable of scrolling and filling areas of the display, and drawing [sprites](/wiki/Sprite_%28computer_graphics%29 \"Sprite (computer graphics)\") and lines, though they were not useful for rendering realistic images. Towards the end of the 1980s [PC graphics cards](/wiki/Graphics_card \"Graphics card\") and [arcade games](/wiki/Arcade_video_game \"Arcade video game\") with 3D rendering acceleration began to appear, and in the 1990s such technology became commonplace. Today, even low\\-power [mobile processors](/wiki/Mobile_processor \"Mobile processor\") typically incorporate 3D graphics acceleration features.\n\n", "### GPUs\n\nThe [3D graphics accelerators](/wiki/Graphics_card \"Graphics card\") of the 1990s evolved into modern GPUs. GPUs are general\\-purpose processors, like [CPUs](/wiki/Central_processing_unit \"Central processing unit\"), but they are designed for tasks that can be broken into many small, similar, mostly independent sub\\-tasks (such as rendering individual pixels) and performed in [parallel](/wiki/Parallel_computing \"Parallel computing\"). This means that a GPU can speed up any rendering algorithm that can be split into subtasks in this way, in contrast to 1990s 3D accelerators which were only designed to speed up specific rasterization algorithms and simple shading and lighting effects (although [tricks](/wiki/Kludge%23Computer_science \"Kludge#Computer science\") could be used to perform more general computations).\n\nDue to their origins, GPUs typically still provide specialized hardware acceleration for some steps of a traditional 3D rasterization [pipeline](/wiki/Graphics_pipeline \"Graphics pipeline\"), including hidden surface removal using a [z\\-buffer](/wiki/Z-buffering \"Z-buffering\"), and [texture mapping](/wiki/Texture_mapping \"Texture mapping\") with [mipmaps](/wiki/Mipmap \"Mipmap\"), but these features are no longer always used. Recent GPUs have features to accelerate finding the intersections of rays with a [bounding volume hierarchy](/wiki/Bounding_volume_hierarchy \"Bounding volume hierarchy\"), to help speed up all variants of [ray tracing](/wiki/Ray_tracing_%28graphics%29 \"Ray tracing (graphics)\") and [path tracing](/wiki/Path_tracing \"Path tracing\"), as well as [neural network](/wiki/Neural_network_%28machine_learning%29 \"Neural network (machine learning)\") acceleration features sometimes useful for rendering.\n\nGPUs are usually integrated with [high\\-bandwidth memory systems](/wiki/GDDR_SDRAM \"GDDR SDRAM\") to support the read and write [bandwidth](/wiki/Memory_bandwidth \"Memory bandwidth\") requirements of high\\-resolution, real\\-time rendering, particularly when multiple passes are required to render a frame, however memory [latency](/wiki/Memory_latency \"Memory latency\") may be higher than on a CPU, which can be a problem if the [critical path](/wiki/Analysis_of_parallel_algorithms%23Critical_path \"Analysis of parallel algorithms#Critical path\") in an algorithm involves many memory accesses. GPU design accepts high latency as inevitable (in part because a large number of [threads](/wiki/Thread_%28computing%29 \"Thread (computing)\") are sharing the [memory bus](/wiki/Bus_%28computing%29%23Memory_bus \"Bus (computing)#Memory bus\")) and attempts to \"hide\" it by efficiently switching between threads, so a different thread can be performing computations while the first thread is waiting for a read or write to complete.\n\nRendering algorithms will run efficiently on a GPU only if they can be implemented using small groups of threads that perform mostly the same operations. As an example of code that meets this requirement: when rendering a small square of pixels in a simple [ray\\-traced](/wiki/Ray_tracing_%28graphics%29 \"Ray tracing (graphics)\") image, all threads will likely be intersecting rays with the same object and performing the same lighting computations. For performance and architectural reasons, GPUs run groups of around 16\\-64 threads called *warps* or *wavefronts* in [lock\\-step](/wiki/Single_instruction%2C_multiple_threads \"Single instruction, multiple threads\") (all threads in the group are executing the same instructions at the same time). If not all threads in the group need to run particular blocks of code (due to conditions) then some threads will be idle, or the results of their computations will be discarded, causing degraded performance.\n\n", "Chronology of algorithms and techniques\n---------------------------------------\n\nThe following is a rough timeline of frequently mentioned rendering techniques, including areas of current research. Note that even in cases where an idea was named in a specific paper, there were almost always multiple researchers working in the same area (including earlier related work). When a method is first proposed it is often very inefficient, and it takes additional research and practical efforts to turn it into a useful technique.\n\nThe list focuses on academic research and does not include hardware. (For more history see [\\#External links](/wiki/%23External_links \"#External links\"), as well as [Computer graphics\\#History](/wiki/Computer_graphics%23History \"Computer graphics#History\") and [Golden\\_age\\_of\\_arcade\\_video\\_games\\#Technology](/wiki/Golden_age_of_arcade_video_games%23Technology \"Golden age of arcade video games#Technology\").)\n\n* 1760 \\- [Lambertian reflectance model](/wiki/Lambertian_reflectance \"Lambertian reflectance\")\n* 1968 \\- [Ray casting](/wiki/Ray_casting \"Ray casting\")\n* 1968 \\- [Warnock hidden surface removal](/wiki/Warnock_algorithm \"Warnock algorithm\")\n* 1970 \\- [Scanline rendering](/wiki/Scanline_rendering \"Scanline rendering\")\n* 1971 \\- [Gouraud shading](/wiki/Gouraud_shading \"Gouraud shading\")\n* 1973 \\- [Phong shading](/wiki/Phong_shading \"Phong shading\")\n* 1973 \\- [Phong reflectance model](/wiki/Phong_reflection_model \"Phong reflection model\")\n* 1974 \\- [Texture mapping](/wiki/Texture_mapping \"Texture mapping\")\n* 1974 \\- [Z\\-buffering](/wiki/Z-buffering \"Z-buffering\")\n* 1976 \\- [Environment mapping](/wiki/Environment_mapping \"Environment mapping\")\n* 1977 \\- [Blinn\\-Phong reflectance model](/wiki/Blinn-Phong_shading_model \"Blinn-Phong shading model\")\n* 1977 \\- [Shadow volumes](/wiki/Shadow_volume \"Shadow volume\")\n* 1978 \\- [Shadow mapping](/wiki/Shadow_mapping \"Shadow mapping\")\n* 1978 \\- [Bump mapping](/wiki/Bump_mapping \"Bump mapping\")\n* 1980 \\- [BSP trees](/wiki/BSP_trees \"BSP trees\")\n* 1980 \\- [Ray tracing](/wiki/Ray_tracing_%28graphics%29 \"Ray tracing (graphics)\")\n* 1981 \\- [Cook\\-Torrance reflectance model](/wiki/Specular_highlight%23Cook%E2%80%93Torrance_model \"Specular highlight#Cook–Torrance model\")\n* 1983 \\- [MIP maps](/wiki/Mipmap \"Mipmap\")\n* 1984 \\- [Octree](/wiki/Octree \"Octree\") ray tracing\n* 1984 \\- [Alpha compositing](/wiki/Alpha_compositing \"Alpha compositing\")\n* 1984 \\- [Distributed ray tracing](/wiki/Distributed_ray_tracing \"Distributed ray tracing\")\n* 1984 \\- [Radiosity](/wiki/Radiosity_%28computer_graphics%29 \"Radiosity (computer graphics)\")\n* 1984 \\- [A\\-buffer](/wiki/A-buffer \"A-buffer\")\n* 1985 \\- [Hemicube](/wiki/Hemicube_%28computer_graphics%29 \"Hemicube (computer graphics)\") radiosity\n* 1986 \\- Light source tracing\n* 1986 \\- [Rendering equation](/wiki/Rendering_equation \"Rendering equation\")\n* 1986 \\- [Path tracing](/wiki/Path_tracing \"Path tracing\")\n* 1987 \\- [Reyes rendering](/wiki/Reyes_rendering \"Reyes rendering\")\n* 1991 \\- [Xiaolin Wu line anti\\-aliasing](/wiki/Xiaolin_Wu%27s_line_algorithm \"Xiaolin Wu's line algorithm\")\n* 1991 \\- Hierarchical radiosity\n* 1993 \\- [Oren–Nayar reflectance model](/wiki/Oren%E2%80%93Nayar_reflectance_model \"Oren–Nayar reflectance model\")M. Oren and S.K. Nayar, \"[Generalization of Lambert's Reflectance Model](http://www1.cs.columbia.edu/CAVE/publications/pdfs/Oren_SIGGRAPH94.pdf) \". SIGGRAPH. pp.239\\-246, Jul, 1994\n* 1993 \\- [Tone mapping](/wiki/Tone_mapping \"Tone mapping\")\n* 1993 \\- [Subsurface scattering](/wiki/Subsurface_scattering \"Subsurface scattering\")\n* 1993 \\- [Bidirectional path tracing](/wiki/Path_tracing%23Bidirectional_path_tracing \"Path tracing#Bidirectional path tracing\") (Lafortune \\& Willems formulation)\n* 1994 \\- [Ambient occlusion](/wiki/Ambient_occlusion \"Ambient occlusion\")\n* 1995 \\- [Photon mapping](/wiki/Photon_mapping \"Photon mapping\")\n* 1995 \\- Multiple importance sampling\n* 1997 \\- [Bidirectional path tracing](/wiki/Path_tracing%23Bidirectional_path_tracing \"Path tracing#Bidirectional path tracing\") (Veach \\& Guibas formulation)\n* 1997 \\- [Metropolis light transport](/wiki/Metropolis_light_transport \"Metropolis light transport\")\n* 1997 \\- Instant Radiosity\n* 2002 \\- [Precomputed Radiance Transfer](/wiki/Precomputed_Radiance_Transfer \"Precomputed Radiance Transfer\")\n* 2014 \\- [Differentiable rendering](/wiki/Michael_J._Black%23Differentiable_rendering \"Michael J. Black#Differentiable rendering\")\n* 2017 \\- Path guiding (using adaptive SD\\-tree)\n* 2020 \\- Spatiotemporal [reservoir](/wiki/Reservoir_sampling \"Reservoir sampling\") resampling (ReSTIR)\n* 2020 \\- [Neural radiance fields](/wiki/Neural_radiance_field \"Neural radiance field\")\n* 2023 \\- 3D [Gaussian splatting](/wiki/Gaussian_splatting \"Gaussian splatting\")\n\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [Per\\-pixel lighting](/wiki/Per-pixel_lighting \"Per-pixel lighting\")\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "Further reading\n---------------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [SIGGRAPH](https://web.archive.org/web/19961221040900/http://siggraph.org/) the ACMs special interest group in graphics the largest academic and professional association and conference\n* [vintage3d.org \"The way to home 3d\"](https://vintage3d.org/history.php) Extensive history of computer graphics hardware, including research, commercialization, and video games and consoles\n\n[Category:3D rendering](/wiki/Category:3D_rendering \"3D rendering\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 5229428 ], "name": [ "Rsjaffe" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "History", "Antiquity and Middle Ages", "Ottoman era", "Ottoman conquest", "Crimean War (1853–1856)", "First Balkan War (1912–1913)", "World War I: Gallipoli Campaign (1914–1918)", "Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)", "Turkish Republic", "Notable people", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 3, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.4\\|Satellite image of the Gallipoli peninsula and surrounding area](/wiki/File:Gallipoli_peninsula_from_space.png \"Gallipoli peninsula from space.png\")\n[upright\\=1\\.4\\|thumb\\|[ANZAC Cove](/wiki/ANZAC_Cove \"ANZAC Cove\") in Gallipoli](/wiki/File:View_of_Anzac_Cove_-_Gallipoli_Peninsula_-_Dardanelles_-_Turkey_-_01_%285734713946%29.jpg \"View of Anzac Cove - Gallipoli Peninsula - Dardanelles - Turkey - 01 (5734713946).jpg\")\nThe **Gallipoli** [peninsula](/wiki/Peninsula \"Peninsula\") (; ; ) is located in the southern part of [East Thrace](/wiki/East_Thrace \"East Thrace\"), the [European](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\") part of [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey \"Turkey\"), with the [Aegean Sea](/wiki/Aegean_Sea \"Aegean Sea\") to the west and the [Dardanelles](/wiki/Dardanelles \"Dardanelles\") strait to the east.\n\nGallipoli is the Italian form of the [Greek](/wiki/Greek_language \"Greek language\") name (), meaning 'beautiful city', the original name of the modern town of [Gelibolu](/wiki/Gelibolu \"Gelibolu\"). In [antiquity](/wiki/Classical_antiquity \"Classical antiquity\"), the peninsula was known as the **Thracian Chersonese** (; ).\n\nThe peninsula runs in a south\\-westerly direction into the Aegean Sea, between the [Dardanelles](/wiki/Dardanelles \"Dardanelles\") (formerly known as the Hellespont), and the [Gulf of Saros](/wiki/Gulf_of_Saros \"Gulf of Saros\") (formerly the bay of Melas). In [antiquity](/wiki/Ancient_Greece \"Ancient Greece\"), it was protected by the [Long Wall](/wiki/Long_Wall_%28Thracian_Chersonese%29 \"Long Wall (Thracian Chersonese)\"), a defensive structure built across the narrowest part of the peninsula near the ancient city of [Agora](/wiki/Agora_%28Thrace%29 \"Agora (Thrace)\"). The [isthmus](/wiki/Isthmus \"Isthmus\") traversed by the wall was only 36 [stadia](/wiki/Stadia_%28length%29 \"Stadia (length)\") in breadth[Herodotus](/wiki/Herodotus \"Herodotus\"), *The Histories*, [vi. 36](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=6.36); Xenophon, ibid.; Pseudo\\-Scylax, *[Periplus of Pseudo\\-Scylax](/wiki/Periplus_of_Pseudo-Scylax \"Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax\")*, 67 ([PDF](http://www.le.ac.uk/ar/gjs/skylax_for_www_02214.pdf) ) or about , but the length of the peninsula from this wall to its southern extremity, Cape Mastusia, was 420 stadia or about .\n\n", "History\n-------\n\n### Antiquity and Middle Ages\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|Map of the Thracian Chersonese](/wiki/File:Thracian_chersonese.png \"Thracian chersonese.png\")\nIn ancient times, the Gallipoli Peninsula was known as the [Thracian Chersonese](/wiki/Thracian_Chersonese \"Thracian Chersonese\") (from [Greek](/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language \"Ancient Greek language\") , 'peninsula') to the Greeks and later the Romans. It was the location of several prominent towns, including [Cardia](/wiki/Cardia_%28Thrace%29 \"Cardia (Thrace)\"), [Pactya](/wiki/Pactya \"Pactya\"), Callipolis (Gallipoli), Alopeconnesus (), [Sestos](/wiki/Sestos \"Sestos\"), [Madytos](/wiki/Madytos_%28Thrace%29 \"Madytos (Thrace)\"), and [Elaeus](/wiki/Elaeus \"Elaeus\"). The peninsula was renowned for its [wheat](/wiki/Wheat \"Wheat\"). It also benefited from its strategic importance on the main route between [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\") and [Asia](/wiki/Asia \"Asia\"), as well as from its control of the shipping route from [Crimea](/wiki/Crimea \"Crimea\"). The city of Sestos was the main crossing\\-point on the [Hellespont](/wiki/Hellespont \"Hellespont\").\n\nAccording to [Herodotus](/wiki/Herodotus \"Herodotus\"), the Thracian tribe of [Dolonci](/wiki/Dolonci \"Dolonci\") () (or 'barbarians' according to [Cornelius Nepos](/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos \"Cornelius Nepos\")) held possession of the peninsula before Greek colonizers arrived. Then, settlers from [Ancient Greece](/wiki/Ancient_Greece \"Ancient Greece\"), mainly of [Ionian](/wiki/Ionia \"Ionia\") and [Aeolian](/wiki/Aeolians \"Aeolians\") stock, founded about 12 cities on the peninsula in the 7th century BC.Herodotus, [vi. 34](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=6.34.1) ; [Nepos, Cornelius](/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos \"Cornelius Nepos\"), *Lives of Eminent Commanders*, \"Miltiades\", [1](http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/nepos.htm#Miltiades) The [Athenian](/wiki/Classical_Athens \"Classical Athens\") statesman [Miltiades the Elder](/wiki/Miltiades_the_Elder \"Miltiades the Elder\") founded a major Athenian colony there around 560 BC. He took authority over the entire peninsula, augmenting its defences against incursions from the mainland. It eventually passed to his nephew, the more famous [Miltiades the Younger](/wiki/Miltiades_the_Younger \"Miltiades the Younger\"), about 524 BC. The peninsula was abandoned to the [Persians](/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire \"Achaemenid Empire\") in 493 BC after the beginning of the [Greco\\-Persian Wars](/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars \"Greco-Persian Wars\") (499–478 BC).\n\nThe Persians were eventually expelled, after which the peninsula was for a time ruled by Athens, which enrolled it into the [Delian League](/wiki/Delian_League \"Delian League\") in 478 BC. The Athenians established a number of [cleruchies](/wiki/Cleruchy \"Cleruchy\") on the Thracian Chersonese and sent an additional 1,000 settlers around 448 BC. [Sparta](/wiki/Sparta \"Sparta\") gained control after the decisive [Battle of Aegospotami](/wiki/Battle_of_Aegospotami \"Battle of Aegospotami\") in 404 BC, but the peninsula subsequently reverted to the Athenians. During the 4th century BC, the Thracian Chersonese became the focus of a bitter territorial dispute between Athens and [Macedon](/wiki/Macedon \"Macedon\"), whose king [Philip II](/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon \"Philip II of Macedon\") sought its possession. It was eventually ceded to Philip in 338 BC.\n\nAfter the death of Philip's son [Alexander the Great](/wiki/Alexander_the_Great \"Alexander the Great\") in 323 BC, the Thracian Chersonese became the object of contention among [Alexander's successors](/wiki/Diadochi \"Diadochi\"). [Lysimachus](/wiki/Lysimachus \"Lysimachus\") established his capital [Lysimachia](/wiki/Lysimachia_%28Thrace%29 \"Lysimachia (Thrace)\") here. In 278 BC, [Celtic tribes](/wiki/List_of_ancient_Celtic_peoples_and_tribes \"List of ancient Celtic peoples and tribes\") from [Galatia](/wiki/Galatia \"Galatia\") in Asia Minor settled in the area. In 196 BC, the [Seleucid](/wiki/Seleucid_Empire \"Seleucid Empire\") king [Antiochus III](/wiki/Antiochus_III_the_Great \"Antiochus III the Great\") seized the peninsula. This alarmed the Greeks and prompted them to seek the aid of the [Romans](/wiki/Roman_Republic \"Roman Republic\"), who conquered the Thracian Chersonese, which they gave to their ally [Eumenes II](/wiki/Eumenes_II \"Eumenes II\") of [Pergamon](/wiki/Pergamon \"Pergamon\") in 188 BC. At the extinction of the [Attalid dynasty](/wiki/Attalid_dynasty \"Attalid dynasty\") in 133 BC it passed again to the Romans, who from 129 BC administered it in the [Roman province](/wiki/Roman_province \"Roman province\") of [Asia](/wiki/Asia_%28Roman_province%29 \"Asia (Roman province)\"). It was subsequently made a state\\-owned territory () and during the reign of the emperor [Augustus](/wiki/Augustus \"Augustus\") it was imperial property.\n[thumb\\|Map of the peninsula and its surroundings](/wiki/File:Gallipolimap2.png \"Gallipolimap2.png\")\n\nThe Thracian Chersonese was part of the [Eastern Roman Empire](/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire \"Eastern Roman Empire\") from its foundation in 395 AD. In 443 AD, [Attila the Hun](/wiki/Attila_the_Hun \"Attila the Hun\") invaded the Gallipoli Peninsula during one of the last stages of his grand campaign that year. He captured both Callipolis and Sestus. Aside from a brief period from 1204 to 1235, when it was controlled by the [Republic of Venice](/wiki/Republic_of_Venice \"Republic of Venice\"), the [Byzantine Empire](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire \"Byzantine Empire\") ruled the territory until 1356\\. During the night between 1 and 2 March 1354, a strong earthquake destroyed the city of Gallipoli and its city walls, weakening its defenses.\n\n### Ottoman era\n\n#### Ottoman conquest\n\nWithin a month after the devastating 1354 earthquake the [Ottomans](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\") [besieged and captured](/wiki/Fall_of_Gallipoli \"Fall of Gallipoli\") the town of Gallipoli, making it the first Ottoman stronghold in Europe and the staging area for Ottoman expansion across the [Balkans](/wiki/Balkans \"Balkans\").Crowley, Roger. 1453: *The Holy War for Constantinople and the Clash of Islam and the West*. New York: Hyperion, 2005\\. p 31 . The [Savoyard Crusade](/wiki/Savoyard_Crusade \"Savoyard Crusade\") recaptured Gallipoli for Byzantium in 1366, but the beleaguered Byzantines were forced to hand it back in September 1376\\. The [Greeks](/wiki/Greeks \"Greeks\") living there were allowed to continue their everyday activities. In the 19th century, Gallipoli (, ) was a district () in the [Vilayet of Adrianople](/wiki/Vilayet_of_Adrianople \"Vilayet of Adrianople\"), with about thirty thousand inhabitants: comprising Greeks, Turks, Armenians and Jews.\n\n#### Crimean War (1853–1856\\)\n\n[thumb\\|The port of Gallipoli, ](/wiki/File:Port_de_Gallipoli.JPG \"Port de Gallipoli.JPG\")\nGallipoli became a major [encampment](/wiki/Military_camp \"Military camp\") for British and French forces in 1854 during the [Crimean War](/wiki/Crimean_War \"Crimean War\"), and the harbour was also a stopping\\-off point between the western Mediterranean and [Istanbul](/wiki/Istanbul \"Istanbul\") (formerly [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople \"Constantinople\")).\n\nIn March 1854 British and French engineers constructed an line of defence to protect the peninsula from a possible Russian attack and secure control of the route to the [Mediterranean Sea](/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea \"Mediterranean Sea\").\n\n#### First Balkan War (1912–1913\\)\n\nDuring the [First Balkan War](/wiki/First_Balkan_War \"First Balkan War\"), the 1913 [Battle of Bulair](/wiki/Battle_of_Bulair \"Battle of Bulair\") and several minor skirmishes took place where the Ottoman army fought in the Greek villages near Gallipoli\". The [Report of the International Commission on the Balkan Wars](/wiki/Report_of_the_International_Commission_on_the_Balkan_Wars \"Report of the International Commission on the Balkan Wars\") mention destruction and massacres in the area by the Ottoman army against Greek and Bulgarian population.\n\nThe Ottoman Government, under the pretext that a village was within the firing line, ordered its evacuation within three hours. The residents abandoned everything they possessed, left their village and went to [Gallipoli](/wiki/Gelibolu \"Gelibolu\"). Seven of the Greek villagers who stayed two minutes later than the three\\-hour limit allowed for the evacuation were shot by the soldiers. After the end of the Balkan War the exiles were allowed to return. But as the Government allowed only the Turks to rebuild their houses and furnish them, the exiled Greeks were compelled to remain in Gallipoli.\n\n#### World War I: Gallipoli Campaign (1914–1918\\)\n\n[thumb\\|Landing at Gallipoli in April 1915](/wiki/File:Landing_at_Gallipoli_%2813901951593%29.jpg \"Landing at Gallipoli (13901951593).jpg\")\n[thumb\\|The Sphinx overlooking Anzac Cove](/wiki/File:Gallipoli_ANZAC_Cove_Sphinx_2.JPG \"Gallipoli ANZAC Cove Sphinx 2.JPG\")\n\nDuring World War I (1914–1918\\), French, British, and allied forces (Australian, New Zealand, Newfoundland, Irish and Indian) fought the [Gallipoli campaign](/wiki/Gallipoli_campaign \"Gallipoli campaign\") (1915–1916\\) in and near the peninsula, seeking to secure a sea route to relieve their eastern ally, [Russia](/wiki/Imperial_Russia \"Imperial Russia\"). The Ottomans set up defensive fortifications along the peninsula and contained the invading forces.\n\nIn early 1915, attempting to seize a strategic advantage in World War I by capturing the [Bosporus Strait](/wiki/Bosporus_Strait \"Bosporus Strait\") at [Istanbul](/wiki/Istanbul \"Istanbul\") (formerly [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople \"Constantinople\")), the British authorised an attack on the peninsula by French, British, and British Empire forces. The first Australian troops landed at [ANZAC Cove](/wiki/ANZAC_Cove \"ANZAC Cove\") early in the morning of 25 April 1915\\. After eight months of heavy fighting the last Allied soldiers withdrew by 9 January 1916\\.\n\nThe campaign, one of the greatest [Ottoman](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\") victories during the war, is considered by historians as a humiliating [Allied](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I \"Allies of World War I\") failure. [Turks](/wiki/Turkey \"Turkey\") regard it as a defining moment in their nation's history and national identity, contributing to the establishment of the Republic of Turkey eight years later under President [Mustafa Kemal Atatürk](/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk \"Mustafa Kemal Atatürk\"), who first rose to prominence as a commander at Gallipoli.\n\nThe Ottoman Empire instituted the [Gallipoli Star](/wiki/Gallipoli_Star_%28Ottoman_Empire%29 \"Gallipoli Star (Ottoman Empire)\") as a military decoration in 1915 and awarded it throughout the rest of World War I.\n\nThe campaign was the first major military action of [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\") and [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand \"New Zealand\") (or [ANZACs](/wiki/Australian_and_New_Zealand_Army_Corps \"Australian and New Zealand Army Corps\")) as independent [dominions](/wiki/Dominion \"Dominion\"), setting a foundation for Australian and New Zealand military history, and contributing to their developing national identities. The date of the landing, 25 April, is known as \"[ANZAC Day](/wiki/Anzac_Day \"Anzac Day\")\". It remains the most significant commemoration of military casualties and [\"returned soldiers\"](/wiki/Veteran \"Veteran\") in Australia and New Zealand.\n\nOn the Allied side, one of the promoters of the expedition was Britain's [First Lord of the Admiralty](/wiki/First_Lord_of_the_Admiralty \"First Lord of the Admiralty\"), [Winston Churchill](/wiki/Winston_Churchill \"Winston Churchill\"), whose bullish optimism caused damage to his reputation that took years to repair.\n\nPrior to the Allied landings in April 1915, the Ottoman Empire deported [Greek residents](/wiki/Ottoman_Greeks \"Ottoman Greeks\") from Gallipoli and the surrounding region and from the islands in the [sea of Marmara](/wiki/Sea_of_Marmara \"Sea of Marmara\"), to the interior where they were at the mercy of hostile Turks. The Greeks had little time to pack and the Ottoman authorities permitted them to take only some bedding and the rest was handed over to the Government. The Turks then plundered the houses and properties. A testimony of a deportee described how the deportees were forced onto crowded steamers, standing\\-room only, then on disembarking, men of military age were removed (for forced labour in the [labour battalions](/wiki/Labour_Battalions_%28Ottoman_Empire%29 \"Labour Battalions (Ottoman Empire)\") of the Ottoman army). The rest were \"scattered… among the farms like ownerless cattle.\"\n\nThe [Metropolitan bishop](/wiki/Metropolitan_bishop \"Metropolitan bishop\") of Gallipoli wrote on 17 July 1915 that the extermination of the Christian refugees was methodical. He also mentions that \"The Turks, like beasts of prey, immediately plundered all the Christians' property and carried it off. The inhabitants and refugees of my district are entirely without shelter, awaiting to be sent no one knows where ...\". Many Greeks died from hunger and there were frequent cases of rape of women and young girls, as well as their forced conversion to [Islam](/wiki/Islam \"Islam\"). In some cases, [Muhacirs](/wiki/Muhacirs \"Muhacirs\") appeared in the villages even before the Greek inhabitants were deported and stoned the houses and threatened the inhabitants that they would kill them if they did not leave.\n\n#### Greco\\-Turkish War (1919–1922\\)\n\nGreek troops occupied Gallipoli on 4 August 1920 during the [Greco\\-Turkish War of 1919–22](/wiki/Greco-Turkish_War_%281919%E2%80%9322%29 \"Greco-Turkish War (1919–22)\"), considered part of the [Turkish War of Independence](/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence \"Turkish War of Independence\"). After the [Armistice of Mudros](/wiki/Armistice_of_Mudros \"Armistice of Mudros\") of 30 October 1918 it became a Greek prefecture centre as *Kallipolis*. However, Greece was forced to cede Eastern Thrace after the [Armistice of Mudanya](/wiki/Armistice_of_Mudanya \"Armistice of Mudanya\") of October 1922\\. Gallipoli was briefly handed over to British troops on 20 October 1922, but finally returned to Turkish rule on 26 November 1922\\.\n\nIn 1920, after the defeat of the [Russian White army](/wiki/White_movement \"White movement\") of General [Pyotr Wrangel](/wiki/Pyotr_Wrangel \"Pyotr Wrangel\"), a significant number of [émigré soldiers](/wiki/White_%C3%A9migr%C3%A9 \"White émigré\") and their families evacuated to Gallipoli from the [Crimean Peninsula](/wiki/Crimean_Peninsula \"Crimean Peninsula\"). From there, many went to European countries, such as [Yugoslavia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia \"Kingdom of Yugoslavia\"), where they found refuge.\n\nThere are now many [cemeteries and war memorials](/wiki/List_of_war_cemeteries_and_memorials_on_the_Gallipoli_Peninsula \"List of war cemeteries and memorials on the Gallipoli Peninsula\") on the Gallipoli peninsula.\n\n### Turkish Republic\n\nBetween 1923 and 1926 Gallipoli became the centre of Gelibolu Province, comprising the districts of Gelibolu, [Eceabat](/wiki/Eceabat \"Eceabat\"), [Keşan](/wiki/Ke%C5%9Fan \"Keşan\") and [Şarköy](/wiki/%C5%9Eark%C3%B6y \"Şarköy\"). After the dissolution of the province, it became a district centre in [Çanakkale Province](/wiki/%C3%87anakkale_Province \"Çanakkale Province\").\n\n", "### Antiquity and Middle Ages\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|Map of the Thracian Chersonese](/wiki/File:Thracian_chersonese.png \"Thracian chersonese.png\")\nIn ancient times, the Gallipoli Peninsula was known as the [Thracian Chersonese](/wiki/Thracian_Chersonese \"Thracian Chersonese\") (from [Greek](/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language \"Ancient Greek language\") , 'peninsula') to the Greeks and later the Romans. It was the location of several prominent towns, including [Cardia](/wiki/Cardia_%28Thrace%29 \"Cardia (Thrace)\"), [Pactya](/wiki/Pactya \"Pactya\"), Callipolis (Gallipoli), Alopeconnesus (), [Sestos](/wiki/Sestos \"Sestos\"), [Madytos](/wiki/Madytos_%28Thrace%29 \"Madytos (Thrace)\"), and [Elaeus](/wiki/Elaeus \"Elaeus\"). The peninsula was renowned for its [wheat](/wiki/Wheat \"Wheat\"). It also benefited from its strategic importance on the main route between [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\") and [Asia](/wiki/Asia \"Asia\"), as well as from its control of the shipping route from [Crimea](/wiki/Crimea \"Crimea\"). The city of Sestos was the main crossing\\-point on the [Hellespont](/wiki/Hellespont \"Hellespont\").\n\nAccording to [Herodotus](/wiki/Herodotus \"Herodotus\"), the Thracian tribe of [Dolonci](/wiki/Dolonci \"Dolonci\") () (or 'barbarians' according to [Cornelius Nepos](/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos \"Cornelius Nepos\")) held possession of the peninsula before Greek colonizers arrived. Then, settlers from [Ancient Greece](/wiki/Ancient_Greece \"Ancient Greece\"), mainly of [Ionian](/wiki/Ionia \"Ionia\") and [Aeolian](/wiki/Aeolians \"Aeolians\") stock, founded about 12 cities on the peninsula in the 7th century BC.Herodotus, [vi. 34](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=6.34.1) ; [Nepos, Cornelius](/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos \"Cornelius Nepos\"), *Lives of Eminent Commanders*, \"Miltiades\", [1](http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/nepos.htm#Miltiades) The [Athenian](/wiki/Classical_Athens \"Classical Athens\") statesman [Miltiades the Elder](/wiki/Miltiades_the_Elder \"Miltiades the Elder\") founded a major Athenian colony there around 560 BC. He took authority over the entire peninsula, augmenting its defences against incursions from the mainland. It eventually passed to his nephew, the more famous [Miltiades the Younger](/wiki/Miltiades_the_Younger \"Miltiades the Younger\"), about 524 BC. The peninsula was abandoned to the [Persians](/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire \"Achaemenid Empire\") in 493 BC after the beginning of the [Greco\\-Persian Wars](/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars \"Greco-Persian Wars\") (499–478 BC).\n\nThe Persians were eventually expelled, after which the peninsula was for a time ruled by Athens, which enrolled it into the [Delian League](/wiki/Delian_League \"Delian League\") in 478 BC. The Athenians established a number of [cleruchies](/wiki/Cleruchy \"Cleruchy\") on the Thracian Chersonese and sent an additional 1,000 settlers around 448 BC. [Sparta](/wiki/Sparta \"Sparta\") gained control after the decisive [Battle of Aegospotami](/wiki/Battle_of_Aegospotami \"Battle of Aegospotami\") in 404 BC, but the peninsula subsequently reverted to the Athenians. During the 4th century BC, the Thracian Chersonese became the focus of a bitter territorial dispute between Athens and [Macedon](/wiki/Macedon \"Macedon\"), whose king [Philip II](/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon \"Philip II of Macedon\") sought its possession. It was eventually ceded to Philip in 338 BC.\n\nAfter the death of Philip's son [Alexander the Great](/wiki/Alexander_the_Great \"Alexander the Great\") in 323 BC, the Thracian Chersonese became the object of contention among [Alexander's successors](/wiki/Diadochi \"Diadochi\"). [Lysimachus](/wiki/Lysimachus \"Lysimachus\") established his capital [Lysimachia](/wiki/Lysimachia_%28Thrace%29 \"Lysimachia (Thrace)\") here. In 278 BC, [Celtic tribes](/wiki/List_of_ancient_Celtic_peoples_and_tribes \"List of ancient Celtic peoples and tribes\") from [Galatia](/wiki/Galatia \"Galatia\") in Asia Minor settled in the area. In 196 BC, the [Seleucid](/wiki/Seleucid_Empire \"Seleucid Empire\") king [Antiochus III](/wiki/Antiochus_III_the_Great \"Antiochus III the Great\") seized the peninsula. This alarmed the Greeks and prompted them to seek the aid of the [Romans](/wiki/Roman_Republic \"Roman Republic\"), who conquered the Thracian Chersonese, which they gave to their ally [Eumenes II](/wiki/Eumenes_II \"Eumenes II\") of [Pergamon](/wiki/Pergamon \"Pergamon\") in 188 BC. At the extinction of the [Attalid dynasty](/wiki/Attalid_dynasty \"Attalid dynasty\") in 133 BC it passed again to the Romans, who from 129 BC administered it in the [Roman province](/wiki/Roman_province \"Roman province\") of [Asia](/wiki/Asia_%28Roman_province%29 \"Asia (Roman province)\"). It was subsequently made a state\\-owned territory () and during the reign of the emperor [Augustus](/wiki/Augustus \"Augustus\") it was imperial property.\n[thumb\\|Map of the peninsula and its surroundings](/wiki/File:Gallipolimap2.png \"Gallipolimap2.png\")\n\nThe Thracian Chersonese was part of the [Eastern Roman Empire](/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire \"Eastern Roman Empire\") from its foundation in 395 AD. In 443 AD, [Attila the Hun](/wiki/Attila_the_Hun \"Attila the Hun\") invaded the Gallipoli Peninsula during one of the last stages of his grand campaign that year. He captured both Callipolis and Sestus. Aside from a brief period from 1204 to 1235, when it was controlled by the [Republic of Venice](/wiki/Republic_of_Venice \"Republic of Venice\"), the [Byzantine Empire](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire \"Byzantine Empire\") ruled the territory until 1356\\. During the night between 1 and 2 March 1354, a strong earthquake destroyed the city of Gallipoli and its city walls, weakening its defenses.\n\n", "### Ottoman era\n\n#### Ottoman conquest\n\nWithin a month after the devastating 1354 earthquake the [Ottomans](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\") [besieged and captured](/wiki/Fall_of_Gallipoli \"Fall of Gallipoli\") the town of Gallipoli, making it the first Ottoman stronghold in Europe and the staging area for Ottoman expansion across the [Balkans](/wiki/Balkans \"Balkans\").Crowley, Roger. 1453: *The Holy War for Constantinople and the Clash of Islam and the West*. New York: Hyperion, 2005\\. p 31 . The [Savoyard Crusade](/wiki/Savoyard_Crusade \"Savoyard Crusade\") recaptured Gallipoli for Byzantium in 1366, but the beleaguered Byzantines were forced to hand it back in September 1376\\. The [Greeks](/wiki/Greeks \"Greeks\") living there were allowed to continue their everyday activities. In the 19th century, Gallipoli (, ) was a district () in the [Vilayet of Adrianople](/wiki/Vilayet_of_Adrianople \"Vilayet of Adrianople\"), with about thirty thousand inhabitants: comprising Greeks, Turks, Armenians and Jews.\n\n#### Crimean War (1853–1856\\)\n\n[thumb\\|The port of Gallipoli, ](/wiki/File:Port_de_Gallipoli.JPG \"Port de Gallipoli.JPG\")\nGallipoli became a major [encampment](/wiki/Military_camp \"Military camp\") for British and French forces in 1854 during the [Crimean War](/wiki/Crimean_War \"Crimean War\"), and the harbour was also a stopping\\-off point between the western Mediterranean and [Istanbul](/wiki/Istanbul \"Istanbul\") (formerly [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople \"Constantinople\")).\n\nIn March 1854 British and French engineers constructed an line of defence to protect the peninsula from a possible Russian attack and secure control of the route to the [Mediterranean Sea](/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea \"Mediterranean Sea\").\n\n#### First Balkan War (1912–1913\\)\n\nDuring the [First Balkan War](/wiki/First_Balkan_War \"First Balkan War\"), the 1913 [Battle of Bulair](/wiki/Battle_of_Bulair \"Battle of Bulair\") and several minor skirmishes took place where the Ottoman army fought in the Greek villages near Gallipoli\". The [Report of the International Commission on the Balkan Wars](/wiki/Report_of_the_International_Commission_on_the_Balkan_Wars \"Report of the International Commission on the Balkan Wars\") mention destruction and massacres in the area by the Ottoman army against Greek and Bulgarian population.\n\nThe Ottoman Government, under the pretext that a village was within the firing line, ordered its evacuation within three hours. The residents abandoned everything they possessed, left their village and went to [Gallipoli](/wiki/Gelibolu \"Gelibolu\"). Seven of the Greek villagers who stayed two minutes later than the three\\-hour limit allowed for the evacuation were shot by the soldiers. After the end of the Balkan War the exiles were allowed to return. But as the Government allowed only the Turks to rebuild their houses and furnish them, the exiled Greeks were compelled to remain in Gallipoli.\n\n#### World War I: Gallipoli Campaign (1914–1918\\)\n\n[thumb\\|Landing at Gallipoli in April 1915](/wiki/File:Landing_at_Gallipoli_%2813901951593%29.jpg \"Landing at Gallipoli (13901951593).jpg\")\n[thumb\\|The Sphinx overlooking Anzac Cove](/wiki/File:Gallipoli_ANZAC_Cove_Sphinx_2.JPG \"Gallipoli ANZAC Cove Sphinx 2.JPG\")\n\nDuring World War I (1914–1918\\), French, British, and allied forces (Australian, New Zealand, Newfoundland, Irish and Indian) fought the [Gallipoli campaign](/wiki/Gallipoli_campaign \"Gallipoli campaign\") (1915–1916\\) in and near the peninsula, seeking to secure a sea route to relieve their eastern ally, [Russia](/wiki/Imperial_Russia \"Imperial Russia\"). The Ottomans set up defensive fortifications along the peninsula and contained the invading forces.\n\nIn early 1915, attempting to seize a strategic advantage in World War I by capturing the [Bosporus Strait](/wiki/Bosporus_Strait \"Bosporus Strait\") at [Istanbul](/wiki/Istanbul \"Istanbul\") (formerly [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople \"Constantinople\")), the British authorised an attack on the peninsula by French, British, and British Empire forces. The first Australian troops landed at [ANZAC Cove](/wiki/ANZAC_Cove \"ANZAC Cove\") early in the morning of 25 April 1915\\. After eight months of heavy fighting the last Allied soldiers withdrew by 9 January 1916\\.\n\nThe campaign, one of the greatest [Ottoman](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\") victories during the war, is considered by historians as a humiliating [Allied](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I \"Allies of World War I\") failure. [Turks](/wiki/Turkey \"Turkey\") regard it as a defining moment in their nation's history and national identity, contributing to the establishment of the Republic of Turkey eight years later under President [Mustafa Kemal Atatürk](/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk \"Mustafa Kemal Atatürk\"), who first rose to prominence as a commander at Gallipoli.\n\nThe Ottoman Empire instituted the [Gallipoli Star](/wiki/Gallipoli_Star_%28Ottoman_Empire%29 \"Gallipoli Star (Ottoman Empire)\") as a military decoration in 1915 and awarded it throughout the rest of World War I.\n\nThe campaign was the first major military action of [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\") and [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand \"New Zealand\") (or [ANZACs](/wiki/Australian_and_New_Zealand_Army_Corps \"Australian and New Zealand Army Corps\")) as independent [dominions](/wiki/Dominion \"Dominion\"), setting a foundation for Australian and New Zealand military history, and contributing to their developing national identities. The date of the landing, 25 April, is known as \"[ANZAC Day](/wiki/Anzac_Day \"Anzac Day\")\". It remains the most significant commemoration of military casualties and [\"returned soldiers\"](/wiki/Veteran \"Veteran\") in Australia and New Zealand.\n\nOn the Allied side, one of the promoters of the expedition was Britain's [First Lord of the Admiralty](/wiki/First_Lord_of_the_Admiralty \"First Lord of the Admiralty\"), [Winston Churchill](/wiki/Winston_Churchill \"Winston Churchill\"), whose bullish optimism caused damage to his reputation that took years to repair.\n\nPrior to the Allied landings in April 1915, the Ottoman Empire deported [Greek residents](/wiki/Ottoman_Greeks \"Ottoman Greeks\") from Gallipoli and the surrounding region and from the islands in the [sea of Marmara](/wiki/Sea_of_Marmara \"Sea of Marmara\"), to the interior where they were at the mercy of hostile Turks. The Greeks had little time to pack and the Ottoman authorities permitted them to take only some bedding and the rest was handed over to the Government. The Turks then plundered the houses and properties. A testimony of a deportee described how the deportees were forced onto crowded steamers, standing\\-room only, then on disembarking, men of military age were removed (for forced labour in the [labour battalions](/wiki/Labour_Battalions_%28Ottoman_Empire%29 \"Labour Battalions (Ottoman Empire)\") of the Ottoman army). The rest were \"scattered… among the farms like ownerless cattle.\"\n\nThe [Metropolitan bishop](/wiki/Metropolitan_bishop \"Metropolitan bishop\") of Gallipoli wrote on 17 July 1915 that the extermination of the Christian refugees was methodical. He also mentions that \"The Turks, like beasts of prey, immediately plundered all the Christians' property and carried it off. The inhabitants and refugees of my district are entirely without shelter, awaiting to be sent no one knows where ...\". Many Greeks died from hunger and there were frequent cases of rape of women and young girls, as well as their forced conversion to [Islam](/wiki/Islam \"Islam\"). In some cases, [Muhacirs](/wiki/Muhacirs \"Muhacirs\") appeared in the villages even before the Greek inhabitants were deported and stoned the houses and threatened the inhabitants that they would kill them if they did not leave.\n\n#### Greco\\-Turkish War (1919–1922\\)\n\nGreek troops occupied Gallipoli on 4 August 1920 during the [Greco\\-Turkish War of 1919–22](/wiki/Greco-Turkish_War_%281919%E2%80%9322%29 \"Greco-Turkish War (1919–22)\"), considered part of the [Turkish War of Independence](/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence \"Turkish War of Independence\"). After the [Armistice of Mudros](/wiki/Armistice_of_Mudros \"Armistice of Mudros\") of 30 October 1918 it became a Greek prefecture centre as *Kallipolis*. However, Greece was forced to cede Eastern Thrace after the [Armistice of Mudanya](/wiki/Armistice_of_Mudanya \"Armistice of Mudanya\") of October 1922\\. Gallipoli was briefly handed over to British troops on 20 October 1922, but finally returned to Turkish rule on 26 November 1922\\.\n\nIn 1920, after the defeat of the [Russian White army](/wiki/White_movement \"White movement\") of General [Pyotr Wrangel](/wiki/Pyotr_Wrangel \"Pyotr Wrangel\"), a significant number of [émigré soldiers](/wiki/White_%C3%A9migr%C3%A9 \"White émigré\") and their families evacuated to Gallipoli from the [Crimean Peninsula](/wiki/Crimean_Peninsula \"Crimean Peninsula\"). From there, many went to European countries, such as [Yugoslavia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia \"Kingdom of Yugoslavia\"), where they found refuge.\n\nThere are now many [cemeteries and war memorials](/wiki/List_of_war_cemeteries_and_memorials_on_the_Gallipoli_Peninsula \"List of war cemeteries and memorials on the Gallipoli Peninsula\") on the Gallipoli peninsula.\n\n", "#### Ottoman conquest\n\nWithin a month after the devastating 1354 earthquake the [Ottomans](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\") [besieged and captured](/wiki/Fall_of_Gallipoli \"Fall of Gallipoli\") the town of Gallipoli, making it the first Ottoman stronghold in Europe and the staging area for Ottoman expansion across the [Balkans](/wiki/Balkans \"Balkans\").Crowley, Roger. 1453: *The Holy War for Constantinople and the Clash of Islam and the West*. New York: Hyperion, 2005\\. p 31 . The [Savoyard Crusade](/wiki/Savoyard_Crusade \"Savoyard Crusade\") recaptured Gallipoli for Byzantium in 1366, but the beleaguered Byzantines were forced to hand it back in September 1376\\. The [Greeks](/wiki/Greeks \"Greeks\") living there were allowed to continue their everyday activities. In the 19th century, Gallipoli (, ) was a district () in the [Vilayet of Adrianople](/wiki/Vilayet_of_Adrianople \"Vilayet of Adrianople\"), with about thirty thousand inhabitants: comprising Greeks, Turks, Armenians and Jews.\n\n", "#### Crimean War (1853–1856\\)\n\n[thumb\\|The port of Gallipoli, ](/wiki/File:Port_de_Gallipoli.JPG \"Port de Gallipoli.JPG\")\nGallipoli became a major [encampment](/wiki/Military_camp \"Military camp\") for British and French forces in 1854 during the [Crimean War](/wiki/Crimean_War \"Crimean War\"), and the harbour was also a stopping\\-off point between the western Mediterranean and [Istanbul](/wiki/Istanbul \"Istanbul\") (formerly [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople \"Constantinople\")).\n\nIn March 1854 British and French engineers constructed an line of defence to protect the peninsula from a possible Russian attack and secure control of the route to the [Mediterranean Sea](/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea \"Mediterranean Sea\").\n\n", "#### First Balkan War (1912–1913\\)\n\nDuring the [First Balkan War](/wiki/First_Balkan_War \"First Balkan War\"), the 1913 [Battle of Bulair](/wiki/Battle_of_Bulair \"Battle of Bulair\") and several minor skirmishes took place where the Ottoman army fought in the Greek villages near Gallipoli\". The [Report of the International Commission on the Balkan Wars](/wiki/Report_of_the_International_Commission_on_the_Balkan_Wars \"Report of the International Commission on the Balkan Wars\") mention destruction and massacres in the area by the Ottoman army against Greek and Bulgarian population.\n\nThe Ottoman Government, under the pretext that a village was within the firing line, ordered its evacuation within three hours. The residents abandoned everything they possessed, left their village and went to [Gallipoli](/wiki/Gelibolu \"Gelibolu\"). Seven of the Greek villagers who stayed two minutes later than the three\\-hour limit allowed for the evacuation were shot by the soldiers. After the end of the Balkan War the exiles were allowed to return. But as the Government allowed only the Turks to rebuild their houses and furnish them, the exiled Greeks were compelled to remain in Gallipoli.\n\n", "#### World War I: Gallipoli Campaign (1914–1918\\)\n\n[thumb\\|Landing at Gallipoli in April 1915](/wiki/File:Landing_at_Gallipoli_%2813901951593%29.jpg \"Landing at Gallipoli (13901951593).jpg\")\n[thumb\\|The Sphinx overlooking Anzac Cove](/wiki/File:Gallipoli_ANZAC_Cove_Sphinx_2.JPG \"Gallipoli ANZAC Cove Sphinx 2.JPG\")\n\nDuring World War I (1914–1918\\), French, British, and allied forces (Australian, New Zealand, Newfoundland, Irish and Indian) fought the [Gallipoli campaign](/wiki/Gallipoli_campaign \"Gallipoli campaign\") (1915–1916\\) in and near the peninsula, seeking to secure a sea route to relieve their eastern ally, [Russia](/wiki/Imperial_Russia \"Imperial Russia\"). The Ottomans set up defensive fortifications along the peninsula and contained the invading forces.\n\nIn early 1915, attempting to seize a strategic advantage in World War I by capturing the [Bosporus Strait](/wiki/Bosporus_Strait \"Bosporus Strait\") at [Istanbul](/wiki/Istanbul \"Istanbul\") (formerly [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople \"Constantinople\")), the British authorised an attack on the peninsula by French, British, and British Empire forces. The first Australian troops landed at [ANZAC Cove](/wiki/ANZAC_Cove \"ANZAC Cove\") early in the morning of 25 April 1915\\. After eight months of heavy fighting the last Allied soldiers withdrew by 9 January 1916\\.\n\nThe campaign, one of the greatest [Ottoman](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\") victories during the war, is considered by historians as a humiliating [Allied](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I \"Allies of World War I\") failure. [Turks](/wiki/Turkey \"Turkey\") regard it as a defining moment in their nation's history and national identity, contributing to the establishment of the Republic of Turkey eight years later under President [Mustafa Kemal Atatürk](/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk \"Mustafa Kemal Atatürk\"), who first rose to prominence as a commander at Gallipoli.\n\nThe Ottoman Empire instituted the [Gallipoli Star](/wiki/Gallipoli_Star_%28Ottoman_Empire%29 \"Gallipoli Star (Ottoman Empire)\") as a military decoration in 1915 and awarded it throughout the rest of World War I.\n\nThe campaign was the first major military action of [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\") and [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand \"New Zealand\") (or [ANZACs](/wiki/Australian_and_New_Zealand_Army_Corps \"Australian and New Zealand Army Corps\")) as independent [dominions](/wiki/Dominion \"Dominion\"), setting a foundation for Australian and New Zealand military history, and contributing to their developing national identities. The date of the landing, 25 April, is known as \"[ANZAC Day](/wiki/Anzac_Day \"Anzac Day\")\". It remains the most significant commemoration of military casualties and [\"returned soldiers\"](/wiki/Veteran \"Veteran\") in Australia and New Zealand.\n\nOn the Allied side, one of the promoters of the expedition was Britain's [First Lord of the Admiralty](/wiki/First_Lord_of_the_Admiralty \"First Lord of the Admiralty\"), [Winston Churchill](/wiki/Winston_Churchill \"Winston Churchill\"), whose bullish optimism caused damage to his reputation that took years to repair.\n\nPrior to the Allied landings in April 1915, the Ottoman Empire deported [Greek residents](/wiki/Ottoman_Greeks \"Ottoman Greeks\") from Gallipoli and the surrounding region and from the islands in the [sea of Marmara](/wiki/Sea_of_Marmara \"Sea of Marmara\"), to the interior where they were at the mercy of hostile Turks. The Greeks had little time to pack and the Ottoman authorities permitted them to take only some bedding and the rest was handed over to the Government. The Turks then plundered the houses and properties. A testimony of a deportee described how the deportees were forced onto crowded steamers, standing\\-room only, then on disembarking, men of military age were removed (for forced labour in the [labour battalions](/wiki/Labour_Battalions_%28Ottoman_Empire%29 \"Labour Battalions (Ottoman Empire)\") of the Ottoman army). The rest were \"scattered… among the farms like ownerless cattle.\"\n\nThe [Metropolitan bishop](/wiki/Metropolitan_bishop \"Metropolitan bishop\") of Gallipoli wrote on 17 July 1915 that the extermination of the Christian refugees was methodical. He also mentions that \"The Turks, like beasts of prey, immediately plundered all the Christians' property and carried it off. The inhabitants and refugees of my district are entirely without shelter, awaiting to be sent no one knows where ...\". Many Greeks died from hunger and there were frequent cases of rape of women and young girls, as well as their forced conversion to [Islam](/wiki/Islam \"Islam\"). In some cases, [Muhacirs](/wiki/Muhacirs \"Muhacirs\") appeared in the villages even before the Greek inhabitants were deported and stoned the houses and threatened the inhabitants that they would kill them if they did not leave.\n\n", "#### Greco\\-Turkish War (1919–1922\\)\n\nGreek troops occupied Gallipoli on 4 August 1920 during the [Greco\\-Turkish War of 1919–22](/wiki/Greco-Turkish_War_%281919%E2%80%9322%29 \"Greco-Turkish War (1919–22)\"), considered part of the [Turkish War of Independence](/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence \"Turkish War of Independence\"). After the [Armistice of Mudros](/wiki/Armistice_of_Mudros \"Armistice of Mudros\") of 30 October 1918 it became a Greek prefecture centre as *Kallipolis*. However, Greece was forced to cede Eastern Thrace after the [Armistice of Mudanya](/wiki/Armistice_of_Mudanya \"Armistice of Mudanya\") of October 1922\\. Gallipoli was briefly handed over to British troops on 20 October 1922, but finally returned to Turkish rule on 26 November 1922\\.\n\nIn 1920, after the defeat of the [Russian White army](/wiki/White_movement \"White movement\") of General [Pyotr Wrangel](/wiki/Pyotr_Wrangel \"Pyotr Wrangel\"), a significant number of [émigré soldiers](/wiki/White_%C3%A9migr%C3%A9 \"White émigré\") and their families evacuated to Gallipoli from the [Crimean Peninsula](/wiki/Crimean_Peninsula \"Crimean Peninsula\"). From there, many went to European countries, such as [Yugoslavia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia \"Kingdom of Yugoslavia\"), where they found refuge.\n\nThere are now many [cemeteries and war memorials](/wiki/List_of_war_cemeteries_and_memorials_on_the_Gallipoli_Peninsula \"List of war cemeteries and memorials on the Gallipoli Peninsula\") on the Gallipoli peninsula.\n\n", "### Turkish Republic\n\nBetween 1923 and 1926 Gallipoli became the centre of Gelibolu Province, comprising the districts of Gelibolu, [Eceabat](/wiki/Eceabat \"Eceabat\"), [Keşan](/wiki/Ke%C5%9Fan \"Keşan\") and [Şarköy](/wiki/%C5%9Eark%C3%B6y \"Şarköy\"). After the dissolution of the province, it became a district centre in [Çanakkale Province](/wiki/%C3%87anakkale_Province \"Çanakkale Province\").\n\n", "Notable people\n--------------\n\n* [Ahmed Bican](/wiki/Ahmed_Bican \"Ahmed Bican\") (1398 – ), author\n* [Piri Reis](/wiki/Piri_Reis \"Piri Reis\") (1465/70 – 1553), admiral, geographer and cartographer\n* [Mustafa Âlî](/wiki/Mustafa_%C3%82l%C3%AE \"Mustafa Âlî\") (1541–1600\\), Ottoman historian, politician and writer\n* [Sofia Vembo](/wiki/Sofia_Vembo \"Sofia Vembo\") (1910–1978\\), Greek singer and actress\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [Gallipoli Peninsula Historical National Park photos with info](https://web.archive.org/web/20110524001248/http://e-turkey.net/v/canakkale_gallipoli/)\n* [Tours of Gallipoli](https://rsltours.com/) \n* [Australia's role in the Gallipoli Campaign – Website (ABC and Dept of Veteran's Affairs)](http://www.abc.net.au/ww1-anzac/gallipoli/)\n\n[Category:Dardanelles](/wiki/Category:Dardanelles \"Dardanelles\")\n[Category:Geography of Thrace](/wiki/Category:Geography_of_Thrace \"Geography of Thrace\")\n[Category:Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Turkey](/wiki/Category:Ancient_Greek_archaeological_sites_in_Turkey \"Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Turkey\")\n[Category:Landforms of Çanakkale Province](/wiki/Category:Landforms_of_%C3%87anakkale_Province \"Landforms of Çanakkale Province\")\n[Gelibolu](/wiki/Category:Headlands_of_Turkey \"Headlands of Turkey\")\n[Category:Peninsulas of Turkey](/wiki/Category:Peninsulas_of_Turkey \"Peninsulas of Turkey\")\n[Category:Tourist attractions in Çanakkale Province](/wiki/Category:Tourist_attractions_in_%C3%87anakkale_Province \"Tourist attractions in Çanakkale Province\")\n[Category:Territories of the Republic of Venice](/wiki/Category:Territories_of_the_Republic_of_Venice \"Territories of the Republic of Venice\")\n[Category:World Heritage Tentative List for Turkey](/wiki/Category:World_Heritage_Tentative_List_for_Turkey \"World Heritage Tentative List for Turkey\")\n[Category:Places of the Greek genocide](/wiki/Category:Places_of_the_Greek_genocide \"Places of the Greek genocide\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 30292728 ], "name": [ "Frost" ] }

{ "title": [ "Mayo", "Places", "Antarctica", "Australia", "Canada", "Cape Verde", "Republic of Ireland", "Ivory Coast", "Sudan", "Thailand", "United Kingdom", "United States", "Multiple places", "Schools", "People", "Other uses" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "**Mayo** often refers to:\n\n* [Mayonnaise](/wiki/Mayonnaise \"Mayonnaise\"), a sauce\n* [Mayo Clinic](/wiki/Mayo_Clinic \"Mayo Clinic\"), a medical center in Rochester, Minnesota, United States\n\n**Mayo** may also refer to:\n\n", "Places\n------\n\n### Antarctica\n\n* [Mayo Peak](/wiki/Mayo_Peak \"Mayo Peak\"), Marie Byrd Land\n\n### Australia\n\n* [Division of Mayo](/wiki/Division_of_Mayo \"Division of Mayo\"), an Australian Electoral Division in South Australia\n\n### Canada\n\n* [Mayo, Quebec](/wiki/Mayo%2C_Quebec \"Mayo, Quebec\"), a municipality\n* [Mayo, Yukon](/wiki/Mayo%2C_Yukon \"Mayo, Yukon\"), a village\n\t+ [Mayo (electoral district)](/wiki/Mayo_%28electoral_district%29 \"Mayo (electoral district)\"), Yukon, a former electoral district\n\n### Cape Verde\n\n* [Maio, Cape Verde](/wiki/Maio%2C_Cape_Verde \"Maio, Cape Verde\") (also formerly known as Mayo Island)\n\n### Republic of Ireland\n\n* [County Mayo](/wiki/County_Mayo \"County Mayo\")\n* [Mayo (Dáil constituency)](/wiki/Mayo_%28D%C3%A1il_constituency%29 \"Mayo (Dáil constituency)\")\n* [County Mayo (Parliament of Ireland constituency)](/wiki/County_Mayo_%28Parliament_of_Ireland_constituency%29 \"County Mayo (Parliament of Ireland constituency)\")\n* [County Mayo (UK Parliament constituency)](/wiki/County_Mayo_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"County Mayo (UK Parliament constituency)\")\n* [Mayo, County Mayo](/wiki/Mayo%2C_County_Mayo \"Mayo, County Mayo\"), a village\n\n### Ivory Coast\n\n* [Mayo, Ivory Coast](/wiki/Mayo%2C_Ivory_Coast \"Mayo, Ivory Coast\"), a town and commune\n\n### Sudan\n\n* [Mayo, Khartoum](/wiki/Mayo%2C_Khartoum \"Mayo, Khartoum\"), a neighborhood\n\n### Thailand\n\n* [Mayo district, Pattani](/wiki/Mayo_district%2C_Pattani \"Mayo district, Pattani\")\n\n### United Kingdom\n\n* Mayo, a [townland in County Down](/wiki/List_of_townlands_in_County_Down%23M \"List of townlands in County Down#M\"), Northern Ireland\n* [Mayo (UK Parliament constituency)](/wiki/Mayo_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Mayo (UK Parliament constituency)\"), a former constituency encompassing the whole of County Mayo\n\n### United States\n\n* [Mayo, Florida](/wiki/Mayo%2C_Florida \"Mayo, Florida\"), a town\n* [Mayo, Kentucky](/wiki/Mayo%2C_Kentucky \"Mayo, Kentucky\"), an unincorporated community\n* [Mayo, Maryland](/wiki/Mayo%2C_Maryland \"Mayo, Maryland\"), a census\\-designated place\n* [Mayo, South Carolina](/wiki/Mayo%2C_South_Carolina \"Mayo, South Carolina\"), a census\\-designated place\n* [Mayo Lake](/wiki/Mayo_Lake \"Mayo Lake\"), North Carolina, a reservoir\n\n### Multiple places\n\n* [Mayo River (disambiguation)](/wiki/Mayo_River_%28disambiguation%29 \"Mayo River (disambiguation)\"), various rivers\n", "### Antarctica\n\n* [Mayo Peak](/wiki/Mayo_Peak \"Mayo Peak\"), Marie Byrd Land\n", "### Australia\n\n* [Division of Mayo](/wiki/Division_of_Mayo \"Division of Mayo\"), an Australian Electoral Division in South Australia\n", "### Canada\n\n* [Mayo, Quebec](/wiki/Mayo%2C_Quebec \"Mayo, Quebec\"), a municipality\n* [Mayo, Yukon](/wiki/Mayo%2C_Yukon \"Mayo, Yukon\"), a village\n\t+ [Mayo (electoral district)](/wiki/Mayo_%28electoral_district%29 \"Mayo (electoral district)\"), Yukon, a former electoral district\n", "### Cape Verde\n\n* [Maio, Cape Verde](/wiki/Maio%2C_Cape_Verde \"Maio, Cape Verde\") (also formerly known as Mayo Island)\n", "### Republic of Ireland\n\n* [County Mayo](/wiki/County_Mayo \"County Mayo\")\n* [Mayo (Dáil constituency)](/wiki/Mayo_%28D%C3%A1il_constituency%29 \"Mayo (Dáil constituency)\")\n* [County Mayo (Parliament of Ireland constituency)](/wiki/County_Mayo_%28Parliament_of_Ireland_constituency%29 \"County Mayo (Parliament of Ireland constituency)\")\n* [County Mayo (UK Parliament constituency)](/wiki/County_Mayo_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"County Mayo (UK Parliament constituency)\")\n* [Mayo, County Mayo](/wiki/Mayo%2C_County_Mayo \"Mayo, County Mayo\"), a village\n", "### Ivory Coast\n\n* [Mayo, Ivory Coast](/wiki/Mayo%2C_Ivory_Coast \"Mayo, Ivory Coast\"), a town and commune\n", "### Sudan\n\n* [Mayo, Khartoum](/wiki/Mayo%2C_Khartoum \"Mayo, Khartoum\"), a neighborhood\n", "### Thailand\n\n* [Mayo district, Pattani](/wiki/Mayo_district%2C_Pattani \"Mayo district, Pattani\")\n", "### United Kingdom\n\n* Mayo, a [townland in County Down](/wiki/List_of_townlands_in_County_Down%23M \"List of townlands in County Down#M\"), Northern Ireland\n* [Mayo (UK Parliament constituency)](/wiki/Mayo_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Mayo (UK Parliament constituency)\"), a former constituency encompassing the whole of County Mayo\n", "### United States\n\n* [Mayo, Florida](/wiki/Mayo%2C_Florida \"Mayo, Florida\"), a town\n* [Mayo, Kentucky](/wiki/Mayo%2C_Kentucky \"Mayo, Kentucky\"), an unincorporated community\n* [Mayo, Maryland](/wiki/Mayo%2C_Maryland \"Mayo, Maryland\"), a census\\-designated place\n* [Mayo, South Carolina](/wiki/Mayo%2C_South_Carolina \"Mayo, South Carolina\"), a census\\-designated place\n* [Mayo Lake](/wiki/Mayo_Lake \"Mayo Lake\"), North Carolina, a reservoir\n", "### Multiple places\n\n* [Mayo River (disambiguation)](/wiki/Mayo_River_%28disambiguation%29 \"Mayo River (disambiguation)\"), various rivers\n", "Schools\n-------\n\n* [Mayo Clinic School of Medicine](/wiki/Mayo_Clinic_School_of_Medicine \"Mayo Clinic School of Medicine\"), formerly Mayo Medical School, an American medical school that is part of the Mayo Clinic and the Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science\n* [Mayo High School](/wiki/Mayo_High_School \"Mayo High School\"), a public high school in Rochester, Minnesota, United States\n* [Mayo College](/wiki/Mayo_College \"Mayo College\"), a secondary educational institution in Ajmer, Rajasthan, India\n", "People\n------\n\n* [Mayo (surname)](/wiki/Mayo_%28surname%29 \"Mayo (surname)\")\n* [Mayo (given name)](/wiki/Mayo_%28given_name%29 \"Mayo (given name)\")\n* [Mayo people](/wiki/Mayo_people \"Mayo people\"), an indigenous ethnic group in the Mexican states of Sinaloa and Sonora\n* [Meo (ethnic group)](/wiki/Meo_%28ethnic_group%29 \"Meo (ethnic group)\") or Mayo, an Indian ethnic tribe of Rajputs\n* James Mayo, pen name of [Stephen Coulter](/wiki/Stephen_Coulter \"Stephen Coulter\") (born 1913/14\\), English author\n", "Other uses\n----------\n\n* [Short Mayo Composite](/wiki/Short_Mayo_Composite \"Short Mayo Composite\"), a piggy\\-back long\\-range seaplane/flying boat combination built by Short Brothers in the late 1930s\n* , World War II US Navy destroyer\n* [Earl of Mayo](/wiki/Earl_of_Mayo \"Earl of Mayo\"), a title in the Peerage of Ireland\n* [Viscount Mayo](/wiki/Viscount_Mayo \"Viscount Mayo\"), a title that has been created twice in the Peerage of Ireland\n* [Mayo GAA](/wiki/Mayo_GAA \"Mayo GAA\"), a county board of the Gaelic Athletic Association\n\t+ [Mayo county football team](/wiki/Mayo_county_football_team \"Mayo county football team\")\n\t+ [Mayo county hurling team](/wiki/Mayo_county_hurling_team \"Mayo county hurling team\")\n* [Mayo language](/wiki/Mayo_language \"Mayo language\"), spoken by the Mayo people\n* [*Mayo* (TV series)](/wiki/Mayo_%28TV_series%29 \"Mayo (TV series)\"), a BBC television series first broadcast in 2006\n* [\"Mayo\" (song)](/wiki/Mayo_%28song%29 \"Mayo (song)\"), by DJ Speedsta\n* [Mayo Hospital](/wiki/Mayo_Hospital \"Mayo Hospital\"), in Lahore, Pakistan\n* [Mayo Hotel](/wiki/Mayo_Hotel \"Mayo Hotel\"), Tulsa, Oklahoma, on the National Register of Historic Places\n* [Mexican American Youth Organization](/wiki/Mexican_American_Youth_Organization \"Mexican American Youth Organization\")\n* Project Mayo, an open source project by [DivX, Inc.](/wiki/DivX%2C_Inc. \"DivX, Inc.\")\n* *[Mayo v. Prometheus](/wiki/Mayo_v._Prometheus \"Mayo v. Prometheus\")*, a U.S. Supreme Court case\n* *[Avenida de Mayo](/wiki/Avenida_de_Mayo \"Avenida de Mayo\")*, an avenue in Buenos Aires, Argentina\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 48143508 ], "name": [ "Partey Lover" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Name conflicts", "Solution via prefix", "Naming system", "Examples", "Delegation", "Hierarchy{{anchor|hierarchical namespace}}", "Namespace versus scope", "In programming languages", "Computer-science considerations", "Use in common languages", "C", "C++", "Java", "C#", "Python", "XML namespace <!-- This section is linked from [[XML]] -->", "PHP <!-- This section is linked from [[PHP]] -->", "Emulating namespaces", "See also", "References" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 3, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\nIn [computing](/wiki/Computing \"Computing\"), a **namespace** is a set of signs (*names*) that are used to identify and refer to objects of various kinds. A namespace ensures that all of a given set of objects have unique names so that they can be easily [identified](/wiki/Identifier \"Identifier\").\n\nNamespaces are commonly structured as hierarchies to allow reuse of names in different contexts. As an analogy, consider a system of [naming of people](/wiki/Anthroponymy \"Anthroponymy\") where each person has a given name, as well as a family name shared with their relatives. If the first names of family members are unique only within each family, then each person can be uniquely identified by the combination of first name and family name; there is only one Jane Doe, though there may be many Janes. Within the namespace of the Doe family, just \"Jane\" suffices to unambiguously designate this person, while within the \"global\" namespace of all people, the full name must be used.\n\nProminent examples for namespaces include [file systems](/wiki/File_system \"File system\"), which assign names to files.\nSome [programming languages](/wiki/Programming_language \"Programming language\") organize their [variables](/wiki/Variable_%28computer_science%29 \"Variable (computer science)\") and [subroutines](/wiki/Subroutine \"Subroutine\") in namespaces.\n[Computer networks](/wiki/Computer_network \"Computer network\") and [distributed systems](/wiki/Distributed_system \"Distributed system\") assign names to resources, such as [computers](/wiki/Computer \"Computer\"), [printers](/wiki/Printer_%28computing%29 \"Printer (computing)\"), [websites](/wiki/Website \"Website\"), and remote files. [Operating systems](/wiki/Operating_system \"Operating system\") can partition [kernel](/wiki/Kernel_%28operating_system%29 \"Kernel (operating system)\") resources by isolated namespaces to support virtualization [containers](/wiki/OS-level_virtualisation \"OS-level virtualisation\").\n\nSimilarly, [hierarchical file systems](/wiki/Directory_%28computing%29 \"Directory (computing)\") organize files in directories. Each directory is a separate namespace, so that the directories \"letters\" and \"invoices\" may both contain a file \"to\\_jane\".\n\nIn [computer programming](/wiki/Computer_programming \"Computer programming\"), namespaces are typically employed for the purpose of grouping symbols and identifiers around a particular functionality and to avoid [name collisions](/wiki/Name_collision \"Name collision\") between multiple identifiers that share the same name.\n\nIn [networking](/wiki/Computer_network \"Computer network\"), the [Domain Name System](/wiki/Domain_Name_System \"Domain Name System\") organizes websites (and other resources) into [hierarchical namespaces](/wiki/Hierarchical_namespace \"Hierarchical namespace\").\n\n", "Name conflicts\n--------------\n\nElement names are defined by the developer. This often results in a conflict when trying to mix XML documents from different XML applications.\n\nThis XML carries [HTML table](/wiki/HTML_table \"HTML table\") information:\n\n\\<table\\>\n\n```\n <tr>\n <td>Apples</td>\n <td>Oranges</td>\n </tr>\n\n```\n\\</table\\>\n\nThis XML carries information about a [table](/wiki/Table_%28furniture%29 \"Table (furniture)\") (i.e. a piece of furniture):\n\n\\<table\\>\n\n```\n <name>Mahogany Coffee Table</name>\n <width>80</width>\n <length>120</length>\n\n```\n\\</table\\>\n\nIf these XML fragments were added together, there would be a name conflict. Both contain a element, but the elements have different content and meaning.\n\nAn XML parser will not know how to handle these differences.\n\n### Solution via prefix\n\nName conflicts in XML can easily be avoided using a name prefix.\n\nThe following XML distinguishes between information about the HTML table and furniture by prefixing \"h\" and \"f\" at the beginning of the elements.\n\n\\<h:table\\>\n\n```\n <h:tr>\n <h:td>Apples</h:td>\n <h:td>Oranges</h:td>\n </h:tr>\n\n```\n\\</h:table\\>\n\\<f:table\\>\n\n```\n <f:name>Mahogany Coffee Table</f:name>\n <f:width>80</f:width>\n <f:length>120</f:length>\n\n```\n\\</f:table\\>", "### Solution via prefix\n\nName conflicts in XML can easily be avoided using a name prefix.\n\nThe following XML distinguishes between information about the HTML table and furniture by prefixing \"h\" and \"f\" at the beginning of the elements.\n\n\\<h:table\\>\n\n```\n <h:tr>\n <h:td>Apples</h:td>\n <h:td>Oranges</h:td>\n </h:tr>\n\n```\n\\</h:table\\>\n\\<f:table\\>\n\n```\n <f:name>Mahogany Coffee Table</f:name>\n <f:width>80</f:width>\n <f:length>120</f:length>\n\n```\n\\</f:table\\>", "Naming system\n-------------\n\nA name in a namespace consists of a namespace name and a local name. The namespace name is usually applied as a [prefix](/wiki/Prefix_%28computer_science%29 \"Prefix (computer science)\") to the local name.\n\nIn [augmented Backus–Naur form](/wiki/Augmented_Backus%E2%80%93Naur_form \"Augmented Backus–Naur form\"):\n\nname \\= \\<namespace name\\> separator \\<local name\\>\n\nWhen local names are used by themselves, [name resolution](/wiki/Name_resolution_%28programming_languages%29 \"Name resolution (programming languages)\") is used to decide which (if any) particular name is alluded to by some particular local name.\n\n### Examples\n\n| \\+ Examples of names in a namespace |\n| --- |\n| Context | Name | Namespace name | Local name |\n| [Path](/wiki/Path_%28computing%29 \"Path (computing)\") | /home/user/readme.txt | /home/user (directory) | readme.txt (file name) |\n| [Domain name](/wiki/Domain_name \"Domain name\") | www.example.com | example.com (domain name) | www (leaf domain name) |\n| [C\\+\\+](/wiki/%23Use_in_common_languages \"#Use in common languages\") | std::array | std (C\\+\\+ namespace) | array (struct) |\n| [UN/LOCODE](/wiki/UN/LOCODE \"UN/LOCODE\") | US NYC | US (country or territory) | NYC (locality) |\n| [XML](/wiki/XML_namespace \"XML namespace\") | xmlns:xhtml\\=\"[http://www.w3\\.org/1999/xhtml](http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml)\" \\<xhtml:body\\> | xhtml (previously declared XML namespace xhtml\\=\"[http://www.w3\\.org/1999/xhtml](http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml)\") | body (element) |\n| [Perl](/wiki/Perl_module%23Perl_packages_and_namespaces \"Perl module#Perl packages and namespaces\") | $DBI::errstr | $DBI (Perl module) | errstr (variable) |\n| [Java](/wiki/Java_package \"Java package\") | java.util.Date | java.util (Java namespace) | Date (class) |\n| [Uniform Resource Name](/wiki/Uniform_Resource_Name \"Uniform Resource Name\") (URN) | [urn:nbn:fi\\-fe19991055](urn:nbn:fi-fe19991055) | <urn:nbn> (National Bibliography Numbers) | fi\\-fe19991055 |\n| [Handle System](/wiki/Handle_System \"Handle System\") | 10\\.1000/182 | 10 (handle naming authority) | 1000/182 (handle local name) |\n| [Digital object identifier](/wiki/Digital_object_identifier \"Digital object identifier\") | 10\\.1000/182 | 10\\.1000 (publisher) | 182 (publication) |\n| [MAC address](/wiki/MAC_address \"MAC address\") | 01\\-23\\-45\\-67\\-89\\-ab | 01\\-23\\-45 ([organizationally unique identifier](/wiki/Organizationally_unique_identifier \"Organizationally unique identifier\")) | 67\\-89\\-ab (NIC specific) |\n| [PCI ID](/wiki/PCI_ID \"PCI ID\") | 1234 abcd | 1234 (vendor ID) | abcd (device ID) |\n| [USB VID/PID](/wiki/USB_Implementers_Forum%23Obtaining_a_vendor_ID \"USB Implementers Forum#Obtaining a vendor ID\") | 2341 003f Stephen J. Gowdy. [\"List of USB ID's\"](http://www.linux-usb.org/usb.ids). 2013\\. | 2341 (vendor ID) | 003f (product ID) |\n| [SPARQL](/wiki/SPARQL \"SPARQL\") | dbr:Sydney | dbr (previously declared ontology, e.g. by specifying @prefix dbr: \\<<http://dbpedia.org/resource/>\\>) | Sydney |\n\n### Delegation\n\nDelegation of responsibilities between parties is important in real\\-world applications, such as the structure of the World Wide Web. Namespaces allow delegation of identifier assignment to multiple name issuing organisations whilst retaining global uniqueness. A central [Registration authority](/wiki/Registration_authority \"Registration authority\") registers the [assigned namespace names allocated](/wiki/National_Internet_registry \"National Internet registry\"). Each namespace name is allocated to an organisation which is subsequently responsible for the assignment of names in their allocated namespace. This organisation may be a name issuing organisation that [assign the names](/wiki/Metadata_registry \"Metadata registry\") themselves, or another [Registration authority](/wiki/Registration_authority \"Registration authority\") which further delegates parts of their namespace to different organisations.\n\n### Hierarchy\n\nA naming scheme that allows subdelegation of namespaces to third parties is a **hierarchical namespace**.\n\nA hierarchy is recursive if the syntax for the namespace names is the same for each subdelegation. An example of a recursive hierarchy is the [Domain name system](/wiki/Domain_name \"Domain name\").\n\nAn example of a non\\-recursive hierarchy are [Uniform Resource Name](/wiki/Uniform_Resource_Name \"Uniform Resource Name\") representing an [Internet Assigned Numbers Authority](/wiki/Internet_Assigned_Numbers_Authority \"Internet Assigned Numbers Authority\") (IANA) number.\n\n| \\+ Hierarchical namespace breakdown for [urn:isbn:978\\-3\\-16\\-148410\\-0](urn:isbn:978-3-16-148410-0), an identifier for the book The Logic of Scientific Discovery by Karl Popper, 10th edition. |\n| --- |\n| Registry | Registrar | Example Identifier | Namespace name | Namespace |\n| [Uniform Resource Name](/wiki/Uniform_Resource_Name \"Uniform Resource Name\") (URN) | [Internet Assigned Numbers Authority](/wiki/Internet_Assigned_Numbers_Authority \"Internet Assigned Numbers Authority\") | [urn:isbn:978\\-3\\-16\\-148410\\-0](urn:isbn:978-3-16-148410-0) | urn | [Formal URN namespace](https://www.iana.org/assignments/urn-namespaces/urn-namespaces.xml) |\n| [Formal URN namespace](/wiki/Uniform_resource_name \"Uniform resource name\") | [Internet Assigned Numbers Authority](/wiki/Internet_Assigned_Numbers_Authority \"Internet Assigned Numbers Authority\") | [urn:isbn:978\\-3\\-16\\-148410\\-0](urn:isbn:978-3-16-148410-0) | ISBN | [International Standard Book Numbers as Uniform Resource Names](http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3187) |\n| [International Article Number (EAN)](/wiki/International_Article_Number_%28EAN%29 \"International Article Number (EAN)\") | [GS1](/wiki/GS1 \"GS1\") | 978\\-3\\-16\\-148410\\-0 | 978 | [Bookland](/wiki/List_of_GS1_country_codes \"List of GS1 country codes\") |\n| [International Standard Book Number](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") (ISBN) | [International ISBN Agency](/wiki/International_ISBN_Agency \"International ISBN Agency\") | 3\\-16\\-148410\\-X | 3 | [German\\-speaking countries](/wiki/German-speaking_countries \"German-speaking countries\") |\n| [German publisher code](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number%23Publisher_code \"International Standard Book Number#Publisher code\") | [Agentur für Buchmarktstandards](http://www.german-isbn.de/) | | 16 | [Mohr Siebeck](/wiki/Mohr_Siebeck \"Mohr Siebeck\") |\n\n### Namespace versus scope\n\nA namespace name may provide context ([scope](/wiki/Scope_%28computer_science%29 \"Scope (computer science)\") in computer science) to a name, and the terms are sometimes used interchangeably. However, the context of a name may also be provided by other factors, such as the location where it occurs or the syntax of the name.\n\n| \\+Examples of naming systems with local and global scope, and with and without namespaces | | Without a namespace | With a namespace |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| *Local scope* | [Vehicle registration plate](/wiki/Vehicle_registration_plate \"Vehicle registration plate\") | [Filesystem Hierarchy Standard](/wiki/Filesystem_Hierarchy_Standard \"Filesystem Hierarchy Standard\") |\n| *Global scope* | [Universally unique identifier](/wiki/Universally_unique_identifier \"Universally unique identifier\") | [Domain Name System](/wiki/Domain_Name_System \"Domain Name System\") |\n\n", "### Examples\n\n| \\+ Examples of names in a namespace |\n| --- |\n| Context | Name | Namespace name | Local name |\n| [Path](/wiki/Path_%28computing%29 \"Path (computing)\") | /home/user/readme.txt | /home/user (directory) | readme.txt (file name) |\n| [Domain name](/wiki/Domain_name \"Domain name\") | www.example.com | example.com (domain name) | www (leaf domain name) |\n| [C\\+\\+](/wiki/%23Use_in_common_languages \"#Use in common languages\") | std::array | std (C\\+\\+ namespace) | array (struct) |\n| [UN/LOCODE](/wiki/UN/LOCODE \"UN/LOCODE\") | US NYC | US (country or territory) | NYC (locality) |\n| [XML](/wiki/XML_namespace \"XML namespace\") | xmlns:xhtml\\=\"[http://www.w3\\.org/1999/xhtml](http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml)\" \\<xhtml:body\\> | xhtml (previously declared XML namespace xhtml\\=\"[http://www.w3\\.org/1999/xhtml](http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml)\") | body (element) |\n| [Perl](/wiki/Perl_module%23Perl_packages_and_namespaces \"Perl module#Perl packages and namespaces\") | $DBI::errstr | $DBI (Perl module) | errstr (variable) |\n| [Java](/wiki/Java_package \"Java package\") | java.util.Date | java.util (Java namespace) | Date (class) |\n| [Uniform Resource Name](/wiki/Uniform_Resource_Name \"Uniform Resource Name\") (URN) | [urn:nbn:fi\\-fe19991055](urn:nbn:fi-fe19991055) | <urn:nbn> (National Bibliography Numbers) | fi\\-fe19991055 |\n| [Handle System](/wiki/Handle_System \"Handle System\") | 10\\.1000/182 | 10 (handle naming authority) | 1000/182 (handle local name) |\n| [Digital object identifier](/wiki/Digital_object_identifier \"Digital object identifier\") | 10\\.1000/182 | 10\\.1000 (publisher) | 182 (publication) |\n| [MAC address](/wiki/MAC_address \"MAC address\") | 01\\-23\\-45\\-67\\-89\\-ab | 01\\-23\\-45 ([organizationally unique identifier](/wiki/Organizationally_unique_identifier \"Organizationally unique identifier\")) | 67\\-89\\-ab (NIC specific) |\n| [PCI ID](/wiki/PCI_ID \"PCI ID\") | 1234 abcd | 1234 (vendor ID) | abcd (device ID) |\n| [USB VID/PID](/wiki/USB_Implementers_Forum%23Obtaining_a_vendor_ID \"USB Implementers Forum#Obtaining a vendor ID\") | 2341 003f Stephen J. Gowdy. [\"List of USB ID's\"](http://www.linux-usb.org/usb.ids). 2013\\. | 2341 (vendor ID) | 003f (product ID) |\n| [SPARQL](/wiki/SPARQL \"SPARQL\") | dbr:Sydney | dbr (previously declared ontology, e.g. by specifying @prefix dbr: \\<<http://dbpedia.org/resource/>\\>) | Sydney |\n\n", "### Delegation\n\nDelegation of responsibilities between parties is important in real\\-world applications, such as the structure of the World Wide Web. Namespaces allow delegation of identifier assignment to multiple name issuing organisations whilst retaining global uniqueness. A central [Registration authority](/wiki/Registration_authority \"Registration authority\") registers the [assigned namespace names allocated](/wiki/National_Internet_registry \"National Internet registry\"). Each namespace name is allocated to an organisation which is subsequently responsible for the assignment of names in their allocated namespace. This organisation may be a name issuing organisation that [assign the names](/wiki/Metadata_registry \"Metadata registry\") themselves, or another [Registration authority](/wiki/Registration_authority \"Registration authority\") which further delegates parts of their namespace to different organisations.\n\n", "### Hierarchy\n\nA naming scheme that allows subdelegation of namespaces to third parties is a **hierarchical namespace**.\n\nA hierarchy is recursive if the syntax for the namespace names is the same for each subdelegation. An example of a recursive hierarchy is the [Domain name system](/wiki/Domain_name \"Domain name\").\n\nAn example of a non\\-recursive hierarchy are [Uniform Resource Name](/wiki/Uniform_Resource_Name \"Uniform Resource Name\") representing an [Internet Assigned Numbers Authority](/wiki/Internet_Assigned_Numbers_Authority \"Internet Assigned Numbers Authority\") (IANA) number.\n\n| \\+ Hierarchical namespace breakdown for [urn:isbn:978\\-3\\-16\\-148410\\-0](urn:isbn:978-3-16-148410-0), an identifier for the book The Logic of Scientific Discovery by Karl Popper, 10th edition. |\n| --- |\n| Registry | Registrar | Example Identifier | Namespace name | Namespace |\n| [Uniform Resource Name](/wiki/Uniform_Resource_Name \"Uniform Resource Name\") (URN) | [Internet Assigned Numbers Authority](/wiki/Internet_Assigned_Numbers_Authority \"Internet Assigned Numbers Authority\") | [urn:isbn:978\\-3\\-16\\-148410\\-0](urn:isbn:978-3-16-148410-0) | urn | [Formal URN namespace](https://www.iana.org/assignments/urn-namespaces/urn-namespaces.xml) |\n| [Formal URN namespace](/wiki/Uniform_resource_name \"Uniform resource name\") | [Internet Assigned Numbers Authority](/wiki/Internet_Assigned_Numbers_Authority \"Internet Assigned Numbers Authority\") | [urn:isbn:978\\-3\\-16\\-148410\\-0](urn:isbn:978-3-16-148410-0) | ISBN | [International Standard Book Numbers as Uniform Resource Names](http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3187) |\n| [International Article Number (EAN)](/wiki/International_Article_Number_%28EAN%29 \"International Article Number (EAN)\") | [GS1](/wiki/GS1 \"GS1\") | 978\\-3\\-16\\-148410\\-0 | 978 | [Bookland](/wiki/List_of_GS1_country_codes \"List of GS1 country codes\") |\n| [International Standard Book Number](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") (ISBN) | [International ISBN Agency](/wiki/International_ISBN_Agency \"International ISBN Agency\") | 3\\-16\\-148410\\-X | 3 | [German\\-speaking countries](/wiki/German-speaking_countries \"German-speaking countries\") |\n| [German publisher code](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number%23Publisher_code \"International Standard Book Number#Publisher code\") | [Agentur für Buchmarktstandards](http://www.german-isbn.de/) | | 16 | [Mohr Siebeck](/wiki/Mohr_Siebeck \"Mohr Siebeck\") |\n\n", "### Namespace versus scope\n\nA namespace name may provide context ([scope](/wiki/Scope_%28computer_science%29 \"Scope (computer science)\") in computer science) to a name, and the terms are sometimes used interchangeably. However, the context of a name may also be provided by other factors, such as the location where it occurs or the syntax of the name.\n\n| \\+Examples of naming systems with local and global scope, and with and without namespaces | | Without a namespace | With a namespace |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| *Local scope* | [Vehicle registration plate](/wiki/Vehicle_registration_plate \"Vehicle registration plate\") | [Filesystem Hierarchy Standard](/wiki/Filesystem_Hierarchy_Standard \"Filesystem Hierarchy Standard\") |\n| *Global scope* | [Universally unique identifier](/wiki/Universally_unique_identifier \"Universally unique identifier\") | [Domain Name System](/wiki/Domain_Name_System \"Domain Name System\") |\n\n", "In programming languages\n------------------------\n\nFor many programming languages, namespace is a context for their [identifiers](/wiki/Identifier_%28computer_languages%29 \"Identifier (computer languages)\"). In an operating system, an example of namespace is a directory. Each name in a directory uniquely identifies one file or subdirectory.\n\nAs a rule, names in a namespace cannot have more than one meaning; that is, different meanings cannot share the same name in the same namespace. A namespace is also called a [context](/wiki/Context_%28computing%29 \"Context (computing)\"), because the same name in different namespaces can have different meanings, each one appropriate for its namespace.\n\nFollowing are other characteristics of namespaces:\n* Names in the namespace can represent objects as well as [concepts](/wiki/Concept \"Concept\"), be the namespace a [natural or ethnic language](/wiki/Natural_language \"Natural language\"), a [constructed language](/wiki/Constructed_language \"Constructed language\"), the [technical terminology](/wiki/Technical_terminology \"Technical terminology\") of a profession, a [dialect](/wiki/Dialect \"Dialect\"), a [sociolect](/wiki/Sociolect \"Sociolect\"), or an artificial language (e.g., a [programming language](/wiki/Programming_language \"Programming language\")).\n* In the [Java programming language](/wiki/Java_%28programming_language%29 \"Java (programming language)\"), identifiers that appear in namespaces have a short (local) name and a unique long \"qualified\" name for use outside the namespace.\n* Some compilers (for languages such as [C\\+\\+](/wiki/C%2B%2B \"C++\")) combine namespaces and names for internal use in the compiler in a process called *[name mangling](/wiki/Name_mangling \"Name mangling\")*.\n\nAs well as its abstract language technical usage as described above, some languages have a specific keyword used for explicit namespace control, amongst other uses. Below is an example of a namespace in C\\+\\+:\n\n\\#include \\<iostream\\>\n\n// This is how one brings a name into the current scope. In this case, it's\n// bringing them into global scope.\nusing std::cout;\nusing std::endl;\nnamespace box1 {\n\n```\n int box_side = 4;\n\n```\n}\nnamespace box2 {\n\n```\n int box_side = 12;\n\n```\n}\nint main() {\n\n```\n int box_side = 42;\n cout << box1::box_side << endl; // Outputs 4.\n cout << box2::box_side << endl; // Outputs 12.\n cout << box_side << endl; // Outputs 42.\n\n```\n}\n\n### Computer\\-science considerations\n\nA namespace in computer science (sometimes also called a **name scope**) is an abstract container or environment created to hold a logical grouping of unique [identifiers](/wiki/Identifier \"Identifier\") or [symbols](/wiki/Symbol \"Symbol\") (i.e. names). An identifier defined in a namespace is associated only with that namespace. The same identifier can be independently defined in multiple namespaces. That is, an identifier defined in one namespace may or may not have the same meaning as the same identifier defined in another namespace. Languages that support namespaces specify the rules that determine to which namespace an identifier (not its definition) belongs.\n\nThis concept can be illustrated with an analogy. Imagine that two companies, X and Y, each assign ID numbers to their employees. X should not have two employees with the same ID number, and likewise for Y; but it is not a problem for the same ID number to be used at both companies. For example, if Bill works for company X and Jane works for company Y, then it is not a problem for each of them to be employee \\#123\\. In this analogy, the ID number is the identifier, and the company serves as the namespace. It does not cause problems for the same identifier to identify a different person in each namespace.\n\nIn large [computer programs](/wiki/Computer_program \"Computer program\") or documents it is common to have hundreds or thousands of identifiers. Namespaces (or a similar technique, see [Emulating namespaces](/wiki/%23Emulating_namespaces \"#Emulating namespaces\")) provide a mechanism for hiding local identifiers. They provide a means of grouping logically related identifiers into corresponding namespaces, thereby making the system more [modular](/wiki/Modularity_%28programming%29 \"Modularity (programming)\").\n\n[Data storage devices](/wiki/Data_storage_device \"Data storage device\") and many modern [programming languages](/wiki/Programming_language \"Programming language\") support namespaces. Storage devices use directories (or folders) as namespaces. This allows two files with the same name to be stored on the device so long as they are stored in different directories. In some programming languages (e.g. [C\\+\\+](/wiki/C%2B%2B \"C++\"), [Python](/wiki/Python_%28programming_language%29 \"Python (programming language)\")), the identifiers naming namespaces are themselves associated with an enclosing namespace. Thus, in these languages namespaces can nest, forming a namespace [tree](/wiki/Tree_%28data_structure%29 \"Tree (data structure)\"). At the root of this tree is the unnamed **global namespace**.\n\n#### Use in common languages\n\n##### C\n\nIt is possible to use anonymous structs as namespaces in [C](/wiki/C_%28programming_language%29 \"C (programming language)\") since [C99](/wiki/C99 \"C99\").\n\n// helper.c\nstatic int \\_add(int a, int b) {\n\n```\n return a + b;\n\n```\n}\n\nconst struct {\n\n```\n double pi;\n int (*add) (int, int);\n\n```\n} helper \\= { 3\\.14, \\_add };\n// helper.h\nconst struct {\n\n```\n double pi;\n int (*add) (int, int);\n\n```\n} helper;\n// main.c\n\\#include \\<stdio.h\\>\n\\#include \"helper.h\"\nint main(){\n\n```\n printf(\"3 + 2 = %d\\n\", helper.add(3, 2));\n printf(\"pi is %f\\n\", helper.pi);\n\n```\n}\n\n##### C\\+\\+\n\nIn [C\\+\\+](/wiki/C%2B%2B \"C++\"), a namespace is defined with a namespace block.\n\nnamespace abc {\n\n```\n int bar;\n\n```\n}\n\nWithin this block, identifiers can be used exactly as they are declared. Outside of this block, the namespace specifier must be prefixed. For example, outside of `namespace abc`, `bar` must be written `abc::bar` to be accessed. C\\+\\+ includes another construct that makes this verbosity unnecessary. By adding the line\n\nusing namespace abc;\n\nto a piece of code, the prefix `abc::` is no longer needed.\n\nIdentifiers that are not explicitly declared within a namespace are considered to be in the global namespace.\n\nint foo;\n\nThese identifiers can be used exactly as they are declared, or, since the global namespace is unnamed, the namespace specifier `::` can be prefixed. For example, `foo` can also be written `::foo`.\n\nNamespace resolution in C\\+\\+ is hierarchical. This means that within the hypothetical namespace `food::soup`, the identifier `chicken` refers to `food::soup::chicken`. If `food::soup::chicken` doesn't exist, it then refers to `food::chicken`. If neither `food::soup::chicken` nor `food::chicken` exist, `chicken` refers to `::chicken`, an identifier in the global namespace.\n\nNamespaces in C\\+\\+ are most often used to avoid [naming collisions](/wiki/Naming_collision \"Naming collision\"). Although namespaces are used extensively in recent C\\+\\+ code, most older code does not use this facility because it did not exist in early versions of the language. For example, the entire [C\\+\\+ Standard Library](/wiki/C%2B%2B_Standard_Library \"C++ Standard Library\") is defined within `namespace std`, but before standardization many components were originally in the global namespace. A programmer can insert the `using` directive to bypass namespace resolution requirements and obtain backwards compatibility with older code that expects all identifiers to be in the global namespace. However the use of the `using` directive for reasons other than backwards compatibility (e.g., convenience) is considered to be against good code practices.\n\n##### Java\n\nIn [Java](/wiki/Java_%28programming_language%29 \"Java (programming language)\"), the idea of a namespace is embodied in [Java packages](/wiki/Java_package \"Java package\"). All code belongs to a package, although that package need not be explicitly named. Code from other packages is accessed by prefixing the package name before the appropriate identifier, for example `class String` in `package [java.lang](/wiki/Java.lang \"Java.lang\")` can be referred to as `java.lang.String` (this is known as the [fully qualified class name](/wiki/Fully_qualified_name \"Fully qualified name\")). Like C\\+\\+, Java offers a construct that makes it unnecessary to type the package name (`import`). However, certain features (such as [reflection](/wiki/Reflection_%28computer_science%29 \"Reflection (computer science)\")) require the programmer to use the fully qualified name.\n\nUnlike C\\+\\+, namespaces in Java are not hierarchical as far as the syntax of the language is concerned. However, packages are named in a hierarchical manner. For example, all packages beginning with `java` are a part of the [Java platform](/wiki/Java_platform \"Java platform\")—the package contains classes core to the language, and contains core classes specifically relating to reflection.\n\nIn Java (and [Ada](/wiki/Ada_%28programming_language%29 \"Ada (programming language)\"), [C\\#](/wiki/C_Sharp_%28programming_language%29 \"C Sharp (programming language)\"), and others), namespaces/packages express semantic categories of code. For example, in C\\#, `namespace System` contains code provided by the system (the [.NET Framework](/wiki/.NET_Framework \".NET Framework\")). How specific these categories are and how deep the hierarchies go differ from language to language.\n\n[Function](/wiki/Function_%28programming%29 \"Function (programming)\") and [class](/wiki/Class_%28computer_science%29 \"Class (computer science)\") [scopes](/wiki/Scope_%28programming%29 \"Scope (programming)\") can be viewed as implicit namespaces that are inextricably linked with visibility, accessibility, and [object lifetime](/wiki/Object_lifetime \"Object lifetime\").\n\n##### C\\#\n\nNamespaces are heavily used in C\\# language. All .NET Framework classes are organized in namespaces, to be used more clearly and to avoid chaos. Furthermore, custom namespaces are extensively used by programmers, both to organize their work and to avoid [naming collisions](/wiki/Naming_collision \"Naming collision\").\nWhen referencing a class, one should specify either its fully qualified name, which means namespace followed by the class name,\n\nSystem.Console.WriteLine(\"Hello World!\");\nint i \\= System.Convert.ToInt32(\"123\");\n\nor add a **using** statement. This, eliminates the need to mention the complete name of all classes in that namespace.\n\nusing System;\n\nConsole.WriteLine(\"Hello World!\");\nint i \\= Convert.ToInt32(\"123\");\n\nIn the above examples, **System** is a namespace, and **Console** and **Convert** are classes defined within **System**.\n\n[UML diagram with a Console and a Convert class.](/wiki/File:Dotnet-system-namespace-uml.svg \"Dotnet-system-namespace-uml.svg\")\n\n##### Python\n\nIn [Python](/wiki/Python_%28programming_language%29 \"Python (programming language)\"), namespaces are defined by the individual modules, and since modules can be contained in hierarchical packages, then namespaces are hierarchical too.\nIn general when a module is imported then the names defined in the module are defined via that module's namespace, and are accessed in from the calling modules by using the fully qualified name.\n\n\\# assume modulea defines two functions : func1() and func2() and one class : Class1\nimport Modulea\n\nModulea.func1()\nModulea.func2()\na \\= Modulea.Class1()\n\nThe `from ... import ...` statement can be used to insert the relevant names directly into the calling module's namespace, and those names can be accessed from the calling module without the qualified name:\n\n\\# assume Modulea defines two functions : func1() and func2() and one class : Class1\nfrom Modulea import func1\n\nfunc1()\nfunc2() \\# this will fail as an undefined name, as will the full name Modulea.func2()\na \\= Class1() \\# this will fail as an undefined name, as will the full name Modulea.Class1()\n\nSince this directly imports names (without qualification) it can overwrite existing names with no warnings.\n\nA special form of the statement is `from ... import *` which imports all names defined in the named package directly in the calling module's namespace. Use of this form of import, although supported within the language, is generally discouraged as it pollutes the namespace of the calling module and will cause already defined names to be overwritten in the case of name clashes.<https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/modules.html> \"in general the practice of importing \\* from a module or package is frowned upon\"\n\nPython also supports `import x as y` as a way of providing an alias or alternative name for use by the calling module:\n\nimport numpy as np\n\na \\= np.arange(1000\\)\n\n##### XML namespace\n\nIn [XML](/wiki/XML \"XML\"), the XML namespace specification enables the names of elements and attributes in an XML document to be unique, similar to the role of namespaces in programming languages. Using XML namespaces, XML documents may contain element or attribute names from more than one XML vocabulary.\n\n##### PHP\n\nNamespaces were introduced into [PHP](/wiki/Php \"Php\") from version 5\\.3 onwards. Naming collision of classes, functions and variables can be avoided.\nIn [PHP](/wiki/PHP \"PHP\"), a namespace is defined with a namespace block.\n\n\\# File phpstar/foobar.php\n\nnamespace phpstar;\nclass FooBar\n{\n\n```\n public function foo(): void\n {\n echo 'Hello world, from function foo';\n }\n\n```\n\n```\n public function bar(): void\n {\n echo 'Hello world, from function bar';\n }\n\n```\n}\n\nWe can reference a PHP namespace with the following different ways:\n\n\\# File index.php\n\n\\# Include the file\ninclude \"phpstar/foobar.php\";\n\\# Option 1: directly prefix the class name with the namespace\n$obj\\_foobar \\= new \\\\phpstar\\\\FooBar();\n\\# Option 2: import the namespace\nuse phpstar\\\\FooBar;\n$obj\\_foobar \\= new FooBar();\n\\# Option 2a: import \\& alias the namespace\nuse phpstar\\\\FooBar as FB;\n$obj\\_foobar \\= new FB();\n\\# Access the properties and methods with regular way\n$obj\\_foobar\\-\\>foo();\n$obj\\_foobar\\-\\>bar();\n\n[UML diagram of the phpstar package with the class FooBar.](/wiki/File:UML_phpstar_package_diagram.svg \"UML phpstar package diagram.svg\")\n\n### Emulating namespaces\n\nIn programming languages lacking language support for namespaces, namespaces can be emulated to some extent by using an [identifier naming convention](/wiki/Identifier_naming_convention \"Identifier naming convention\"). For example, [C](/wiki/C_%28programming_language%29 \"C (programming language)\") libraries such as [libpng](/wiki/Libpng \"Libpng\") often use a fixed prefix for all functions and variables that are part of their exposed interface. Libpng exposes identifiers such as:\n\n```\npng_create_write_struct\npng_get_signature\npng_read_row\npng_set_invalid\n\n```\n\nThis [naming convention](/wiki/Naming_conventions_%28programming%29 \"Naming conventions (programming)\") provides reasonable assurance that the [identifiers](/wiki/Identifier \"Identifier\") are unique and can therefore be used in larger programs without [naming collisions](/wiki/Naming_collision \"Naming collision\"). Likewise, many packages originally written in [Fortran](/wiki/Fortran \"Fortran\") (e.g., [BLAS](/wiki/BLAS \"BLAS\"), [LAPACK](/wiki/LAPACK \"LAPACK\")) reserve the first few letters of a function's name to indicate which group it belongs to.\n\nThis technique has several drawbacks:\n* It doesn't scale well to nested namespaces; identifiers become excessively long since all uses of the identifiers must be [fully namespace\\-qualified](/wiki/Fully_qualified_name \"Fully qualified name\").\n* Individuals or organizations may use inconsistent naming conventions, potentially introducing unwanted obfuscation.\n* Compound or \"query\\-based\" operations on groups of identifiers, based on the namespaces in which they are declared, are rendered unwieldy or unfeasible.\n* In languages with restricted identifier length, the use of prefixes limits the number of characters that can be used to identify what the function does. This is a particular problem for packages originally written in [FORTRAN 77](/wiki/Fortran \"Fortran\"), which offered only 6 characters per identifier. For example, the name of the [BLAS](/wiki/BLAS \"BLAS\") function `DGEMM` function indicates that it operates on double\\-precision numbers (\"D\") and general matrices (\"GE\"), and only the last two characters show what it actually does: matrix\\-matrix multiplication (the \"MM\").\n\nThere are several advantages:\n* No special software tools are required to locate names in source\\-code files. A simple program like [grep](/wiki/Grep \"Grep\") suffices.\n* There are no namespace name conflicts.\n* There is no need for name\\-mangling, and thus no potential incompatibility problems.\n\n", "### Computer\\-science considerations\n\nA namespace in computer science (sometimes also called a **name scope**) is an abstract container or environment created to hold a logical grouping of unique [identifiers](/wiki/Identifier \"Identifier\") or [symbols](/wiki/Symbol \"Symbol\") (i.e. names). An identifier defined in a namespace is associated only with that namespace. The same identifier can be independently defined in multiple namespaces. That is, an identifier defined in one namespace may or may not have the same meaning as the same identifier defined in another namespace. Languages that support namespaces specify the rules that determine to which namespace an identifier (not its definition) belongs.\n\nThis concept can be illustrated with an analogy. Imagine that two companies, X and Y, each assign ID numbers to their employees. X should not have two employees with the same ID number, and likewise for Y; but it is not a problem for the same ID number to be used at both companies. For example, if Bill works for company X and Jane works for company Y, then it is not a problem for each of them to be employee \\#123\\. In this analogy, the ID number is the identifier, and the company serves as the namespace. It does not cause problems for the same identifier to identify a different person in each namespace.\n\nIn large [computer programs](/wiki/Computer_program \"Computer program\") or documents it is common to have hundreds or thousands of identifiers. Namespaces (or a similar technique, see [Emulating namespaces](/wiki/%23Emulating_namespaces \"#Emulating namespaces\")) provide a mechanism for hiding local identifiers. They provide a means of grouping logically related identifiers into corresponding namespaces, thereby making the system more [modular](/wiki/Modularity_%28programming%29 \"Modularity (programming)\").\n\n[Data storage devices](/wiki/Data_storage_device \"Data storage device\") and many modern [programming languages](/wiki/Programming_language \"Programming language\") support namespaces. Storage devices use directories (or folders) as namespaces. This allows two files with the same name to be stored on the device so long as they are stored in different directories. In some programming languages (e.g. [C\\+\\+](/wiki/C%2B%2B \"C++\"), [Python](/wiki/Python_%28programming_language%29 \"Python (programming language)\")), the identifiers naming namespaces are themselves associated with an enclosing namespace. Thus, in these languages namespaces can nest, forming a namespace [tree](/wiki/Tree_%28data_structure%29 \"Tree (data structure)\"). At the root of this tree is the unnamed **global namespace**.\n\n#### Use in common languages\n\n##### C\n\nIt is possible to use anonymous structs as namespaces in [C](/wiki/C_%28programming_language%29 \"C (programming language)\") since [C99](/wiki/C99 \"C99\").\n\n// helper.c\nstatic int \\_add(int a, int b) {\n\n```\n return a + b;\n\n```\n}\n\nconst struct {\n\n```\n double pi;\n int (*add) (int, int);\n\n```\n} helper \\= { 3\\.14, \\_add };\n// helper.h\nconst struct {\n\n```\n double pi;\n int (*add) (int, int);\n\n```\n} helper;\n// main.c\n\\#include \\<stdio.h\\>\n\\#include \"helper.h\"\nint main(){\n\n```\n printf(\"3 + 2 = %d\\n\", helper.add(3, 2));\n printf(\"pi is %f\\n\", helper.pi);\n\n```\n}\n\n##### C\\+\\+\n\nIn [C\\+\\+](/wiki/C%2B%2B \"C++\"), a namespace is defined with a namespace block.\n\nnamespace abc {\n\n```\n int bar;\n\n```\n}\n\nWithin this block, identifiers can be used exactly as they are declared. Outside of this block, the namespace specifier must be prefixed. For example, outside of `namespace abc`, `bar` must be written `abc::bar` to be accessed. C\\+\\+ includes another construct that makes this verbosity unnecessary. By adding the line\n\nusing namespace abc;\n\nto a piece of code, the prefix `abc::` is no longer needed.\n\nIdentifiers that are not explicitly declared within a namespace are considered to be in the global namespace.\n\nint foo;\n\nThese identifiers can be used exactly as they are declared, or, since the global namespace is unnamed, the namespace specifier `::` can be prefixed. For example, `foo` can also be written `::foo`.\n\nNamespace resolution in C\\+\\+ is hierarchical. This means that within the hypothetical namespace `food::soup`, the identifier `chicken` refers to `food::soup::chicken`. If `food::soup::chicken` doesn't exist, it then refers to `food::chicken`. If neither `food::soup::chicken` nor `food::chicken` exist, `chicken` refers to `::chicken`, an identifier in the global namespace.\n\nNamespaces in C\\+\\+ are most often used to avoid [naming collisions](/wiki/Naming_collision \"Naming collision\"). Although namespaces are used extensively in recent C\\+\\+ code, most older code does not use this facility because it did not exist in early versions of the language. For example, the entire [C\\+\\+ Standard Library](/wiki/C%2B%2B_Standard_Library \"C++ Standard Library\") is defined within `namespace std`, but before standardization many components were originally in the global namespace. A programmer can insert the `using` directive to bypass namespace resolution requirements and obtain backwards compatibility with older code that expects all identifiers to be in the global namespace. However the use of the `using` directive for reasons other than backwards compatibility (e.g., convenience) is considered to be against good code practices.\n\n##### Java\n\nIn [Java](/wiki/Java_%28programming_language%29 \"Java (programming language)\"), the idea of a namespace is embodied in [Java packages](/wiki/Java_package \"Java package\"). All code belongs to a package, although that package need not be explicitly named. Code from other packages is accessed by prefixing the package name before the appropriate identifier, for example `class String` in `package [java.lang](/wiki/Java.lang \"Java.lang\")` can be referred to as `java.lang.String` (this is known as the [fully qualified class name](/wiki/Fully_qualified_name \"Fully qualified name\")). Like C\\+\\+, Java offers a construct that makes it unnecessary to type the package name (`import`). However, certain features (such as [reflection](/wiki/Reflection_%28computer_science%29 \"Reflection (computer science)\")) require the programmer to use the fully qualified name.\n\nUnlike C\\+\\+, namespaces in Java are not hierarchical as far as the syntax of the language is concerned. However, packages are named in a hierarchical manner. For example, all packages beginning with `java` are a part of the [Java platform](/wiki/Java_platform \"Java platform\")—the package contains classes core to the language, and contains core classes specifically relating to reflection.\n\nIn Java (and [Ada](/wiki/Ada_%28programming_language%29 \"Ada (programming language)\"), [C\\#](/wiki/C_Sharp_%28programming_language%29 \"C Sharp (programming language)\"), and others), namespaces/packages express semantic categories of code. For example, in C\\#, `namespace System` contains code provided by the system (the [.NET Framework](/wiki/.NET_Framework \".NET Framework\")). How specific these categories are and how deep the hierarchies go differ from language to language.\n\n[Function](/wiki/Function_%28programming%29 \"Function (programming)\") and [class](/wiki/Class_%28computer_science%29 \"Class (computer science)\") [scopes](/wiki/Scope_%28programming%29 \"Scope (programming)\") can be viewed as implicit namespaces that are inextricably linked with visibility, accessibility, and [object lifetime](/wiki/Object_lifetime \"Object lifetime\").\n\n##### C\\#\n\nNamespaces are heavily used in C\\# language. All .NET Framework classes are organized in namespaces, to be used more clearly and to avoid chaos. Furthermore, custom namespaces are extensively used by programmers, both to organize their work and to avoid [naming collisions](/wiki/Naming_collision \"Naming collision\").\nWhen referencing a class, one should specify either its fully qualified name, which means namespace followed by the class name,\n\nSystem.Console.WriteLine(\"Hello World!\");\nint i \\= System.Convert.ToInt32(\"123\");\n\nor add a **using** statement. This, eliminates the need to mention the complete name of all classes in that namespace.\n\nusing System;\n\nConsole.WriteLine(\"Hello World!\");\nint i \\= Convert.ToInt32(\"123\");\n\nIn the above examples, **System** is a namespace, and **Console** and **Convert** are classes defined within **System**.\n\n[UML diagram with a Console and a Convert class.](/wiki/File:Dotnet-system-namespace-uml.svg \"Dotnet-system-namespace-uml.svg\")\n\n##### Python\n\nIn [Python](/wiki/Python_%28programming_language%29 \"Python (programming language)\"), namespaces are defined by the individual modules, and since modules can be contained in hierarchical packages, then namespaces are hierarchical too.\nIn general when a module is imported then the names defined in the module are defined via that module's namespace, and are accessed in from the calling modules by using the fully qualified name.\n\n\\# assume modulea defines two functions : func1() and func2() and one class : Class1\nimport Modulea\n\nModulea.func1()\nModulea.func2()\na \\= Modulea.Class1()\n\nThe `from ... import ...` statement can be used to insert the relevant names directly into the calling module's namespace, and those names can be accessed from the calling module without the qualified name:\n\n\\# assume Modulea defines two functions : func1() and func2() and one class : Class1\nfrom Modulea import func1\n\nfunc1()\nfunc2() \\# this will fail as an undefined name, as will the full name Modulea.func2()\na \\= Class1() \\# this will fail as an undefined name, as will the full name Modulea.Class1()\n\nSince this directly imports names (without qualification) it can overwrite existing names with no warnings.\n\nA special form of the statement is `from ... import *` which imports all names defined in the named package directly in the calling module's namespace. Use of this form of import, although supported within the language, is generally discouraged as it pollutes the namespace of the calling module and will cause already defined names to be overwritten in the case of name clashes.<https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/modules.html> \"in general the practice of importing \\* from a module or package is frowned upon\"\n\nPython also supports `import x as y` as a way of providing an alias or alternative name for use by the calling module:\n\nimport numpy as np\n\na \\= np.arange(1000\\)\n\n##### XML namespace\n\nIn [XML](/wiki/XML \"XML\"), the XML namespace specification enables the names of elements and attributes in an XML document to be unique, similar to the role of namespaces in programming languages. Using XML namespaces, XML documents may contain element or attribute names from more than one XML vocabulary.\n\n##### PHP\n\nNamespaces were introduced into [PHP](/wiki/Php \"Php\") from version 5\\.3 onwards. Naming collision of classes, functions and variables can be avoided.\nIn [PHP](/wiki/PHP \"PHP\"), a namespace is defined with a namespace block.\n\n\\# File phpstar/foobar.php\n\nnamespace phpstar;\nclass FooBar\n{\n\n```\n public function foo(): void\n {\n echo 'Hello world, from function foo';\n }\n\n```\n\n```\n public function bar(): void\n {\n echo 'Hello world, from function bar';\n }\n\n```\n}\n\nWe can reference a PHP namespace with the following different ways:\n\n\\# File index.php\n\n\\# Include the file\ninclude \"phpstar/foobar.php\";\n\\# Option 1: directly prefix the class name with the namespace\n$obj\\_foobar \\= new \\\\phpstar\\\\FooBar();\n\\# Option 2: import the namespace\nuse phpstar\\\\FooBar;\n$obj\\_foobar \\= new FooBar();\n\\# Option 2a: import \\& alias the namespace\nuse phpstar\\\\FooBar as FB;\n$obj\\_foobar \\= new FB();\n\\# Access the properties and methods with regular way\n$obj\\_foobar\\-\\>foo();\n$obj\\_foobar\\-\\>bar();\n\n[UML diagram of the phpstar package with the class FooBar.](/wiki/File:UML_phpstar_package_diagram.svg \"UML phpstar package diagram.svg\")\n\n", "#### Use in common languages\n\n##### C\n\nIt is possible to use anonymous structs as namespaces in [C](/wiki/C_%28programming_language%29 \"C (programming language)\") since [C99](/wiki/C99 \"C99\").\n\n// helper.c\nstatic int \\_add(int a, int b) {\n\n```\n return a + b;\n\n```\n}\n\nconst struct {\n\n```\n double pi;\n int (*add) (int, int);\n\n```\n} helper \\= { 3\\.14, \\_add };\n// helper.h\nconst struct {\n\n```\n double pi;\n int (*add) (int, int);\n\n```\n} helper;\n// main.c\n\\#include \\<stdio.h\\>\n\\#include \"helper.h\"\nint main(){\n\n```\n printf(\"3 + 2 = %d\\n\", helper.add(3, 2));\n printf(\"pi is %f\\n\", helper.pi);\n\n```\n}\n\n##### C\\+\\+\n\nIn [C\\+\\+](/wiki/C%2B%2B \"C++\"), a namespace is defined with a namespace block.\n\nnamespace abc {\n\n```\n int bar;\n\n```\n}\n\nWithin this block, identifiers can be used exactly as they are declared. Outside of this block, the namespace specifier must be prefixed. For example, outside of `namespace abc`, `bar` must be written `abc::bar` to be accessed. C\\+\\+ includes another construct that makes this verbosity unnecessary. By adding the line\n\nusing namespace abc;\n\nto a piece of code, the prefix `abc::` is no longer needed.\n\nIdentifiers that are not explicitly declared within a namespace are considered to be in the global namespace.\n\nint foo;\n\nThese identifiers can be used exactly as they are declared, or, since the global namespace is unnamed, the namespace specifier `::` can be prefixed. For example, `foo` can also be written `::foo`.\n\nNamespace resolution in C\\+\\+ is hierarchical. This means that within the hypothetical namespace `food::soup`, the identifier `chicken` refers to `food::soup::chicken`. If `food::soup::chicken` doesn't exist, it then refers to `food::chicken`. If neither `food::soup::chicken` nor `food::chicken` exist, `chicken` refers to `::chicken`, an identifier in the global namespace.\n\nNamespaces in C\\+\\+ are most often used to avoid [naming collisions](/wiki/Naming_collision \"Naming collision\"). Although namespaces are used extensively in recent C\\+\\+ code, most older code does not use this facility because it did not exist in early versions of the language. For example, the entire [C\\+\\+ Standard Library](/wiki/C%2B%2B_Standard_Library \"C++ Standard Library\") is defined within `namespace std`, but before standardization many components were originally in the global namespace. A programmer can insert the `using` directive to bypass namespace resolution requirements and obtain backwards compatibility with older code that expects all identifiers to be in the global namespace. However the use of the `using` directive for reasons other than backwards compatibility (e.g., convenience) is considered to be against good code practices.\n\n##### Java\n\nIn [Java](/wiki/Java_%28programming_language%29 \"Java (programming language)\"), the idea of a namespace is embodied in [Java packages](/wiki/Java_package \"Java package\"). All code belongs to a package, although that package need not be explicitly named. Code from other packages is accessed by prefixing the package name before the appropriate identifier, for example `class String` in `package [java.lang](/wiki/Java.lang \"Java.lang\")` can be referred to as `java.lang.String` (this is known as the [fully qualified class name](/wiki/Fully_qualified_name \"Fully qualified name\")). Like C\\+\\+, Java offers a construct that makes it unnecessary to type the package name (`import`). However, certain features (such as [reflection](/wiki/Reflection_%28computer_science%29 \"Reflection (computer science)\")) require the programmer to use the fully qualified name.\n\nUnlike C\\+\\+, namespaces in Java are not hierarchical as far as the syntax of the language is concerned. However, packages are named in a hierarchical manner. For example, all packages beginning with `java` are a part of the [Java platform](/wiki/Java_platform \"Java platform\")—the package contains classes core to the language, and contains core classes specifically relating to reflection.\n\nIn Java (and [Ada](/wiki/Ada_%28programming_language%29 \"Ada (programming language)\"), [C\\#](/wiki/C_Sharp_%28programming_language%29 \"C Sharp (programming language)\"), and others), namespaces/packages express semantic categories of code. For example, in C\\#, `namespace System` contains code provided by the system (the [.NET Framework](/wiki/.NET_Framework \".NET Framework\")). How specific these categories are and how deep the hierarchies go differ from language to language.\n\n[Function](/wiki/Function_%28programming%29 \"Function (programming)\") and [class](/wiki/Class_%28computer_science%29 \"Class (computer science)\") [scopes](/wiki/Scope_%28programming%29 \"Scope (programming)\") can be viewed as implicit namespaces that are inextricably linked with visibility, accessibility, and [object lifetime](/wiki/Object_lifetime \"Object lifetime\").\n\n##### C\\#\n\nNamespaces are heavily used in C\\# language. All .NET Framework classes are organized in namespaces, to be used more clearly and to avoid chaos. Furthermore, custom namespaces are extensively used by programmers, both to organize their work and to avoid [naming collisions](/wiki/Naming_collision \"Naming collision\").\nWhen referencing a class, one should specify either its fully qualified name, which means namespace followed by the class name,\n\nSystem.Console.WriteLine(\"Hello World!\");\nint i \\= System.Convert.ToInt32(\"123\");\n\nor add a **using** statement. This, eliminates the need to mention the complete name of all classes in that namespace.\n\nusing System;\n\nConsole.WriteLine(\"Hello World!\");\nint i \\= Convert.ToInt32(\"123\");\n\nIn the above examples, **System** is a namespace, and **Console** and **Convert** are classes defined within **System**.\n\n[UML diagram with a Console and a Convert class.](/wiki/File:Dotnet-system-namespace-uml.svg \"Dotnet-system-namespace-uml.svg\")\n\n##### Python\n\nIn [Python](/wiki/Python_%28programming_language%29 \"Python (programming language)\"), namespaces are defined by the individual modules, and since modules can be contained in hierarchical packages, then namespaces are hierarchical too.\nIn general when a module is imported then the names defined in the module are defined via that module's namespace, and are accessed in from the calling modules by using the fully qualified name.\n\n\\# assume modulea defines two functions : func1() and func2() and one class : Class1\nimport Modulea\n\nModulea.func1()\nModulea.func2()\na \\= Modulea.Class1()\n\nThe `from ... import ...` statement can be used to insert the relevant names directly into the calling module's namespace, and those names can be accessed from the calling module without the qualified name:\n\n\\# assume Modulea defines two functions : func1() and func2() and one class : Class1\nfrom Modulea import func1\n\nfunc1()\nfunc2() \\# this will fail as an undefined name, as will the full name Modulea.func2()\na \\= Class1() \\# this will fail as an undefined name, as will the full name Modulea.Class1()\n\nSince this directly imports names (without qualification) it can overwrite existing names with no warnings.\n\nA special form of the statement is `from ... import *` which imports all names defined in the named package directly in the calling module's namespace. Use of this form of import, although supported within the language, is generally discouraged as it pollutes the namespace of the calling module and will cause already defined names to be overwritten in the case of name clashes.<https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/modules.html> \"in general the practice of importing \\* from a module or package is frowned upon\"\n\nPython also supports `import x as y` as a way of providing an alias or alternative name for use by the calling module:\n\nimport numpy as np\n\na \\= np.arange(1000\\)\n\n##### XML namespace\n\nIn [XML](/wiki/XML \"XML\"), the XML namespace specification enables the names of elements and attributes in an XML document to be unique, similar to the role of namespaces in programming languages. Using XML namespaces, XML documents may contain element or attribute names from more than one XML vocabulary.\n\n##### PHP\n\nNamespaces were introduced into [PHP](/wiki/Php \"Php\") from version 5\\.3 onwards. Naming collision of classes, functions and variables can be avoided.\nIn [PHP](/wiki/PHP \"PHP\"), a namespace is defined with a namespace block.\n\n\\# File phpstar/foobar.php\n\nnamespace phpstar;\nclass FooBar\n{\n\n```\n public function foo(): void\n {\n echo 'Hello world, from function foo';\n }\n\n```\n\n```\n public function bar(): void\n {\n echo 'Hello world, from function bar';\n }\n\n```\n}\n\nWe can reference a PHP namespace with the following different ways:\n\n\\# File index.php\n\n\\# Include the file\ninclude \"phpstar/foobar.php\";\n\\# Option 1: directly prefix the class name with the namespace\n$obj\\_foobar \\= new \\\\phpstar\\\\FooBar();\n\\# Option 2: import the namespace\nuse phpstar\\\\FooBar;\n$obj\\_foobar \\= new FooBar();\n\\# Option 2a: import \\& alias the namespace\nuse phpstar\\\\FooBar as FB;\n$obj\\_foobar \\= new FB();\n\\# Access the properties and methods with regular way\n$obj\\_foobar\\-\\>foo();\n$obj\\_foobar\\-\\>bar();\n\n[UML diagram of the phpstar package with the class FooBar.](/wiki/File:UML_phpstar_package_diagram.svg \"UML phpstar package diagram.svg\")\n\n", "##### C\n\nIt is possible to use anonymous structs as namespaces in [C](/wiki/C_%28programming_language%29 \"C (programming language)\") since [C99](/wiki/C99 \"C99\").\n\n// helper.c\nstatic int \\_add(int a, int b) {\n\n```\n return a + b;\n\n```\n}\n\nconst struct {\n\n```\n double pi;\n int (*add) (int, int);\n\n```\n} helper \\= { 3\\.14, \\_add };\n// helper.h\nconst struct {\n\n```\n double pi;\n int (*add) (int, int);\n\n```\n} helper;\n// main.c\n\\#include \\<stdio.h\\>\n\\#include \"helper.h\"\nint main(){\n\n```\n printf(\"3 + 2 = %d\\n\", helper.add(3, 2));\n printf(\"pi is %f\\n\", helper.pi);\n\n```\n}", "##### C\\+\\+\n\nIn [C\\+\\+](/wiki/C%2B%2B \"C++\"), a namespace is defined with a namespace block.\n\nnamespace abc {\n\n```\n int bar;\n\n```\n}\n\nWithin this block, identifiers can be used exactly as they are declared. Outside of this block, the namespace specifier must be prefixed. For example, outside of `namespace abc`, `bar` must be written `abc::bar` to be accessed. C\\+\\+ includes another construct that makes this verbosity unnecessary. By adding the line\n\nusing namespace abc;\n\nto a piece of code, the prefix `abc::` is no longer needed.\n\nIdentifiers that are not explicitly declared within a namespace are considered to be in the global namespace.\n\nint foo;\n\nThese identifiers can be used exactly as they are declared, or, since the global namespace is unnamed, the namespace specifier `::` can be prefixed. For example, `foo` can also be written `::foo`.\n\nNamespace resolution in C\\+\\+ is hierarchical. This means that within the hypothetical namespace `food::soup`, the identifier `chicken` refers to `food::soup::chicken`. If `food::soup::chicken` doesn't exist, it then refers to `food::chicken`. If neither `food::soup::chicken` nor `food::chicken` exist, `chicken` refers to `::chicken`, an identifier in the global namespace.\n\nNamespaces in C\\+\\+ are most often used to avoid [naming collisions](/wiki/Naming_collision \"Naming collision\"). Although namespaces are used extensively in recent C\\+\\+ code, most older code does not use this facility because it did not exist in early versions of the language. For example, the entire [C\\+\\+ Standard Library](/wiki/C%2B%2B_Standard_Library \"C++ Standard Library\") is defined within `namespace std`, but before standardization many components were originally in the global namespace. A programmer can insert the `using` directive to bypass namespace resolution requirements and obtain backwards compatibility with older code that expects all identifiers to be in the global namespace. However the use of the `using` directive for reasons other than backwards compatibility (e.g., convenience) is considered to be against good code practices.\n\n", "##### Java\n\nIn [Java](/wiki/Java_%28programming_language%29 \"Java (programming language)\"), the idea of a namespace is embodied in [Java packages](/wiki/Java_package \"Java package\"). All code belongs to a package, although that package need not be explicitly named. Code from other packages is accessed by prefixing the package name before the appropriate identifier, for example `class String` in `package [java.lang](/wiki/Java.lang \"Java.lang\")` can be referred to as `java.lang.String` (this is known as the [fully qualified class name](/wiki/Fully_qualified_name \"Fully qualified name\")). Like C\\+\\+, Java offers a construct that makes it unnecessary to type the package name (`import`). However, certain features (such as [reflection](/wiki/Reflection_%28computer_science%29 \"Reflection (computer science)\")) require the programmer to use the fully qualified name.\n\nUnlike C\\+\\+, namespaces in Java are not hierarchical as far as the syntax of the language is concerned. However, packages are named in a hierarchical manner. For example, all packages beginning with `java` are a part of the [Java platform](/wiki/Java_platform \"Java platform\")—the package contains classes core to the language, and contains core classes specifically relating to reflection.\n\nIn Java (and [Ada](/wiki/Ada_%28programming_language%29 \"Ada (programming language)\"), [C\\#](/wiki/C_Sharp_%28programming_language%29 \"C Sharp (programming language)\"), and others), namespaces/packages express semantic categories of code. For example, in C\\#, `namespace System` contains code provided by the system (the [.NET Framework](/wiki/.NET_Framework \".NET Framework\")). How specific these categories are and how deep the hierarchies go differ from language to language.\n\n[Function](/wiki/Function_%28programming%29 \"Function (programming)\") and [class](/wiki/Class_%28computer_science%29 \"Class (computer science)\") [scopes](/wiki/Scope_%28programming%29 \"Scope (programming)\") can be viewed as implicit namespaces that are inextricably linked with visibility, accessibility, and [object lifetime](/wiki/Object_lifetime \"Object lifetime\").\n\n", "##### C\\#\n\nNamespaces are heavily used in C\\# language. All .NET Framework classes are organized in namespaces, to be used more clearly and to avoid chaos. Furthermore, custom namespaces are extensively used by programmers, both to organize their work and to avoid [naming collisions](/wiki/Naming_collision \"Naming collision\").\nWhen referencing a class, one should specify either its fully qualified name, which means namespace followed by the class name,\n\nSystem.Console.WriteLine(\"Hello World!\");\nint i \\= System.Convert.ToInt32(\"123\");\n\nor add a **using** statement. This, eliminates the need to mention the complete name of all classes in that namespace.\n\nusing System;\n\nConsole.WriteLine(\"Hello World!\");\nint i \\= Convert.ToInt32(\"123\");\n\nIn the above examples, **System** is a namespace, and **Console** and **Convert** are classes defined within **System**.\n\n[UML diagram with a Console and a Convert class.](/wiki/File:Dotnet-system-namespace-uml.svg \"Dotnet-system-namespace-uml.svg\")\n\n", "##### Python\n\nIn [Python](/wiki/Python_%28programming_language%29 \"Python (programming language)\"), namespaces are defined by the individual modules, and since modules can be contained in hierarchical packages, then namespaces are hierarchical too.\nIn general when a module is imported then the names defined in the module are defined via that module's namespace, and are accessed in from the calling modules by using the fully qualified name.\n\n\\# assume modulea defines two functions : func1() and func2() and one class : Class1\nimport Modulea\n\nModulea.func1()\nModulea.func2()\na \\= Modulea.Class1()\n\nThe `from ... import ...` statement can be used to insert the relevant names directly into the calling module's namespace, and those names can be accessed from the calling module without the qualified name:\n\n\\# assume Modulea defines two functions : func1() and func2() and one class : Class1\nfrom Modulea import func1\n\nfunc1()\nfunc2() \\# this will fail as an undefined name, as will the full name Modulea.func2()\na \\= Class1() \\# this will fail as an undefined name, as will the full name Modulea.Class1()\n\nSince this directly imports names (without qualification) it can overwrite existing names with no warnings.\n\nA special form of the statement is `from ... import *` which imports all names defined in the named package directly in the calling module's namespace. Use of this form of import, although supported within the language, is generally discouraged as it pollutes the namespace of the calling module and will cause already defined names to be overwritten in the case of name clashes.<https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/modules.html> \"in general the practice of importing \\* from a module or package is frowned upon\"\n\nPython also supports `import x as y` as a way of providing an alias or alternative name for use by the calling module:\n\nimport numpy as np\n\na \\= np.arange(1000\\)", "##### XML namespace\n\nIn [XML](/wiki/XML \"XML\"), the XML namespace specification enables the names of elements and attributes in an XML document to be unique, similar to the role of namespaces in programming languages. Using XML namespaces, XML documents may contain element or attribute names from more than one XML vocabulary.\n\n", "##### PHP\n\nNamespaces were introduced into [PHP](/wiki/Php \"Php\") from version 5\\.3 onwards. Naming collision of classes, functions and variables can be avoided.\nIn [PHP](/wiki/PHP \"PHP\"), a namespace is defined with a namespace block.\n\n\\# File phpstar/foobar.php\n\nnamespace phpstar;\nclass FooBar\n{\n\n```\n public function foo(): void\n {\n echo 'Hello world, from function foo';\n }\n\n```\n\n```\n public function bar(): void\n {\n echo 'Hello world, from function bar';\n }\n\n```\n}\n\nWe can reference a PHP namespace with the following different ways:\n\n\\# File index.php\n\n\\# Include the file\ninclude \"phpstar/foobar.php\";\n\\# Option 1: directly prefix the class name with the namespace\n$obj\\_foobar \\= new \\\\phpstar\\\\FooBar();\n\\# Option 2: import the namespace\nuse phpstar\\\\FooBar;\n$obj\\_foobar \\= new FooBar();\n\\# Option 2a: import \\& alias the namespace\nuse phpstar\\\\FooBar as FB;\n$obj\\_foobar \\= new FB();\n\\# Access the properties and methods with regular way\n$obj\\_foobar\\-\\>foo();\n$obj\\_foobar\\-\\>bar();\n\n[UML diagram of the phpstar package with the class FooBar.](/wiki/File:UML_phpstar_package_diagram.svg \"UML phpstar package diagram.svg\")\n\n", "### Emulating namespaces\n\nIn programming languages lacking language support for namespaces, namespaces can be emulated to some extent by using an [identifier naming convention](/wiki/Identifier_naming_convention \"Identifier naming convention\"). For example, [C](/wiki/C_%28programming_language%29 \"C (programming language)\") libraries such as [libpng](/wiki/Libpng \"Libpng\") often use a fixed prefix for all functions and variables that are part of their exposed interface. Libpng exposes identifiers such as:\n\n```\npng_create_write_struct\npng_get_signature\npng_read_row\npng_set_invalid\n\n```\n\nThis [naming convention](/wiki/Naming_conventions_%28programming%29 \"Naming conventions (programming)\") provides reasonable assurance that the [identifiers](/wiki/Identifier \"Identifier\") are unique and can therefore be used in larger programs without [naming collisions](/wiki/Naming_collision \"Naming collision\"). Likewise, many packages originally written in [Fortran](/wiki/Fortran \"Fortran\") (e.g., [BLAS](/wiki/BLAS \"BLAS\"), [LAPACK](/wiki/LAPACK \"LAPACK\")) reserve the first few letters of a function's name to indicate which group it belongs to.\n\nThis technique has several drawbacks:\n* It doesn't scale well to nested namespaces; identifiers become excessively long since all uses of the identifiers must be [fully namespace\\-qualified](/wiki/Fully_qualified_name \"Fully qualified name\").\n* Individuals or organizations may use inconsistent naming conventions, potentially introducing unwanted obfuscation.\n* Compound or \"query\\-based\" operations on groups of identifiers, based on the namespaces in which they are declared, are rendered unwieldy or unfeasible.\n* In languages with restricted identifier length, the use of prefixes limits the number of characters that can be used to identify what the function does. This is a particular problem for packages originally written in [FORTRAN 77](/wiki/Fortran \"Fortran\"), which offered only 6 characters per identifier. For example, the name of the [BLAS](/wiki/BLAS \"BLAS\") function `DGEMM` function indicates that it operates on double\\-precision numbers (\"D\") and general matrices (\"GE\"), and only the last two characters show what it actually does: matrix\\-matrix multiplication (the \"MM\").\n\nThere are several advantages:\n* No special software tools are required to locate names in source\\-code files. A simple program like [grep](/wiki/Grep \"Grep\") suffices.\n* There are no namespace name conflicts.\n* There is no need for name\\-mangling, and thus no potential incompatibility problems.\n\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* 11\\-digit [delivery point](/wiki/Delivery_point \"Delivery point\") [ZIP code](/wiki/ZIP_code \"ZIP code\")\n* [Binomial nomenclature](/wiki/Binomial_nomenclature \"Binomial nomenclature\") (genus\\-species in [biology](/wiki/Biology \"Biology\"))\n* [Chemical nomenclature](/wiki/Chemical_nomenclature \"Chemical nomenclature\")\n* [Dewey Decimal Classification](/wiki/Dewey_Decimal_Classification \"Dewey Decimal Classification\")\n* [Digital object identifier](/wiki/Digital_object_identifier \"Digital object identifier\")\n* [Domain Name System](/wiki/Domain_Name_System \"Domain Name System\")\n* [Fourth wall](/wiki/Fourth_wall \"Fourth wall\")\n* [Identity (object\\-oriented programming)](/wiki/Identity_%28object-oriented_programming%29 \"Identity (object-oriented programming)\")\n* [Library of Congress Classification](/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Classification \"Library of Congress Classification\")\n* [Star catalogues](/wiki/Star_catalogue \"Star catalogue\") and [astronomical naming conventions](/wiki/Astronomical_naming_conventions \"Astronomical naming conventions\")\n* [Violation of abstraction level](/wiki/Violation_of_abstraction_level \"Violation of abstraction level\")\n* [XML namespace](/wiki/XML_namespace \"XML namespace\")\n* [Argument\\-dependent name lookup](/wiki/Argument-dependent_name_lookup \"Argument-dependent name lookup\")\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n[Category:Naming conventions](/wiki/Category:Naming_conventions \"Naming conventions\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 36671443 ], "name": [ "Manannan67" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Biography", "Early life and education", "Hungarian campaign", "Later life and death", "Veneration", "Pious life and attributed miracles", "Canonization and official veneration", "Iconography", "Physical remains and relics", "Dedications", "Notes", "References", "Bibliography", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**Casimir Jagiellon** (; ; ; 3 October 1458 – 4 March 1484\\) was a prince of the [Kingdom of Poland](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland_%281385%E2%80%931569%29 \"Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)\") and of the [Grand Duchy of Lithuania](/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania \"Grand Duchy of Lithuania\"). The second son of King [Casimir IV Jagiellon](/wiki/Casimir_IV_Jagiellon \"Casimir IV Jagiellon\"), he was tutored by [Johannes Longinus](/wiki/Johannes_Longinus \"Johannes Longinus\"), a Polish [chronicler](/wiki/Chronicler \"Chronicler\") and diplomat. After his elder brother [Vladislaus](/wiki/Vladislaus_II_of_Bohemia_and_Hungary \"Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary\") was elected as [King of Bohemia](/wiki/King_of_Bohemia \"King of Bohemia\") in 1471, Casimir became the [heir apparent](/wiki/Heir_apparent \"Heir apparent\"). At the age of 13, Casimir participated in the failed military campaign to install him as [King of Hungary](/wiki/King_of_Hungary \"King of Hungary\"). He became known for his piety, devotion to God, and generosity towards the sick and poor. He became ill (most likely with [tuberculosis](/wiki/Tuberculosis \"Tuberculosis\")) and died at the age of 25\\. He was buried in [Vilnius Cathedral](/wiki/Vilnius_Cathedral \"Vilnius Cathedral\"). His canonization was initiated by his brother King [Sigismund I the Old](/wiki/Sigismund_I_the_Old \"Sigismund I the Old\") in 1514 and the tradition holds that he was canonized in 1521\\.\n\nVeneration of Casimir saw a resurgence in the 17th century when his feast day was confirmed by the pope in 1602 and the dedicated [Chapel of Saint Casimir](/wiki/Chapel_of_Saint_Casimir \"Chapel of Saint Casimir\") was completed in 1636\\. Casimir became a [patron saint](/wiki/Patron_saint \"Patron saint\") of [Lithuania](/wiki/Lithuania \"Lithuania\") and Lithuanian youth. In [Vilnius](/wiki/Vilnius \"Vilnius\"), his feast day is marked annually with [Kaziuko mugė](/wiki/Kaziuko_mug%C4%97 \"Kaziuko mugė\") (a trade fair) held on the Sunday nearest to 4 March, the anniversary of his death. There are more than 50 churches named after Casimir in Lithuania and Poland, including [Church of St. Casimir, Vilnius](/wiki/Church_of_St._Casimir%2C_Vilnius \"Church of St. Casimir, Vilnius\") and [St. Kazimierz Church, Warsaw](/wiki/St._Kazimierz_Church%2C_Warsaw \"St. Kazimierz Church, Warsaw\"), and more than 50 churches in Lithuanian and Polish diaspora communities in America. Women's congregation [Sisters of Saint Casimir](/wiki/Sisters_of_Saint_Casimir \"Sisters of Saint Casimir\") was established in 1908 and remains active in the United States.\n\n", "Biography\n---------\n\n### Early life and education\n\nA member of the [Jagiellon dynasty](/wiki/Jagiellon_dynasty \"Jagiellon dynasty\"), Casimir was born in [Wawel Castle](/wiki/Wawel_Castle \"Wawel Castle\") in [Kraków](/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w \"Kraków\"). Casimir was the third child and the second son of the King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania [Casimir IV](/wiki/Casimir_IV_Jagiellon \"Casimir IV Jagiellon\") and Queen [Elisabeth Habsburg of Austria](/wiki/Elisabeth_of_Austria_%281436%E2%80%931505%29 \"Elisabeth of Austria (1436–1505)\"). Elisabeth was a loving mother and took active interest in her children's upbringing. The Queen and the children often accompanied the King in his annual trips to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.\n\nCasimir was a [polyglot](/wiki/Polyglot \"Polyglot\") and knew [Lithuanian](/wiki/Lithuanian_language \"Lithuanian language\"), [Polish](/wiki/Polish_language \"Polish language\"), [German](/wiki/German_language \"German language\") and [Latin](/wiki/Latin \"Latin\") languages. From the age of nine, Casimir and his brother [Vladislaus](/wiki/Vladislaus_II_of_Bohemia_and_Hungary \"Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary\") were educated by the Polish priest Fr. [Jan Długosz](/wiki/Jan_D%C5%82ugosz \"Jan Długosz\"). The boys were taught Latin and German, law, history, rhetoric, and classical literature. Długosz was a strict and conservative teacher who emphasized ethics, morality, and religious devotion. According to [Stanisław Orzechowski](/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Orzechowski \"Stanisław Orzechowski\") (1513–1566\\), the princes were subject to [corporal punishment](/wiki/Corporal_punishment \"Corporal punishment\") which was approved by their father. Długosz noted Casimir's skills in oratory when he delivered speeches to greet his father returning to Poland in 1469 and Jakub Sienienski, the [Bishop of Kujawy](/wiki/Bishop_of_Kujawy \"Bishop of Kujawy\"), in 1470\\.\n\n### Hungarian campaign\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|*Długosz and Saint Casimir* by [Florian Cynk](/wiki/Florian_Cynk \"Florian Cynk\") (circa 1869\\)](/wiki/File:Cynk_D%C5%82ugosz_and_Saint_Casimir.jpg \"Cynk Długosz and Saint Casimir.jpg\")\nPrince Casimir's uncle [Ladislaus the Posthumous](/wiki/Ladislaus_the_Posthumous \"Ladislaus the Posthumous\"), [King of Hungary](/wiki/King_of_Hungary \"King of Hungary\") and [Bohemia](/wiki/King_of_Bohemia \"King of Bohemia\"), died in 1457 at the age of 17, without leaving an heir. Casimir's father, King Casimir IV, subsequently advanced his claims to Hungary and Bohemia, but could not enforce them due to the [Thirteen Years' War (1454–66\\)](/wiki/Thirteen_Years%27_War_%281454%E2%80%9366%29 \"Thirteen Years' War (1454–66)\"). Instead, [Hungarian nobles](/wiki/Hungarian_nobles \"Hungarian nobles\") elected [Matthias Corvinus](/wiki/Matthias_Corvinus \"Matthias Corvinus\") and [Bohemian nobles](/wiki/Bohemian_nobles \"Bohemian nobles\") selected [George of Poděbrady](/wiki/George_of_Pod%C4%9Bbrady \"George of Poděbrady\") as their kings. George of Poděbrady died in March 1471\\. In May 1471, [Vladislaus](/wiki/Vladislaus_II_of_Bohemia_and_Hungary \"Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary\"), eldest son of Casimir IV, was elected to the throne of Bohemia. However, a group of Catholic Bohemian nobles supported Matthias Corvinus instead of Vladislaus II. In turn, a group of Hungarian nobles conspired against Matthias Corvinus and invited the Polish king to overthrow him. King Casimir IV decided to install his son, Casimir, in Hungary.Tanner, Marcus (2009\\). *The Raven King: Matthias Corvinus and the Fate of his Lost Library*. Yale University Press. p. 70 \n\nPoland amassed an army of 12,000 men, commanded by [Piotr Dunin](/wiki/Piotr_Dunin \"Piotr Dunin\") and Dziersław of Rytwiany. Both King Casimir and Prince Casimir participated in the campaign. In October 1471, the Polish army crossed the Hungarian border and slowly marched towards [Buda](/wiki/Buda \"Buda\"). Matthias Corvinus managed to win over the majority of the Hungarian nobles, including the main conspirator Archbishop [János Vitéz](/wiki/J%C3%A1nos_Vit%C3%A9z_%28archbishop%29 \"János Vitéz (archbishop)\"), and the Polish army did not receive the expected reinforcements. Only Deák, Perény and Rozgonyi families sent troops. Upon hearing that Corvinus' army of 16,000 men camped outside of [Pest](/wiki/Pest%2C_Hungary \"Pest, Hungary\"), the Polish army decided to retreat from [Hatvan](/wiki/Hatvan \"Hatvan\") to [Nitra](/wiki/Nitra \"Nitra\"). There the soldiers battled food shortages, spreading infectious diseases, and the upcoming winter. The Polish King also lacked funds to pay the mercenaries. As a result, the Polish army decreased by about a third. In December 1471, Prince Casimir, out of fear for his safety, was sent to [Jihlava](/wiki/Jihlava \"Jihlava\") closer to the Polish border and that further eroded their soldiers' morale. Corvinus took Nitra and a one\\-year truce was completed in March 1472 in Buda. Prince Casimir returned to [Kraków](/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w \"Kraków\") to resume his studies with Długosz.\n\nDługosz remarked that Prince Casimir felt \"great sorrow and shame\" regarding the failure in Hungary. Polish propaganda, however, portrayed him as a savior, sent by divine providence, to protect the people from a godless tyrant (i.e. Matthias Corvinus) and marauding pagans (i.e. Muslim [Ottoman Turks](/wiki/Ottoman_Turks \"Ottoman Turks\")). Prince Casimir was also exposed to the cult of his uncle King [Władysław III of Poland](/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_III_of_Poland \"Władysław III of Poland\") who died in the 1444 [Battle of Varna](/wiki/Battle_of_Varna \"Battle of Varna\") against the Ottomans. This led some researchers, including [Jacob Caro](/wiki/Jacob_Caro \"Jacob Caro\"), to conclude that the Hungarian campaign pushed Prince Casimir into religious life.\n\n### Later life and death\n\n[thumb\\|Casimir's silver sarcophagus at the [Chapel of Saint Casimir](/wiki/Chapel_of_Saint_Casimir \"Chapel of Saint Casimir\"), [Vilnius Cathedral](/wiki/Vilnius_Cathedral \"Vilnius Cathedral\")](/wiki/File:Wilno_-_kaplica_Kazimierza.JPG \"Wilno - kaplica Kazimierza.JPG\")\n\nAs his elder brother, Vladislaus II, ruled Bohemia, Prince Casimir became the heir apparent to the throne of Poland and Lithuania. Italian humanist writer [Filippo Buonaccorsi](/wiki/Filippo_Buonaccorsi \"Filippo Buonaccorsi\") (also known as Filip Callimachus) was hired to become Casimir's tutor in political matters, but his Renaissance views had less influence on Casimir than Długosz. In 1474, the Italian merchant and traveler [Ambrogio Contarini](/wiki/Ambrogio_Contarini \"Ambrogio Contarini\") met with Prince Casimir and was impressed by his wisdom. Prince Casimir completed his formal education at age 16 and spent most of his time with his father. In 1476, Prince Casimir accompanied his father to [Royal Prussia](/wiki/Royal_Prussia \"Royal Prussia\") where he tried to resolve the conflict with the [Prince\\-Bishopric of Warmia](/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Warmia \"Prince-Bishopric of Warmia\") (see [War of the Priests](/wiki/War_of_the_Priests_%28Poland%29 \"War of the Priests (Poland)\")). In 1478 [Seimas of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania](/wiki/Seimas_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania \"Seimas of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania\") demanded that King Casimir IV leave either Prince Casimir or Prince [John I Albert](/wiki/John_I_Albert \"John I Albert\") in Lithuania as a regent. King Casimir IV feared separatist moods and refused, but after settling the conflict in Prussia, moved to [Vilnius](/wiki/Vilnius \"Vilnius\").\n\nBetween 1479 and 1484 his father spent most of his time in Vilnius attending to the affairs of Lithuania. In 1481, [Mikhailo Olelkovich](/wiki/Mikhailo_Olelkovich \"Mikhailo Olelkovich\") and his relatives planned to murder King Casimir and Prince Casimir during a hunt at a wedding of [Feodor Ivanovich Belsky](/wiki/Belsky_family_%28Gediminid%29 \"Belsky family (Gediminid)\"). The plan was discovered and Prince Casimir, perhaps fearing for his safety, was sent to Poland to act as vice\\-regent. Around the same time his father tried to arrange his marriage to [Kunigunde of Austria](/wiki/Kunigunde_of_Austria \"Kunigunde of Austria\"), daughter of Emperor [Frederick III](/wiki/Frederick_III%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor\"). It is often said that Prince Casimir refused the match, preferring to remain celibate and sensing his approaching death. According to [Maciej Miechowita](/wiki/Maciej_Miechowita \"Maciej Miechowita\"), Prince Casimir developed [tuberculosis](/wiki/Tuberculosis \"Tuberculosis\"). In May 1483, Prince Casimir joined his father in Vilnius. There, after the death of [Andrzej Oporowski](/wiki/Andrzej_Oporowski \"Andrzej Oporowski\"), Bishop and [Vice\\-Chancellor of the Crown](/wiki/Vice-Chancellor_of_the_Crown \"Vice-Chancellor of the Crown\"), Prince Casimir took over some of his duties in the chancellery. However, his health deteriorated while rumors about his piety and good deeds spread further. In February 1484, the [Polish sejm](/wiki/Sejm_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland \"Sejm of the Kingdom of Poland\") in [Lublin](/wiki/Lublin \"Lublin\") was aborted as King Casimir IV rushed back to Lithuania to be with his ill son. Prince Casimir died on 4 March 1484, in [Grodno](/wiki/Hrodna \"Hrodna\"). His remains were interred in [Vilnius Cathedral](/wiki/Vilnius_Cathedral \"Vilnius Cathedral\"), where the dedicated [Saint Casimir's Chapel](/wiki/Saint_Casimir%27s_Chapel \"Saint Casimir's Chapel\") was built in 1636\\.\n\n", "### Early life and education\n\nA member of the [Jagiellon dynasty](/wiki/Jagiellon_dynasty \"Jagiellon dynasty\"), Casimir was born in [Wawel Castle](/wiki/Wawel_Castle \"Wawel Castle\") in [Kraków](/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w \"Kraków\"). Casimir was the third child and the second son of the King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania [Casimir IV](/wiki/Casimir_IV_Jagiellon \"Casimir IV Jagiellon\") and Queen [Elisabeth Habsburg of Austria](/wiki/Elisabeth_of_Austria_%281436%E2%80%931505%29 \"Elisabeth of Austria (1436–1505)\"). Elisabeth was a loving mother and took active interest in her children's upbringing. The Queen and the children often accompanied the King in his annual trips to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.\n\nCasimir was a [polyglot](/wiki/Polyglot \"Polyglot\") and knew [Lithuanian](/wiki/Lithuanian_language \"Lithuanian language\"), [Polish](/wiki/Polish_language \"Polish language\"), [German](/wiki/German_language \"German language\") and [Latin](/wiki/Latin \"Latin\") languages. From the age of nine, Casimir and his brother [Vladislaus](/wiki/Vladislaus_II_of_Bohemia_and_Hungary \"Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary\") were educated by the Polish priest Fr. [Jan Długosz](/wiki/Jan_D%C5%82ugosz \"Jan Długosz\"). The boys were taught Latin and German, law, history, rhetoric, and classical literature. Długosz was a strict and conservative teacher who emphasized ethics, morality, and religious devotion. According to [Stanisław Orzechowski](/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Orzechowski \"Stanisław Orzechowski\") (1513–1566\\), the princes were subject to [corporal punishment](/wiki/Corporal_punishment \"Corporal punishment\") which was approved by their father. Długosz noted Casimir's skills in oratory when he delivered speeches to greet his father returning to Poland in 1469 and Jakub Sienienski, the [Bishop of Kujawy](/wiki/Bishop_of_Kujawy \"Bishop of Kujawy\"), in 1470\\.\n\n", "### Hungarian campaign\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|*Długosz and Saint Casimir* by [Florian Cynk](/wiki/Florian_Cynk \"Florian Cynk\") (circa 1869\\)](/wiki/File:Cynk_D%C5%82ugosz_and_Saint_Casimir.jpg \"Cynk Długosz and Saint Casimir.jpg\")\nPrince Casimir's uncle [Ladislaus the Posthumous](/wiki/Ladislaus_the_Posthumous \"Ladislaus the Posthumous\"), [King of Hungary](/wiki/King_of_Hungary \"King of Hungary\") and [Bohemia](/wiki/King_of_Bohemia \"King of Bohemia\"), died in 1457 at the age of 17, without leaving an heir. Casimir's father, King Casimir IV, subsequently advanced his claims to Hungary and Bohemia, but could not enforce them due to the [Thirteen Years' War (1454–66\\)](/wiki/Thirteen_Years%27_War_%281454%E2%80%9366%29 \"Thirteen Years' War (1454–66)\"). Instead, [Hungarian nobles](/wiki/Hungarian_nobles \"Hungarian nobles\") elected [Matthias Corvinus](/wiki/Matthias_Corvinus \"Matthias Corvinus\") and [Bohemian nobles](/wiki/Bohemian_nobles \"Bohemian nobles\") selected [George of Poděbrady](/wiki/George_of_Pod%C4%9Bbrady \"George of Poděbrady\") as their kings. George of Poděbrady died in March 1471\\. In May 1471, [Vladislaus](/wiki/Vladislaus_II_of_Bohemia_and_Hungary \"Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary\"), eldest son of Casimir IV, was elected to the throne of Bohemia. However, a group of Catholic Bohemian nobles supported Matthias Corvinus instead of Vladislaus II. In turn, a group of Hungarian nobles conspired against Matthias Corvinus and invited the Polish king to overthrow him. King Casimir IV decided to install his son, Casimir, in Hungary.Tanner, Marcus (2009\\). *The Raven King: Matthias Corvinus and the Fate of his Lost Library*. Yale University Press. p. 70 \n\nPoland amassed an army of 12,000 men, commanded by [Piotr Dunin](/wiki/Piotr_Dunin \"Piotr Dunin\") and Dziersław of Rytwiany. Both King Casimir and Prince Casimir participated in the campaign. In October 1471, the Polish army crossed the Hungarian border and slowly marched towards [Buda](/wiki/Buda \"Buda\"). Matthias Corvinus managed to win over the majority of the Hungarian nobles, including the main conspirator Archbishop [János Vitéz](/wiki/J%C3%A1nos_Vit%C3%A9z_%28archbishop%29 \"János Vitéz (archbishop)\"), and the Polish army did not receive the expected reinforcements. Only Deák, Perény and Rozgonyi families sent troops. Upon hearing that Corvinus' army of 16,000 men camped outside of [Pest](/wiki/Pest%2C_Hungary \"Pest, Hungary\"), the Polish army decided to retreat from [Hatvan](/wiki/Hatvan \"Hatvan\") to [Nitra](/wiki/Nitra \"Nitra\"). There the soldiers battled food shortages, spreading infectious diseases, and the upcoming winter. The Polish King also lacked funds to pay the mercenaries. As a result, the Polish army decreased by about a third. In December 1471, Prince Casimir, out of fear for his safety, was sent to [Jihlava](/wiki/Jihlava \"Jihlava\") closer to the Polish border and that further eroded their soldiers' morale. Corvinus took Nitra and a one\\-year truce was completed in March 1472 in Buda. Prince Casimir returned to [Kraków](/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w \"Kraków\") to resume his studies with Długosz.\n\nDługosz remarked that Prince Casimir felt \"great sorrow and shame\" regarding the failure in Hungary. Polish propaganda, however, portrayed him as a savior, sent by divine providence, to protect the people from a godless tyrant (i.e. Matthias Corvinus) and marauding pagans (i.e. Muslim [Ottoman Turks](/wiki/Ottoman_Turks \"Ottoman Turks\")). Prince Casimir was also exposed to the cult of his uncle King [Władysław III of Poland](/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_III_of_Poland \"Władysław III of Poland\") who died in the 1444 [Battle of Varna](/wiki/Battle_of_Varna \"Battle of Varna\") against the Ottomans. This led some researchers, including [Jacob Caro](/wiki/Jacob_Caro \"Jacob Caro\"), to conclude that the Hungarian campaign pushed Prince Casimir into religious life.\n\n", "### Later life and death\n\n[thumb\\|Casimir's silver sarcophagus at the [Chapel of Saint Casimir](/wiki/Chapel_of_Saint_Casimir \"Chapel of Saint Casimir\"), [Vilnius Cathedral](/wiki/Vilnius_Cathedral \"Vilnius Cathedral\")](/wiki/File:Wilno_-_kaplica_Kazimierza.JPG \"Wilno - kaplica Kazimierza.JPG\")\n\nAs his elder brother, Vladislaus II, ruled Bohemia, Prince Casimir became the heir apparent to the throne of Poland and Lithuania. Italian humanist writer [Filippo Buonaccorsi](/wiki/Filippo_Buonaccorsi \"Filippo Buonaccorsi\") (also known as Filip Callimachus) was hired to become Casimir's tutor in political matters, but his Renaissance views had less influence on Casimir than Długosz. In 1474, the Italian merchant and traveler [Ambrogio Contarini](/wiki/Ambrogio_Contarini \"Ambrogio Contarini\") met with Prince Casimir and was impressed by his wisdom. Prince Casimir completed his formal education at age 16 and spent most of his time with his father. In 1476, Prince Casimir accompanied his father to [Royal Prussia](/wiki/Royal_Prussia \"Royal Prussia\") where he tried to resolve the conflict with the [Prince\\-Bishopric of Warmia](/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Warmia \"Prince-Bishopric of Warmia\") (see [War of the Priests](/wiki/War_of_the_Priests_%28Poland%29 \"War of the Priests (Poland)\")). In 1478 [Seimas of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania](/wiki/Seimas_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania \"Seimas of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania\") demanded that King Casimir IV leave either Prince Casimir or Prince [John I Albert](/wiki/John_I_Albert \"John I Albert\") in Lithuania as a regent. King Casimir IV feared separatist moods and refused, but after settling the conflict in Prussia, moved to [Vilnius](/wiki/Vilnius \"Vilnius\").\n\nBetween 1479 and 1484 his father spent most of his time in Vilnius attending to the affairs of Lithuania. In 1481, [Mikhailo Olelkovich](/wiki/Mikhailo_Olelkovich \"Mikhailo Olelkovich\") and his relatives planned to murder King Casimir and Prince Casimir during a hunt at a wedding of [Feodor Ivanovich Belsky](/wiki/Belsky_family_%28Gediminid%29 \"Belsky family (Gediminid)\"). The plan was discovered and Prince Casimir, perhaps fearing for his safety, was sent to Poland to act as vice\\-regent. Around the same time his father tried to arrange his marriage to [Kunigunde of Austria](/wiki/Kunigunde_of_Austria \"Kunigunde of Austria\"), daughter of Emperor [Frederick III](/wiki/Frederick_III%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor\"). It is often said that Prince Casimir refused the match, preferring to remain celibate and sensing his approaching death. According to [Maciej Miechowita](/wiki/Maciej_Miechowita \"Maciej Miechowita\"), Prince Casimir developed [tuberculosis](/wiki/Tuberculosis \"Tuberculosis\"). In May 1483, Prince Casimir joined his father in Vilnius. There, after the death of [Andrzej Oporowski](/wiki/Andrzej_Oporowski \"Andrzej Oporowski\"), Bishop and [Vice\\-Chancellor of the Crown](/wiki/Vice-Chancellor_of_the_Crown \"Vice-Chancellor of the Crown\"), Prince Casimir took over some of his duties in the chancellery. However, his health deteriorated while rumors about his piety and good deeds spread further. In February 1484, the [Polish sejm](/wiki/Sejm_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland \"Sejm of the Kingdom of Poland\") in [Lublin](/wiki/Lublin \"Lublin\") was aborted as King Casimir IV rushed back to Lithuania to be with his ill son. Prince Casimir died on 4 March 1484, in [Grodno](/wiki/Hrodna \"Hrodna\"). His remains were interred in [Vilnius Cathedral](/wiki/Vilnius_Cathedral \"Vilnius Cathedral\"), where the dedicated [Saint Casimir's Chapel](/wiki/Saint_Casimir%27s_Chapel \"Saint Casimir's Chapel\") was built in 1636\\.\n\n", "Veneration\n----------\n\n### Pious life and attributed miracles\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\|right\\|[Lithuanian folk sculpture](/wiki/Dievdirbys \"Dievdirbys\") of Saint Casimir](/wiki/Image:Kazimierzm.jpg \"Kazimierzm.jpg\")\n\nSurviving contemporary accounts described Prince Casimir as a young man of exceptional intellect and education, humility and politeness, who strove for justice and fairness. Early sources do not attest to his piety or devotion to God, but his inclination to religious life increased towards the end of his life. Later sources provide some stories of Casimir's religious life. [Marcin Kromer](/wiki/Marcin_Kromer \"Marcin Kromer\") (1512–1589\\) said Casimir refused his physician's advice to have sexual relations with women in hopes to cure his illness. Other accounts say Casimir contracted his lung disease after a particularly hard fast or that he could be found pre\\-dawn, kneeling by the church gates, waiting for a priest to open them. [Zacharias Ferreri](/wiki/Zacharias_Ferreri \"Zacharias Ferreri\") (1479–1524\\) wrote that Casimir composed a prayer in [hexameter](/wiki/Hexameter \"Hexameter\") on Christ's [incarnation](/wiki/Incarnation_%28Christianity%29 \"Incarnation (Christianity)\") but this text has not survived. Later, a copy of *Omni die dic Mariae* (\"Daily, Daily Sing to Mary\") was found in Casimir's coffin. The hymn became so strongly associated with Casimir that sometimes it is known as \"Hymn of St. Casimir\" and he is credited as its author. The lengthy hymn has an intricate [meter](/wiki/Metre_%28poetry%29 \"Metre (poetry)\") and rhyme scheme (alternate [acatalectic](/wiki/Acatalectic \"Acatalectic\") and [catalectic](/wiki/Catalectic \"Catalectic\") [trochaic](/wiki/Trochaic \"Trochaic\") [dimeter](/wiki/Dimeter \"Dimeter\") with [internal rhyme](/wiki/Internal_rhyme \"Internal rhyme\") in the first and third verses (aa/b, cc/b)) and was most likely written by [Bernard of Cluny](/wiki/Bernard_of_Cluny \"Bernard of Cluny\").\n\nOne of the first miracles attributed to Casimir was his appearance before the Lithuanian army during the [Siege of Polotsk](/wiki/Siege_of_Polotsk \"Siege of Polotsk\") in 1518\\. Casimir showed where Lithuanian troops could safely cross the [Daugava River](/wiki/Daugava_River \"Daugava River\") and relieve the city, besieged by the army of the [Grand Duchy of Moscow](/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Moscow \"Grand Duchy of Moscow\"). Ferreri's hagiography of 1521 mentions many miracles of Casimir are known but describes only one – a Lithuanian victory against the Russians. The description lacks specifics, such as date or location, but most likely refers to the Lithuanian victory in 1519 against Russian troops that raided the environs of Vilnius, and not the more popular story of the Siege of Polotsk.\n\n### Canonization and official veneration\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\|Saint Casimir on the cover page of his first hagiography](/wiki/File:Saint_Casimir_from_Vita_beati_Casimiri.jpg \"Saint Casimir from Vita beati Casimiri.jpg\")\nCasimir's official cult started spreading soon after his death. In 1501, [Pope Alexander VI](/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VI \"Pope Alexander VI\"), citing Casimir's miracles as well as the splendor of the chapel where he was buried, granted a special [indulgence](/wiki/Indulgence \"Indulgence\") to those who would pray in the chapel from one [vespers](/wiki/Vespers \"Vespers\") to another during certain Catholic festivals, and would contribute to the upkeep of the chapel. In 1513, [Andrzej Krzycki](/wiki/Andrzej_Krzycki \"Andrzej Krzycki\") wrote a poem mentioning numerous wax [votive offerings](/wiki/Votive_offering \"Votive offering\") on Casimir's grave. In 1514, during the [Fifth Council of the Lateran](/wiki/Fifth_Council_of_the_Lateran \"Fifth Council of the Lateran\"), Casimir's brother [Sigismund I the Old](/wiki/Sigismund_I_the_Old \"Sigismund I the Old\") petitioned the pope to canonize Casimir. After repeated requests, in November 1517, [Pope Leo X](/wiki/Pope_Leo_X \"Pope Leo X\") appointed a three\\-bishop commission and later sent his legate [Zacharias Ferreri](/wiki/Zacharias_Ferreri \"Zacharias Ferreri\") to investigate. He arrived at Vilnius in September 1520 and completed his work in about two months. His findings, the first short [hagiography](/wiki/Hagiography \"Hagiography\") of Casimir, was published in 1521 in [Kraków](/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w \"Kraków\") as *Vita Beati Casimiri Confessoris*. The canonization was all but certain but Pope Leo X died in December 1521\\. Research of [Zenonas Ivinskis](/wiki/Zenonas_Ivinskis \"Zenonas Ivinskis\") and [Paulius Rabikauskas](/wiki/Paulius_Rabikauskas \"Paulius Rabikauskas\") showed that there is no documentary proof that he issued a [papal bull](/wiki/Papal_bull \"Papal bull\") canonizing Casimir but many important documents were lost during the [Sack of Rome (1527\\)](/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_%281527%29 \"Sack of Rome (1527)\"). The [Protestant Reformation](/wiki/Protestant_Reformation \"Protestant Reformation\") attacked the cult of saints and there were no new canonizations between 1523 and 1588\\. However, Casimir was included in the first *[Roman Martyrology](/wiki/Roman_Martyrology \"Roman Martyrology\"),* published in 1583\\.\n\nThe cause of Casimir's cult was taken up by the new Bishop of Vilnius [Benedykt Woyna](/wiki/Benedykt_Woyna \"Benedykt Woyna\") (appointed in 1600\\). He sent canon Gregorius Swiecicki to Rome with a letter from King [Sigismund III Vasa](/wiki/Sigismund_III_Vasa \"Sigismund III Vasa\") requesting to add the feast of Casimir to the [Roman Breviary](/wiki/Roman_Breviary \"Roman Breviary\") and [Roman Missal](/wiki/Roman_Missal \"Roman Missal\"). The [Sacred Congregation of Rites](/wiki/Sacred_Congregation_of_Rites \"Sacred Congregation of Rites\") refused the request but on 7 November 1602 [Pope Clement VIII](/wiki/Pope_Clement_VIII \"Pope Clement VIII\") issued a [papal brief](/wiki/Papal_brief \"Papal brief\") *Quae ad sanctorum* which authorized his feast *sub duplici ritu* on 4 March but only in Poland and Lithuania. The brief also mentioned that Casimir was added to the ranks of saints by Pope Leo X. In the absence of any earlier known papal document explicitly mentioning Casimir as saint, the brief is often cited as Casimir's canonization. Swiecicki returned to Vilnius with the papal brief and red velvet [labarum](/wiki/Labarum \"Labarum\") with the image of Saint Casimir. The city organized a large three\\-day festival on 10–12 May 1604 to properly accept the papal flag. On the third day, the [cornerstone](/wiki/Cornerstone \"Cornerstone\") was laid for the new [Church of St. Casimir](/wiki/Church_of_St._Casimir%2C_Vilnius \"Church of St. Casimir, Vilnius\"). The coffin of Casimir was taken out of the crypt and elevated to the altar. Swiecicki testified that when the coffin was opened in August 1604 a wonderful smell filed the cathedral for three days.\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\|Saint Casimir by [Daniel Schultz](/wiki/Daniel_Schultz \"Daniel Schultz\") (1615–1683\\)](/wiki/File:Schultz_Saint_Casimir.jpg \"Schultz Saint Casimir.jpg\")\nIn 1607 and 1613, Bishop Woyna declared Casimir patron saint of Lithuania (*Patronus principalis Lithuaniae*). The issue of a universal Casimir's feast was not forgotten and in 1620 Bishop [Eustachy Wołłowicz](/wiki/Eustachy_Wo%C5%82%C5%82owicz \"Eustachy Wołłowicz\") petitioned [Pope Paul V](/wiki/Pope_Paul_V \"Pope Paul V\") to add Casimir to the [Roman Breviary](/wiki/Roman_Breviary \"Roman Breviary\") and [Roman Missal](/wiki/Roman_Missal \"Roman Missal\"). This time the [Sacred Congregation of Rites](/wiki/Sacred_Congregation_of_Rites \"Sacred Congregation of Rites\") granted the request in March 1621 and added his feast *sub ritu semiduplici*. In March 1636, [Pope Urban VIII](/wiki/Pope_Urban_VIII \"Pope Urban VIII\") allowed the celebration of the feast of Casimir with an [octave](/wiki/Octave_%28liturgical%29 \"Octave (liturgical)\") (*duplex cum octava*) in the [Diocese of Vilnius](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Vilnius \"Roman Catholic Diocese of Vilnius\") and the [Grand Duchy of Lithuania](/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania \"Grand Duchy of Lithuania\"). That is equivalent of proclaiming Casimir as the [patron saint](/wiki/Patron_saint \"Patron saint\") of Lithuania. On 28 September 1652, [Pope Innocent X](/wiki/Pope_Innocent_X \"Pope Innocent X\") allowed a fest of [transfer of relics](/wiki/Translation_%28relic%29 \"Translation (relic)\") of Casimir on a Sunday following the [Assumption of Mary](/wiki/Assumption_of_Mary \"Assumption of Mary\"). On 11 June 1948, when many Lithuanians were [displaced war refugees](/wiki/Displaced_person \"Displaced person\"), [Pope Pius XII](/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII \"Pope Pius XII\") named Casimir the special patron of Lithuanian youth.\n\n### Iconography\n\nSaint Casimir's painting in [Vilnius Cathedral](/wiki/Vilnius_Cathedral \"Vilnius Cathedral\") is considered to be miraculous. The painting, probably completed around 1520, depicts the saint with two right hands. According to a legend, the painter attempted to redraw the hand in a different place and paint over the old hand, but the old hand miraculously reappeared. More conventional explanations claim that three\\-handed Casimir was the original intent of the painter to emphasize the exceptional generosity of Casimir (\"But when you give to someone in need, don't let your left hand know what your right hand is doing.\" [Matthew 6:3](/wiki/Matthew_6:3 \"3\")) or that the old hand bled through a coat of new paint (similar to a [palimpsest](/wiki/Palimpsest \"Palimpsest\")). Around 1636 the painting was covered in gilded silver clothing (*[riza](/wiki/Riza \"Riza\")*).\n[thumb\\|170px\\|Nemunaitis coat of arms (1792\\)](/wiki/Image:Nemunaitis_coats_of_arms_in_1792.jpg \"Nemunaitis coats of arms in 1792.jpg\")\nCasimir's iconography usually follows the three\\-handed painting. He is usually depicted as a young man in long red robe lined with [stoat](/wiki/Stoat \"Stoat\") fur. Sometimes he wears a red cap of the Grand Duke of Lithuania, but other times, to emphasize his devotion to spiritual life, the cap is placed near Casimir. Almost always he holds a lily, a symbol of virginity, innocence, and purity.[Husenbeth, Frederick Charles. *Emblems of Saints: By which They are Distinguished in Works of Art*, Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts, 1860, p. 33](https://books.google.com/books?id=UZGQWr97WmIC&q=Caraunus) He might also hold a cross, a rosary, or a book with words from *Omni die dic Mariae* (Daily, Daily Sing to Mary). The towns of [Kvėdarna](/wiki/Kv%C4%97darna \"Kvėdarna\") and [Nemunaitis](/wiki/Nemunaitis \"Nemunaitis\") in Lithuania have Saint Casimir depicted on their coat of arms.\n\n### Physical remains and relics\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|Saint Casimir by [Carlo Dolci](/wiki/Carlo_Dolci \"Carlo Dolci\") (1616–1686\\) in the collection of [Palazzo Pitti](/wiki/Palazzo_Pitti \"Palazzo Pitti\")](/wiki/File:%C5%9Aviaty_Kazimier._%D0%A1%D1%8C%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82%D1%8B_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80_%28C._Dolci%2C_XVII%29.jpg \"Śviaty Kazimier. Сьвяты Казімер (C. Dolci, XVII).jpg\")\nCasimir was buried in the [crypt](/wiki/Crypt \"Crypt\") under the Royal Chapel of [Vilnius Cathedral](/wiki/Vilnius_Cathedral \"Vilnius Cathedral\") (present\\-day Wołłowicz Chapel to the left from the main entrance), constructed by his father in the [Gothic style](/wiki/Gothic_architecture \"Gothic architecture\") in 1474\\. In 1604, the coffin was elevated from the crypt to the altar and in 1636 moved to the dedicated [Chapel of Saint Casimir](/wiki/Chapel_of_Saint_Casimir \"Chapel of Saint Casimir\"). The present\\-day sarcophagus was made in 1747 under the last will of Bishop of Warmia [Christopher Johan Szembek](/wiki/Christopher_Johan_Szembek \"Christopher Johan Szembek\") (1680–1740\\). It is made of linden wood and covered with silver plates; its corners are decorated with gilded eagles. The sarcophagus was removed from the cathedral on three occasions. In 1655, before the [Battle of Vilnius](/wiki/Battle_of_Vilnius_%281655%29 \"Battle of Vilnius (1655)\") during the [Deluge](/wiki/Deluge_%28history%29 \"Deluge (history)\"), the relics were removed most likely by [Jerzy Białłozor](/wiki/Jerzy_Bia%C5%82%C5%82ozor \"Jerzy Białłozor\") and hid by [Cyprian Paweł Brzostowski](/wiki/Cyprian_Pawe%C5%82_Brzostowski \"Cyprian Paweł Brzostowski\") and later by the [Sapiehas](/wiki/House_of_Sapieha \"House of Sapieha\") in the [Ruzhany Palace](/wiki/Ruzhany_Palace \"Ruzhany Palace\"). They were returned to the devastated chapel in 1663\\. The relics were removed for a short time in 1702 during the [Battle of Vilnius](/wiki/Battle_of_Vilnius_%281702%29 \"Battle of Vilnius (1702)\") of the [Great Northern War](/wiki/Great_Northern_War \"Great Northern War\"). In October 1952, the relics were quietly moved to the [Church of St. Peter and St. Paul](/wiki/Church_of_St._Peter_and_St._Paul%2C_Vilnius \"Church of St. Peter and St. Paul, Vilnius\") by the order of [Soviet authorities](/wiki/Lithuanian_SSR \"Lithuanian SSR\"). The cathedral was turned into an art gallery. The relics returned to their place in 1989 when the cathedral was reconsecrated.\n\nAfter the rediscovery of the [Catacombs of Rome](/wiki/Catacombs_of_Rome \"Catacombs of Rome\") in 1578, the cult of [relics](/wiki/Relic \"Relic\") spread throughout Europe (see also [catacomb saints](/wiki/Catacomb_saints \"Catacomb saints\")) and the trend did not skip Casimir. The coffin of Casimir was opened in early 1602 and in August 1604\\. At the time, canon Gregorius Swiecicki testified that despite humidity the body was intact. But in 1667 there were only bones left; they were inventoried and placed into six cloth bags. Surviving written records indicate that the coffin was opened in 1664, 1667, 1677, 1690, 1736, 1838, 1878 (twice), and 1922\\. There are several recorded instances when Casimir's relics were gifted to prominent figures and societies: to musicians' [confraternity](/wiki/Confraternity \"Confraternity\") at [San Giorgio Maggiore, Naples](/wiki/San_Giorgio_Maggiore%2C_Naples \"San Giorgio Maggiore, Naples\") in early 1650s, to King [John III Sobieski](/wiki/John_III_Sobieski \"John III Sobieski\") and [Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany](/wiki/Cosimo_III_de%27_Medici%2C_Grand_Duke_of_Tuscany \"Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany\") in October 1677, to the [Sodality of Our Lady](/wiki/Sodality_of_Our_Lady \"Sodality of Our Lady\") of the Jesuit academy in [Mechelen](/wiki/Mechelen \"Mechelen\") and the [Order of Malta](/wiki/Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta \"Sovereign Military Order of Malta\") in October 1690, to Queen [Maria Josepha of Austria](/wiki/Maria_Josepha_of_Austria \"Maria Josepha of Austria\") in February 1736, to Cistercian abbot Sztárek Lajos of in 1860\\. Many more relics of Casimir can be found in local churches. In particular, in 1838, two teeth and ten unspecified bones were removed from the coffin; the bones were cut into small pieces and distributed among various churches. In 1922, the bones were wrapped in a new cloth and the old cloth was distributed as a relic. It was the last time that a relic of Casimir (one tooth for the [Church of St. Casimir](/wiki/Church_of_St._Casimir%2C_Vilnius \"Church of St. Casimir, Vilnius\")) was taken.\n\n### Dedications\n\nIn his 1970 monograph priest Florijonas Neviera (Florian Niewiero, 1896–1976\\) counted churches named after Casimir. He found 12 churches in Lithuania (as of 1940\\), 48 churches and 5 chapels in Poland, 23 Lithuanian and 36 Polish churches in United States (as of 1964\\), five churches in Canada ([Montreal](/wiki/Montreal \"Montreal\"), [Winnipeg](/wiki/Winnipeg \"Winnipeg\"), [Toronto](/wiki/Toronto \"Toronto\"), [Portneuf](/wiki/Portneuf%2C_Quebec \"Portneuf, Quebec\"), and [Ripon](/wiki/Ripon%2C_Quebec \"Ripon, Quebec\")), two churches in United Kingdom ([London](/wiki/London \"London\") and [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester \"Manchester\")), and two churches in Belarus ([Vselyub](/wiki/Vselyub \"Vselyub\") and [Lepiel](/wiki/Lepiel \"Lepiel\")). The women's congregation [Sisters of Saint Casimir](/wiki/Sisters_of_Saint_Casimir \"Sisters of Saint Casimir\") was established in 1908 by [Maria Kaupas](/wiki/Maria_Kaupas \"Maria Kaupas\") and is active in the United States. In 1945, the [College of Saint Casimir](/wiki/College_of_Saint_Casimir \"College of Saint Casimir\") was established in Rome to educate Lithuanian priests who fled west after World War II.\n\n[thumb\\|150px\\|Fresco of Saint Casimir in the , painted in the 19th century](/wiki/File:Fresco_of_Saint_Kazimieras_in_the_Santuario_della_Mentorella%2C_painted_in_the_19th_century.jpg \"Fresco of Saint Kazimieras in the Santuario della Mentorella, painted in the 19th century.jpg\")\nWhile the devotion to Casimir is most prevalent in Lithuania and Poland and their diaspora communities, his cult can be found in other countries as well. In the 17th century, at least two societies of Saint Casimir were active in [Mechelen](/wiki/Mechelen \"Mechelen\") and [Antwerp](/wiki/Antwerp \"Antwerp\") (now Belgium). In the 17th century, Casimir's cult also spread in Italy, particularly [Florence](/wiki/Florence \"Florence\"), [Palermo](/wiki/Palermo \"Palermo\"), [Naples](/wiki/Naples \"Naples\"); his cult in Rome was more associated with Polish dignitaries and émigrés. Musical performances were organized in Rome in 1675 (words by Sebastiano Lazzarini, music by Francesco Beretta, performed at [Santo Spirito in Sassia](/wiki/Santo_Spirito_in_Sassia \"Santo Spirito in Sassia\")) and in 1678 (words by Ottavio Santacroce, music probably by [Giovanni Bicilli](/wiki/Giovanni_Bicilli \"Giovanni Bicilli\"), performed at [Santa Maria in Vallicella](/wiki/Santa_Maria_in_Vallicella \"Santa Maria in Vallicella\") on the occasion of the visit by [Michał Kazimierz Radziwiłł](/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Kazimierz_Radziwi%C5%82%C5%82 \"Michał Kazimierz Radziwiłł\") and his wife [Katarzyna Sobieska](/wiki/Katarzyna_Sobieska \"Katarzyna Sobieska\")), and in Florence in 1706 (words possibly by Cardinal [Pietro Ottoboni](/wiki/Pietro_Ottoboni_%28cardinal%29 \"Pietro Ottoboni (cardinal)\"), music by [Alessandro Scarlatti](/wiki/Alessandro_Scarlatti \"Alessandro Scarlatti\")). In Palermo, [Pietro Novelli](/wiki/Pietro_Novelli \"Pietro Novelli\") was commissioned painting *Coronation of Saint Casimir* (l’Incoronazione di s. Casimiro) for the altar of (now held at the [Galleria Regionale della Sicilia](/wiki/Galleria_Regionale_della_Sicilia \"Galleria Regionale della Sicilia\")).\n\nThe settlements of [Saint\\-Casimir](/wiki/Saint-Casimir%2C_Quebec \"Saint-Casimir, Quebec\") in Canada (founded 1836\\) and [San Casimiro](/wiki/San_Casimiro \"San Casimiro\") in Venezuela (founded 1785\\) are named after him. Sculptures of Casimir, among other [canonized royals](/wiki/List_of_royal_saints_and_martyrs \"List of royal saints and martyrs\"), can be found in [San Ferdinando, Livorno](/wiki/San_Ferdinando%2C_Livorno \"San Ferdinando, Livorno\"), Italy and [Metropolitan Cathedral](/wiki/Mexico_City_Metropolitan_Cathedral \"Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral\"), Mexico City. Stained glass windows with Casimir can be found at the [Cathedral Basilica of St. Joseph](/wiki/Cathedral_Basilica_of_St._Joseph_%28San_Jose%2C_California%29 \"Cathedral Basilica of St. Joseph (San Jose, California)\") in [San Jose, California](/wiki/San_Jose%2C_California \"San Jose, California\"), and at the Church of St. Peter in [Chevaigné](/wiki/Chevaign%C3%A9 \"Chevaigné\"), France. Since 1846, there is a nursing home in Paris named *Maison Saint\\-Casimir*. It was created by the Polish community of France and is run since its opening by Polish nuns [Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul](/wiki/Daughters_of_Charity_of_Saint_Vincent_de_Paul \"Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul\").\n\n", "### Pious life and attributed miracles\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\|right\\|[Lithuanian folk sculpture](/wiki/Dievdirbys \"Dievdirbys\") of Saint Casimir](/wiki/Image:Kazimierzm.jpg \"Kazimierzm.jpg\")\n\nSurviving contemporary accounts described Prince Casimir as a young man of exceptional intellect and education, humility and politeness, who strove for justice and fairness. Early sources do not attest to his piety or devotion to God, but his inclination to religious life increased towards the end of his life. Later sources provide some stories of Casimir's religious life. [Marcin Kromer](/wiki/Marcin_Kromer \"Marcin Kromer\") (1512–1589\\) said Casimir refused his physician's advice to have sexual relations with women in hopes to cure his illness. Other accounts say Casimir contracted his lung disease after a particularly hard fast or that he could be found pre\\-dawn, kneeling by the church gates, waiting for a priest to open them. [Zacharias Ferreri](/wiki/Zacharias_Ferreri \"Zacharias Ferreri\") (1479–1524\\) wrote that Casimir composed a prayer in [hexameter](/wiki/Hexameter \"Hexameter\") on Christ's [incarnation](/wiki/Incarnation_%28Christianity%29 \"Incarnation (Christianity)\") but this text has not survived. Later, a copy of *Omni die dic Mariae* (\"Daily, Daily Sing to Mary\") was found in Casimir's coffin. The hymn became so strongly associated with Casimir that sometimes it is known as \"Hymn of St. Casimir\" and he is credited as its author. The lengthy hymn has an intricate [meter](/wiki/Metre_%28poetry%29 \"Metre (poetry)\") and rhyme scheme (alternate [acatalectic](/wiki/Acatalectic \"Acatalectic\") and [catalectic](/wiki/Catalectic \"Catalectic\") [trochaic](/wiki/Trochaic \"Trochaic\") [dimeter](/wiki/Dimeter \"Dimeter\") with [internal rhyme](/wiki/Internal_rhyme \"Internal rhyme\") in the first and third verses (aa/b, cc/b)) and was most likely written by [Bernard of Cluny](/wiki/Bernard_of_Cluny \"Bernard of Cluny\").\n\nOne of the first miracles attributed to Casimir was his appearance before the Lithuanian army during the [Siege of Polotsk](/wiki/Siege_of_Polotsk \"Siege of Polotsk\") in 1518\\. Casimir showed where Lithuanian troops could safely cross the [Daugava River](/wiki/Daugava_River \"Daugava River\") and relieve the city, besieged by the army of the [Grand Duchy of Moscow](/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Moscow \"Grand Duchy of Moscow\"). Ferreri's hagiography of 1521 mentions many miracles of Casimir are known but describes only one – a Lithuanian victory against the Russians. The description lacks specifics, such as date or location, but most likely refers to the Lithuanian victory in 1519 against Russian troops that raided the environs of Vilnius, and not the more popular story of the Siege of Polotsk.\n\n", "### Canonization and official veneration\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\|Saint Casimir on the cover page of his first hagiography](/wiki/File:Saint_Casimir_from_Vita_beati_Casimiri.jpg \"Saint Casimir from Vita beati Casimiri.jpg\")\nCasimir's official cult started spreading soon after his death. In 1501, [Pope Alexander VI](/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VI \"Pope Alexander VI\"), citing Casimir's miracles as well as the splendor of the chapel where he was buried, granted a special [indulgence](/wiki/Indulgence \"Indulgence\") to those who would pray in the chapel from one [vespers](/wiki/Vespers \"Vespers\") to another during certain Catholic festivals, and would contribute to the upkeep of the chapel. In 1513, [Andrzej Krzycki](/wiki/Andrzej_Krzycki \"Andrzej Krzycki\") wrote a poem mentioning numerous wax [votive offerings](/wiki/Votive_offering \"Votive offering\") on Casimir's grave. In 1514, during the [Fifth Council of the Lateran](/wiki/Fifth_Council_of_the_Lateran \"Fifth Council of the Lateran\"), Casimir's brother [Sigismund I the Old](/wiki/Sigismund_I_the_Old \"Sigismund I the Old\") petitioned the pope to canonize Casimir. After repeated requests, in November 1517, [Pope Leo X](/wiki/Pope_Leo_X \"Pope Leo X\") appointed a three\\-bishop commission and later sent his legate [Zacharias Ferreri](/wiki/Zacharias_Ferreri \"Zacharias Ferreri\") to investigate. He arrived at Vilnius in September 1520 and completed his work in about two months. His findings, the first short [hagiography](/wiki/Hagiography \"Hagiography\") of Casimir, was published in 1521 in [Kraków](/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w \"Kraków\") as *Vita Beati Casimiri Confessoris*. The canonization was all but certain but Pope Leo X died in December 1521\\. Research of [Zenonas Ivinskis](/wiki/Zenonas_Ivinskis \"Zenonas Ivinskis\") and [Paulius Rabikauskas](/wiki/Paulius_Rabikauskas \"Paulius Rabikauskas\") showed that there is no documentary proof that he issued a [papal bull](/wiki/Papal_bull \"Papal bull\") canonizing Casimir but many important documents were lost during the [Sack of Rome (1527\\)](/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_%281527%29 \"Sack of Rome (1527)\"). The [Protestant Reformation](/wiki/Protestant_Reformation \"Protestant Reformation\") attacked the cult of saints and there were no new canonizations between 1523 and 1588\\. However, Casimir was included in the first *[Roman Martyrology](/wiki/Roman_Martyrology \"Roman Martyrology\"),* published in 1583\\.\n\nThe cause of Casimir's cult was taken up by the new Bishop of Vilnius [Benedykt Woyna](/wiki/Benedykt_Woyna \"Benedykt Woyna\") (appointed in 1600\\). He sent canon Gregorius Swiecicki to Rome with a letter from King [Sigismund III Vasa](/wiki/Sigismund_III_Vasa \"Sigismund III Vasa\") requesting to add the feast of Casimir to the [Roman Breviary](/wiki/Roman_Breviary \"Roman Breviary\") and [Roman Missal](/wiki/Roman_Missal \"Roman Missal\"). The [Sacred Congregation of Rites](/wiki/Sacred_Congregation_of_Rites \"Sacred Congregation of Rites\") refused the request but on 7 November 1602 [Pope Clement VIII](/wiki/Pope_Clement_VIII \"Pope Clement VIII\") issued a [papal brief](/wiki/Papal_brief \"Papal brief\") *Quae ad sanctorum* which authorized his feast *sub duplici ritu* on 4 March but only in Poland and Lithuania. The brief also mentioned that Casimir was added to the ranks of saints by Pope Leo X. In the absence of any earlier known papal document explicitly mentioning Casimir as saint, the brief is often cited as Casimir's canonization. Swiecicki returned to Vilnius with the papal brief and red velvet [labarum](/wiki/Labarum \"Labarum\") with the image of Saint Casimir. The city organized a large three\\-day festival on 10–12 May 1604 to properly accept the papal flag. On the third day, the [cornerstone](/wiki/Cornerstone \"Cornerstone\") was laid for the new [Church of St. Casimir](/wiki/Church_of_St._Casimir%2C_Vilnius \"Church of St. Casimir, Vilnius\"). The coffin of Casimir was taken out of the crypt and elevated to the altar. Swiecicki testified that when the coffin was opened in August 1604 a wonderful smell filed the cathedral for three days.\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\|Saint Casimir by [Daniel Schultz](/wiki/Daniel_Schultz \"Daniel Schultz\") (1615–1683\\)](/wiki/File:Schultz_Saint_Casimir.jpg \"Schultz Saint Casimir.jpg\")\nIn 1607 and 1613, Bishop Woyna declared Casimir patron saint of Lithuania (*Patronus principalis Lithuaniae*). The issue of a universal Casimir's feast was not forgotten and in 1620 Bishop [Eustachy Wołłowicz](/wiki/Eustachy_Wo%C5%82%C5%82owicz \"Eustachy Wołłowicz\") petitioned [Pope Paul V](/wiki/Pope_Paul_V \"Pope Paul V\") to add Casimir to the [Roman Breviary](/wiki/Roman_Breviary \"Roman Breviary\") and [Roman Missal](/wiki/Roman_Missal \"Roman Missal\"). This time the [Sacred Congregation of Rites](/wiki/Sacred_Congregation_of_Rites \"Sacred Congregation of Rites\") granted the request in March 1621 and added his feast *sub ritu semiduplici*. In March 1636, [Pope Urban VIII](/wiki/Pope_Urban_VIII \"Pope Urban VIII\") allowed the celebration of the feast of Casimir with an [octave](/wiki/Octave_%28liturgical%29 \"Octave (liturgical)\") (*duplex cum octava*) in the [Diocese of Vilnius](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Vilnius \"Roman Catholic Diocese of Vilnius\") and the [Grand Duchy of Lithuania](/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania \"Grand Duchy of Lithuania\"). That is equivalent of proclaiming Casimir as the [patron saint](/wiki/Patron_saint \"Patron saint\") of Lithuania. On 28 September 1652, [Pope Innocent X](/wiki/Pope_Innocent_X \"Pope Innocent X\") allowed a fest of [transfer of relics](/wiki/Translation_%28relic%29 \"Translation (relic)\") of Casimir on a Sunday following the [Assumption of Mary](/wiki/Assumption_of_Mary \"Assumption of Mary\"). On 11 June 1948, when many Lithuanians were [displaced war refugees](/wiki/Displaced_person \"Displaced person\"), [Pope Pius XII](/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII \"Pope Pius XII\") named Casimir the special patron of Lithuanian youth.\n\n", "### Iconography\n\nSaint Casimir's painting in [Vilnius Cathedral](/wiki/Vilnius_Cathedral \"Vilnius Cathedral\") is considered to be miraculous. The painting, probably completed around 1520, depicts the saint with two right hands. According to a legend, the painter attempted to redraw the hand in a different place and paint over the old hand, but the old hand miraculously reappeared. More conventional explanations claim that three\\-handed Casimir was the original intent of the painter to emphasize the exceptional generosity of Casimir (\"But when you give to someone in need, don't let your left hand know what your right hand is doing.\" [Matthew 6:3](/wiki/Matthew_6:3 \"3\")) or that the old hand bled through a coat of new paint (similar to a [palimpsest](/wiki/Palimpsest \"Palimpsest\")). Around 1636 the painting was covered in gilded silver clothing (*[riza](/wiki/Riza \"Riza\")*).\n[thumb\\|170px\\|Nemunaitis coat of arms (1792\\)](/wiki/Image:Nemunaitis_coats_of_arms_in_1792.jpg \"Nemunaitis coats of arms in 1792.jpg\")\nCasimir's iconography usually follows the three\\-handed painting. He is usually depicted as a young man in long red robe lined with [stoat](/wiki/Stoat \"Stoat\") fur. Sometimes he wears a red cap of the Grand Duke of Lithuania, but other times, to emphasize his devotion to spiritual life, the cap is placed near Casimir. Almost always he holds a lily, a symbol of virginity, innocence, and purity.[Husenbeth, Frederick Charles. *Emblems of Saints: By which They are Distinguished in Works of Art*, Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts, 1860, p. 33](https://books.google.com/books?id=UZGQWr97WmIC&q=Caraunus) He might also hold a cross, a rosary, or a book with words from *Omni die dic Mariae* (Daily, Daily Sing to Mary). The towns of [Kvėdarna](/wiki/Kv%C4%97darna \"Kvėdarna\") and [Nemunaitis](/wiki/Nemunaitis \"Nemunaitis\") in Lithuania have Saint Casimir depicted on their coat of arms.\n\n", "### Physical remains and relics\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|Saint Casimir by [Carlo Dolci](/wiki/Carlo_Dolci \"Carlo Dolci\") (1616–1686\\) in the collection of [Palazzo Pitti](/wiki/Palazzo_Pitti \"Palazzo Pitti\")](/wiki/File:%C5%9Aviaty_Kazimier._%D0%A1%D1%8C%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82%D1%8B_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80_%28C._Dolci%2C_XVII%29.jpg \"Śviaty Kazimier. Сьвяты Казімер (C. Dolci, XVII).jpg\")\nCasimir was buried in the [crypt](/wiki/Crypt \"Crypt\") under the Royal Chapel of [Vilnius Cathedral](/wiki/Vilnius_Cathedral \"Vilnius Cathedral\") (present\\-day Wołłowicz Chapel to the left from the main entrance), constructed by his father in the [Gothic style](/wiki/Gothic_architecture \"Gothic architecture\") in 1474\\. In 1604, the coffin was elevated from the crypt to the altar and in 1636 moved to the dedicated [Chapel of Saint Casimir](/wiki/Chapel_of_Saint_Casimir \"Chapel of Saint Casimir\"). The present\\-day sarcophagus was made in 1747 under the last will of Bishop of Warmia [Christopher Johan Szembek](/wiki/Christopher_Johan_Szembek \"Christopher Johan Szembek\") (1680–1740\\). It is made of linden wood and covered with silver plates; its corners are decorated with gilded eagles. The sarcophagus was removed from the cathedral on three occasions. In 1655, before the [Battle of Vilnius](/wiki/Battle_of_Vilnius_%281655%29 \"Battle of Vilnius (1655)\") during the [Deluge](/wiki/Deluge_%28history%29 \"Deluge (history)\"), the relics were removed most likely by [Jerzy Białłozor](/wiki/Jerzy_Bia%C5%82%C5%82ozor \"Jerzy Białłozor\") and hid by [Cyprian Paweł Brzostowski](/wiki/Cyprian_Pawe%C5%82_Brzostowski \"Cyprian Paweł Brzostowski\") and later by the [Sapiehas](/wiki/House_of_Sapieha \"House of Sapieha\") in the [Ruzhany Palace](/wiki/Ruzhany_Palace \"Ruzhany Palace\"). They were returned to the devastated chapel in 1663\\. The relics were removed for a short time in 1702 during the [Battle of Vilnius](/wiki/Battle_of_Vilnius_%281702%29 \"Battle of Vilnius (1702)\") of the [Great Northern War](/wiki/Great_Northern_War \"Great Northern War\"). In October 1952, the relics were quietly moved to the [Church of St. Peter and St. Paul](/wiki/Church_of_St._Peter_and_St._Paul%2C_Vilnius \"Church of St. Peter and St. Paul, Vilnius\") by the order of [Soviet authorities](/wiki/Lithuanian_SSR \"Lithuanian SSR\"). The cathedral was turned into an art gallery. The relics returned to their place in 1989 when the cathedral was reconsecrated.\n\nAfter the rediscovery of the [Catacombs of Rome](/wiki/Catacombs_of_Rome \"Catacombs of Rome\") in 1578, the cult of [relics](/wiki/Relic \"Relic\") spread throughout Europe (see also [catacomb saints](/wiki/Catacomb_saints \"Catacomb saints\")) and the trend did not skip Casimir. The coffin of Casimir was opened in early 1602 and in August 1604\\. At the time, canon Gregorius Swiecicki testified that despite humidity the body was intact. But in 1667 there were only bones left; they were inventoried and placed into six cloth bags. Surviving written records indicate that the coffin was opened in 1664, 1667, 1677, 1690, 1736, 1838, 1878 (twice), and 1922\\. There are several recorded instances when Casimir's relics were gifted to prominent figures and societies: to musicians' [confraternity](/wiki/Confraternity \"Confraternity\") at [San Giorgio Maggiore, Naples](/wiki/San_Giorgio_Maggiore%2C_Naples \"San Giorgio Maggiore, Naples\") in early 1650s, to King [John III Sobieski](/wiki/John_III_Sobieski \"John III Sobieski\") and [Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany](/wiki/Cosimo_III_de%27_Medici%2C_Grand_Duke_of_Tuscany \"Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany\") in October 1677, to the [Sodality of Our Lady](/wiki/Sodality_of_Our_Lady \"Sodality of Our Lady\") of the Jesuit academy in [Mechelen](/wiki/Mechelen \"Mechelen\") and the [Order of Malta](/wiki/Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta \"Sovereign Military Order of Malta\") in October 1690, to Queen [Maria Josepha of Austria](/wiki/Maria_Josepha_of_Austria \"Maria Josepha of Austria\") in February 1736, to Cistercian abbot Sztárek Lajos of in 1860\\. Many more relics of Casimir can be found in local churches. In particular, in 1838, two teeth and ten unspecified bones were removed from the coffin; the bones were cut into small pieces and distributed among various churches. In 1922, the bones were wrapped in a new cloth and the old cloth was distributed as a relic. It was the last time that a relic of Casimir (one tooth for the [Church of St. Casimir](/wiki/Church_of_St._Casimir%2C_Vilnius \"Church of St. Casimir, Vilnius\")) was taken.\n\n", "### Dedications\n\nIn his 1970 monograph priest Florijonas Neviera (Florian Niewiero, 1896–1976\\) counted churches named after Casimir. He found 12 churches in Lithuania (as of 1940\\), 48 churches and 5 chapels in Poland, 23 Lithuanian and 36 Polish churches in United States (as of 1964\\), five churches in Canada ([Montreal](/wiki/Montreal \"Montreal\"), [Winnipeg](/wiki/Winnipeg \"Winnipeg\"), [Toronto](/wiki/Toronto \"Toronto\"), [Portneuf](/wiki/Portneuf%2C_Quebec \"Portneuf, Quebec\"), and [Ripon](/wiki/Ripon%2C_Quebec \"Ripon, Quebec\")), two churches in United Kingdom ([London](/wiki/London \"London\") and [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester \"Manchester\")), and two churches in Belarus ([Vselyub](/wiki/Vselyub \"Vselyub\") and [Lepiel](/wiki/Lepiel \"Lepiel\")). The women's congregation [Sisters of Saint Casimir](/wiki/Sisters_of_Saint_Casimir \"Sisters of Saint Casimir\") was established in 1908 by [Maria Kaupas](/wiki/Maria_Kaupas \"Maria Kaupas\") and is active in the United States. In 1945, the [College of Saint Casimir](/wiki/College_of_Saint_Casimir \"College of Saint Casimir\") was established in Rome to educate Lithuanian priests who fled west after World War II.\n\n[thumb\\|150px\\|Fresco of Saint Casimir in the , painted in the 19th century](/wiki/File:Fresco_of_Saint_Kazimieras_in_the_Santuario_della_Mentorella%2C_painted_in_the_19th_century.jpg \"Fresco of Saint Kazimieras in the Santuario della Mentorella, painted in the 19th century.jpg\")\nWhile the devotion to Casimir is most prevalent in Lithuania and Poland and their diaspora communities, his cult can be found in other countries as well. In the 17th century, at least two societies of Saint Casimir were active in [Mechelen](/wiki/Mechelen \"Mechelen\") and [Antwerp](/wiki/Antwerp \"Antwerp\") (now Belgium). In the 17th century, Casimir's cult also spread in Italy, particularly [Florence](/wiki/Florence \"Florence\"), [Palermo](/wiki/Palermo \"Palermo\"), [Naples](/wiki/Naples \"Naples\"); his cult in Rome was more associated with Polish dignitaries and émigrés. Musical performances were organized in Rome in 1675 (words by Sebastiano Lazzarini, music by Francesco Beretta, performed at [Santo Spirito in Sassia](/wiki/Santo_Spirito_in_Sassia \"Santo Spirito in Sassia\")) and in 1678 (words by Ottavio Santacroce, music probably by [Giovanni Bicilli](/wiki/Giovanni_Bicilli \"Giovanni Bicilli\"), performed at [Santa Maria in Vallicella](/wiki/Santa_Maria_in_Vallicella \"Santa Maria in Vallicella\") on the occasion of the visit by [Michał Kazimierz Radziwiłł](/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Kazimierz_Radziwi%C5%82%C5%82 \"Michał Kazimierz Radziwiłł\") and his wife [Katarzyna Sobieska](/wiki/Katarzyna_Sobieska \"Katarzyna Sobieska\")), and in Florence in 1706 (words possibly by Cardinal [Pietro Ottoboni](/wiki/Pietro_Ottoboni_%28cardinal%29 \"Pietro Ottoboni (cardinal)\"), music by [Alessandro Scarlatti](/wiki/Alessandro_Scarlatti \"Alessandro Scarlatti\")). In Palermo, [Pietro Novelli](/wiki/Pietro_Novelli \"Pietro Novelli\") was commissioned painting *Coronation of Saint Casimir* (l’Incoronazione di s. Casimiro) for the altar of (now held at the [Galleria Regionale della Sicilia](/wiki/Galleria_Regionale_della_Sicilia \"Galleria Regionale della Sicilia\")).\n\nThe settlements of [Saint\\-Casimir](/wiki/Saint-Casimir%2C_Quebec \"Saint-Casimir, Quebec\") in Canada (founded 1836\\) and [San Casimiro](/wiki/San_Casimiro \"San Casimiro\") in Venezuela (founded 1785\\) are named after him. Sculptures of Casimir, among other [canonized royals](/wiki/List_of_royal_saints_and_martyrs \"List of royal saints and martyrs\"), can be found in [San Ferdinando, Livorno](/wiki/San_Ferdinando%2C_Livorno \"San Ferdinando, Livorno\"), Italy and [Metropolitan Cathedral](/wiki/Mexico_City_Metropolitan_Cathedral \"Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral\"), Mexico City. Stained glass windows with Casimir can be found at the [Cathedral Basilica of St. Joseph](/wiki/Cathedral_Basilica_of_St._Joseph_%28San_Jose%2C_California%29 \"Cathedral Basilica of St. Joseph (San Jose, California)\") in [San Jose, California](/wiki/San_Jose%2C_California \"San Jose, California\"), and at the Church of St. Peter in [Chevaigné](/wiki/Chevaign%C3%A9 \"Chevaigné\"), France. Since 1846, there is a nursing home in Paris named *Maison Saint\\-Casimir*. It was created by the Polish community of France and is run since its opening by Polish nuns [Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul](/wiki/Daughters_of_Charity_of_Saint_Vincent_de_Paul \"Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul\").\n\n", "Notes\n-----\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "Bibliography\n------------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [Interactive panorama of Saint Casimir's Chapel at Vilnius Cathedral](https://panoramas.lt/panoramata/aed41278ecd9d3fa205b)\n\n[Category:1458 births](/wiki/Category:1458_births \"1458 births\")\n[Category:1484 deaths](/wiki/Category:1484_deaths \"1484 deaths\")\n[Category:Nobility from Kraków](/wiki/Category:Nobility_from_Krak%C3%B3w \"Nobility from Kraków\")\n[Category:Polish Prince Royals](/wiki/Category:Polish_Prince_Royals \"Polish Prince Royals\")\n[Category:Jagiellonian dynasty](/wiki/Category:Jagiellonian_dynasty \"Jagiellonian dynasty\")\n[Category:15th\\-century deaths from tuberculosis](/wiki/Category:15th-century_deaths_from_tuberculosis \"15th-century deaths from tuberculosis\")\n[Category:Burials at Vilnius Cathedral](/wiki/Category:Burials_at_Vilnius_Cathedral \"Burials at Vilnius Cathedral\")\n[Category:Lithuanian Roman Catholic saints](/wiki/Category:Lithuanian_Roman_Catholic_saints \"Lithuanian Roman Catholic saints\")\n[Category:Polish Roman Catholic saints](/wiki/Category:Polish_Roman_Catholic_saints \"Polish Roman Catholic saints\")\n[Category:Roman Catholic royal saints](/wiki/Category:Roman_Catholic_royal_saints \"Roman Catholic royal saints\")\n[Category:National symbols of Lithuania](/wiki/Category:National_symbols_of_Lithuania \"National symbols of Lithuania\")\n[Category:15th\\-century Christian saints](/wiki/Category:15th-century_Christian_saints \"15th-century Christian saints\")\n[Category:Tuberculosis deaths in Belarus](/wiki/Category:Tuberculosis_deaths_in_Belarus \"Tuberculosis deaths in Belarus\")\n[Category:Tuberculosis deaths in Lithuania](/wiki/Category:Tuberculosis_deaths_in_Lithuania \"Tuberculosis deaths in Lithuania\")\n[Category:Sons of kings](/wiki/Category:Sons_of_kings \"Sons of kings\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 8164021 ], "name": [ "Termininja" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction" ], "level": [ 1 ], "content": [ "\n**Overhand** may refer to:\n\n* [Overhand (boxing)](/wiki/Overhand_%28boxing%29 \"Overhand (boxing)\"), a looping punch\n* [Overhand knot](/wiki/Overhand_knot \"Overhand knot\")\n* [Overhand throwing motion](/wiki/Overhand_throwing_motion \"Overhand throwing motion\")\n* [Overhand grip](/wiki/Overhand_grip \"Overhand grip\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 45595768 ], "name": [ "DervotNum4" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Events and trends", "Significant people", "References" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\nThis article concerns the period **599 BC – 590 BC**.\n[thumb\\|300px\\|right\\|*[Sappho and Alcaeus](/wiki/Sappho_and_Alcaeus \"Sappho and Alcaeus\")* by [Lawrence Alma\\-Tadema](/wiki/Lawrence_Alma-Tadema \"Lawrence Alma-Tadema\") (1881\\).](/wiki/Image:Sappho_and_Alcaeus.jpg \"Sappho and Alcaeus.jpg\")\n\n", "Events and trends\n-----------------\n\n* [598 BC](/wiki/598_BC \"598 BC\")—[Jeconiah](/wiki/Jeconiah \"Jeconiah\") succeeds [Jehoiakim](/wiki/Jehoiakim \"Jehoiakim\") as King of [Judah](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah \"Kingdom of Judah\").\n* 598 BC—[Kamarina](/wiki/Kamarina%2C_Sicily \"Kamarina, Sicily\") is founded in [Sicily](/wiki/Sicily \"Sicily\") (traditional date).E.J. Bickerman, *Chronology of the Ancient World* (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1968\\), p. 198\n* March 16, [597 BC](/wiki/597_BC \"597 BC\")—[Babylonians](/wiki/Babylonia \"Babylonia\") capture [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem \"Jerusalem\") following a [siege](/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_%28597_BC%29 \"Siege of Jerusalem (597 BC)\"), replace [Jeconiah](/wiki/Jeconiah \"Jeconiah\") with [Zedekiah](/wiki/Zedekiah \"Zedekiah\") as king, and send many Jews (including [Ezekiel](/wiki/Ezekiel \"Ezekiel\")) into [Babylonian captivity](/wiki/Babylonian_captivity \"Babylonian captivity\").\n* [595 BC](/wiki/595_BC \"595 BC\")—[Psamtik II](/wiki/Psamtik_II \"Psamtik II\") succeeds [Necho II](/wiki/Necho_II \"Necho II\") as king of [Egypt](/wiki/History_of_ancient_Egypt \"History of ancient Egypt\").\n* 595 BC—Beginning of the [First Sacred War](/wiki/First_Sacred_War \"First Sacred War\") in ancient Greece.\n* 595 BC—In [Zhou dynasty](/wiki/Zhou_dynasty \"Zhou dynasty\") [China](/wiki/China \"China\"), the [State of Jin](/wiki/Jin_%28Chinese_state%29 \"Jin (Chinese state)\") is defeated by the [State of Chu](/wiki/Chu_%28state%29 \"Chu (state)\") in the [Battle of Bi](/wiki/Battle_of_Bi \"Battle of Bi\").\n* [594 BC](/wiki/594_BC \"594 BC\")—The leaders of [Athens](/wiki/Athens \"Athens\"), facing an economic crisis and popular discontent, appoint the poet–statesman [Solon](/wiki/Solon \"Solon\") (eponymous [archon](/wiki/Archon \"Archon\")) to institute [democratic](/wiki/Democracy \"Democracy\") reforms and revive the city's constitution, extending citizenship to males of many classes and establishing the [Ecclesia](/wiki/Ecclesia_%28ancient_Greece%29 \"Ecclesia (ancient Greece)\").\n* [593 BC](/wiki/593_BC \"593 BC\")—Exile of [Sappho](/wiki/Sappho \"Sappho\") and [Alcaeus (Alkaios) of Mytilene](/wiki/Alcaeus_of_Mytilene \"Alcaeus of Mytilene\") in [Sicily](/wiki/Sicily \"Sicily\").\n* [592 BC](/wiki/592_BC \"592 BC\")—[Early history of Sudan](/wiki/Early_history_of_Sudan \"Early history of Sudan\"): An [Egyptian](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\") army sacks [Napata](/wiki/Napata \"Napata\"), compelling the [Cushite](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush \"Kingdom of Kush\") court to move to a more secure location at [Meroë](/wiki/Mero%C3%AB \"Meroë\") near the sixth cataract of the [Nile](/wiki/Nile \"Nile\").\n* [590 BC](/wiki/590_BC \"590 BC\")—The [Medians](/wiki/Medes \"Medes\") invade the [Kingdom of Urartu](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Urartu \"Kingdom of Urartu\"), causing its fall.\n", "Significant people\n------------------\n\n* 599 BC—Birth of [Mahavira](/wiki/Mahavira \"Mahavira\"), the 24th [Tirthankara](/wiki/Tirthankara \"Tirthankara\") of [Jainism](/wiki/Jainism \"Jainism\") (died [527 BC](/wiki/527_BC \"527 BC\"))\n", "References\n----------\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 27823944 ], "name": [ "GreenC bot" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Early life and education", "Education", "Career", "Personal life", "Death", "Bibliography", "Plays", "Films", "Novels", "Collections", "Further reading", "Notes", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**Thornton Niven Wilder** (April 17, 1897 – December 7, 1975\\) was an American playwright and novelist. He won three [Pulitzer Prizes](/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize \"Pulitzer Prize\"), for the novel *[The Bridge of San Luis Rey](/wiki/The_Bridge_of_San_Luis_Rey \"The Bridge of San Luis Rey\")* and for the plays *[Our Town](/wiki/Our_Town \"Our Town\")* and *[The Skin of Our Teeth](/wiki/The_Skin_of_Our_Teeth \"The Skin of Our Teeth\")*, and a U.S. [National Book Award](/wiki/National_Book_Award \"National Book Award\") for the novel *[The Eighth Day](/wiki/The_Eighth_Day_%28Wilder_novel%29 \"The Eighth Day (Wilder novel)\")*.\n\n", "Early life and education\n------------------------\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|Wilder with two of his siblings and their father [Amos](/wiki/Amos_Parker_Wilder \"Amos Parker Wilder\") at the family cottage in [Maple Bluff, Wisconsin](/wiki/Maple_Bluff%2C_Wisconsin \"Maple Bluff, Wisconsin\") in 1900](/wiki/File:Thornton_Wilder_as_a_child_at_family_vacation_cabin_Wisconsin_1900.jpg \"Thornton Wilder as a child at family vacation cabin Wisconsin 1900.jpg\")\nWilder was born in [Madison, Wisconsin](/wiki/Madison%2C_Wisconsin \"Madison, Wisconsin\"), the son of [Amos Parker Wilder](/wiki/Amos_Parker_Wilder \"Amos Parker Wilder\"), a newspaper editor and later a U.S. diplomat, and Isabella Thornton Niven. \n\nWilder had four siblings as well as a twin who was stillborn.[Man of Letters: The Case of Thornton Wilder](https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2013/01/07/man-of-letters-5) By Robert Gottlieb, December 31, 2012 Published in print in the column A Critic at Large in the January 7, 2013, issue of *The New Yorker*. Accessed online May 4, 2020\\. All of the surviving Wilder children spent part of their childhood in China when their father was stationed in [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\") and [Shanghai](/wiki/Shanghai \"Shanghai\") as U.S. Consul General. Thornton's older brother, [Amos Niven Wilder](/wiki/Amos_Wilder \"Amos Wilder\"), became Hollis Professor of Divinity at the [Harvard Divinity School](/wiki/Harvard_Divinity_School \"Harvard Divinity School\"). He was a noted poet and was instrumental in developing the field of [theopoetics](/wiki/Theopoetics \"Theopoetics\"). Their sister [Isabel Wilder](/wiki/Isabel_Wilder \"Isabel Wilder\") was an accomplished writer. They had two more sisters, [Charlotte Wilder](/wiki/Charlotte_Wilder \"Charlotte Wilder\"), a poet, and [Janet Wilder Dakin](/wiki/Janet_Wilder_Dakin \"Janet Wilder Dakin\"), a zoologist.\n\n", "Education\n---------\n\n[thumb\\|Wilder in his 1920 [Yale College](/wiki/Yale_College \"Yale College\") graduation photo](/wiki/File:Thornton_Wilder_Yale_graduation_photo_1920.jpg \"Thornton Wilder Yale graduation photo 1920.jpg\")\nWilder began writing plays while at the [Thacher School](/wiki/The_Thacher_School \"The Thacher School\") in [Ojai, California](/wiki/Ojai%2C_California \"Ojai, California\"), where he did not fit in and was teased by classmates as overly [intellectual](/wiki/Intellectual \"Intellectual\"). According to a classmate, \"We left him alone, just left him alone. And he would retire at the library, his hideaway, learning to distance himself from humiliation and indifference.\" His family lived for a time in China, where his sister Janet was born in 1910\\. He attended the English [China Inland Mission](/wiki/China_Inland_Mission \"China Inland Mission\") [Chefoo School](/wiki/Chefoo_School \"Chefoo School\") at [Yantai](/wiki/Yantai \"Yantai\"), but returned with his mother and siblings to California in 1912 because of the unstable political conditions in China at the time. Thornton graduated from [Berkeley High School](/wiki/Berkeley_High_School_%28California%29 \"Berkeley High School (California)\") in 1915\\.\n\nWilder served a three\\-month enlistment in the [U.S. Army](/wiki/United_States_Army \"United States Army\")'s [Coast Artillery Corps](/wiki/Coast_Artillery_Corps \"Coast Artillery Corps\") at [Fort Adams](/wiki/Fort_Adams \"Fort Adams\") in [Rhode Island](/wiki/Rhode_Island \"Rhode Island\") during [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), eventually rising to the rank of [corporal](/wiki/Corporal \"Corporal\"). He attended [Oberlin College](/wiki/Oberlin_College \"Oberlin College\") before earning his [Bachelor of Arts](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts \"Bachelor of Arts\") degree in 1920 at [Yale University](/wiki/Yale_University \"Yale University\"), where he refined his writing skills as a member of the [Alpha Delta Phi](/wiki/Alpha_Delta_Phi \"Alpha Delta Phi\") fraternity, a literary society. He earned his [Master of Arts](/wiki/Master_of_Arts \"Master of Arts\") degree in French literature from [Princeton University](/wiki/Princeton_University \"Princeton University\") in 1926\\.\n\n", "Career\n------\n\n[thumb\\|[Frank Craven](/wiki/Frank_Craven \"Frank Craven\"), [Martha Scott](/wiki/Martha_Scott \"Martha Scott\"), and [John Craven](/wiki/John_Craven_%28actor%29 \"John Craven (actor)\") in the original [Broadway](/wiki/Broadway_theatre \"Broadway theatre\") production of *[Our Town](/wiki/Our_Town \"Our Town\")*, published in 1938, which won the [Pulitzer Prize for Drama](/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize_for_Drama \"Pulitzer Prize for Drama\")](/wiki/File:Craven-Scott-Craven-Our-Town.jpg \"Craven-Scott-Craven-Our-Town.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Wilder as Mr. Antrobus in *The Skin of Our Teeth* in 1948](/wiki/File:Thornton_Wilder_%281948%29.jpg \"Thornton Wilder (1948).jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Wilder on the cover of the January 12, 1953 issue of [*Time*](/wiki/Time_%28magazine%29 \"Time (magazine)\") magazine](/wiki/File:Thornton-Wilder-TIME-1953.jpg \"Thornton-Wilder-TIME-1953.jpg\")\nAfter graduating, Wilder went to Italy and studied [archaeology](/wiki/Archaeology \"Archaeology\") and Italian (1920–21\\) as part of an eight\\-month residency at [The American Academy in Rome](/wiki/The_American_Academy_in_Rome \"The American Academy in Rome\"), and then taught French at the [Lawrenceville School](/wiki/Lawrenceville_School \"Lawrenceville School\") in [Lawrenceville, New Jersey](/wiki/Lawrenceville%2C_New_Jersey \"Lawrenceville, New Jersey\"), beginning in 1921\\. His first novel, [*The Cabala*](https://www.thorntonwilder.com/the-cabala-and-the-woman-of-andros), was published in 1926\\. In 1927, *[The Bridge of San Luis Rey](/wiki/The_Bridge_of_San_Luis_Rey \"The Bridge of San Luis Rey\")* brought him commercial success and his first [Pulitzer Prize](/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize \"Pulitzer Prize\") (1928\\). He resigned from the Lawrenceville School in 1928\\. From 1930 to 1937 he taught at the [University of Chicago](/wiki/University_of_Chicago \"University of Chicago\"), during which time he published his translation of André Obey's own adaptation of the tale \"Le Viol de Lucrece\" (1931\\) under the title \"Lucrece\" (Longmans Green, 1933\\). In Chicago, he became famous as a lecturer and was chronicled on the celebrity pages. In 1938 he won the [Pulitzer Prize for Drama](/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize_for_Drama \"Pulitzer Prize for Drama\") for his play *[Our Town](/wiki/Our_Town \"Our Town\")*, and he won the prize again in 1943 for his play *[The Skin of Our Teeth](/wiki/The_Skin_of_Our_Teeth \"The Skin of Our Teeth\")*.\n\n[World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") saw Wilder rise to the rank of [lieutenant colonel](/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel_%28United_States%29 \"Lieutenant colonel (United States)\") in the [U.S. Army Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces \"United States Army Air Forces\") Intelligence, first in Africa, then in Italy until 1945\\. He received several awards for his military service.The American [Legion of Merit](/wiki/Legion_of_Merit \"Legion of Merit\") and [Bronze Star](/wiki/Bronze_Star \"Bronze Star\"), *Chevalier* of the *[Legion d'Honneur](/wiki/Legion_d%27Honneur \"Legion d'Honneur\")* from France, and an honorary [Member of the Order of the British Empire](/wiki/Member_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire \"Member of the Order of the British Empire\") (MBE) from Britain. He went on to be a visiting professor at [Harvard University](/wiki/Harvard_University \"Harvard University\"), where he served for a year as the [Charles Eliot Norton professor](/wiki/Charles_Eliot_Norton_Lectures \"Charles Eliot Norton Lectures\"). Though he considered himself a teacher first and a writer second, he continued to write all his life, receiving the [Peace Prize of the German Book Trade](/wiki/Peace_Prize_of_the_German_Book_Trade \"Peace Prize of the German Book Trade\") in 1957 and the [Presidential Medal of Freedom](/wiki/Presidential_Medal_of_Freedom \"Presidential Medal of Freedom\") in 1963\\. In 1968 he won the [National Book Award](/wiki/National_Book_Award \"National Book Award\") for his novel *The Eighth Day*.[https://www.thorntonwilder.com/the\\-eighth\\-day](https://www.thorntonwilder.com/the-eighth-day) The Wilder Family Website\n\nProficient in four languages, Wilder translated plays by [André Obey](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Obey \"André Obey\") and [Jean\\-Paul Sartre](/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre \"Jean-Paul Sartre\"). He wrote the [libretti](/wiki/Libretto \"Libretto\") of two operas, *[The Long Christmas Dinner](/wiki/The_Long_Christmas_Dinner_%28opera%29 \"The Long Christmas Dinner (opera)\")*, composed by [Paul Hindemith](/wiki/Paul_Hindemith \"Paul Hindemith\"), and *The Alcestiad*, composed by [Louise Talma](/wiki/Louise_Talma \"Louise Talma\") and based on his own play. [Alfred Hitchcock](/wiki/Alfred_Hitchcock \"Alfred Hitchcock\"), whom he admired, asked him to write the screenplay of his thriller *[Shadow of a Doubt](/wiki/Shadow_of_a_Doubt \"Shadow of a Doubt\")*, and he completed a first draft for the film.\n\n*The Bridge of San Luis Rey* (1927\\) tells the story of several unrelated people who happen to be on a bridge in [Peru](/wiki/Peru \"Peru\") when it collapses, killing them. Philosophically, the book explores the question of why unfortunate events occur to people who seem \"innocent\" or \"undeserving\". It won the Pulitzer Prize in 1928, and in 1998 it was selected by the editorial board of the American Modern Library as one of the 100 best novels of the twentieth century. The book was quoted by [British Prime Minister](/wiki/British_Prime_Minister \"British Prime Minister\") [Tony Blair](/wiki/Tony_Blair \"Tony Blair\") during the memorial service for victims of the [September 11 attacks](/wiki/September_11_attacks \"September 11 attacks\") in 2001\\. Since then its popularity has grown enormously. The book is the progenitor of the modern disaster epic in literature and [film\\-making](/wiki/Disaster_film \"Disaster film\"), where a single disaster intertwines the victims, whose lives are then explored by means of flashbacks to events before the disaster.\n\nWilder wrote *[Our Town](/wiki/Our_Town \"Our Town\")*, a popular play (and later film) set in fictional Grover's Corners, New Hampshire. It was inspired in part by [Dante's](/wiki/Dante_Alighieri \"Dante Alighieri\") *Purgatorio*Breyer, Jackson R. editor. Rojcewicz, Stephen. \"Our Tears: Lacrimae Rerum and Thorton Wilder\". *Thornton Wilder in Collaboration: Collected Essays on His Drama and Fiction*. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, December 17, 2018\\. p. 166 .Erhard, Elise. \"Searching for Our Town\". *Crisis Magazine*. February 7, 2013\\. and in part by his friend [Gertrude Stein](/wiki/Gertrude_Stein \"Gertrude Stein\")'s novel *The Making of Americans*.Konkle, Lincoln. *Thornton Wilder and the Puritan Narrative Tradition*. University of Missouri Press (2006\\). pp. 7–10\\. Wilder suffered from [writer's block](/wiki/Writer%27s_block \"Writer's block\") while writing the final act. *Our Town* employs a choric narrator called the [Stage Manager](/wiki/Stage_manager \"Stage manager\") and a [minimalist](/wiki/Minimalism \"Minimalism\") set to underscore the human experience. Wilder himself played the Stage Manager on Broadway for two weeks and later in [summer stock](/wiki/Summer_stock \"Summer stock\") productions. Following the daily lives of the Gibbs and Webb families, as well as the other inhabitants of Grover's Corners, the play illustrates the importance of the universality of the simple, yet meaningful lives of all people in the world in order to demonstrate the value of appreciating life. The play won the 1938 Pulitzer Prize.\n\nIn 1938, [Max Reinhardt](/wiki/Max_Reinhardt \"Max Reinhardt\") directed a Broadway production of *[The Merchant of Yonkers](/wiki/The_Merchant_of_Yonkers \"The Merchant of Yonkers\")*, which Wilder had adapted from [Austrian](/wiki/Austria \"Austria\") playwright [Johann Nestroy](/wiki/Johann_Nestroy \"Johann Nestroy\")'s *[Einen Jux will er sich machen](/wiki/Einen_Jux_will_er_sich_machen \"Einen Jux will er sich machen\")* (1842\\). It was a failure, closing after 39 performances.\n\nHis play *[The Skin of Our Teeth](/wiki/The_Skin_of_Our_Teeth \"The Skin of Our Teeth\")* opened in New York on November 18, 1942, featuring [Fredric March](/wiki/Fredric_March \"Fredric March\") and [Tallulah Bankhead](/wiki/Tallulah_Bankhead \"Tallulah Bankhead\"). Again, the themes are familiar – the timeless human condition; history as progressive, cyclical, or entropic; literature, philosophy, and religion as the touchstones of civilization. Three acts dramatize the travails of the Antrobus family, allegorizing the [alternate history](/wiki/Alternate_history \"Alternate history\") of mankind. It was claimed by Joseph Campbell and Henry Morton Robinson, authors of *[A Skeleton Key to Finnegans Wake](/wiki/A_Skeleton_Key_to_Finnegans_Wake \"A Skeleton Key to Finnegans Wake\")*, that much of the play was the result of unacknowledged borrowing from [James Joyce](/wiki/James_Joyce \"James Joyce\")'s last work.[Joseph Campbell](/wiki/Joseph_Campbell \"Joseph Campbell\") and [Henry Morton Robinson](/wiki/Henry_Morton_Robinson \"Henry Morton Robinson\") published a pair of reviews\\-cum\\-denunciations entitled \"The Skin of *Whose* Teeth?\" in the *[Saturday Review](/wiki/Saturday_Review_%28US_magazine%29 \"Saturday Review (US magazine)\")* immediately after the play's debut; these created a huge uproar at the time. Campbell's reprints the reviews and discusses the controversy.\n\nIn his novel *[The Ides of March](/wiki/The_Ides_of_March_%28novel%29 \"The Ides of March (novel)\")* (1948\\), Wilder reconstructed the characters and events leading to, and culminating in, the assassination of [Julius Caesar](/wiki/Julius_Caesar \"Julius Caesar\"). He had met [Jean\\-Paul Sartre](/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre \"Jean-Paul Sartre\") on a U.S. lecture tour after the war, and was under the influence of [existentialism](/wiki/Existentialism \"Existentialism\"), although rejecting its [atheist](/wiki/Atheist \"Atheist\") implications.\n\nIn 1954, [Tyrone Guthrie](/wiki/Tyrone_Guthrie \"Tyrone Guthrie\") encouraged Wilder to rework *The Merchant of Yonkers* into *[The Matchmaker](/wiki/The_Matchmaker \"The Matchmaker\")*. This time the play opened in 1955 and enjoyed a healthy Broadway run of 486 performances with [Ruth Gordon](/wiki/Ruth_Gordon \"Ruth Gordon\") in the title role, winning a [Tony Award](/wiki/Tony_Award \"Tony Award\") for Guthrie, its director. It became the basis for the hit 1964 musical *[Hello, Dolly!](/wiki/Hello%2C_Dolly%21_%28musical%29 \"Hello, Dolly! (musical)\")*, with a book by [Michael Stewart](/wiki/Michael_Stewart_%28playwright%29 \"Michael Stewart (playwright)\") and score by [Jerry Herman](/wiki/Jerry_Herman \"Jerry Herman\").\n\nIn 1960, Wilder was awarded the first ever [Edward MacDowell Medal](/wiki/Edward_MacDowell_Medal \"Edward MacDowell Medal\") by [The MacDowell Colony](/wiki/The_MacDowell_Colony \"The MacDowell Colony\") for outstanding contributions to American culture.\n\nIn 1962 and 1963, Wilder lived for 20 months in the small town of [Douglas, Arizona](/wiki/Douglas%2C_Arizona \"Douglas, Arizona\"), apart from family and friends. There he started his longest novel, *The Eighth Day*, which went on to win the [National Book Award](/wiki/National_Book_Award \"National Book Award\"). According to Harold Augenbraum in 2009, it \"attack\\[ed] the big questions head on, ... \\[embedded] in the story of small\\-town America\".\n\nHis last novel, *[Theophilus North](/wiki/Theophilus_North \"Theophilus North\")*, was published in 1973, and made into the film *[Mr. North](/wiki/Mr._North \"Mr. North\")* in 1988\\.\n\nThe Library of America republished all of Wilder's plays in 2007, together with some of his writings on the theater and the screenplay of *Shadow of a Doubt*. In 2009, a second volume was released, containing his first five novels, six early stories, and four essays on fiction. Finally, the third and final volume in the Library of America series on Wilder was released in 2011, containing his last two novels *The Eighth Day* and *Theophilus North*, as well as four autobiographical sketches.\n\n", "Personal life\n-------------\n\nSix years after Wilder’s death, [Samuel Steward](/wiki/Samuel_Steward \"Samuel Steward\") wrote in his autobiography that he had sexual relations with him. In 1937, [Gertrude Stein](/wiki/Gertrude_Stein \"Gertrude Stein\") had given Steward, then a college professor, a letter of introduction to Wilder. According to Steward, [Alice B. Toklas](/wiki/Alice_B._Toklas \"Alice B. Toklas\") told him that Wilder liked him and that Wilder had reported he was having trouble starting the third act of *Our Town* until he and Steward walked around Zürich all night in the rain and the next day wrote the whole act, opening with a crowd in a rainy cemetery. [Penelope Niven](/wiki/Penelope_Niven \"Penelope Niven\") disputes Steward's claim of a relationship with Wilder and, based on Wilder's correspondence, says Wilder worked on the third act of *Our Town* over the course of several months and completed it several months before he first met Steward. [Robert Gottlieb](/wiki/Robert_Gottlieb \"Robert Gottlieb\"), reviewing Penelope Niven's work in *[The New Yorker](/wiki/The_New_Yorker \"The New Yorker\")* in 2013, claimed Wilder had become infatuated with a man, not identified by Gottlieb, and Wilder’s feelings were not reciprocated. Gottlieb asserted that \"Niven ties herself in knots in her discussion of Wilder’s confusing sexuality\" and that \"His interest in women was unshakably nonsexual.\" He takes Steward's view that Wilder was a latent homosexual but never comfortable with sex.\n\nWilder had a wide circle of friends, including writers [Ernest Hemingway](/wiki/Ernest_Hemingway \"Ernest Hemingway\"), [F. Scott Fitzgerald](/wiki/F._Scott_Fitzgerald \"F. Scott Fitzgerald\"), [Zelda Fitzgerald](/wiki/Zelda_Fitzgerald \"Zelda Fitzgerald\"), Toklas, [Jean\\-Paul Sartre](/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre \"Jean-Paul Sartre\"), and Stein; actress [Ruth Gordon](/wiki/Ruth_Gordon \"Ruth Gordon\"); fighter [Gene Tunney](/wiki/Gene_Tunney \"Gene Tunney\"); and socialite [Sibyl, Lady Colefax](/wiki/Sibyl%2C_Lady_Colefax \"Sibyl, Lady Colefax\").\n\nFrom the earnings of *The Bridge of San Luis Rey*, in 1930 Wilder had a house built for his family in [Hamden, Connecticut](/wiki/Hamden%2C_Connecticut \"Hamden, Connecticut\"), designed by [Alice Trythall Washburn](/wiki/Alice_Trythall_Washburn \"Alice Trythall Washburn\"), one of the few female architects working at the time. His sister Isabel lived there for the rest of her life. This became his home base, although he traveled extensively and lived away for significant periods.\n\n", "Death\n-----\n\nWilder died of [heart failure](/wiki/Heart_failure \"Heart failure\") in his [Hamden, Connecticut](/wiki/Hamden%2C_Connecticut \"Hamden, Connecticut\") house on December 7, 1975, at age 78\\. He is interred at Mount Carmel Cemetery in Hamden. (Kindle Location 50886\\).\n\n", "Bibliography\n------------\n\n### Plays\n\n* *The Trumpet Shall Sound* (1926\\)\n* *The Angel That Troubled the Waters and Other Plays* (1928\\):\n\t+ \"Nascuntur Poetae\"\n\t+ \"Proserpina and the Devil\"\n\t+ \"Fanny Otcott\"\n\t+ \"Brother Fire\"\n\t+ \"The Penny That Beauty Spent\"\n\t+ \"The Angel on the Ship\"\n\t+ \"The Message and Jehanne\"\n\t+ \"Childe Roland to the Dark Tower Came\"\n\t+ \"Centaurs\"\n\t+ \"Leviathan\"\n\t+ \"And the Sea Shall Give Up Its Dead\"\n\t+ \"The Servant's Name Was Malchus\"\n\t+ \"Mozart and the Gray Steward\"\n\t+ \"Hast Thou Considered My Servant Job?\"\n\t+ \"The Flight Into Egypt\"\n\t+ \"The Angel That Troubled the Waters\"\n* *The Long Christmas Dinner and Other Plays in One Act* (1931\\):\n\t+ *[The Long Christmas Dinner](/wiki/The_Long_Christmas_Dinner \"The Long Christmas Dinner\")*\n\t+ *Queens of France*\n\t+ *Pullman Car Hiawatha*\n\t+ *Love and How to Cure It*\n\t+ *Such Things Only Happen in Books*\n\t+ *[The Happy Journey to Trenton and Camden](/wiki/The_Happy_Journey_to_Trenton_and_Camden \"The Happy Journey to Trenton and Camden\")*\n* *[Our Town](/wiki/Our_Town \"Our Town\")* (1938\\)—won the [Pulitzer Prize for Drama](/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize_for_Drama \"Pulitzer Prize for Drama\")\n[\"Drama\"](http://www.pulitzer.org/bycat/Drama). *Past winners \\& finalists by category*. The Pulitzer Prizes. Retrieved March 28, 2012\\.\n* *[The Merchant of Yonkers](/wiki/The_Merchant_of_Yonkers \"The Merchant of Yonkers\")* (1938\\)\n* *[The Skin of Our Teeth](/wiki/The_Skin_of_Our_Teeth \"The Skin of Our Teeth\")* (1942\\)—won the Pulitzer Prize\n* *[The Matchmaker](/wiki/The_Matchmaker \"The Matchmaker\")* (1954\\)—revised from *The Merchant of Yonkers*\n* *The Alcestiad: Or, a Life in the Sun* (1955\\)\n* *Childhood* (1960\\)\n* *Infancy* (1960\\)\n* *Plays for Bleecker Street* (1962\\)\n* *The Collected Short Plays of Thornton Wilder Volume I* (1997\\):\n\t+ *[The Long Christmas Dinner](/wiki/The_Long_Christmas_Dinner \"The Long Christmas Dinner\")*\n\t+ *Queens of France*\n\t+ *Pullman Car Hiawatha*\n\t+ *Love and How to Cure It*\n\t+ *Such Things Only Happen in Books*\n\t+ *[The Happy Journey to Trenton and Camden](/wiki/The_Happy_Journey_to_Trenton_and_Camden \"The Happy Journey to Trenton and Camden\")*\n\t+ *The Drunken Sisters*\n\t+ *Bernice*\n\t+ *The Wreck on the Five\\-Twenty\\-Five*\n\t+ *A Ringing of Doorbells*\n\t+ *In Shakespeare and the Bible*\n\t+ *Someone from Assisi*\n\t+ *Cement Hands*\n\t+ *Infancy*\n\t+ *Childhood*\n\t+ *Youth*\n\t+ *The Rivers Under the Earth*\n\t+ *Our Town*\n\t\n\n### Films\n\n* *[Shadow of a Doubt](/wiki/Shadow_of_a_Doubt \"Shadow of a Doubt\")* (1943\\)\n\n### Novels\n\n* *The Cabala* (1926\\)\n* *[The Bridge of San Luis Rey](/wiki/The_Bridge_of_San_Luis_Rey \"The Bridge of San Luis Rey\")* (1927\\)—won the [Pulitzer Prize for the Novel](/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize_for_the_Novel \"Pulitzer Prize for the Novel\")\n* *[The Woman of Andros](/wiki/The_Woman_of_Andros \"The Woman of Andros\")* (1930\\)—based on *[Andria](/wiki/Andria_%28comedy%29 \"Andria (comedy)\")*, a comedy by [Terence](/wiki/Terence \"Terence\")\n* *Heaven's My Destination* (1935\\)\n* *[Ides of March](/wiki/Ides_of_March_%28novel%29 \"Ides of March (novel)\")* (1948\\)\n* *[The Eighth Day](/wiki/The_Eighth_Day_%28Wilder_novel%29 \"The Eighth Day (Wilder novel)\")* (1967\\)—won the [National Book Award for Fiction](/wiki/National_Book_Award_for_Fiction \"National Book Award for Fiction\") (With an essay by Harold Augenbraum from the Awards 60\\-year anniversary blog.)\n* *[Theophilus North](/wiki/Theophilus_North \"Theophilus North\")* (1973\\)—reprinted as *Mr. North* following the appearance of the film of the same name\n\n### Collections\n\n", "### Plays\n\n* *The Trumpet Shall Sound* (1926\\)\n* *The Angel That Troubled the Waters and Other Plays* (1928\\):\n\t+ \"Nascuntur Poetae\"\n\t+ \"Proserpina and the Devil\"\n\t+ \"Fanny Otcott\"\n\t+ \"Brother Fire\"\n\t+ \"The Penny That Beauty Spent\"\n\t+ \"The Angel on the Ship\"\n\t+ \"The Message and Jehanne\"\n\t+ \"Childe Roland to the Dark Tower Came\"\n\t+ \"Centaurs\"\n\t+ \"Leviathan\"\n\t+ \"And the Sea Shall Give Up Its Dead\"\n\t+ \"The Servant's Name Was Malchus\"\n\t+ \"Mozart and the Gray Steward\"\n\t+ \"Hast Thou Considered My Servant Job?\"\n\t+ \"The Flight Into Egypt\"\n\t+ \"The Angel That Troubled the Waters\"\n* *The Long Christmas Dinner and Other Plays in One Act* (1931\\):\n\t+ *[The Long Christmas Dinner](/wiki/The_Long_Christmas_Dinner \"The Long Christmas Dinner\")*\n\t+ *Queens of France*\n\t+ *Pullman Car Hiawatha*\n\t+ *Love and How to Cure It*\n\t+ *Such Things Only Happen in Books*\n\t+ *[The Happy Journey to Trenton and Camden](/wiki/The_Happy_Journey_to_Trenton_and_Camden \"The Happy Journey to Trenton and Camden\")*\n* *[Our Town](/wiki/Our_Town \"Our Town\")* (1938\\)—won the [Pulitzer Prize for Drama](/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize_for_Drama \"Pulitzer Prize for Drama\")\n[\"Drama\"](http://www.pulitzer.org/bycat/Drama). *Past winners \\& finalists by category*. The Pulitzer Prizes. Retrieved March 28, 2012\\.\n* *[The Merchant of Yonkers](/wiki/The_Merchant_of_Yonkers \"The Merchant of Yonkers\")* (1938\\)\n* *[The Skin of Our Teeth](/wiki/The_Skin_of_Our_Teeth \"The Skin of Our Teeth\")* (1942\\)—won the Pulitzer Prize\n* *[The Matchmaker](/wiki/The_Matchmaker \"The Matchmaker\")* (1954\\)—revised from *The Merchant of Yonkers*\n* *The Alcestiad: Or, a Life in the Sun* (1955\\)\n* *Childhood* (1960\\)\n* *Infancy* (1960\\)\n* *Plays for Bleecker Street* (1962\\)\n* *The Collected Short Plays of Thornton Wilder Volume I* (1997\\):\n\t+ *[The Long Christmas Dinner](/wiki/The_Long_Christmas_Dinner \"The Long Christmas Dinner\")*\n\t+ *Queens of France*\n\t+ *Pullman Car Hiawatha*\n\t+ *Love and How to Cure It*\n\t+ *Such Things Only Happen in Books*\n\t+ *[The Happy Journey to Trenton and Camden](/wiki/The_Happy_Journey_to_Trenton_and_Camden \"The Happy Journey to Trenton and Camden\")*\n\t+ *The Drunken Sisters*\n\t+ *Bernice*\n\t+ *The Wreck on the Five\\-Twenty\\-Five*\n\t+ *A Ringing of Doorbells*\n\t+ *In Shakespeare and the Bible*\n\t+ *Someone from Assisi*\n\t+ *Cement Hands*\n\t+ *Infancy*\n\t+ *Childhood*\n\t+ *Youth*\n\t+ *The Rivers Under the Earth*\n\t+ *Our Town*\n\t\n\n", "### Films\n\n* *[Shadow of a Doubt](/wiki/Shadow_of_a_Doubt \"Shadow of a Doubt\")* (1943\\)\n", "### Novels\n\n* *The Cabala* (1926\\)\n* *[The Bridge of San Luis Rey](/wiki/The_Bridge_of_San_Luis_Rey \"The Bridge of San Luis Rey\")* (1927\\)—won the [Pulitzer Prize for the Novel](/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize_for_the_Novel \"Pulitzer Prize for the Novel\")\n* *[The Woman of Andros](/wiki/The_Woman_of_Andros \"The Woman of Andros\")* (1930\\)—based on *[Andria](/wiki/Andria_%28comedy%29 \"Andria (comedy)\")*, a comedy by [Terence](/wiki/Terence \"Terence\")\n* *Heaven's My Destination* (1935\\)\n* *[Ides of March](/wiki/Ides_of_March_%28novel%29 \"Ides of March (novel)\")* (1948\\)\n* *[The Eighth Day](/wiki/The_Eighth_Day_%28Wilder_novel%29 \"The Eighth Day (Wilder novel)\")* (1967\\)—won the [National Book Award for Fiction](/wiki/National_Book_Award_for_Fiction \"National Book Award for Fiction\") (With an essay by Harold Augenbraum from the Awards 60\\-year anniversary blog.)\n* *[Theophilus North](/wiki/Theophilus_North \"Theophilus North\")* (1973\\)—reprinted as *Mr. North* following the appearance of the film of the same name\n\n", "### Collections\n\n", "Further reading\n---------------\n\n* Gallagher\\-Ross, Jacob. 2018\\. \"Theaters of the Everyday\". Evanston: Northwestern University Press. .\n* Kennedy, Harold J. 1978\\. \"No Pickle, No Performance. An Irreverent Theatrical Excursion from Tallulah to Travolta\". Doubleday \\& Co.\n", "Notes\n-----\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [The Thornton Wilder Society](http://www.twildersociety.org/)\n* Retrieved on May 18, 2009\n* [Thornton Wilder Collection](https://norman.hrc.utexas.edu/fasearch/findingAid.cfm?eadID=00403) at the [Harry Ransom Center](/wiki/Harry_Ransom_Center \"Harry Ransom Center\")\n* [Biography from The Thornton Wilder Society](http://www.twildersociety.org/biography/)\n* [Today in History, The Library of Congress, April 17](http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/apr17.html)\n* [Thornton Wilder Papers](/wiki/hdl:10079/fa/beinecke.wilder \"10079/fa/beinecke.wilder\"), Yale Collection of American Literature. Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.\n* [Thornton Wilder Collection](/wiki/hdl:10079/fa/beinecke.wild162 \"10079/fa/beinecke.wild162\"). Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.\n* [Finding aid to Thornton Wilder letters at Columbia University. Rare Book \\& Manuscript Library.](https://findingaids.library.columbia.edu/ead/nnc-rb/ldpd_4078444)\n* [Guide to the Thornton Wilder Papers 1939–1968](https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/scrc/findingaids/view.php?eadid=ICU.SPCL.WILDER) at the [University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center](https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/scrc/)\n\n[Category:1897 births](/wiki/Category:1897_births \"1897 births\")\n[Category:1975 deaths](/wiki/Category:1975_deaths \"1975 deaths\")\n[Category:20th\\-century American dramatists and playwrights](/wiki/Category:20th-century_American_dramatists_and_playwrights \"20th-century American dramatists and playwrights\")\n[Category:20th\\-century American novelists](/wiki/Category:20th-century_American_novelists \"20th-century American novelists\")\n[Category:American Congregationalists](/wiki/Category:American_Congregationalists \"American Congregationalists\")\n[Category:American male novelists](/wiki/Category:American_male_novelists \"American male novelists\")\n[Category:United States Army personnel of World War I](/wiki/Category:United_States_Army_personnel_of_World_War_I \"United States Army personnel of World War I\")\n[Category:United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II](/wiki/Category:United_States_Army_Air_Forces_personnel_of_World_War_II \"United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II\")\n[Category:Berkeley High School (Berkeley, California) alumni](/wiki/Category:Berkeley_High_School_%28Berkeley%2C_California%29_alumni \"Berkeley High School (Berkeley, California) alumni\")\n[Category:Harvard Divinity School faculty](/wiki/Category:Harvard_Divinity_School_faculty \"Harvard Divinity School faculty\")\n[Category:National Book Award winners](/wiki/Category:National_Book_Award_winners \"National Book Award winners\")\n[Category:Oberlin College alumni](/wiki/Category:Oberlin_College_alumni \"Oberlin College alumni\")\n[Category:Writers from Madison, Wisconsin](/wiki/Category:Writers_from_Madison%2C_Wisconsin \"Writers from Madison, Wisconsin\")\n[Category:People from Ojai, California](/wiki/Category:People_from_Ojai%2C_California \"People from Ojai, California\")\n[Category:Princeton University alumni](/wiki/Category:Princeton_University_alumni \"Princeton University alumni\")\n[Category:Pulitzer Prize for Drama winners](/wiki/Category:Pulitzer_Prize_for_Drama_winners \"Pulitzer Prize for Drama winners\")\n[Category:Pulitzer Prize for the Novel winners](/wiki/Category:Pulitzer_Prize_for_the_Novel_winners \"Pulitzer Prize for the Novel winners\")\n[Category:Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)](/wiki/Category:Recipients_of_the_Pour_le_M%C3%A9rite_%28civil_class%29 \"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)\")\n[Category:United States Army Air Forces officers](/wiki/Category:United_States_Army_Air_Forces_officers \"United States Army Air Forces officers\")\n[Category:University of Chicago faculty](/wiki/Category:University_of_Chicago_faculty \"University of Chicago faculty\")\n[Category:Yale University alumni](/wiki/Category:Yale_University_alumni \"Yale University alumni\")\n[Category:MacDowell Colony fellows](/wiki/Category:MacDowell_Colony_fellows \"MacDowell Colony fellows\")\n[Category:United States Army colonels](/wiki/Category:United_States_Army_colonels \"United States Army colonels\")\n[Category:American male dramatists and playwrights](/wiki/Category:American_male_dramatists_and_playwrights \"American male dramatists and playwrights\")\n[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients](/wiki/Category:Presidential_Medal_of_Freedom_recipients \"Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients\")\n[Category:20th\\-century American male writers](/wiki/Category:20th-century_American_male_writers \"20th-century American male writers\")\n[Category:The Thacher School alumni](/wiki/Category:The_Thacher_School_alumni \"The Thacher School alumni\")\n[Category:Novelists from California](/wiki/Category:Novelists_from_California \"Novelists from California\")\n[Category:Novelists from Illinois](/wiki/Category:Novelists_from_Illinois \"Novelists from Illinois\")\n[Category:Novelists from Massachusetts](/wiki/Category:Novelists_from_Massachusetts \"Novelists from Massachusetts\")\n[Category:People from Maple Bluff, Wisconsin](/wiki/Category:People_from_Maple_Bluff%2C_Wisconsin \"People from Maple Bluff, Wisconsin\")\n[Category:Christian novelists](/wiki/Category:Christian_novelists \"Christian novelists\")\n[Category:Military personnel from California](/wiki/Category:Military_personnel_from_California \"Military personnel from California\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 1492328 ], "name": [ "RickinBaltimore" ] }

{ "title": [ "Delaware County" ], "level": [ 1 ], "content": [ "**Delaware County** is the name of six counties in the United States:\n\n* [Delaware County, Indiana](/wiki/Delaware_County%2C_Indiana \"Delaware County, Indiana\")\n* [Delaware County, Iowa](/wiki/Delaware_County%2C_Iowa \"Delaware County, Iowa\")\n* [Delaware County, New York](/wiki/Delaware_County%2C_New_York \"Delaware County, New York\")\n* [Delaware County, Ohio](/wiki/Delaware_County%2C_Ohio \"Delaware County, Ohio\")\n* [Delaware County, Oklahoma](/wiki/Delaware_County%2C_Oklahoma \"Delaware County, Oklahoma\")\n* [Delaware County, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Delaware_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"Delaware County, Pennsylvania\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 10248457 ], "name": [ "Orenburg1" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "History", "Occurrence", "In the Solar System", "On Earth", "Properties", "Physical and chemical", "Lithium", "Francium", "Nuclear", "Periodic trends", "Atomic and ionic radii", "First ionisation energy", "Reactivity", "Electronegativity", "Melting and boiling points", "Density", "Compounds", "[[Hydroxides]]", "Intermetallic compounds", "Compounds with the group 13 elements", "Compounds with the group 14 elements", "Nitrides and pnictides", "Oxides and chalcogenides", "Halides, hydrides, and pseudohalides", "Coordination complexes", "Ammonia solutions", "Organometallic", "Organolithium", "Heavier alkali metals", "Representative reactions of alkali metals", "Reaction with oxygen", "Reaction with sulfur", "Reaction with nitrogen", "Reaction with hydrogen", "Reaction with carbon", "Reaction with water", "Reaction with other salts", "Reaction with organohalide compounds", "Alkali metals in liquid ammonia", "Extensions", "Pseudo-alkali metals", "Hydrogen", "Ammonium and derivatives", "Cobaltocene and derivatives", "Thallium", "Copper, silver, and gold", "Production and isolation", "Applications", "Biological role and precautions", "Metals", "Ions", "Notes", "References" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 2, 3, 4, 4, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n\\|\\-\n! colspan\\=2 style\\=\"text\\-align:left;\" \\| ↓ [Period](/wiki/Period_%28periodic_table%29 \"Period (periodic table)\")\n\\|\\-\n! [2](/wiki/Period_2_element \"Period 2 element\")\n\\| \n\\|\\-\n! [3](/wiki/Period_3_element \"Period 3 element\")\n\\| \n\\|\\-\n! [4](/wiki/Period_4_element \"Period 4 element\")\n\\| \n\\|\\-\n! [5](/wiki/Period_5_element \"Period 5 element\")\n\\| \n\\|\\-\n! [6](/wiki/Period_6_element \"Period 6 element\")\n\\| \n\\|\\-\n! [7](/wiki/Period_7_element \"Period 7 element\")\n\\| \n\\|\\-\n\\| colspan\\=\"2\"\\|\n\n---\n\n*Legend*\n\n| [primordial](/wiki/Primordial_element \"Primordial element\") |\n| --- |\n| [element by radioactive decay](/wiki/Radioactive_decay \"Radioactive decay\") |\n\n\\|}\n\nThe **alkali metals** consist of the [chemical elements](/wiki/Chemical_element \"Chemical element\") [lithium](/wiki/Lithium \"Lithium\") (Li), [sodium](/wiki/Sodium \"Sodium\") (Na), [potassium](/wiki/Potassium \"Potassium\") (K),The symbols **Na** and **K** for sodium and potassium are derived from their Latin names, *natrium* and *kalium*; these are still the origins of the names for the elements in some languages, such as German and Russian. [rubidium](/wiki/Rubidium \"Rubidium\") (Rb), [caesium](/wiki/Caesium \"Caesium\") (Cs), and [francium](/wiki/Francium \"Francium\") (Fr). Together with [hydrogen](/wiki/Hydrogen \"Hydrogen\") they constitute [group 1](/wiki/Group_%28periodic_table%29%23Group_names \"Group (periodic table)#Group names\"), which lies in the [s\\-block](/wiki/S-block \"S-block\") of the [periodic table](/wiki/Periodic_table \"Periodic table\"). All alkali metals have their outermost electron in an [s\\-orbital](/wiki/S-orbital \"S-orbital\"): this shared electron configuration results in their having very similar characteristic properties. Indeed, the alkali metals provide the best example of [group trends](/wiki/Periodic_trends \"Periodic trends\") in properties in the periodic table, with elements exhibiting well\\-characterised [homologous](/wiki/Homologous_series \"Homologous series\") behaviour. This family of elements is also known as the **lithium family** after its leading element.\n\nThe alkali metals are all shiny, [soft](/wiki/Hardness \"Hardness\"), highly [reactive](/wiki/Reactivity_%28chemistry%29 \"Reactivity (chemistry)\") [metals](/wiki/Metals \"Metals\") at [standard temperature and pressure](/wiki/Standard_temperature_and_pressure \"Standard temperature and pressure\") and readily lose their [outermost electron](/wiki/Valence_electron \"Valence electron\") to form [cations](/wiki/Cations \"Cations\") with [charge](/wiki/Electric_charge \"Electric charge\") \\+1\\. They can all be cut easily with a knife due to their softness, exposing a shiny surface that tarnishes rapidly in air due to [oxidation](/wiki/Oxidation \"Oxidation\") by atmospheric moisture and [oxygen](/wiki/Oxygen \"Oxygen\") (and in the case of lithium, [nitrogen](/wiki/Nitrogen \"Nitrogen\")). Because of their high reactivity, they must be stored under oil to prevent reaction with air, and are found naturally only in [salts](/wiki/Salts \"Salts\") and never as the free elements. Caesium, the fifth alkali metal, is the most reactive of all the metals. All the alkali metals react with water, with the heavier alkali metals reacting more vigorously than the lighter ones.\n\nAll of the discovered alkali metals occur in nature as their compounds: in order of [abundance](/wiki/Abundance_of_the_chemical_elements \"Abundance of the chemical elements\"), sodium is the most abundant, followed by potassium, lithium, rubidium, caesium, and finally francium, which is very rare due to its extremely high [radioactivity](/wiki/Radioactivity \"Radioactivity\"); francium occurs only in minute [traces](/wiki/Trace_radioisotope \"Trace radioisotope\") in nature as an intermediate step in some obscure side branches of the natural [decay chains](/wiki/Decay_chain \"Decay chain\"). Experiments have been conducted to attempt the synthesis of [element 119](/wiki/Element_119 \"Element 119\"), which is likely to be the next member of the group; none were successful. However, ununennium may not be an alkali metal due to [relativistic effects](/wiki/Relativistic_effects \"Relativistic effects\"), which are predicted to have a large influence on the chemical properties of [superheavy elements](/wiki/Superheavy_element \"Superheavy element\"); even if it does turn out to be an alkali metal, it is predicted to have some differences in physical and chemical properties from its lighter homologues.\n\nMost alkali metals have many different applications. One of the best\\-known applications of the pure elements is the use of rubidium and caesium in [atomic clocks](/wiki/Atomic_clock \"Atomic clock\"), of which caesium atomic clocks form the basis of the second. A common application of the compounds of sodium is the [sodium\\-vapour lamp](/wiki/Sodium-vapour_lamp \"Sodium-vapour lamp\"), which emits light very efficiently. [Table salt](/wiki/Table_salt \"Table salt\"), or sodium chloride, has been used since antiquity. [Lithium](/wiki/Lithium_%28medication%29 \"Lithium (medication)\") finds use as a psychiatric medication and as an [anode](/wiki/Anode \"Anode\") in [lithium batteries](/wiki/Lithium_batteries \"Lithium batteries\"). Sodium, potassium and possibly lithium are [essential elements](/wiki/Essential_element \"Essential element\"), having major biological roles as [electrolytes](/wiki/Electrolytes \"Electrolytes\"), and although the other alkali metals are not essential, they also have various effects on the body, both beneficial and harmful.\n\\_\\_TOC\\_\\_\n\n", "History\n-------\n\n[thumb\\|alt\\=A sample of petalite\\|[Petalite](/wiki/Petalite \"Petalite\"), the lithium mineral from which lithium was first isolated](/wiki/File:Petalite.jpg \"Petalite.jpg\")\nSodium compounds have been known since ancient times; salt ([sodium chloride](/wiki/Sodium_chloride \"Sodium chloride\")) has been an important commodity in human activities. While [potash](/wiki/Potash \"Potash\") has been used since ancient times, it was not understood for most of its history to be a fundamentally different substance from sodium mineral salts. [Georg Ernst Stahl](/wiki/Georg_Ernst_Stahl \"Georg Ernst Stahl\") obtained experimental evidence which led him to suggest the fundamental difference of sodium and potassium salts in 1702, and [Henri\\-Louis Duhamel du Monceau](/wiki/Henri-Louis_Duhamel_du_Monceau \"Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau\") was able to prove this difference in 1736\\. The exact chemical composition of potassium and sodium compounds, and the status as chemical element of potassium and sodium, was not known then, and thus [Antoine Lavoisier](/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier \"Antoine Lavoisier\") did not include either alkali in his list of chemical elements in 1789\\.\n\nPure potassium was first isolated in 1807 in England by [Humphry Davy](/wiki/Humphry_Davy \"Humphry Davy\"), who derived it from [caustic potash](/wiki/Caustic_potash \"Caustic potash\") (KOH, potassium hydroxide) by the use of electrolysis of the molten salt with the newly invented [voltaic pile](/wiki/Voltaic_pile \"Voltaic pile\"). Previous attempts at electrolysis of the aqueous salt were unsuccessful due to potassium's extreme reactivity. Potassium was the first metal that was isolated by electrolysis. Later that same year, Davy reported extraction of sodium from the similar substance [caustic soda](/wiki/Caustic_soda \"Caustic soda\") (NaOH, lye) by a similar technique, demonstrating the elements, and thus the salts, to be different.\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\|[Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner](/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_D%C3%B6bereiner \"Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner\") was among the first to notice similarities between what are now known as the alkali metals.](/wiki/File:Johann_Wolfgang_D%C3%B6bereiner.jpg \"Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner.jpg\")\n[Petalite](/wiki/Petalite \"Petalite\") () was discovered in 1800 by the Brazilian chemist [José Bonifácio de Andrada](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Bonif%C3%A1cio_de_Andrada \"José Bonifácio de Andrada\") in a mine on the island of [Utö, Sweden](/wiki/Ut%C3%B6%2C_Sweden \"Utö, Sweden\"). However, it was not until 1817 that [Johan August Arfwedson](/wiki/Johan_August_Arfwedson \"Johan August Arfwedson\"), then working in the laboratory of the chemist [Jöns Jacob Berzelius](/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius \"Jöns Jacob Berzelius\"), [detected](/wiki/Discovery_of_the_chemical_elements \"Discovery of the chemical elements\") the presence of a new element while analysing petalite [ore](/wiki/Ore \"Ore\"). This new element was noted by him to form compounds similar to those of sodium and potassium, though its [carbonate](/wiki/Lithium_carbonate \"Lithium carbonate\") and [hydroxide](/wiki/Lithium_hydroxide \"Lithium hydroxide\") were less [soluble in water](/wiki/Solubility \"Solubility\") and more [alkaline](/wiki/Base_%28chemistry%29 \"Base (chemistry)\") than the other alkali metals. Berzelius gave the unknown material the name *lithion*/*lithina*, from the [Greek](/wiki/Ancient_Greek \"Ancient Greek\") word *λιθoς* (transliterated as *lithos*, meaning \"stone\"), to reflect its discovery in a solid mineral, as opposed to potassium, which had been discovered in plant ashes, and sodium, which was known partly for its high abundance in animal blood. He named the metal inside the material *lithium*. Lithium, sodium, and potassium were part of the discovery of [periodicity](/wiki/Periodic_table \"Periodic table\"), as they are among a series of triads of elements in the same [group](/wiki/Group_%28periodic_table%29 \"Group (periodic table)\") that were noted by [Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner](/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_D%C3%B6bereiner \"Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner\") in 1850 as having similar properties.\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\|alt\\=A sample of lepidolite\\|[Lepidolite](/wiki/Lepidolite \"Lepidolite\"), the rubidium mineral from which rubidium was first isolated](/wiki/File:Lepidolite-76774.jpg \"Lepidolite-76774.jpg\")\nRubidium and caesium were the first elements to be discovered using the [spectroscope](/wiki/Spectroscope \"Spectroscope\"), invented in 1859 by [Robert Bunsen](/wiki/Robert_Bunsen \"Robert Bunsen\") and [Gustav Kirchhoff](/wiki/Gustav_Kirchhoff \"Gustav Kirchhoff\"). The next year, they discovered caesium in the [mineral water](/wiki/Mineral_water \"Mineral water\") from [Bad Dürkheim](/wiki/Bad_D%C3%BCrkheim \"Bad Dürkheim\"), Germany. Their discovery of rubidium came the following year in [Heidelberg](/wiki/Heidelberg \"Heidelberg\"), Germany, finding it in the mineral [lepidolite](/wiki/Lepidolite \"Lepidolite\"). The names of rubidium and caesium come from the most prominent lines in their [emission spectra](/wiki/Emission_spectra \"Emission spectra\"): a bright red line for rubidium (from the [Latin](/wiki/Latin \"Latin\") word *rubidus*, meaning dark red or bright red), and a sky\\-blue line for caesium (derived from the Latin word *caesius*, meaning sky\\-blue).\n\nAround 1865 [John Newlands](/wiki/John_Alexander_Reina_Newlands \"John Alexander Reina Newlands\") produced a series of papers where he listed the elements in order of increasing atomic weight and similar physical and chemical properties that recurred at intervals of eight; he likened such periodicity to the [octaves](/wiki/Octave \"Octave\") of music, where notes an octave apart have similar musical functions. His version put all the alkali metals then known (lithium to caesium), as well as copper, silver, and [thallium](/wiki/Thallium \"Thallium\") (which show the \\+1 oxidation state characteristic of the alkali metals), together into a group. His table placed hydrogen with the [halogens](/wiki/Halogen \"Halogen\").\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.75\\|[Dmitri Mendeleev](/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev \"Dmitri Mendeleev\")'s periodic system proposed in 1871 showing hydrogen and the alkali metals as part of his group I, along with copper, silver, and gold](/wiki/File:Mendelejevs_periodiska_system_1871.png \"Mendelejevs periodiska system 1871.png\")\nAfter 1869, [Dmitri Mendeleev](/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev \"Dmitri Mendeleev\") proposed his periodic table placing lithium at the top of a group with sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, and thallium. Two years later, Mendeleev revised his table, placing hydrogen in group 1 above lithium, and also moving thallium to the [boron group](/wiki/Boron_group \"Boron group\"). In this 1871 version, copper, silver, and gold were placed twice, once as part of [group IB](/wiki/Group_11_element \"Group 11 element\"), and once as part of a \"group VIII\" encompassing today's groups [8](/wiki/Group_8_element \"Group 8 element\") to 11\\.In the 1869 version of Mendeleev's periodic table, copper and silver were placed in their own group, aligned with hydrogen and [mercury](/wiki/Mercury_%28element%29 \"Mercury (element)\"), while gold was tentatively placed under [uranium](/wiki/Uranium \"Uranium\") and the undiscovered [eka\\-aluminium](/wiki/Gallium \"Gallium\") in the [boron group](/wiki/Boron_group \"Boron group\"). After the introduction of the 18\\-column table, the group IB elements were moved to their current position in the [d\\-block](/wiki/D-block \"D-block\"), while alkali metals were left in *group IA*. Later the group's name was changed to *group 1* in 1988\\. The [trivial name](/wiki/Trivial_name \"Trivial name\") \"alkali metals\" comes from the fact that the hydroxides of the group 1 elements are all strong [alkalis](/wiki/Alkali \"Alkali\") when dissolved in water.\n\nThere were at least four erroneous and incomplete discoveries before [Marguerite Perey](/wiki/Marguerite_Perey \"Marguerite Perey\") of the [Curie Institute](/wiki/Curie_Institute_%28Paris%29 \"Curie Institute (Paris)\") in Paris, France discovered francium in 1939 by purifying a sample of [actinium\\-227](/wiki/Actinium-227 \"Actinium-227\"), which had been reported to have a decay energy of 220 [keV](/wiki/KeV \"KeV\"). However, Perey noticed decay particles with an energy level below 80 keV. Perey thought this decay activity might have been caused by a previously unidentified decay product, one that was separated during purification, but emerged again out of the pure [actinium](/wiki/Actinium \"Actinium\")\\-227\\. Various tests eliminated the possibility of the unknown element being [thorium](/wiki/Thorium \"Thorium\"), [radium](/wiki/Radium \"Radium\"), lead, [bismuth](/wiki/Bismuth \"Bismuth\"), or [thallium](/wiki/Thallium \"Thallium\"). The new product exhibited chemical properties of an alkali metal (such as coprecipitating with caesium salts), which led Perey to believe that it was element 87, caused by the [alpha decay](/wiki/Alpha_decay \"Alpha decay\") of actinium\\-227\\.Adloff, Jean\\-Pierre; Kaufman, George B. (25 September 2005\\). [Francium (Atomic Number 87\\), the Last Discovered Natural Element](http://chemeducator.org/sbibs/s0010005/spapers/1050387gk.htm) . *The Chemical Educator* **10** (5\\). Retrieved 26 March 2007\\. Perey then attempted to determine the proportion of [beta decay](/wiki/Beta_decay \"Beta decay\") to alpha decay in actinium\\-227\\. Her first test put the alpha branching at 0\\.6%, a figure that she later revised to 1%.\n **** \n\nThe next element below francium ([eka](/wiki/Mendeleev%27s_predicted_elements \"Mendeleev's predicted elements\")\\-francium) in the periodic table would be [ununennium](/wiki/Ununennium \"Ununennium\") (Uue), element 119\\. The synthesis of ununennium was first attempted in 1985 by bombarding a target of [einsteinium](/wiki/Einsteinium \"Einsteinium\")\\-254 with [calcium](/wiki/Calcium \"Calcium\")\\-48 ions at the superHILAC accelerator at the [Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory](/wiki/Lawrence_Berkeley_National_Laboratory \"Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory\") in Berkeley, California. No atoms were identified, leading to a limiting yield of 300 [nb](/wiki/Barn_%28unit%29 \"Barn (unit)\").\n\n \\+ → \\* → *no atoms*The [asterisk](/wiki/Asterisk \"Asterisk\") denotes an [excited state](/wiki/Excited_state \"Excited state\").\nIt is highly unlikely that this reaction will be able to create any atoms of ununennium in the near future, given the extremely difficult task of making sufficient amounts of einsteinium\\-254, which is favoured for production of [ultraheavy elements](/wiki/Superheavy_element \"Superheavy element\") because of its large mass, relatively long half\\-life of 270 days, and availability in significant amounts of several micrograms, to make a large enough target to increase the sensitivity of the experiment to the required level; einsteinium has not been found in nature and has only been produced in laboratories, and in quantities smaller than those needed for effective synthesis of superheavy elements. However, given that ununennium is only the first [period 8 element](/wiki/Period_8_element \"Period 8 element\") on the [extended periodic table](/wiki/Extended_periodic_table \"Extended periodic table\"), it may well be discovered in the near future through other reactions, and indeed an attempt to synthesise it is currently ongoing in Japan. Currently, none of the period 8 elements has been discovered yet, and it is also possible, due to [drip instabilities](/wiki/Nucleon_drip_line \"Nucleon drip line\"), that only the lower period 8 elements, up to around element 128, are physically possible. No attempts at synthesis have been made for any heavier alkali metals: due to their extremely high atomic number, they would require new, more powerful methods and technology to make.\n\n", "Occurrence\n----------\n\n### In the Solar System\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\=2\\.5\\|Estimated abundances of the chemical elements in the Solar system. Hydrogen and helium are most common, from the [Big Bang](/wiki/Big_Bang \"Big Bang\"). The next three elements (lithium, [beryllium](/wiki/Beryllium \"Beryllium\"), and [boron](/wiki/Boron \"Boron\")) are rare because they are poorly synthesised in the Big Bang and also in stars. The two general trends in the remaining stellar\\-produced elements are: (1\\) an alternation of abundance in elements as they have even or odd atomic numbers, and (2\\) a general decrease in abundance, as elements become heavier. Iron is especially common because it represents the minimum\\-energy nuclide that can be made by fusion of helium in supernovae.](/wiki/File:SolarSystemAbundances.png \"SolarSystemAbundances.png\")\nThe [Oddo–Harkins rule](/wiki/Oddo%E2%80%93Harkins_rule \"Oddo–Harkins rule\") holds that elements with even atomic numbers are more common that those with odd atomic numbers, with the exception of hydrogen. This rule argues that elements with odd atomic numbers have one unpaired proton and are more likely to capture another, thus increasing their atomic number. In elements with even atomic numbers, protons are paired, with each member of the pair offsetting the spin of the other, enhancing stability. All the alkali metals have odd atomic numbers and they are not as common as the elements with even atomic numbers adjacent to them (the [noble gases](/wiki/Noble_gas \"Noble gas\") and the [alkaline earth metals](/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal \"Alkaline earth metal\")) in the Solar System. The heavier alkali metals are also less abundant than the lighter ones as the alkali metals from rubidium onward can only be synthesised in [supernovae](/wiki/Supernova \"Supernova\") and not in [stellar nucleosynthesis](/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis \"Stellar nucleosynthesis\"). Lithium is also much less abundant than sodium and potassium as it is poorly synthesised in both [Big Bang nucleosynthesis](/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis \"Big Bang nucleosynthesis\") and in stars: the Big Bang could only produce trace quantities of lithium, [beryllium](/wiki/Beryllium \"Beryllium\") and [boron](/wiki/Boron \"Boron\") due to the absence of a stable nucleus with 5 or 8 [nucleons](/wiki/Nucleon \"Nucleon\"), and stellar nucleosynthesis could only pass this bottleneck by the [triple\\-alpha process](/wiki/Triple-alpha_process \"Triple-alpha process\"), fusing three helium nuclei to form [carbon](/wiki/Carbon \"Carbon\"), and skipping over those three elements.\n\n### On Earth\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\|[Spodumene](/wiki/Spodumene \"Spodumene\"), an important lithium mineral](/wiki/File:Spodumene-usa59abg.jpg \"Spodumene-usa59abg.jpg\")\nThe Earth formed from the same cloud of matter that formed the Sun, but the planets acquired different compositions during the [formation and evolution of the solar system](/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_solar_system \"Formation and evolution of the solar system\"). In turn, the [natural history of the Earth](/wiki/History_of_Earth \"History of Earth\") caused parts of this planet to have differing concentrations of the elements. The mass of the Earth is approximately 5\\.98 kg. It is composed mostly of iron (32\\.1%), [oxygen](/wiki/Oxygen \"Oxygen\") (30\\.1%), [silicon](/wiki/Silicon \"Silicon\") (15\\.1%), [magnesium](/wiki/Magnesium \"Magnesium\") (13\\.9%), [sulfur](/wiki/Sulfur \"Sulfur\") (2\\.9%), [nickel](/wiki/Nickel \"Nickel\") (1\\.8%), [calcium](/wiki/Calcium \"Calcium\") (1\\.5%), and aluminium (1\\.4%); with the remaining 1\\.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Due to [planetary differentiation](/wiki/Planetary_differentiation \"Planetary differentiation\"), the core region is believed to be primarily composed of iron (88\\.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5\\.8%), sulfur (4\\.5%), and less than 1% trace elements.\n\nThe alkali metals, due to their high reactivity, do not occur naturally in pure form in nature. They are [lithophiles](/wiki/Goldschmidt_classification \"Goldschmidt classification\") and therefore remain close to the Earth's surface because they combine readily with [oxygen](/wiki/Oxygen \"Oxygen\") and so associate strongly with [silica](/wiki/Silica \"Silica\"), forming relatively low\\-density minerals that do not sink down into the Earth's core. Potassium, rubidium and caesium are also [incompatible elements](/wiki/Incompatible_element \"Incompatible element\") due to their large [ionic radii](/wiki/Ionic_radii \"Ionic radii\").\n\nSodium and potassium are very abundant on Earth, both being among the ten [most common elements in Earth's crust](/wiki/Abundance_of_elements_in_Earth%27s_crust \"Abundance of elements in Earth's crust\"); sodium makes up approximately 2\\.6% of the Earth's crust measured by weight, making it the [sixth most abundant element](/wiki/Abundance_of_the_chemical_elements \"Abundance of the chemical elements\") overall and the most abundant alkali metal. Potassium makes up approximately 1\\.5% of the Earth's crust and is the seventh most abundant element. Sodium is found in many different minerals, of which the most common is ordinary salt (sodium chloride), which occurs in vast quantities dissolved in seawater. Other solid deposits include [halite](/wiki/Halite \"Halite\"), [amphibole](/wiki/Amphibole \"Amphibole\"), [cryolite](/wiki/Cryolite \"Cryolite\"), [nitratine](/wiki/Nitratine \"Nitratine\"), and [zeolite](/wiki/Zeolite \"Zeolite\"). Many of these solid deposits occur as a result of ancient seas evaporating, which still occurs now in places such as [Utah](/wiki/Utah \"Utah\")'s [Great Salt Lake](/wiki/Great_Salt_Lake \"Great Salt Lake\") and the [Dead Sea](/wiki/Dead_Sea \"Dead Sea\"). Despite their near\\-equal abundance in Earth's crust, sodium is far more common than potassium in the ocean, both because potassium's larger size makes its salts less soluble, and because potassium is bound by silicates in soil and what potassium leaches is absorbed far more readily by plant life than sodium.\n\nDespite its chemical similarity, lithium typically does not occur together with sodium or potassium due to its smaller size. Due to its relatively low reactivity, it can be found in seawater in large amounts; it is estimated that lithium concentration in seawater is approximately 0\\.14 to 0\\.25 parts per million (ppm) or 25 [micromolar](/wiki/Micromolar \"Micromolar\"). Its diagonal relationship with magnesium often allows it to replace magnesium in [ferromagnesium](/wiki/Ferromagnesium \"Ferromagnesium\") minerals, where its crustal concentration is about 18 [ppm](/wiki/Parts_per_million \"Parts per million\"), comparable to that of [gallium](/wiki/Gallium \"Gallium\") and [niobium](/wiki/Niobium \"Niobium\"). Commercially, the most important lithium mineral is [spodumene](/wiki/Spodumene \"Spodumene\"), which occurs in large deposits worldwide.\n\nRubidium is approximately as abundant as [zinc](/wiki/Zinc \"Zinc\") and more abundant than copper. It occurs naturally in the minerals [leucite](/wiki/Leucite \"Leucite\"), [pollucite](/wiki/Pollucite \"Pollucite\"), [carnallite](/wiki/Carnallite \"Carnallite\"), [zinnwaldite](/wiki/Zinnwaldite \"Zinnwaldite\"), and [lepidolite](/wiki/Lepidolite \"Lepidolite\"), although none of these contain only rubidium and no other alkali metals. Caesium is more abundant than some commonly known elements, such as [antimony](/wiki/Antimony \"Antimony\"), [cadmium](/wiki/Cadmium \"Cadmium\"), [tin](/wiki/Tin \"Tin\"), and [tungsten](/wiki/Tungsten \"Tungsten\"), but is much less abundant than rubidium.\n\n[Francium\\-223](/wiki/Francium-223 \"Francium-223\"), the only naturally occurring isotope of francium, is the [product](/wiki/Decay_product \"Decay product\") of the [alpha decay](/wiki/Alpha_decay \"Alpha decay\") of actinium\\-227 and can be found in trace amounts in [uranium](/wiki/Uranium \"Uranium\") minerals. In a given sample of uranium, there is estimated to be only one francium atom for every 1018 uranium atoms. It has been calculated that there are at most 30 grams of francium in the [earth's crust](/wiki/Crust_%28geology%29 \"Crust (geology)\") at any time, due to its extremely short [half\\-life](/wiki/Half-life \"Half-life\") of 22 minutes.\n\n", "### In the Solar System\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\=2\\.5\\|Estimated abundances of the chemical elements in the Solar system. Hydrogen and helium are most common, from the [Big Bang](/wiki/Big_Bang \"Big Bang\"). The next three elements (lithium, [beryllium](/wiki/Beryllium \"Beryllium\"), and [boron](/wiki/Boron \"Boron\")) are rare because they are poorly synthesised in the Big Bang and also in stars. The two general trends in the remaining stellar\\-produced elements are: (1\\) an alternation of abundance in elements as they have even or odd atomic numbers, and (2\\) a general decrease in abundance, as elements become heavier. Iron is especially common because it represents the minimum\\-energy nuclide that can be made by fusion of helium in supernovae.](/wiki/File:SolarSystemAbundances.png \"SolarSystemAbundances.png\")\nThe [Oddo–Harkins rule](/wiki/Oddo%E2%80%93Harkins_rule \"Oddo–Harkins rule\") holds that elements with even atomic numbers are more common that those with odd atomic numbers, with the exception of hydrogen. This rule argues that elements with odd atomic numbers have one unpaired proton and are more likely to capture another, thus increasing their atomic number. In elements with even atomic numbers, protons are paired, with each member of the pair offsetting the spin of the other, enhancing stability. All the alkali metals have odd atomic numbers and they are not as common as the elements with even atomic numbers adjacent to them (the [noble gases](/wiki/Noble_gas \"Noble gas\") and the [alkaline earth metals](/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal \"Alkaline earth metal\")) in the Solar System. The heavier alkali metals are also less abundant than the lighter ones as the alkali metals from rubidium onward can only be synthesised in [supernovae](/wiki/Supernova \"Supernova\") and not in [stellar nucleosynthesis](/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis \"Stellar nucleosynthesis\"). Lithium is also much less abundant than sodium and potassium as it is poorly synthesised in both [Big Bang nucleosynthesis](/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis \"Big Bang nucleosynthesis\") and in stars: the Big Bang could only produce trace quantities of lithium, [beryllium](/wiki/Beryllium \"Beryllium\") and [boron](/wiki/Boron \"Boron\") due to the absence of a stable nucleus with 5 or 8 [nucleons](/wiki/Nucleon \"Nucleon\"), and stellar nucleosynthesis could only pass this bottleneck by the [triple\\-alpha process](/wiki/Triple-alpha_process \"Triple-alpha process\"), fusing three helium nuclei to form [carbon](/wiki/Carbon \"Carbon\"), and skipping over those three elements.\n\n", "### On Earth\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\|[Spodumene](/wiki/Spodumene \"Spodumene\"), an important lithium mineral](/wiki/File:Spodumene-usa59abg.jpg \"Spodumene-usa59abg.jpg\")\nThe Earth formed from the same cloud of matter that formed the Sun, but the planets acquired different compositions during the [formation and evolution of the solar system](/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_solar_system \"Formation and evolution of the solar system\"). In turn, the [natural history of the Earth](/wiki/History_of_Earth \"History of Earth\") caused parts of this planet to have differing concentrations of the elements. The mass of the Earth is approximately 5\\.98 kg. It is composed mostly of iron (32\\.1%), [oxygen](/wiki/Oxygen \"Oxygen\") (30\\.1%), [silicon](/wiki/Silicon \"Silicon\") (15\\.1%), [magnesium](/wiki/Magnesium \"Magnesium\") (13\\.9%), [sulfur](/wiki/Sulfur \"Sulfur\") (2\\.9%), [nickel](/wiki/Nickel \"Nickel\") (1\\.8%), [calcium](/wiki/Calcium \"Calcium\") (1\\.5%), and aluminium (1\\.4%); with the remaining 1\\.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Due to [planetary differentiation](/wiki/Planetary_differentiation \"Planetary differentiation\"), the core region is believed to be primarily composed of iron (88\\.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5\\.8%), sulfur (4\\.5%), and less than 1% trace elements.\n\nThe alkali metals, due to their high reactivity, do not occur naturally in pure form in nature. They are [lithophiles](/wiki/Goldschmidt_classification \"Goldschmidt classification\") and therefore remain close to the Earth's surface because they combine readily with [oxygen](/wiki/Oxygen \"Oxygen\") and so associate strongly with [silica](/wiki/Silica \"Silica\"), forming relatively low\\-density minerals that do not sink down into the Earth's core. Potassium, rubidium and caesium are also [incompatible elements](/wiki/Incompatible_element \"Incompatible element\") due to their large [ionic radii](/wiki/Ionic_radii \"Ionic radii\").\n\nSodium and potassium are very abundant on Earth, both being among the ten [most common elements in Earth's crust](/wiki/Abundance_of_elements_in_Earth%27s_crust \"Abundance of elements in Earth's crust\"); sodium makes up approximately 2\\.6% of the Earth's crust measured by weight, making it the [sixth most abundant element](/wiki/Abundance_of_the_chemical_elements \"Abundance of the chemical elements\") overall and the most abundant alkali metal. Potassium makes up approximately 1\\.5% of the Earth's crust and is the seventh most abundant element. Sodium is found in many different minerals, of which the most common is ordinary salt (sodium chloride), which occurs in vast quantities dissolved in seawater. Other solid deposits include [halite](/wiki/Halite \"Halite\"), [amphibole](/wiki/Amphibole \"Amphibole\"), [cryolite](/wiki/Cryolite \"Cryolite\"), [nitratine](/wiki/Nitratine \"Nitratine\"), and [zeolite](/wiki/Zeolite \"Zeolite\"). Many of these solid deposits occur as a result of ancient seas evaporating, which still occurs now in places such as [Utah](/wiki/Utah \"Utah\")'s [Great Salt Lake](/wiki/Great_Salt_Lake \"Great Salt Lake\") and the [Dead Sea](/wiki/Dead_Sea \"Dead Sea\"). Despite their near\\-equal abundance in Earth's crust, sodium is far more common than potassium in the ocean, both because potassium's larger size makes its salts less soluble, and because potassium is bound by silicates in soil and what potassium leaches is absorbed far more readily by plant life than sodium.\n\nDespite its chemical similarity, lithium typically does not occur together with sodium or potassium due to its smaller size. Due to its relatively low reactivity, it can be found in seawater in large amounts; it is estimated that lithium concentration in seawater is approximately 0\\.14 to 0\\.25 parts per million (ppm) or 25 [micromolar](/wiki/Micromolar \"Micromolar\"). Its diagonal relationship with magnesium often allows it to replace magnesium in [ferromagnesium](/wiki/Ferromagnesium \"Ferromagnesium\") minerals, where its crustal concentration is about 18 [ppm](/wiki/Parts_per_million \"Parts per million\"), comparable to that of [gallium](/wiki/Gallium \"Gallium\") and [niobium](/wiki/Niobium \"Niobium\"). Commercially, the most important lithium mineral is [spodumene](/wiki/Spodumene \"Spodumene\"), which occurs in large deposits worldwide.\n\nRubidium is approximately as abundant as [zinc](/wiki/Zinc \"Zinc\") and more abundant than copper. It occurs naturally in the minerals [leucite](/wiki/Leucite \"Leucite\"), [pollucite](/wiki/Pollucite \"Pollucite\"), [carnallite](/wiki/Carnallite \"Carnallite\"), [zinnwaldite](/wiki/Zinnwaldite \"Zinnwaldite\"), and [lepidolite](/wiki/Lepidolite \"Lepidolite\"), although none of these contain only rubidium and no other alkali metals. Caesium is more abundant than some commonly known elements, such as [antimony](/wiki/Antimony \"Antimony\"), [cadmium](/wiki/Cadmium \"Cadmium\"), [tin](/wiki/Tin \"Tin\"), and [tungsten](/wiki/Tungsten \"Tungsten\"), but is much less abundant than rubidium.\n\n[Francium\\-223](/wiki/Francium-223 \"Francium-223\"), the only naturally occurring isotope of francium, is the [product](/wiki/Decay_product \"Decay product\") of the [alpha decay](/wiki/Alpha_decay \"Alpha decay\") of actinium\\-227 and can be found in trace amounts in [uranium](/wiki/Uranium \"Uranium\") minerals. In a given sample of uranium, there is estimated to be only one francium atom for every 1018 uranium atoms. It has been calculated that there are at most 30 grams of francium in the [earth's crust](/wiki/Crust_%28geology%29 \"Crust (geology)\") at any time, due to its extremely short [half\\-life](/wiki/Half-life \"Half-life\") of 22 minutes.\n\n", "Properties\n----------\n\n### Physical and chemical\n\nThe physical and chemical properties of the alkali metals can be readily explained by their having an ns1 valence [electron configuration](/wiki/Electron_configuration \"Electron configuration\"), which results in weak [metallic bonding](/wiki/Metallic_bonding \"Metallic bonding\"). Hence, all the alkali metals are soft and have low [densities](/wiki/Densities \"Densities\"), [melting](/wiki/Melting_point \"Melting point\") and [boiling points](/wiki/Boiling_point \"Boiling point\"), as well as [heats of sublimation](/wiki/Heat_of_sublimation \"Heat of sublimation\"), [vaporisation](/wiki/Heat_of_vaporization \"Heat of vaporization\"), and [dissociation](/wiki/Dissociation_%28chemistry%29 \"Dissociation (chemistry)\"). They all crystallise in the [body\\-centered cubic](/wiki/Body-centered_cubic \"Body-centered cubic\") crystal structure, and have distinctive [flame colours](/wiki/Flame_test \"Flame test\") because their outer s electron is very easily excited. Indeed, these flame test colours are the most common way of identifying them since all their salts with common ions are soluble. The ns1 configuration also results in the alkali metals having very large [atomic](/wiki/Atomic_radius \"Atomic radius\") and [ionic radii](/wiki/Ionic_radii \"Ionic radii\"), as well as very high [thermal](/wiki/Thermal_conductivity \"Thermal conductivity\") and [electrical conductivity](/wiki/Electrical_conductivity \"Electrical conductivity\"). Their chemistry is dominated by the loss of their lone valence electron in the outermost s\\-orbital to form the \\+1 oxidation state, due to the ease of ionising this electron and the very high second ionisation energy. Most of the chemistry has been observed only for the first five members of the group. The chemistry of francium is not well established due to its extreme [radioactivity](/wiki/Radioactivity \"Radioactivity\"); thus, the presentation of its properties here is limited. What little is known about francium shows that it is very close in behaviour to caesium, as expected. The physical properties of francium are even sketchier because the bulk element has never been observed; hence any data that may be found in the literature are certainly speculative extrapolations.\n\n| \\+ Properties of the alkali metals | Name | [Lithium](/wiki/Lithium \"Lithium\") | [Sodium](/wiki/Sodium \"Sodium\") | [Potassium](/wiki/Potassium \"Potassium\") | [Rubidium](/wiki/Rubidium \"Rubidium\") | [Caesium](/wiki/Caesium \"Caesium\") | [Francium](/wiki/Francium \"Francium\") |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [Atomic number](/wiki/Atomic_number \"Atomic number\") | 3 | 11 | 19 | 37 | 55 | 87 |\n| [Standard atomic weight](/wiki/Standard_atomic_weight \"Standard atomic weight\") | 6\\.94(1\\) | 22\\.98976928(2\\) | 39\\.0983(1\\) | 85\\.4678(3\\) | 132\\.9054519(2\\) | \\[223] |\n| [Electron configuration](/wiki/Electron_configuration \"Electron configuration\") | \\[[He](/wiki/Helium \"Helium\")] 2s1 | \\[[Ne](/wiki/Neon \"Neon\")] 3s1 | \\[[Ar](/wiki/Argon \"Argon\")] 4s1 | \\[[Kr](/wiki/Krypton \"Krypton\")] 5s1 | \\[[Xe](/wiki/Xenon \"Xenon\")] 6s1 | \\[[Rn](/wiki/Radon \"Radon\")] 7s1 |\n| [Melting point](/wiki/Melting_point \"Melting point\") (°C) | 180\\.54 | 97\\.72 | 63\\.38 | 39\\.31 | 28\\.44 | ? |\n| [Boiling point](/wiki/Boiling_point \"Boiling point\") (°C) | 1342 | 883 | 759 | 688 | 671 | ? |\n| [Density](/wiki/Density \"Density\") (g·cm−3) | 0\\.534 | 0\\.968 | 0\\.89 | 1\\.532 | 1\\.93 | ? |\n| [Heat of fusion](/wiki/Heat_of_fusion \"Heat of fusion\") (kJ·mol−1) | 3\\.00 | 2\\.60 | 2\\.321 | 2\\.19 | 2\\.09 | ? |\n| [Heat of vaporisation](/wiki/Heat_of_vaporisation \"Heat of vaporisation\") (kJ·mol−1) | 136 | 97\\.42 | 79\\.1 | 69 | 66\\.1 | ? |\n| [Heat of formation](/wiki/Heat_of_formation \"Heat of formation\") of monatomic gas (kJ·mol−1) | 162 | 108 | 89\\.6 | 82\\.0 | 78\\.2 | ? |\n| [Electrical resistivity](/wiki/Electrical_resistivity \"Electrical resistivity\") at 25 °C (n[Ω](/wiki/Ohm \"Ohm\")·cm) | 94\\.7 | 48\\.8 | 73\\.9 | 131 | 208 | ? |\n| [Atomic radius](/wiki/Atomic_radius \"Atomic radius\") ([pm](/wiki/Picometer \"Picometer\")) | 152 | 186 | 227 | 248 | 265 | ? |\n| [Ionic radius](/wiki/Ionic_radius \"Ionic radius\") of hexacoordinate M\\+ ion (pm) | 76 | 102 | 138 | 152 | 167 | ? |\n| First [ionisation energy](/wiki/Ionisation_energy \"Ionisation energy\") ([kJ·mol−1](/wiki/Kilojoule_per_mole \"Kilojoule per mole\")) | 520\\.2 | 495\\.8 | 418\\.8 | 403\\.0 | 375\\.7 | 392\\.8 |\n| [Electron affinity](/wiki/Electron_affinity \"Electron affinity\") (kJ·mol−1) | 59\\.62 | 52\\.87 | 48\\.38 | 46\\.89 | 45\\.51 | ? |\n| [Enthalpy of dissociation](/wiki/Enthalpy_of_dissociation \"Enthalpy of dissociation\") of M2 (kJ·mol−1) | 106\\.5 | 73\\.6 | 57\\.3 | 45\\.6 | 44\\.77 | ? |\n| Pauling [electronegativity](/wiki/Electronegativity \"Electronegativity\") | 0\\.98 | 0\\.93 | 0\\.82 | 0\\.82 | 0\\.79 | ? |\n| Allen [electronegativity](/wiki/Electronegativity \"Electronegativity\") | 0\\.91 | 0\\.87 | 0\\.73 | 0\\.71 | 0\\.66 | 0\\.67 |\n| [Standard electrode potential](/wiki/Standard_electrode_potential \"Standard electrode potential\") (*E*°(M\\+→M0); [V](/wiki/Volt \"Volt\"))Vanýsek, Petr (2011\\). [“Electrochemical Series”](http://www.hbcpnetbase.com/articles/05_22_92.pdf), in [*Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 92nd Edition*](http://www.hbcpnetbase.com/) (Chemical Rubber Company). | −3\\.04 | −2\\.71 | −2\\.93 | −2\\.98 | −3\\.03 | ? |\n| [Flame test](/wiki/Flame_test \"Flame test\") colourPrincipal emission/absorption wavelength ([nm](/wiki/Nanometer \"Nanometer\")) | Crimson670\\.8 | Yellow589\\.2 | Violet766\\.5 | Red\\-violet780\\.0 | Blue455\\.5 | ? |\n\nThe alkali metals are more similar to each other than the elements in any other [group](/wiki/Group_%28periodic_table%29 \"Group (periodic table)\") are to each other. Indeed, the similarity is so great that it is quite difficult to separate potassium, rubidium, and caesium, due to their similar [ionic radii](/wiki/Ionic_radii \"Ionic radii\"); lithium and sodium are more distinct. For instance, when moving down the table, all known alkali metals show increasing [atomic radius](/wiki/Atomic_radius \"Atomic radius\"), decreasing [electronegativity](/wiki/Electronegativity \"Electronegativity\"), increasing [reactivity](/wiki/Reactivity_%28chemistry%29 \"Reactivity (chemistry)\"), and decreasing melting and boiling points as well as heats of fusion and vaporisation. In general, their [densities](/wiki/Densities \"Densities\") increase when moving down the table, with the exception that potassium is less dense than sodium. One of the very few properties of the alkali metals that does not display a very smooth trend is their [reduction potentials](/wiki/Reduction_potential \"Reduction potential\"): lithium's value is anomalous, being more negative than the others. This is because the Li\\+ ion has a very high [hydration energy](/wiki/Hydration_energy \"Hydration energy\") in the gas phase: though the lithium ion disrupts the structure of water significantly, causing a higher change in entropy, this high hydration energy is enough to make the reduction potentials indicate it as being the most electropositive alkali metal, despite the difficulty of ionising it in the gas phase.\n\nThe stable alkali metals are all silver\\-coloured metals except for caesium, which has a pale golden tint: it is one of only three metals that are clearly coloured (the other two being copper and gold). Additionally, the heavy [alkaline earth metals](/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal \"Alkaline earth metal\") [calcium](/wiki/Calcium \"Calcium\"), [strontium](/wiki/Strontium \"Strontium\"), and [barium](/wiki/Barium \"Barium\"), as well as the divalent [lanthanides](/wiki/Lanthanide \"Lanthanide\") [europium](/wiki/Europium \"Europium\") and [ytterbium](/wiki/Ytterbium \"Ytterbium\"), are pale yellow, though the colour is much less prominent than it is for caesium. Their lustre tarnishes rapidly in air due to oxidation.\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|Potassium reacts violently with water at room temperature](/wiki/File:Potassium_water_20.theora.ogv \"Potassium water 20.theora.ogv\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|Caesium reacts explosively with water even at low temperatures](/wiki/File:Cesium_water.theora.ogv \"Cesium water.theora.ogv\")\nAll the alkali metals are highly reactive and are never found in elemental forms in nature. Because of this, they are usually stored in [mineral oil](/wiki/Mineral_oil \"Mineral oil\") or [kerosene](/wiki/Kerosene \"Kerosene\") (paraffin oil). They react aggressively with the [halogens](/wiki/Halogen \"Halogen\") to form the [alkali metal halides](/wiki/Alkali_metal_halide \"Alkali metal halide\"), which are white [ionic crystalline](/wiki/Ionic_crystal \"Ionic crystal\") compounds that are all [soluble](/wiki/Soluble \"Soluble\") in water except [lithium fluoride](/wiki/Lithium_fluoride \"Lithium fluoride\") (LiF). The alkali metals also react with water to form strongly [alkaline](/wiki/Alkali \"Alkali\") [hydroxides](/wiki/Hydroxide \"Hydroxide\") and thus should be handled with great care. The heavier alkali metals react more vigorously than the lighter ones; for example, when dropped into water, caesium produces a larger explosion than potassium if the same number of moles of each metal is used. The alkali metals have the lowest first [ionisation energies](/wiki/Ionisation_energies \"Ionisation energies\") in their respective periods of the [periodic table](/wiki/Periodic_table \"Periodic table\") because of their low [effective nuclear charge](/wiki/Effective_nuclear_charge \"Effective nuclear charge\") and the ability to attain a [noble gas](/wiki/Noble_gas \"Noble gas\") configuration by losing just one [electron](/wiki/Electron \"Electron\"). Not only do the alkali metals react with water, but also with proton donors like [alcohols](/wiki/Alcohol_%28chemistry%29 \"Alcohol (chemistry)\") and [phenols](/wiki/Phenols \"Phenols\"), gaseous [ammonia](/wiki/Ammonia \"Ammonia\"), and [alkynes](/wiki/Alkyne \"Alkyne\"), the last demonstrating the phenomenal degree of their reactivity. Their great power as reducing agents makes them very useful in liberating other metals from their oxides or halides.\n\nThe second ionisation energy of all of the alkali metals is very high as it is in a full shell that is also closer to the nucleus; thus, they almost always lose a single electron, forming cations. The [alkalides](/wiki/Alkalide \"Alkalide\") are an exception: they are unstable compounds which contain alkali metals in a −1 oxidation state, which is very unusual as before the discovery of the alkalides, the alkali metals were not expected to be able to form [anions](/wiki/Anion \"Anion\") and were thought to be able to appear in [salts](/wiki/Salts \"Salts\") only as cations. The alkalide anions have filled [s\\-subshells](/wiki/S-orbital \"S-orbital\"), which gives them enough stability to exist. All the stable alkali metals except lithium are known to be able to form alkalides, and the alkalides have much theoretical interest due to their unusual [stoichiometry](/wiki/Stoichiometry \"Stoichiometry\") and low [ionisation potentials](/wiki/Ionization_potential \"Ionization potential\"). Alkalides are chemically similar to the [electrides](/wiki/Electride \"Electride\"), which are salts with trapped [electrons](/wiki/Electron \"Electron\") acting as anions. A particularly striking example of an alkalide is \"inverse [sodium hydride](/wiki/Sodium_hydride \"Sodium hydride\")\", H\\+Na− (both ions being [complexed](/wiki/Coordination_complex \"Coordination complex\")), as opposed to the usual sodium hydride, Na\\+H−: it is unstable in isolation, due to its high energy resulting from the displacement of two electrons from hydrogen to sodium, although several derivatives are predicted to be [metastable](/wiki/Metastable \"Metastable\") or stable.\n\nIn aqueous solution, the alkali metal ions form [aqua ions](/wiki/Metal_ions_in_aqueous_solution \"Metal ions in aqueous solution\") of the formula \\[M(H2O)*n*]\\+, where *n* is the solvation number. Their [coordination numbers](/wiki/Coordination_number \"Coordination number\") and shapes agree well with those expected from their ionic radii. In aqueous solution the water molecules directly attached to the metal ion are said to belong to the [first coordination sphere](/wiki/First_coordination_sphere \"First coordination sphere\"), also known as the first, or primary, solvation shell. The bond between a water molecule and the metal ion is a [dative covalent bond](/wiki/Dative_covalent_bond \"Dative covalent bond\"), with the oxygen atom donating both electrons to the bond. Each coordinated water molecule may be attached by [hydrogen bonds](/wiki/Hydrogen_bond \"Hydrogen bond\") to other water molecules. The latter are said to reside in the second coordination sphere. However, for the alkali metal cations, the second coordination sphere is not well\\-defined as the \\+1 charge on the cation is not high enough to [polarise](/wiki/Polarizability \"Polarizability\") the water molecules in the primary solvation shell enough for them to form strong hydrogen bonds with those in the second coordination sphere, producing a more stable entity. The solvation number for Li\\+ has been experimentally determined to be 4, forming the [tetrahedral](/wiki/Tetrahedral \"Tetrahedral\") \\[Li(H2O)4]\\+: while solvation numbers of 3 to 6 have been found for lithium aqua ions, solvation numbers less than 4 may be the result of the formation of contact [ion pairs](/wiki/Ion_pair \"Ion pair\"), and the higher solvation numbers may be interpreted in terms of water molecules that approach \\[Li(H2O)4]\\+ through a face of the tetrahedron, though molecular dynamic simulations may indicate the existence of an [octahedral](/wiki/Octahedral \"Octahedral\") hexaaqua ion. There are also probably six water molecules in the primary solvation sphere of the sodium ion, forming the octahedral \\[Na(H2O)6]\\+ ion. While it was previously thought that the heavier alkali metals also formed octahedral hexaaqua ions, it has since been found that potassium and rubidium probably form the \\[K(H2O)8]\\+ and \\[Rb(H2O)8]\\+ ions, which have the [square antiprismatic](/wiki/Square_antiprism \"Square antiprism\") structure, and that caesium forms the 12\\-coordinate \\[Cs(H2O)12]\\+ ion.\n\n#### Lithium\n\nThe chemistry of lithium shows several differences from that of the rest of the group as the small Li\\+ cation [polarises](/wiki/Chemical_polarity \"Chemical polarity\") [anions](/wiki/Anion \"Anion\") and gives its compounds a more [covalent](/wiki/Covalent \"Covalent\") character. Lithium and [magnesium](/wiki/Magnesium \"Magnesium\") have a [diagonal relationship](/wiki/Diagonal_relationship \"Diagonal relationship\") due to their similar atomic radii, so that they show some similarities. For example, lithium forms a stable [nitride](/wiki/Nitride \"Nitride\"), a property common among all the [alkaline earth metals](/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal \"Alkaline earth metal\") (magnesium's group) but unique among the alkali metals. In addition, among their respective groups, only lithium and magnesium form [organometallic compounds](/wiki/Organometallic_compound \"Organometallic compound\") with significant covalent character (e.g. Li[Me](/wiki/Methyl_group \"Methyl group\") and MgMe2).\n\nLithium fluoride is the only alkali metal halide that is poorly soluble in water, and [lithium hydroxide](/wiki/Lithium_hydroxide \"Lithium hydroxide\") is the only alkali metal hydroxide that is not [deliquescent](/wiki/Deliquescent \"Deliquescent\"). Conversely, [lithium perchlorate](/wiki/Lithium_perchlorate \"Lithium perchlorate\") and other lithium salts with large anions that cannot be polarised are much more stable than the analogous compounds of the other alkali metals, probably because Li\\+ has a high [solvation energy](/wiki/Solvation_energy \"Solvation energy\"). This effect also means that most simple lithium salts are commonly encountered in hydrated form, because the anhydrous forms are extremely [hygroscopic](/wiki/Hygroscopic \"Hygroscopic\"): this allows salts like [lithium chloride](/wiki/Lithium_chloride \"Lithium chloride\") and [lithium bromide](/wiki/Lithium_bromide \"Lithium bromide\") to be used in [dehumidifiers](/wiki/Dehumidifier \"Dehumidifier\") and [air\\-conditioners](/wiki/Air-conditioner \"Air-conditioner\").\n\n#### Francium\n\nFrancium is also predicted to show some differences due to its high [atomic weight](/wiki/Atomic_weight \"Atomic weight\"), causing its electrons to travel at considerable fractions of the speed of light and thus making [relativistic effects](/wiki/Relativistic_effects \"Relativistic effects\") more prominent. In contrast to the trend of decreasing [electronegativities](/wiki/Electronegativities \"Electronegativities\") and [ionisation energies](/wiki/Ionisation_energies \"Ionisation energies\") of the alkali metals, francium's electronegativity and ionisation energy are predicted to be higher than caesium's due to the relativistic stabilisation of the 7s electrons; also, its [atomic radius](/wiki/Atomic_radius \"Atomic radius\") is expected to be abnormally low. Thus, contrary to expectation, caesium is the most reactive of the alkali metals, not francium. All known physical properties of francium also deviate from the clear trends going from lithium to caesium, such as the first ionisation energy, electron affinity, and anion polarisability, though due to the paucity of known data about francium many sources give extrapolated values, ignoring that relativistic effects make the trend from lithium to caesium become inapplicable at francium. Some of the few properties of francium that have been predicted taking relativity into account are the electron affinity (47\\.2 kJ/mol) and the enthalpy of dissociation of the Fr2 molecule (42\\.1 kJ/mol). The CsFr molecule is polarised as Cs\\+Fr−, showing that the 7s subshell of francium is much more strongly affected by relativistic effects than the 6s subshell of caesium. Additionally, francium superoxide (FrO2) is expected to have significant covalent character, unlike the other alkali metal superoxides, because of bonding contributions from the 6p electrons of francium.\n\n### Nuclear\n\n| \\+Primordial isotopes of the alkali metals |\n| --- |\n| Z | Alkali metal | [Stable](/wiki/Stable_isotope \"Stable isotope\") | *[Decays](/wiki/Primordial_element \"Primordial element\")* | *unstable: italics*odd–odd isotopes coloured pink | | |\n| 3 | [lithium](/wiki/Lithium \"Lithium\") | [2](/wiki/Isotopes_of_lithium \"Isotopes of lithium\") | — | | | |\n| 11 | [sodium](/wiki/Sodium \"Sodium\") | [1](/wiki/Isotopes_of_sodium \"Isotopes of sodium\") | — | | | |\n| 19 | [potassium](/wiki/Potassium \"Potassium\") | [2](/wiki/Isotopes_of_potassium \"Isotopes of potassium\") | 1 | | | ** |\n| 37 | [rubidium](/wiki/Rubidium \"Rubidium\") | [1](/wiki/Isotopes_of_rubidium \"Isotopes of rubidium\") | 1 | | ** | |\n| 55 | [caesium](/wiki/Caesium \"Caesium\") | [1](/wiki/Isotopes_of_caesium \"Isotopes of caesium\") | — | | | |\n| 87 | [francium](/wiki/Francium \"Francium\") | [—](/wiki/Isotopes_of_francium \"Isotopes of francium\") | — |*No primordial isotopes* \n(** is a [radiogenic nuclide](/wiki/Radiogenic_nuclide \"Radiogenic nuclide\"))\n\n| Radioactive: | | | | | | |\n\nAll the alkali metals have odd atomic numbers; hence, their isotopes must be either [odd–odd](/wiki/Odd%E2%80%93odd_nuclei \"Odd–odd nuclei\") (both proton and [neutron number](/wiki/Neutron_number \"Neutron number\") are odd) or [odd–even](/wiki/Odd%E2%80%93even_nuclei \"Odd–even nuclei\") ([proton number](/wiki/Proton_number \"Proton number\") is odd, but neutron number is even). Odd–odd nuclei have even [mass numbers](/wiki/Mass_number \"Mass number\"), whereas odd–even nuclei have odd mass numbers. Odd–odd [primordial nuclides](/wiki/Primordial_nuclide \"Primordial nuclide\") are rare because most odd–odd nuclei are highly unstable with respect to [beta decay](/wiki/Beta_decay \"Beta decay\"), because the decay products are even–even, and are therefore more strongly bound, due to [nuclear pairing effects](/wiki/Semi-empirical_mass_formula%23Pairing_term \"Semi-empirical mass formula#Pairing term\").\n\nDue to the great rarity of odd–odd nuclei, almost all the primordial isotopes of the alkali metals are odd–even (the exceptions being the light stable isotope lithium\\-6 and the long\\-lived [radioisotope](/wiki/Radioisotope \"Radioisotope\") potassium\\-40\\). For a given odd mass number, there can be only a single [beta\\-stable nuclide](/wiki/Beta-decay_stable_isobars \"Beta-decay stable isobars\"), since there is not a difference in binding energy between even–odd and odd–even comparable to that between even–even and odd–odd, leaving other nuclides of the same mass number ([isobars](/wiki/Isobar_%28nuclide%29 \"Isobar (nuclide)\")) free to [beta decay](/wiki/Beta_decay \"Beta decay\") toward the lowest\\-mass nuclide. An effect of the instability of an odd number of either type of nucleons is that odd\\-numbered elements, such as the alkali metals, tend to have fewer stable isotopes than even\\-numbered elements. Of the 26 [monoisotopic elements](/wiki/Monoisotopic_element \"Monoisotopic element\") that have only a single stable isotope, all but one have an odd atomic number and all but one also have an even number of neutrons. [Beryllium](/wiki/Beryllium \"Beryllium\") is the single exception to both rules, due to its low atomic number.\n\nAll of the alkali metals except lithium and caesium have at least one naturally occurring [radioisotope](/wiki/Radioisotope \"Radioisotope\"): [sodium\\-22](/wiki/Sodium-22 \"Sodium-22\") and [sodium\\-24](/wiki/Sodium-24 \"Sodium-24\") are [trace radioisotopes](/wiki/Trace_radioisotope \"Trace radioisotope\") produced [cosmogenically](/wiki/Cosmogenic \"Cosmogenic\"), potassium\\-40 and [rubidium\\-87](/wiki/Rubidium-87 \"Rubidium-87\") have very long [half\\-lives](/wiki/Half-lives \"Half-lives\") and thus occur naturally, and all [isotopes of francium](/wiki/Isotopes_of_francium \"Isotopes of francium\") are [radioactive](/wiki/Radioactive \"Radioactive\"). Caesium was also thought to be radioactive in the early 20th century, although it has no naturally occurring radioisotopes. (Francium had not been discovered yet at that time.) The natural long\\-lived radioisotope of potassium, potassium\\-40, makes up about 0\\.012% of natural potassium, and thus natural potassium is weakly radioactive. This natural radioactivity became a basis for a mistaken claim of the discovery for element 87 (the next alkali metal after caesium) in 1925\\. Natural rubidium is similarly slightly radioactive, with 27\\.83% being the long\\-lived radioisotope rubidium\\-87\\.\n\n[Caesium\\-137](/wiki/Caesium-137 \"Caesium-137\"), with a half\\-life of 30\\.17 years, is one of the two principal [medium\\-lived fission products](/wiki/Medium-lived_fission_product \"Medium-lived fission product\"), along with [strontium\\-90](/wiki/Strontium-90 \"Strontium-90\"), which are responsible for most of the [radioactivity](/wiki/Radioactivity \"Radioactivity\") of [spent nuclear fuel](/wiki/Spent_nuclear_fuel \"Spent nuclear fuel\") after several years of cooling, up to several hundred years after use. It constitutes most of the radioactivity still left from the [Chernobyl accident](/wiki/Chernobyl_accident \"Chernobyl accident\"). Caesium\\-137 undergoes high\\-energy beta decay and eventually becomes stable [barium\\-137](/wiki/Barium-137 \"Barium-137\"). It is a strong emitter of gamma radiation. Caesium\\-137 has a very low rate of neutron capture and cannot be feasibly disposed of in this way, but must be allowed to decay. Caesium\\-137 has been used as a [tracer](/wiki/Flow_tracer \"Flow tracer\") in hydrologic studies, analogous to the use of [tritium](/wiki/Tritium \"Tritium\").[Radioisotope Brief: Cesium\\-137 (Cs\\-137\\)](https://web.archive.org/web/20160329120038/http://www.bt.cdc.gov/radiation/isotopes/cesium.asp). U.S. National Center for Environmental Health Small amounts of [caesium\\-134](/wiki/Caesium-134 \"Caesium-134\") and caesium\\-137 were released into the environment during nearly all [nuclear weapon tests](/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_test \"Nuclear weapon test\") and some [nuclear accidents](/wiki/Nuclear_accident \"Nuclear accident\"), most notably the [Goiânia accident](/wiki/Goi%C3%A2nia_accident \"Goiânia accident\") and the [Chernobyl disaster](/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster \"Chernobyl disaster\"). As of 2005, caesium\\-137 is the principal source of radiation in the [zone of alienation](/wiki/Zone_of_alienation \"Zone of alienation\") around the [Chernobyl nuclear power plant](/wiki/Chernobyl_nuclear_power_plant \"Chernobyl nuclear power plant\"). Its chemical properties as one of the alkali metals make it one of the most problematic of the short\\-to\\-medium\\-lifetime fission products because it easily moves and spreads in nature due to the high water solubility of its salts, and is taken up by the body, which mistakes it for its essential congeners sodium and potassium.\n\n", "### Physical and chemical\n\nThe physical and chemical properties of the alkali metals can be readily explained by their having an ns1 valence [electron configuration](/wiki/Electron_configuration \"Electron configuration\"), which results in weak [metallic bonding](/wiki/Metallic_bonding \"Metallic bonding\"). Hence, all the alkali metals are soft and have low [densities](/wiki/Densities \"Densities\"), [melting](/wiki/Melting_point \"Melting point\") and [boiling points](/wiki/Boiling_point \"Boiling point\"), as well as [heats of sublimation](/wiki/Heat_of_sublimation \"Heat of sublimation\"), [vaporisation](/wiki/Heat_of_vaporization \"Heat of vaporization\"), and [dissociation](/wiki/Dissociation_%28chemistry%29 \"Dissociation (chemistry)\"). They all crystallise in the [body\\-centered cubic](/wiki/Body-centered_cubic \"Body-centered cubic\") crystal structure, and have distinctive [flame colours](/wiki/Flame_test \"Flame test\") because their outer s electron is very easily excited. Indeed, these flame test colours are the most common way of identifying them since all their salts with common ions are soluble. The ns1 configuration also results in the alkali metals having very large [atomic](/wiki/Atomic_radius \"Atomic radius\") and [ionic radii](/wiki/Ionic_radii \"Ionic radii\"), as well as very high [thermal](/wiki/Thermal_conductivity \"Thermal conductivity\") and [electrical conductivity](/wiki/Electrical_conductivity \"Electrical conductivity\"). Their chemistry is dominated by the loss of their lone valence electron in the outermost s\\-orbital to form the \\+1 oxidation state, due to the ease of ionising this electron and the very high second ionisation energy. Most of the chemistry has been observed only for the first five members of the group. The chemistry of francium is not well established due to its extreme [radioactivity](/wiki/Radioactivity \"Radioactivity\"); thus, the presentation of its properties here is limited. What little is known about francium shows that it is very close in behaviour to caesium, as expected. The physical properties of francium are even sketchier because the bulk element has never been observed; hence any data that may be found in the literature are certainly speculative extrapolations.\n\n| \\+ Properties of the alkali metals | Name | [Lithium](/wiki/Lithium \"Lithium\") | [Sodium](/wiki/Sodium \"Sodium\") | [Potassium](/wiki/Potassium \"Potassium\") | [Rubidium](/wiki/Rubidium \"Rubidium\") | [Caesium](/wiki/Caesium \"Caesium\") | [Francium](/wiki/Francium \"Francium\") |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [Atomic number](/wiki/Atomic_number \"Atomic number\") | 3 | 11 | 19 | 37 | 55 | 87 |\n| [Standard atomic weight](/wiki/Standard_atomic_weight \"Standard atomic weight\") | 6\\.94(1\\) | 22\\.98976928(2\\) | 39\\.0983(1\\) | 85\\.4678(3\\) | 132\\.9054519(2\\) | \\[223] |\n| [Electron configuration](/wiki/Electron_configuration \"Electron configuration\") | \\[[He](/wiki/Helium \"Helium\")] 2s1 | \\[[Ne](/wiki/Neon \"Neon\")] 3s1 | \\[[Ar](/wiki/Argon \"Argon\")] 4s1 | \\[[Kr](/wiki/Krypton \"Krypton\")] 5s1 | \\[[Xe](/wiki/Xenon \"Xenon\")] 6s1 | \\[[Rn](/wiki/Radon \"Radon\")] 7s1 |\n| [Melting point](/wiki/Melting_point \"Melting point\") (°C) | 180\\.54 | 97\\.72 | 63\\.38 | 39\\.31 | 28\\.44 | ? |\n| [Boiling point](/wiki/Boiling_point \"Boiling point\") (°C) | 1342 | 883 | 759 | 688 | 671 | ? |\n| [Density](/wiki/Density \"Density\") (g·cm−3) | 0\\.534 | 0\\.968 | 0\\.89 | 1\\.532 | 1\\.93 | ? |\n| [Heat of fusion](/wiki/Heat_of_fusion \"Heat of fusion\") (kJ·mol−1) | 3\\.00 | 2\\.60 | 2\\.321 | 2\\.19 | 2\\.09 | ? |\n| [Heat of vaporisation](/wiki/Heat_of_vaporisation \"Heat of vaporisation\") (kJ·mol−1) | 136 | 97\\.42 | 79\\.1 | 69 | 66\\.1 | ? |\n| [Heat of formation](/wiki/Heat_of_formation \"Heat of formation\") of monatomic gas (kJ·mol−1) | 162 | 108 | 89\\.6 | 82\\.0 | 78\\.2 | ? |\n| [Electrical resistivity](/wiki/Electrical_resistivity \"Electrical resistivity\") at 25 °C (n[Ω](/wiki/Ohm \"Ohm\")·cm) | 94\\.7 | 48\\.8 | 73\\.9 | 131 | 208 | ? |\n| [Atomic radius](/wiki/Atomic_radius \"Atomic radius\") ([pm](/wiki/Picometer \"Picometer\")) | 152 | 186 | 227 | 248 | 265 | ? |\n| [Ionic radius](/wiki/Ionic_radius \"Ionic radius\") of hexacoordinate M\\+ ion (pm) | 76 | 102 | 138 | 152 | 167 | ? |\n| First [ionisation energy](/wiki/Ionisation_energy \"Ionisation energy\") ([kJ·mol−1](/wiki/Kilojoule_per_mole \"Kilojoule per mole\")) | 520\\.2 | 495\\.8 | 418\\.8 | 403\\.0 | 375\\.7 | 392\\.8 |\n| [Electron affinity](/wiki/Electron_affinity \"Electron affinity\") (kJ·mol−1) | 59\\.62 | 52\\.87 | 48\\.38 | 46\\.89 | 45\\.51 | ? |\n| [Enthalpy of dissociation](/wiki/Enthalpy_of_dissociation \"Enthalpy of dissociation\") of M2 (kJ·mol−1) | 106\\.5 | 73\\.6 | 57\\.3 | 45\\.6 | 44\\.77 | ? |\n| Pauling [electronegativity](/wiki/Electronegativity \"Electronegativity\") | 0\\.98 | 0\\.93 | 0\\.82 | 0\\.82 | 0\\.79 | ? |\n| Allen [electronegativity](/wiki/Electronegativity \"Electronegativity\") | 0\\.91 | 0\\.87 | 0\\.73 | 0\\.71 | 0\\.66 | 0\\.67 |\n| [Standard electrode potential](/wiki/Standard_electrode_potential \"Standard electrode potential\") (*E*°(M\\+→M0); [V](/wiki/Volt \"Volt\"))Vanýsek, Petr (2011\\). [“Electrochemical Series”](http://www.hbcpnetbase.com/articles/05_22_92.pdf), in [*Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 92nd Edition*](http://www.hbcpnetbase.com/) (Chemical Rubber Company). | −3\\.04 | −2\\.71 | −2\\.93 | −2\\.98 | −3\\.03 | ? |\n| [Flame test](/wiki/Flame_test \"Flame test\") colourPrincipal emission/absorption wavelength ([nm](/wiki/Nanometer \"Nanometer\")) | Crimson670\\.8 | Yellow589\\.2 | Violet766\\.5 | Red\\-violet780\\.0 | Blue455\\.5 | ? |\n\nThe alkali metals are more similar to each other than the elements in any other [group](/wiki/Group_%28periodic_table%29 \"Group (periodic table)\") are to each other. Indeed, the similarity is so great that it is quite difficult to separate potassium, rubidium, and caesium, due to their similar [ionic radii](/wiki/Ionic_radii \"Ionic radii\"); lithium and sodium are more distinct. For instance, when moving down the table, all known alkali metals show increasing [atomic radius](/wiki/Atomic_radius \"Atomic radius\"), decreasing [electronegativity](/wiki/Electronegativity \"Electronegativity\"), increasing [reactivity](/wiki/Reactivity_%28chemistry%29 \"Reactivity (chemistry)\"), and decreasing melting and boiling points as well as heats of fusion and vaporisation. In general, their [densities](/wiki/Densities \"Densities\") increase when moving down the table, with the exception that potassium is less dense than sodium. One of the very few properties of the alkali metals that does not display a very smooth trend is their [reduction potentials](/wiki/Reduction_potential \"Reduction potential\"): lithium's value is anomalous, being more negative than the others. This is because the Li\\+ ion has a very high [hydration energy](/wiki/Hydration_energy \"Hydration energy\") in the gas phase: though the lithium ion disrupts the structure of water significantly, causing a higher change in entropy, this high hydration energy is enough to make the reduction potentials indicate it as being the most electropositive alkali metal, despite the difficulty of ionising it in the gas phase.\n\nThe stable alkali metals are all silver\\-coloured metals except for caesium, which has a pale golden tint: it is one of only three metals that are clearly coloured (the other two being copper and gold). Additionally, the heavy [alkaline earth metals](/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal \"Alkaline earth metal\") [calcium](/wiki/Calcium \"Calcium\"), [strontium](/wiki/Strontium \"Strontium\"), and [barium](/wiki/Barium \"Barium\"), as well as the divalent [lanthanides](/wiki/Lanthanide \"Lanthanide\") [europium](/wiki/Europium \"Europium\") and [ytterbium](/wiki/Ytterbium \"Ytterbium\"), are pale yellow, though the colour is much less prominent than it is for caesium. Their lustre tarnishes rapidly in air due to oxidation.\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|Potassium reacts violently with water at room temperature](/wiki/File:Potassium_water_20.theora.ogv \"Potassium water 20.theora.ogv\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|Caesium reacts explosively with water even at low temperatures](/wiki/File:Cesium_water.theora.ogv \"Cesium water.theora.ogv\")\nAll the alkali metals are highly reactive and are never found in elemental forms in nature. Because of this, they are usually stored in [mineral oil](/wiki/Mineral_oil \"Mineral oil\") or [kerosene](/wiki/Kerosene \"Kerosene\") (paraffin oil). They react aggressively with the [halogens](/wiki/Halogen \"Halogen\") to form the [alkali metal halides](/wiki/Alkali_metal_halide \"Alkali metal halide\"), which are white [ionic crystalline](/wiki/Ionic_crystal \"Ionic crystal\") compounds that are all [soluble](/wiki/Soluble \"Soluble\") in water except [lithium fluoride](/wiki/Lithium_fluoride \"Lithium fluoride\") (LiF). The alkali metals also react with water to form strongly [alkaline](/wiki/Alkali \"Alkali\") [hydroxides](/wiki/Hydroxide \"Hydroxide\") and thus should be handled with great care. The heavier alkali metals react more vigorously than the lighter ones; for example, when dropped into water, caesium produces a larger explosion than potassium if the same number of moles of each metal is used. The alkali metals have the lowest first [ionisation energies](/wiki/Ionisation_energies \"Ionisation energies\") in their respective periods of the [periodic table](/wiki/Periodic_table \"Periodic table\") because of their low [effective nuclear charge](/wiki/Effective_nuclear_charge \"Effective nuclear charge\") and the ability to attain a [noble gas](/wiki/Noble_gas \"Noble gas\") configuration by losing just one [electron](/wiki/Electron \"Electron\"). Not only do the alkali metals react with water, but also with proton donors like [alcohols](/wiki/Alcohol_%28chemistry%29 \"Alcohol (chemistry)\") and [phenols](/wiki/Phenols \"Phenols\"), gaseous [ammonia](/wiki/Ammonia \"Ammonia\"), and [alkynes](/wiki/Alkyne \"Alkyne\"), the last demonstrating the phenomenal degree of their reactivity. Their great power as reducing agents makes them very useful in liberating other metals from their oxides or halides.\n\nThe second ionisation energy of all of the alkali metals is very high as it is in a full shell that is also closer to the nucleus; thus, they almost always lose a single electron, forming cations. The [alkalides](/wiki/Alkalide \"Alkalide\") are an exception: they are unstable compounds which contain alkali metals in a −1 oxidation state, which is very unusual as before the discovery of the alkalides, the alkali metals were not expected to be able to form [anions](/wiki/Anion \"Anion\") and were thought to be able to appear in [salts](/wiki/Salts \"Salts\") only as cations. The alkalide anions have filled [s\\-subshells](/wiki/S-orbital \"S-orbital\"), which gives them enough stability to exist. All the stable alkali metals except lithium are known to be able to form alkalides, and the alkalides have much theoretical interest due to their unusual [stoichiometry](/wiki/Stoichiometry \"Stoichiometry\") and low [ionisation potentials](/wiki/Ionization_potential \"Ionization potential\"). Alkalides are chemically similar to the [electrides](/wiki/Electride \"Electride\"), which are salts with trapped [electrons](/wiki/Electron \"Electron\") acting as anions. A particularly striking example of an alkalide is \"inverse [sodium hydride](/wiki/Sodium_hydride \"Sodium hydride\")\", H\\+Na− (both ions being [complexed](/wiki/Coordination_complex \"Coordination complex\")), as opposed to the usual sodium hydride, Na\\+H−: it is unstable in isolation, due to its high energy resulting from the displacement of two electrons from hydrogen to sodium, although several derivatives are predicted to be [metastable](/wiki/Metastable \"Metastable\") or stable.\n\nIn aqueous solution, the alkali metal ions form [aqua ions](/wiki/Metal_ions_in_aqueous_solution \"Metal ions in aqueous solution\") of the formula \\[M(H2O)*n*]\\+, where *n* is the solvation number. Their [coordination numbers](/wiki/Coordination_number \"Coordination number\") and shapes agree well with those expected from their ionic radii. In aqueous solution the water molecules directly attached to the metal ion are said to belong to the [first coordination sphere](/wiki/First_coordination_sphere \"First coordination sphere\"), also known as the first, or primary, solvation shell. The bond between a water molecule and the metal ion is a [dative covalent bond](/wiki/Dative_covalent_bond \"Dative covalent bond\"), with the oxygen atom donating both electrons to the bond. Each coordinated water molecule may be attached by [hydrogen bonds](/wiki/Hydrogen_bond \"Hydrogen bond\") to other water molecules. The latter are said to reside in the second coordination sphere. However, for the alkali metal cations, the second coordination sphere is not well\\-defined as the \\+1 charge on the cation is not high enough to [polarise](/wiki/Polarizability \"Polarizability\") the water molecules in the primary solvation shell enough for them to form strong hydrogen bonds with those in the second coordination sphere, producing a more stable entity. The solvation number for Li\\+ has been experimentally determined to be 4, forming the [tetrahedral](/wiki/Tetrahedral \"Tetrahedral\") \\[Li(H2O)4]\\+: while solvation numbers of 3 to 6 have been found for lithium aqua ions, solvation numbers less than 4 may be the result of the formation of contact [ion pairs](/wiki/Ion_pair \"Ion pair\"), and the higher solvation numbers may be interpreted in terms of water molecules that approach \\[Li(H2O)4]\\+ through a face of the tetrahedron, though molecular dynamic simulations may indicate the existence of an [octahedral](/wiki/Octahedral \"Octahedral\") hexaaqua ion. There are also probably six water molecules in the primary solvation sphere of the sodium ion, forming the octahedral \\[Na(H2O)6]\\+ ion. While it was previously thought that the heavier alkali metals also formed octahedral hexaaqua ions, it has since been found that potassium and rubidium probably form the \\[K(H2O)8]\\+ and \\[Rb(H2O)8]\\+ ions, which have the [square antiprismatic](/wiki/Square_antiprism \"Square antiprism\") structure, and that caesium forms the 12\\-coordinate \\[Cs(H2O)12]\\+ ion.\n\n#### Lithium\n\nThe chemistry of lithium shows several differences from that of the rest of the group as the small Li\\+ cation [polarises](/wiki/Chemical_polarity \"Chemical polarity\") [anions](/wiki/Anion \"Anion\") and gives its compounds a more [covalent](/wiki/Covalent \"Covalent\") character. Lithium and [magnesium](/wiki/Magnesium \"Magnesium\") have a [diagonal relationship](/wiki/Diagonal_relationship \"Diagonal relationship\") due to their similar atomic radii, so that they show some similarities. For example, lithium forms a stable [nitride](/wiki/Nitride \"Nitride\"), a property common among all the [alkaline earth metals](/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal \"Alkaline earth metal\") (magnesium's group) but unique among the alkali metals. In addition, among their respective groups, only lithium and magnesium form [organometallic compounds](/wiki/Organometallic_compound \"Organometallic compound\") with significant covalent character (e.g. Li[Me](/wiki/Methyl_group \"Methyl group\") and MgMe2).\n\nLithium fluoride is the only alkali metal halide that is poorly soluble in water, and [lithium hydroxide](/wiki/Lithium_hydroxide \"Lithium hydroxide\") is the only alkali metal hydroxide that is not [deliquescent](/wiki/Deliquescent \"Deliquescent\"). Conversely, [lithium perchlorate](/wiki/Lithium_perchlorate \"Lithium perchlorate\") and other lithium salts with large anions that cannot be polarised are much more stable than the analogous compounds of the other alkali metals, probably because Li\\+ has a high [solvation energy](/wiki/Solvation_energy \"Solvation energy\"). This effect also means that most simple lithium salts are commonly encountered in hydrated form, because the anhydrous forms are extremely [hygroscopic](/wiki/Hygroscopic \"Hygroscopic\"): this allows salts like [lithium chloride](/wiki/Lithium_chloride \"Lithium chloride\") and [lithium bromide](/wiki/Lithium_bromide \"Lithium bromide\") to be used in [dehumidifiers](/wiki/Dehumidifier \"Dehumidifier\") and [air\\-conditioners](/wiki/Air-conditioner \"Air-conditioner\").\n\n#### Francium\n\nFrancium is also predicted to show some differences due to its high [atomic weight](/wiki/Atomic_weight \"Atomic weight\"), causing its electrons to travel at considerable fractions of the speed of light and thus making [relativistic effects](/wiki/Relativistic_effects \"Relativistic effects\") more prominent. In contrast to the trend of decreasing [electronegativities](/wiki/Electronegativities \"Electronegativities\") and [ionisation energies](/wiki/Ionisation_energies \"Ionisation energies\") of the alkali metals, francium's electronegativity and ionisation energy are predicted to be higher than caesium's due to the relativistic stabilisation of the 7s electrons; also, its [atomic radius](/wiki/Atomic_radius \"Atomic radius\") is expected to be abnormally low. Thus, contrary to expectation, caesium is the most reactive of the alkali metals, not francium. All known physical properties of francium also deviate from the clear trends going from lithium to caesium, such as the first ionisation energy, electron affinity, and anion polarisability, though due to the paucity of known data about francium many sources give extrapolated values, ignoring that relativistic effects make the trend from lithium to caesium become inapplicable at francium. Some of the few properties of francium that have been predicted taking relativity into account are the electron affinity (47\\.2 kJ/mol) and the enthalpy of dissociation of the Fr2 molecule (42\\.1 kJ/mol). The CsFr molecule is polarised as Cs\\+Fr−, showing that the 7s subshell of francium is much more strongly affected by relativistic effects than the 6s subshell of caesium. Additionally, francium superoxide (FrO2) is expected to have significant covalent character, unlike the other alkali metal superoxides, because of bonding contributions from the 6p electrons of francium.\n\n", "#### Lithium\n\nThe chemistry of lithium shows several differences from that of the rest of the group as the small Li\\+ cation [polarises](/wiki/Chemical_polarity \"Chemical polarity\") [anions](/wiki/Anion \"Anion\") and gives its compounds a more [covalent](/wiki/Covalent \"Covalent\") character. Lithium and [magnesium](/wiki/Magnesium \"Magnesium\") have a [diagonal relationship](/wiki/Diagonal_relationship \"Diagonal relationship\") due to their similar atomic radii, so that they show some similarities. For example, lithium forms a stable [nitride](/wiki/Nitride \"Nitride\"), a property common among all the [alkaline earth metals](/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal \"Alkaline earth metal\") (magnesium's group) but unique among the alkali metals. In addition, among their respective groups, only lithium and magnesium form [organometallic compounds](/wiki/Organometallic_compound \"Organometallic compound\") with significant covalent character (e.g. Li[Me](/wiki/Methyl_group \"Methyl group\") and MgMe2).\n\nLithium fluoride is the only alkali metal halide that is poorly soluble in water, and [lithium hydroxide](/wiki/Lithium_hydroxide \"Lithium hydroxide\") is the only alkali metal hydroxide that is not [deliquescent](/wiki/Deliquescent \"Deliquescent\"). Conversely, [lithium perchlorate](/wiki/Lithium_perchlorate \"Lithium perchlorate\") and other lithium salts with large anions that cannot be polarised are much more stable than the analogous compounds of the other alkali metals, probably because Li\\+ has a high [solvation energy](/wiki/Solvation_energy \"Solvation energy\"). This effect also means that most simple lithium salts are commonly encountered in hydrated form, because the anhydrous forms are extremely [hygroscopic](/wiki/Hygroscopic \"Hygroscopic\"): this allows salts like [lithium chloride](/wiki/Lithium_chloride \"Lithium chloride\") and [lithium bromide](/wiki/Lithium_bromide \"Lithium bromide\") to be used in [dehumidifiers](/wiki/Dehumidifier \"Dehumidifier\") and [air\\-conditioners](/wiki/Air-conditioner \"Air-conditioner\").\n\n", "#### Francium\n\nFrancium is also predicted to show some differences due to its high [atomic weight](/wiki/Atomic_weight \"Atomic weight\"), causing its electrons to travel at considerable fractions of the speed of light and thus making [relativistic effects](/wiki/Relativistic_effects \"Relativistic effects\") more prominent. In contrast to the trend of decreasing [electronegativities](/wiki/Electronegativities \"Electronegativities\") and [ionisation energies](/wiki/Ionisation_energies \"Ionisation energies\") of the alkali metals, francium's electronegativity and ionisation energy are predicted to be higher than caesium's due to the relativistic stabilisation of the 7s electrons; also, its [atomic radius](/wiki/Atomic_radius \"Atomic radius\") is expected to be abnormally low. Thus, contrary to expectation, caesium is the most reactive of the alkali metals, not francium. All known physical properties of francium also deviate from the clear trends going from lithium to caesium, such as the first ionisation energy, electron affinity, and anion polarisability, though due to the paucity of known data about francium many sources give extrapolated values, ignoring that relativistic effects make the trend from lithium to caesium become inapplicable at francium. Some of the few properties of francium that have been predicted taking relativity into account are the electron affinity (47\\.2 kJ/mol) and the enthalpy of dissociation of the Fr2 molecule (42\\.1 kJ/mol). The CsFr molecule is polarised as Cs\\+Fr−, showing that the 7s subshell of francium is much more strongly affected by relativistic effects than the 6s subshell of caesium. Additionally, francium superoxide (FrO2) is expected to have significant covalent character, unlike the other alkali metal superoxides, because of bonding contributions from the 6p electrons of francium.\n\n", "### Nuclear\n\n| \\+Primordial isotopes of the alkali metals |\n| --- |\n| Z | Alkali metal | [Stable](/wiki/Stable_isotope \"Stable isotope\") | *[Decays](/wiki/Primordial_element \"Primordial element\")* | *unstable: italics*odd–odd isotopes coloured pink | | |\n| 3 | [lithium](/wiki/Lithium \"Lithium\") | [2](/wiki/Isotopes_of_lithium \"Isotopes of lithium\") | — | | | |\n| 11 | [sodium](/wiki/Sodium \"Sodium\") | [1](/wiki/Isotopes_of_sodium \"Isotopes of sodium\") | — | | | |\n| 19 | [potassium](/wiki/Potassium \"Potassium\") | [2](/wiki/Isotopes_of_potassium \"Isotopes of potassium\") | 1 | | | ** |\n| 37 | [rubidium](/wiki/Rubidium \"Rubidium\") | [1](/wiki/Isotopes_of_rubidium \"Isotopes of rubidium\") | 1 | | ** | |\n| 55 | [caesium](/wiki/Caesium \"Caesium\") | [1](/wiki/Isotopes_of_caesium \"Isotopes of caesium\") | — | | | |\n| 87 | [francium](/wiki/Francium \"Francium\") | [—](/wiki/Isotopes_of_francium \"Isotopes of francium\") | — |*No primordial isotopes* \n(** is a [radiogenic nuclide](/wiki/Radiogenic_nuclide \"Radiogenic nuclide\"))\n\n| Radioactive: | | | | | | |\n\nAll the alkali metals have odd atomic numbers; hence, their isotopes must be either [odd–odd](/wiki/Odd%E2%80%93odd_nuclei \"Odd–odd nuclei\") (both proton and [neutron number](/wiki/Neutron_number \"Neutron number\") are odd) or [odd–even](/wiki/Odd%E2%80%93even_nuclei \"Odd–even nuclei\") ([proton number](/wiki/Proton_number \"Proton number\") is odd, but neutron number is even). Odd–odd nuclei have even [mass numbers](/wiki/Mass_number \"Mass number\"), whereas odd–even nuclei have odd mass numbers. Odd–odd [primordial nuclides](/wiki/Primordial_nuclide \"Primordial nuclide\") are rare because most odd–odd nuclei are highly unstable with respect to [beta decay](/wiki/Beta_decay \"Beta decay\"), because the decay products are even–even, and are therefore more strongly bound, due to [nuclear pairing effects](/wiki/Semi-empirical_mass_formula%23Pairing_term \"Semi-empirical mass formula#Pairing term\").\n\nDue to the great rarity of odd–odd nuclei, almost all the primordial isotopes of the alkali metals are odd–even (the exceptions being the light stable isotope lithium\\-6 and the long\\-lived [radioisotope](/wiki/Radioisotope \"Radioisotope\") potassium\\-40\\). For a given odd mass number, there can be only a single [beta\\-stable nuclide](/wiki/Beta-decay_stable_isobars \"Beta-decay stable isobars\"), since there is not a difference in binding energy between even–odd and odd–even comparable to that between even–even and odd–odd, leaving other nuclides of the same mass number ([isobars](/wiki/Isobar_%28nuclide%29 \"Isobar (nuclide)\")) free to [beta decay](/wiki/Beta_decay \"Beta decay\") toward the lowest\\-mass nuclide. An effect of the instability of an odd number of either type of nucleons is that odd\\-numbered elements, such as the alkali metals, tend to have fewer stable isotopes than even\\-numbered elements. Of the 26 [monoisotopic elements](/wiki/Monoisotopic_element \"Monoisotopic element\") that have only a single stable isotope, all but one have an odd atomic number and all but one also have an even number of neutrons. [Beryllium](/wiki/Beryllium \"Beryllium\") is the single exception to both rules, due to its low atomic number.\n\nAll of the alkali metals except lithium and caesium have at least one naturally occurring [radioisotope](/wiki/Radioisotope \"Radioisotope\"): [sodium\\-22](/wiki/Sodium-22 \"Sodium-22\") and [sodium\\-24](/wiki/Sodium-24 \"Sodium-24\") are [trace radioisotopes](/wiki/Trace_radioisotope \"Trace radioisotope\") produced [cosmogenically](/wiki/Cosmogenic \"Cosmogenic\"), potassium\\-40 and [rubidium\\-87](/wiki/Rubidium-87 \"Rubidium-87\") have very long [half\\-lives](/wiki/Half-lives \"Half-lives\") and thus occur naturally, and all [isotopes of francium](/wiki/Isotopes_of_francium \"Isotopes of francium\") are [radioactive](/wiki/Radioactive \"Radioactive\"). Caesium was also thought to be radioactive in the early 20th century, although it has no naturally occurring radioisotopes. (Francium had not been discovered yet at that time.) The natural long\\-lived radioisotope of potassium, potassium\\-40, makes up about 0\\.012% of natural potassium, and thus natural potassium is weakly radioactive. This natural radioactivity became a basis for a mistaken claim of the discovery for element 87 (the next alkali metal after caesium) in 1925\\. Natural rubidium is similarly slightly radioactive, with 27\\.83% being the long\\-lived radioisotope rubidium\\-87\\.\n\n[Caesium\\-137](/wiki/Caesium-137 \"Caesium-137\"), with a half\\-life of 30\\.17 years, is one of the two principal [medium\\-lived fission products](/wiki/Medium-lived_fission_product \"Medium-lived fission product\"), along with [strontium\\-90](/wiki/Strontium-90 \"Strontium-90\"), which are responsible for most of the [radioactivity](/wiki/Radioactivity \"Radioactivity\") of [spent nuclear fuel](/wiki/Spent_nuclear_fuel \"Spent nuclear fuel\") after several years of cooling, up to several hundred years after use. It constitutes most of the radioactivity still left from the [Chernobyl accident](/wiki/Chernobyl_accident \"Chernobyl accident\"). Caesium\\-137 undergoes high\\-energy beta decay and eventually becomes stable [barium\\-137](/wiki/Barium-137 \"Barium-137\"). It is a strong emitter of gamma radiation. Caesium\\-137 has a very low rate of neutron capture and cannot be feasibly disposed of in this way, but must be allowed to decay. Caesium\\-137 has been used as a [tracer](/wiki/Flow_tracer \"Flow tracer\") in hydrologic studies, analogous to the use of [tritium](/wiki/Tritium \"Tritium\").[Radioisotope Brief: Cesium\\-137 (Cs\\-137\\)](https://web.archive.org/web/20160329120038/http://www.bt.cdc.gov/radiation/isotopes/cesium.asp). U.S. National Center for Environmental Health Small amounts of [caesium\\-134](/wiki/Caesium-134 \"Caesium-134\") and caesium\\-137 were released into the environment during nearly all [nuclear weapon tests](/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_test \"Nuclear weapon test\") and some [nuclear accidents](/wiki/Nuclear_accident \"Nuclear accident\"), most notably the [Goiânia accident](/wiki/Goi%C3%A2nia_accident \"Goiânia accident\") and the [Chernobyl disaster](/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster \"Chernobyl disaster\"). As of 2005, caesium\\-137 is the principal source of radiation in the [zone of alienation](/wiki/Zone_of_alienation \"Zone of alienation\") around the [Chernobyl nuclear power plant](/wiki/Chernobyl_nuclear_power_plant \"Chernobyl nuclear power plant\"). Its chemical properties as one of the alkali metals make it one of the most problematic of the short\\-to\\-medium\\-lifetime fission products because it easily moves and spreads in nature due to the high water solubility of its salts, and is taken up by the body, which mistakes it for its essential congeners sodium and potassium.\n\n", "Periodic trends\n---------------\n\nThe alkali metals are more similar to each other than the elements in any other [group](/wiki/Group_%28periodic_table%29 \"Group (periodic table)\") are to each other. For instance, when moving down the table, all known alkali metals show increasing [atomic radius](/wiki/Atomic_radius \"Atomic radius\"), decreasing [electronegativity](/wiki/Electronegativity \"Electronegativity\"), increasing [reactivity](/wiki/Reactivity_%28chemistry%29 \"Reactivity (chemistry)\"), and decreasing melting and boiling points as well as heats of fusion and vaporisation. In general, their [densities](/wiki/Densities \"Densities\") increase when moving down the table, with the exception that potassium is less dense than sodium.\n\n### Atomic and ionic radii\n\n[thumb\\|250px\\|[Effective nuclear charge](/wiki/Effective_nuclear_charge \"Effective nuclear charge\") on an atomic electron](/wiki/File:Effective_Nuclear_Charge.svg \"Effective Nuclear Charge.svg\")\nThe [atomic radii](/wiki/Atomic_radii \"Atomic radii\") of the alkali metals increase going down the group. Because of the [shielding effect](/wiki/Shielding_effect \"Shielding effect\"), when an atom has more than one [electron shell](/wiki/Electron_shell \"Electron shell\"), each electron feels electric repulsion from the other electrons as well as electric attraction from the nucleus. In the alkali metals, the [outermost electron](/wiki/Valence_electron \"Valence electron\") only feels a net charge of \\+1, as some of the [nuclear charge](/wiki/Nuclear_charge \"Nuclear charge\") (which is equal to the [atomic number](/wiki/Atomic_number \"Atomic number\")) is cancelled by the inner electrons; the number of inner electrons of an alkali metal is always one less than the nuclear charge. Therefore, the only factor which affects the atomic radius of the alkali metals is the number of electron shells. Since this number increases down the group, the atomic radius must also increase down the group.\n\nThe [ionic radii](/wiki/Ionic_radii \"Ionic radii\") of the alkali metals are much smaller than their atomic radii. This is because the outermost electron of the alkali metals is in a different [electron shell](/wiki/Electron_shell \"Electron shell\") than the inner electrons, and thus when it is removed the resulting atom has one fewer electron shell and is smaller. Additionally, the [effective nuclear charge](/wiki/Effective_nuclear_charge \"Effective nuclear charge\") has increased, and thus the electrons are attracted more strongly towards the nucleus and the ionic radius decreases.\n\n### First ionisation energy\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\=2\\.7\\|Periodic trend for ionisation energy: each period begins at a minimum for the alkali metals, and ends at a maximum for the [noble gases](/wiki/Noble_gas \"Noble gas\"). Predicted values are used for elements beyond 104\\.](/wiki/File:First_Ionization_Energy_blocks.svg \"First Ionization Energy blocks.svg\")\nThe first [ionisation energy](/wiki/Ionisation_energy \"Ionisation energy\") of an [element](/wiki/Chemical_element \"Chemical element\") or [molecule](/wiki/Molecule \"Molecule\") is the energy required to move the most loosely held electron from one [mole](/wiki/Mole_%28unit%29 \"Mole (unit)\") of gaseous atoms of the element or molecules to form one mole of gaseous ions with [electric charge](/wiki/Electric_charge \"Electric charge\") \\+1\\. The factors affecting the first ionisation energy are the [nuclear charge](/wiki/Nuclear_charge \"Nuclear charge\"), the amount of [shielding](/wiki/Shielding_effect \"Shielding effect\") by the inner electrons and the distance from the most loosely held electron from the nucleus, which is always an outer electron in [main group elements](/wiki/Main_group_element \"Main group element\"). The first two factors change the effective nuclear charge the most loosely held electron feels. Since the outermost electron of alkali metals always feels the same effective nuclear charge (\\+1\\), the only factor which affects the first ionisation energy is the distance from the outermost electron to the nucleus. Since this distance increases down the group, the outermost electron feels less attraction from the nucleus and thus the first ionisation energy decreases. This trend is broken in francium due to the [relativistic](/wiki/Relativistic_quantum_chemistry \"Relativistic quantum chemistry\") stabilisation and contraction of the 7s orbital, bringing francium's valence electron closer to the nucleus than would be expected from non\\-relativistic calculations. This makes francium's outermost electron feel more attraction from the nucleus, increasing its first ionisation energy slightly beyond that of caesium.\n\nThe second ionisation energy of the alkali metals is much higher than the first as the second\\-most loosely held electron is part of a fully filled [electron shell](/wiki/Electron_shell \"Electron shell\") and is thus difficult to remove.\n\n### Reactivity\n\nThe [reactivities](/wiki/Reactivity_%28chemistry%29 \"Reactivity (chemistry)\") of the alkali metals increase going down the group. This is the result of a combination of two factors: the first ionisation energies and [atomisation energies](/wiki/Atomisation_energy \"Atomisation energy\") of the alkali metals. Because the first ionisation energy of the alkali metals decreases down the group, it is easier for the outermost electron to be removed from the atom and participate in [chemical reactions](/wiki/Chemical_reaction \"Chemical reaction\"), thus increasing reactivity down the group. The atomisation energy measures the strength of the [metallic bond](/wiki/Metallic_bond \"Metallic bond\") of an element, which falls down the group as the atoms increase in [radius](/wiki/Atomic_radius \"Atomic radius\") and thus the metallic bond must increase in length, making the [delocalised electrons](/wiki/Delocalised_electrons \"Delocalised electrons\") further away from the attraction of the nuclei of the heavier alkali metals. Adding the atomisation and first ionisation energies gives a quantity closely related to (but not equal to) the [activation energy](/wiki/Activation_energy \"Activation energy\") of the reaction of an alkali metal with another substance. This quantity decreases going down the group, and so does the activation energy; thus, chemical reactions can occur faster and the reactivity increases down the group.\n\n### Electronegativity\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.25\\|Periodic variation of Pauling electronegativities as one descends the [main groups](/wiki/Main_group_element \"Main group element\") of the periodic table from the [second](/wiki/Period_2_element \"Period 2 element\") to the [sixth period](/wiki/Period_6_element \"Period 6 element\").](/wiki/File:Periodic_variation_of_Pauling_electronegativities.svg \"Periodic variation of Pauling electronegativities.svg\")\n\n[Electronegativity](/wiki/Electronegativity \"Electronegativity\") is a [chemical property](/wiki/Chemical_property \"Chemical property\") that describes the tendency of an [atom](/wiki/Atom \"Atom\") or a [functional group](/wiki/Functional_group \"Functional group\") to attract [electrons](/wiki/Electron \"Electron\") (or [electron density](/wiki/Electron_density \"Electron density\")) towards itself. If the bond between [sodium](/wiki/Sodium \"Sodium\") and [chlorine](/wiki/Chlorine \"Chlorine\") in [sodium chloride](/wiki/Sodium_chloride \"Sodium chloride\") were [covalent](/wiki/Covalent \"Covalent\"), the pair of shared electrons would be attracted to the chlorine because the effective nuclear charge on the outer electrons is \\+7 in chlorine but is only \\+1 in sodium. The electron pair is attracted so close to the chlorine atom that they are practically transferred to the chlorine atom (an [ionic bond](/wiki/Ionic_bond \"Ionic bond\")). However, if the sodium atom was replaced by a lithium atom, the electrons will not be attracted as close to the chlorine atom as before because the lithium atom is smaller, making the electron pair more strongly attracted to the closer effective nuclear charge from lithium. Hence, the larger alkali metal atoms (further down the group) will be less electronegative as the bonding pair is less strongly attracted towards them. As mentioned previously, francium is expected to be an exception.\n\nBecause of the higher electronegativity of lithium, some of its compounds have a more covalent character. For example, [lithium iodide](/wiki/Lithium_iodide \"Lithium iodide\") (LiI) will dissolve in [organic solvents](/wiki/Organic_solvent \"Organic solvent\"), a property of most covalent compounds. [Lithium fluoride](/wiki/Lithium_fluoride \"Lithium fluoride\") (LiF) is the only [alkali halide](/wiki/Alkali_halide \"Alkali halide\") that is not soluble in water, and [lithium hydroxide](/wiki/Lithium_hydroxide \"Lithium hydroxide\") (LiOH) is the only [alkali metal hydroxide](/wiki/Alkali_metal_hydroxide \"Alkali metal hydroxide\") that is not [deliquescent](/wiki/Deliquescent \"Deliquescent\").\n\n### Melting and boiling points\n\nThe [melting point](/wiki/Melting_point \"Melting point\") of a substance is the point where it changes [state](/wiki/State_of_matter \"State of matter\") from solid to liquid while the [boiling point](/wiki/Boiling_point \"Boiling point\") of a substance (in liquid state) is the point where the [vapour pressure](/wiki/Vapour_pressure \"Vapour pressure\") of the liquid equals the environmental pressure surrounding the liquid Section 17\\.43, page 321 and all the liquid changes state to gas. As a metal is heated to its melting point, the [metallic bonds](/wiki/Metallic_bond \"Metallic bond\") keeping the atoms in place weaken so that the atoms can move around, and the metallic bonds eventually break completely at the metal's boiling point. Therefore, the falling melting and boiling points of the alkali metals indicate that the strength of the metallic bonds of the alkali metals decreases down the group. This is because metal atoms are held together by the electromagnetic attraction from the positive ions to the delocalised electrons. As the atoms increase in size going down the group (because their atomic radius increases), the nuclei of the ions move further away from the delocalised electrons and hence the metallic bond becomes weaker so that the metal can more easily melt and boil, thus lowering the melting and boiling points. The increased nuclear charge is not a relevant factor due to the shielding effect.\n\n### Density\n\nThe alkali metals all have the same [crystal structure](/wiki/Crystal_structure \"Crystal structure\") ([body\\-centred cubic](/wiki/Body-centred_cubic \"Body-centred cubic\")) and thus the only relevant factors are the number of atoms that can fit into a certain volume and the mass of one of the atoms, since density is defined as mass per unit volume. The first factor depends on the volume of the atom and thus the atomic radius, which increases going down the group; thus, the volume of an alkali metal atom increases going down the group. The mass of an alkali metal atom also increases going down the group. Thus, the trend for the densities of the alkali metals depends on their atomic weights and atomic radii; if figures for these two factors are known, the ratios between the densities of the alkali metals can then be calculated. The resultant trend is that the densities of the alkali metals increase down the table, with an exception at potassium. Due to having the lowest atomic weight and the largest atomic radius of all the elements in their periods, the alkali metals are the least dense metals in the periodic table. Lithium, sodium, and potassium are the only three metals in the periodic table that are less dense than water: in fact, lithium is the least dense known solid at [room temperature](/wiki/Room_temperature \"Room temperature\").\n\n", "### Atomic and ionic radii\n\n[thumb\\|250px\\|[Effective nuclear charge](/wiki/Effective_nuclear_charge \"Effective nuclear charge\") on an atomic electron](/wiki/File:Effective_Nuclear_Charge.svg \"Effective Nuclear Charge.svg\")\nThe [atomic radii](/wiki/Atomic_radii \"Atomic radii\") of the alkali metals increase going down the group. Because of the [shielding effect](/wiki/Shielding_effect \"Shielding effect\"), when an atom has more than one [electron shell](/wiki/Electron_shell \"Electron shell\"), each electron feels electric repulsion from the other electrons as well as electric attraction from the nucleus. In the alkali metals, the [outermost electron](/wiki/Valence_electron \"Valence electron\") only feels a net charge of \\+1, as some of the [nuclear charge](/wiki/Nuclear_charge \"Nuclear charge\") (which is equal to the [atomic number](/wiki/Atomic_number \"Atomic number\")) is cancelled by the inner electrons; the number of inner electrons of an alkali metal is always one less than the nuclear charge. Therefore, the only factor which affects the atomic radius of the alkali metals is the number of electron shells. Since this number increases down the group, the atomic radius must also increase down the group.\n\nThe [ionic radii](/wiki/Ionic_radii \"Ionic radii\") of the alkali metals are much smaller than their atomic radii. This is because the outermost electron of the alkali metals is in a different [electron shell](/wiki/Electron_shell \"Electron shell\") than the inner electrons, and thus when it is removed the resulting atom has one fewer electron shell and is smaller. Additionally, the [effective nuclear charge](/wiki/Effective_nuclear_charge \"Effective nuclear charge\") has increased, and thus the electrons are attracted more strongly towards the nucleus and the ionic radius decreases.\n\n", "### First ionisation energy\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\=2\\.7\\|Periodic trend for ionisation energy: each period begins at a minimum for the alkali metals, and ends at a maximum for the [noble gases](/wiki/Noble_gas \"Noble gas\"). Predicted values are used for elements beyond 104\\.](/wiki/File:First_Ionization_Energy_blocks.svg \"First Ionization Energy blocks.svg\")\nThe first [ionisation energy](/wiki/Ionisation_energy \"Ionisation energy\") of an [element](/wiki/Chemical_element \"Chemical element\") or [molecule](/wiki/Molecule \"Molecule\") is the energy required to move the most loosely held electron from one [mole](/wiki/Mole_%28unit%29 \"Mole (unit)\") of gaseous atoms of the element or molecules to form one mole of gaseous ions with [electric charge](/wiki/Electric_charge \"Electric charge\") \\+1\\. The factors affecting the first ionisation energy are the [nuclear charge](/wiki/Nuclear_charge \"Nuclear charge\"), the amount of [shielding](/wiki/Shielding_effect \"Shielding effect\") by the inner electrons and the distance from the most loosely held electron from the nucleus, which is always an outer electron in [main group elements](/wiki/Main_group_element \"Main group element\"). The first two factors change the effective nuclear charge the most loosely held electron feels. Since the outermost electron of alkali metals always feels the same effective nuclear charge (\\+1\\), the only factor which affects the first ionisation energy is the distance from the outermost electron to the nucleus. Since this distance increases down the group, the outermost electron feels less attraction from the nucleus and thus the first ionisation energy decreases. This trend is broken in francium due to the [relativistic](/wiki/Relativistic_quantum_chemistry \"Relativistic quantum chemistry\") stabilisation and contraction of the 7s orbital, bringing francium's valence electron closer to the nucleus than would be expected from non\\-relativistic calculations. This makes francium's outermost electron feel more attraction from the nucleus, increasing its first ionisation energy slightly beyond that of caesium.\n\nThe second ionisation energy of the alkali metals is much higher than the first as the second\\-most loosely held electron is part of a fully filled [electron shell](/wiki/Electron_shell \"Electron shell\") and is thus difficult to remove.\n\n", "### Reactivity\n\nThe [reactivities](/wiki/Reactivity_%28chemistry%29 \"Reactivity (chemistry)\") of the alkali metals increase going down the group. This is the result of a combination of two factors: the first ionisation energies and [atomisation energies](/wiki/Atomisation_energy \"Atomisation energy\") of the alkali metals. Because the first ionisation energy of the alkali metals decreases down the group, it is easier for the outermost electron to be removed from the atom and participate in [chemical reactions](/wiki/Chemical_reaction \"Chemical reaction\"), thus increasing reactivity down the group. The atomisation energy measures the strength of the [metallic bond](/wiki/Metallic_bond \"Metallic bond\") of an element, which falls down the group as the atoms increase in [radius](/wiki/Atomic_radius \"Atomic radius\") and thus the metallic bond must increase in length, making the [delocalised electrons](/wiki/Delocalised_electrons \"Delocalised electrons\") further away from the attraction of the nuclei of the heavier alkali metals. Adding the atomisation and first ionisation energies gives a quantity closely related to (but not equal to) the [activation energy](/wiki/Activation_energy \"Activation energy\") of the reaction of an alkali metal with another substance. This quantity decreases going down the group, and so does the activation energy; thus, chemical reactions can occur faster and the reactivity increases down the group.\n\n", "### Electronegativity\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.25\\|Periodic variation of Pauling electronegativities as one descends the [main groups](/wiki/Main_group_element \"Main group element\") of the periodic table from the [second](/wiki/Period_2_element \"Period 2 element\") to the [sixth period](/wiki/Period_6_element \"Period 6 element\").](/wiki/File:Periodic_variation_of_Pauling_electronegativities.svg \"Periodic variation of Pauling electronegativities.svg\")\n\n[Electronegativity](/wiki/Electronegativity \"Electronegativity\") is a [chemical property](/wiki/Chemical_property \"Chemical property\") that describes the tendency of an [atom](/wiki/Atom \"Atom\") or a [functional group](/wiki/Functional_group \"Functional group\") to attract [electrons](/wiki/Electron \"Electron\") (or [electron density](/wiki/Electron_density \"Electron density\")) towards itself. If the bond between [sodium](/wiki/Sodium \"Sodium\") and [chlorine](/wiki/Chlorine \"Chlorine\") in [sodium chloride](/wiki/Sodium_chloride \"Sodium chloride\") were [covalent](/wiki/Covalent \"Covalent\"), the pair of shared electrons would be attracted to the chlorine because the effective nuclear charge on the outer electrons is \\+7 in chlorine but is only \\+1 in sodium. The electron pair is attracted so close to the chlorine atom that they are practically transferred to the chlorine atom (an [ionic bond](/wiki/Ionic_bond \"Ionic bond\")). However, if the sodium atom was replaced by a lithium atom, the electrons will not be attracted as close to the chlorine atom as before because the lithium atom is smaller, making the electron pair more strongly attracted to the closer effective nuclear charge from lithium. Hence, the larger alkali metal atoms (further down the group) will be less electronegative as the bonding pair is less strongly attracted towards them. As mentioned previously, francium is expected to be an exception.\n\nBecause of the higher electronegativity of lithium, some of its compounds have a more covalent character. For example, [lithium iodide](/wiki/Lithium_iodide \"Lithium iodide\") (LiI) will dissolve in [organic solvents](/wiki/Organic_solvent \"Organic solvent\"), a property of most covalent compounds. [Lithium fluoride](/wiki/Lithium_fluoride \"Lithium fluoride\") (LiF) is the only [alkali halide](/wiki/Alkali_halide \"Alkali halide\") that is not soluble in water, and [lithium hydroxide](/wiki/Lithium_hydroxide \"Lithium hydroxide\") (LiOH) is the only [alkali metal hydroxide](/wiki/Alkali_metal_hydroxide \"Alkali metal hydroxide\") that is not [deliquescent](/wiki/Deliquescent \"Deliquescent\").\n\n", "### Melting and boiling points\n\nThe [melting point](/wiki/Melting_point \"Melting point\") of a substance is the point where it changes [state](/wiki/State_of_matter \"State of matter\") from solid to liquid while the [boiling point](/wiki/Boiling_point \"Boiling point\") of a substance (in liquid state) is the point where the [vapour pressure](/wiki/Vapour_pressure \"Vapour pressure\") of the liquid equals the environmental pressure surrounding the liquid Section 17\\.43, page 321 and all the liquid changes state to gas. As a metal is heated to its melting point, the [metallic bonds](/wiki/Metallic_bond \"Metallic bond\") keeping the atoms in place weaken so that the atoms can move around, and the metallic bonds eventually break completely at the metal's boiling point. Therefore, the falling melting and boiling points of the alkali metals indicate that the strength of the metallic bonds of the alkali metals decreases down the group. This is because metal atoms are held together by the electromagnetic attraction from the positive ions to the delocalised electrons. As the atoms increase in size going down the group (because their atomic radius increases), the nuclei of the ions move further away from the delocalised electrons and hence the metallic bond becomes weaker so that the metal can more easily melt and boil, thus lowering the melting and boiling points. The increased nuclear charge is not a relevant factor due to the shielding effect.\n\n", "### Density\n\nThe alkali metals all have the same [crystal structure](/wiki/Crystal_structure \"Crystal structure\") ([body\\-centred cubic](/wiki/Body-centred_cubic \"Body-centred cubic\")) and thus the only relevant factors are the number of atoms that can fit into a certain volume and the mass of one of the atoms, since density is defined as mass per unit volume. The first factor depends on the volume of the atom and thus the atomic radius, which increases going down the group; thus, the volume of an alkali metal atom increases going down the group. The mass of an alkali metal atom also increases going down the group. Thus, the trend for the densities of the alkali metals depends on their atomic weights and atomic radii; if figures for these two factors are known, the ratios between the densities of the alkali metals can then be calculated. The resultant trend is that the densities of the alkali metals increase down the table, with an exception at potassium. Due to having the lowest atomic weight and the largest atomic radius of all the elements in their periods, the alkali metals are the least dense metals in the periodic table. Lithium, sodium, and potassium are the only three metals in the periodic table that are less dense than water: in fact, lithium is the least dense known solid at [room temperature](/wiki/Room_temperature \"Room temperature\").\n\n", "Compounds\n---------\n\nThe alkali metals form complete series of compounds with all usually encountered anions, which well illustrate group trends. These compounds can be described as involving the alkali metals losing electrons to acceptor species and forming monopositive ions. This description is most accurate for alkali halides and becomes less and less accurate as cationic and anionic charge increase, and as the anion becomes larger and more polarisable. For instance, [ionic bonding](/wiki/Ionic_bond \"Ionic bond\") gives way to [metallic bonding](/wiki/Metallic_bond \"Metallic bond\") along the series NaCl, Na2O, Na2S, Na3P, Na3As, Na3Sb, Na3Bi, Na.\n\n### [Hydroxides](/wiki/Hydroxides \"Hydroxides\")\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|alt\\=A large orange\\-yellow explosion\\|A reaction of 3 [pounds](/wiki/Pound_%28mass%29 \"Pound (mass)\") (≈ 1\\.4 kg) of sodium with water](/wiki/File:Large_Sodium_Explosion.jpg \"Large Sodium Explosion.jpg\")\nAll the alkali metals react vigorously or explosively with cold water, producing an [aqueous solution](/wiki/Aqueous_solution \"Aqueous solution\") of a strongly [basic](/wiki/Base_%28chemistry%29 \"Base (chemistry)\") alkali metal [hydroxide](/wiki/Hydroxide \"Hydroxide\") and releasing hydrogen gas. This reaction becomes more vigorous going down the group: lithium reacts steadily with [effervescence](/wiki/Effervescence \"Effervescence\"), but sodium and potassium can ignite, and rubidium and caesium sink in water and generate hydrogen gas so rapidly that shock waves form in the water that may shatter glass containers. When an alkali metal is dropped into water, it produces an explosion, of which there are two separate stages. The metal reacts with the water first, breaking the hydrogen bonds in the water and producing [hydrogen](/wiki/Hydrogen \"Hydrogen\") gas; this takes place faster for the more reactive heavier alkali metals. Second, the heat generated by the first part of the reaction often ignites the hydrogen gas, causing it to burn explosively into the surrounding air. This secondary hydrogen gas explosion produces the visible flame above the bowl of water, lake or other body of water, not the initial reaction of the metal with water (which tends to happen mostly under water). The alkali metal hydroxides are the most basic known hydroxides.\n\nRecent research has suggested that the explosive behavior of alkali metals in water is driven by a [Coulomb explosion](/wiki/Coulomb_explosion \"Coulomb explosion\") rather than solely by rapid generation of hydrogen itself. All alkali metals melt as a part of the reaction with water. Water molecules ionise the bare metallic surface of the liquid metal, leaving a positively charged metal surface and negatively charged water ions. The attraction between the charged metal and water ions will rapidly increase the surface area, causing an exponential increase of ionisation. When the repulsive forces within the liquid metal surface exceeds the forces of the surface tension, it vigorously explodes.\n\nThe hydroxides themselves are the most basic hydroxides known, reacting with acids to give salts and with alcohols to give [oligomeric](/wiki/Oligomer \"Oligomer\") [alkoxides](/wiki/Alkoxide \"Alkoxide\"). They easily react with [carbon dioxide](/wiki/Carbon_dioxide \"Carbon dioxide\") to form [carbonates](/wiki/Carbonate \"Carbonate\") or [bicarbonates](/wiki/Bicarbonate \"Bicarbonate\"), or with [hydrogen sulfide](/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide \"Hydrogen sulfide\") to form [sulfides](/wiki/Sulfide \"Sulfide\") or [bisulfides](/wiki/Bisulfide \"Bisulfide\"), and may be used to separate [thiols](/wiki/Thiol \"Thiol\") from petroleum. They react with amphoteric oxides: for example, the oxides of [aluminium](/wiki/Aluminium_oxide \"Aluminium oxide\"), [zinc](/wiki/Zinc_oxide \"Zinc oxide\"), [tin](/wiki/Tin%28IV%29_oxide \"Tin(IV) oxide\"), and [lead](/wiki/Lead_dioxide \"Lead dioxide\") react with the alkali metal hydroxides to give aluminates, zincates, stannates, and plumbates. [Silicon dioxide](/wiki/Silicon_dioxide \"Silicon dioxide\") is acidic, and thus the alkali metal hydroxides can also attack [silicate glass](/wiki/Silicate_glass \"Silicate glass\").\n\n### Intermetallic compounds\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|Liquid NaK alloy at room temperature](/wiki/File:NaK_alloy.jpg \"NaK alloy.jpg\")\nThe alkali metals form many [intermetallic compounds](/wiki/Intermetallic_compound \"Intermetallic compound\") with each other and the elements from groups [2](/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal \"Alkaline earth metal\") to [13](/wiki/Boron_group \"Boron group\") in the periodic table of varying stoichiometries, such as the [sodium amalgams](/wiki/Sodium_amalgam \"Sodium amalgam\") with [mercury](/wiki/Mercury_%28element%29 \"Mercury (element)\"), including Na5Hg8 and Na3Hg. Some of these have ionic characteristics: taking the alloys with gold, the most electronegative of metals, as an example, NaAu and KAu are metallic, but RbAu and [CsAu](/wiki/CsAu \"CsAu\") are semiconductors. [NaK](/wiki/NaK \"NaK\") is an alloy of sodium and potassium that is very useful because it is liquid at room temperature, although precautions must be taken due to its extreme reactivity towards water and air. The [eutectic mixture](/wiki/Eutectic_mixture \"Eutectic mixture\") melts at −12\\.6 °C. An alloy of 41% caesium, 47% sodium, and 12% potassium has the lowest known melting point of any metal or alloy, −78 °C.\n\n### Compounds with the group 13 elements\n\nThe intermetallic compounds of the alkali metals with the heavier group 13 elements (aluminium, [gallium](/wiki/Gallium \"Gallium\"), [indium](/wiki/Indium \"Indium\"), and [thallium](/wiki/Thallium \"Thallium\")), such as NaTl, are poor [conductors](/wiki/Electrical_conductor \"Electrical conductor\") or [semiconductors](/wiki/Semiconductor \"Semiconductor\"), unlike the normal alloys with the preceding elements, implying that the alkali metal involved has lost an electron to the [Zintl anions](/wiki/Zintl_phase \"Zintl phase\") involved. Nevertheless, while the elements in group 14 and beyond tend to form discrete anionic clusters, group 13 elements tend to form polymeric ions with the alkali metal cations located between the giant ionic lattice. For example, NaTl consists of a polymeric anion (—Tl−—)n with a covalent [diamond cubic](/wiki/Diamond_cubic \"Diamond cubic\") structure with Na\\+ ions located between the anionic lattice. The larger alkali metals cannot fit similarly into an anionic lattice and tend to force the heavier group 13 elements to form anionic clusters.S.M. Kauzlarich, Encyclopedia of Inorganic chemistry, 1994, John Wiley \\& Sons, \n\n[Boron](/wiki/Boron \"Boron\") is a special case, being the only nonmetal in group 13\\. The alkali metal [borides](/wiki/Boride \"Boride\") tend to be boron\\-rich, involving appreciable boron–boron bonding involving [deltahedral](/wiki/Deltahedron \"Deltahedron\") structures, and are thermally unstable due to the alkali metals having a very high [vapour pressure](/wiki/Vapour_pressure \"Vapour pressure\") at elevated temperatures. This makes direct synthesis problematic because the alkali metals do not react with boron below 700 °C, and thus this must be accomplished in sealed containers with the alkali metal in excess. Furthermore, exceptionally in this group, reactivity with boron decreases down the group: lithium reacts completely at 700 °C, but sodium at 900 °C and potassium not until 1200 °C, and the reaction is instantaneous for lithium but takes hours for potassium. Rubidium and caesium borides have not even been characterised. Various phases are known, such as LiB10, NaB6, NaB15, and KB6. Under high pressure the boron–boron bonding in the lithium borides changes from following [Wade's rules](/wiki/Wade%27s_rules \"Wade's rules\") to forming Zintl anions like the rest of group 13\\.\n\n### Compounds with the group 14 elements\n\nLithium and sodium react with [carbon](/wiki/Carbon \"Carbon\") to form [acetylides](/wiki/Acetylide \"Acetylide\"), Li2C2 and Na2C2, which can also be obtained by reaction of the metal with [acetylene](/wiki/Acetylene \"Acetylene\"). Potassium, rubidium, and caesium react with [graphite](/wiki/Graphite \"Graphite\"); their atoms are [intercalated](/wiki/Intercalation_%28chemistry%29 \"Intercalation (chemistry)\") between the hexagonal graphite layers, forming [graphite intercalation compounds](/wiki/Graphite_intercalation_compound \"Graphite intercalation compound\") of formulae MC60 (dark grey, almost black), MC48 (dark grey, almost black), MC36 (blue), MC24 (steel blue), and MC8 (bronze) (M \\= K, Rb, or Cs). These compounds are over 200 times more electrically conductive than pure graphite, suggesting that the valence electron of the alkali metal is transferred to the graphite layers (e.g. ). Upon heating of KC8, the elimination of potassium atoms results in the conversion in sequence to KC24, KC36, KC48 and finally KC60. KC8 is a very strong [reducing agent](/wiki/Reducing_agent \"Reducing agent\") and is pyrophoric and explodes on contact with water.[NIST Ionizing Radiation Division 2001 – Technical Highlights](https://web.archive.org/web/20141129035434/http://physics.nist.gov/TechAct.2001/Div846/div846h.html). physics.nist.gov While the larger alkali metals (K, Rb, and Cs) initially form MC8, the smaller ones initially form MC6, and indeed they require reaction of the metals with graphite at high temperatures around 500 °C to form. Apart from this, the alkali metals are such strong reducing agents that they can even reduce [buckminsterfullerene](/wiki/Buckminsterfullerene \"Buckminsterfullerene\") to produce solid [fullerides](/wiki/Fulleride \"Fulleride\") M*n*C60; sodium, potassium, rubidium, and caesium can form fullerides where *n* \\= 2, 3, 4, or 6, and rubidium and caesium additionally can achieve *n* \\= 1\\.\n\nWhen the alkali metals react with the heavier elements in the [carbon group](/wiki/Carbon_group \"Carbon group\") ([silicon](/wiki/Silicon \"Silicon\"), [germanium](/wiki/Germanium \"Germanium\"), [tin](/wiki/Tin \"Tin\"), and lead), ionic substances with cage\\-like structures are formed, such as the [silicides](/wiki/Silicide \"Silicide\") M4[Si](/wiki/Silicon \"Silicon\")4 (M \\= K, Rb, or Cs), which contains M\\+ and tetrahedral ions. The chemistry of alkali metal [germanides](/wiki/Germanide \"Germanide\"), involving the germanide ion [Ge](/wiki/Germanium \"Germanium\")4− and other cluster ([Zintl](/wiki/Zintl_ion \"Zintl ion\")) ions such as , , , and \\[(Ge9)2]6−, is largely analogous to that of the corresponding silicides. Alkali metal [stannides](/wiki/Stannide \"Stannide\") are mostly ionic, sometimes with the stannide ion ([Sn](/wiki/Tin \"Tin\")4−), and sometimes with more complex Zintl ions such as , which appears in tetrapotassium nonastannide (K4Sn9). The monatomic [plumbide](/wiki/Plumbide \"Plumbide\") ion ([Pb](/wiki/Lead \"Lead\")4−) is unknown, and indeed its formation is predicted to be energetically unfavourable; alkali metal plumbides have complex Zintl ions, such as . These alkali metal germanides, stannides, and plumbides may be produced by reducing germanium, tin, and lead with sodium metal in liquid ammonia.\n\n### Nitrides and pnictides\n\n[thumb\\|[Unit cell](/wiki/Unit_cell \"Unit cell\") [ball\\-and\\-stick model](/wiki/Ball-and-stick_model \"Ball-and-stick model\") of [lithium nitride](/wiki/Lithium_nitride \"Lithium nitride\"). On the basis of size a [tetrahedral](/wiki/Tetrahedral \"Tetrahedral\") structure would be expected, but that would be geometrically impossible: thus lithium nitride takes on this unique crystal structure.](/wiki/File:Lithium-nitride-xtal-CM-3D-polyhedra.png \"Lithium-nitride-xtal-CM-3D-polyhedra.png\")\nLithium, the lightest of the alkali metals, is the only alkali metal which reacts with [nitrogen](/wiki/Nitrogen \"Nitrogen\") at [standard conditions](/wiki/Standard_conditions \"Standard conditions\"), and its [nitride](/wiki/Nitride \"Nitride\") is the only stable alkali metal nitride. Nitrogen is an [unreactive](/wiki/Unreactive \"Unreactive\") gas because breaking the strong [triple bond](/wiki/Triple_bond \"Triple bond\") in the [dinitrogen](/wiki/Dinitrogen \"Dinitrogen\") molecule (N2) requires a lot of energy. The formation of an alkali metal nitride would consume the ionisation energy of the alkali metal (forming M\\+ ions), the energy required to break the triple bond in N2 and the formation of N3− ions, and all the energy released from the formation of an alkali metal nitride is from the [lattice energy](/wiki/Lattice_energy \"Lattice energy\") of the alkali metal nitride. The lattice energy is maximised with small, highly charged ions; the alkali metals do not form highly charged ions, only forming ions with a charge of \\+1, so only lithium, the smallest alkali metal, can release enough lattice energy to make the reaction with nitrogen [exothermic](/wiki/Exothermic \"Exothermic\"), forming [lithium nitride](/wiki/Lithium_nitride \"Lithium nitride\"). The reactions of the other alkali metals with nitrogen would not release enough lattice energy and would thus be [endothermic](/wiki/Endothermic \"Endothermic\"), so they do not form nitrides at standard conditions. [Sodium nitride](/wiki/Sodium_nitride \"Sodium nitride\") (Na3N) and [potassium nitride](/wiki/Potassium_nitride \"Potassium nitride\") (K3N), while existing, are extremely unstable, being prone to decomposing back into their constituent elements, and cannot be produced by reacting the elements with each other at standard conditions.. ['Elusive Binary Compound Prepared'](http://pubs.acs.org/cen/topstory/8020/8020notw9.html) *Chemical \\& Engineering News* **80** No. 20 (20 May 2002\\) Steric hindrance forbids the existence of rubidium or caesium nitride. However, sodium and potassium form colourless [azide](/wiki/Azide \"Azide\") salts involving the linear anion; due to the large size of the alkali metal cations, they are thermally stable enough to be able to melt before decomposing.\n\nAll the alkali metals react readily with [phosphorus](/wiki/Phosphorus \"Phosphorus\") and [arsenic](/wiki/Arsenic \"Arsenic\") to form [phosphides](/wiki/Phosphide \"Phosphide\") and [arsenides](/wiki/Arsenide \"Arsenide\") with the formula M3Pn (where M represents an alkali metal and Pn represents a [pnictogen](/wiki/Pnictogen \"Pnictogen\") – phosphorus, arsenic, [antimony](/wiki/Antimony \"Antimony\"), or [bismuth](/wiki/Bismuth \"Bismuth\")). This is due to the greater size of the P3− and As3− ions, so that less lattice energy needs to be released for the salts to form. These are not the only phosphides and arsenides of the alkali metals: for example, potassium has nine different known phosphides, with formulae K3P, K4P3, K5P4, KP, K4P6, K3P7, K3P11, KP10\\.3, and KP15.H.G. Von Schnering, W. Hönle *Phosphides – Solid\\-state Chemistry* Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry Ed. R. Bruce King (1994\\) John Wiley \\& Sons While most metals form arsenides, only the alkali and alkaline earth metals form mostly ionic arsenides. The structure of Na3As is complex with unusually short Na–Na distances of 328–330 pm which are shorter than in sodium metal, and this indicates that even with these electropositive metals the bonding cannot be straightforwardly ionic. Other alkali metal arsenides not conforming to the formula M3As are known, such as LiAs, which has a metallic lustre and electrical conductivity indicating the presence of some [metallic bonding](/wiki/Metallic_bond \"Metallic bond\"). The [antimonides](/wiki/Antimonide \"Antimonide\") are unstable and reactive as the Sb3− ion is a strong reducing agent; reaction of them with acids form the toxic and unstable gas [stibine](/wiki/Stibine \"Stibine\") (SbH3). Indeed, they have some metallic properties, and the alkali metal antimonides of stoichiometry MSb involve antimony atoms bonded in a spiral Zintl structure. [Bismuthides](/wiki/Bismuthide \"Bismuthide\") are not even wholly ionic; they are [intermetallic compounds](/wiki/Intermetallic_compound \"Intermetallic compound\") containing partially metallic and partially ionic bonds.\n\n### Oxides and chalcogenides\n\nAll the alkali metals react vigorously with [oxygen](/wiki/Oxygen \"Oxygen\") at standard conditions. They form various types of oxides, such as simple [oxides](/wiki/Oxide \"Oxide\") (containing the O2− ion), [peroxides](/wiki/Peroxide \"Peroxide\") (containing the ion, where there is a [single bond](/wiki/Single_bond \"Single bond\") between the two oxygen atoms), [superoxides](/wiki/Superoxide \"Superoxide\") (containing the ion), and many others. Lithium burns in air to form [lithium oxide](/wiki/Lithium_oxide \"Lithium oxide\"), but sodium reacts with oxygen to form a mixture of [sodium oxide](/wiki/Sodium_oxide \"Sodium oxide\") and [sodium peroxide](/wiki/Sodium_peroxide \"Sodium peroxide\"). Potassium forms a mixture of [potassium peroxide](/wiki/Potassium_peroxide \"Potassium peroxide\") and [potassium superoxide](/wiki/Potassium_superoxide \"Potassium superoxide\"), while rubidium and caesium form the superoxide exclusively. Their reactivity increases going down the group: while lithium, sodium and potassium merely burn in air, rubidium and caesium are [pyrophoric](/wiki/Pyrophoric \"Pyrophoric\") (spontaneously catch fire in air).\n\nThe smaller alkali metals tend to polarise the larger anions (the peroxide and superoxide) due to their small size. This attracts the electrons in the more complex anions towards one of its constituent oxygen atoms, forming an oxide ion and an oxygen atom. This causes lithium to form the oxide exclusively on reaction with oxygen at room temperature. This effect becomes drastically weaker for the larger sodium and potassium, allowing them to form the less stable peroxides. Rubidium and caesium, at the bottom of the group, are so large that even the least stable superoxides can form. Because the superoxide releases the most energy when formed, the superoxide is preferentially formed for the larger alkali metals where the more complex anions are not polarised. The oxides and peroxides for these alkali metals do exist, but do not form upon direct reaction of the metal with oxygen at standard conditions. In addition, the small size of the Li\\+ and O2− ions contributes to their forming a stable ionic lattice structure. Under controlled conditions, however, all the alkali metals, with the exception of francium, are known to form their oxides, peroxides, and superoxides. The alkali metal peroxides and superoxides are powerful [oxidising agents](/wiki/Oxidising_agent \"Oxidising agent\"). [Sodium peroxide](/wiki/Sodium_peroxide \"Sodium peroxide\") and [potassium superoxide](/wiki/Potassium_superoxide \"Potassium superoxide\") react with [carbon dioxide](/wiki/Carbon_dioxide \"Carbon dioxide\") to form the alkali metal carbonate and oxygen gas, which allows them to be used in [submarine](/wiki/Submarine \"Submarine\") air purifiers; the presence of [water vapour](/wiki/Water_vapour \"Water vapour\"), naturally present in breath, makes the removal of carbon dioxide by potassium superoxide even more efficient. All the stable alkali metals except lithium can form red [ozonides](/wiki/Ozonide \"Ozonide\") (MO3) through low\\-temperature reaction of the powdered anhydrous hydroxide with [ozone](/wiki/Ozone \"Ozone\"): the ozonides may be then extracted using liquid [ammonia](/wiki/Ammonia \"Ammonia\"). They slowly decompose at standard conditions to the superoxides and oxygen, and hydrolyse immediately to the hydroxides when in contact with water. Potassium, rubidium, and caesium also form sesquioxides M2O3, which may be better considered peroxide disuperoxides, .\n\nRubidium and caesium can form a great variety of suboxides with the metals in formal oxidation states below \\+1\\. Rubidium can form Rb6O and Rb9O2 (copper\\-coloured) upon oxidation in air, while caesium forms an immense variety of oxides, such as the ozonide CsO3 and several brightly coloured [suboxides](/wiki/Suboxide \"Suboxide\"), such as Cs7O (bronze), Cs4O (red\\-violet), Cs11O3 (violet), Cs3O (dark green), CsO, Cs3O2, as well as Cs7O2. The last of these may be heated under vacuum to generate Cs2O.\n\nThe alkali metals can also react analogously with the heavier chalcogens ([sulfur](/wiki/Sulfur \"Sulfur\"), [selenium](/wiki/Selenium \"Selenium\"), [tellurium](/wiki/Tellurium \"Tellurium\"), and [polonium](/wiki/Polonium \"Polonium\")), and all the alkali metal chalcogenides are known (with the exception of francium's). Reaction with an excess of the chalcogen can similarly result in lower chalcogenides, with chalcogen ions containing chains of the chalcogen atoms in question. For example, sodium can react with sulfur to form the [sulfide](/wiki/Sulfide \"Sulfide\") ([Na2S](/wiki/Sodium_sulfide \"Sodium sulfide\")) and various [polysulfides](/wiki/Polysulfide \"Polysulfide\") with the formula Na2S*x* (*x* from 2 to 6\\), containing the ions. Due to the basicity of the Se2− and Te2− ions, the alkali metal [selenides](/wiki/Selenide \"Selenide\") and [tellurides](/wiki/Tellurides \"Tellurides\") are alkaline in solution; when reacted directly with selenium and tellurium, alkali metal polyselenides and polytellurides are formed along with the selenides and tellurides with the and ions. They may be obtained directly from the elements in liquid ammonia or when air is not present, and are colourless, water\\-soluble compounds that air oxidises quickly back to selenium or tellurium. The alkali metal [polonides](/wiki/Polonide \"Polonide\") are all ionic compounds containing the Po2− ion; they are very chemically stable and can be produced by direct reaction of the elements at around 300–400 °C.\n\n### Halides, hydrides, and pseudohalides\n\nThe alkali metals are among the most [electropositive](/wiki/Electropositive \"Electropositive\") elements on the periodic table and thus tend to [bond ionically](/wiki/Ionic_bond \"Ionic bond\") to the most [electronegative](/wiki/Electronegative \"Electronegative\") elements on the periodic table, the [halogens](/wiki/Halogen \"Halogen\") ([fluorine](/wiki/Fluorine \"Fluorine\"), [chlorine](/wiki/Chlorine \"Chlorine\"), [bromine](/wiki/Bromine \"Bromine\"), [iodine](/wiki/Iodine \"Iodine\"), and [astatine](/wiki/Astatine \"Astatine\")), forming [salts](/wiki/Salts \"Salts\") known as the alkali metal halides. The reaction is very vigorous and can sometimes result in explosions. All twenty stable alkali metal halides are known; the unstable ones are not known, with the exception of sodium astatide, because of the great instability and rarity of astatine and francium. The most well\\-known of the twenty is certainly [sodium chloride](/wiki/Sodium_chloride \"Sodium chloride\"), otherwise known as common salt. All of the stable alkali metal halides have the formula MX where M is an alkali metal and X is a halogen. They are all white ionic crystalline solids that have high melting points. All the alkali metal halides are [soluble](/wiki/Soluble \"Soluble\") in water except for [lithium fluoride](/wiki/Lithium_fluoride \"Lithium fluoride\") (LiF), which is insoluble in water due to its very high [lattice enthalpy](/wiki/Lattice_enthalpy \"Lattice enthalpy\"). The high lattice enthalpy of lithium fluoride is due to the small sizes of the Li\\+ and F− ions, causing the [electrostatic interactions](/wiki/Electrostatic_interaction \"Electrostatic interaction\") between them to be strong: a similar effect occurs for [magnesium fluoride](/wiki/Magnesium_fluoride \"Magnesium fluoride\"), consistent with the diagonal relationship between lithium and magnesium.\n\nThe alkali metals also react similarly with hydrogen to form ionic alkali metal hydrides, where the [hydride](/wiki/Hydride \"Hydride\") anion acts as a [pseudohalide](/wiki/Pseudohalogen \"Pseudohalogen\"): these are often used as reducing agents, producing hydrides, complex metal hydrides, or hydrogen gas. Other pseudohalides are also known, notably the [cyanides](/wiki/Cyanide \"Cyanide\"). These are isostructural to the respective halides except for [lithium cyanide](/wiki/Lithium_cyanide \"Lithium cyanide\"), indicating that the cyanide ions may rotate freely. Ternary alkali metal halide oxides, such as Na3ClO, K3BrO (yellow), Na4Br2O, Na4I2O, and K4Br2O, are also known. The polyhalides are rather unstable, although those of rubidium and caesium are greatly stabilised by the feeble polarising power of these extremely large cations.\n\n### Coordination complexes\n\nAlkali metal cations do not usually form [coordination complexes](/wiki/Coordination_complex \"Coordination complex\") with simple [Lewis bases](/wiki/Lewis_base \"Lewis base\") due to their low charge of just \\+1 and their relatively large size; thus the Li\\+ ion forms most complexes and the heavier alkali metal ions form less and less (though exceptions occur for weak complexes). Lithium in particular has a very rich coordination chemistry in which it exhibits [coordination numbers](/wiki/Coordination_number \"Coordination number\") from 1 to 12, although octahedral hexacoordination is its preferred mode. In [aqueous solution](/wiki/Aqueous_solution \"Aqueous solution\"), the alkali metal ions exist as octahedral hexahydrate complexes \\[M(H2O)6]\\+, with the exception of the lithium ion, which due to its small size forms tetrahedral tetrahydrate complexes \\[Li(H2O)4]\\+; the alkali metals form these complexes because their ions are attracted by electrostatic forces of attraction to the polar water molecules. Because of this, [anhydrous](/wiki/Anhydrous \"Anhydrous\") salts containing alkali metal cations are often used as [desiccants](/wiki/Desiccant \"Desiccant\"). Alkali metals also readily form complexes with [crown ethers](/wiki/Crown_ether \"Crown ether\") (e.g. [12\\-crown\\-4](/wiki/12-crown-4 \"12-crown-4\") for Li\\+, [15\\-crown\\-5](/wiki/15-crown-5 \"15-crown-5\") for Na\\+, [18\\-crown\\-6](/wiki/18-crown-6 \"18-crown-6\") for K\\+, and [21\\-crown\\-7](/wiki/21-crown-7 \"21-crown-7\") for Rb\\+) and [cryptands](/wiki/Cryptand \"Cryptand\") due to electrostatic attraction.\n\n### Ammonia solutions\n\nThe alkali metals dissolve slowly in liquid [ammonia](/wiki/Ammonia \"Ammonia\"), forming ammoniacal solutions of solvated metal cation M\\+ and [solvated electron](/wiki/Solvated_electron \"Solvated electron\") e−, which react to form hydrogen gas and the [alkali metal amide](/wiki/Metal_amide%23Alkali_metal_amides \"Metal amide#Alkali metal amides\") (MNH2, where M represents an alkali metal): this was first noted by [Humphry Davy](/wiki/Humphry_Davy \"Humphry Davy\") in 1809 and rediscovered by W. Weyl in 1864\\. The process may be speeded up by a [catalyst](/wiki/Catalyst \"Catalyst\"). Similar solutions are formed by the heavy divalent [alkaline earth metals](/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal \"Alkaline earth metal\") [calcium](/wiki/Calcium \"Calcium\"), [strontium](/wiki/Strontium \"Strontium\"), [barium](/wiki/Barium \"Barium\"), as well as the divalent [lanthanides](/wiki/Lanthanide \"Lanthanide\"), [europium](/wiki/Europium \"Europium\") and [ytterbium](/wiki/Ytterbium \"Ytterbium\"). The amide salt is quite insoluble and readily precipitates out of solution, leaving intensely coloured ammonia solutions of the alkali metals. In 1907, [Charles A. Kraus](/wiki/Charles_A._Kraus \"Charles A. Kraus\") identified the colour as being due to the presence of [solvated electrons](/wiki/Solvated_electron \"Solvated electron\"), which contribute to the high electrical conductivity of these solutions. At low concentrations (below 3 M), the solution is dark blue and has ten times the conductivity of aqueous [sodium chloride](/wiki/Sodium_chloride \"Sodium chloride\"); at higher concentrations (above 3 M), the solution is copper\\-coloured and has approximately the conductivity of liquid metals like [mercury](/wiki/Mercury_%28element%29 \"Mercury (element)\"). In addition to the alkali metal amide salt and solvated electrons, such ammonia solutions also contain the alkali metal cation (M\\+), the neutral alkali metal atom (M), [diatomic](/wiki/Diatomic \"Diatomic\") alkali metal molecules (M2) and alkali metal anions (M−). These are unstable and eventually become the more thermodynamically stable alkali metal amide and hydrogen gas. Solvated electrons are powerful [reducing agents](/wiki/Reducing_agent \"Reducing agent\") and are often used in chemical synthesis.\n\n### Organometallic\n\n#### Organolithium\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.15\\|Structure of the octahedral [*n*\\-butyllithium](/wiki/N-butyllithium \"N-butyllithium\") hexamer, (C4H9Li)6. The aggregates are held together by delocalised covalent bonds between lithium and the terminal carbon of the butyl chain.Elschenbroich, C. \"Organometallics\" (2006\\) Wiley\\-VCH: Weinheim. . There is no direct lithium–lithium bonding in any organolithium compound.](/wiki/File:Butyllithium-hexamer-from-xtal-3D-balls-A.png \"Butyllithium-hexamer-from-xtal-3D-balls-A.png\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.15\\|Solid [phenyllithium](/wiki/Phenyllithium \"Phenyllithium\") forms monoclinic crystals that can be described as consisting of dimeric Li2([C6H5](/wiki/Phenyl_group \"Phenyl group\"))2 subunits. The lithium atoms and the *[ipso](/wiki/Arene_substitution_pattern \"Arene substitution pattern\")* carbons of the phenyl rings form a planar four\\-membered ring. The plane of the phenyl groups is perpendicular to the plane of this Li2C2 ring. Additional strong intermolecular bonding occurs between these phenyllithium dimers and the π electrons of the phenyl groups in the adjacent dimers, resulting in an infinite polymeric ladder structure.](/wiki/File:Phenyllithium-chain-from-xtal-Mercury-3D-balls.png \"Phenyllithium-chain-from-xtal-Mercury-3D-balls.png\")\n\nBeing the smallest alkali metal, lithium forms the widest variety of and most stable [organometallic compounds](/wiki/Organometallic_compound \"Organometallic compound\"), which are bonded covalently. [Organolithium](/wiki/Organolithium \"Organolithium\") compounds are electrically non\\-conducting volatile solids or liquids that melt at low temperatures, and tend to form [oligomers](/wiki/Oligomer \"Oligomer\") with the structure (RLi)*x* where R is the organic group. As the electropositive nature of lithium puts most of the [charge density](/wiki/Charge_density \"Charge density\") of the bond on the carbon atom, effectively creating a [carbanion](/wiki/Carbanion \"Carbanion\"), organolithium compounds are extremely powerful [bases](/wiki/Base_%28chemistry%29 \"Base (chemistry)\") and [nucleophiles](/wiki/Carbon_nucleophile \"Carbon nucleophile\"). For use as bases, [butyllithiums](/wiki/Butyllithium \"Butyllithium\") are often used and are commercially available. An example of an organolithium compound is [methyllithium](/wiki/Methyllithium \"Methyllithium\") ((CH3Li)*x*), which exists in tetrameric (*x* \\= 4, tetrahedral) and hexameric (*x* \\= 6, octahedral) forms. Organolithium compounds, especially *n*\\-butyllithium, are useful reagents in organic synthesis, as might be expected given lithium's diagonal relationship with magnesium, which plays an important role in the [Grignard reaction](/wiki/Grignard_reaction \"Grignard reaction\"). For example, alkyllithiums and aryllithiums may be used to synthesise [aldehydes](/wiki/Aldehyde \"Aldehyde\") and [ketones](/wiki/Ketone \"Ketone\") by reaction with metal [carbonyls](/wiki/Carbonyl \"Carbonyl\"). The reaction with [nickel tetracarbonyl](/wiki/Nickel_tetracarbonyl \"Nickel tetracarbonyl\"), for example, proceeds through an unstable acyl nickel carbonyl complex which then undergoes [electrophilic substitution](/wiki/Electrophilic_substitution \"Electrophilic substitution\") to give the desired aldehyde (using H\\+ as the electrophile) or ketone (using an alkyl halide) product.\n\nLiR \\\\ \\+ \\\\ Ni(CO)4 \\\\ \\\\longrightarrow Li^{\\+}\\[RCONi(CO)3]^{\\-}\nLi^{\\+}\\[RCONi(CO)3]^{\\-}\\-\\>\\[\\\\ce{H^{\\+]\\[\\\\ce{solvent}] \\\\ Li^{\\+} \\\\ \\+ \\\\ RCHO \\\\ \\+ \\\\ \\[(solvent)Ni(CO)3]\nLi^{\\+}\\[RCONi(CO)3]^{\\-}\\-\\>\\[\\\\ce{R^{'}Br}]\\[\\\\ce{solvent}] \\\\ Li^{\\+} \\\\ \\+ \\\\ RR^{'}CO \\\\ \\+ \\\\ \\[(solvent)Ni(CO)3]\nAlkyllithiums and aryllithiums may also react with *N*,*N*\\-disubstituted [amides](/wiki/Amide \"Amide\") to give aldehydes and ketones, and symmetrical ketones by reacting with [carbon monoxide](/wiki/Carbon_monoxide \"Carbon monoxide\"). They thermally decompose to eliminate a β\\-hydrogen, producing [alkenes](/wiki/Alkene \"Alkene\") and [lithium hydride](/wiki/Lithium_hydride \"Lithium hydride\"): another route is the reaction of [ethers](/wiki/Ether \"Ether\") with alkyl\\- and aryllithiums that act as strong bases. In non\\-polar solvents, aryllithiums react as the carbanions they effectively are, turning carbon dioxide to aromatic [carboxylic acids](/wiki/Carboxylic_acid \"Carboxylic acid\") (ArCO2H) and aryl ketones to tertiary carbinols (Ar'2C(Ar)OH). Finally, they may be used to synthesise other organometallic compounds through metal\\-halogen exchange.\n\n#### Heavier alkali metals\n\nUnlike the organolithium compounds, the organometallic compounds of the heavier alkali metals are predominantly ionic. The application of [organosodium](/wiki/Organosodium \"Organosodium\") compounds in chemistry is limited in part due to competition from [organolithium compounds](/wiki/Organolithium_compound \"Organolithium compound\"), which are commercially available and exhibit more convenient reactivity. The principal organosodium compound of commercial importance is [sodium cyclopentadienide](/wiki/Sodium_cyclopentadienide \"Sodium cyclopentadienide\"). [Sodium tetraphenylborate](/wiki/Sodium_tetraphenylborate \"Sodium tetraphenylborate\") can also be classified as an organosodium compound since in the solid state sodium is bound to the aryl groups. Organometallic compounds of the higher alkali metals are even more reactive than organosodium compounds and of limited utility. A notable reagent is [Schlosser's base](/wiki/Schlosser%27s_base \"Schlosser's base\"), a mixture of [*n*\\-butyllithium](/wiki/N-Butyllithium \"N-Butyllithium\") and [potassium *tert*\\-butoxide](/wiki/Potassium_tert-butoxide \"Potassium tert-butoxide\"). This reagent reacts with [propene](/wiki/Propene \"Propene\") to form the compound [allylpotassium](/wiki/Allylpotassium \"Allylpotassium\") (KCH2CHCH2). [*cis*\\-2\\-Butene](/wiki/Cis-2-butene \"Cis-2-butene\") and [*trans*\\-2\\-butene](/wiki/Trans-2-butene \"Trans-2-butene\") equilibrate when in contact with alkali metals. Whereas [isomerisation](/wiki/Isomerisation \"Isomerisation\") is fast with lithium and sodium, it is slow with the heavier alkali metals. The heavier alkali metals also favour the [sterically](/wiki/Steric_hindrance \"Steric hindrance\") congested conformation. Several crystal structures of organopotassium compounds have been reported, establishing that they, like the sodium compounds, are polymeric. Organosodium, organopotassium, organorubidium and organocaesium compounds are all mostly ionic and are insoluble (or nearly so) in nonpolar solvents.\n\nAlkyl and aryl derivatives of sodium and potassium tend to react with air. They cause the cleavage of [ethers](/wiki/Ether \"Ether\"), generating alkoxides. Unlike alkyllithium compounds, alkylsodiums and alkylpotassiums cannot be made by reacting the metals with alkyl halides because [Wurtz coupling](/wiki/Wurtz_coupling \"Wurtz coupling\") occurs:\nRM \\+ R'X → R–R' \\+ MX\n\nAs such, they have to be made by reacting [alkylmercury](/wiki/Organomercury_compound \"Organomercury compound\") compounds with sodium or potassium metal in inert hydrocarbon solvents. While methylsodium forms tetramers like methyllithium, methylpotassium is more ionic and has the [nickel arsenide](/wiki/Nickel_arsenide \"Nickel arsenide\") structure with discrete methyl anions and potassium cations.\n\nThe alkali metals and their hydrides react with acidic hydrocarbons, for example [cyclopentadienes](/wiki/Cyclopentadiene \"Cyclopentadiene\") and terminal alkynes, to give salts. Liquid ammonia, ether, or hydrocarbon solvents are used, the most common of which being [tetrahydrofuran](/wiki/Tetrahydrofuran \"Tetrahydrofuran\"). The most important of these compounds is [sodium cyclopentadienide](/wiki/Sodium_cyclopentadienide \"Sodium cyclopentadienide\"), NaC5H5, an important precursor to many transition metal cyclopentadienyl derivatives. Similarly, the alkali metals react with [cyclooctatetraene](/wiki/Cyclooctatetraene \"Cyclooctatetraene\") in tetrahydrofuran to give alkali metal [cyclooctatetraenides](/wiki/Cyclooctatetraenide \"Cyclooctatetraenide\"); for example, [dipotassium cyclooctatetraenide](/wiki/Dipotassium_cyclooctatetraenide \"Dipotassium cyclooctatetraenide\") (K2C8H8) is an important precursor to many metal cyclooctatetraenyl derivatives, such as [uranocene](/wiki/Uranocene \"Uranocene\"). The large and very weakly polarising alkali metal cations can stabilise large, aromatic, polarisable radical anions, such as the dark\\-green [sodium naphthalenide](/wiki/Sodium_naphthalenide \"Sodium naphthalenide\"), Na\\+\\[C10H8•]−, a strong reducing agent.\n\n", "### [Hydroxides](/wiki/Hydroxides \"Hydroxides\")\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|alt\\=A large orange\\-yellow explosion\\|A reaction of 3 [pounds](/wiki/Pound_%28mass%29 \"Pound (mass)\") (≈ 1\\.4 kg) of sodium with water](/wiki/File:Large_Sodium_Explosion.jpg \"Large Sodium Explosion.jpg\")\nAll the alkali metals react vigorously or explosively with cold water, producing an [aqueous solution](/wiki/Aqueous_solution \"Aqueous solution\") of a strongly [basic](/wiki/Base_%28chemistry%29 \"Base (chemistry)\") alkali metal [hydroxide](/wiki/Hydroxide \"Hydroxide\") and releasing hydrogen gas. This reaction becomes more vigorous going down the group: lithium reacts steadily with [effervescence](/wiki/Effervescence \"Effervescence\"), but sodium and potassium can ignite, and rubidium and caesium sink in water and generate hydrogen gas so rapidly that shock waves form in the water that may shatter glass containers. When an alkali metal is dropped into water, it produces an explosion, of which there are two separate stages. The metal reacts with the water first, breaking the hydrogen bonds in the water and producing [hydrogen](/wiki/Hydrogen \"Hydrogen\") gas; this takes place faster for the more reactive heavier alkali metals. Second, the heat generated by the first part of the reaction often ignites the hydrogen gas, causing it to burn explosively into the surrounding air. This secondary hydrogen gas explosion produces the visible flame above the bowl of water, lake or other body of water, not the initial reaction of the metal with water (which tends to happen mostly under water). The alkali metal hydroxides are the most basic known hydroxides.\n\nRecent research has suggested that the explosive behavior of alkali metals in water is driven by a [Coulomb explosion](/wiki/Coulomb_explosion \"Coulomb explosion\") rather than solely by rapid generation of hydrogen itself. All alkali metals melt as a part of the reaction with water. Water molecules ionise the bare metallic surface of the liquid metal, leaving a positively charged metal surface and negatively charged water ions. The attraction between the charged metal and water ions will rapidly increase the surface area, causing an exponential increase of ionisation. When the repulsive forces within the liquid metal surface exceeds the forces of the surface tension, it vigorously explodes.\n\nThe hydroxides themselves are the most basic hydroxides known, reacting with acids to give salts and with alcohols to give [oligomeric](/wiki/Oligomer \"Oligomer\") [alkoxides](/wiki/Alkoxide \"Alkoxide\"). They easily react with [carbon dioxide](/wiki/Carbon_dioxide \"Carbon dioxide\") to form [carbonates](/wiki/Carbonate \"Carbonate\") or [bicarbonates](/wiki/Bicarbonate \"Bicarbonate\"), or with [hydrogen sulfide](/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide \"Hydrogen sulfide\") to form [sulfides](/wiki/Sulfide \"Sulfide\") or [bisulfides](/wiki/Bisulfide \"Bisulfide\"), and may be used to separate [thiols](/wiki/Thiol \"Thiol\") from petroleum. They react with amphoteric oxides: for example, the oxides of [aluminium](/wiki/Aluminium_oxide \"Aluminium oxide\"), [zinc](/wiki/Zinc_oxide \"Zinc oxide\"), [tin](/wiki/Tin%28IV%29_oxide \"Tin(IV) oxide\"), and [lead](/wiki/Lead_dioxide \"Lead dioxide\") react with the alkali metal hydroxides to give aluminates, zincates, stannates, and plumbates. [Silicon dioxide](/wiki/Silicon_dioxide \"Silicon dioxide\") is acidic, and thus the alkali metal hydroxides can also attack [silicate glass](/wiki/Silicate_glass \"Silicate glass\").\n\n", "### Intermetallic compounds\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|Liquid NaK alloy at room temperature](/wiki/File:NaK_alloy.jpg \"NaK alloy.jpg\")\nThe alkali metals form many [intermetallic compounds](/wiki/Intermetallic_compound \"Intermetallic compound\") with each other and the elements from groups [2](/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal \"Alkaline earth metal\") to [13](/wiki/Boron_group \"Boron group\") in the periodic table of varying stoichiometries, such as the [sodium amalgams](/wiki/Sodium_amalgam \"Sodium amalgam\") with [mercury](/wiki/Mercury_%28element%29 \"Mercury (element)\"), including Na5Hg8 and Na3Hg. Some of these have ionic characteristics: taking the alloys with gold, the most electronegative of metals, as an example, NaAu and KAu are metallic, but RbAu and [CsAu](/wiki/CsAu \"CsAu\") are semiconductors. [NaK](/wiki/NaK \"NaK\") is an alloy of sodium and potassium that is very useful because it is liquid at room temperature, although precautions must be taken due to its extreme reactivity towards water and air. The [eutectic mixture](/wiki/Eutectic_mixture \"Eutectic mixture\") melts at −12\\.6 °C. An alloy of 41% caesium, 47% sodium, and 12% potassium has the lowest known melting point of any metal or alloy, −78 °C.\n\n", "### Compounds with the group 13 elements\n\nThe intermetallic compounds of the alkali metals with the heavier group 13 elements (aluminium, [gallium](/wiki/Gallium \"Gallium\"), [indium](/wiki/Indium \"Indium\"), and [thallium](/wiki/Thallium \"Thallium\")), such as NaTl, are poor [conductors](/wiki/Electrical_conductor \"Electrical conductor\") or [semiconductors](/wiki/Semiconductor \"Semiconductor\"), unlike the normal alloys with the preceding elements, implying that the alkali metal involved has lost an electron to the [Zintl anions](/wiki/Zintl_phase \"Zintl phase\") involved. Nevertheless, while the elements in group 14 and beyond tend to form discrete anionic clusters, group 13 elements tend to form polymeric ions with the alkali metal cations located between the giant ionic lattice. For example, NaTl consists of a polymeric anion (—Tl−—)n with a covalent [diamond cubic](/wiki/Diamond_cubic \"Diamond cubic\") structure with Na\\+ ions located between the anionic lattice. The larger alkali metals cannot fit similarly into an anionic lattice and tend to force the heavier group 13 elements to form anionic clusters.S.M. Kauzlarich, Encyclopedia of Inorganic chemistry, 1994, John Wiley \\& Sons, \n\n[Boron](/wiki/Boron \"Boron\") is a special case, being the only nonmetal in group 13\\. The alkali metal [borides](/wiki/Boride \"Boride\") tend to be boron\\-rich, involving appreciable boron–boron bonding involving [deltahedral](/wiki/Deltahedron \"Deltahedron\") structures, and are thermally unstable due to the alkali metals having a very high [vapour pressure](/wiki/Vapour_pressure \"Vapour pressure\") at elevated temperatures. This makes direct synthesis problematic because the alkali metals do not react with boron below 700 °C, and thus this must be accomplished in sealed containers with the alkali metal in excess. Furthermore, exceptionally in this group, reactivity with boron decreases down the group: lithium reacts completely at 700 °C, but sodium at 900 °C and potassium not until 1200 °C, and the reaction is instantaneous for lithium but takes hours for potassium. Rubidium and caesium borides have not even been characterised. Various phases are known, such as LiB10, NaB6, NaB15, and KB6. Under high pressure the boron–boron bonding in the lithium borides changes from following [Wade's rules](/wiki/Wade%27s_rules \"Wade's rules\") to forming Zintl anions like the rest of group 13\\.\n\n", "### Compounds with the group 14 elements\n\nLithium and sodium react with [carbon](/wiki/Carbon \"Carbon\") to form [acetylides](/wiki/Acetylide \"Acetylide\"), Li2C2 and Na2C2, which can also be obtained by reaction of the metal with [acetylene](/wiki/Acetylene \"Acetylene\"). Potassium, rubidium, and caesium react with [graphite](/wiki/Graphite \"Graphite\"); their atoms are [intercalated](/wiki/Intercalation_%28chemistry%29 \"Intercalation (chemistry)\") between the hexagonal graphite layers, forming [graphite intercalation compounds](/wiki/Graphite_intercalation_compound \"Graphite intercalation compound\") of formulae MC60 (dark grey, almost black), MC48 (dark grey, almost black), MC36 (blue), MC24 (steel blue), and MC8 (bronze) (M \\= K, Rb, or Cs). These compounds are over 200 times more electrically conductive than pure graphite, suggesting that the valence electron of the alkali metal is transferred to the graphite layers (e.g. ). Upon heating of KC8, the elimination of potassium atoms results in the conversion in sequence to KC24, KC36, KC48 and finally KC60. KC8 is a very strong [reducing agent](/wiki/Reducing_agent \"Reducing agent\") and is pyrophoric and explodes on contact with water.[NIST Ionizing Radiation Division 2001 – Technical Highlights](https://web.archive.org/web/20141129035434/http://physics.nist.gov/TechAct.2001/Div846/div846h.html). physics.nist.gov While the larger alkali metals (K, Rb, and Cs) initially form MC8, the smaller ones initially form MC6, and indeed they require reaction of the metals with graphite at high temperatures around 500 °C to form. Apart from this, the alkali metals are such strong reducing agents that they can even reduce [buckminsterfullerene](/wiki/Buckminsterfullerene \"Buckminsterfullerene\") to produce solid [fullerides](/wiki/Fulleride \"Fulleride\") M*n*C60; sodium, potassium, rubidium, and caesium can form fullerides where *n* \\= 2, 3, 4, or 6, and rubidium and caesium additionally can achieve *n* \\= 1\\.\n\nWhen the alkali metals react with the heavier elements in the [carbon group](/wiki/Carbon_group \"Carbon group\") ([silicon](/wiki/Silicon \"Silicon\"), [germanium](/wiki/Germanium \"Germanium\"), [tin](/wiki/Tin \"Tin\"), and lead), ionic substances with cage\\-like structures are formed, such as the [silicides](/wiki/Silicide \"Silicide\") M4[Si](/wiki/Silicon \"Silicon\")4 (M \\= K, Rb, or Cs), which contains M\\+ and tetrahedral ions. The chemistry of alkali metal [germanides](/wiki/Germanide \"Germanide\"), involving the germanide ion [Ge](/wiki/Germanium \"Germanium\")4− and other cluster ([Zintl](/wiki/Zintl_ion \"Zintl ion\")) ions such as , , , and \\[(Ge9)2]6−, is largely analogous to that of the corresponding silicides. Alkali metal [stannides](/wiki/Stannide \"Stannide\") are mostly ionic, sometimes with the stannide ion ([Sn](/wiki/Tin \"Tin\")4−), and sometimes with more complex Zintl ions such as , which appears in tetrapotassium nonastannide (K4Sn9). The monatomic [plumbide](/wiki/Plumbide \"Plumbide\") ion ([Pb](/wiki/Lead \"Lead\")4−) is unknown, and indeed its formation is predicted to be energetically unfavourable; alkali metal plumbides have complex Zintl ions, such as . These alkali metal germanides, stannides, and plumbides may be produced by reducing germanium, tin, and lead with sodium metal in liquid ammonia.\n\n", "### Nitrides and pnictides\n\n[thumb\\|[Unit cell](/wiki/Unit_cell \"Unit cell\") [ball\\-and\\-stick model](/wiki/Ball-and-stick_model \"Ball-and-stick model\") of [lithium nitride](/wiki/Lithium_nitride \"Lithium nitride\"). On the basis of size a [tetrahedral](/wiki/Tetrahedral \"Tetrahedral\") structure would be expected, but that would be geometrically impossible: thus lithium nitride takes on this unique crystal structure.](/wiki/File:Lithium-nitride-xtal-CM-3D-polyhedra.png \"Lithium-nitride-xtal-CM-3D-polyhedra.png\")\nLithium, the lightest of the alkali metals, is the only alkali metal which reacts with [nitrogen](/wiki/Nitrogen \"Nitrogen\") at [standard conditions](/wiki/Standard_conditions \"Standard conditions\"), and its [nitride](/wiki/Nitride \"Nitride\") is the only stable alkali metal nitride. Nitrogen is an [unreactive](/wiki/Unreactive \"Unreactive\") gas because breaking the strong [triple bond](/wiki/Triple_bond \"Triple bond\") in the [dinitrogen](/wiki/Dinitrogen \"Dinitrogen\") molecule (N2) requires a lot of energy. The formation of an alkali metal nitride would consume the ionisation energy of the alkali metal (forming M\\+ ions), the energy required to break the triple bond in N2 and the formation of N3− ions, and all the energy released from the formation of an alkali metal nitride is from the [lattice energy](/wiki/Lattice_energy \"Lattice energy\") of the alkali metal nitride. The lattice energy is maximised with small, highly charged ions; the alkali metals do not form highly charged ions, only forming ions with a charge of \\+1, so only lithium, the smallest alkali metal, can release enough lattice energy to make the reaction with nitrogen [exothermic](/wiki/Exothermic \"Exothermic\"), forming [lithium nitride](/wiki/Lithium_nitride \"Lithium nitride\"). The reactions of the other alkali metals with nitrogen would not release enough lattice energy and would thus be [endothermic](/wiki/Endothermic \"Endothermic\"), so they do not form nitrides at standard conditions. [Sodium nitride](/wiki/Sodium_nitride \"Sodium nitride\") (Na3N) and [potassium nitride](/wiki/Potassium_nitride \"Potassium nitride\") (K3N), while existing, are extremely unstable, being prone to decomposing back into their constituent elements, and cannot be produced by reacting the elements with each other at standard conditions.. ['Elusive Binary Compound Prepared'](http://pubs.acs.org/cen/topstory/8020/8020notw9.html) *Chemical \\& Engineering News* **80** No. 20 (20 May 2002\\) Steric hindrance forbids the existence of rubidium or caesium nitride. However, sodium and potassium form colourless [azide](/wiki/Azide \"Azide\") salts involving the linear anion; due to the large size of the alkali metal cations, they are thermally stable enough to be able to melt before decomposing.\n\nAll the alkali metals react readily with [phosphorus](/wiki/Phosphorus \"Phosphorus\") and [arsenic](/wiki/Arsenic \"Arsenic\") to form [phosphides](/wiki/Phosphide \"Phosphide\") and [arsenides](/wiki/Arsenide \"Arsenide\") with the formula M3Pn (where M represents an alkali metal and Pn represents a [pnictogen](/wiki/Pnictogen \"Pnictogen\") – phosphorus, arsenic, [antimony](/wiki/Antimony \"Antimony\"), or [bismuth](/wiki/Bismuth \"Bismuth\")). This is due to the greater size of the P3− and As3− ions, so that less lattice energy needs to be released for the salts to form. These are not the only phosphides and arsenides of the alkali metals: for example, potassium has nine different known phosphides, with formulae K3P, K4P3, K5P4, KP, K4P6, K3P7, K3P11, KP10\\.3, and KP15.H.G. Von Schnering, W. Hönle *Phosphides – Solid\\-state Chemistry* Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry Ed. R. Bruce King (1994\\) John Wiley \\& Sons While most metals form arsenides, only the alkali and alkaline earth metals form mostly ionic arsenides. The structure of Na3As is complex with unusually short Na–Na distances of 328–330 pm which are shorter than in sodium metal, and this indicates that even with these electropositive metals the bonding cannot be straightforwardly ionic. Other alkali metal arsenides not conforming to the formula M3As are known, such as LiAs, which has a metallic lustre and electrical conductivity indicating the presence of some [metallic bonding](/wiki/Metallic_bond \"Metallic bond\"). The [antimonides](/wiki/Antimonide \"Antimonide\") are unstable and reactive as the Sb3− ion is a strong reducing agent; reaction of them with acids form the toxic and unstable gas [stibine](/wiki/Stibine \"Stibine\") (SbH3). Indeed, they have some metallic properties, and the alkali metal antimonides of stoichiometry MSb involve antimony atoms bonded in a spiral Zintl structure. [Bismuthides](/wiki/Bismuthide \"Bismuthide\") are not even wholly ionic; they are [intermetallic compounds](/wiki/Intermetallic_compound \"Intermetallic compound\") containing partially metallic and partially ionic bonds.\n\n", "### Oxides and chalcogenides\n\nAll the alkali metals react vigorously with [oxygen](/wiki/Oxygen \"Oxygen\") at standard conditions. They form various types of oxides, such as simple [oxides](/wiki/Oxide \"Oxide\") (containing the O2− ion), [peroxides](/wiki/Peroxide \"Peroxide\") (containing the ion, where there is a [single bond](/wiki/Single_bond \"Single bond\") between the two oxygen atoms), [superoxides](/wiki/Superoxide \"Superoxide\") (containing the ion), and many others. Lithium burns in air to form [lithium oxide](/wiki/Lithium_oxide \"Lithium oxide\"), but sodium reacts with oxygen to form a mixture of [sodium oxide](/wiki/Sodium_oxide \"Sodium oxide\") and [sodium peroxide](/wiki/Sodium_peroxide \"Sodium peroxide\"). Potassium forms a mixture of [potassium peroxide](/wiki/Potassium_peroxide \"Potassium peroxide\") and [potassium superoxide](/wiki/Potassium_superoxide \"Potassium superoxide\"), while rubidium and caesium form the superoxide exclusively. Their reactivity increases going down the group: while lithium, sodium and potassium merely burn in air, rubidium and caesium are [pyrophoric](/wiki/Pyrophoric \"Pyrophoric\") (spontaneously catch fire in air).\n\nThe smaller alkali metals tend to polarise the larger anions (the peroxide and superoxide) due to their small size. This attracts the electrons in the more complex anions towards one of its constituent oxygen atoms, forming an oxide ion and an oxygen atom. This causes lithium to form the oxide exclusively on reaction with oxygen at room temperature. This effect becomes drastically weaker for the larger sodium and potassium, allowing them to form the less stable peroxides. Rubidium and caesium, at the bottom of the group, are so large that even the least stable superoxides can form. Because the superoxide releases the most energy when formed, the superoxide is preferentially formed for the larger alkali metals where the more complex anions are not polarised. The oxides and peroxides for these alkali metals do exist, but do not form upon direct reaction of the metal with oxygen at standard conditions. In addition, the small size of the Li\\+ and O2− ions contributes to their forming a stable ionic lattice structure. Under controlled conditions, however, all the alkali metals, with the exception of francium, are known to form their oxides, peroxides, and superoxides. The alkali metal peroxides and superoxides are powerful [oxidising agents](/wiki/Oxidising_agent \"Oxidising agent\"). [Sodium peroxide](/wiki/Sodium_peroxide \"Sodium peroxide\") and [potassium superoxide](/wiki/Potassium_superoxide \"Potassium superoxide\") react with [carbon dioxide](/wiki/Carbon_dioxide \"Carbon dioxide\") to form the alkali metal carbonate and oxygen gas, which allows them to be used in [submarine](/wiki/Submarine \"Submarine\") air purifiers; the presence of [water vapour](/wiki/Water_vapour \"Water vapour\"), naturally present in breath, makes the removal of carbon dioxide by potassium superoxide even more efficient. All the stable alkali metals except lithium can form red [ozonides](/wiki/Ozonide \"Ozonide\") (MO3) through low\\-temperature reaction of the powdered anhydrous hydroxide with [ozone](/wiki/Ozone \"Ozone\"): the ozonides may be then extracted using liquid [ammonia](/wiki/Ammonia \"Ammonia\"). They slowly decompose at standard conditions to the superoxides and oxygen, and hydrolyse immediately to the hydroxides when in contact with water. Potassium, rubidium, and caesium also form sesquioxides M2O3, which may be better considered peroxide disuperoxides, .\n\nRubidium and caesium can form a great variety of suboxides with the metals in formal oxidation states below \\+1\\. Rubidium can form Rb6O and Rb9O2 (copper\\-coloured) upon oxidation in air, while caesium forms an immense variety of oxides, such as the ozonide CsO3 and several brightly coloured [suboxides](/wiki/Suboxide \"Suboxide\"), such as Cs7O (bronze), Cs4O (red\\-violet), Cs11O3 (violet), Cs3O (dark green), CsO, Cs3O2, as well as Cs7O2. The last of these may be heated under vacuum to generate Cs2O.\n\nThe alkali metals can also react analogously with the heavier chalcogens ([sulfur](/wiki/Sulfur \"Sulfur\"), [selenium](/wiki/Selenium \"Selenium\"), [tellurium](/wiki/Tellurium \"Tellurium\"), and [polonium](/wiki/Polonium \"Polonium\")), and all the alkali metal chalcogenides are known (with the exception of francium's). Reaction with an excess of the chalcogen can similarly result in lower chalcogenides, with chalcogen ions containing chains of the chalcogen atoms in question. For example, sodium can react with sulfur to form the [sulfide](/wiki/Sulfide \"Sulfide\") ([Na2S](/wiki/Sodium_sulfide \"Sodium sulfide\")) and various [polysulfides](/wiki/Polysulfide \"Polysulfide\") with the formula Na2S*x* (*x* from 2 to 6\\), containing the ions. Due to the basicity of the Se2− and Te2− ions, the alkali metal [selenides](/wiki/Selenide \"Selenide\") and [tellurides](/wiki/Tellurides \"Tellurides\") are alkaline in solution; when reacted directly with selenium and tellurium, alkali metal polyselenides and polytellurides are formed along with the selenides and tellurides with the and ions. They may be obtained directly from the elements in liquid ammonia or when air is not present, and are colourless, water\\-soluble compounds that air oxidises quickly back to selenium or tellurium. The alkali metal [polonides](/wiki/Polonide \"Polonide\") are all ionic compounds containing the Po2− ion; they are very chemically stable and can be produced by direct reaction of the elements at around 300–400 °C.\n\n", "### Halides, hydrides, and pseudohalides\n\nThe alkali metals are among the most [electropositive](/wiki/Electropositive \"Electropositive\") elements on the periodic table and thus tend to [bond ionically](/wiki/Ionic_bond \"Ionic bond\") to the most [electronegative](/wiki/Electronegative \"Electronegative\") elements on the periodic table, the [halogens](/wiki/Halogen \"Halogen\") ([fluorine](/wiki/Fluorine \"Fluorine\"), [chlorine](/wiki/Chlorine \"Chlorine\"), [bromine](/wiki/Bromine \"Bromine\"), [iodine](/wiki/Iodine \"Iodine\"), and [astatine](/wiki/Astatine \"Astatine\")), forming [salts](/wiki/Salts \"Salts\") known as the alkali metal halides. The reaction is very vigorous and can sometimes result in explosions. All twenty stable alkali metal halides are known; the unstable ones are not known, with the exception of sodium astatide, because of the great instability and rarity of astatine and francium. The most well\\-known of the twenty is certainly [sodium chloride](/wiki/Sodium_chloride \"Sodium chloride\"), otherwise known as common salt. All of the stable alkali metal halides have the formula MX where M is an alkali metal and X is a halogen. They are all white ionic crystalline solids that have high melting points. All the alkali metal halides are [soluble](/wiki/Soluble \"Soluble\") in water except for [lithium fluoride](/wiki/Lithium_fluoride \"Lithium fluoride\") (LiF), which is insoluble in water due to its very high [lattice enthalpy](/wiki/Lattice_enthalpy \"Lattice enthalpy\"). The high lattice enthalpy of lithium fluoride is due to the small sizes of the Li\\+ and F− ions, causing the [electrostatic interactions](/wiki/Electrostatic_interaction \"Electrostatic interaction\") between them to be strong: a similar effect occurs for [magnesium fluoride](/wiki/Magnesium_fluoride \"Magnesium fluoride\"), consistent with the diagonal relationship between lithium and magnesium.\n\nThe alkali metals also react similarly with hydrogen to form ionic alkali metal hydrides, where the [hydride](/wiki/Hydride \"Hydride\") anion acts as a [pseudohalide](/wiki/Pseudohalogen \"Pseudohalogen\"): these are often used as reducing agents, producing hydrides, complex metal hydrides, or hydrogen gas. Other pseudohalides are also known, notably the [cyanides](/wiki/Cyanide \"Cyanide\"). These are isostructural to the respective halides except for [lithium cyanide](/wiki/Lithium_cyanide \"Lithium cyanide\"), indicating that the cyanide ions may rotate freely. Ternary alkali metal halide oxides, such as Na3ClO, K3BrO (yellow), Na4Br2O, Na4I2O, and K4Br2O, are also known. The polyhalides are rather unstable, although those of rubidium and caesium are greatly stabilised by the feeble polarising power of these extremely large cations.\n\n", "### Coordination complexes\n\nAlkali metal cations do not usually form [coordination complexes](/wiki/Coordination_complex \"Coordination complex\") with simple [Lewis bases](/wiki/Lewis_base \"Lewis base\") due to their low charge of just \\+1 and their relatively large size; thus the Li\\+ ion forms most complexes and the heavier alkali metal ions form less and less (though exceptions occur for weak complexes). Lithium in particular has a very rich coordination chemistry in which it exhibits [coordination numbers](/wiki/Coordination_number \"Coordination number\") from 1 to 12, although octahedral hexacoordination is its preferred mode. In [aqueous solution](/wiki/Aqueous_solution \"Aqueous solution\"), the alkali metal ions exist as octahedral hexahydrate complexes \\[M(H2O)6]\\+, with the exception of the lithium ion, which due to its small size forms tetrahedral tetrahydrate complexes \\[Li(H2O)4]\\+; the alkali metals form these complexes because their ions are attracted by electrostatic forces of attraction to the polar water molecules. Because of this, [anhydrous](/wiki/Anhydrous \"Anhydrous\") salts containing alkali metal cations are often used as [desiccants](/wiki/Desiccant \"Desiccant\"). Alkali metals also readily form complexes with [crown ethers](/wiki/Crown_ether \"Crown ether\") (e.g. [12\\-crown\\-4](/wiki/12-crown-4 \"12-crown-4\") for Li\\+, [15\\-crown\\-5](/wiki/15-crown-5 \"15-crown-5\") for Na\\+, [18\\-crown\\-6](/wiki/18-crown-6 \"18-crown-6\") for K\\+, and [21\\-crown\\-7](/wiki/21-crown-7 \"21-crown-7\") for Rb\\+) and [cryptands](/wiki/Cryptand \"Cryptand\") due to electrostatic attraction.\n\n", "### Ammonia solutions\n\nThe alkali metals dissolve slowly in liquid [ammonia](/wiki/Ammonia \"Ammonia\"), forming ammoniacal solutions of solvated metal cation M\\+ and [solvated electron](/wiki/Solvated_electron \"Solvated electron\") e−, which react to form hydrogen gas and the [alkali metal amide](/wiki/Metal_amide%23Alkali_metal_amides \"Metal amide#Alkali metal amides\") (MNH2, where M represents an alkali metal): this was first noted by [Humphry Davy](/wiki/Humphry_Davy \"Humphry Davy\") in 1809 and rediscovered by W. Weyl in 1864\\. The process may be speeded up by a [catalyst](/wiki/Catalyst \"Catalyst\"). Similar solutions are formed by the heavy divalent [alkaline earth metals](/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal \"Alkaline earth metal\") [calcium](/wiki/Calcium \"Calcium\"), [strontium](/wiki/Strontium \"Strontium\"), [barium](/wiki/Barium \"Barium\"), as well as the divalent [lanthanides](/wiki/Lanthanide \"Lanthanide\"), [europium](/wiki/Europium \"Europium\") and [ytterbium](/wiki/Ytterbium \"Ytterbium\"). The amide salt is quite insoluble and readily precipitates out of solution, leaving intensely coloured ammonia solutions of the alkali metals. In 1907, [Charles A. Kraus](/wiki/Charles_A._Kraus \"Charles A. Kraus\") identified the colour as being due to the presence of [solvated electrons](/wiki/Solvated_electron \"Solvated electron\"), which contribute to the high electrical conductivity of these solutions. At low concentrations (below 3 M), the solution is dark blue and has ten times the conductivity of aqueous [sodium chloride](/wiki/Sodium_chloride \"Sodium chloride\"); at higher concentrations (above 3 M), the solution is copper\\-coloured and has approximately the conductivity of liquid metals like [mercury](/wiki/Mercury_%28element%29 \"Mercury (element)\"). In addition to the alkali metal amide salt and solvated electrons, such ammonia solutions also contain the alkali metal cation (M\\+), the neutral alkali metal atom (M), [diatomic](/wiki/Diatomic \"Diatomic\") alkali metal molecules (M2) and alkali metal anions (M−). These are unstable and eventually become the more thermodynamically stable alkali metal amide and hydrogen gas. Solvated electrons are powerful [reducing agents](/wiki/Reducing_agent \"Reducing agent\") and are often used in chemical synthesis.\n\n", "### Organometallic\n\n#### Organolithium\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.15\\|Structure of the octahedral [*n*\\-butyllithium](/wiki/N-butyllithium \"N-butyllithium\") hexamer, (C4H9Li)6. The aggregates are held together by delocalised covalent bonds between lithium and the terminal carbon of the butyl chain.Elschenbroich, C. \"Organometallics\" (2006\\) Wiley\\-VCH: Weinheim. . There is no direct lithium–lithium bonding in any organolithium compound.](/wiki/File:Butyllithium-hexamer-from-xtal-3D-balls-A.png \"Butyllithium-hexamer-from-xtal-3D-balls-A.png\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.15\\|Solid [phenyllithium](/wiki/Phenyllithium \"Phenyllithium\") forms monoclinic crystals that can be described as consisting of dimeric Li2([C6H5](/wiki/Phenyl_group \"Phenyl group\"))2 subunits. The lithium atoms and the *[ipso](/wiki/Arene_substitution_pattern \"Arene substitution pattern\")* carbons of the phenyl rings form a planar four\\-membered ring. The plane of the phenyl groups is perpendicular to the plane of this Li2C2 ring. Additional strong intermolecular bonding occurs between these phenyllithium dimers and the π electrons of the phenyl groups in the adjacent dimers, resulting in an infinite polymeric ladder structure.](/wiki/File:Phenyllithium-chain-from-xtal-Mercury-3D-balls.png \"Phenyllithium-chain-from-xtal-Mercury-3D-balls.png\")\n\nBeing the smallest alkali metal, lithium forms the widest variety of and most stable [organometallic compounds](/wiki/Organometallic_compound \"Organometallic compound\"), which are bonded covalently. [Organolithium](/wiki/Organolithium \"Organolithium\") compounds are electrically non\\-conducting volatile solids or liquids that melt at low temperatures, and tend to form [oligomers](/wiki/Oligomer \"Oligomer\") with the structure (RLi)*x* where R is the organic group. As the electropositive nature of lithium puts most of the [charge density](/wiki/Charge_density \"Charge density\") of the bond on the carbon atom, effectively creating a [carbanion](/wiki/Carbanion \"Carbanion\"), organolithium compounds are extremely powerful [bases](/wiki/Base_%28chemistry%29 \"Base (chemistry)\") and [nucleophiles](/wiki/Carbon_nucleophile \"Carbon nucleophile\"). For use as bases, [butyllithiums](/wiki/Butyllithium \"Butyllithium\") are often used and are commercially available. An example of an organolithium compound is [methyllithium](/wiki/Methyllithium \"Methyllithium\") ((CH3Li)*x*), which exists in tetrameric (*x* \\= 4, tetrahedral) and hexameric (*x* \\= 6, octahedral) forms. Organolithium compounds, especially *n*\\-butyllithium, are useful reagents in organic synthesis, as might be expected given lithium's diagonal relationship with magnesium, which plays an important role in the [Grignard reaction](/wiki/Grignard_reaction \"Grignard reaction\"). For example, alkyllithiums and aryllithiums may be used to synthesise [aldehydes](/wiki/Aldehyde \"Aldehyde\") and [ketones](/wiki/Ketone \"Ketone\") by reaction with metal [carbonyls](/wiki/Carbonyl \"Carbonyl\"). The reaction with [nickel tetracarbonyl](/wiki/Nickel_tetracarbonyl \"Nickel tetracarbonyl\"), for example, proceeds through an unstable acyl nickel carbonyl complex which then undergoes [electrophilic substitution](/wiki/Electrophilic_substitution \"Electrophilic substitution\") to give the desired aldehyde (using H\\+ as the electrophile) or ketone (using an alkyl halide) product.\n\nLiR \\\\ \\+ \\\\ Ni(CO)4 \\\\ \\\\longrightarrow Li^{\\+}\\[RCONi(CO)3]^{\\-}\nLi^{\\+}\\[RCONi(CO)3]^{\\-}\\-\\>\\[\\\\ce{H^{\\+]\\[\\\\ce{solvent}] \\\\ Li^{\\+} \\\\ \\+ \\\\ RCHO \\\\ \\+ \\\\ \\[(solvent)Ni(CO)3]\nLi^{\\+}\\[RCONi(CO)3]^{\\-}\\-\\>\\[\\\\ce{R^{'}Br}]\\[\\\\ce{solvent}] \\\\ Li^{\\+} \\\\ \\+ \\\\ RR^{'}CO \\\\ \\+ \\\\ \\[(solvent)Ni(CO)3]\nAlkyllithiums and aryllithiums may also react with *N*,*N*\\-disubstituted [amides](/wiki/Amide \"Amide\") to give aldehydes and ketones, and symmetrical ketones by reacting with [carbon monoxide](/wiki/Carbon_monoxide \"Carbon monoxide\"). They thermally decompose to eliminate a β\\-hydrogen, producing [alkenes](/wiki/Alkene \"Alkene\") and [lithium hydride](/wiki/Lithium_hydride \"Lithium hydride\"): another route is the reaction of [ethers](/wiki/Ether \"Ether\") with alkyl\\- and aryllithiums that act as strong bases. In non\\-polar solvents, aryllithiums react as the carbanions they effectively are, turning carbon dioxide to aromatic [carboxylic acids](/wiki/Carboxylic_acid \"Carboxylic acid\") (ArCO2H) and aryl ketones to tertiary carbinols (Ar'2C(Ar)OH). Finally, they may be used to synthesise other organometallic compounds through metal\\-halogen exchange.\n\n#### Heavier alkali metals\n\nUnlike the organolithium compounds, the organometallic compounds of the heavier alkali metals are predominantly ionic. The application of [organosodium](/wiki/Organosodium \"Organosodium\") compounds in chemistry is limited in part due to competition from [organolithium compounds](/wiki/Organolithium_compound \"Organolithium compound\"), which are commercially available and exhibit more convenient reactivity. The principal organosodium compound of commercial importance is [sodium cyclopentadienide](/wiki/Sodium_cyclopentadienide \"Sodium cyclopentadienide\"). [Sodium tetraphenylborate](/wiki/Sodium_tetraphenylborate \"Sodium tetraphenylborate\") can also be classified as an organosodium compound since in the solid state sodium is bound to the aryl groups. Organometallic compounds of the higher alkali metals are even more reactive than organosodium compounds and of limited utility. A notable reagent is [Schlosser's base](/wiki/Schlosser%27s_base \"Schlosser's base\"), a mixture of [*n*\\-butyllithium](/wiki/N-Butyllithium \"N-Butyllithium\") and [potassium *tert*\\-butoxide](/wiki/Potassium_tert-butoxide \"Potassium tert-butoxide\"). This reagent reacts with [propene](/wiki/Propene \"Propene\") to form the compound [allylpotassium](/wiki/Allylpotassium \"Allylpotassium\") (KCH2CHCH2). [*cis*\\-2\\-Butene](/wiki/Cis-2-butene \"Cis-2-butene\") and [*trans*\\-2\\-butene](/wiki/Trans-2-butene \"Trans-2-butene\") equilibrate when in contact with alkali metals. Whereas [isomerisation](/wiki/Isomerisation \"Isomerisation\") is fast with lithium and sodium, it is slow with the heavier alkali metals. The heavier alkali metals also favour the [sterically](/wiki/Steric_hindrance \"Steric hindrance\") congested conformation. Several crystal structures of organopotassium compounds have been reported, establishing that they, like the sodium compounds, are polymeric. Organosodium, organopotassium, organorubidium and organocaesium compounds are all mostly ionic and are insoluble (or nearly so) in nonpolar solvents.\n\nAlkyl and aryl derivatives of sodium and potassium tend to react with air. They cause the cleavage of [ethers](/wiki/Ether \"Ether\"), generating alkoxides. Unlike alkyllithium compounds, alkylsodiums and alkylpotassiums cannot be made by reacting the metals with alkyl halides because [Wurtz coupling](/wiki/Wurtz_coupling \"Wurtz coupling\") occurs:\nRM \\+ R'X → R–R' \\+ MX\n\nAs such, they have to be made by reacting [alkylmercury](/wiki/Organomercury_compound \"Organomercury compound\") compounds with sodium or potassium metal in inert hydrocarbon solvents. While methylsodium forms tetramers like methyllithium, methylpotassium is more ionic and has the [nickel arsenide](/wiki/Nickel_arsenide \"Nickel arsenide\") structure with discrete methyl anions and potassium cations.\n\nThe alkali metals and their hydrides react with acidic hydrocarbons, for example [cyclopentadienes](/wiki/Cyclopentadiene \"Cyclopentadiene\") and terminal alkynes, to give salts. Liquid ammonia, ether, or hydrocarbon solvents are used, the most common of which being [tetrahydrofuran](/wiki/Tetrahydrofuran \"Tetrahydrofuran\"). The most important of these compounds is [sodium cyclopentadienide](/wiki/Sodium_cyclopentadienide \"Sodium cyclopentadienide\"), NaC5H5, an important precursor to many transition metal cyclopentadienyl derivatives. Similarly, the alkali metals react with [cyclooctatetraene](/wiki/Cyclooctatetraene \"Cyclooctatetraene\") in tetrahydrofuran to give alkali metal [cyclooctatetraenides](/wiki/Cyclooctatetraenide \"Cyclooctatetraenide\"); for example, [dipotassium cyclooctatetraenide](/wiki/Dipotassium_cyclooctatetraenide \"Dipotassium cyclooctatetraenide\") (K2C8H8) is an important precursor to many metal cyclooctatetraenyl derivatives, such as [uranocene](/wiki/Uranocene \"Uranocene\"). The large and very weakly polarising alkali metal cations can stabilise large, aromatic, polarisable radical anions, such as the dark\\-green [sodium naphthalenide](/wiki/Sodium_naphthalenide \"Sodium naphthalenide\"), Na\\+\\[C10H8•]−, a strong reducing agent.\n\n", "#### Organolithium\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.15\\|Structure of the octahedral [*n*\\-butyllithium](/wiki/N-butyllithium \"N-butyllithium\") hexamer, (C4H9Li)6. The aggregates are held together by delocalised covalent bonds between lithium and the terminal carbon of the butyl chain.Elschenbroich, C. \"Organometallics\" (2006\\) Wiley\\-VCH: Weinheim. . There is no direct lithium–lithium bonding in any organolithium compound.](/wiki/File:Butyllithium-hexamer-from-xtal-3D-balls-A.png \"Butyllithium-hexamer-from-xtal-3D-balls-A.png\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.15\\|Solid [phenyllithium](/wiki/Phenyllithium \"Phenyllithium\") forms monoclinic crystals that can be described as consisting of dimeric Li2([C6H5](/wiki/Phenyl_group \"Phenyl group\"))2 subunits. The lithium atoms and the *[ipso](/wiki/Arene_substitution_pattern \"Arene substitution pattern\")* carbons of the phenyl rings form a planar four\\-membered ring. The plane of the phenyl groups is perpendicular to the plane of this Li2C2 ring. Additional strong intermolecular bonding occurs between these phenyllithium dimers and the π electrons of the phenyl groups in the adjacent dimers, resulting in an infinite polymeric ladder structure.](/wiki/File:Phenyllithium-chain-from-xtal-Mercury-3D-balls.png \"Phenyllithium-chain-from-xtal-Mercury-3D-balls.png\")\n\nBeing the smallest alkali metal, lithium forms the widest variety of and most stable [organometallic compounds](/wiki/Organometallic_compound \"Organometallic compound\"), which are bonded covalently. [Organolithium](/wiki/Organolithium \"Organolithium\") compounds are electrically non\\-conducting volatile solids or liquids that melt at low temperatures, and tend to form [oligomers](/wiki/Oligomer \"Oligomer\") with the structure (RLi)*x* where R is the organic group. As the electropositive nature of lithium puts most of the [charge density](/wiki/Charge_density \"Charge density\") of the bond on the carbon atom, effectively creating a [carbanion](/wiki/Carbanion \"Carbanion\"), organolithium compounds are extremely powerful [bases](/wiki/Base_%28chemistry%29 \"Base (chemistry)\") and [nucleophiles](/wiki/Carbon_nucleophile \"Carbon nucleophile\"). For use as bases, [butyllithiums](/wiki/Butyllithium \"Butyllithium\") are often used and are commercially available. An example of an organolithium compound is [methyllithium](/wiki/Methyllithium \"Methyllithium\") ((CH3Li)*x*), which exists in tetrameric (*x* \\= 4, tetrahedral) and hexameric (*x* \\= 6, octahedral) forms. Organolithium compounds, especially *n*\\-butyllithium, are useful reagents in organic synthesis, as might be expected given lithium's diagonal relationship with magnesium, which plays an important role in the [Grignard reaction](/wiki/Grignard_reaction \"Grignard reaction\"). For example, alkyllithiums and aryllithiums may be used to synthesise [aldehydes](/wiki/Aldehyde \"Aldehyde\") and [ketones](/wiki/Ketone \"Ketone\") by reaction with metal [carbonyls](/wiki/Carbonyl \"Carbonyl\"). The reaction with [nickel tetracarbonyl](/wiki/Nickel_tetracarbonyl \"Nickel tetracarbonyl\"), for example, proceeds through an unstable acyl nickel carbonyl complex which then undergoes [electrophilic substitution](/wiki/Electrophilic_substitution \"Electrophilic substitution\") to give the desired aldehyde (using H\\+ as the electrophile) or ketone (using an alkyl halide) product.\n\nLiR \\\\ \\+ \\\\ Ni(CO)4 \\\\ \\\\longrightarrow Li^{\\+}\\[RCONi(CO)3]^{\\-}\nLi^{\\+}\\[RCONi(CO)3]^{\\-}\\-\\>\\[\\\\ce{H^{\\+]\\[\\\\ce{solvent}] \\\\ Li^{\\+} \\\\ \\+ \\\\ RCHO \\\\ \\+ \\\\ \\[(solvent)Ni(CO)3]\nLi^{\\+}\\[RCONi(CO)3]^{\\-}\\-\\>\\[\\\\ce{R^{'}Br}]\\[\\\\ce{solvent}] \\\\ Li^{\\+} \\\\ \\+ \\\\ RR^{'}CO \\\\ \\+ \\\\ \\[(solvent)Ni(CO)3]\nAlkyllithiums and aryllithiums may also react with *N*,*N*\\-disubstituted [amides](/wiki/Amide \"Amide\") to give aldehydes and ketones, and symmetrical ketones by reacting with [carbon monoxide](/wiki/Carbon_monoxide \"Carbon monoxide\"). They thermally decompose to eliminate a β\\-hydrogen, producing [alkenes](/wiki/Alkene \"Alkene\") and [lithium hydride](/wiki/Lithium_hydride \"Lithium hydride\"): another route is the reaction of [ethers](/wiki/Ether \"Ether\") with alkyl\\- and aryllithiums that act as strong bases. In non\\-polar solvents, aryllithiums react as the carbanions they effectively are, turning carbon dioxide to aromatic [carboxylic acids](/wiki/Carboxylic_acid \"Carboxylic acid\") (ArCO2H) and aryl ketones to tertiary carbinols (Ar'2C(Ar)OH). Finally, they may be used to synthesise other organometallic compounds through metal\\-halogen exchange.\n\n", "#### Heavier alkali metals\n\nUnlike the organolithium compounds, the organometallic compounds of the heavier alkali metals are predominantly ionic. The application of [organosodium](/wiki/Organosodium \"Organosodium\") compounds in chemistry is limited in part due to competition from [organolithium compounds](/wiki/Organolithium_compound \"Organolithium compound\"), which are commercially available and exhibit more convenient reactivity. The principal organosodium compound of commercial importance is [sodium cyclopentadienide](/wiki/Sodium_cyclopentadienide \"Sodium cyclopentadienide\"). [Sodium tetraphenylborate](/wiki/Sodium_tetraphenylborate \"Sodium tetraphenylborate\") can also be classified as an organosodium compound since in the solid state sodium is bound to the aryl groups. Organometallic compounds of the higher alkali metals are even more reactive than organosodium compounds and of limited utility. A notable reagent is [Schlosser's base](/wiki/Schlosser%27s_base \"Schlosser's base\"), a mixture of [*n*\\-butyllithium](/wiki/N-Butyllithium \"N-Butyllithium\") and [potassium *tert*\\-butoxide](/wiki/Potassium_tert-butoxide \"Potassium tert-butoxide\"). This reagent reacts with [propene](/wiki/Propene \"Propene\") to form the compound [allylpotassium](/wiki/Allylpotassium \"Allylpotassium\") (KCH2CHCH2). [*cis*\\-2\\-Butene](/wiki/Cis-2-butene \"Cis-2-butene\") and [*trans*\\-2\\-butene](/wiki/Trans-2-butene \"Trans-2-butene\") equilibrate when in contact with alkali metals. Whereas [isomerisation](/wiki/Isomerisation \"Isomerisation\") is fast with lithium and sodium, it is slow with the heavier alkali metals. The heavier alkali metals also favour the [sterically](/wiki/Steric_hindrance \"Steric hindrance\") congested conformation. Several crystal structures of organopotassium compounds have been reported, establishing that they, like the sodium compounds, are polymeric. Organosodium, organopotassium, organorubidium and organocaesium compounds are all mostly ionic and are insoluble (or nearly so) in nonpolar solvents.\n\nAlkyl and aryl derivatives of sodium and potassium tend to react with air. They cause the cleavage of [ethers](/wiki/Ether \"Ether\"), generating alkoxides. Unlike alkyllithium compounds, alkylsodiums and alkylpotassiums cannot be made by reacting the metals with alkyl halides because [Wurtz coupling](/wiki/Wurtz_coupling \"Wurtz coupling\") occurs:\nRM \\+ R'X → R–R' \\+ MX\n\nAs such, they have to be made by reacting [alkylmercury](/wiki/Organomercury_compound \"Organomercury compound\") compounds with sodium or potassium metal in inert hydrocarbon solvents. While methylsodium forms tetramers like methyllithium, methylpotassium is more ionic and has the [nickel arsenide](/wiki/Nickel_arsenide \"Nickel arsenide\") structure with discrete methyl anions and potassium cations.\n\nThe alkali metals and their hydrides react with acidic hydrocarbons, for example [cyclopentadienes](/wiki/Cyclopentadiene \"Cyclopentadiene\") and terminal alkynes, to give salts. Liquid ammonia, ether, or hydrocarbon solvents are used, the most common of which being [tetrahydrofuran](/wiki/Tetrahydrofuran \"Tetrahydrofuran\"). The most important of these compounds is [sodium cyclopentadienide](/wiki/Sodium_cyclopentadienide \"Sodium cyclopentadienide\"), NaC5H5, an important precursor to many transition metal cyclopentadienyl derivatives. Similarly, the alkali metals react with [cyclooctatetraene](/wiki/Cyclooctatetraene \"Cyclooctatetraene\") in tetrahydrofuran to give alkali metal [cyclooctatetraenides](/wiki/Cyclooctatetraenide \"Cyclooctatetraenide\"); for example, [dipotassium cyclooctatetraenide](/wiki/Dipotassium_cyclooctatetraenide \"Dipotassium cyclooctatetraenide\") (K2C8H8) is an important precursor to many metal cyclooctatetraenyl derivatives, such as [uranocene](/wiki/Uranocene \"Uranocene\"). The large and very weakly polarising alkali metal cations can stabilise large, aromatic, polarisable radical anions, such as the dark\\-green [sodium naphthalenide](/wiki/Sodium_naphthalenide \"Sodium naphthalenide\"), Na\\+\\[C10H8•]−, a strong reducing agent.\n\n", "Representative reactions of alkali metals\n-----------------------------------------\n\n### Reaction with oxygen\n\nUpon reacting with oxygen, alkali metals form [oxides](/wiki/Oxide \"Oxide\"), [peroxides](/wiki/Peroxide \"Peroxide\"), [superoxides](/wiki/Superoxide \"Superoxide\") and [suboxides](/wiki/Suboxide \"Suboxide\"). However, the first three are more common. The table below\"Inorganic Chemistry\" by Gary L. Miessler and Donald A. Tar, 6th edition, Pearson shows the types of compounds formed in reaction with oxygen. The compound in brackets represents the minor product of combustion.\n\n| **Alkali metal** | **Oxide** | **Peroxide** | **Superoxide** |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [Li](/wiki/Lithium \"Lithium\") | Li2O | (Li2O2) | |\n| [Na](/wiki/Sodium \"Sodium\") | (Na2O) | Na2O2 | |\n| [K](/wiki/Potassium \"Potassium\") | | | KO2 |\n| [Rb](/wiki/Rubidium \"Rubidium\") | | | RbO2 |\n| [Cs](/wiki/Caesium \"Caesium\") | | | CsO2 |\n\nThe alkali metal peroxides are ionic compounds that are unstable in water. The peroxide anion is weakly bound to the cation, and it is hydrolysed, forming stronger covalent bonds.\nNa2O2 \\+ 2H2O → 2NaOH \\+ H2O2\nThe other oxygen compounds are also unstable in water.\n2KO2 \\+ 2H2O → 2KOH \\+ H2O2 \\+ O2Kumar De, Anil (2007\\). A Text Book of Inorganic Chemistry. New Age International. p. 247\\. .\nLi2O \\+ H2O → 2LiOH\n\n### Reaction with sulfur\n\nWith sulfur, they form [sulfides](/wiki/Sulfide \"Sulfide\") and [polysulfides](/wiki/Polysulfide \"Polysulfide\").\"The chemistry of the Elements\" by Greenwood and Earnshaw, 2nd edition, Elsevier\n2Na \\+ 1/8S8 → Na2S \\+ 1/8S8 → Na2S2...Na2S7\nBecause alkali metal sulfides are essentially salts of a weak acid and a strong base, they form basic solutions.\nS2\\- \\+ H2O → HS− \\+ HO−\nHS− \\+ H2O → H2S \\+ HO−\n\n### Reaction with nitrogen\n\nLithium is the only metal that combines directly with nitrogen at room temperature.\n3Li \\+ 1/2N2 → Li3N\nLi3N can react with water to liberate ammonia.\nLi3N \\+ 3H2O → 3LiOH \\+ NH3\n\n### Reaction with hydrogen\n\nWith hydrogen, alkali metals form saline [hydrides](/wiki/Hydride \"Hydride\") that hydrolyse in water. \n2 Na \\\\ \\+ H2 \\\\ \\-\\>\\[\\\\ce{\\\\Delta}] \\\\ 2 NaH\n2 NaH \\\\ \\+ \\\\ 2 H2O \\\\ \\\\longrightarrow \\\\ 2 NaOH \\\\ \\+ \\\\ H2 \\\\uparrow\n\n### Reaction with carbon\n\nLithium is the only metal that reacts directly with carbon to give [dilithium acetylide](/wiki/Dilithium_acetylide \"Dilithium acetylide\"). Na and K can react with [acetylene](/wiki/Acetylene \"Acetylene\") to give [acetylides](/wiki/Acetylide \"Acetylide\").\"Inorganic Chemistry\" by Cotton and Wilkinson\n2 Li \\\\ \\+ \\\\ 2 C \\\\ \\\\longrightarrow \\\\ Li2C2\n2 Na \\\\ \\+ \\\\ 2 C2H2 \\\\ \\-\\>\\[\\\\ce{150 \\\\ ^{o}C}] \\\\ 2 NaC2H \\\\ \\+ \\\\ H2\n\n2 Na \\\\ \\+ \\\\ 2 NaC2H \\\\ \\-\\>\\[\\\\ce{220 \\\\ ^{o}C}] \\\\ 2 Na2C2 \\\\ \\+ \\\\ H2\n\n### Reaction with water\n\nOn reaction with water, they generate [hydroxide](/wiki/Hydroxide \"Hydroxide\") ions and [hydrogen](/wiki/Hydrogen \"Hydrogen\") gas. This reaction is vigorous and highly exothermic and the hydrogen resulted may ignite in air or even explode in the case of Rb and Cs.\nNa \\+ H2O → NaOH \\+ 1/2H2\n\n### Reaction with other salts\n\nThe alkali metals are very good reducing agents. They can reduce metal cations that are less electropositive. [Titanium](/wiki/Titanium \"Titanium\") is produced industrially by the reduction of [titanium tetrachloride](/wiki/Titanium_tetrachloride \"Titanium tetrachloride\") with Na at 400 °C ([van Arkel–de Boer process](/wiki/Van_Arkel%E2%80%93de_Boer_process \"Van Arkel–de Boer process\")).\nTiCl4 \\+ 4Na → 4NaCl \\+ Ti\n\n### Reaction with organohalide compounds\n\nAlkali metals react with halogen derivatives to generate hydrocarbon via the [Wurtz reaction](/wiki/Wurtz_reaction \"Wurtz reaction\").\n2CH3\\-Cl \\+ 2Na → H3C\\-CH3 \\+ 2NaCl\n\n### Alkali metals in liquid ammonia\n\nAlkali metals dissolve in liquid [ammonia](/wiki/Ammonia \"Ammonia\") or other donor solvents like aliphatic [amines](/wiki/Amine \"Amine\") or [hexamethylphosphoramide](/wiki/Hexamethylphosphoramide \"Hexamethylphosphoramide\") to give blue solutions. These solutions are believed to contain free electrons.\nNa \\+ xNH3 → Na\\+ \\+ e(NH3)x−\nDue to the presence of [solvated electrons](/wiki/Solvated_electron \"Solvated electron\"), these solutions are very powerful reducing agents used in organic synthesis.\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.25\\|centre\\|Reduction reactions using sodium in liquid ammonia](/wiki/File:Na_in_lie._am.jpg \"Na in lie. am.jpg\")\n\nReaction 1\\) is known as [Birch reduction](/wiki/Birch_reduction \"Birch reduction\").\nOther reductions that can be carried by these solutions are:\nS8 \\+ 2e− → S82\\-\nFe(CO)5 \\+ 2e− → Fe(CO)42\\- \\+ CO\n\n", "### Reaction with oxygen\n\nUpon reacting with oxygen, alkali metals form [oxides](/wiki/Oxide \"Oxide\"), [peroxides](/wiki/Peroxide \"Peroxide\"), [superoxides](/wiki/Superoxide \"Superoxide\") and [suboxides](/wiki/Suboxide \"Suboxide\"). However, the first three are more common. The table below\"Inorganic Chemistry\" by Gary L. Miessler and Donald A. Tar, 6th edition, Pearson shows the types of compounds formed in reaction with oxygen. The compound in brackets represents the minor product of combustion.\n\n| **Alkali metal** | **Oxide** | **Peroxide** | **Superoxide** |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [Li](/wiki/Lithium \"Lithium\") | Li2O | (Li2O2) | |\n| [Na](/wiki/Sodium \"Sodium\") | (Na2O) | Na2O2 | |\n| [K](/wiki/Potassium \"Potassium\") | | | KO2 |\n| [Rb](/wiki/Rubidium \"Rubidium\") | | | RbO2 |\n| [Cs](/wiki/Caesium \"Caesium\") | | | CsO2 |\n\nThe alkali metal peroxides are ionic compounds that are unstable in water. The peroxide anion is weakly bound to the cation, and it is hydrolysed, forming stronger covalent bonds.\nNa2O2 \\+ 2H2O → 2NaOH \\+ H2O2\nThe other oxygen compounds are also unstable in water.\n2KO2 \\+ 2H2O → 2KOH \\+ H2O2 \\+ O2Kumar De, Anil (2007\\). A Text Book of Inorganic Chemistry. New Age International. p. 247\\. .\nLi2O \\+ H2O → 2LiOH\n\n", "### Reaction with sulfur\n\nWith sulfur, they form [sulfides](/wiki/Sulfide \"Sulfide\") and [polysulfides](/wiki/Polysulfide \"Polysulfide\").\"The chemistry of the Elements\" by Greenwood and Earnshaw, 2nd edition, Elsevier\n2Na \\+ 1/8S8 → Na2S \\+ 1/8S8 → Na2S2...Na2S7\nBecause alkali metal sulfides are essentially salts of a weak acid and a strong base, they form basic solutions.\nS2\\- \\+ H2O → HS− \\+ HO−\nHS− \\+ H2O → H2S \\+ HO−\n\n", "### Reaction with nitrogen\n\nLithium is the only metal that combines directly with nitrogen at room temperature.\n3Li \\+ 1/2N2 → Li3N\nLi3N can react with water to liberate ammonia.\nLi3N \\+ 3H2O → 3LiOH \\+ NH3\n\n", "### Reaction with hydrogen\n\nWith hydrogen, alkali metals form saline [hydrides](/wiki/Hydride \"Hydride\") that hydrolyse in water. \n2 Na \\\\ \\+ H2 \\\\ \\-\\>\\[\\\\ce{\\\\Delta}] \\\\ 2 NaH\n2 NaH \\\\ \\+ \\\\ 2 H2O \\\\ \\\\longrightarrow \\\\ 2 NaOH \\\\ \\+ \\\\ H2 \\\\uparrow\n\n", "### Reaction with carbon\n\nLithium is the only metal that reacts directly with carbon to give [dilithium acetylide](/wiki/Dilithium_acetylide \"Dilithium acetylide\"). Na and K can react with [acetylene](/wiki/Acetylene \"Acetylene\") to give [acetylides](/wiki/Acetylide \"Acetylide\").\"Inorganic Chemistry\" by Cotton and Wilkinson\n2 Li \\\\ \\+ \\\\ 2 C \\\\ \\\\longrightarrow \\\\ Li2C2\n2 Na \\\\ \\+ \\\\ 2 C2H2 \\\\ \\-\\>\\[\\\\ce{150 \\\\ ^{o}C}] \\\\ 2 NaC2H \\\\ \\+ \\\\ H2\n\n2 Na \\\\ \\+ \\\\ 2 NaC2H \\\\ \\-\\>\\[\\\\ce{220 \\\\ ^{o}C}] \\\\ 2 Na2C2 \\\\ \\+ \\\\ H2\n\n", "### Reaction with water\n\nOn reaction with water, they generate [hydroxide](/wiki/Hydroxide \"Hydroxide\") ions and [hydrogen](/wiki/Hydrogen \"Hydrogen\") gas. This reaction is vigorous and highly exothermic and the hydrogen resulted may ignite in air or even explode in the case of Rb and Cs.\nNa \\+ H2O → NaOH \\+ 1/2H2\n\n", "### Reaction with other salts\n\nThe alkali metals are very good reducing agents. They can reduce metal cations that are less electropositive. [Titanium](/wiki/Titanium \"Titanium\") is produced industrially by the reduction of [titanium tetrachloride](/wiki/Titanium_tetrachloride \"Titanium tetrachloride\") with Na at 400 °C ([van Arkel–de Boer process](/wiki/Van_Arkel%E2%80%93de_Boer_process \"Van Arkel–de Boer process\")).\nTiCl4 \\+ 4Na → 4NaCl \\+ Ti\n\n", "### Reaction with organohalide compounds\n\nAlkali metals react with halogen derivatives to generate hydrocarbon via the [Wurtz reaction](/wiki/Wurtz_reaction \"Wurtz reaction\").\n2CH3\\-Cl \\+ 2Na → H3C\\-CH3 \\+ 2NaCl\n\n", "### Alkali metals in liquid ammonia\n\nAlkali metals dissolve in liquid [ammonia](/wiki/Ammonia \"Ammonia\") or other donor solvents like aliphatic [amines](/wiki/Amine \"Amine\") or [hexamethylphosphoramide](/wiki/Hexamethylphosphoramide \"Hexamethylphosphoramide\") to give blue solutions. These solutions are believed to contain free electrons.\nNa \\+ xNH3 → Na\\+ \\+ e(NH3)x−\nDue to the presence of [solvated electrons](/wiki/Solvated_electron \"Solvated electron\"), these solutions are very powerful reducing agents used in organic synthesis.\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.25\\|centre\\|Reduction reactions using sodium in liquid ammonia](/wiki/File:Na_in_lie._am.jpg \"Na in lie. am.jpg\")\n\nReaction 1\\) is known as [Birch reduction](/wiki/Birch_reduction \"Birch reduction\").\nOther reductions that can be carried by these solutions are:\nS8 \\+ 2e− → S82\\-\nFe(CO)5 \\+ 2e− → Fe(CO)42\\- \\+ CO\n\n", "Extensions\n----------\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.12\\|[Empirical](/wiki/Empirical_evidence \"Empirical evidence\") (Na–Cs, Mg–Ra) and predicted (Fr–Uhp, Ubn–Uhh) atomic radius of the alkali and alkaline earth metals from the [third](/wiki/Period_3_element \"Period 3 element\") to the [ninth period](/wiki/Period_9_element \"Period 9 element\"), measured in [angstroms](/wiki/Angstrom \"Angstrom\")](/wiki/File:Atomic_radius_of_alkali_metals_and_alkaline_earth_metals.svg \"Atomic radius of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals.svg\")\nAlthough francium is the heaviest alkali metal that has been discovered, there has been some theoretical work predicting the physical and chemical characteristics of hypothetical heavier alkali metals. Being the first [period 8 element](/wiki/Period_8_element \"Period 8 element\"), the undiscovered element [ununennium](/wiki/Ununennium \"Ununennium\") (element 119\\) is predicted to be the next alkali metal after francium and behave much like their lighter [congeners](/wiki/Congener_%28chemistry%29 \"Congener (chemistry)\"); however, it is also predicted to differ from the lighter alkali metals in some properties. Its chemistry is predicted to be closer to that of potassium or rubidium instead of caesium or francium. This is unusual as [periodic trends](/wiki/Periodic_trends \"Periodic trends\"), ignoring relativistic effects would predict ununennium to be even more reactive than caesium and francium. This lowered [reactivity](/wiki/Reactivity_%28chemistry%29 \"Reactivity (chemistry)\") is due to the relativistic stabilisation of ununennium's valence electron, increasing ununennium's first ionisation energy and decreasing the [metallic](/wiki/Metallic_radius \"Metallic radius\") and [ionic radii](/wiki/Ionic_radii \"Ionic radii\"); this effect is already seen for francium. This assumes that ununennium will behave chemically as an alkali metal, which, although likely, may not be true due to relativistic effects. The relativistic stabilisation of the 8s orbital also increases ununennium's [electron affinity](/wiki/Electron_affinity \"Electron affinity\") far beyond that of caesium and francium; indeed, ununennium is expected to have an electron affinity higher than all the alkali metals lighter than it. Relativistic effects also cause a very large drop in the [polarisability](/wiki/Polarisability \"Polarisability\") of ununennium. On the other hand, ununennium is predicted to continue the trend of melting points decreasing going down the group, being expected to have a melting point between 0 °C and 30 °C.\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|Empirical (Na–Fr) and predicted (Uue) electron affinity of the alkali metals from the third to the [eighth period](/wiki/Period_8_element \"Period 8 element\"), measured in [electron volts](/wiki/Electron_volt \"Electron volt\")](/wiki/File:Electron_affinity_of_alkali_metals.svg \"Electron affinity of alkali metals.svg\")\nThe stabilisation of ununennium's valence electron and thus the contraction of the 8s orbital cause its atomic radius to be lowered to 240 [pm](/wiki/Picometer \"Picometer\"), very close to that of rubidium (247 pm), so that the chemistry of ununennium in the \\+1 oxidation state should be more similar to the chemistry of rubidium than to that of francium. On the other hand, the ionic radius of the Uue\\+ ion is predicted to be larger than that of Rb\\+, because the 7p orbitals are destabilised and are thus larger than the p\\-orbitals of the lower shells. Ununennium may also show the \\+3 and \\+5 [oxidation states](/wiki/Oxidation_state \"Oxidation state\"), which are not seen in any other alkali metal, in addition to the \\+1 oxidation state that is characteristic of the other alkali metals and is also the main oxidation state of all the known alkali metals: this is because of the destabilisation and expansion of the 7p3/2 spinor, causing its outermost electrons to have a lower ionisation energy than what would otherwise be expected. Indeed, many ununennium compounds are expected to have a large [covalent](/wiki/Covalent \"Covalent\") character, due to the involvement of the 7p3/2 electrons in the bonding.\n\n[thumb\\|Empirical (Na–Fr, Mg–Ra) and predicted (Uue–Uhp, Ubn–Uhh) ionisation energy of the alkali and alkaline earth metals from the third to the ninth period, measured in electron volts](/wiki/File:Ionization_energy_of_alkali_metals_and_alkaline_earth_metals.svg \"Ionization energy of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals.svg\")\nNot as much work has been done predicting the properties of the alkali metals beyond ununennium. Although a simple extrapolation of the periodic table (by the [Aufbau principle](/wiki/Aufbau_principle \"Aufbau principle\")) would put element 169, unhexennium, under ununennium, Dirac\\-Fock calculations predict that the next element after ununennium with alkali\\-metal\\-like properties may be element 165, unhexpentium, which is predicted to have the electron configuration \\[Og] 5g18 6f14 7d10 8s2 8p1/22 9s1. This element would be intermediate in properties between an alkali metal and a [group 11 element](/wiki/Group_11_element \"Group 11 element\"), and while its physical and atomic properties would be closer to the former, its chemistry may be closer to that of the latter. Further calculations show that unhexpentium would follow the trend of increasing ionisation energy beyond caesium, having an ionisation energy comparable to that of sodium, and that it should also continue the trend of decreasing atomic radii beyond caesium, having an atomic radius comparable to that of potassium. However, the 7d electrons of unhexpentium may also be able to participate in chemical reactions along with the 9s electron, possibly allowing oxidation states beyond \\+1, whence the likely transition metal behaviour of unhexpentium. Due to the alkali and [alkaline earth metals](/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal \"Alkaline earth metal\") both being [s\\-block](/wiki/S-block \"S-block\") elements, these predictions for the trends and properties of ununennium and unhexpentium also mostly hold quite similarly for the corresponding alkaline earth metals [unbinilium](/wiki/Unbinilium \"Unbinilium\") (Ubn) and unhexhexium (Uhh). Unsepttrium, element 173, may be an even better heavier homologue of ununennium; with a predicted electron configuration of \\[Usb] 6g1, it returns to the alkali\\-metal\\-like situation of having one easily removed electron far above a closed p\\-shell in energy, and is expected to be even more reactive than caesium.\n\nThe probable properties of further alkali metals beyond unsepttrium have not been explored yet as of 2019, and they may or may not be able to exist. In periods 8 and above of the periodic table, relativistic and shell\\-structure effects become so strong that extrapolations from lighter congeners become completely inaccurate. In addition, the relativistic and shell\\-structure effects (which stabilise the s\\-orbitals and destabilise and expand the d\\-, f\\-, and g\\-orbitals of higher shells) have opposite effects, causing even larger difference between relativistic and non\\-relativistic calculations of the properties of elements with such high atomic numbers. Interest in the chemical properties of ununennium, unhexpentium, and unsepttrium stems from the fact that they are located close to the expected locations of [islands of stability](/wiki/Island_of_stability \"Island of stability\"), centered at elements 122 (306Ubb) and 164 (482Uhq).[Nuclear scientists eye future landfall on a second 'island of stability'](http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2008-04/acs-nse031108.php). EurekAlert! (2008\\-04\\-06\\). Retrieved on 2016\\-11\\-25\\.\n\n", "Pseudo\\-alkali metals\n---------------------\n\nMany other substances are similar to the alkali metals in their tendency to form monopositive cations. Analogously to the [pseudohalogens](/wiki/Pseudohalogen \"Pseudohalogen\"), they have sometimes been called \"pseudo\\-alkali metals\". These substances include some elements and many more [polyatomic ions](/wiki/Polyatomic_ion \"Polyatomic ion\"); the polyatomic ions are especially similar to the alkali metals in their large size and weak polarising power.\n\n### Hydrogen\n\nThe element [hydrogen](/wiki/Hydrogen \"Hydrogen\"), with one electron per neutral atom, is usually placed at the top of Group 1 of the periodic table because of its electron configuration. But hydrogen is not normally considered to be an alkali metal. [Metallic hydrogen](/wiki/Metallic_hydrogen \"Metallic hydrogen\"), which only exists at very high pressures, is known for its electrical and magnetic properties, not its chemical properties. Under typical conditions, pure hydrogen exists as a [diatomic](/wiki/Diatomic \"Diatomic\") gas consisting of two atoms per molecule (H2); however, the alkali metals form diatomic molecules (such as [dilithium](/wiki/Dilithium \"Dilithium\"), Li2) only at high temperatures, when they are in the gaseous state.Winter, Mark J. (1994\\) *Chemical Bonding*, Oxford University Press, \n\nHydrogen, like the alkali metals, has one [valence electron](/wiki/Valence_electron \"Valence electron\") and reacts easily with the [halogens](/wiki/Halogen \"Halogen\"), but the similarities mostly end there because of the small size of a bare proton H\\+ compared to the alkali metal cations. Its placement above lithium is primarily due to its [electron configuration](/wiki/Electron_configuration \"Electron configuration\"). It is sometimes placed above [fluorine](/wiki/Fluorine \"Fluorine\") due to their similar chemical properties, though the resemblance is likewise not absolute.\n\nThe first ionisation energy of hydrogen (1312\\.0 [kJ/mol](/wiki/KJ/mol \"KJ/mol\")) is much higher than that of the alkali metals.Huheey, J.E.; Keiter, E.A. and Keiter, R.L. (1993\\) *Inorganic Chemistry: Principles of Structure and Reactivity*, 4th edition, HarperCollins, New York, USA.James, A.M. and Lord, M.P. (1992\\) *Macmillan's Chemical and Physical Data*, Macmillan, London, UK. As only one additional electron is required to fill in the outermost shell of the hydrogen atom, hydrogen often behaves like a halogen, forming the negative [hydride](/wiki/Hydride \"Hydride\") ion, and is very occasionally considered to be a halogen on that basis. (The alkali metals can also form negative ions, known as [alkalides](/wiki/Alkalide \"Alkalide\"), but these are little more than laboratory curiosities, being unstable.) An argument against this placement is that formation of hydride from hydrogen is endothermic, unlike the exothermic formation of halides from halogens. The radius of the H− anion also does not fit the trend of increasing size going down the halogens: indeed, H− is very diffuse because its single proton cannot easily control both electrons. It was expected for some time that liquid hydrogen would show metallic properties; while this has been shown to not be the case, under extremely high [pressures](/wiki/Pressure \"Pressure\"), such as those found at the cores of [Jupiter](/wiki/Jupiter \"Jupiter\") and [Saturn](/wiki/Saturn \"Saturn\"), hydrogen does become metallic and behaves like an alkali metal; in this phase, it is known as [metallic hydrogen](/wiki/Metallic_hydrogen \"Metallic hydrogen\"). The [electrical resistivity](/wiki/Electrical_resistivity \"Electrical resistivity\") of liquid [metallic hydrogen](/wiki/Metallic_hydrogen \"Metallic hydrogen\") at 3000 K is approximately equal to that of liquid [rubidium](/wiki/Rubidium \"Rubidium\") and [caesium](/wiki/Caesium \"Caesium\") at 2000 K at the respective pressures when they undergo a nonmetal\\-to\\-metal transition.\n\nThe 1s1 electron configuration of hydrogen, while analogous to that of the alkali metals (ns1), is unique because there is no 1p subshell. Hence it can lose an electron to form the [hydron](/wiki/Hydron_%28chemistry%29 \"Hydron (chemistry)\") H\\+, or gain one to form the [hydride](/wiki/Hydride \"Hydride\") ion H−. In the former case it resembles superficially the alkali metals; in the latter case, the halogens, but the differences due to the lack of a 1p subshell are important enough that neither group fits the properties of hydrogen well. Group 14 is also a good fit in terms of thermodynamic properties such as [ionisation energy](/wiki/Ionisation_energy \"Ionisation energy\") and [electron affinity](/wiki/Electron_affinity \"Electron affinity\"), but hydrogen cannot be tetravalent. Thus none of the three placements are entirely satisfactory, although group 1 is the most common placement (if one is chosen) because of the electron configuration and the fact that the hydron is by far the most important of all monatomic hydrogen species, being the foundation of acid\\-base chemistry. As an example of hydrogen's unorthodox properties stemming from its unusual electron configuration and small size, the hydrogen ion is very small (radius around 150 [fm](/wiki/Femtometre \"Femtometre\") compared to the 50–220 pm size of most other atoms and ions) and so is nonexistent in condensed systems other than in association with other atoms or molecules. Indeed, transferring of protons between chemicals is the basis of [acid\\-base chemistry](/wiki/Acid-base_chemistry \"Acid-base chemistry\"). Also unique is hydrogen's ability to form [hydrogen bonds](/wiki/Hydrogen_bond \"Hydrogen bond\"), which are an effect of charge\\-transfer, [electrostatic](/wiki/Electrostatic \"Electrostatic\"), and electron correlative contributing phenomena. While analogous lithium bonds are also known, they are mostly electrostatic. Nevertheless, hydrogen can take on the same structural role as the alkali metals in some molecular crystals, and has a close relationship with the lightest alkali metals (especially lithium).\n\n### Ammonium and derivatives\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|Similarly to the alkali metals, [ammonia](/wiki/Ammonia \"Ammonia\") reacts with [hydrochloric acid](/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid \"Hydrochloric acid\") to form the salt [ammonium chloride](/wiki/Ammonium_chloride \"Ammonium chloride\").](/wiki/File:Hydrochloric_acid_ammonia.jpg \"Hydrochloric acid ammonia.jpg\")\nThe [ammonium](/wiki/Ammonium \"Ammonium\") ion () has very similar properties to the heavier alkali metals, acting as an alkali metal intermediate between potassium and rubidium, and is often considered a close relative. For example, most alkali metal [salts](/wiki/Salts \"Salts\") are [soluble](/wiki/Soluble \"Soluble\") in water, a property which ammonium salts share. Ammonium is expected to behave stably as a metal ( ions in a sea of delocalised electrons) at very high pressures (though less than the typical pressure where transitions from insulating to metallic behaviour occur around, 100 [GPa](/wiki/Pascal_%28unit%29 \"Pascal (unit)\")), and could possibly occur inside the [ice giants](/wiki/Ice_giant \"Ice giant\") [Uranus](/wiki/Uranus \"Uranus\") and [Neptune](/wiki/Neptune \"Neptune\"), which may have significant impacts on their interior magnetic fields. It has been estimated that the transition from a mixture of [ammonia](/wiki/Ammonia \"Ammonia\") and dihydrogen molecules to metallic ammonium may occur at pressures just below 25 GPa. Under standard conditions, ammonium can form a metallic amalgam with mercury.\n\nOther \"pseudo\\-alkali metals\" include the [alkylammonium](/wiki/Alkylammonium \"Alkylammonium\") cations, in which some of the hydrogen atoms in the ammonium cation are replaced by alkyl or aryl groups. In particular, the [quaternary ammonium cations](/wiki/Quaternary_ammonium_cation \"Quaternary ammonium cation\") () are very useful since they are permanently charged, and they are often used as an alternative to the expensive Cs\\+ to stabilise very large and very easily polarisable anions such as . Tetraalkylammonium hydroxides, like alkali metal hydroxides, are very strong bases that react with atmospheric carbon dioxide to form carbonates. Furthermore, the nitrogen atom may be replaced by a phosphorus, arsenic, or antimony atom (the heavier nonmetallic [pnictogens](/wiki/Pnictogen \"Pnictogen\")), creating a [phosphonium](/wiki/Phosphonium \"Phosphonium\") () or [arsonium](/wiki/Arsonium \"Arsonium\") () cation that can itself be substituted similarly; while [stibonium](/wiki/Stibonium \"Stibonium\") () itself is not known, some of its organic derivatives are characterised.\n\n### Cobaltocene and derivatives\n\n[Cobaltocene](/wiki/Cobaltocene \"Cobaltocene\"), Co(C5H5)2, is a [metallocene](/wiki/Metallocene \"Metallocene\"), the [cobalt](/wiki/Cobalt \"Cobalt\") analogue of [ferrocene](/wiki/Ferrocene \"Ferrocene\"). It is a dark purple solid. Cobaltocene has 19 valence electrons, one more than usually found in organotransition metal complexes, such as its very stable relative, ferrocene, in accordance with the [18\\-electron rule](/wiki/18-electron_rule \"18-electron rule\"). This additional electron occupies an orbital that is antibonding with respect to the Co–C bonds. Consequently, many chemical reactions of Co(C5H5)2 are characterized by its tendency to lose this \"extra\" electron, yielding a very stable 18\\-electron cation known as cobaltocenium. Many cobaltocenium salts coprecipitate with caesium salts, and cobaltocenium hydroxide is a strong base that absorbs atmospheric carbon dioxide to form cobaltocenium carbonate. Like the alkali metals, cobaltocene is a strong reducing agent, and [decamethylcobaltocene](/wiki/Decamethylcobaltocene \"Decamethylcobaltocene\") is stronger still due to the combined [inductive effect](/wiki/Inductive_effect \"Inductive effect\") of the ten methyl groups. Cobalt may be substituted by its heavier congener [rhodium](/wiki/Rhodium \"Rhodium\") to give [rhodocene](/wiki/Rhodocene \"Rhodocene\"), an even stronger reducing agent. [Iridocene](/wiki/Iridocene \"Iridocene\") (involving [iridium](/wiki/Iridium \"Iridium\")) would presumably be still more potent, but is not very well\\-studied due to its instability.\n\n### Thallium\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|Very pure thallium pieces in a glass [ampoule](/wiki/Ampoule \"Ampoule\"), stored under [argon](/wiki/Argon \"Argon\") gas](/wiki/File:Thallium_pieces_in_ampoule.jpg \"Thallium pieces in ampoule.jpg\")\n\n[Thallium](/wiki/Thallium \"Thallium\") is the heaviest stable element in group 13 of the periodic table. At the bottom of the periodic table, the [inert\\-pair effect](/wiki/Inert-pair_effect \"Inert-pair effect\") is quite strong, because of the [relativistic](/wiki/Relativistic_effects \"Relativistic effects\") stabilisation of the 6s orbital and the decreasing bond energy as the atoms increase in size so that the amount of energy released in forming two more bonds is not worth the high ionisation energies of the 6s electrons. It displays the \\+1 [oxidation state](/wiki/Oxidation_state \"Oxidation state\") that all the known alkali metals display, and thallium compounds with thallium in its \\+1 [oxidation state](/wiki/Oxidation_state \"Oxidation state\") closely resemble the corresponding potassium or silver compounds stoichiometrically due to the similar ionic radii of the Tl\\+ (164 [pm](/wiki/Picometer \"Picometer\")), K\\+ (152 pm) and Ag\\+ (129 pm) ions. It was sometimes considered an alkali metal in [continental Europe](/wiki/Continental_Europe \"Continental Europe\") (but not in England) in the years immediately following its discovery, and was placed just after caesium as the sixth alkali metal in [Dmitri Mendeleev](/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev \"Dmitri Mendeleev\")'s 1869 [periodic table](/wiki/Periodic_table \"Periodic table\") and [Julius Lothar Meyer](/wiki/Julius_Lothar_Meyer \"Julius Lothar Meyer\")'s 1868 periodic table. Mendeleev's 1871 periodic table and Meyer's 1870 periodic table put thallium in its current position in the [boron group](/wiki/Boron_group \"Boron group\") and left the space below caesium blank. However, thallium also displays the oxidation state \\+3, which no known alkali metal displays (although ununennium, the undiscovered seventh alkali metal, is predicted to possibly display the \\+3 oxidation state). The sixth alkali metal is now considered to be francium.. While Tl\\+ is stabilised by the inert\\-pair effect, this inert pair of 6s electrons is still able to participate chemically, so that these electrons are [stereochemically](/wiki/Stereochemistry \"Stereochemistry\") active in aqueous solution. Additionally, the thallium halides (except [TlF](/wiki/TlF \"TlF\")) are quite insoluble in water, and [TlI](/wiki/TlI \"TlI\") has an unusual structure because of the presence of the stereochemically active inert pair in thallium.\n\n### Copper, silver, and gold\n\nThe [group 11 metals](/wiki/Group_11_element \"Group 11 element\") (or coinage metals), copper, silver, and gold, are typically categorised as transition metals given they can form ions with incomplete d\\-shells. Physically, they have the relatively low melting points and high electronegativity values associated with [post\\-transition metals](/wiki/Post-transition_metal \"Post-transition metal\"). \"The filled *d* subshell and free *s* electron of Cu, Ag, and Au contribute to their high electrical and thermal conductivity. Transition metals to the left of group 11 experience interactions between *s* electrons and the partially filled *d* subshell that lower electron mobility.\"Russell AM \\& Lee KL (2005\\) [*Structure\\-property relations in nonferrous metals*](https://books.google.com/books?id=fIu58uZTE-gC). Wiley\\-Interscience, New York. p. 302\\. Chemically, the group 11 metals behave like main\\-group metals in their \\+1 valence states, and are hence somewhat related to the alkali metals: this is one reason for their previously being labelled as \"group IB\", paralleling the alkali metals' \"group IA\". They are occasionally classified as post\\-transition metals.Deming HG (1940\\) *Fundamental Chemistry,* John Wiley \\& Sons, New York, pp. 705–7 Their spectra are analogous to those of the alkali metals. Their monopositive ions are [paramagnetic](/wiki/Paramagnetic \"Paramagnetic\") and contribute no colour to their salts, like those of the alkali metals.Bailar, J. C. (1973\\) *Comprehensive inorganic chemistry*, vol. 3, p. 16\\. \n\nIn Mendeleev's 1871 periodic table, copper, silver, and gold are listed twice, once under group VIII (with the [iron triad](/wiki/Iron_triad \"Iron triad\") and [platinum group metals](/wiki/Platinum_group_metal \"Platinum group metal\")), and once under group IB. Group IB was nonetheless parenthesised to note that it was tentative. Mendeleev's main criterion for group assignment was the maximum oxidation state of an element: on that basis, the group 11 elements could not be classified in group IB, due to the existence of copper(II) and gold(III) compounds being known at that time. However, eliminating group IB would make group I the only main group (group VIII was labelled a transition group) to lack an A–B bifurcation. Soon afterward, a majority of chemists chose to classify these elements in group IB and remove them from group VIII for the resulting symmetry: this was the predominant classification until the rise of the modern medium\\-long 18\\-column periodic table, which separated the alkali metals and group 11 metals.\n\nThe coinage metals were traditionally regarded as a subdivision of the alkali metal group, due to them sharing the characteristic s1 electron configuration of the alkali metals (group 1: p6s1; group 11: d10s1). However, the similarities are largely confined to the [stoichiometries](/wiki/Stoichiometries \"Stoichiometries\") of the \\+1 compounds of both groups, and not their chemical properties. This stems from the filled d subshell providing a much weaker shielding effect on the outermost s electron than the filled p subshell, so that the coinage metals have much higher first ionisation energies and smaller ionic radii than do the corresponding alkali metals. Furthermore, they have higher melting points, hardnesses, and densities, and lower reactivities and solubilities in liquid [ammonia](/wiki/Ammonia \"Ammonia\"), as well as having more covalent character in their compounds. Finally, the alkali metals are at the top of the [electrochemical series](/wiki/Electrochemical_series \"Electrochemical series\"), whereas the coinage metals are almost at the very bottom. The coinage metals' filled d shell is much more easily disrupted than the alkali metals' filled p shell, so that the second and third ionisation energies are lower, enabling higher oxidation states than \\+1 and a richer coordination chemistry, thus giving the group 11 metals clear [transition metal](/wiki/Transition_metal \"Transition metal\") character. Particularly noteworthy is gold forming ionic compounds with rubidium and caesium, in which it forms the auride ion (Au−) which also occurs in solvated form in liquid ammonia solution: here gold behaves as a [pseudohalogen](/wiki/Pseudohalogen \"Pseudohalogen\") because its 5d106s1 configuration has one electron less than the quasi\\-closed shell 5d106s2 configuration of [mercury](/wiki/Mercury_%28element%29 \"Mercury (element)\").\n\n", "### Hydrogen\n\nThe element [hydrogen](/wiki/Hydrogen \"Hydrogen\"), with one electron per neutral atom, is usually placed at the top of Group 1 of the periodic table because of its electron configuration. But hydrogen is not normally considered to be an alkali metal. [Metallic hydrogen](/wiki/Metallic_hydrogen \"Metallic hydrogen\"), which only exists at very high pressures, is known for its electrical and magnetic properties, not its chemical properties. Under typical conditions, pure hydrogen exists as a [diatomic](/wiki/Diatomic \"Diatomic\") gas consisting of two atoms per molecule (H2); however, the alkali metals form diatomic molecules (such as [dilithium](/wiki/Dilithium \"Dilithium\"), Li2) only at high temperatures, when they are in the gaseous state.Winter, Mark J. (1994\\) *Chemical Bonding*, Oxford University Press, \n\nHydrogen, like the alkali metals, has one [valence electron](/wiki/Valence_electron \"Valence electron\") and reacts easily with the [halogens](/wiki/Halogen \"Halogen\"), but the similarities mostly end there because of the small size of a bare proton H\\+ compared to the alkali metal cations. Its placement above lithium is primarily due to its [electron configuration](/wiki/Electron_configuration \"Electron configuration\"). It is sometimes placed above [fluorine](/wiki/Fluorine \"Fluorine\") due to their similar chemical properties, though the resemblance is likewise not absolute.\n\nThe first ionisation energy of hydrogen (1312\\.0 [kJ/mol](/wiki/KJ/mol \"KJ/mol\")) is much higher than that of the alkali metals.Huheey, J.E.; Keiter, E.A. and Keiter, R.L. (1993\\) *Inorganic Chemistry: Principles of Structure and Reactivity*, 4th edition, HarperCollins, New York, USA.James, A.M. and Lord, M.P. (1992\\) *Macmillan's Chemical and Physical Data*, Macmillan, London, UK. As only one additional electron is required to fill in the outermost shell of the hydrogen atom, hydrogen often behaves like a halogen, forming the negative [hydride](/wiki/Hydride \"Hydride\") ion, and is very occasionally considered to be a halogen on that basis. (The alkali metals can also form negative ions, known as [alkalides](/wiki/Alkalide \"Alkalide\"), but these are little more than laboratory curiosities, being unstable.) An argument against this placement is that formation of hydride from hydrogen is endothermic, unlike the exothermic formation of halides from halogens. The radius of the H− anion also does not fit the trend of increasing size going down the halogens: indeed, H− is very diffuse because its single proton cannot easily control both electrons. It was expected for some time that liquid hydrogen would show metallic properties; while this has been shown to not be the case, under extremely high [pressures](/wiki/Pressure \"Pressure\"), such as those found at the cores of [Jupiter](/wiki/Jupiter \"Jupiter\") and [Saturn](/wiki/Saturn \"Saturn\"), hydrogen does become metallic and behaves like an alkali metal; in this phase, it is known as [metallic hydrogen](/wiki/Metallic_hydrogen \"Metallic hydrogen\"). The [electrical resistivity](/wiki/Electrical_resistivity \"Electrical resistivity\") of liquid [metallic hydrogen](/wiki/Metallic_hydrogen \"Metallic hydrogen\") at 3000 K is approximately equal to that of liquid [rubidium](/wiki/Rubidium \"Rubidium\") and [caesium](/wiki/Caesium \"Caesium\") at 2000 K at the respective pressures when they undergo a nonmetal\\-to\\-metal transition.\n\nThe 1s1 electron configuration of hydrogen, while analogous to that of the alkali metals (ns1), is unique because there is no 1p subshell. Hence it can lose an electron to form the [hydron](/wiki/Hydron_%28chemistry%29 \"Hydron (chemistry)\") H\\+, or gain one to form the [hydride](/wiki/Hydride \"Hydride\") ion H−. In the former case it resembles superficially the alkali metals; in the latter case, the halogens, but the differences due to the lack of a 1p subshell are important enough that neither group fits the properties of hydrogen well. Group 14 is also a good fit in terms of thermodynamic properties such as [ionisation energy](/wiki/Ionisation_energy \"Ionisation energy\") and [electron affinity](/wiki/Electron_affinity \"Electron affinity\"), but hydrogen cannot be tetravalent. Thus none of the three placements are entirely satisfactory, although group 1 is the most common placement (if one is chosen) because of the electron configuration and the fact that the hydron is by far the most important of all monatomic hydrogen species, being the foundation of acid\\-base chemistry. As an example of hydrogen's unorthodox properties stemming from its unusual electron configuration and small size, the hydrogen ion is very small (radius around 150 [fm](/wiki/Femtometre \"Femtometre\") compared to the 50–220 pm size of most other atoms and ions) and so is nonexistent in condensed systems other than in association with other atoms or molecules. Indeed, transferring of protons between chemicals is the basis of [acid\\-base chemistry](/wiki/Acid-base_chemistry \"Acid-base chemistry\"). Also unique is hydrogen's ability to form [hydrogen bonds](/wiki/Hydrogen_bond \"Hydrogen bond\"), which are an effect of charge\\-transfer, [electrostatic](/wiki/Electrostatic \"Electrostatic\"), and electron correlative contributing phenomena. While analogous lithium bonds are also known, they are mostly electrostatic. Nevertheless, hydrogen can take on the same structural role as the alkali metals in some molecular crystals, and has a close relationship with the lightest alkali metals (especially lithium).\n\n", "### Ammonium and derivatives\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|Similarly to the alkali metals, [ammonia](/wiki/Ammonia \"Ammonia\") reacts with [hydrochloric acid](/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid \"Hydrochloric acid\") to form the salt [ammonium chloride](/wiki/Ammonium_chloride \"Ammonium chloride\").](/wiki/File:Hydrochloric_acid_ammonia.jpg \"Hydrochloric acid ammonia.jpg\")\nThe [ammonium](/wiki/Ammonium \"Ammonium\") ion () has very similar properties to the heavier alkali metals, acting as an alkali metal intermediate between potassium and rubidium, and is often considered a close relative. For example, most alkali metal [salts](/wiki/Salts \"Salts\") are [soluble](/wiki/Soluble \"Soluble\") in water, a property which ammonium salts share. Ammonium is expected to behave stably as a metal ( ions in a sea of delocalised electrons) at very high pressures (though less than the typical pressure where transitions from insulating to metallic behaviour occur around, 100 [GPa](/wiki/Pascal_%28unit%29 \"Pascal (unit)\")), and could possibly occur inside the [ice giants](/wiki/Ice_giant \"Ice giant\") [Uranus](/wiki/Uranus \"Uranus\") and [Neptune](/wiki/Neptune \"Neptune\"), which may have significant impacts on their interior magnetic fields. It has been estimated that the transition from a mixture of [ammonia](/wiki/Ammonia \"Ammonia\") and dihydrogen molecules to metallic ammonium may occur at pressures just below 25 GPa. Under standard conditions, ammonium can form a metallic amalgam with mercury.\n\nOther \"pseudo\\-alkali metals\" include the [alkylammonium](/wiki/Alkylammonium \"Alkylammonium\") cations, in which some of the hydrogen atoms in the ammonium cation are replaced by alkyl or aryl groups. In particular, the [quaternary ammonium cations](/wiki/Quaternary_ammonium_cation \"Quaternary ammonium cation\") () are very useful since they are permanently charged, and they are often used as an alternative to the expensive Cs\\+ to stabilise very large and very easily polarisable anions such as . Tetraalkylammonium hydroxides, like alkali metal hydroxides, are very strong bases that react with atmospheric carbon dioxide to form carbonates. Furthermore, the nitrogen atom may be replaced by a phosphorus, arsenic, or antimony atom (the heavier nonmetallic [pnictogens](/wiki/Pnictogen \"Pnictogen\")), creating a [phosphonium](/wiki/Phosphonium \"Phosphonium\") () or [arsonium](/wiki/Arsonium \"Arsonium\") () cation that can itself be substituted similarly; while [stibonium](/wiki/Stibonium \"Stibonium\") () itself is not known, some of its organic derivatives are characterised.\n\n", "### Cobaltocene and derivatives\n\n[Cobaltocene](/wiki/Cobaltocene \"Cobaltocene\"), Co(C5H5)2, is a [metallocene](/wiki/Metallocene \"Metallocene\"), the [cobalt](/wiki/Cobalt \"Cobalt\") analogue of [ferrocene](/wiki/Ferrocene \"Ferrocene\"). It is a dark purple solid. Cobaltocene has 19 valence electrons, one more than usually found in organotransition metal complexes, such as its very stable relative, ferrocene, in accordance with the [18\\-electron rule](/wiki/18-electron_rule \"18-electron rule\"). This additional electron occupies an orbital that is antibonding with respect to the Co–C bonds. Consequently, many chemical reactions of Co(C5H5)2 are characterized by its tendency to lose this \"extra\" electron, yielding a very stable 18\\-electron cation known as cobaltocenium. Many cobaltocenium salts coprecipitate with caesium salts, and cobaltocenium hydroxide is a strong base that absorbs atmospheric carbon dioxide to form cobaltocenium carbonate. Like the alkali metals, cobaltocene is a strong reducing agent, and [decamethylcobaltocene](/wiki/Decamethylcobaltocene \"Decamethylcobaltocene\") is stronger still due to the combined [inductive effect](/wiki/Inductive_effect \"Inductive effect\") of the ten methyl groups. Cobalt may be substituted by its heavier congener [rhodium](/wiki/Rhodium \"Rhodium\") to give [rhodocene](/wiki/Rhodocene \"Rhodocene\"), an even stronger reducing agent. [Iridocene](/wiki/Iridocene \"Iridocene\") (involving [iridium](/wiki/Iridium \"Iridium\")) would presumably be still more potent, but is not very well\\-studied due to its instability.\n\n", "### Thallium\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|Very pure thallium pieces in a glass [ampoule](/wiki/Ampoule \"Ampoule\"), stored under [argon](/wiki/Argon \"Argon\") gas](/wiki/File:Thallium_pieces_in_ampoule.jpg \"Thallium pieces in ampoule.jpg\")\n\n[Thallium](/wiki/Thallium \"Thallium\") is the heaviest stable element in group 13 of the periodic table. At the bottom of the periodic table, the [inert\\-pair effect](/wiki/Inert-pair_effect \"Inert-pair effect\") is quite strong, because of the [relativistic](/wiki/Relativistic_effects \"Relativistic effects\") stabilisation of the 6s orbital and the decreasing bond energy as the atoms increase in size so that the amount of energy released in forming two more bonds is not worth the high ionisation energies of the 6s electrons. It displays the \\+1 [oxidation state](/wiki/Oxidation_state \"Oxidation state\") that all the known alkali metals display, and thallium compounds with thallium in its \\+1 [oxidation state](/wiki/Oxidation_state \"Oxidation state\") closely resemble the corresponding potassium or silver compounds stoichiometrically due to the similar ionic radii of the Tl\\+ (164 [pm](/wiki/Picometer \"Picometer\")), K\\+ (152 pm) and Ag\\+ (129 pm) ions. It was sometimes considered an alkali metal in [continental Europe](/wiki/Continental_Europe \"Continental Europe\") (but not in England) in the years immediately following its discovery, and was placed just after caesium as the sixth alkali metal in [Dmitri Mendeleev](/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev \"Dmitri Mendeleev\")'s 1869 [periodic table](/wiki/Periodic_table \"Periodic table\") and [Julius Lothar Meyer](/wiki/Julius_Lothar_Meyer \"Julius Lothar Meyer\")'s 1868 periodic table. Mendeleev's 1871 periodic table and Meyer's 1870 periodic table put thallium in its current position in the [boron group](/wiki/Boron_group \"Boron group\") and left the space below caesium blank. However, thallium also displays the oxidation state \\+3, which no known alkali metal displays (although ununennium, the undiscovered seventh alkali metal, is predicted to possibly display the \\+3 oxidation state). The sixth alkali metal is now considered to be francium.. While Tl\\+ is stabilised by the inert\\-pair effect, this inert pair of 6s electrons is still able to participate chemically, so that these electrons are [stereochemically](/wiki/Stereochemistry \"Stereochemistry\") active in aqueous solution. Additionally, the thallium halides (except [TlF](/wiki/TlF \"TlF\")) are quite insoluble in water, and [TlI](/wiki/TlI \"TlI\") has an unusual structure because of the presence of the stereochemically active inert pair in thallium.\n\n", "### Copper, silver, and gold\n\nThe [group 11 metals](/wiki/Group_11_element \"Group 11 element\") (or coinage metals), copper, silver, and gold, are typically categorised as transition metals given they can form ions with incomplete d\\-shells. Physically, they have the relatively low melting points and high electronegativity values associated with [post\\-transition metals](/wiki/Post-transition_metal \"Post-transition metal\"). \"The filled *d* subshell and free *s* electron of Cu, Ag, and Au contribute to their high electrical and thermal conductivity. Transition metals to the left of group 11 experience interactions between *s* electrons and the partially filled *d* subshell that lower electron mobility.\"Russell AM \\& Lee KL (2005\\) [*Structure\\-property relations in nonferrous metals*](https://books.google.com/books?id=fIu58uZTE-gC). Wiley\\-Interscience, New York. p. 302\\. Chemically, the group 11 metals behave like main\\-group metals in their \\+1 valence states, and are hence somewhat related to the alkali metals: this is one reason for their previously being labelled as \"group IB\", paralleling the alkali metals' \"group IA\". They are occasionally classified as post\\-transition metals.Deming HG (1940\\) *Fundamental Chemistry,* John Wiley \\& Sons, New York, pp. 705–7 Their spectra are analogous to those of the alkali metals. Their monopositive ions are [paramagnetic](/wiki/Paramagnetic \"Paramagnetic\") and contribute no colour to their salts, like those of the alkali metals.Bailar, J. C. (1973\\) *Comprehensive inorganic chemistry*, vol. 3, p. 16\\. \n\nIn Mendeleev's 1871 periodic table, copper, silver, and gold are listed twice, once under group VIII (with the [iron triad](/wiki/Iron_triad \"Iron triad\") and [platinum group metals](/wiki/Platinum_group_metal \"Platinum group metal\")), and once under group IB. Group IB was nonetheless parenthesised to note that it was tentative. Mendeleev's main criterion for group assignment was the maximum oxidation state of an element: on that basis, the group 11 elements could not be classified in group IB, due to the existence of copper(II) and gold(III) compounds being known at that time. However, eliminating group IB would make group I the only main group (group VIII was labelled a transition group) to lack an A–B bifurcation. Soon afterward, a majority of chemists chose to classify these elements in group IB and remove them from group VIII for the resulting symmetry: this was the predominant classification until the rise of the modern medium\\-long 18\\-column periodic table, which separated the alkali metals and group 11 metals.\n\nThe coinage metals were traditionally regarded as a subdivision of the alkali metal group, due to them sharing the characteristic s1 electron configuration of the alkali metals (group 1: p6s1; group 11: d10s1). However, the similarities are largely confined to the [stoichiometries](/wiki/Stoichiometries \"Stoichiometries\") of the \\+1 compounds of both groups, and not their chemical properties. This stems from the filled d subshell providing a much weaker shielding effect on the outermost s electron than the filled p subshell, so that the coinage metals have much higher first ionisation energies and smaller ionic radii than do the corresponding alkali metals. Furthermore, they have higher melting points, hardnesses, and densities, and lower reactivities and solubilities in liquid [ammonia](/wiki/Ammonia \"Ammonia\"), as well as having more covalent character in their compounds. Finally, the alkali metals are at the top of the [electrochemical series](/wiki/Electrochemical_series \"Electrochemical series\"), whereas the coinage metals are almost at the very bottom. The coinage metals' filled d shell is much more easily disrupted than the alkali metals' filled p shell, so that the second and third ionisation energies are lower, enabling higher oxidation states than \\+1 and a richer coordination chemistry, thus giving the group 11 metals clear [transition metal](/wiki/Transition_metal \"Transition metal\") character. Particularly noteworthy is gold forming ionic compounds with rubidium and caesium, in which it forms the auride ion (Au−) which also occurs in solvated form in liquid ammonia solution: here gold behaves as a [pseudohalogen](/wiki/Pseudohalogen \"Pseudohalogen\") because its 5d106s1 configuration has one electron less than the quasi\\-closed shell 5d106s2 configuration of [mercury](/wiki/Mercury_%28element%29 \"Mercury (element)\").\n\n", "Production and isolation\n------------------------\n\nThe production of pure alkali metals is somewhat complicated due to their extreme reactivity with commonly used substances, such as water. From their [silicate](/wiki/Silicate \"Silicate\") ores, all the stable alkali metals may be obtained the same way: [sulfuric acid](/wiki/Sulfuric_acid \"Sulfuric acid\") is first used to dissolve the desired alkali metal ion and aluminium(III) ions from the ore (leaching), whereupon basic precipitation removes aluminium ions from the mixture by precipitating it as the [hydroxide](/wiki/Aluminium_hydroxide \"Aluminium hydroxide\"). The remaining insoluble alkali metal [carbonate](/wiki/Carbonate \"Carbonate\") is then precipitated selectively; the salt is then dissolved in [hydrochloric acid](/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid \"Hydrochloric acid\") to produce the chloride. The result is then left to evaporate and the alkali metal can then be isolated. Lithium and sodium are typically isolated through electrolysis from their liquid chlorides, with [calcium chloride](/wiki/Calcium_chloride \"Calcium chloride\") typically added to lower the melting point of the mixture. The heavier alkali metals, however, are more typically isolated in a different way, where a reducing agent (typically sodium for potassium and [magnesium](/wiki/Magnesium \"Magnesium\") or [calcium](/wiki/Calcium \"Calcium\") for the heaviest alkali metals) is used to reduce the alkali metal chloride. The liquid or gaseous product (the alkali metal) then undergoes [fractional distillation](/wiki/Fractional_distillation \"Fractional distillation\") for purification. Most routes to the pure alkali metals require the use of electrolysis due to their high reactivity; one of the few which does not is the [pyrolysis](/wiki/Pyrolysis \"Pyrolysis\") of the corresponding alkali metal [azide](/wiki/Azide \"Azide\"), which yields the metal for sodium, potassium, rubidium, and caesium and the nitride for lithium.\n\nLithium salts have to be extracted from the water of [mineral springs](/wiki/Mineral_spring \"Mineral spring\"), [brine](/wiki/Brine \"Brine\") pools, and brine deposits. The metal is produced electrolytically from a mixture of fused [lithium chloride](/wiki/Lithium_chloride \"Lithium chloride\") and [potassium chloride](/wiki/Potassium_chloride \"Potassium chloride\").\n\nSodium occurs mostly in seawater and dried [seabed](/wiki/Seabed \"Seabed\"), but is now produced through [electrolysis](/wiki/Electrolysis \"Electrolysis\") of [sodium chloride](/wiki/Sodium_chloride \"Sodium chloride\") by lowering the melting point of the substance to below 700 °C through the use of a [Downs cell](/wiki/Downs_cell \"Downs cell\"). Extremely pure sodium can be produced through the thermal decomposition of [sodium azide](/wiki/Sodium_azide \"Sodium azide\").Merck Index, 9th ed., monograph 8325 Potassium occurs in many minerals, such as [sylvite](/wiki/Sylvite \"Sylvite\") ([potassium chloride](/wiki/Potassium_chloride \"Potassium chloride\")). Previously, potassium was generally made from the electrolysis of [potassium chloride](/wiki/Potassium_chloride \"Potassium chloride\") or [potassium hydroxide](/wiki/Potassium_hydroxide \"Potassium hydroxide\"), found extensively in places such as Canada, Russia, Belarus, Germany, Israel, United States, and Jordan, in a method similar to how sodium was produced in the late 1800s and early 1900s. It can also be produced from [seawater](/wiki/Seawater \"Seawater\"). However, these methods are problematic because the potassium metal tends to dissolve in its molten chloride and vaporises significantly at the operating temperatures, potentially forming the explosive superoxide. As a result, pure potassium metal is now produced by reducing molten potassium chloride with sodium metal at 850 °C.\nNa (g) \\+ KCl (l) NaCl (l) \\+ K (g)\nAlthough sodium is less reactive than potassium, this process works because at such high temperatures potassium is more volatile than sodium and can easily be distilled off, so that the equilibrium shifts towards the right to produce more potassium gas and proceeds almost to completion.\n\nMetals like sodium are obtained by electrolysis of molten salts. Rb \\& Cs obtained mainly as by products of Li processing. To make pure caesium, ores of caesium and rubidium are crushed and heated to 650 °C with sodium metal, generating an alloy that can then be separated via a [fractional distillation](/wiki/Fractional_distillation \"Fractional distillation\") technique. Because metallic caesium is too reactive to handle, it is normally offered as [caesium azide](/wiki/Caesium_azide \"Caesium azide\") (CsN3\\). [Caesium hydroxide](/wiki/Caesium_hydroxide \"Caesium hydroxide\") is formed when caesium interacts aggressively with water and ice (CsOH).\n\n[Rubidium](/wiki/Rubidium \"Rubidium\") is the 16th most abundant element in the earth's crust; however, it is quite rare. Some minerals found in North America, South Africa, Russia, and Canada contain rubidium. Some potassium minerals ([lepidolites](/wiki/Lepidolite \"Lepidolite\"), [biotites](/wiki/Biotite \"Biotite\"), [feldspar](/wiki/Feldspar \"Feldspar\"), [carnallite](/wiki/Carnallite \"Carnallite\")) contain it, together with caesium. [Pollucite](/wiki/Pollucite \"Pollucite\"), [carnallite](/wiki/Carnallite \"Carnallite\"), [leucite](/wiki/Leucite \"Leucite\"), and [lepidolite](/wiki/Lepidolite \"Lepidolite\") are all minerals that contain rubidium. As a by\\-product of lithium extraction, it is commercially obtained from [lepidolite](/wiki/Lepidolite \"Lepidolite\"). Rubidium is also found in potassium rocks and [brines](/wiki/Brine \"Brine\"), which is a commercial supply. The majority of rubidium is now obtained as a byproduct of refining lithium. Rubidium is used in [vacuum tubes](/wiki/Vacuum_tube \"Vacuum tube\") as a [getter](/wiki/Getter \"Getter\"), a material that combines with and removes trace gases from vacuum tubes.Liu, Jinlian \\& Yin, Zhoulan \\& Li, Xinhai \\& Hu, Qiyang \\& Liu, Wei. (2019\\). A novel process for the selective precipitation of valuable metals from lepidolite. Minerals Engineering. 135\\. 29–36\\. 10\\.1016/j.mineng.2018\\.11\\.046\\.[thumb\\|This sample of [uraninite](/wiki/Uraninite \"Uraninite\") contains about 100,000 atoms (3\\.3 g) of francium\\-223 at any given time.\\|alt\\=A shiny gray 5\\-centimeter piece of matter with a rough surface.](/wiki/File:Pichblende.jpg \"Pichblende.jpg\")\nFor several years in the 1950s and 1960s, a by\\-product of the potassium production called Alkarb was a main source for rubidium. Alkarb contained 21% rubidium while the rest was potassium and a small fraction of caesium. Today the largest producers of caesium, for example the [Tanco Mine](/wiki/Tanco_Mine \"Tanco Mine\") in Manitoba, Canada, produce rubidium as by\\-product from [pollucite](/wiki/Pollucite \"Pollucite\"). Today, a common method for separating rubidium from potassium and caesium is the [fractional crystallisation](/wiki/Fractional_crystallization_%28chemistry%29 \"Fractional crystallization (chemistry)\") of a rubidium and caesium [alum](/wiki/Alum \"Alum\") ([Cs](/wiki/Caesium \"Caesium\"), [Rb](/wiki/Rubidium \"Rubidium\"))[Al](/wiki/Aluminium \"Aluminium\")([SO4](/wiki/Sulfate \"Sulfate\"))2·12[H2O](/wiki/Water \"Water\"), which yields pure rubidium alum after approximately 30 recrystallisations. The limited applications and the lack of a mineral rich in rubidium limit the production of rubidium compounds to 2 to 4 [tonnes](/wiki/Tonne \"Tonne\") per year. Caesium, however, is not produced from the above reaction. Instead, the mining of [pollucite](/wiki/Pollucite \"Pollucite\") ore is the main method of obtaining pure caesium, extracted from the ore mainly by three methods: acid digestion, alkaline decomposition, and direct reduction. Both metals are produced as by\\-products of lithium production: after 1958, when interest in lithium's thermonuclear properties increased sharply, the production of rubidium and caesium also increased correspondingly. Pure rubidium and caesium metals are produced by reducing their chlorides with [calcium](/wiki/Calcium \"Calcium\") metal at 750 °C and low pressure.\n\nAs a result of its extreme rarity in nature, most francium is synthesised in the nuclear reaction 197[Au](/wiki/Gold \"Gold\") \\+ 18[O](/wiki/Oxygen \"Oxygen\") → 210[Fr](/wiki/Francium \"Francium\") \\+ 5 [n](/wiki/Neutron \"Neutron\"), yielding [francium\\-209](/wiki/Francium-209 \"Francium-209\"), [francium\\-210](/wiki/Francium-210 \"Francium-210\"), and [francium\\-211](/wiki/Francium-211 \"Francium-211\"). The greatest quantity of francium ever assembled to date is about 300,000 neutral atoms, which were synthesised using the nuclear reaction given above. When the only natural isotope francium\\-223 is specifically required, it is produced as the alpha daughter of actinium\\-227, itself produced synthetically from the neutron irradiation of natural radium\\-226, one of the daughters of natural uranium\\-238\\.\n\n", "Applications\n------------\n\nLithium, sodium, and potassium have many useful applications, while rubidium and caesium are very notable in academic contexts but do not have many applications yet. Lithium is the key ingredient for a [range of lithium\\-based batteries](/wiki/Lithium_battery \"Lithium battery\"), and [lithium oxide](/wiki/Lithium_oxide \"Lithium oxide\") can help process silica. [Lithium stearate](/wiki/Lithium_stearate \"Lithium stearate\") is a thickener and can be used to make lubricating greases; it is produced from lithium hydroxide, which is also used to absorb [carbon dioxide](/wiki/Carbon_dioxide \"Carbon dioxide\") in space capsules and submarines. [Lithium chloride](/wiki/Lithium_chloride \"Lithium chloride\") is used as a brazing alloy for aluminium parts. In medicine, some [lithium salts](/wiki/Lithium_%28medication%29 \"Lithium (medication)\") are used as mood\\-stabilising pharmaceuticals. Metallic lithium is used in alloys with magnesium and aluminium to give very tough and light alloys.\n\nSodium compounds have many applications, the most well\\-known being sodium chloride as [table salt](/wiki/Table_salt \"Table salt\"). Sodium salts of [fatty acids](/wiki/Fatty_acid \"Fatty acid\") are used as soap. Pure sodium metal also has many applications, including use in [sodium\\-vapour lamps](/wiki/Sodium-vapor_lamp \"Sodium-vapor lamp\"), which produce very efficient light compared to other types of lighting, and can help smooth the surface of other metals. Being a strong reducing agent, it is often used to reduce many other metals, such as [titanium](/wiki/Titanium \"Titanium\") and [zirconium](/wiki/Zirconium \"Zirconium\"), from their chlorides. Furthermore, it is very useful as a heat\\-exchange liquid in [fast breeder nuclear reactors](/wiki/Fast_breeder_nuclear_reactor \"Fast breeder nuclear reactor\") due to its low melting point, viscosity, and [cross\\-section](/wiki/Cross-section_%28physics%29 \"Cross-section (physics)\") towards neutron absorption. [Sodium\\-ion batteries](/wiki/Sodium-ion_batteries \"Sodium-ion batteries\") may provide cheaper alternatives to their equivalent lithium\\-based cells. Both sodium and potassium are commonly used as [GRAS](/wiki/GRAS \"GRAS\") counterions to create more water\\-soluble and hence more bioavailable salt forms of acidic pharmaceuticals.\n\nPotassium compounds are often used as [fertilisers](/wiki/Fertiliser \"Fertiliser\") as potassium is an important element for plant nutrition. [Potassium hydroxide](/wiki/Potassium_hydroxide \"Potassium hydroxide\") is a very strong base, and is used to control the [pH](/wiki/PH \"PH\") of various substances. [Potassium nitrate](/wiki/Potassium_nitrate \"Potassium nitrate\") and [potassium permanganate](/wiki/Potassium_permanganate \"Potassium permanganate\") are often used as powerful oxidising agents. [Potassium superoxide](/wiki/Potassium_superoxide \"Potassium superoxide\") is used in breathing masks, as it reacts with carbon dioxide to give potassium carbonate and oxygen gas. Pure potassium metal is not often used, but its alloys with sodium may substitute for pure sodium in fast breeder nuclear reactors.\n\nRubidium and caesium are often used in [atomic clocks](/wiki/Atomic_clock \"Atomic clock\"). Caesium atomic clocks are extraordinarily accurate; if a clock had been made at the time of the dinosaurs, it would be off by less than four seconds (after 80 million years). For that reason, caesium atoms are used as the definition of the second. Rubidium ions are often used in purple [fireworks](/wiki/Firework \"Firework\"), and caesium is often used in drilling fluids in the petroleum industry.\n\nFrancium has no commercial applications, but because of francium's relatively simple [atomic structure](/wiki/Atomic_structure \"Atomic structure\"), among other things, it has been used in [spectroscopy](/wiki/Spectroscopy \"Spectroscopy\") experiments, leading to more information regarding [energy levels](/wiki/Energy_level \"Energy level\") and the [coupling constants](/wiki/Coupling_constant \"Coupling constant\") between [subatomic particles](/wiki/Subatomic_particle \"Subatomic particle\"). Studies on the light emitted by laser\\-trapped francium\\-210 ions have provided accurate data on transitions between atomic energy levels, similar to those predicted by [quantum theory](/wiki/Quantum_mechanics \"Quantum mechanics\").\n\n", "Biological role and precautions\n-------------------------------\n\n### Metals\n\nPure alkali metals are dangerously reactive with air and water and must be kept away from heat, fire, oxidising agents, acids, most organic compounds, [halocarbons](/wiki/Halocarbon \"Halocarbon\"), plastics, and moisture. They also react with carbon dioxide and carbon tetrachloride, so that normal fire extinguishers are counterproductive when used on alkali metal fires. Some Class D dry powder [extinguishers](/wiki/Fire_extinguisher \"Fire extinguisher\") designed for metal fires are effective, depriving the fire of oxygen and cooling the alkali metal.\n\nExperiments are usually conducted using only small quantities of a few grams in a [fume hood](/wiki/Fume_hood \"Fume hood\"). Small quantities of lithium may be disposed of by reaction with cool water, but the heavier alkali metals should be dissolved in the less reactive [isopropanol](/wiki/Isopropanol \"Isopropanol\"). The alkali metals must be stored under [mineral oil](/wiki/Mineral_oil \"Mineral oil\") or an inert atmosphere. The inert atmosphere used may be [argon](/wiki/Argon \"Argon\") or nitrogen gas, except for lithium, which reacts with nitrogen. Rubidium and caesium must be kept away from air, even under oil, because even a small amount of air diffused into the oil may trigger formation of the dangerously explosive peroxide; for the same reason, potassium should not be stored under oil in an oxygen\\-containing atmosphere for longer than 6 months.\n\n### Ions\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|[Lithium carbonate](/wiki/Lithium_carbonate \"Lithium carbonate\")](/wiki/File:Lithium_carbonate.jpg \"Lithium carbonate.jpg\")\nThe bioinorganic chemistry of the alkali metal ions has been extensively reviewed.\nSolid state crystal structures have been determined for many complexes of alkali metal ions in small peptides, nucleic acid constituents, carbohydrates and ionophore complexes.\n\nLithium naturally only occurs in traces in biological systems and has no known biological role, but does have effects on the body when ingested. [Lithium carbonate](/wiki/Lithium_carbonate \"Lithium carbonate\") is used as a [mood stabiliser](/wiki/Mood_stabiliser \"Mood stabiliser\") in [psychiatry](/wiki/Psychiatry \"Psychiatry\") to treat [bipolar disorder](/wiki/Bipolar_disorder \"Bipolar disorder\") ([manic\\-depression](/wiki/Manic-depression \"Manic-depression\")) in daily doses of about 0\\.5 to 2 grams, although there are side\\-effects. Excessive ingestion of lithium causes drowsiness, slurred speech and vomiting, among other symptoms, and [poisons](/wiki/Poison \"Poison\") the [central nervous system](/wiki/Central_nervous_system \"Central nervous system\"), which is dangerous as the required dosage of lithium to treat bipolar disorder is only slightly lower than the toxic dosage. Its biochemistry, the way it is handled by the human body and studies using rats and goats suggest that it is an [essential](/wiki/Essential_element \"Essential element\") [trace element](/wiki/Trace_element \"Trace element\"), although the natural biological function of lithium in humans has yet to be identified.\n\nSodium and potassium occur in all known biological systems, generally functioning as [electrolytes](/wiki/Electrolytes \"Electrolytes\") inside and outside [cells](/wiki/Cell_%28biology%29 \"Cell (biology)\"). Sodium is an essential nutrient that regulates blood volume, blood pressure, osmotic equilibrium and [pH](/wiki/PH \"PH\"); the minimum physiological requirement for sodium is 500 milligrams per day. [Sodium chloride](/wiki/Sodium_chloride \"Sodium chloride\") (also known as common salt) is the principal source of sodium in the diet, and is used as seasoning and preservative, such as for [pickling](/wiki/Pickling \"Pickling\") and [jerky](/wiki/Jerky \"Jerky\"); most of it comes from processed foods. The [Dietary Reference Intake](/wiki/Dietary_Reference_Intake \"Dietary Reference Intake\") for sodium is 1\\.5 grams per day, but most people in the United States consume more than 2\\.3 grams per day, the minimum amount that promotes hypertension; this in turn causes 7\\.6 million premature deaths worldwide.\n\nPotassium is the major [cation](/wiki/Cation \"Cation\") (positive ion) inside [animal cells](/wiki/Cell_%28biology%29 \"Cell (biology)\"), while sodium is the major cation outside animal cells. The [concentration](/wiki/Concentration \"Concentration\") differences of these charged particles causes a difference in [electric potential](/wiki/Electric_potential \"Electric potential\") between the inside and outside of cells, known as the [membrane potential](/wiki/Membrane_potential \"Membrane potential\"). The balance between potassium and sodium is maintained by [ion transporter](/wiki/Ion_transporter \"Ion transporter\") proteins in the [cell membrane](/wiki/Cell_membrane \"Cell membrane\"). The cell membrane potential created by potassium and sodium ions allows the cell to generate an [action potential](/wiki/Action_potential \"Action potential\")—a \"spike\" of electrical discharge. The ability of cells to produce electrical discharge is critical for body functions such as [neurotransmission](/wiki/Neurotransmission \"Neurotransmission\"), muscle contraction, and heart function. Disruption of this balance may thus be fatal: for example, ingestion of large amounts of potassium compounds can lead to [hyperkalemia](/wiki/Hyperkalemia \"Hyperkalemia\") strongly influencing the cardiovascular system. Potassium chloride is used in the United States for [lethal injection](/wiki/Lethal_injection \"Lethal injection\") executions.\n\n[thumb\\|400px\\|right\\|A wheel type radiotherapy device which has a long [collimator](/wiki/Collimator \"Collimator\") to focus the radiation into a narrow beam. The caesium\\-137 chloride radioactive source is the blue square, and gamma rays are represented by the beam emerging from the aperture. This was the radiation source involved in the Goiânia accident, containing about 93 grams of caesium\\-137 chloride.](/wiki/File:Goi%C3%A2niaRadiationsource.gif \"GoiâniaRadiationsource.gif\")\nDue to their similar atomic radii, rubidium and caesium in the body mimic potassium and are taken up similarly. Rubidium has no known biological role, but may help stimulate [metabolism](/wiki/Metabolism \"Metabolism\"), and, similarly to caesium, replace potassium in the body causing [potassium deficiency](/wiki/Hypokalemia \"Hypokalemia\"). Partial substitution is quite possible and rather non\\-toxic: a 70 kg person contains on average 0\\.36 g of rubidium, and an increase in this value by 50 to 100 times did not show negative effects in test persons. Rats can survive up to 50% substitution of potassium by rubidium. Rubidium (and to a much lesser extent caesium) can function as temporary cures for hypokalemia; while rubidium can adequately physiologically substitute potassium in some systems, caesium is never able to do so. There is only very limited evidence in the form of deficiency symptoms for rubidium being possibly essential in goats; even if this is true, the trace amounts usually present in food are more than enough.\n\nCaesium compounds are rarely encountered by most people, but most caesium compounds are mildly toxic. Like rubidium, caesium tends to substitute potassium in the body, but is significantly larger and is therefore a poorer substitute. Excess caesium can lead to [hypokalemia](/wiki/Hypokalemia \"Hypokalemia\"), [arrhythmia](/wiki/Arrhythmia \"Arrhythmia\"), and acute cardiac arrest, but such amounts would not ordinarily be encountered in natural sources. As such, caesium is not a major chemical environmental pollutant. The [median lethal dose](/wiki/Median_lethal_dose \"Median lethal dose\") (LD50) value for [caesium chloride](/wiki/Caesium_chloride \"Caesium chloride\") in mice is 2\\.3 g per kilogram, which is comparable to the LD50 values of [potassium chloride](/wiki/Potassium_chloride \"Potassium chloride\") and [sodium chloride](/wiki/Sodium_chloride \"Sodium chloride\"). Caesium chloride has been promoted as an alternative cancer therapy, but has been linked to the deaths of over 50 patients, on whom it was used as part of a scientifically unvalidated cancer treatment.Wood, Leonie. \n\n[Radioisotopes](/wiki/Radioisotope \"Radioisotope\") of caesium require special precautions: the improper handling of caesium\\-137 [gamma ray](/wiki/Gamma_ray \"Gamma ray\") sources can lead to release of this radioisotope and radiation injuries. Perhaps the best\\-known case is the Goiânia accident of 1987, in which an improperly\\-disposed\\-of radiation therapy system from an abandoned clinic in the city of [Goiânia](/wiki/Goi%C3%A2nia \"Goiânia\"), Brazil, was scavenged from a junkyard, and the glowing [caesium salt](/wiki/Caesium_chloride \"Caesium chloride\") sold to curious, uneducated buyers. This led to four deaths and serious injuries from radiation exposure. Together with [caesium\\-134](/wiki/Caesium-134 \"Caesium-134\"), [iodine\\-131](/wiki/Iodine-131 \"Iodine-131\"), and [strontium\\-90](/wiki/Strontium-90 \"Strontium-90\"), caesium\\-137 was among the isotopes distributed by the [Chernobyl disaster](/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster \"Chernobyl disaster\") which constitute the greatest risk to health. Radioisotopes of francium would presumably be dangerous as well due to their high decay energy and short half\\-life, but none have been produced in large enough amounts to pose any serious risk.\n\n", "### Metals\n\nPure alkali metals are dangerously reactive with air and water and must be kept away from heat, fire, oxidising agents, acids, most organic compounds, [halocarbons](/wiki/Halocarbon \"Halocarbon\"), plastics, and moisture. They also react with carbon dioxide and carbon tetrachloride, so that normal fire extinguishers are counterproductive when used on alkali metal fires. Some Class D dry powder [extinguishers](/wiki/Fire_extinguisher \"Fire extinguisher\") designed for metal fires are effective, depriving the fire of oxygen and cooling the alkali metal.\n\nExperiments are usually conducted using only small quantities of a few grams in a [fume hood](/wiki/Fume_hood \"Fume hood\"). Small quantities of lithium may be disposed of by reaction with cool water, but the heavier alkali metals should be dissolved in the less reactive [isopropanol](/wiki/Isopropanol \"Isopropanol\"). The alkali metals must be stored under [mineral oil](/wiki/Mineral_oil \"Mineral oil\") or an inert atmosphere. The inert atmosphere used may be [argon](/wiki/Argon \"Argon\") or nitrogen gas, except for lithium, which reacts with nitrogen. Rubidium and caesium must be kept away from air, even under oil, because even a small amount of air diffused into the oil may trigger formation of the dangerously explosive peroxide; for the same reason, potassium should not be stored under oil in an oxygen\\-containing atmosphere for longer than 6 months.\n\n", "### Ions\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|[Lithium carbonate](/wiki/Lithium_carbonate \"Lithium carbonate\")](/wiki/File:Lithium_carbonate.jpg \"Lithium carbonate.jpg\")\nThe bioinorganic chemistry of the alkali metal ions has been extensively reviewed.\nSolid state crystal structures have been determined for many complexes of alkali metal ions in small peptides, nucleic acid constituents, carbohydrates and ionophore complexes.\n\nLithium naturally only occurs in traces in biological systems and has no known biological role, but does have effects on the body when ingested. [Lithium carbonate](/wiki/Lithium_carbonate \"Lithium carbonate\") is used as a [mood stabiliser](/wiki/Mood_stabiliser \"Mood stabiliser\") in [psychiatry](/wiki/Psychiatry \"Psychiatry\") to treat [bipolar disorder](/wiki/Bipolar_disorder \"Bipolar disorder\") ([manic\\-depression](/wiki/Manic-depression \"Manic-depression\")) in daily doses of about 0\\.5 to 2 grams, although there are side\\-effects. Excessive ingestion of lithium causes drowsiness, slurred speech and vomiting, among other symptoms, and [poisons](/wiki/Poison \"Poison\") the [central nervous system](/wiki/Central_nervous_system \"Central nervous system\"), which is dangerous as the required dosage of lithium to treat bipolar disorder is only slightly lower than the toxic dosage. Its biochemistry, the way it is handled by the human body and studies using rats and goats suggest that it is an [essential](/wiki/Essential_element \"Essential element\") [trace element](/wiki/Trace_element \"Trace element\"), although the natural biological function of lithium in humans has yet to be identified.\n\nSodium and potassium occur in all known biological systems, generally functioning as [electrolytes](/wiki/Electrolytes \"Electrolytes\") inside and outside [cells](/wiki/Cell_%28biology%29 \"Cell (biology)\"). Sodium is an essential nutrient that regulates blood volume, blood pressure, osmotic equilibrium and [pH](/wiki/PH \"PH\"); the minimum physiological requirement for sodium is 500 milligrams per day. [Sodium chloride](/wiki/Sodium_chloride \"Sodium chloride\") (also known as common salt) is the principal source of sodium in the diet, and is used as seasoning and preservative, such as for [pickling](/wiki/Pickling \"Pickling\") and [jerky](/wiki/Jerky \"Jerky\"); most of it comes from processed foods. The [Dietary Reference Intake](/wiki/Dietary_Reference_Intake \"Dietary Reference Intake\") for sodium is 1\\.5 grams per day, but most people in the United States consume more than 2\\.3 grams per day, the minimum amount that promotes hypertension; this in turn causes 7\\.6 million premature deaths worldwide.\n\nPotassium is the major [cation](/wiki/Cation \"Cation\") (positive ion) inside [animal cells](/wiki/Cell_%28biology%29 \"Cell (biology)\"), while sodium is the major cation outside animal cells. The [concentration](/wiki/Concentration \"Concentration\") differences of these charged particles causes a difference in [electric potential](/wiki/Electric_potential \"Electric potential\") between the inside and outside of cells, known as the [membrane potential](/wiki/Membrane_potential \"Membrane potential\"). The balance between potassium and sodium is maintained by [ion transporter](/wiki/Ion_transporter \"Ion transporter\") proteins in the [cell membrane](/wiki/Cell_membrane \"Cell membrane\"). The cell membrane potential created by potassium and sodium ions allows the cell to generate an [action potential](/wiki/Action_potential \"Action potential\")—a \"spike\" of electrical discharge. The ability of cells to produce electrical discharge is critical for body functions such as [neurotransmission](/wiki/Neurotransmission \"Neurotransmission\"), muscle contraction, and heart function. Disruption of this balance may thus be fatal: for example, ingestion of large amounts of potassium compounds can lead to [hyperkalemia](/wiki/Hyperkalemia \"Hyperkalemia\") strongly influencing the cardiovascular system. Potassium chloride is used in the United States for [lethal injection](/wiki/Lethal_injection \"Lethal injection\") executions.\n\n[thumb\\|400px\\|right\\|A wheel type radiotherapy device which has a long [collimator](/wiki/Collimator \"Collimator\") to focus the radiation into a narrow beam. The caesium\\-137 chloride radioactive source is the blue square, and gamma rays are represented by the beam emerging from the aperture. This was the radiation source involved in the Goiânia accident, containing about 93 grams of caesium\\-137 chloride.](/wiki/File:Goi%C3%A2niaRadiationsource.gif \"GoiâniaRadiationsource.gif\")\nDue to their similar atomic radii, rubidium and caesium in the body mimic potassium and are taken up similarly. Rubidium has no known biological role, but may help stimulate [metabolism](/wiki/Metabolism \"Metabolism\"), and, similarly to caesium, replace potassium in the body causing [potassium deficiency](/wiki/Hypokalemia \"Hypokalemia\"). Partial substitution is quite possible and rather non\\-toxic: a 70 kg person contains on average 0\\.36 g of rubidium, and an increase in this value by 50 to 100 times did not show negative effects in test persons. Rats can survive up to 50% substitution of potassium by rubidium. Rubidium (and to a much lesser extent caesium) can function as temporary cures for hypokalemia; while rubidium can adequately physiologically substitute potassium in some systems, caesium is never able to do so. There is only very limited evidence in the form of deficiency symptoms for rubidium being possibly essential in goats; even if this is true, the trace amounts usually present in food are more than enough.\n\nCaesium compounds are rarely encountered by most people, but most caesium compounds are mildly toxic. Like rubidium, caesium tends to substitute potassium in the body, but is significantly larger and is therefore a poorer substitute. Excess caesium can lead to [hypokalemia](/wiki/Hypokalemia \"Hypokalemia\"), [arrhythmia](/wiki/Arrhythmia \"Arrhythmia\"), and acute cardiac arrest, but such amounts would not ordinarily be encountered in natural sources. As such, caesium is not a major chemical environmental pollutant. The [median lethal dose](/wiki/Median_lethal_dose \"Median lethal dose\") (LD50) value for [caesium chloride](/wiki/Caesium_chloride \"Caesium chloride\") in mice is 2\\.3 g per kilogram, which is comparable to the LD50 values of [potassium chloride](/wiki/Potassium_chloride \"Potassium chloride\") and [sodium chloride](/wiki/Sodium_chloride \"Sodium chloride\"). Caesium chloride has been promoted as an alternative cancer therapy, but has been linked to the deaths of over 50 patients, on whom it was used as part of a scientifically unvalidated cancer treatment.Wood, Leonie. \n\n[Radioisotopes](/wiki/Radioisotope \"Radioisotope\") of caesium require special precautions: the improper handling of caesium\\-137 [gamma ray](/wiki/Gamma_ray \"Gamma ray\") sources can lead to release of this radioisotope and radiation injuries. Perhaps the best\\-known case is the Goiânia accident of 1987, in which an improperly\\-disposed\\-of radiation therapy system from an abandoned clinic in the city of [Goiânia](/wiki/Goi%C3%A2nia \"Goiânia\"), Brazil, was scavenged from a junkyard, and the glowing [caesium salt](/wiki/Caesium_chloride \"Caesium chloride\") sold to curious, uneducated buyers. This led to four deaths and serious injuries from radiation exposure. Together with [caesium\\-134](/wiki/Caesium-134 \"Caesium-134\"), [iodine\\-131](/wiki/Iodine-131 \"Iodine-131\"), and [strontium\\-90](/wiki/Strontium-90 \"Strontium-90\"), caesium\\-137 was among the isotopes distributed by the [Chernobyl disaster](/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster \"Chernobyl disaster\") which constitute the greatest risk to health. Radioisotopes of francium would presumably be dangerous as well due to their high decay energy and short half\\-life, but none have been produced in large enough amounts to pose any serious risk.\n\n", "Notes\n-----\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n[A](/wiki/Category:Chemical_compounds_by_element \"Chemical compounds by element\")\n\n[Category:Groups (periodic table)](/wiki/Category:Groups_%28periodic_table%29 \"Groups (periodic table)\")\n[Category:Periodic table](/wiki/Category:Periodic_table \"Periodic table\")\n[Category:Articles containing video clips](/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_video_clips \"Articles containing video clips\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ null ], "name": [ "2601:205:4802:B860:4CDB:67D7:13BA:7246" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Vehicle description", "Cryogenic main stage", "Solid boosters", "Second stage", "Fairing", "Variants", "Launch pricing and market competition", "Cancelled plans for future developments", "Ariane 5 ME", "Development", "Solid propellant stage", "Ariane 6", "Notable launches", "GTO payload weight records", "VA241 anomaly", "Launch history", "Launch statistics", "Rocket configurations", "Launch outcomes", "List of launches", "See also", "Notes", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, 2, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n* + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * \n\n**Ariane 5** is a retired European [heavy\\-lift space launch vehicle](/wiki/Heavy-lift_launch_vehicle \"Heavy-lift launch vehicle\") developed and operated by [Arianespace](/wiki/Arianespace \"Arianespace\") for the [European Space Agency](/wiki/European_Space_Agency \"European Space Agency\") (ESA). It was launched from the [Guiana Space Centre](/wiki/Guiana_Space_Centre \"Guiana Space Centre\") (CSG) in [French Guiana](/wiki/French_Guiana \"French Guiana\"). It was used to deliver payloads into [geostationary transfer orbit](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") (GTO), [low Earth orbit](/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit \"Low Earth orbit\") (LEO) or further into space. The launch vehicle had a streak of 82 consecutive successful launches between 9 April 2003 and 12 December 2017\\. Since 2014, [Ariane 6](/wiki/Ariane_6 \"Ariane 6\"), a direct successor system, first launched in 2024\\.\n\nThe system was designed as an expendable launch system by the *[Centre national d'études spatiales](/wiki/Centre_national_d%27%C3%A9tudes_spatiales \"Centre national d'études spatiales\")* (CNES), the [French](/wiki/Government_of_France \"Government of France\") government's space agency, in cooperation with various European partners. Despite not being a direct derivative of its predecessor launch vehicle program, it was classified as part of the [Ariane rocket family](/wiki/Ariane_%28rocket_family%29 \"Ariane (rocket family)\"). [ArianeGroup](/wiki/ArianeGroup \"ArianeGroup\") was the prime contractor for the manufacturing of the vehicles, leading a multi\\-country consortium of other European contractors. Ariane 5 was originally intended to launch the [Hermes](/wiki/Hermes_%28spacecraft%29 \"Hermes (spacecraft)\") spacecraft, and thus it was [rated for human space launches](/wiki/Human-rating_certification \"Human-rating certification\").\n\nSince its first launch, Ariane 5 was refined in successive versions: \"G\", \"G\\+\", \"GS\", \"ECA\", and finally, \"ES\". The system had a commonly used dual\\-launch capability, where up to two large geostationary belt [communication satellites](/wiki/Communication_satellite \"Communication satellite\") can be mounted using a **SYLDA** (*Système de Lancement Double Ariane*, meaning \"Ariane Double\\-Launch System\") carrier system. Up to three, somewhat smaller, main satellites are possible depending on size using a **SPELTRA** (*Structure Porteuse Externe Lancement Triple Ariane*, which translates to \"Ariane Triple\\-Launch External Carrier Structure\"). Up to eight secondary payloads, usually small experiment packages or [minisatellites](/wiki/Miniaturized_satellite \"Miniaturized satellite\"), could be carried with an **ASAP** (Ariane Structure for Auxiliary Payloads) platform.\n\nFollowing the launch of 15 August 2020, Arianespace signed the contracts for the last eight Ariane 5 launches, before it was succeeded by the new [Ariane 6](/wiki/Ariane_6 \"Ariane 6\") launcher, according to Daniel Neuenschwander, director of space transportation at the ESA. Ariane 5 flew its final mission on 5 July 2023\\.\n\n", "Vehicle description\n-------------------\n\n### Cryogenic main stage\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\|left\\|[Vulcain engine](/wiki/Vulcain_%28rocket_engine%29 \"Vulcain (rocket engine)\")](/wiki/File:SNECMA_Vulcain_II.jpg \"SNECMA Vulcain II.jpg\")\n\nAriane 5's [cryogenic](/wiki/Cryogenics \"Cryogenics\") H173 main stage (H158 for Ariane 5G, G\\+, and GS) was called the EPC (*Étage Principal Cryotechnique* — Cryotechnic Main Stage). It consisted of a diameter by high tank with two compartments, one for [liquid oxygen](/wiki/Liquid_oxygen \"Liquid oxygen\") and one for [liquid hydrogen](/wiki/Liquid_hydrogen \"Liquid hydrogen\"), and a [Vulcain 2](/wiki/Vulcain_%28rocket_engine%29 \"Vulcain (rocket engine)\") engine at the base with a vacuum thrust of . The H173 EPC weighed about , including of propellant. After the main cryogenic stage runs out of fuel, it re\\-entered the atmosphere for an ocean splashdown.\n\n### Solid boosters\n\nAttached to the sides were two P241 (P238 for Ariane 5G and G\\+) [solid rocket boosters](/wiki/Solid_rocket_booster \"Solid rocket booster\") (SRBs or EAPs from the French *Étages d'Accélération à Poudre*), each weighing about full and delivering a thrust of about . They were fueled by a mix of [ammonium perchlorate](/wiki/Ammonium_perchlorate \"Ammonium perchlorate\") (68%) and aluminium fuel (18%) and [HTPB](/wiki/Hydroxyl-terminated_polybutadiene \"Hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene\") (14%). They each burned for 130 seconds before being dropped into the ocean. The SRBs were usually allowed to sink to the bottom of the ocean, but, like the [Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters](/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Solid_Rocket_Booster \"Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster\"), they could be recovered with parachutes, and this was occasionally done for post\\-flight analysis. Unlike Space Shuttle SRBs, Ariane 5 boosters were not reused. The most recent attempt was for the first Ariane 5 ECA mission in 2009\\. One of the two boosters was successfully recovered and returned to the Guiana Space Center for analysis. Prior to that mission, the last such recovery and testing was done in 2003\\.\n\nThe French [M51](/wiki/M51_%28missile%29 \"M51 (missile)\") [submarine\\-launched ballistic missile (SLBM)](/wiki/Submarine-launched_ballistic_missile \"Submarine-launched ballistic missile\") shared a substantial amount of technology with these boosters.\n\nIn February 2000, the suspected [nose cone](/wiki/Nose_cone \"Nose cone\") of an Ariane 5 booster washed ashore on the [South Texas](/wiki/South_Texas \"South Texas\") coast, and was recovered by [beachcombers](/wiki/Beachcombing \"Beachcombing\") before the government could get to it.\n\n### Second stage\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\|left\\|EPS Upper Stage used on Ariane 5ES](/wiki/File:Ariane_5_EPS_Upper_Stage.jpg \"Ariane 5 EPS Upper Stage.jpg\")\n\nThe second stage was on top of the main stage and below the payload. The original Ariane — Ariane 5G — used the EPS (*Étage à Propergols Stockables* — Storable Propellant Stage), which was fueled by [monomethylhydrazine](/wiki/Monomethylhydrazine \"Monomethylhydrazine\") (MMH) and [nitrogen tetroxide](/wiki/Nitrogen_tetroxide \"Nitrogen tetroxide\"), containing of [storable propellant](/wiki/Storable_propellant \"Storable propellant\"). The EPS was subsequently improved for use on the Ariane 5G\\+, GS, and ES.\n\nThe EPS upper stage was capable of repeated ignition, first demonstrated during flight V26 which was launched on 5 October 2007\\. This was purely to test the engine, and occurred after the payloads had been deployed. The first operational use of restart capability as part of a mission came on 9 March 2008, when two burns were made to deploy the first [Automated Transfer Vehicle](/wiki/Automated_Transfer_Vehicle \"Automated Transfer Vehicle\") (ATV) into a circular parking orbit, followed by a third burn after ATV deployment to de\\-orbit the stage. This procedure was repeated for all subsequent ATV flights.\n\nAriane 5ECA used the ESC (*Étage Supérieur Cryotechnique* — Cryogenic Upper Stage), which was fueled by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. The ESC used the [HM7B](/wiki/HM7B \"HM7B\") engine previously used in the Ariane 4 third stage. The propellent load of 14\\.7 tonne allowed the engine to burn for 945 seconds while providing 6\\.5 tonne of thrust. The ESC provided roll control during powered flight and full attitude control during payload separation using hydrogen gas thrusters. Oxygen gas thrusters allowed longitudinal acceleration after engine cutoff. The flight assembly included the Vehicle Equipment Bay, with flight electronics for the entire rocket, and the payload interface and structural support.European Space Agency, \"Ariane 5ECA\": <http://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Space_Transportation/Launch_vehicles/Ariane_5_ECA2> Discussed in context of other launch vehicles in Gérard Maral, Michel Bousquet, and Zhili Sun, *Satellite Communications Systems: Systems, Techniques and Technology*, sixth edition, London: Wiley, 2020 [ESC\\-A – Cryogenic upper stage](https://www.arianespace.com/?popup=ariane-5-4), accessed December 27, 2021\n\n### Fairing\n\nThe payload and all upper stages were covered at launch by a fairing for aerodynamic stability and protection from heating during supersonic flight and acoustic loads. It was jettisoned once sufficient altitude has been reached, typically above . It was made by [Ruag Space](/wiki/RUAG_Space \"RUAG Space\") and since flight VA\\-238 it was composed of 4 panels.\n\n", "### Cryogenic main stage\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\|left\\|[Vulcain engine](/wiki/Vulcain_%28rocket_engine%29 \"Vulcain (rocket engine)\")](/wiki/File:SNECMA_Vulcain_II.jpg \"SNECMA Vulcain II.jpg\")\n\nAriane 5's [cryogenic](/wiki/Cryogenics \"Cryogenics\") H173 main stage (H158 for Ariane 5G, G\\+, and GS) was called the EPC (*Étage Principal Cryotechnique* — Cryotechnic Main Stage). It consisted of a diameter by high tank with two compartments, one for [liquid oxygen](/wiki/Liquid_oxygen \"Liquid oxygen\") and one for [liquid hydrogen](/wiki/Liquid_hydrogen \"Liquid hydrogen\"), and a [Vulcain 2](/wiki/Vulcain_%28rocket_engine%29 \"Vulcain (rocket engine)\") engine at the base with a vacuum thrust of . The H173 EPC weighed about , including of propellant. After the main cryogenic stage runs out of fuel, it re\\-entered the atmosphere for an ocean splashdown.\n\n", "### Solid boosters\n\nAttached to the sides were two P241 (P238 for Ariane 5G and G\\+) [solid rocket boosters](/wiki/Solid_rocket_booster \"Solid rocket booster\") (SRBs or EAPs from the French *Étages d'Accélération à Poudre*), each weighing about full and delivering a thrust of about . They were fueled by a mix of [ammonium perchlorate](/wiki/Ammonium_perchlorate \"Ammonium perchlorate\") (68%) and aluminium fuel (18%) and [HTPB](/wiki/Hydroxyl-terminated_polybutadiene \"Hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene\") (14%). They each burned for 130 seconds before being dropped into the ocean. The SRBs were usually allowed to sink to the bottom of the ocean, but, like the [Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters](/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Solid_Rocket_Booster \"Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster\"), they could be recovered with parachutes, and this was occasionally done for post\\-flight analysis. Unlike Space Shuttle SRBs, Ariane 5 boosters were not reused. The most recent attempt was for the first Ariane 5 ECA mission in 2009\\. One of the two boosters was successfully recovered and returned to the Guiana Space Center for analysis. Prior to that mission, the last such recovery and testing was done in 2003\\.\n\nThe French [M51](/wiki/M51_%28missile%29 \"M51 (missile)\") [submarine\\-launched ballistic missile (SLBM)](/wiki/Submarine-launched_ballistic_missile \"Submarine-launched ballistic missile\") shared a substantial amount of technology with these boosters.\n\nIn February 2000, the suspected [nose cone](/wiki/Nose_cone \"Nose cone\") of an Ariane 5 booster washed ashore on the [South Texas](/wiki/South_Texas \"South Texas\") coast, and was recovered by [beachcombers](/wiki/Beachcombing \"Beachcombing\") before the government could get to it.\n\n", "### Second stage\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\|left\\|EPS Upper Stage used on Ariane 5ES](/wiki/File:Ariane_5_EPS_Upper_Stage.jpg \"Ariane 5 EPS Upper Stage.jpg\")\n\nThe second stage was on top of the main stage and below the payload. The original Ariane — Ariane 5G — used the EPS (*Étage à Propergols Stockables* — Storable Propellant Stage), which was fueled by [monomethylhydrazine](/wiki/Monomethylhydrazine \"Monomethylhydrazine\") (MMH) and [nitrogen tetroxide](/wiki/Nitrogen_tetroxide \"Nitrogen tetroxide\"), containing of [storable propellant](/wiki/Storable_propellant \"Storable propellant\"). The EPS was subsequently improved for use on the Ariane 5G\\+, GS, and ES.\n\nThe EPS upper stage was capable of repeated ignition, first demonstrated during flight V26 which was launched on 5 October 2007\\. This was purely to test the engine, and occurred after the payloads had been deployed. The first operational use of restart capability as part of a mission came on 9 March 2008, when two burns were made to deploy the first [Automated Transfer Vehicle](/wiki/Automated_Transfer_Vehicle \"Automated Transfer Vehicle\") (ATV) into a circular parking orbit, followed by a third burn after ATV deployment to de\\-orbit the stage. This procedure was repeated for all subsequent ATV flights.\n\nAriane 5ECA used the ESC (*Étage Supérieur Cryotechnique* — Cryogenic Upper Stage), which was fueled by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. The ESC used the [HM7B](/wiki/HM7B \"HM7B\") engine previously used in the Ariane 4 third stage. The propellent load of 14\\.7 tonne allowed the engine to burn for 945 seconds while providing 6\\.5 tonne of thrust. The ESC provided roll control during powered flight and full attitude control during payload separation using hydrogen gas thrusters. Oxygen gas thrusters allowed longitudinal acceleration after engine cutoff. The flight assembly included the Vehicle Equipment Bay, with flight electronics for the entire rocket, and the payload interface and structural support.European Space Agency, \"Ariane 5ECA\": <http://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Space_Transportation/Launch_vehicles/Ariane_5_ECA2> Discussed in context of other launch vehicles in Gérard Maral, Michel Bousquet, and Zhili Sun, *Satellite Communications Systems: Systems, Techniques and Technology*, sixth edition, London: Wiley, 2020 [ESC\\-A – Cryogenic upper stage](https://www.arianespace.com/?popup=ariane-5-4), accessed December 27, 2021\n\n", "### Fairing\n\nThe payload and all upper stages were covered at launch by a fairing for aerodynamic stability and protection from heating during supersonic flight and acoustic loads. It was jettisoned once sufficient altitude has been reached, typically above . It was made by [Ruag Space](/wiki/RUAG_Space \"RUAG Space\") and since flight VA\\-238 it was composed of 4 panels.\n\n", "", "Launch pricing and market competition\n-------------------------------------\n\n, the Ariane 5 commercial launch [price](/wiki/Price%23Confusion_between_prices_and_costs_of_production \"Price#Confusion between prices and costs of production\") for launching a \"midsize satellite in the lower position\" was approximately €50 million, competing for commercial launches in an increasingly [competitive market](/wiki/Space_launch_market_competition \"Space launch market competition\").\n\nThe heavier satellite was launched in the upper position on a typical dual\\-satellite Ariane 5 launch and was priced higher than the lower satellite, on the order of €90 million .\n\nTotal launch price of an Ariane 5 – which could transport up to two satellites to space, one in the \"upper\" and one in the \"lower\" positions – was around €150 million .\n\n", "Cancelled plans for future developments\n---------------------------------------\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.0\\|right\\|Belgian components produced for the Ariane 5 European heavy\\-lift launch vehicle explained](/wiki/File:Belgian_components_for_the_Ariane_5_rocket.jpg \"Belgian components for the Ariane 5 rocket.jpg\")\n\n### Ariane 5 ME\n\nThe Ariane 5 **ME** (Mid\\-life Evolution) was in development into early 2015, and was seen as a stopgap between Ariane 5ECA/Ariane 5ES and the new [Ariane 6](/wiki/Ariane_6 \"Ariane 6\"). With first flight planned for 2018, it would have become ESA's principal launcher until the arrival of the new Ariane 6 version. ESA halted funding for the development of Ariane 5ME in late 2014 to prioritize development of Ariane 6\\.\n\nThe Ariane 5ME was to use a new upper stage, with increased propellant volume, powered by the new [Vinci engine](/wiki/Vinci_%28rocket_engine%29 \"Vinci (rocket engine)\"). Unlike the HM\\-7B engine, it was to be able to restart several times, allowing for complex orbital maneuvers such as insertion of two satellites into different orbits, direct insertion into geosynchronous orbit, planetary exploration missions, and guaranteed upper stage deorbiting or insertion into [graveyard orbit](/wiki/Graveyard_orbit \"Graveyard orbit\"). The launcher was also to include a lengthened fairing up to and a new dual launch system to accommodate larger satellites. Compared to an Ariane 5ECA model, the payload to GTO was to increase by 15% to and the cost\\-per\\-kilogram of each launch was projected to decline by 20%.\n\n#### Development\n\nOriginally known as the Ariane 5**ECB**, Ariane 5ME was to have its first flight in 2006\\. However, the failure of the first ECA flight in 2002, combined with a deteriorating satellite industry, caused ESA to cancel development in 2003\\. Development of the Vinci engine continued, though at a lower pace. The ESA Council of Ministers agreed to fund development of the new upper stage in November 2008\\.\n\nIn 2009, [EADS Astrium](/wiki/EADS_Astrium \"EADS Astrium\") was awarded a €200 million contract, and on 10 April 2012 received another €112 million contract to continue development of the Ariane 5ME with total development effort expected to cost €1 billion.\n\nOn 21 November 2012, ESA agreed to continue with the Ariane 5ME to meet the challenge of lower priced competitors. It was agreed the Vinci upper stage would also be used as the second stage of a new Ariane 6, and further commonality would be sought. Ariane 5ME qualification flight was scheduled for mid\\-2018, followed by gradual introduction into service.\n\nOn 2 December 2014, ESA decided to stop funding the development of Ariane 5ME and instead focus on Ariane 6, which was expected to have a lower cost per launch and allow more flexibility in the payloads (using two or four P120C solid boosters depending on total payload mass).\n\n### Solid propellant stage\n\nWork on the Ariane 5 EAP motors was continued in the [Vega](/wiki/Vega_%28launcher%29 \"Vega (launcher)\") programme. The Vega 1st stage engine – the [P80](/wiki/P80_%28stage%29 \"P80 (stage)\") engine – was a shorter derivation of the EAP. The P80 booster casing was made of filament wound graphite epoxy, much lighter than the current stainless steel casing. A new composite steerable nozzle was developed while new thermal insulation material and a narrower throat improved the expansion ratio and subsequently the overall performance. Additionally, the nozzle had electromechanical actuators which replaced the heavier hydraulic ones used for thrust vector control.\n\nThese developments could maybe have made their way back into the Ariane programme, but this was most likely an inference based on early blueprints of the Ariane 6 having a central P80 booster and 2\\-4 around the main one. The incorporation of the ESC\\-B with the improvements to the solid motor casing and an uprated Vulcain engine would have delivered to LEO. This would have been developed for any lunar missions but the performance of such a design might not have been possible if the higher [Max\\-Q](/wiki/Max_Q \"Max Q\") for the launch of this launch vehicle would have posed a constraint on the mass delivered to orbit.\n\n", "### Ariane 5 ME\n\nThe Ariane 5 **ME** (Mid\\-life Evolution) was in development into early 2015, and was seen as a stopgap between Ariane 5ECA/Ariane 5ES and the new [Ariane 6](/wiki/Ariane_6 \"Ariane 6\"). With first flight planned for 2018, it would have become ESA's principal launcher until the arrival of the new Ariane 6 version. ESA halted funding for the development of Ariane 5ME in late 2014 to prioritize development of Ariane 6\\.\n\nThe Ariane 5ME was to use a new upper stage, with increased propellant volume, powered by the new [Vinci engine](/wiki/Vinci_%28rocket_engine%29 \"Vinci (rocket engine)\"). Unlike the HM\\-7B engine, it was to be able to restart several times, allowing for complex orbital maneuvers such as insertion of two satellites into different orbits, direct insertion into geosynchronous orbit, planetary exploration missions, and guaranteed upper stage deorbiting or insertion into [graveyard orbit](/wiki/Graveyard_orbit \"Graveyard orbit\"). The launcher was also to include a lengthened fairing up to and a new dual launch system to accommodate larger satellites. Compared to an Ariane 5ECA model, the payload to GTO was to increase by 15% to and the cost\\-per\\-kilogram of each launch was projected to decline by 20%.\n\n#### Development\n\nOriginally known as the Ariane 5**ECB**, Ariane 5ME was to have its first flight in 2006\\. However, the failure of the first ECA flight in 2002, combined with a deteriorating satellite industry, caused ESA to cancel development in 2003\\. Development of the Vinci engine continued, though at a lower pace. The ESA Council of Ministers agreed to fund development of the new upper stage in November 2008\\.\n\nIn 2009, [EADS Astrium](/wiki/EADS_Astrium \"EADS Astrium\") was awarded a €200 million contract, and on 10 April 2012 received another €112 million contract to continue development of the Ariane 5ME with total development effort expected to cost €1 billion.\n\nOn 21 November 2012, ESA agreed to continue with the Ariane 5ME to meet the challenge of lower priced competitors. It was agreed the Vinci upper stage would also be used as the second stage of a new Ariane 6, and further commonality would be sought. Ariane 5ME qualification flight was scheduled for mid\\-2018, followed by gradual introduction into service.\n\nOn 2 December 2014, ESA decided to stop funding the development of Ariane 5ME and instead focus on Ariane 6, which was expected to have a lower cost per launch and allow more flexibility in the payloads (using two or four P120C solid boosters depending on total payload mass).\n\n", "#### Development\n\nOriginally known as the Ariane 5**ECB**, Ariane 5ME was to have its first flight in 2006\\. However, the failure of the first ECA flight in 2002, combined with a deteriorating satellite industry, caused ESA to cancel development in 2003\\. Development of the Vinci engine continued, though at a lower pace. The ESA Council of Ministers agreed to fund development of the new upper stage in November 2008\\.\n\nIn 2009, [EADS Astrium](/wiki/EADS_Astrium \"EADS Astrium\") was awarded a €200 million contract, and on 10 April 2012 received another €112 million contract to continue development of the Ariane 5ME with total development effort expected to cost €1 billion.\n\nOn 21 November 2012, ESA agreed to continue with the Ariane 5ME to meet the challenge of lower priced competitors. It was agreed the Vinci upper stage would also be used as the second stage of a new Ariane 6, and further commonality would be sought. Ariane 5ME qualification flight was scheduled for mid\\-2018, followed by gradual introduction into service.\n\nOn 2 December 2014, ESA decided to stop funding the development of Ariane 5ME and instead focus on Ariane 6, which was expected to have a lower cost per launch and allow more flexibility in the payloads (using two or four P120C solid boosters depending on total payload mass).\n\n", "### Solid propellant stage\n\nWork on the Ariane 5 EAP motors was continued in the [Vega](/wiki/Vega_%28launcher%29 \"Vega (launcher)\") programme. The Vega 1st stage engine – the [P80](/wiki/P80_%28stage%29 \"P80 (stage)\") engine – was a shorter derivation of the EAP. The P80 booster casing was made of filament wound graphite epoxy, much lighter than the current stainless steel casing. A new composite steerable nozzle was developed while new thermal insulation material and a narrower throat improved the expansion ratio and subsequently the overall performance. Additionally, the nozzle had electromechanical actuators which replaced the heavier hydraulic ones used for thrust vector control.\n\nThese developments could maybe have made their way back into the Ariane programme, but this was most likely an inference based on early blueprints of the Ariane 6 having a central P80 booster and 2\\-4 around the main one. The incorporation of the ESC\\-B with the improvements to the solid motor casing and an uprated Vulcain engine would have delivered to LEO. This would have been developed for any lunar missions but the performance of such a design might not have been possible if the higher [Max\\-Q](/wiki/Max_Q \"Max Q\") for the launch of this launch vehicle would have posed a constraint on the mass delivered to orbit.\n\n", "Ariane 6\n--------\n\nThe design brief of the next generation launch vehicle [Ariane 6](/wiki/Ariane_6 \"Ariane 6\") called for a lower\\-cost and smaller launch vehicle capable of launching a single satellite of up to to GTO. However, after several permutations the finalized design was nearly identical in performance to the Ariane 5, focusing instead on lowering fabrication costs and launch prices. , Ariane 6 was projected to be launched for about €70 million per flight, about half of the Ariane 5 price.\n\nInitially development of Ariane 6 was projected to cost €3\\.6 billion. In 2017, the ESA set 16 July 2020 as the deadline for the first flight. The Ariane 6 successfully completed its maiden flight on 9 July 2024\\.\n\n", "Notable launches\n----------------\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.0\\|right\\|Launch of the 34th Ariane 5 from [Guiana Space Centre](/wiki/Guiana_Space_Centre \"Guiana Space Centre\")](/wiki/File:Ariane_5_10_2007.ogv \"Ariane 5 10 2007.ogv\")\n\nAriane 5's first test flight ([Ariane 5 Flight 501](/wiki/Ariane_5_Flight_501 \"Ariane 5 Flight 501\")) on 4 June 1996 failed, with the rocket self\\-destructing 37 seconds after launch because of a malfunction in the control software. A data conversion from 64\\-[bit](/wiki/Bit \"Bit\") [floating\\-point](/wiki/Floating-point_arithmetic \"Floating-point arithmetic\") value to 16\\-bit [signed](/wiki/Signedness \"Signedness\") [integer](/wiki/Integer \"Integer\") value to be stored in a variable representing horizontal bias caused a processor trap (operand error) because the floating\\-point value was too large to be represented by a 16\\-bit signed integer. The software had been written for the [Ariane 4](/wiki/Ariane_4 \"Ariane 4\") where efficiency considerations (the computer running the software had an 80% maximum workload requirement) led to four variables being protected with a [handler](/wiki/Exception_handling \"Exception handling\") while three others, including the horizontal bias variable, were left unprotected because it was thought that they were \"physically limited or that there was a large margin of safety\". The software, written in [Ada](/wiki/Ada_%28programming_language%29 \"Ada (programming language)\"), was included in the Ariane 5 through the reuse of an entire Ariane 4 subsystem despite the fact that the particular software containing the bug, which was just a part of the subsystem, was not required by the Ariane 5 because it has a different preparation sequence than the Ariane 4\\.\n\nThe second test flight (L502, on 30 October 1997\\) was a partial failure. The Vulcain nozzle caused a roll problem, leading to premature shutdown of the core stage. The upper stage operated successfully, but it could not reach the intended orbit. A subsequent test flight (L503, on 21 October 1998\\) proved successful and the first commercial launch (L504\\) occurred on 10 December 1999 with the launch of the [XMM\\-Newton](/wiki/XMM-Newton \"XMM-Newton\") X\\-ray observatory satellite.\n\nAnother partial failure occurred on 12 July 2001, with the delivery of two satellites into an incorrect orbit, at only half the height of the intended GTO. The ESA [Artemis](/wiki/Artemis_%28satellite%29 \"Artemis (satellite)\") [telecommunications satellite](/wiki/Telecommunications_satellite \"Telecommunications satellite\") was able to reach its intended orbit on 31 January 2003, through the use of its experimental [ion propulsion](/wiki/Ion_propulsion \"Ion propulsion\") system.\n\nThe next launch did not occur until 1 March 2002, when the [Envisat](/wiki/Envisat \"Envisat\") [environmental satellite](/wiki/Environmental_satellite \"Environmental satellite\") successfully reached an orbit of above the [Earth](/wiki/Earth \"Earth\") in the 11th launch. At , it was the heaviest single payload until the launch of the [first ATV](/wiki/Jules_Verne_ATV \"Jules Verne ATV\") on 9 March 2008, at .\n\nThe first launch of the ECA variant on 11 December 2002 ended in failure when a main booster problem caused the rocket to veer off\\-course, forcing its self\\-destruction three minutes into the flight. Its payload of two communications satellites ([STENTOR](/wiki/STENTOR_%28satellite%29 \"STENTOR (satellite)\") and [Hot Bird 7](/wiki/Hot_Bird_7 \"Hot Bird 7\")), valued at about €630 million, was lost in the [Atlantic Ocean](/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean \"Atlantic Ocean\"). The fault was determined to have been caused by a leak in coolant pipes allowing the nozzle to overheat. After this failure, [Arianespace SA](/wiki/Arianespace \"Arianespace\") delayed the expected January 2003 launch for the [Rosetta](/wiki/Rosetta_space_probe \"Rosetta space probe\") mission to 26 February 2004, but this was again delayed to early March 2004 due to a minor fault in the foam that protects the cryogenic tanks on the Ariane 5\\. The failure of the first ECA launch was the last failure of an Ariane 5 until [flight 240](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA241 \"Ariane flight VA241\") in January 2018\\.\n\nOn 27 September 2003, the last Ariane 5G boosted three satellites (including the first European lunar probe, [SMART\\-1](/wiki/SMART-1 \"SMART-1\")), in Flight 162\\. On 18 July 2004, an Ariane 5G\\+ boosted what was at the time the heaviest telecommunication satellite ever, [Anik F2](/wiki/Anik_%28satellite%29 \"Anik (satellite)\"), weighing almost .\n\nThe first successful launch of the Ariane 5ECA took place on 12 February 2005\\. The payload consisted of the [XTAR\\-EUR](/wiki/XTAR-EUR \"XTAR-EUR\") military communications satellite, a 'SLOSHSAT' small scientific satellite and a MaqSat B2 payload simulator. The launch had been scheduled for October 2004, but additional testing and a military launch (of a [Helios 2A](/wiki/Helios_2_%28satellite%29 \"Helios 2 (satellite)\") observation satellite) delayed the attempt.\n\nOn 11 August 2005, the first Ariane 5GS (featuring the Ariane 5ECA's improved solid motors) boosted [Thaicom 4](/wiki/Thaicom_4 \"Thaicom 4\"), the heaviest telecommunications satellite to date at , into orbit.\n\nOn 16 November 2005, the third Ariane 5ECA launch (the second successful ECA launch) took place. It carried a dual payload consisting of [Spaceway F2](/wiki/Spaceway-2 \"Spaceway-2\") for [DirecTV](/wiki/DirecTV \"DirecTV\") and [Telkom\\-2](/wiki/Telkom-2 \"Telkom-2\") for [PT Telekomunikasi](/wiki/Telkom_Indonesia \"Telkom Indonesia\") of [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia \"Indonesia\"). This was the launch vehicle's heaviest dual payload to date, at more than .\n\nOn 27 May 2006, an Ariane 5ECA launch vehicle set a new commercial payload lifting record of . The dual\\-payload consisted of the [Thaicom 5](/wiki/Thaicom_5 \"Thaicom 5\") and [Satmex 6](/wiki/Eutelsat_113_West_A \"Eutelsat 113 West A\") satellites.\n\nOn 4 May 2007, the Ariane 5ECA set another new commercial record, lifting into transfer orbit the [Astra 1L](/wiki/Astra_1L \"Astra 1L\") and [Galaxy 17](/wiki/Galaxy_17 \"Galaxy 17\") communication satellites with a combined weight of , and a total payload weight of . This record was again broken by another Ariane 5ECA, launching the [Skynet 5B](/wiki/Skynet_5B \"Skynet 5B\") and [Star One C1](/wiki/Star_One_C1 \"Star One C1\") satellites, on 11 November 2007\\. The total payload weight for this launch was of .\n\nOn 9 March 2008, the first Ariane 5ES\\-ATV was launched to deliver the first [ATV](/wiki/Automated_Transfer_Vehicle \"Automated Transfer Vehicle\") called *[Jules Verne](/wiki/Jules_Verne_ATV \"Jules Verne ATV\")* to the [International Space Station](/wiki/International_Space_Station \"International Space Station\") (ISS). The ATV was the heaviest payload ever launched by a European launch vehicle, providing supplies to the space station with necessary propellant, water, air and dry cargo. This was the first operational Ariane mission which involved an engine restart in the upper stage. The ES\\-ATV Aestus EPS upper stage was restartable while the ECA HM7\\-B engine was not.\n\nOn 1 July 2009, an Ariane 5ECA launched [TerreStar\\-1](/wiki/TerreStar-1 \"TerreStar-1\") (now EchoStar T1\\), which was then, at , the largest and most massive commercial telecommunication satellite ever built at that time until being overtaken by [Telstar 19 Vantage](/wiki/Telstar_19V \"Telstar 19V\"), at , launched aboard [Falcon 9](/wiki/Falcon_9 \"Falcon 9\"). The satellite was launched into a lower\\-energy orbit than a usual GTO, with its initial apogee at roughly .\n\nOn 28 October 2010, an Ariane 5ECA launched [Eutelsat](/wiki/Eutelsat \"Eutelsat\")'s [W3B](/wiki/Eutelsat_W3B \"Eutelsat W3B\") (part of its [W Series](/wiki/W_series_%28satellites%29 \"W series (satellites)\") of satellites) and [Broadcasting Satellite System Corporation](/wiki/Broadcasting_Satellite_System_Corporation \"Broadcasting Satellite System Corporation\") (B\\-SAT)'s [BSAT\\-3b](/wiki/BSAT-3b \"BSAT-3b\") satellites into orbit. But the W3B satellite failed to operate shortly after the successful launch and was written off as a total loss due to an oxidizer leak in the satellite's main propulsion system. The BSAT\\-3b satellite, however, is operating normally.\n\nThe [VA253](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA253 \"Ariane flight VA253\") launch on 15 August 2020 introduced two small changes that increased lift capacity by about ; these were a lighter avionics and guidance\\-equipment bay, and modified pressure vents on the payload fairing, which were required for the subsequent launch of the James Webb Space Telescope. It also debuted a location system using [Galileo navigation satellites](/wiki/Galileo_%28satellite_navigation%29 \"Galileo (satellite navigation)\").\n\nOn 25 December 2021, [VA256](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA256 \"Ariane flight VA256\") launched the [James Webb Space Telescope](/wiki/James_Webb_Space_Telescope \"James Webb Space Telescope\") towards a [Sun–Earth L2](/wiki/Lagrange_point%23L2_point \"Lagrange point#L2 point\") [halo orbit](/wiki/Halo_orbit \"Halo orbit\"). The precision of trajectory following launch led to fuel savings credited with potentially doubling the lifetime of the telescope by leaving more [hydrazine propellant](/wiki/Hydrazine%23Rocket_fuel \"Hydrazine#Rocket fuel\") on board for [station\\-keeping](/wiki/Orbital_station-keeping%23Lagrange_points \"Orbital station-keeping#Lagrange points\") than was expected. According to Rudiger Albat, the program manager for Ariane 5, efforts had been made to select components for this flight that had performed especially well during pre\\-flight testing, including \"one of the best Vulcain engines that we've ever built.\"\n\n### GTO payload weight records\n\nOn 22 April 2011, the Ariane 5ECA flight VA\\-201 broke a commercial record, lifting [Yahsat 1A](/wiki/Yahsat_1A \"Yahsat 1A\") and [Intelsat New Dawn](/wiki/New_Dawn_%28satellite%29 \"New Dawn (satellite)\") with a total payload weight of to transfer orbit. This record was later broken again during the launch of Ariane 5ECA flight VA\\-208 on 2 August 2012, lifting a total of into the planned geosynchronous transfer orbit, which was broken again 6 months later on flight VA\\-212 with sent towards geosynchronous transfer orbit. In June 2016, the GTO record was raised to , on the first rocket in history that carried a satellite dedicated to financial institutions. The payload record was pushed a further , up to on 24 August 2016 with the launch of [Intelsat 33e](/wiki/Intelsat_33e \"Intelsat 33e\") and [Intelsat 36](/wiki/Intelsat_36 \"Intelsat 36\"). On 1 June 2017, the payload record was broken again to carrying [ViaSat\\-2](/wiki/ViaSat-2 \"ViaSat-2\") and [Eutelsat\\-172B](/wiki/Eutelsat \"Eutelsat\"). In 2021 VA\\-255 put 11,210 kg into GTO.\n\n### VA241 anomaly\n\nOn 25 January 2018, an Ariane 5ECA launched [SES\\-14](/wiki/SES-14 \"SES-14\") and [Al Yah 3](/wiki/Al_Yah_Satellite_Communications \"Al Yah Satellite Communications\") satellites. About 9 minutes and 28 seconds after launch, a telemetry loss occurred between the launch vehicle and the ground controllers. It was later confirmed, about 1 hour and 20 minutes after launch, that both satellites were successfully separated from the upper stage and were in contact with their respective ground controllers, but that their orbital inclinations were incorrect as the guidance systems might have been compromised. Therefore, both satellites conducted orbital procedures, extending commissioning time. SES\\-14 needed about 8 weeks longer than planned commissioning time, meaning that entry into service was reported early September instead of July. Nevertheless, SES\\-14 is still expected to be able to meet the designed lifetime. This satellite was originally to be launched with more propellant reserve on a [Falcon 9](/wiki/Falcon_9 \"Falcon 9\") launch vehicle since the Falcon 9, in this specific case, was intended to deploy this satellite into a high inclination orbit that would require more work from the satellite to reach its final geostationary orbit. The Al Yah 3 was also confirmed healthy after more than 12 hours without further statement, and like SES\\-14, Al Yah 3's maneuvering plan was also revised to still fulfill the original mission. As of 16 February 2018, Al Yah 3 was approaching the intended geostationary orbit, after series of recovery maneuvers had been performed. The investigation showed that invalid inertial units' azimuth value had sent the vehicle 17° off course but to the intended altitude, they had been programmed for the standard geostationary transfer orbit of 90° when the payloads were intended to be 70° for this supersynchronous transfer orbit mission, 20° off norme. This mission anomaly marked the end of 82nd consecutive success streak since 2003\\.\n\n", "### GTO payload weight records\n\nOn 22 April 2011, the Ariane 5ECA flight VA\\-201 broke a commercial record, lifting [Yahsat 1A](/wiki/Yahsat_1A \"Yahsat 1A\") and [Intelsat New Dawn](/wiki/New_Dawn_%28satellite%29 \"New Dawn (satellite)\") with a total payload weight of to transfer orbit. This record was later broken again during the launch of Ariane 5ECA flight VA\\-208 on 2 August 2012, lifting a total of into the planned geosynchronous transfer orbit, which was broken again 6 months later on flight VA\\-212 with sent towards geosynchronous transfer orbit. In June 2016, the GTO record was raised to , on the first rocket in history that carried a satellite dedicated to financial institutions. The payload record was pushed a further , up to on 24 August 2016 with the launch of [Intelsat 33e](/wiki/Intelsat_33e \"Intelsat 33e\") and [Intelsat 36](/wiki/Intelsat_36 \"Intelsat 36\"). On 1 June 2017, the payload record was broken again to carrying [ViaSat\\-2](/wiki/ViaSat-2 \"ViaSat-2\") and [Eutelsat\\-172B](/wiki/Eutelsat \"Eutelsat\"). In 2021 VA\\-255 put 11,210 kg into GTO.\n\n", "### VA241 anomaly\n\nOn 25 January 2018, an Ariane 5ECA launched [SES\\-14](/wiki/SES-14 \"SES-14\") and [Al Yah 3](/wiki/Al_Yah_Satellite_Communications \"Al Yah Satellite Communications\") satellites. About 9 minutes and 28 seconds after launch, a telemetry loss occurred between the launch vehicle and the ground controllers. It was later confirmed, about 1 hour and 20 minutes after launch, that both satellites were successfully separated from the upper stage and were in contact with their respective ground controllers, but that their orbital inclinations were incorrect as the guidance systems might have been compromised. Therefore, both satellites conducted orbital procedures, extending commissioning time. SES\\-14 needed about 8 weeks longer than planned commissioning time, meaning that entry into service was reported early September instead of July. Nevertheless, SES\\-14 is still expected to be able to meet the designed lifetime. This satellite was originally to be launched with more propellant reserve on a [Falcon 9](/wiki/Falcon_9 \"Falcon 9\") launch vehicle since the Falcon 9, in this specific case, was intended to deploy this satellite into a high inclination orbit that would require more work from the satellite to reach its final geostationary orbit. The Al Yah 3 was also confirmed healthy after more than 12 hours without further statement, and like SES\\-14, Al Yah 3's maneuvering plan was also revised to still fulfill the original mission. As of 16 February 2018, Al Yah 3 was approaching the intended geostationary orbit, after series of recovery maneuvers had been performed. The investigation showed that invalid inertial units' azimuth value had sent the vehicle 17° off course but to the intended altitude, they had been programmed for the standard geostationary transfer orbit of 90° when the payloads were intended to be 70° for this supersynchronous transfer orbit mission, 20° off norme. This mission anomaly marked the end of 82nd consecutive success streak since 2003\\.\n\n", "Launch history\n--------------\n\n### Launch statistics\n\nAriane 5 launch vehicles had accumulated 117 launches, 112 of which were successful, yielding a success rate. Between April 2003 and December 2017, Ariane 5 flew 83 consecutive missions without failure, but the launch vehicle [suffered a partial failure](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA241 \"Ariane flight VA241\") in January 2018\\.\n\n### Rocket configurations\n\n### Launch outcomes\n\n### List of launches\n\nAll launches are from [Guiana Space Centre](/wiki/Guiana_Space_Centre \"Guiana Space Centre\"), [ELA\\-3](/wiki/ELA-3 \"ELA-3\").\n\n| \\# | Flight no. | DateTime ([UTC](/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time \"Coordinated Universal Time\")) | Serial no. | Payload | Total payload mass (including launch adapters and SYLDA) | Orbit | Customers | Launchoutcome |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | [V\\-88](/wiki/Ariane_flight_V88 \"Ariane flight V88\") | 4 June 199612:34 | G501 | [Cluster](/wiki/Cluster_%28spacecraft%29 \"Cluster (spacecraft)\") | | | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 2 | V\\-101 | 30 October 199713:43 | G502 | [MaqSat\\-H](/wiki/MaqSat-H \"MaqSat-H\"), [TEAMSAT](/wiki/TEAMSAT \"TEAMSAT\"), [MaqSat\\-B](/wiki/MaqSat-B \"MaqSat-B\"), [YES](/wiki/Young_Engineers%27_Satellite \"Young Engineers' Satellite\") | | | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 3 | V\\-112 | 21 October 199816:37 | G503 | [MaqSat 3](/wiki/MaqSat_3 \"MaqSat 3\"), [ARD](/wiki/Atmospheric_Reentry_Demonstrator \"Atmospheric Reentry Demonstrator\") | \\~6,800 kg | GTO | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 4 | V\\-119 | 10 December 199914:32 | G504 | [XMM\\-Newton](/wiki/XMM-Newton \"XMM-Newton\") | 3,800 kg | [HEO](/wiki/Highly_elliptical_orbit \"Highly elliptical orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 5 | V\\-128 | 21 March 200023:28 | G505 | [INSAT\\-3B](/wiki/INSAT-3B \"INSAT-3B\")[AsiaStar](/wiki/AsiaStar \"AsiaStar\") | \\~5,800 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 6 | V\\-130 | 14 September 200022:54 | G506 | [Astra 2B](/wiki/Astra_2B \"Astra 2B\")[GE\\-7](/wiki/GE-7 \"GE-7\") | \\~4,700 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 7 | V\\-135 | 16 November 200001:07 | G507 | [PanAmSat\\-1R](/wiki/Intelsat_1R \"Intelsat 1R\")[Amsat\\-P3D](/wiki/OSCAR_40 \"OSCAR 40\")[STRV 1C](/wiki/Space_Technology_Research_Vehicle \"Space Technology Research Vehicle\")[STRV 1D](/wiki/Space_Technology_Research_Vehicle \"Space Technology Research Vehicle\") | \\~6,600 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 8 | V\\-138 | 20 December 200000:26 | G508 | [Astra 2D](/wiki/Astra_2D \"Astra 2D\")[GE\\-8](/wiki/AMC-8 \"AMC-8\")[LDREX](/wiki/LDREX \"LDREX\") | \\~4,700 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 9 | V\\-140 | 8 March 200122:51 | G509 | [Eurobird\\-1](/wiki/Eutelsat_33C \"Eutelsat 33C\")[BSAT\\-2a](/wiki/BSAT-2a \"BSAT-2a\") | \\~5,400 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 10 | V\\-142 | 12 July 200121:58 | G510 | [Artemis](/wiki/Artemis_%28satellite%29 \"Artemis (satellite)\")[BSAT\\-2b](/wiki/BSAT-2b \"BSAT-2b\") | \\~5,400 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") (planned)[MEO](/wiki/Medium_Earth_orbit \"Medium Earth orbit\") (achieved) | | |\n| Upper stage underperformed, payloads were placed in a useless orbit. Artemis was raised to its target orbit at the expense of operational fuel; BSAT\\-2b was not recoverable. | | | | | | |\n| 11 | V\\-145 | 1 March 200201:07 | G511 | [Envisat](/wiki/Envisat \"Envisat\") | 8,111 kg | [SSO](/wiki/Sun-synchronous_orbit \"Sun-synchronous orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 12 | V\\-153 | 5 July 200223:22 | G512 | [Stellat 5](/wiki/Stellat_5 \"Stellat 5\")[N\\-STAR c](/wiki/N-STAR_c \"N-STAR c\") | \\~6,700 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 13 | V\\-155 | 28 August 200222:45 | G513 | [Atlantic Bird 1](/wiki/Atlantic_Bird_1 \"Atlantic Bird 1\")[MSG\\-1](/wiki/Meteosat_8 \"Meteosat 8\")[MFD](/wiki/Modular_Fitting_Dummy \"Modular Fitting Dummy\") | \\~5,800 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 14 | V\\-157 | 11 December 200222:22 | ECA517 | [Hot Bird 7](/wiki/Hot_Bird_7 \"Hot Bird 7\")[Stentor](/wiki/Stentor_%28satellite%29 \"Stentor (satellite)\")[MFD\\-A](/wiki/Modular_Fitting_Dummy \"Modular Fitting Dummy\")[MFD\\-B](/wiki/Modular_Fitting_Dummy \"Modular Fitting Dummy\") | | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") (planned) | | |\n| Maiden flight of Ariane 5ECA, first stage engine failure, rocket destroyed by [range safety](/wiki/Range_safety \"Range safety\"). | | | | | | |\n| 15 | V\\-160 | 9 April 200322:52 | G514 | [INSAT\\-3A](/wiki/INSAT-3A \"INSAT-3A\")[Galaxy 12](/wiki/Galaxy_%28satellite%29 \"Galaxy (satellite)\") | \\~5,700 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 16 | V\\-161 | 11 June 200322:38 | G515 | [Optus C1](/wiki/Optus_C1 \"Optus C1\")[BSAT\\-2c](/wiki/BSAT-2c \"BSAT-2c\") | \\~7,100 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 17 | V\\-162 | 27 September 200323:14 | G516 | [INSAT\\-3E](/wiki/INSAT-3E \"INSAT-3E\")[eBird\\-1](/wiki/EBird-1 \"EBird-1\")[SMART\\-1](/wiki/SMART-1 \"SMART-1\") | \\~5,600 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| Final flight of Ariane 5G | | | | | | |\n| 18 | V\\-158 | 2 March 200407:17 | G\\+518 | [Rosetta](/wiki/Rosetta_%28spacecraft%29 \"Rosetta (spacecraft)\")[Philae](/wiki/Philae_%28spacecraft%29 \"Philae (spacecraft)\") | 3,011 kg | [Heliocentric](/wiki/Heliocentric_orbit \"Heliocentric orbit\") | | |\n| Maiden flight of Ariane 5G\\+ | | | | | | |\n| 19 | V\\-163 | 18 July 200400:44 | G\\+519 | [Anik F2](/wiki/Anik_%28satellite%29%23Anik_F2 \"Anik (satellite)#Anik F2\") | 5,950 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 20 | V\\-165 | 18 December 200416:26 | G\\+520 | [Helios 2A](/wiki/Helios_2A \"Helios 2A\")[Essaim\\-1](/wiki/Essaim_%28satellite%29 \"Essaim (satellite)\")[Essaim\\-2](/wiki/Essaim_%28satellite%29 \"Essaim (satellite)\")[Essaim\\-3](/wiki/Essaim_%28satellite%29 \"Essaim (satellite)\")[Essaim\\-4](/wiki/Essaim_%28satellite%29 \"Essaim (satellite)\")[PARASOL](/wiki/PARASOL \"PARASOL\")[Nanosat 01](/wiki/Nanosat_01 \"Nanosat 01\") | 4,200 kg | [SSO](/wiki/Sun-synchronous_orbit \"Sun-synchronous orbit\") | | |\n| Final flight of Ariane 5G\\+ | | | | | | |\n| 21 | V\\-164 | 12 February 200521:03 | ECA521 | [XTAR\\-EUR](/wiki/XTAR-EUR \"XTAR-EUR\")[Maqsat](/wiki/Maqsat \"Maqsat\")\\-B2[Sloshsat\\-FLEVO](/wiki/Sloshsat-FLEVO \"Sloshsat-FLEVO\") | \\~8,400 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 22 | V\\-166 | 11 August 200508:20 | GS523 | [Thaicom 4](/wiki/Thaicom_4 \"Thaicom 4\") | 6,485 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| Maiden flight of Ariane 5GS | | | | | | |\n| 23 | V\\-168 | 13 October 200522:32 | GS524 | [Syracuse 3A](/wiki/Syracuse_3A \"Syracuse 3A\")[Galaxy 15](/wiki/Galaxy_15 \"Galaxy 15\") | \\~6,900 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 24 | V\\-167 | 16 November 200523:46 | ECA522 | [Spaceway\\-2](/wiki/Spaceway-2 \"Spaceway-2\")[Telkom\\-2](/wiki/Telkom-2 \"Telkom-2\") | \\~9,100 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 25 | V\\-169 | 21 December 200523:33 | GS525 | [INSAT\\-4A](/wiki/INSAT-4A \"INSAT-4A\")[MSG\\-2](/wiki/MSG-2 \"MSG-2\") | 6,478 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 26 | V\\-170 | 11 March 200622:33 | ECA527 | [Spainsat](/wiki/Spainsat \"Spainsat\")[Hot Bird 7A](/wiki/Hot_Bird_7A \"Hot Bird 7A\") | \\~8,700 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 27 | V\\-171 | 27 May 200621:09 | ECA529 | [Satmex\\-6](/wiki/Eutelsat_113_West_A \"Eutelsat 113 West A\")[Thaicom 5](/wiki/Thaicom_5 \"Thaicom 5\") | 9,172 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 28 | V\\-172 | 11 August 200622:15 | ECA531 | [JCSAT\\-10](/wiki/JCSAT-10 \"JCSAT-10\")[Syracuse 3B](/wiki/Syracuse_3B \"Syracuse 3B\") | \\~8,900 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 29 | V\\-173 | 13 October 200620:56 | ECA533 | [DirecTV\\-9S](/wiki/AT%26T_satellite_fleet \"AT&T satellite fleet\")[Optus D1](/wiki/Optus_D1 \"Optus D1\")[LDREX\\-2](/wiki/LDREX-2 \"LDREX-2\") | \\~9,300 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 30 | V\\-174 | 8 December 200622:08 | ECA534 | [WildBlue\\-1](/wiki/Viasat%2C_Inc. \"Viasat, Inc.\")[AMC\\-18](/wiki/AMC-18 \"AMC-18\") | \\~7,800 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 31 | V\\-175 | 11 March 200722:03 | ECA535 | [Skynet 5A](/wiki/Skynet_5A \"Skynet 5A\")[INSAT\\-4B](/wiki/INSAT-4B \"INSAT-4B\") | \\~8,600 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 32 | V\\-176 | 4 May 200722:29 | ECA536 | [Astra 1L](/wiki/Astra_1L \"Astra 1L\")[Galaxy 17](/wiki/Galaxy_17 \"Galaxy 17\") | 9,402 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 33 | V\\-177 | 14 August 200723:44 | ECA537 | [Spaceway\\-3](/wiki/Spaceway-3 \"Spaceway-3\")[BSAT\\-3a](/wiki/BSAT-3a \"BSAT-3a\") | 8,848 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 34 | V\\-178 | 5 October 200722:02 | GS526 | [Intelsat 11](/wiki/Intelsat_11 \"Intelsat 11\")[Optus D2](/wiki/Optus_%28satellite%29 \"Optus (satellite)\") | 5,857 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 35 | V\\-179 | 14 November 200722:03 | ECA538 | [Skynet 5B](/wiki/Skynet_5B \"Skynet 5B\")[Star One C1](/wiki/Star_One_C1 \"Star One C1\") | 9,535 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 36 | V\\-180 | 21 December 200721:41 | GS530 | [Rascom\\-QAF1](/wiki/Regional_African_Satellite_Communication_Organization \"Regional African Satellite Communication Organization\")[Horizons\\-2](/wiki/Horizons-2 \"Horizons-2\") | \\~6,500 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 37 | V\\-181 | 9 March 200804:03 | ES528 | [Jules Verne ATV](/wiki/Jules_Verne_ATV \"Jules Verne ATV\") | | [LEO](/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit \"Low Earth orbit\") ([ISS](/wiki/International_Space_Station \"International Space Station\")) | | |\n| Maiden flight of Ariane 5ES | | | | | | |\n| 38 | V\\-182 | 18 April 200822:17 | ECA539 | [Star One C2](/wiki/Star_One_C2 \"Star One C2\")[Vinasat\\-1](/wiki/Vinasat-1 \"Vinasat-1\") | 7,762 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 39 | V\\-183 | 12 June 200822:05 | ECA540 | [Skynet 5C](/wiki/Skynet_5C \"Skynet 5C\")[Türksat 3A](/wiki/T%C3%BCrksat_3A \"Türksat 3A\") | 8,541 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 40 | V\\-184 | 7 July 200821:47 | ECA541 | [ProtoStar\\-1](/wiki/ProtoStar \"ProtoStar\")[Badr\\-6](/wiki/Arab_Satellite_Communications_Organization \"Arab Satellite Communications Organization\") | 8,639 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 41 | V\\-185 | 14 August 200820:44 | ECA542 | [Superbird\\-7](/wiki/SKY_Perfect_JSAT \"SKY Perfect JSAT\")[AMC\\-21](/wiki/AMC-21 \"AMC-21\") | 8,068 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 42 | V\\-186 | 20 December 200822:35 | ECA543 | [Hot Bird 9](/wiki/Hot_Bird_13C \"Hot Bird 13C\")[Eutelsat W2M](/wiki/Afghansat_1 \"Afghansat 1\") | 9,220 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 43 | V\\-187 | 12 February 200922:09 | ECA545 | [Hot Bird 10](/wiki/Eutelsat_33E \"Eutelsat 33E\")[NSS\\-9](/wiki/NSS-9 \"NSS-9\")[Spirale](/wiki/Spirale \"Spirale\")\\-A[Spirale](/wiki/Spirale \"Spirale\")\\-B | 8,511 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 44 | V\\-188 | 14 May 200913:12 | ECA546 | [Herschel Space Observatory](/wiki/Herschel_Space_Observatory \"Herschel Space Observatory\")[Planck](/wiki/Planck_%28spacecraft%29 \"Planck (spacecraft)\") | 3,402 kg | Sun–Earth | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 45 | V\\-189 | 1 July 200919:52 | ECA547 | [TerreStar\\-1](/wiki/TerreStar-1 \"TerreStar-1\") | 7,055 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 46 | V\\-190 | 21 August 200922:09 | ECA548 | [JCSAT\\-12](/wiki/JSAT_%28satellite_constellation%29 \"JSAT (satellite constellation)\")[Optus D3](/wiki/Optus_D3 \"Optus D3\") | 7,655 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 47 | V\\-191 | 1 October 200921:59 | ECA549 | [Amazonas 2](/wiki/Hispasat \"Hispasat\")[COMSATBw\\-1](/wiki/COMSATBw-1 \"COMSATBw-1\") | 9,087 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 48 | V\\-192 | 29 October 200920:00 | ECA550 | [NSS\\-12](/wiki/List_of_SES_satellites \"List of SES satellites\")[Thor\\-6](/wiki/Thor_%28satellite%29 \"Thor (satellite)\") | 9,462 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 49 | V\\-193 | 18 December 200916:26 | GS532 | [Helios 2B](/wiki/Helios_2_%28satellite%29 \"Helios 2 (satellite)\") | 5,954 kg | [SSO](/wiki/Sun-synchronous_orbit \"Sun-synchronous orbit\") | | |\n| Final flight of Ariane 5GS | | | | | | |\n| 50 | V\\-194 | 21 May 201022:01 | ECA551 | [Astra 3B](/wiki/Astra_3B \"Astra 3B\")[COMSATBw\\-2](/wiki/COMSATBw-2 \"COMSATBw-2\") | 9,116 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [SES](/wiki/SES_%28company%29 \"SES (company)\")MilSat Services | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 51 | V\\-195 | 26 June 201021:41 | ECA552 | [Arabsat\\-5A](/wiki/Arabsat-5A \"Arabsat-5A\")[Chollian](/wiki/Chollian \"Chollian\") | 8,393 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Arabsat](/wiki/Arab_Satellite_Communications_Organization \"Arab Satellite Communications Organization\")[KARI](/wiki/Korea_Aerospace_Research_Institute \"Korea Aerospace Research Institute\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 52 | V\\-196 | 4 August 201020:59 | ECA554 | [Nilesat 201](/wiki/Nilesat_201 \"Nilesat 201\")[RASCOM\\-QAF 1R](/wiki/Regional_African_Satellite_Communication_Organization \"Regional African Satellite Communication Organization\") | 7,085 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Nilesat](/wiki/Nilesat \"Nilesat\")[RASCOM](/wiki/Regional_African_Satellite_Communication_Organization \"Regional African Satellite Communication Organization\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 53 | V\\-197 | 28 October 201021:51 | ECA555 | [Eutelsat W3B](/wiki/Eutelsat \"Eutelsat\")[BSAT\\-3b](/wiki/BSAT-3b \"BSAT-3b\") | 8,263 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Eutelsat](/wiki/Eutelsat \"Eutelsat\")[Broadcasting Satellite System Corporation](/wiki/Broadcasting_Satellite_System_Corporation \"Broadcasting Satellite System Corporation\") | |\n| Eutelsat W3B suffered a leak in the propulsion system shortly after launch and was declared a total loss. BSAT\\-3b is operating normally. | | | | | | |\n| 54 | V\\-198 | 26 November 201018:39 | ECA556 | [Intelsat 17](/wiki/Intelsat \"Intelsat\")[HYLAS\\-1](/wiki/HYLAS-1 \"HYLAS-1\") | 8,867 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Intelsat](/wiki/Intelsat \"Intelsat\")[Avanti Communications](/wiki/Avanti_Communications \"Avanti Communications\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 55 | V\\-199 | 29 December 201021:27 | ECA557 | [Koreasat 6](/wiki/Koreasat_6 \"Koreasat 6\")[Hispasat\\-1E](/wiki/Hispasat \"Hispasat\") | 9,259 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [KT Corporation](/wiki/KT_Corporation \"KT Corporation\")[Hispasat](/wiki/Hispasat \"Hispasat\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 56 | V\\-200 | 16 February 201121:50 | ES544 | [Johannes Kepler ATV](/wiki/Johannes_Kepler_ATV \"Johannes Kepler ATV\") | 20,050 kg | [LEO](/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit \"Low Earth orbit\") ([ISS](/wiki/International_Space_Station \"International Space Station\")) | [ESA](/wiki/European_Space_Agency \"European Space Agency\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 57 | VA\\-201 | 22 April 201121:37 | ECA558 | [Yahsat 1A](/wiki/Yahsat_1A \"Yahsat 1A\")[New Dawn](/wiki/Intelsat_28 \"Intelsat 28\") | 10,064 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Al Yah Satellite Communications](/wiki/Al_Yah_Satellite_Communications \"Al Yah Satellite Communications\")[Intelsat](/wiki/Intelsat \"Intelsat\") | |\n| Launch was scrubbed from 30 March 2011, aborted in the last seconds before liftoff due to a gimbal malfunction in the Vulcain main engine. | | | | | | |\n| 58 | VA\\-202 | 20 May 201120:38 | ECA559 | [ST\\-2](/wiki/ST-2 \"ST-2\")[GSAT\\-8](/wiki/GSAT-8 \"GSAT-8\") | 9,013 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Singapore Telecom](/wiki/Singtel \"Singtel\")[ISRO](/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation \"Indian Space Research Organisation\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 59 | VA\\-203 | 6 August 201122:52 | ECA560 | [Astra 1N](/wiki/Astra_1N \"Astra 1N\")[BSAT\\-3c](/wiki/BSAT-3c \"BSAT-3c\") / [JCSAT\\-110R](/wiki/BSAT-3c \"BSAT-3c\") | 9,095 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [SES](/wiki/SES_%28company%29 \"SES (company)\")[Broadcasting Satellite System Corporation](/wiki/Broadcasting_Satellite_System_Corporation \"Broadcasting Satellite System Corporation\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 60 | VA\\-204 | 21 September 201121:38 | ECA561 | [Arabsat\\-5C](/wiki/Arab_Satellite_Communications_Organization \"Arab Satellite Communications Organization\")[SES\\-2](/wiki/SES-2 \"SES-2\") | 8,974 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Arab Satellite Communications Organization](/wiki/Arab_Satellite_Communications_Organization \"Arab Satellite Communications Organization\")[SES](/wiki/SES_%28company%29 \"SES (company)\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 61 | VA\\-205 | 23 March 201204:34 | ES553 | [Edoardo Amaldi ATV](/wiki/Edoardo_Amaldi_ATV \"Edoardo Amaldi ATV\") | 20,060 kg | [LEO](/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit \"Low Earth orbit\") ([ISS](/wiki/International_Space_Station \"International Space Station\")) | [ESA](/wiki/European_Space_Agency \"European Space Agency\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 62 | VA\\-206 | 15 May 201222:13 | ECA562 | [JCSAT\\-13](/wiki/JSAT_%28satellite_constellation%29 \"JSAT (satellite constellation)\")[Vinasat\\-2](/wiki/Vinasat-2 \"Vinasat-2\") | 8,381 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [SKY Perfect JSAT](/wiki/SKY_Perfect_JSAT \"SKY Perfect JSAT\")[VNPT](/wiki/Vietnam_Posts_and_Telecommunications_Group \"Vietnam Posts and Telecommunications Group\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 63 | VA\\-207 | 5 July 201221:36 | ECA563 | [EchoStar XVII](/wiki/EchoStar_XVII \"EchoStar XVII\")[MSG\\-3](/wiki/Meteosat \"Meteosat\") | 9,647 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [EchoStar](/wiki/EchoStar \"EchoStar\")[EUMETSAT](/wiki/European_Organisation_for_the_Exploitation_of_Meteorological_Satellites \"European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 64 | VA\\-208 | 2 August 201220:54 | ECA564 | [Intelsat 20](/wiki/Intelsat_20 \"Intelsat 20\")[HYLAS 2](/wiki/HYLAS_2 \"HYLAS 2\") | 10,182 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Intelsat](/wiki/Intelsat \"Intelsat\")[Avanti Communications](/wiki/Avanti_Communications \"Avanti Communications\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 65 | VA\\-209 | 28 September 201221:18 | ECA565 | [Astra 2F](/wiki/Astra_2F \"Astra 2F\")[GSAT\\-10](/wiki/GSAT-10 \"GSAT-10\") | 10,211 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [SES](/wiki/SES_%28company%29 \"SES (company)\")[ISRO](/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation \"Indian Space Research Organisation\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 66 | VA\\-210 | 10 November 201221:05 | ECA566 | [Eutelsat 21B](/wiki/Eutelsat_21B \"Eutelsat 21B\")[Star One C3](/wiki/Star_One_C3 \"Star One C3\") | 9,216 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Eutelsat](/wiki/Eutelsat \"Eutelsat\")[Star One](/wiki/Star_One_%28satellite_operator%29 \"Star One (satellite operator)\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 67 | VA\\-211 | 19 December 201221:49 | ECA567 | [Skynet 5D](/wiki/Skynet_5D \"Skynet 5D\")[Mexsat\\-3](/wiki/Mexsat-3 \"Mexsat-3\") | 8,637 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Astrium](/wiki/Astrium \"Astrium\")[Mexican Satellite System](/wiki/Mexican_Satellite_System \"Mexican Satellite System\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 68 | VA\\-212 | 7 February 201321:36 | ECA568 | [Amazonas 3](/wiki/Amazonas_3 \"Amazonas 3\")[Azerspace\\-1/Africasat\\-1a](/wiki/Azerspace-1/Africasat-1a \"Azerspace-1/Africasat-1a\") | 10,350 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Hispasat](/wiki/Hispasat \"Hispasat\")[Azercosmos](/wiki/Azercosmos \"Azercosmos\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 69 | VA\\-213 | 5 June 201321:52 | ES592 | [Albert Einstein ATV](/wiki/Albert_Einstein_ATV \"Albert Einstein ATV\") | 20,252 kg | [LEO](/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit \"Low Earth orbit\") ([ISS](/wiki/International_Space_Station \"International Space Station\")) | [ESA](/wiki/European_Space_Agency \"European Space Agency\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 70 | VA\\-214 | 25 July 201319:54 | ECA569 | [Alphasat I\\-XL](/wiki/Alphabus \"Alphabus\")[INSAT\\-3D](/wiki/INSAT-3D \"INSAT-3D\") | 9,760 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Inmarsat](/wiki/Inmarsat \"Inmarsat\")[ISRO](/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation \"Indian Space Research Organisation\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 71 | VA\\-215 | 29 August 201320:30 | ECA570 | [Eutelsat 25B/Es'hail 1](/wiki/Eutelsat_25B/Es%27hail_1 \"Eutelsat 25B/Es'hail 1\")[GSAT\\-7](/wiki/GSAT-7 \"GSAT-7\") | 9,790 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Eutelsat](/wiki/Eutelsat \"Eutelsat\")[ISRO](/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation \"Indian Space Research Organisation\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 72 | VA\\-217 | 6 February 201421:30 | ECA572 | [ABS\\-2](/wiki/ABS-2 \"ABS-2\")[Athena\\-Fidus](/wiki/Athena-Fidus \"Athena-Fidus\") | 10,214 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [ABS (satellite operator)](/wiki/ABS_%28satellite_operator%29 \"ABS (satellite operator)\")[DIRISI](/wiki/DIRISI \"DIRISI\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 73 | VA\\-216 | 22 March 201422:04 | ECA571 | [Astra 5B](/wiki/Astra_5B \"Astra 5B\")[Amazonas 4A](/wiki/Amazonas_4A \"Amazonas 4A\") | 9,579 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [SES](/wiki/SES_%28company%29 \"SES (company)\")[Hispasat](/wiki/Hispasat \"Hispasat\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 74 | VA\\-219 | 29 July 201423:47 | ES593 | [Georges Lemaître ATV](/wiki/Georges_Lema%C3%AEtre_ATV \"Georges Lemaître ATV\") | 20,293 kg | [LEO](/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit \"Low Earth orbit\") ([ISS](/wiki/International_Space_Station \"International Space Station\")) | [ESA](/wiki/European_Space_Agency \"European Space Agency\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 75 | VA\\-218 | 11 September 201422:05 | ECA573 | [MEASAT\\-3b](/wiki/MEASAT-3b \"MEASAT-3b\")[Optus 10](/wiki/Optus_%28satellite%29 \"Optus (satellite)\") | 10,088 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [MEASAT Satellite Systems](/wiki/MEASAT_Satellite_Systems \"MEASAT Satellite Systems\")[Optus](/wiki/Optus \"Optus\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 76 | VA\\-220 | 16 October 201421:43 | ECA574 | [Intelsat 30](/wiki/Intelsat \"Intelsat\")[ARSAT\\-1](/wiki/ARSAT-1 \"ARSAT-1\") | 10,060 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Intelsat](/wiki/Intelsat \"Intelsat\")[ARSAT](/wiki/ARSAT \"ARSAT\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 77 | VA\\-221 | 6 December 201420:40 | ECA575 | [DirecTV\\-14](/wiki/T14_%28satellite%29 \"T14 (satellite)\")[GSAT\\-16](/wiki/GSAT-16 \"GSAT-16\") | 10,210 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [DirecTV](/wiki/DirecTV \"DirecTV\")[ISRO](/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation \"Indian Space Research Organisation\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 78 | | 26 April 201520:00 | ECA576 | [Thor 7](/wiki/Thor_%28satellite%29 \"Thor (satellite)\")[SICRAL\\-2](/wiki/Syracuse_%28satellite%29 \"Syracuse (satellite)\") | 9,852 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [British Satellite Broadcasting](/wiki/British_Satellite_Broadcasting \"British Satellite Broadcasting\")[French Armed Forces](/wiki/French_Armed_Forces \"French Armed Forces\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 79 | VA\\-223 | 27 May 201521:16 | ECA577 | [DirecTV\\-15](/wiki/AT%26T_satellite_fleet \"AT&T satellite fleet\")[SKY Mexico 1](/wiki/Sky_M%C3%A9xico \"Sky México\") | 9,960 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [DirecTV](/wiki/DirecTV \"DirecTV\")[Sky México](/wiki/Sky_M%C3%A9xico \"Sky México\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 80 | VA\\-224 | 15 July 201521:42 | ECA578 | [Star One C4](/wiki/Star_One_C4 \"Star One C4\")[MSG\\-4](/wiki/Meteosat \"Meteosat\") | 8,587 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Star One](/wiki/Star_One_%28satellite_operator%29 \"Star One (satellite operator)\")[EUMETSAT](/wiki/European_Organisation_for_the_Exploitation_of_Meteorological_Satellites \"European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 81 | VA\\-225 | 20 August 201520:34 | ECA579 | [Eutelsat 8 West B](/wiki/Eutelsat \"Eutelsat\")[Intelsat 34](/wiki/Intelsat_34 \"Intelsat 34\") | 9,922 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Eutelsat](/wiki/Eutelsat \"Eutelsat\")[Intelsat](/wiki/Intelsat \"Intelsat\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 82 | VA\\-226 | 30 September 201520:30 | ECA580 | [NBN Co 1A](/wiki/Sky_Muster \"Sky Muster\")[ARSAT\\-2](/wiki/ARSAT-2 \"ARSAT-2\") | 10,203 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [National Broadband Network](/wiki/National_Broadband_Network \"National Broadband Network\")[ARSAT](/wiki/ARSAT \"ARSAT\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 83 | VA\\-227 | 10 November 201521:34 | ECA581 | [Arabsat 6B](/wiki/Arab_Satellite_Communications_Organization \"Arab Satellite Communications Organization\")[GSAT\\-15](/wiki/GSAT-15 \"GSAT-15\") | 9,810 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Arabsat](/wiki/Arab_Satellite_Communications_Organization \"Arab Satellite Communications Organization\")[ISRO](/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation \"Indian Space Research Organisation\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 84 | VA\\-228 | 27 January 201623:20 | ECA583 | [Intelsat 29e](/wiki/Intelsat_29e \"Intelsat 29e\") | 6,700 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Intelsat](/wiki/Intelsat \"Intelsat\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 85 | VA\\-229 | 9 March 201605:20 | ECA582 | [Eutelsat 65 West A](/wiki/Eutelsat_65_West_A \"Eutelsat 65 West A\") | 6,707 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Eutelsat](/wiki/Eutelsat \"Eutelsat\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 86 | VA\\-230 | 18 June 201621:38 | ECA584 | [EchoStar 18](/wiki/EchoStar \"EchoStar\")[BRISat](/wiki/BRISat \"BRISat\") | 10,730 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [EchoStar](/wiki/EchoStar \"EchoStar\")[Bank Rakyat Indonesia](/wiki/Bank_Rakyat_Indonesia \"Bank Rakyat Indonesia\") | |\n| This mission carried the first satellite owned by a financial institution. | | | | | | |\n| 87 | VA\\-232 | 24 August 201622:16 | ECA586 | [Intelsat 33e](/wiki/Intelsat_33e \"Intelsat 33e\")[Intelsat 36](/wiki/Intelsat_36 \"Intelsat 36\") | 10,735 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Intelsat](/wiki/Intelsat \"Intelsat\") | |\n| Intelsat 33e's [LEROS](/wiki/LEROS \"LEROS\") apogee engine, which supposed to perform orbit raising, failed soon after its successful launch, forcing to use the experimentation of low\\-thrust reaction control system which extended the commissioning time 3 months longer than expected. Later, it suffered other thruster problems which cut its operational lifetime by about 3\\.5 years. | | | | | | |\n| 88 | VA\\-231 | 5 October 201620:30 | ECA585 | [NBN Co 1B](/wiki/National_Broadband_Network \"National Broadband Network\")[GSAT\\-18](/wiki/GSAT-18 \"GSAT-18\") | 10,663 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [National Broadband Network](/wiki/National_Broadband_Network \"National Broadband Network\")[INSAT](/wiki/INSAT \"INSAT\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 89 | VA\\-233 | 17 November 201613:06 | ES594 | [Galileo](/wiki/Galileo_%28satellite_navigation%29 \"Galileo (satellite navigation)\") FOC\\-M6[(satellites FM\\-7, 12, 13, 14\\)](/wiki/List_of_Galileo_satellites \"List of Galileo satellites\") | 3,290 kg | [MEO](/wiki/Medium-Earth_orbit \"Medium-Earth orbit\") | [ESA](/wiki/European_Space_Agency \"European Space Agency\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 90 | VA\\-234 | 21 December 201620:30 | ECA587 | [Star One D1](/wiki/Star_One_D1 \"Star One D1\")[JCSAT\\-15](/wiki/JCSAT-15 \"JCSAT-15\") | 10,722 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Star One](/wiki/Star_One_%28satellite_operator%29 \"Star One (satellite operator)\")[SKY Perfect JSAT](/wiki/SKY_Perfect_JSAT \"SKY Perfect JSAT\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 91 | VA\\-235 | 14 February 201721:39 | ECA588 | [Intelsat 32e](/wiki/List_of_Intelsat_satellites \"List of Intelsat satellites\") / [SkyBrasil\\-1](/wiki/SKY_Brasil \"SKY Brasil\")[Telkom\\-3S](/wiki/Telkom_Indonesia \"Telkom Indonesia\") | 10,485 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Intelsat](/wiki/Intelsat \"Intelsat\"), [DirecTV Latin America](/wiki/Vrio_Corp. \"Vrio Corp.\")[Telkom Indonesia](/wiki/Telkom_Indonesia \"Telkom Indonesia\") | |\n| This mission carried the first Intelsat EpicNG high\\-throughput satellite based on the [Eurostar E3000](/wiki/Eurostar_E3000 \"Eurostar E3000\") platform, while other Intelsat EpicNG satellites were based on [BSS\\-702MP](/wiki/Boeing_702 \"Boeing 702\") platform. | | | | | | |\n| 92 | VA\\-236 | 4 May 201721:50 | ECA589 | [Koreasat 7](/wiki/KT_Corporation \"KT Corporation\")[SGDC\\-1](/wiki/Brazilian_space_program \"Brazilian space program\") | 10,289 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [KT Corporation](/wiki/KT_Corporation \"KT Corporation\")[SGDC](/wiki/Brazilian_space_program \"Brazilian space program\") | |\n| The launch was delayed from March 2017 due to transportation to the launch site being restricted by a blockade erected by striking workers. | | | | | | |\n| 93 | VA\\-237 | 1 June 201723:45 | ECA590 | [ViaSat\\-2](/wiki/ViaSat-2 \"ViaSat-2\")[Eutelsat 172B](/wiki/Eutelsat \"Eutelsat\") | 10,865 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [ViaSat](/wiki/Viasat_%28American_company%29 \"Viasat (American company)\")[Eutelsat](/wiki/Eutelsat \"Eutelsat\") | |\n| Heaviest and most expensive commercial payload ever put into orbit, valued at approximately €675 million (\\~€844 million including the launch vehicle), until 12 June 2019, when Falcon 9 delivered [RADARSAT Constellation](/wiki/RADARSAT_Constellation \"RADARSAT Constellation\") with three Canadian satellites, valued almost €844 million (not including the launch vehicle), into orbit. ViaSat\\-2 suffered antenna glitch, which cut about 15% of its intended throughput. | | | | | | |\n| 94 | VA\\-238 | 28 June 201721:15 | ECA591 | [EuropaSat](/wiki/Hellas_Sat_3 \"Hellas Sat 3\") / [Hellas Sat 3](/wiki/Hellas_Sat_3 \"Hellas Sat 3\")[GSAT\\-17](/wiki/GSAT-17 \"GSAT-17\") | 10,177 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Inmarsat](/wiki/Inmarsat \"Inmarsat\") / [Hellas Sat](/wiki/Hellas_Sat \"Hellas Sat\")[ISRO](/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation \"Indian Space Research Organisation\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 95 | VA\\-239 | 29 September 201721:56 | ECA5100 | [Intelsat 37e](/wiki/List_of_Intelsat_satellites \"List of Intelsat satellites\")[BSAT\\-4a](/wiki/BSAT-4a \"BSAT-4a\") | 10,838 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Intelsat](/wiki/Intelsat \"Intelsat\")[B\\-SAT](/wiki/Broadcasting_Satellite_System_Corporation \"Broadcasting Satellite System Corporation\") | |\n| Launch was scrubbed from 5 September 2017 due to electrical fault in one of the solid rocket boosters that caused launch abort in the last seconds before liftoff. | | | | | | |\n| 96 | [VA\\-240](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA240 \"Ariane flight VA240\") | 12 December 201718:36 | ES595 | [Galileo](/wiki/Galileo_%28satellite_navigation%29 \"Galileo (satellite navigation)\") FOC\\-M7[(satellites FM\\-19, 20, 21, 22\\)](/wiki/List_of_Galileo_satellites \"List of Galileo satellites\") | 3,282 kg | [MEO](/wiki/Medium-Earth_orbit \"Medium-Earth orbit\") | [ESA](/wiki/European_Space_Agency \"European Space Agency\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 97 | [VA\\-241](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA241 \"Ariane flight VA241\") | 25 January 201822:20 | ECA5101 | [SES\\-14](/wiki/SES-14 \"SES-14\") with [GOLD](/wiki/Global-scale_Observations_of_the_Limb_and_Disk \"Global-scale Observations of the Limb and Disk\")[Al Yah 3](/wiki/Al_Yah_Satellite_Communications \"Al Yah Satellite Communications\") | 9,123 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Supersynchronous_orbit \"Supersynchronous orbit\") | [SES](/wiki/SES_%28company%29 \"SES (company)\"), [NASA](/wiki/NASA \"NASA\")[AlYahsat](/wiki/Al_Yah_Satellite_Communications \"Al Yah Satellite Communications\") | |\n| Telemetry from the launch vehicle was lost after 9 minutes 30 seconds into the flight, after launch vehicle trajectory went off course due to invalid inertial units' azimuth value. Satellites later found to have separated from the upper stage and entered an incorrect orbit with large inclination deviations. However, they were able to reach the planned orbit with small loss of on board propellant for SES\\-14 and still expected to meet the designed lifetime, but with significant loss on Al Yah 3 (up to 50% of its intended operational life). | | | | | | |\n| 98 | [VA\\-242](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA242 \"Ariane flight VA242\") | 5 April 201821:34 | ECA5102 | [Superbird\\-8](/wiki/Superbird-8 \"Superbird-8\") / [Superbird\\-B3](/wiki/Superbird-B3 \"Superbird-B3\")[HYLAS\\-4](/wiki/HYLAS-4 \"HYLAS-4\") | 10,260 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Japanese MoD](/wiki/Ministry_of_Defense_%28Japan%29 \"Ministry of Defense (Japan)\"), [SKY Perfect JSAT](/wiki/SKY_Perfect_JSAT \"SKY Perfect JSAT\")[Avanti Communications](/wiki/Avanti_Communications \"Avanti Communications\") | |\n| Return\\-to\\-flight mission after VA\\-241 mishap on 25 January 2018\\. | | | | | | |\n| 99 | [VA\\-244](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA244 \"Ariane flight VA244\") | 25 July 201811:25 | ES596 | [Galileo](/wiki/Galileo_%28satellite_navigation%29 \"Galileo (satellite navigation)\") FOC\\-M8[(satellites FM\\-23, 24, 25, 26\\)](/wiki/List_of_Galileo_satellites \"List of Galileo satellites\") | 3,379 kg | [MEO](/wiki/Medium-Earth_orbit \"Medium-Earth orbit\") | [ESA](/wiki/European_Space_Agency \"European Space Agency\") | |\n| Final flight of Ariane 5ES. | | | | | | |\n| 100 | [VA\\-243](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA243 \"Ariane flight VA243\") | 25 September 201822:38 | ECA5103 | [Horizons\\-3e](/wiki/Horizons-3e \"Horizons-3e\")[Azerspace\\-2](/wiki/Azerspace-2 \"Azerspace-2\") / Intelsat 38 | 10,827 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Intelsat](/wiki/Intelsat \"Intelsat\"), [SKY Perfect JSAT](/wiki/SKY_Perfect_JSAT \"SKY Perfect JSAT\")[Azercosmos](/wiki/Azercosmos \"Azercosmos\") | |\n| Hundredth Ariane 5 mission. Flight VA\\-243 was delayed from 25 May 2018 due to issues with [GSAT\\-11](/wiki/GSAT-11 \"GSAT-11\"), which was eventually replaced by Horizons\\-3e. | | | | | | |\n| 101 | [VA\\-245](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA245 \"Ariane flight VA245\") | 20 October 201801:45 | ECA5105 | [BepiColombo](/wiki/BepiColombo \"BepiColombo\") | 4,081 kg | [Heliocentric](/wiki/Heliocentric_orbit \"Heliocentric orbit\") | [ESA](/wiki/European_Space_Agency \"European Space Agency\")[JAXA](/wiki/JAXA \"JAXA\") | |\n| 102 | [VA\\-246](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA246 \"Ariane flight VA246\") | 4 December 201820:37 | ECA5104 | | 10,298 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| 103 | [VA\\-247](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA247 \"Ariane flight VA247\") | 5 February 201921:01 | ECA5106 | | 10,018 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| 104 | [VA\\-248](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA248 \"Ariane flight VA248\") | 20 June 201921:43 | ECA5107 | | 10,594 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| 105 | [VA\\-249](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA249 \"Ariane flight VA249\") | 6 August 201919:30 | ECA5108 | | 10,594 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geosynchronous_transfer_orbit \"Geosynchronous transfer orbit\") | | |\n| 106 | [VA\\-250](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA250 \"Ariane flight VA250\") | 26 November 201921:23 | ECA5109 | [Inmarsat\\-5 F5](/wiki/Inmarsat \"Inmarsat\") (GX 5\\)TIBA\\-1 | 10,495 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Inmarsat](/wiki/Inmarsat \"Inmarsat\")[Government of Egypt](/wiki/Politics_of_Egypt \"Politics of Egypt\") | |\n| 107 | [VA\\-251](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA251 \"Ariane flight VA251\") | 16 January 202021:05 | ECA5110 | [Eutelsat Konnect](/wiki/Eutelsat_Konnect \"Eutelsat Konnect\") (African Broadband Satellite)[GSAT\\-30](/wiki/GSAT-30 \"GSAT-30\") | 7,888 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Eutelsat](/wiki/Eutelsat \"Eutelsat\")[ISRO](/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation \"Indian Space Research Organisation\") | |\n| 108 | [VA\\-252](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA252 \"Ariane flight VA252\") | 18 February 202022:18 | ECA5111 | [JCSAT\\-17](/wiki/JCSAT-17 \"JCSAT-17\")[GEO\\-KOMPSAT 2B](/wiki/GEO-KOMPSAT_2B \"GEO-KOMPSAT 2B\") | 9,236 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [SKY Perfect JSAT](/wiki/SKY_Perfect_JSAT \"SKY Perfect JSAT\")[KARI](/wiki/Korea_Aerospace_Research_Institute \"Korea Aerospace Research Institute\") | |\n| 109 | [VA\\-253](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA253 \"Ariane flight VA253\") | 15 August 202022:04 | ECA5112 | [Galaxy 30](/wiki/Galaxy_%28satellite%29 \"Galaxy (satellite)\")[MEV\\-2](/wiki/Mission_Extension_Vehicle \"Mission Extension Vehicle\")[BSAT\\-4b](/wiki/BSAT-4b \"BSAT-4b\") | 10,468 kg[third launch of 2020](https://www.spacedaily.com/reports/Ariane_5s_third_launch_of_2020_999.html)including 765 kg of support structures. | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Intelsat](/wiki/Intelsat \"Intelsat\")[Northrop Grumman](/wiki/Northrop_Grumman \"Northrop Grumman\")[B\\-SAT](/wiki/Broadcasting_Satellite_System_Corporation \"Broadcasting Satellite System Corporation\") | |\n| 110 | [VA\\-254](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA254 \"Ariane flight VA254\") | 30 July 202121:00 | ECA5113 | [Eutelsat Quantum](/wiki/Eutelsat_Quantum \"Eutelsat Quantum\")[Star One D2](/wiki/Star_One_D2 \"Star One D2\") | 10,515 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Eutelsat](/wiki/Eutelsat \"Eutelsat\")[Star One](/wiki/Star_One_%28satellite_operator%29 \"Star One (satellite operator)\") | |\n| 111 | [VA\\-255](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA255 \"Ariane flight VA255\") | 24 October 202102:10 | ECA5115 | [SES\\-17](/wiki/SES-17 \"SES-17\")[Syracuse 4A](/wiki/Syracuse_%28satellite%29 \"Syracuse (satellite)\") | 11,210 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [SES](/wiki/SES_%28company%29 \"SES (company)\")[DGA](/wiki/Direction_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9rale_de_l%27armement \"Direction générale de l'armement\") | |\n| 112 | [VA\\-256](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA256 \"Ariane flight VA256\") | 25 December 202112:20 | ECA5114 | [James Webb Space Telescope](/wiki/James_Webb_Space_Telescope \"James Webb Space Telescope\") | | Sun–Earth | [NASA](/wiki/NASA \"NASA\") / [ESA](/wiki/European_Space_Agency \"European Space Agency\") / [CSA](/wiki/Canadian_Space_Agency \"Canadian Space Agency\") / [STScI](/wiki/Space_Telescope_Science_Institute \"Space Telescope Science Institute\") | |\n| 113 | [VA\\-257](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA257 \"Ariane flight VA257\") | 22 June 202221:50 | ECA5116 | [MEASAT\\-3d](/wiki/MEASAT \"MEASAT\")[GSAT\\-24](/wiki/GSAT-24 \"GSAT-24\") | 9,829 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [MEASAT](/wiki/MEASAT \"MEASAT\")[NSIL](/wiki/NSIL \"NSIL\") / [Tata Play](/wiki/Tata_Play \"Tata Play\") | |\n| 114 | VA\\-258 | 7 September 202221:45 | ECA5117 | [Eutelsat Konnect](/wiki/Eutelsat_Konnect \"Eutelsat Konnect\") VHTS | 6,400 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Eutelsat](/wiki/Eutelsat \"Eutelsat\") | |\n| 115 | VA\\-259 | 13 December 202220:30 | ECA5118 | [Galaxy 35](/wiki/Galaxy_%28satellite%29 \"Galaxy (satellite)\")[Galaxy 36](/wiki/Galaxy_%28satellite%29 \"Galaxy (satellite)\")[MTG\\-I1](/wiki/Meteosat \"Meteosat\") | 10,972 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Intelsat](/wiki/Intelsat \"Intelsat\")[EUMETSAT](/wiki/European_Organisation_for_the_Exploitation_of_Meteorological_Satellites \"European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites\") | |\n| 116 | VA\\-260 | 14 April 202312:14 | ECA5120 | *[Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer](/wiki/Jupiter_Icy_Moons_Explorer \"Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer\")* (JUICE) | 5,963 kg | [Heliocentric](/wiki/Heliocentric_orbit \"Heliocentric orbit\") | [ESA](/wiki/European_Space_Agency \"European Space Agency\") | |\n|117\n\n VA\\-261 |\n 5 July 202322:00 |\n ECA5119 |\n [Syracuse 4B](/wiki/Syracuse_%28satellite%29 \"Syracuse (satellite)\") (Comsat\\-NG 2\\) Heinrich Hertz (H2Sat) |\n 7,679\\.8 kg |\n [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") |\n [DGA](/wiki/Direction_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9rale_de_l%27armement \"Direction générale de l'armement\")[DLR](/wiki/Deutsches_Zentrum_f%C3%BCr_Luft-_und_Raumfahrt \"Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt\") |\n |\n| Ariane 5's last mission. | | | | | | |\n\n", "### Launch statistics\n\nAriane 5 launch vehicles had accumulated 117 launches, 112 of which were successful, yielding a success rate. Between April 2003 and December 2017, Ariane 5 flew 83 consecutive missions without failure, but the launch vehicle [suffered a partial failure](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA241 \"Ariane flight VA241\") in January 2018\\.\n\n", "### Rocket configurations\n\n", "### Launch outcomes\n\n", "### List of launches\n\nAll launches are from [Guiana Space Centre](/wiki/Guiana_Space_Centre \"Guiana Space Centre\"), [ELA\\-3](/wiki/ELA-3 \"ELA-3\").\n\n| \\# | Flight no. | DateTime ([UTC](/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time \"Coordinated Universal Time\")) | Serial no. | Payload | Total payload mass (including launch adapters and SYLDA) | Orbit | Customers | Launchoutcome |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | [V\\-88](/wiki/Ariane_flight_V88 \"Ariane flight V88\") | 4 June 199612:34 | G501 | [Cluster](/wiki/Cluster_%28spacecraft%29 \"Cluster (spacecraft)\") | | | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 2 | V\\-101 | 30 October 199713:43 | G502 | [MaqSat\\-H](/wiki/MaqSat-H \"MaqSat-H\"), [TEAMSAT](/wiki/TEAMSAT \"TEAMSAT\"), [MaqSat\\-B](/wiki/MaqSat-B \"MaqSat-B\"), [YES](/wiki/Young_Engineers%27_Satellite \"Young Engineers' Satellite\") | | | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 3 | V\\-112 | 21 October 199816:37 | G503 | [MaqSat 3](/wiki/MaqSat_3 \"MaqSat 3\"), [ARD](/wiki/Atmospheric_Reentry_Demonstrator \"Atmospheric Reentry Demonstrator\") | \\~6,800 kg | GTO | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 4 | V\\-119 | 10 December 199914:32 | G504 | [XMM\\-Newton](/wiki/XMM-Newton \"XMM-Newton\") | 3,800 kg | [HEO](/wiki/Highly_elliptical_orbit \"Highly elliptical orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 5 | V\\-128 | 21 March 200023:28 | G505 | [INSAT\\-3B](/wiki/INSAT-3B \"INSAT-3B\")[AsiaStar](/wiki/AsiaStar \"AsiaStar\") | \\~5,800 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 6 | V\\-130 | 14 September 200022:54 | G506 | [Astra 2B](/wiki/Astra_2B \"Astra 2B\")[GE\\-7](/wiki/GE-7 \"GE-7\") | \\~4,700 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 7 | V\\-135 | 16 November 200001:07 | G507 | [PanAmSat\\-1R](/wiki/Intelsat_1R \"Intelsat 1R\")[Amsat\\-P3D](/wiki/OSCAR_40 \"OSCAR 40\")[STRV 1C](/wiki/Space_Technology_Research_Vehicle \"Space Technology Research Vehicle\")[STRV 1D](/wiki/Space_Technology_Research_Vehicle \"Space Technology Research Vehicle\") | \\~6,600 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 8 | V\\-138 | 20 December 200000:26 | G508 | [Astra 2D](/wiki/Astra_2D \"Astra 2D\")[GE\\-8](/wiki/AMC-8 \"AMC-8\")[LDREX](/wiki/LDREX \"LDREX\") | \\~4,700 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 9 | V\\-140 | 8 March 200122:51 | G509 | [Eurobird\\-1](/wiki/Eutelsat_33C \"Eutelsat 33C\")[BSAT\\-2a](/wiki/BSAT-2a \"BSAT-2a\") | \\~5,400 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 10 | V\\-142 | 12 July 200121:58 | G510 | [Artemis](/wiki/Artemis_%28satellite%29 \"Artemis (satellite)\")[BSAT\\-2b](/wiki/BSAT-2b \"BSAT-2b\") | \\~5,400 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") (planned)[MEO](/wiki/Medium_Earth_orbit \"Medium Earth orbit\") (achieved) | | |\n| Upper stage underperformed, payloads were placed in a useless orbit. Artemis was raised to its target orbit at the expense of operational fuel; BSAT\\-2b was not recoverable. | | | | | | |\n| 11 | V\\-145 | 1 March 200201:07 | G511 | [Envisat](/wiki/Envisat \"Envisat\") | 8,111 kg | [SSO](/wiki/Sun-synchronous_orbit \"Sun-synchronous orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 12 | V\\-153 | 5 July 200223:22 | G512 | [Stellat 5](/wiki/Stellat_5 \"Stellat 5\")[N\\-STAR c](/wiki/N-STAR_c \"N-STAR c\") | \\~6,700 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 13 | V\\-155 | 28 August 200222:45 | G513 | [Atlantic Bird 1](/wiki/Atlantic_Bird_1 \"Atlantic Bird 1\")[MSG\\-1](/wiki/Meteosat_8 \"Meteosat 8\")[MFD](/wiki/Modular_Fitting_Dummy \"Modular Fitting Dummy\") | \\~5,800 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 14 | V\\-157 | 11 December 200222:22 | ECA517 | [Hot Bird 7](/wiki/Hot_Bird_7 \"Hot Bird 7\")[Stentor](/wiki/Stentor_%28satellite%29 \"Stentor (satellite)\")[MFD\\-A](/wiki/Modular_Fitting_Dummy \"Modular Fitting Dummy\")[MFD\\-B](/wiki/Modular_Fitting_Dummy \"Modular Fitting Dummy\") | | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") (planned) | | |\n| Maiden flight of Ariane 5ECA, first stage engine failure, rocket destroyed by [range safety](/wiki/Range_safety \"Range safety\"). | | | | | | |\n| 15 | V\\-160 | 9 April 200322:52 | G514 | [INSAT\\-3A](/wiki/INSAT-3A \"INSAT-3A\")[Galaxy 12](/wiki/Galaxy_%28satellite%29 \"Galaxy (satellite)\") | \\~5,700 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 16 | V\\-161 | 11 June 200322:38 | G515 | [Optus C1](/wiki/Optus_C1 \"Optus C1\")[BSAT\\-2c](/wiki/BSAT-2c \"BSAT-2c\") | \\~7,100 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 17 | V\\-162 | 27 September 200323:14 | G516 | [INSAT\\-3E](/wiki/INSAT-3E \"INSAT-3E\")[eBird\\-1](/wiki/EBird-1 \"EBird-1\")[SMART\\-1](/wiki/SMART-1 \"SMART-1\") | \\~5,600 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| Final flight of Ariane 5G | | | | | | |\n| 18 | V\\-158 | 2 March 200407:17 | G\\+518 | [Rosetta](/wiki/Rosetta_%28spacecraft%29 \"Rosetta (spacecraft)\")[Philae](/wiki/Philae_%28spacecraft%29 \"Philae (spacecraft)\") | 3,011 kg | [Heliocentric](/wiki/Heliocentric_orbit \"Heliocentric orbit\") | | |\n| Maiden flight of Ariane 5G\\+ | | | | | | |\n| 19 | V\\-163 | 18 July 200400:44 | G\\+519 | [Anik F2](/wiki/Anik_%28satellite%29%23Anik_F2 \"Anik (satellite)#Anik F2\") | 5,950 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 20 | V\\-165 | 18 December 200416:26 | G\\+520 | [Helios 2A](/wiki/Helios_2A \"Helios 2A\")[Essaim\\-1](/wiki/Essaim_%28satellite%29 \"Essaim (satellite)\")[Essaim\\-2](/wiki/Essaim_%28satellite%29 \"Essaim (satellite)\")[Essaim\\-3](/wiki/Essaim_%28satellite%29 \"Essaim (satellite)\")[Essaim\\-4](/wiki/Essaim_%28satellite%29 \"Essaim (satellite)\")[PARASOL](/wiki/PARASOL \"PARASOL\")[Nanosat 01](/wiki/Nanosat_01 \"Nanosat 01\") | 4,200 kg | [SSO](/wiki/Sun-synchronous_orbit \"Sun-synchronous orbit\") | | |\n| Final flight of Ariane 5G\\+ | | | | | | |\n| 21 | V\\-164 | 12 February 200521:03 | ECA521 | [XTAR\\-EUR](/wiki/XTAR-EUR \"XTAR-EUR\")[Maqsat](/wiki/Maqsat \"Maqsat\")\\-B2[Sloshsat\\-FLEVO](/wiki/Sloshsat-FLEVO \"Sloshsat-FLEVO\") | \\~8,400 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 22 | V\\-166 | 11 August 200508:20 | GS523 | [Thaicom 4](/wiki/Thaicom_4 \"Thaicom 4\") | 6,485 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| Maiden flight of Ariane 5GS | | | | | | |\n| 23 | V\\-168 | 13 October 200522:32 | GS524 | [Syracuse 3A](/wiki/Syracuse_3A \"Syracuse 3A\")[Galaxy 15](/wiki/Galaxy_15 \"Galaxy 15\") | \\~6,900 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 24 | V\\-167 | 16 November 200523:46 | ECA522 | [Spaceway\\-2](/wiki/Spaceway-2 \"Spaceway-2\")[Telkom\\-2](/wiki/Telkom-2 \"Telkom-2\") | \\~9,100 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 25 | V\\-169 | 21 December 200523:33 | GS525 | [INSAT\\-4A](/wiki/INSAT-4A \"INSAT-4A\")[MSG\\-2](/wiki/MSG-2 \"MSG-2\") | 6,478 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 26 | V\\-170 | 11 March 200622:33 | ECA527 | [Spainsat](/wiki/Spainsat \"Spainsat\")[Hot Bird 7A](/wiki/Hot_Bird_7A \"Hot Bird 7A\") | \\~8,700 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 27 | V\\-171 | 27 May 200621:09 | ECA529 | [Satmex\\-6](/wiki/Eutelsat_113_West_A \"Eutelsat 113 West A\")[Thaicom 5](/wiki/Thaicom_5 \"Thaicom 5\") | 9,172 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 28 | V\\-172 | 11 August 200622:15 | ECA531 | [JCSAT\\-10](/wiki/JCSAT-10 \"JCSAT-10\")[Syracuse 3B](/wiki/Syracuse_3B \"Syracuse 3B\") | \\~8,900 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 29 | V\\-173 | 13 October 200620:56 | ECA533 | [DirecTV\\-9S](/wiki/AT%26T_satellite_fleet \"AT&T satellite fleet\")[Optus D1](/wiki/Optus_D1 \"Optus D1\")[LDREX\\-2](/wiki/LDREX-2 \"LDREX-2\") | \\~9,300 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 30 | V\\-174 | 8 December 200622:08 | ECA534 | [WildBlue\\-1](/wiki/Viasat%2C_Inc. \"Viasat, Inc.\")[AMC\\-18](/wiki/AMC-18 \"AMC-18\") | \\~7,800 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 31 | V\\-175 | 11 March 200722:03 | ECA535 | [Skynet 5A](/wiki/Skynet_5A \"Skynet 5A\")[INSAT\\-4B](/wiki/INSAT-4B \"INSAT-4B\") | \\~8,600 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 32 | V\\-176 | 4 May 200722:29 | ECA536 | [Astra 1L](/wiki/Astra_1L \"Astra 1L\")[Galaxy 17](/wiki/Galaxy_17 \"Galaxy 17\") | 9,402 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 33 | V\\-177 | 14 August 200723:44 | ECA537 | [Spaceway\\-3](/wiki/Spaceway-3 \"Spaceway-3\")[BSAT\\-3a](/wiki/BSAT-3a \"BSAT-3a\") | 8,848 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 34 | V\\-178 | 5 October 200722:02 | GS526 | [Intelsat 11](/wiki/Intelsat_11 \"Intelsat 11\")[Optus D2](/wiki/Optus_%28satellite%29 \"Optus (satellite)\") | 5,857 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 35 | V\\-179 | 14 November 200722:03 | ECA538 | [Skynet 5B](/wiki/Skynet_5B \"Skynet 5B\")[Star One C1](/wiki/Star_One_C1 \"Star One C1\") | 9,535 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 36 | V\\-180 | 21 December 200721:41 | GS530 | [Rascom\\-QAF1](/wiki/Regional_African_Satellite_Communication_Organization \"Regional African Satellite Communication Organization\")[Horizons\\-2](/wiki/Horizons-2 \"Horizons-2\") | \\~6,500 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 37 | V\\-181 | 9 March 200804:03 | ES528 | [Jules Verne ATV](/wiki/Jules_Verne_ATV \"Jules Verne ATV\") | | [LEO](/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit \"Low Earth orbit\") ([ISS](/wiki/International_Space_Station \"International Space Station\")) | | |\n| Maiden flight of Ariane 5ES | | | | | | |\n| 38 | V\\-182 | 18 April 200822:17 | ECA539 | [Star One C2](/wiki/Star_One_C2 \"Star One C2\")[Vinasat\\-1](/wiki/Vinasat-1 \"Vinasat-1\") | 7,762 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 39 | V\\-183 | 12 June 200822:05 | ECA540 | [Skynet 5C](/wiki/Skynet_5C \"Skynet 5C\")[Türksat 3A](/wiki/T%C3%BCrksat_3A \"Türksat 3A\") | 8,541 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 40 | V\\-184 | 7 July 200821:47 | ECA541 | [ProtoStar\\-1](/wiki/ProtoStar \"ProtoStar\")[Badr\\-6](/wiki/Arab_Satellite_Communications_Organization \"Arab Satellite Communications Organization\") | 8,639 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 41 | V\\-185 | 14 August 200820:44 | ECA542 | [Superbird\\-7](/wiki/SKY_Perfect_JSAT \"SKY Perfect JSAT\")[AMC\\-21](/wiki/AMC-21 \"AMC-21\") | 8,068 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 42 | V\\-186 | 20 December 200822:35 | ECA543 | [Hot Bird 9](/wiki/Hot_Bird_13C \"Hot Bird 13C\")[Eutelsat W2M](/wiki/Afghansat_1 \"Afghansat 1\") | 9,220 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 43 | V\\-187 | 12 February 200922:09 | ECA545 | [Hot Bird 10](/wiki/Eutelsat_33E \"Eutelsat 33E\")[NSS\\-9](/wiki/NSS-9 \"NSS-9\")[Spirale](/wiki/Spirale \"Spirale\")\\-A[Spirale](/wiki/Spirale \"Spirale\")\\-B | 8,511 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 44 | V\\-188 | 14 May 200913:12 | ECA546 | [Herschel Space Observatory](/wiki/Herschel_Space_Observatory \"Herschel Space Observatory\")[Planck](/wiki/Planck_%28spacecraft%29 \"Planck (spacecraft)\") | 3,402 kg | Sun–Earth | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 45 | V\\-189 | 1 July 200919:52 | ECA547 | [TerreStar\\-1](/wiki/TerreStar-1 \"TerreStar-1\") | 7,055 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 46 | V\\-190 | 21 August 200922:09 | ECA548 | [JCSAT\\-12](/wiki/JSAT_%28satellite_constellation%29 \"JSAT (satellite constellation)\")[Optus D3](/wiki/Optus_D3 \"Optus D3\") | 7,655 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 47 | V\\-191 | 1 October 200921:59 | ECA549 | [Amazonas 2](/wiki/Hispasat \"Hispasat\")[COMSATBw\\-1](/wiki/COMSATBw-1 \"COMSATBw-1\") | 9,087 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 48 | V\\-192 | 29 October 200920:00 | ECA550 | [NSS\\-12](/wiki/List_of_SES_satellites \"List of SES satellites\")[Thor\\-6](/wiki/Thor_%28satellite%29 \"Thor (satellite)\") | 9,462 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 49 | V\\-193 | 18 December 200916:26 | GS532 | [Helios 2B](/wiki/Helios_2_%28satellite%29 \"Helios 2 (satellite)\") | 5,954 kg | [SSO](/wiki/Sun-synchronous_orbit \"Sun-synchronous orbit\") | | |\n| Final flight of Ariane 5GS | | | | | | |\n| 50 | V\\-194 | 21 May 201022:01 | ECA551 | [Astra 3B](/wiki/Astra_3B \"Astra 3B\")[COMSATBw\\-2](/wiki/COMSATBw-2 \"COMSATBw-2\") | 9,116 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [SES](/wiki/SES_%28company%29 \"SES (company)\")MilSat Services | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 51 | V\\-195 | 26 June 201021:41 | ECA552 | [Arabsat\\-5A](/wiki/Arabsat-5A \"Arabsat-5A\")[Chollian](/wiki/Chollian \"Chollian\") | 8,393 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Arabsat](/wiki/Arab_Satellite_Communications_Organization \"Arab Satellite Communications Organization\")[KARI](/wiki/Korea_Aerospace_Research_Institute \"Korea Aerospace Research Institute\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 52 | V\\-196 | 4 August 201020:59 | ECA554 | [Nilesat 201](/wiki/Nilesat_201 \"Nilesat 201\")[RASCOM\\-QAF 1R](/wiki/Regional_African_Satellite_Communication_Organization \"Regional African Satellite Communication Organization\") | 7,085 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Nilesat](/wiki/Nilesat \"Nilesat\")[RASCOM](/wiki/Regional_African_Satellite_Communication_Organization \"Regional African Satellite Communication Organization\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 53 | V\\-197 | 28 October 201021:51 | ECA555 | [Eutelsat W3B](/wiki/Eutelsat \"Eutelsat\")[BSAT\\-3b](/wiki/BSAT-3b \"BSAT-3b\") | 8,263 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Eutelsat](/wiki/Eutelsat \"Eutelsat\")[Broadcasting Satellite System Corporation](/wiki/Broadcasting_Satellite_System_Corporation \"Broadcasting Satellite System Corporation\") | |\n| Eutelsat W3B suffered a leak in the propulsion system shortly after launch and was declared a total loss. BSAT\\-3b is operating normally. | | | | | | |\n| 54 | V\\-198 | 26 November 201018:39 | ECA556 | [Intelsat 17](/wiki/Intelsat \"Intelsat\")[HYLAS\\-1](/wiki/HYLAS-1 \"HYLAS-1\") | 8,867 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Intelsat](/wiki/Intelsat \"Intelsat\")[Avanti Communications](/wiki/Avanti_Communications \"Avanti Communications\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 55 | V\\-199 | 29 December 201021:27 | ECA557 | [Koreasat 6](/wiki/Koreasat_6 \"Koreasat 6\")[Hispasat\\-1E](/wiki/Hispasat \"Hispasat\") | 9,259 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [KT Corporation](/wiki/KT_Corporation \"KT Corporation\")[Hispasat](/wiki/Hispasat \"Hispasat\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 56 | V\\-200 | 16 February 201121:50 | ES544 | [Johannes Kepler ATV](/wiki/Johannes_Kepler_ATV \"Johannes Kepler ATV\") | 20,050 kg | [LEO](/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit \"Low Earth orbit\") ([ISS](/wiki/International_Space_Station \"International Space Station\")) | [ESA](/wiki/European_Space_Agency \"European Space Agency\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 57 | VA\\-201 | 22 April 201121:37 | ECA558 | [Yahsat 1A](/wiki/Yahsat_1A \"Yahsat 1A\")[New Dawn](/wiki/Intelsat_28 \"Intelsat 28\") | 10,064 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Al Yah Satellite Communications](/wiki/Al_Yah_Satellite_Communications \"Al Yah Satellite Communications\")[Intelsat](/wiki/Intelsat \"Intelsat\") | |\n| Launch was scrubbed from 30 March 2011, aborted in the last seconds before liftoff due to a gimbal malfunction in the Vulcain main engine. | | | | | | |\n| 58 | VA\\-202 | 20 May 201120:38 | ECA559 | [ST\\-2](/wiki/ST-2 \"ST-2\")[GSAT\\-8](/wiki/GSAT-8 \"GSAT-8\") | 9,013 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Singapore Telecom](/wiki/Singtel \"Singtel\")[ISRO](/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation \"Indian Space Research Organisation\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 59 | VA\\-203 | 6 August 201122:52 | ECA560 | [Astra 1N](/wiki/Astra_1N \"Astra 1N\")[BSAT\\-3c](/wiki/BSAT-3c \"BSAT-3c\") / [JCSAT\\-110R](/wiki/BSAT-3c \"BSAT-3c\") | 9,095 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [SES](/wiki/SES_%28company%29 \"SES (company)\")[Broadcasting Satellite System Corporation](/wiki/Broadcasting_Satellite_System_Corporation \"Broadcasting Satellite System Corporation\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 60 | VA\\-204 | 21 September 201121:38 | ECA561 | [Arabsat\\-5C](/wiki/Arab_Satellite_Communications_Organization \"Arab Satellite Communications Organization\")[SES\\-2](/wiki/SES-2 \"SES-2\") | 8,974 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Arab Satellite Communications Organization](/wiki/Arab_Satellite_Communications_Organization \"Arab Satellite Communications Organization\")[SES](/wiki/SES_%28company%29 \"SES (company)\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 61 | VA\\-205 | 23 March 201204:34 | ES553 | [Edoardo Amaldi ATV](/wiki/Edoardo_Amaldi_ATV \"Edoardo Amaldi ATV\") | 20,060 kg | [LEO](/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit \"Low Earth orbit\") ([ISS](/wiki/International_Space_Station \"International Space Station\")) | [ESA](/wiki/European_Space_Agency \"European Space Agency\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 62 | VA\\-206 | 15 May 201222:13 | ECA562 | [JCSAT\\-13](/wiki/JSAT_%28satellite_constellation%29 \"JSAT (satellite constellation)\")[Vinasat\\-2](/wiki/Vinasat-2 \"Vinasat-2\") | 8,381 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [SKY Perfect JSAT](/wiki/SKY_Perfect_JSAT \"SKY Perfect JSAT\")[VNPT](/wiki/Vietnam_Posts_and_Telecommunications_Group \"Vietnam Posts and Telecommunications Group\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 63 | VA\\-207 | 5 July 201221:36 | ECA563 | [EchoStar XVII](/wiki/EchoStar_XVII \"EchoStar XVII\")[MSG\\-3](/wiki/Meteosat \"Meteosat\") | 9,647 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [EchoStar](/wiki/EchoStar \"EchoStar\")[EUMETSAT](/wiki/European_Organisation_for_the_Exploitation_of_Meteorological_Satellites \"European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 64 | VA\\-208 | 2 August 201220:54 | ECA564 | [Intelsat 20](/wiki/Intelsat_20 \"Intelsat 20\")[HYLAS 2](/wiki/HYLAS_2 \"HYLAS 2\") | 10,182 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Intelsat](/wiki/Intelsat \"Intelsat\")[Avanti Communications](/wiki/Avanti_Communications \"Avanti Communications\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 65 | VA\\-209 | 28 September 201221:18 | ECA565 | [Astra 2F](/wiki/Astra_2F \"Astra 2F\")[GSAT\\-10](/wiki/GSAT-10 \"GSAT-10\") | 10,211 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [SES](/wiki/SES_%28company%29 \"SES (company)\")[ISRO](/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation \"Indian Space Research Organisation\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 66 | VA\\-210 | 10 November 201221:05 | ECA566 | [Eutelsat 21B](/wiki/Eutelsat_21B \"Eutelsat 21B\")[Star One C3](/wiki/Star_One_C3 \"Star One C3\") | 9,216 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Eutelsat](/wiki/Eutelsat \"Eutelsat\")[Star One](/wiki/Star_One_%28satellite_operator%29 \"Star One (satellite operator)\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 67 | VA\\-211 | 19 December 201221:49 | ECA567 | [Skynet 5D](/wiki/Skynet_5D \"Skynet 5D\")[Mexsat\\-3](/wiki/Mexsat-3 \"Mexsat-3\") | 8,637 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Astrium](/wiki/Astrium \"Astrium\")[Mexican Satellite System](/wiki/Mexican_Satellite_System \"Mexican Satellite System\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 68 | VA\\-212 | 7 February 201321:36 | ECA568 | [Amazonas 3](/wiki/Amazonas_3 \"Amazonas 3\")[Azerspace\\-1/Africasat\\-1a](/wiki/Azerspace-1/Africasat-1a \"Azerspace-1/Africasat-1a\") | 10,350 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Hispasat](/wiki/Hispasat \"Hispasat\")[Azercosmos](/wiki/Azercosmos \"Azercosmos\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 69 | VA\\-213 | 5 June 201321:52 | ES592 | [Albert Einstein ATV](/wiki/Albert_Einstein_ATV \"Albert Einstein ATV\") | 20,252 kg | [LEO](/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit \"Low Earth orbit\") ([ISS](/wiki/International_Space_Station \"International Space Station\")) | [ESA](/wiki/European_Space_Agency \"European Space Agency\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 70 | VA\\-214 | 25 July 201319:54 | ECA569 | [Alphasat I\\-XL](/wiki/Alphabus \"Alphabus\")[INSAT\\-3D](/wiki/INSAT-3D \"INSAT-3D\") | 9,760 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Inmarsat](/wiki/Inmarsat \"Inmarsat\")[ISRO](/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation \"Indian Space Research Organisation\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 71 | VA\\-215 | 29 August 201320:30 | ECA570 | [Eutelsat 25B/Es'hail 1](/wiki/Eutelsat_25B/Es%27hail_1 \"Eutelsat 25B/Es'hail 1\")[GSAT\\-7](/wiki/GSAT-7 \"GSAT-7\") | 9,790 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Eutelsat](/wiki/Eutelsat \"Eutelsat\")[ISRO](/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation \"Indian Space Research Organisation\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 72 | VA\\-217 | 6 February 201421:30 | ECA572 | [ABS\\-2](/wiki/ABS-2 \"ABS-2\")[Athena\\-Fidus](/wiki/Athena-Fidus \"Athena-Fidus\") | 10,214 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [ABS (satellite operator)](/wiki/ABS_%28satellite_operator%29 \"ABS (satellite operator)\")[DIRISI](/wiki/DIRISI \"DIRISI\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 73 | VA\\-216 | 22 March 201422:04 | ECA571 | [Astra 5B](/wiki/Astra_5B \"Astra 5B\")[Amazonas 4A](/wiki/Amazonas_4A \"Amazonas 4A\") | 9,579 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [SES](/wiki/SES_%28company%29 \"SES (company)\")[Hispasat](/wiki/Hispasat \"Hispasat\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 74 | VA\\-219 | 29 July 201423:47 | ES593 | [Georges Lemaître ATV](/wiki/Georges_Lema%C3%AEtre_ATV \"Georges Lemaître ATV\") | 20,293 kg | [LEO](/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit \"Low Earth orbit\") ([ISS](/wiki/International_Space_Station \"International Space Station\")) | [ESA](/wiki/European_Space_Agency \"European Space Agency\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 75 | VA\\-218 | 11 September 201422:05 | ECA573 | [MEASAT\\-3b](/wiki/MEASAT-3b \"MEASAT-3b\")[Optus 10](/wiki/Optus_%28satellite%29 \"Optus (satellite)\") | 10,088 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [MEASAT Satellite Systems](/wiki/MEASAT_Satellite_Systems \"MEASAT Satellite Systems\")[Optus](/wiki/Optus \"Optus\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 76 | VA\\-220 | 16 October 201421:43 | ECA574 | [Intelsat 30](/wiki/Intelsat \"Intelsat\")[ARSAT\\-1](/wiki/ARSAT-1 \"ARSAT-1\") | 10,060 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Intelsat](/wiki/Intelsat \"Intelsat\")[ARSAT](/wiki/ARSAT \"ARSAT\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 77 | VA\\-221 | 6 December 201420:40 | ECA575 | [DirecTV\\-14](/wiki/T14_%28satellite%29 \"T14 (satellite)\")[GSAT\\-16](/wiki/GSAT-16 \"GSAT-16\") | 10,210 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [DirecTV](/wiki/DirecTV \"DirecTV\")[ISRO](/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation \"Indian Space Research Organisation\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 78 | | 26 April 201520:00 | ECA576 | [Thor 7](/wiki/Thor_%28satellite%29 \"Thor (satellite)\")[SICRAL\\-2](/wiki/Syracuse_%28satellite%29 \"Syracuse (satellite)\") | 9,852 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [British Satellite Broadcasting](/wiki/British_Satellite_Broadcasting \"British Satellite Broadcasting\")[French Armed Forces](/wiki/French_Armed_Forces \"French Armed Forces\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 79 | VA\\-223 | 27 May 201521:16 | ECA577 | [DirecTV\\-15](/wiki/AT%26T_satellite_fleet \"AT&T satellite fleet\")[SKY Mexico 1](/wiki/Sky_M%C3%A9xico \"Sky México\") | 9,960 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [DirecTV](/wiki/DirecTV \"DirecTV\")[Sky México](/wiki/Sky_M%C3%A9xico \"Sky México\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 80 | VA\\-224 | 15 July 201521:42 | ECA578 | [Star One C4](/wiki/Star_One_C4 \"Star One C4\")[MSG\\-4](/wiki/Meteosat \"Meteosat\") | 8,587 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Star One](/wiki/Star_One_%28satellite_operator%29 \"Star One (satellite operator)\")[EUMETSAT](/wiki/European_Organisation_for_the_Exploitation_of_Meteorological_Satellites \"European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 81 | VA\\-225 | 20 August 201520:34 | ECA579 | [Eutelsat 8 West B](/wiki/Eutelsat \"Eutelsat\")[Intelsat 34](/wiki/Intelsat_34 \"Intelsat 34\") | 9,922 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Eutelsat](/wiki/Eutelsat \"Eutelsat\")[Intelsat](/wiki/Intelsat \"Intelsat\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 82 | VA\\-226 | 30 September 201520:30 | ECA580 | [NBN Co 1A](/wiki/Sky_Muster \"Sky Muster\")[ARSAT\\-2](/wiki/ARSAT-2 \"ARSAT-2\") | 10,203 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [National Broadband Network](/wiki/National_Broadband_Network \"National Broadband Network\")[ARSAT](/wiki/ARSAT \"ARSAT\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 83 | VA\\-227 | 10 November 201521:34 | ECA581 | [Arabsat 6B](/wiki/Arab_Satellite_Communications_Organization \"Arab Satellite Communications Organization\")[GSAT\\-15](/wiki/GSAT-15 \"GSAT-15\") | 9,810 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Arabsat](/wiki/Arab_Satellite_Communications_Organization \"Arab Satellite Communications Organization\")[ISRO](/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation \"Indian Space Research Organisation\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 84 | VA\\-228 | 27 January 201623:20 | ECA583 | [Intelsat 29e](/wiki/Intelsat_29e \"Intelsat 29e\") | 6,700 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Intelsat](/wiki/Intelsat \"Intelsat\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 85 | VA\\-229 | 9 March 201605:20 | ECA582 | [Eutelsat 65 West A](/wiki/Eutelsat_65_West_A \"Eutelsat 65 West A\") | 6,707 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Eutelsat](/wiki/Eutelsat \"Eutelsat\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 86 | VA\\-230 | 18 June 201621:38 | ECA584 | [EchoStar 18](/wiki/EchoStar \"EchoStar\")[BRISat](/wiki/BRISat \"BRISat\") | 10,730 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [EchoStar](/wiki/EchoStar \"EchoStar\")[Bank Rakyat Indonesia](/wiki/Bank_Rakyat_Indonesia \"Bank Rakyat Indonesia\") | |\n| This mission carried the first satellite owned by a financial institution. | | | | | | |\n| 87 | VA\\-232 | 24 August 201622:16 | ECA586 | [Intelsat 33e](/wiki/Intelsat_33e \"Intelsat 33e\")[Intelsat 36](/wiki/Intelsat_36 \"Intelsat 36\") | 10,735 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Intelsat](/wiki/Intelsat \"Intelsat\") | |\n| Intelsat 33e's [LEROS](/wiki/LEROS \"LEROS\") apogee engine, which supposed to perform orbit raising, failed soon after its successful launch, forcing to use the experimentation of low\\-thrust reaction control system which extended the commissioning time 3 months longer than expected. Later, it suffered other thruster problems which cut its operational lifetime by about 3\\.5 years. | | | | | | |\n| 88 | VA\\-231 | 5 October 201620:30 | ECA585 | [NBN Co 1B](/wiki/National_Broadband_Network \"National Broadband Network\")[GSAT\\-18](/wiki/GSAT-18 \"GSAT-18\") | 10,663 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [National Broadband Network](/wiki/National_Broadband_Network \"National Broadband Network\")[INSAT](/wiki/INSAT \"INSAT\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 89 | VA\\-233 | 17 November 201613:06 | ES594 | [Galileo](/wiki/Galileo_%28satellite_navigation%29 \"Galileo (satellite navigation)\") FOC\\-M6[(satellites FM\\-7, 12, 13, 14\\)](/wiki/List_of_Galileo_satellites \"List of Galileo satellites\") | 3,290 kg | [MEO](/wiki/Medium-Earth_orbit \"Medium-Earth orbit\") | [ESA](/wiki/European_Space_Agency \"European Space Agency\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 90 | VA\\-234 | 21 December 201620:30 | ECA587 | [Star One D1](/wiki/Star_One_D1 \"Star One D1\")[JCSAT\\-15](/wiki/JCSAT-15 \"JCSAT-15\") | 10,722 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Star One](/wiki/Star_One_%28satellite_operator%29 \"Star One (satellite operator)\")[SKY Perfect JSAT](/wiki/SKY_Perfect_JSAT \"SKY Perfect JSAT\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 91 | VA\\-235 | 14 February 201721:39 | ECA588 | [Intelsat 32e](/wiki/List_of_Intelsat_satellites \"List of Intelsat satellites\") / [SkyBrasil\\-1](/wiki/SKY_Brasil \"SKY Brasil\")[Telkom\\-3S](/wiki/Telkom_Indonesia \"Telkom Indonesia\") | 10,485 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Intelsat](/wiki/Intelsat \"Intelsat\"), [DirecTV Latin America](/wiki/Vrio_Corp. \"Vrio Corp.\")[Telkom Indonesia](/wiki/Telkom_Indonesia \"Telkom Indonesia\") | |\n| This mission carried the first Intelsat EpicNG high\\-throughput satellite based on the [Eurostar E3000](/wiki/Eurostar_E3000 \"Eurostar E3000\") platform, while other Intelsat EpicNG satellites were based on [BSS\\-702MP](/wiki/Boeing_702 \"Boeing 702\") platform. | | | | | | |\n| 92 | VA\\-236 | 4 May 201721:50 | ECA589 | [Koreasat 7](/wiki/KT_Corporation \"KT Corporation\")[SGDC\\-1](/wiki/Brazilian_space_program \"Brazilian space program\") | 10,289 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [KT Corporation](/wiki/KT_Corporation \"KT Corporation\")[SGDC](/wiki/Brazilian_space_program \"Brazilian space program\") | |\n| The launch was delayed from March 2017 due to transportation to the launch site being restricted by a blockade erected by striking workers. | | | | | | |\n| 93 | VA\\-237 | 1 June 201723:45 | ECA590 | [ViaSat\\-2](/wiki/ViaSat-2 \"ViaSat-2\")[Eutelsat 172B](/wiki/Eutelsat \"Eutelsat\") | 10,865 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [ViaSat](/wiki/Viasat_%28American_company%29 \"Viasat (American company)\")[Eutelsat](/wiki/Eutelsat \"Eutelsat\") | |\n| Heaviest and most expensive commercial payload ever put into orbit, valued at approximately €675 million (\\~€844 million including the launch vehicle), until 12 June 2019, when Falcon 9 delivered [RADARSAT Constellation](/wiki/RADARSAT_Constellation \"RADARSAT Constellation\") with three Canadian satellites, valued almost €844 million (not including the launch vehicle), into orbit. ViaSat\\-2 suffered antenna glitch, which cut about 15% of its intended throughput. | | | | | | |\n| 94 | VA\\-238 | 28 June 201721:15 | ECA591 | [EuropaSat](/wiki/Hellas_Sat_3 \"Hellas Sat 3\") / [Hellas Sat 3](/wiki/Hellas_Sat_3 \"Hellas Sat 3\")[GSAT\\-17](/wiki/GSAT-17 \"GSAT-17\") | 10,177 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Inmarsat](/wiki/Inmarsat \"Inmarsat\") / [Hellas Sat](/wiki/Hellas_Sat \"Hellas Sat\")[ISRO](/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation \"Indian Space Research Organisation\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 95 | VA\\-239 | 29 September 201721:56 | ECA5100 | [Intelsat 37e](/wiki/List_of_Intelsat_satellites \"List of Intelsat satellites\")[BSAT\\-4a](/wiki/BSAT-4a \"BSAT-4a\") | 10,838 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Intelsat](/wiki/Intelsat \"Intelsat\")[B\\-SAT](/wiki/Broadcasting_Satellite_System_Corporation \"Broadcasting Satellite System Corporation\") | |\n| Launch was scrubbed from 5 September 2017 due to electrical fault in one of the solid rocket boosters that caused launch abort in the last seconds before liftoff. | | | | | | |\n| 96 | [VA\\-240](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA240 \"Ariane flight VA240\") | 12 December 201718:36 | ES595 | [Galileo](/wiki/Galileo_%28satellite_navigation%29 \"Galileo (satellite navigation)\") FOC\\-M7[(satellites FM\\-19, 20, 21, 22\\)](/wiki/List_of_Galileo_satellites \"List of Galileo satellites\") | 3,282 kg | [MEO](/wiki/Medium-Earth_orbit \"Medium-Earth orbit\") | [ESA](/wiki/European_Space_Agency \"European Space Agency\") | |\n| | | | | | | |\n| 97 | [VA\\-241](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA241 \"Ariane flight VA241\") | 25 January 201822:20 | ECA5101 | [SES\\-14](/wiki/SES-14 \"SES-14\") with [GOLD](/wiki/Global-scale_Observations_of_the_Limb_and_Disk \"Global-scale Observations of the Limb and Disk\")[Al Yah 3](/wiki/Al_Yah_Satellite_Communications \"Al Yah Satellite Communications\") | 9,123 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Supersynchronous_orbit \"Supersynchronous orbit\") | [SES](/wiki/SES_%28company%29 \"SES (company)\"), [NASA](/wiki/NASA \"NASA\")[AlYahsat](/wiki/Al_Yah_Satellite_Communications \"Al Yah Satellite Communications\") | |\n| Telemetry from the launch vehicle was lost after 9 minutes 30 seconds into the flight, after launch vehicle trajectory went off course due to invalid inertial units' azimuth value. Satellites later found to have separated from the upper stage and entered an incorrect orbit with large inclination deviations. However, they were able to reach the planned orbit with small loss of on board propellant for SES\\-14 and still expected to meet the designed lifetime, but with significant loss on Al Yah 3 (up to 50% of its intended operational life). | | | | | | |\n| 98 | [VA\\-242](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA242 \"Ariane flight VA242\") | 5 April 201821:34 | ECA5102 | [Superbird\\-8](/wiki/Superbird-8 \"Superbird-8\") / [Superbird\\-B3](/wiki/Superbird-B3 \"Superbird-B3\")[HYLAS\\-4](/wiki/HYLAS-4 \"HYLAS-4\") | 10,260 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Japanese MoD](/wiki/Ministry_of_Defense_%28Japan%29 \"Ministry of Defense (Japan)\"), [SKY Perfect JSAT](/wiki/SKY_Perfect_JSAT \"SKY Perfect JSAT\")[Avanti Communications](/wiki/Avanti_Communications \"Avanti Communications\") | |\n| Return\\-to\\-flight mission after VA\\-241 mishap on 25 January 2018\\. | | | | | | |\n| 99 | [VA\\-244](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA244 \"Ariane flight VA244\") | 25 July 201811:25 | ES596 | [Galileo](/wiki/Galileo_%28satellite_navigation%29 \"Galileo (satellite navigation)\") FOC\\-M8[(satellites FM\\-23, 24, 25, 26\\)](/wiki/List_of_Galileo_satellites \"List of Galileo satellites\") | 3,379 kg | [MEO](/wiki/Medium-Earth_orbit \"Medium-Earth orbit\") | [ESA](/wiki/European_Space_Agency \"European Space Agency\") | |\n| Final flight of Ariane 5ES. | | | | | | |\n| 100 | [VA\\-243](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA243 \"Ariane flight VA243\") | 25 September 201822:38 | ECA5103 | [Horizons\\-3e](/wiki/Horizons-3e \"Horizons-3e\")[Azerspace\\-2](/wiki/Azerspace-2 \"Azerspace-2\") / Intelsat 38 | 10,827 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Intelsat](/wiki/Intelsat \"Intelsat\"), [SKY Perfect JSAT](/wiki/SKY_Perfect_JSAT \"SKY Perfect JSAT\")[Azercosmos](/wiki/Azercosmos \"Azercosmos\") | |\n| Hundredth Ariane 5 mission. Flight VA\\-243 was delayed from 25 May 2018 due to issues with [GSAT\\-11](/wiki/GSAT-11 \"GSAT-11\"), which was eventually replaced by Horizons\\-3e. | | | | | | |\n| 101 | [VA\\-245](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA245 \"Ariane flight VA245\") | 20 October 201801:45 | ECA5105 | [BepiColombo](/wiki/BepiColombo \"BepiColombo\") | 4,081 kg | [Heliocentric](/wiki/Heliocentric_orbit \"Heliocentric orbit\") | [ESA](/wiki/European_Space_Agency \"European Space Agency\")[JAXA](/wiki/JAXA \"JAXA\") | |\n| 102 | [VA\\-246](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA246 \"Ariane flight VA246\") | 4 December 201820:37 | ECA5104 | | 10,298 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| 103 | [VA\\-247](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA247 \"Ariane flight VA247\") | 5 February 201921:01 | ECA5106 | | 10,018 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| 104 | [VA\\-248](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA248 \"Ariane flight VA248\") | 20 June 201921:43 | ECA5107 | | 10,594 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | | |\n| 105 | [VA\\-249](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA249 \"Ariane flight VA249\") | 6 August 201919:30 | ECA5108 | | 10,594 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geosynchronous_transfer_orbit \"Geosynchronous transfer orbit\") | | |\n| 106 | [VA\\-250](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA250 \"Ariane flight VA250\") | 26 November 201921:23 | ECA5109 | [Inmarsat\\-5 F5](/wiki/Inmarsat \"Inmarsat\") (GX 5\\)TIBA\\-1 | 10,495 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Inmarsat](/wiki/Inmarsat \"Inmarsat\")[Government of Egypt](/wiki/Politics_of_Egypt \"Politics of Egypt\") | |\n| 107 | [VA\\-251](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA251 \"Ariane flight VA251\") | 16 January 202021:05 | ECA5110 | [Eutelsat Konnect](/wiki/Eutelsat_Konnect \"Eutelsat Konnect\") (African Broadband Satellite)[GSAT\\-30](/wiki/GSAT-30 \"GSAT-30\") | 7,888 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Eutelsat](/wiki/Eutelsat \"Eutelsat\")[ISRO](/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation \"Indian Space Research Organisation\") | |\n| 108 | [VA\\-252](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA252 \"Ariane flight VA252\") | 18 February 202022:18 | ECA5111 | [JCSAT\\-17](/wiki/JCSAT-17 \"JCSAT-17\")[GEO\\-KOMPSAT 2B](/wiki/GEO-KOMPSAT_2B \"GEO-KOMPSAT 2B\") | 9,236 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [SKY Perfect JSAT](/wiki/SKY_Perfect_JSAT \"SKY Perfect JSAT\")[KARI](/wiki/Korea_Aerospace_Research_Institute \"Korea Aerospace Research Institute\") | |\n| 109 | [VA\\-253](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA253 \"Ariane flight VA253\") | 15 August 202022:04 | ECA5112 | [Galaxy 30](/wiki/Galaxy_%28satellite%29 \"Galaxy (satellite)\")[MEV\\-2](/wiki/Mission_Extension_Vehicle \"Mission Extension Vehicle\")[BSAT\\-4b](/wiki/BSAT-4b \"BSAT-4b\") | 10,468 kg[third launch of 2020](https://www.spacedaily.com/reports/Ariane_5s_third_launch_of_2020_999.html)including 765 kg of support structures. | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Intelsat](/wiki/Intelsat \"Intelsat\")[Northrop Grumman](/wiki/Northrop_Grumman \"Northrop Grumman\")[B\\-SAT](/wiki/Broadcasting_Satellite_System_Corporation \"Broadcasting Satellite System Corporation\") | |\n| 110 | [VA\\-254](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA254 \"Ariane flight VA254\") | 30 July 202121:00 | ECA5113 | [Eutelsat Quantum](/wiki/Eutelsat_Quantum \"Eutelsat Quantum\")[Star One D2](/wiki/Star_One_D2 \"Star One D2\") | 10,515 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Eutelsat](/wiki/Eutelsat \"Eutelsat\")[Star One](/wiki/Star_One_%28satellite_operator%29 \"Star One (satellite operator)\") | |\n| 111 | [VA\\-255](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA255 \"Ariane flight VA255\") | 24 October 202102:10 | ECA5115 | [SES\\-17](/wiki/SES-17 \"SES-17\")[Syracuse 4A](/wiki/Syracuse_%28satellite%29 \"Syracuse (satellite)\") | 11,210 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [SES](/wiki/SES_%28company%29 \"SES (company)\")[DGA](/wiki/Direction_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9rale_de_l%27armement \"Direction générale de l'armement\") | |\n| 112 | [VA\\-256](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA256 \"Ariane flight VA256\") | 25 December 202112:20 | ECA5114 | [James Webb Space Telescope](/wiki/James_Webb_Space_Telescope \"James Webb Space Telescope\") | | Sun–Earth | [NASA](/wiki/NASA \"NASA\") / [ESA](/wiki/European_Space_Agency \"European Space Agency\") / [CSA](/wiki/Canadian_Space_Agency \"Canadian Space Agency\") / [STScI](/wiki/Space_Telescope_Science_Institute \"Space Telescope Science Institute\") | |\n| 113 | [VA\\-257](/wiki/Ariane_flight_VA257 \"Ariane flight VA257\") | 22 June 202221:50 | ECA5116 | [MEASAT\\-3d](/wiki/MEASAT \"MEASAT\")[GSAT\\-24](/wiki/GSAT-24 \"GSAT-24\") | 9,829 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [MEASAT](/wiki/MEASAT \"MEASAT\")[NSIL](/wiki/NSIL \"NSIL\") / [Tata Play](/wiki/Tata_Play \"Tata Play\") | |\n| 114 | VA\\-258 | 7 September 202221:45 | ECA5117 | [Eutelsat Konnect](/wiki/Eutelsat_Konnect \"Eutelsat Konnect\") VHTS | 6,400 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Eutelsat](/wiki/Eutelsat \"Eutelsat\") | |\n| 115 | VA\\-259 | 13 December 202220:30 | ECA5118 | [Galaxy 35](/wiki/Galaxy_%28satellite%29 \"Galaxy (satellite)\")[Galaxy 36](/wiki/Galaxy_%28satellite%29 \"Galaxy (satellite)\")[MTG\\-I1](/wiki/Meteosat \"Meteosat\") | 10,972 kg | [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") | [Intelsat](/wiki/Intelsat \"Intelsat\")[EUMETSAT](/wiki/European_Organisation_for_the_Exploitation_of_Meteorological_Satellites \"European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites\") | |\n| 116 | VA\\-260 | 14 April 202312:14 | ECA5120 | *[Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer](/wiki/Jupiter_Icy_Moons_Explorer \"Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer\")* (JUICE) | 5,963 kg | [Heliocentric](/wiki/Heliocentric_orbit \"Heliocentric orbit\") | [ESA](/wiki/European_Space_Agency \"European Space Agency\") | |\n|117\n\n VA\\-261 |\n 5 July 202322:00 |\n ECA5119 |\n [Syracuse 4B](/wiki/Syracuse_%28satellite%29 \"Syracuse (satellite)\") (Comsat\\-NG 2\\) Heinrich Hertz (H2Sat) |\n 7,679\\.8 kg |\n [GTO](/wiki/Geostationary_transfer_orbit \"Geostationary transfer orbit\") |\n [DGA](/wiki/Direction_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9rale_de_l%27armement \"Direction générale de l'armement\")[DLR](/wiki/Deutsches_Zentrum_f%C3%BCr_Luft-_und_Raumfahrt \"Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt\") |\n |\n| Ariane 5's last mission. | | | | | | |\n\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [List of Ariane launches](/wiki/List_of_Ariane_launches \"List of Ariane launches\")\n* [Ariane 6](/wiki/Ariane_6 \"Ariane 6\"), two initial variants\n* [Heavy\\-lift launch vehicle](/wiki/Heavy-lift_launch_vehicle \"Heavy-lift launch vehicle\")\n* [Comparison of orbital launchers families](/wiki/Comparison_of_orbital_launchers_families \"Comparison of orbital launchers families\")\n* [Comparison of orbital launch systems](/wiki/Comparison_of_orbital_launch_systems \"Comparison of orbital launch systems\")\n* [Future Launchers Preparatory Programme](/wiki/Future_Launchers_Preparatory_Programme \"Future Launchers Preparatory Programme\") (ESA, beyond Ariane 5\\)\n\n", "Notes\n-----\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [Ariane 5 Overview](https://www.arianespace.com/vehicle/ariane-5/) at Arianespace\n* [Ariane 5 Programme Information](https://web.archive.org/web/20120119142614/http://www.astrium.eads.net/en/programme/ariane-5.html) at Astrium\n\n[Category:Ariane (rocket family)](/wiki/Category:Ariane_%28rocket_family%29 \"Ariane (rocket family)\")\n[Category:Articles containing video clips](/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_video_clips \"Articles containing video clips\")\n[Category:Vehicles introduced in 1996](/wiki/Category:Vehicles_introduced_in_1996 \"Vehicles introduced in 1996\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 237572 ], "name": [ "GünniX" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "History", "Geography", "Adjacent counties", "National protected area", "State protected areas", "Government and politics", "County government", "Orleans County legislature", "Orleans County elected officials", "State and federal government", "Demographics", "2020 Census", "Education", "Recreation", "Lakes", "Libraries", "Museums", "Parks", "Transportation", "Major roadways", "Communities", "Larger Settlements", "Towns", "Villages", "Hamlets", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 4, 4, 4, 2, 3, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**Orleans County** is a [county](/wiki/County_%28United_States%29 \"County (United States)\") in the western part of the [U.S. state](/wiki/U.S._state \"U.S. state\") of [New York](/wiki/New_York_%28state%29 \"New York (state)\"). As of the [2020 census](/wiki/United_States_Census_2020 \"United States Census 2020\"), the population was 40,343\\. The [county seat](/wiki/County_seat \"County seat\") is [Albion](/wiki/Albion_%28village%29%2C_New_York \"Albion (village), New York\"). The county received its name at the insistence of Nehemiah Ingersoll though historians are unsure how the name was selected. The two competing theories are that it was named to honor the [French](/wiki/France \"France\") Royal [House of Orleans](/wiki/House_of_Orl%C3%A9ans \"House of Orléans\") or that it was to honor Andrew Jackson's victory in New Orleans. The county is part of the [Finger Lakes](/wiki/Finger_Lakes \"Finger Lakes\") region of the state.\n\nLocated on the south shore of Lake Ontario, Orleans County since the late 20th century has been considered part of the [Rochester](/wiki/Rochester%2C_New_York \"Rochester, New York\"), NY [Metropolitan Statistical Area](/wiki/Rochester%2C_New_York_metropolitan_area \"Rochester, New York metropolitan area\").\n\n", "History\n-------\n\nWhen counties were established by the British authorities in the province of New York in 1683, the present Orleans County was part of the territory of [Albany County](/wiki/Albany_County%2C_New_York \"Albany County, New York\"). This was an enormous county, including the northern part of present\\-day New York State as well as all of the present State of [Vermont](/wiki/Vermont \"Vermont\") and, in theory, extending westward to the [Pacific Ocean](/wiki/Pacific_Ocean \"Pacific Ocean\"). This county was reduced in size on July 3, 1766, by the creation of [Cumberland County](/wiki/Cumberland_County%2C_New_York \"Cumberland County, New York\"), and further on March 16, 1770, by the creation of [Gloucester County](/wiki/Gloucester_County%2C_New_York \"Gloucester County, New York\"), both containing territory now in Vermont.\n\nOn March 12, 1772, the remaining Albany County was split into three parts, one remaining under the name Albany County. [Tryon County](/wiki/Tryon_County%2C_New_York \"Tryon County, New York\") contained the large western portion (and thus, since no western boundary was specified, theoretically still extended west to the Pacific). The eastern boundary of Tryon County was approximately five miles west of the present city of [Schenectady](/wiki/Schenectady%2C_New_York \"Schenectady, New York\"), and the county included the [Mohawk River](/wiki/Mohawk_River \"Mohawk River\") valley, the western part of the [Adirondack Mountains](/wiki/Adirondack_Mountains \"Adirondack Mountains\") and the area west of the West Branch of the [Delaware River](/wiki/Delaware_River \"Delaware River\"). The area then designated as Tryon County now includes 37 counties of New York State. The county was named for [William Tryon](/wiki/William_Tryon \"William Tryon\"), colonial governor of New York. This western area was occupied largely by the [Onondaga](/wiki/Onondaga_people \"Onondaga people\"), [Oneida](/wiki/Oneida_people \"Oneida people\") and other western nations of the [Iroquois Confederacy](/wiki/Iroquois_Confederacy \"Iroquois Confederacy\"). The westernmost European settlements were in the area of Little Falls and present\\-day Herkimer.\n\nDuring the unrest prior to the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War, feelings ran high in the Mohawk Valley, and there were local attacks by rebels against known Loyalists. Most of Tryon County's Loyalists fled to [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\") before 1776, where they were later granted land by the Crown to develop what is now Ontario.\n\nIn 1784, following the peace treaty that ended the [American Revolutionary War](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War \"American Revolutionary War\"), Tryon County's name was changed to [Montgomery County](/wiki/Montgomery_County%2C_New_York \"Montgomery County, New York\") to honor the general, [Richard Montgomery](/wiki/Richard_Montgomery \"Richard Montgomery\"). He had captured several places in Canada and died attempting to capture the city of [Quebec](/wiki/Quebec \"Quebec\"). It replaced the name of the now hated colonial British governor. In 1789, [Ontario County](/wiki/Ontario_County%2C_New_York \"Ontario County, New York\") split off from Montgomery. During this period, thousands of migrants settled in the western part of the state from New England and eastern New York resulting in the creation of more counties.\n\nIn 1802, [Genesee County](/wiki/Genesee_County%2C_New_York \"Genesee County, New York\") was created by splitting Ontario County. Genesee County was then divided into [Allegany](/wiki/Allegany_County%2C_New_York \"Allegany County, New York\") County in 1806, [Cattaraugus](/wiki/Cattaraugus_County%2C_New_York \"Cattaraugus County, New York\"), [Chautauqua](/wiki/Chautauqua_County%2C_New_York \"Chautauqua County, New York\"), and [Niagara](/wiki/Niagara_County%2C_New_York \"Niagara County, New York\") Counties in 1808, [Ontario](/wiki/Ontario_County%2C_New_York \"Ontario County, New York\"), [Livingston](/wiki/Livingston_County%2C_New_York \"Livingston County, New York\"), and [Monroe](/wiki/Monroe_County%2C_New_York \"Monroe County, New York\") Counties in 1821, and finally Orleans County in 1824\\.\n\nWhen Orleans County was formed in 1824, a dispute arose about naming it after President [Andrew Jackson](/wiki/Andrew_Jackson \"Andrew Jackson\") or President [John Adams](/wiki/John_Adams \"John Adams\"). During and following the Napoleonic era in France, numerous French refugees came to New York, some settling in the upstate areas.\n\n", "Geography\n---------\n\nAccording to the [U.S. Census Bureau](/wiki/U.S._Census_Bureau \"U.S. Census Bureau\"), the county has a total area of , of which is land and (52%) is water.\n\nThe high proportion of water is due to the extension of Orleans County north into Lake Ontario to the [Canada–US border](/wiki/Canada%E2%80%93United_States_border \"Canada–United States border\") (a line of latitude running through the middle of the lake). The distance from the Orleans shore north to the international border is greater than the distance from the shore south to the Genesee County line, meaning the area of Orleans under water is greater than that above water.\n\nOrleans County is in western New York State, northeast of [Buffalo](/wiki/Buffalo%2C_New_York \"Buffalo, New York\") and west of [Rochester](/wiki/Rochester%2C_Monroe_County%2C_New_York \"Rochester, Monroe County, New York\"), on the southern shore of [Lake Ontario](/wiki/Lake_Ontario \"Lake Ontario\").\n\nThe [Erie Canal](/wiki/Erie_Canal \"Erie Canal\") passes (east–west) through the middle of the county. When its construction was completed in 1824, it attracted new settlers to the largely rural county. Trade and passenger traffic stimulated the development of local businesses.\n\n### Adjacent counties\n\n* [Monroe County](/wiki/Monroe_County%2C_New_York \"Monroe County, New York\") \\- east\n* [Genesee County](/wiki/Genesee_County%2C_New_York \"Genesee County, New York\") \\- south\n* [Niagara County](/wiki/Niagara_County%2C_New_York \"Niagara County, New York\") \\- west\n\n### National protected area\n\n* [Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge](/wiki/Iroquois_National_Wildlife_Refuge \"Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge\") (part)\n\n### State protected areas\n\n* [Lakeside Beach State Park](/wiki/Lakeside_Beach_State_Park \"Lakeside Beach State Park\")\n* [Oak Orchard State Marine Park](/wiki/Oak_Orchard_State_Marine_Park \"Oak Orchard State Marine Park\")\n* [Oak Orchard Wildlife Management Area](/wiki/Oak_Orchard_Wildlife_Management_Area \"Oak Orchard Wildlife Management Area\")\n* [Tonawanda Wildlife Management Area](/wiki/Tonawanda_Wildlife_Management_Area \"Tonawanda Wildlife Management Area\")\n", "### Adjacent counties\n\n* [Monroe County](/wiki/Monroe_County%2C_New_York \"Monroe County, New York\") \\- east\n* [Genesee County](/wiki/Genesee_County%2C_New_York \"Genesee County, New York\") \\- south\n* [Niagara County](/wiki/Niagara_County%2C_New_York \"Niagara County, New York\") \\- west\n", "### National protected area\n\n* [Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge](/wiki/Iroquois_National_Wildlife_Refuge \"Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge\") (part)\n", "### State protected areas\n\n* [Lakeside Beach State Park](/wiki/Lakeside_Beach_State_Park \"Lakeside Beach State Park\")\n* [Oak Orchard State Marine Park](/wiki/Oak_Orchard_State_Marine_Park \"Oak Orchard State Marine Park\")\n* [Oak Orchard Wildlife Management Area](/wiki/Oak_Orchard_Wildlife_Management_Area \"Oak Orchard Wildlife Management Area\")\n* [Tonawanda Wildlife Management Area](/wiki/Tonawanda_Wildlife_Management_Area \"Tonawanda Wildlife Management Area\")\n", "Government and politics\n-----------------------\n\n\\|}\n\nStarting in 1824, the county government was run by a board of supervisors, consisting of elected supervisors from each township in Orleans County. This geographic representation meant that the residents of more urbanized areas were underrepresented on the board.\n\nIn 1980, the state and county established a seven\\-member elected legislature to replace the board of supervisors. Representatives are elected from [single\\-member districts](/wiki/Single-member_district \"Single-member district\") roughly equal in population. It is headed by a chairman.\n\nOrleans County is heavily Republican. It has voted Republican in every presidential election since the party's founding in 1856, except for one, 1964\\. It also voted [Whig](/wiki/Whig_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Whig Party (United States)\") in every election from 1828 until 1852\\.\n\n### County government\n\n#### Orleans County legislature\n\n| Office | District | Area of the county | Officeholder | Party | Residence |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| County Legislator \\- Vice Chairman | District 1 | [Barre](/wiki/Barre%2C_New_York \"Barre, New York\"), [Clarendon](/wiki/Clarendon%2C_New_York \"Clarendon, New York\"), [Shelby](/wiki/Shelby%2C_New_York \"Shelby, New York\") | William H. Eick | Republican | [Medina](/wiki/Medina%2C_New_York \"Medina, New York\") |\n| County Legislator \\- Chairwoman | District 2 | [Ridgeway](/wiki/Ridgeway%2C_New_York \"Ridgeway, New York\"), [Yates](/wiki/Yates%2C_New_York \"Yates, New York\"), [Shelby](/wiki/Shelby%2C_New_York \"Shelby, New York\") | Lynne M. Johnson | Republican | [Lyndonville](/wiki/Lyndonville%2C_New_York \"Lyndonville, New York\") |\n| County Legislator \\- Minority Leader | District 3 | [Albion](/wiki/Albion_%28town%29%2C_Orleans_County%2C_New_York \"Albion (town), Orleans County, New York\"), [Gaines](/wiki/Gaines%2C_New_York \"Gaines, New York\") | Fred Miller | Democratic | [Albion](/wiki/Albion_%28village%29%2C_New_York \"Albion (village), New York\") |\n| County Legislator | District 4 | [Carlton](/wiki/Carlton%2C_New_York \"Carlton, New York\"), [Kendall](/wiki/Kendall%2C_New_York \"Kendall, New York\"), [Murray](/wiki/Murray%2C_New_York \"Murray, New York\") | John M. Fitzak | Republican | [Kendall](/wiki/Kendall%2C_New_York \"Kendall, New York\") |\n| County Legislator | At Large | West | Merle L. \"Skip\" Draper | Republican | [Ridgeway](/wiki/Ridgeway%2C_New_York \"Ridgeway, New York\") |\n| County Legislator | At Large | Central | Don Allport | Republican | [Albion](/wiki/Albion_%28town%29%2C_Orleans_County%2C_New_York \"Albion (town), Orleans County, New York\") |\n| County Legislator | At Large | East | Edward F. Morgan | Republican | [Holley](/wiki/Holley%2C_New_York \"Holley, New York\") |\n\n#### Orleans County elected officials\n\n| Office | Officeholder | Party |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| County Judge | Sanford A. Church | Republican |\n| District Attorney | Joseph V. Cardone | Republican |\n| County Clerk | Nadine P. Hanlon | Republican |\n| County Treasurer | Kimberly C. L. DeFrank | Republican |\n| Chief Coroner | Scott M. Schmidt | Republican |\n| Coroner | Rocco L. Sidari | Republican |\n| Coroner | Charles M. Smith | Republican |\n\n#### State and federal government\n\n| Office | District | Officeholder | Party | First took office | Residence |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Congressman | [New York's 25th congressional district](/wiki/New_York%27s_25th_congressional_district \"New York's 25th congressional district\") | [Joe Morelle](/wiki/Joseph_Morelle \"Joseph Morelle\") | Democratic | 2018 | [Irondequoit](/wiki/Irondequoit%2C_New_York \"Irondequoit, New York\"), [Monroe County](/wiki/Monroe_County%2C_New_York \"Monroe County, New York\") |\n| Congressman | [New York's 24th congressional district](/wiki/New_York%27s_24th_congressional_district \"New York's 24th congressional district\") | [Claudia Tenney](/wiki/Claudia_Tenney \"Claudia Tenney\") | Republican | 2023 | [New Hartford](/wiki/New_Hartford%2C_New_York \"New Hartford, New York\"), [Oneida County](/wiki/Oneida_County%2C_New_York \"Oneida County, New York\") |\n| State Senator | [62nd State Senate District](/wiki/New_York_State_Senate \"New York State Senate\") | [Rob Ortt](/wiki/Robert_Ortt \"Robert Ortt\") | Republican | 2015 | [North Tonawanda](/wiki/North_Tonawanda%2C_New_York \"North Tonawanda, New York\"), [Niagara County](/wiki/Niagara_County \"Niagara County\") |\n| State Assemblyman | [139th State Assembly District](/wiki/New_York_State_Assembly \"New York State Assembly\") | [Stephen M. Hawley](/wiki/Stephen_Hawley \"Stephen Hawley\") | Republican | 2006 | [Batavia, Genesee County](/wiki/Batavia_%28town%29%2C_New_York \"Batavia (town), New York\") |\n\nOrleans County is part of:\n* The 8th Judicial District of the [New York Supreme Court](/wiki/New_York_Supreme_Court \"New York Supreme Court\")\n* The 4th Division of the [New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division](/wiki/New_York_Supreme_Court%2C_Appellate_Division \"New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division\")\n\n", "### County government\n\n#### Orleans County legislature\n\n| Office | District | Area of the county | Officeholder | Party | Residence |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| County Legislator \\- Vice Chairman | District 1 | [Barre](/wiki/Barre%2C_New_York \"Barre, New York\"), [Clarendon](/wiki/Clarendon%2C_New_York \"Clarendon, New York\"), [Shelby](/wiki/Shelby%2C_New_York \"Shelby, New York\") | William H. Eick | Republican | [Medina](/wiki/Medina%2C_New_York \"Medina, New York\") |\n| County Legislator \\- Chairwoman | District 2 | [Ridgeway](/wiki/Ridgeway%2C_New_York \"Ridgeway, New York\"), [Yates](/wiki/Yates%2C_New_York \"Yates, New York\"), [Shelby](/wiki/Shelby%2C_New_York \"Shelby, New York\") | Lynne M. Johnson | Republican | [Lyndonville](/wiki/Lyndonville%2C_New_York \"Lyndonville, New York\") |\n| County Legislator \\- Minority Leader | District 3 | [Albion](/wiki/Albion_%28town%29%2C_Orleans_County%2C_New_York \"Albion (town), Orleans County, New York\"), [Gaines](/wiki/Gaines%2C_New_York \"Gaines, New York\") | Fred Miller | Democratic | [Albion](/wiki/Albion_%28village%29%2C_New_York \"Albion (village), New York\") |\n| County Legislator | District 4 | [Carlton](/wiki/Carlton%2C_New_York \"Carlton, New York\"), [Kendall](/wiki/Kendall%2C_New_York \"Kendall, New York\"), [Murray](/wiki/Murray%2C_New_York \"Murray, New York\") | John M. Fitzak | Republican | [Kendall](/wiki/Kendall%2C_New_York \"Kendall, New York\") |\n| County Legislator | At Large | West | Merle L. \"Skip\" Draper | Republican | [Ridgeway](/wiki/Ridgeway%2C_New_York \"Ridgeway, New York\") |\n| County Legislator | At Large | Central | Don Allport | Republican | [Albion](/wiki/Albion_%28town%29%2C_Orleans_County%2C_New_York \"Albion (town), Orleans County, New York\") |\n| County Legislator | At Large | East | Edward F. Morgan | Republican | [Holley](/wiki/Holley%2C_New_York \"Holley, New York\") |\n\n#### Orleans County elected officials\n\n| Office | Officeholder | Party |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| County Judge | Sanford A. Church | Republican |\n| District Attorney | Joseph V. Cardone | Republican |\n| County Clerk | Nadine P. Hanlon | Republican |\n| County Treasurer | Kimberly C. L. DeFrank | Republican |\n| Chief Coroner | Scott M. Schmidt | Republican |\n| Coroner | Rocco L. Sidari | Republican |\n| Coroner | Charles M. Smith | Republican |\n\n#### State and federal government\n\n| Office | District | Officeholder | Party | First took office | Residence |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Congressman | [New York's 25th congressional district](/wiki/New_York%27s_25th_congressional_district \"New York's 25th congressional district\") | [Joe Morelle](/wiki/Joseph_Morelle \"Joseph Morelle\") | Democratic | 2018 | [Irondequoit](/wiki/Irondequoit%2C_New_York \"Irondequoit, New York\"), [Monroe County](/wiki/Monroe_County%2C_New_York \"Monroe County, New York\") |\n| Congressman | [New York's 24th congressional district](/wiki/New_York%27s_24th_congressional_district \"New York's 24th congressional district\") | [Claudia Tenney](/wiki/Claudia_Tenney \"Claudia Tenney\") | Republican | 2023 | [New Hartford](/wiki/New_Hartford%2C_New_York \"New Hartford, New York\"), [Oneida County](/wiki/Oneida_County%2C_New_York \"Oneida County, New York\") |\n| State Senator | [62nd State Senate District](/wiki/New_York_State_Senate \"New York State Senate\") | [Rob Ortt](/wiki/Robert_Ortt \"Robert Ortt\") | Republican | 2015 | [North Tonawanda](/wiki/North_Tonawanda%2C_New_York \"North Tonawanda, New York\"), [Niagara County](/wiki/Niagara_County \"Niagara County\") |\n| State Assemblyman | [139th State Assembly District](/wiki/New_York_State_Assembly \"New York State Assembly\") | [Stephen M. Hawley](/wiki/Stephen_Hawley \"Stephen Hawley\") | Republican | 2006 | [Batavia, Genesee County](/wiki/Batavia_%28town%29%2C_New_York \"Batavia (town), New York\") |\n\nOrleans County is part of:\n* The 8th Judicial District of the [New York Supreme Court](/wiki/New_York_Supreme_Court \"New York Supreme Court\")\n* The 4th Division of the [New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division](/wiki/New_York_Supreme_Court%2C_Appellate_Division \"New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division\")\n\n", "#### Orleans County legislature\n\n| Office | District | Area of the county | Officeholder | Party | Residence |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| County Legislator \\- Vice Chairman | District 1 | [Barre](/wiki/Barre%2C_New_York \"Barre, New York\"), [Clarendon](/wiki/Clarendon%2C_New_York \"Clarendon, New York\"), [Shelby](/wiki/Shelby%2C_New_York \"Shelby, New York\") | William H. Eick | Republican | [Medina](/wiki/Medina%2C_New_York \"Medina, New York\") |\n| County Legislator \\- Chairwoman | District 2 | [Ridgeway](/wiki/Ridgeway%2C_New_York \"Ridgeway, New York\"), [Yates](/wiki/Yates%2C_New_York \"Yates, New York\"), [Shelby](/wiki/Shelby%2C_New_York \"Shelby, New York\") | Lynne M. Johnson | Republican | [Lyndonville](/wiki/Lyndonville%2C_New_York \"Lyndonville, New York\") |\n| County Legislator \\- Minority Leader | District 3 | [Albion](/wiki/Albion_%28town%29%2C_Orleans_County%2C_New_York \"Albion (town), Orleans County, New York\"), [Gaines](/wiki/Gaines%2C_New_York \"Gaines, New York\") | Fred Miller | Democratic | [Albion](/wiki/Albion_%28village%29%2C_New_York \"Albion (village), New York\") |\n| County Legislator | District 4 | [Carlton](/wiki/Carlton%2C_New_York \"Carlton, New York\"), [Kendall](/wiki/Kendall%2C_New_York \"Kendall, New York\"), [Murray](/wiki/Murray%2C_New_York \"Murray, New York\") | John M. Fitzak | Republican | [Kendall](/wiki/Kendall%2C_New_York \"Kendall, New York\") |\n| County Legislator | At Large | West | Merle L. \"Skip\" Draper | Republican | [Ridgeway](/wiki/Ridgeway%2C_New_York \"Ridgeway, New York\") |\n| County Legislator | At Large | Central | Don Allport | Republican | [Albion](/wiki/Albion_%28town%29%2C_Orleans_County%2C_New_York \"Albion (town), Orleans County, New York\") |\n| County Legislator | At Large | East | Edward F. Morgan | Republican | [Holley](/wiki/Holley%2C_New_York \"Holley, New York\") |\n\n", "#### Orleans County elected officials\n\n| Office | Officeholder | Party |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| County Judge | Sanford A. Church | Republican |\n| District Attorney | Joseph V. Cardone | Republican |\n| County Clerk | Nadine P. Hanlon | Republican |\n| County Treasurer | Kimberly C. L. DeFrank | Republican |\n| Chief Coroner | Scott M. Schmidt | Republican |\n| Coroner | Rocco L. Sidari | Republican |\n| Coroner | Charles M. Smith | Republican |\n\n", "#### State and federal government\n\n| Office | District | Officeholder | Party | First took office | Residence |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Congressman | [New York's 25th congressional district](/wiki/New_York%27s_25th_congressional_district \"New York's 25th congressional district\") | [Joe Morelle](/wiki/Joseph_Morelle \"Joseph Morelle\") | Democratic | 2018 | [Irondequoit](/wiki/Irondequoit%2C_New_York \"Irondequoit, New York\"), [Monroe County](/wiki/Monroe_County%2C_New_York \"Monroe County, New York\") |\n| Congressman | [New York's 24th congressional district](/wiki/New_York%27s_24th_congressional_district \"New York's 24th congressional district\") | [Claudia Tenney](/wiki/Claudia_Tenney \"Claudia Tenney\") | Republican | 2023 | [New Hartford](/wiki/New_Hartford%2C_New_York \"New Hartford, New York\"), [Oneida County](/wiki/Oneida_County%2C_New_York \"Oneida County, New York\") |\n| State Senator | [62nd State Senate District](/wiki/New_York_State_Senate \"New York State Senate\") | [Rob Ortt](/wiki/Robert_Ortt \"Robert Ortt\") | Republican | 2015 | [North Tonawanda](/wiki/North_Tonawanda%2C_New_York \"North Tonawanda, New York\"), [Niagara County](/wiki/Niagara_County \"Niagara County\") |\n| State Assemblyman | [139th State Assembly District](/wiki/New_York_State_Assembly \"New York State Assembly\") | [Stephen M. Hawley](/wiki/Stephen_Hawley \"Stephen Hawley\") | Republican | 2006 | [Batavia, Genesee County](/wiki/Batavia_%28town%29%2C_New_York \"Batavia (town), New York\") |\n\nOrleans County is part of:\n* The 8th Judicial District of the [New York Supreme Court](/wiki/New_York_Supreme_Court \"New York Supreme Court\")\n* The 4th Division of the [New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division](/wiki/New_York_Supreme_Court%2C_Appellate_Division \"New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division\")\n\n", "Demographics\n------------\n\nAs of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2010, there were 42,883 people, 16,119 households, and 10,872 families residing in the county. The population density was . There were 17,347 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the county was 89\\.8% [White](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 5\\.9% [Black](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\") or [African American](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 0\\.6% [Native American](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 0\\.4% [Asian](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 0\\.0% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 1\\.3% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 1\\.9% from two or more races. 4\\.1% of the population were [Hispanic](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\") of any race. According to [Census 2000](/wiki/Census_2000 \"Census 2000\"), 20\\.3% were of [German](/wiki/Germans \"Germans\"), 18\\.3% [English](/wiki/English_people \"English people\"), 10\\.8% [Italian](/wiki/Italian_people \"Italian people\"), 10\\.3% [Irish](/wiki/Irish_people \"Irish people\"), 9\\.4% [American](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") and 7\\.3% [Polish](/wiki/Polish_people \"Polish people\") ancestry and 96\\.0% spoke [English](/wiki/English_language \"English language\") and 3\\.0% [Spanish](/wiki/Spanish_language \"Spanish language\") as their first language.\n\nCensus 2010 showed there were 16,119 households, out of which 31\\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 12\\.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32\\.6% were non\\-families. 26\\.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.5 and the average family size was 2\\.99\\.\n\nIn the county, the population was spread out, with 19\\.8% under the age of 18, 8\\.8% from 18 to 24, 24\\.2% from 25 to 44, 29\\.8% from 45 to 64, and 17\\.40% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years.\n\nThe median income for a household in the county was $48,731\\. Males had a median income of $32,450 versus $22,605 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the county was $16,457\\. About 15\\.2% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\").\n\n### 2020 Census\n\n| \\+Orleans County Racial Composition | Race | Num. | Perc. |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\") (NH) | 34,037 | 84\\.4% |\n| [Black or African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\") (NH) | 1,840 | 4\\.6% |\n| [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\") (NH) | 177 | 0\\.5% |\n| [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\") (NH) | 154 | 0\\.4% |\n| [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\") (NH) | 12 | 0\\.02% |\n| [Other/Mixed](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\") (NH) | 2,036 | 5\\.04% |\n| [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") | 2,087 | 5\\.2% |\n\n", "### 2020 Census\n\n| \\+Orleans County Racial Composition | Race | Num. | Perc. |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\") (NH) | 34,037 | 84\\.4% |\n| [Black or African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\") (NH) | 1,840 | 4\\.6% |\n| [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\") (NH) | 177 | 0\\.5% |\n| [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\") (NH) | 154 | 0\\.4% |\n| [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\") (NH) | 12 | 0\\.02% |\n| [Other/Mixed](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\") (NH) | 2,036 | 5\\.04% |\n| [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") | 2,087 | 5\\.2% |\n\n", "Education\n---------\n\n**Public schools**\n\nThe county has five school districts, although the actual district boundaries can extend into neighboring counties, and the same is true for neighboring counties' districts. The five districts, from west to east, are:\n* [Lyndonville Central School District](/wiki/Lyndonville_Central_School_District \"Lyndonville Central School District\") (northern half of western third, roughly covering Lyndonville village and the towns of Yates and Ridgeway)\n* [Medina Central School District](/wiki/Medina_Central_School_District \"Medina Central School District\") (southern half of western third, roughly covering Medina village and the towns of Ridgeway and Shelby)\n* [Albion Central School District](/wiki/Albion_Central_School_District \"Albion Central School District\") (middle third, roughly covering Albion village and the towns of Carlton, Gaines, Albion, and Barre)\n* [Kendall Central School District](/wiki/Kendall_Central_School_District \"Kendall Central School District\") (northern half of eastern third, roughly covering the towns of Kendall and Murray)\n* [Holley Central School District](/wiki/Holley_Central_School_District \"Holley Central School District\") (southern half of eastern third, roughly covering Holley village and the towns of Murray and Clarendon)\n\nEach of these school districts participates in Orleans/Niagara BOCES or Monroe \\#2\\-Orleans BOCES.\n\n**Private school**\n\nThere is currently one non\\-denominational K\\-12 school in the county.\n* Orleans County Christian School\n**College**\n\nOne college maintains satellite campuses in Orleans County.\n* [Genesee Community College](/wiki/Genesee_Community_College \"Genesee Community College\") \\- Albion (This campus has been declared defunct, with all staff \\& operations moved to Medina campus)\n* [Genesee Community College](/wiki/Genesee_Community_College \"Genesee Community College\") \\- Medina\n\n", "Recreation\n----------\n\nThe County of Orleans has created an interactive map of notable places for visitors to see while visiting the county.\n\n<https://orleanscountytourism.com/history/>\n\n### Lakes\n\nThere are two major dams on [Oak Orchard Creek](/wiki/Oak_Orchard_Creek \"Oak Orchard Creek\") that have created public boating areas.\n\n* [Waterport Pond](https://www.dec.ny.gov/outdoor/88296.html) in the town of [Carlton](/wiki/Carlton%2C_New_York \"Carlton, New York\") also called lake Alice by locals.\n* [Glenwood Lake](https://www.dec.ny.gov/outdoor/88301.html) in the town of [Ridgeway](/wiki/Ridgeway%2C_New_York \"Ridgeway, New York\") and the village of [Medina](/wiki/Medina%2C_New_York \"Medina, New York\")\n\n### Libraries\n\nOrleans County has 4 public libraries serving its population.\n* Community Free Library, located in Holley\n* Hoag Library, located in Albion\n* Lee\\-Whedon Memorial Library, located in Medina\n* Yates Community Library, located in Lyndonville\n\n### Museums\n\nOrleans County has 6 museums that are open to the public.\n* Clarendon Historical Society Museum \\& Farwell's Settlement\n* [The Cobblestone Museum](https://www.cobblestonemuseum.org/)\n* Holley Depot Museum\n* [Medina Railroad Museum](https://www.medinarailroadmuseum.org/)\n* Murray\\-Holley Historical Society\n* [Oak Orchard Lighthouse Museum](https://oakorchardlighthouse.org/)\n\n### Parks\n\nThere are two State Parks and many municipal parks spread throughout the county.\n* [Lakeside Beach State Park](https://parks.ny.gov/parks/161/details.aspx)\n* [Oak Orchard Marine State Park](https://parks.ny.gov/parks/131/details.aspx)\n\n", "### Lakes\n\nThere are two major dams on [Oak Orchard Creek](/wiki/Oak_Orchard_Creek \"Oak Orchard Creek\") that have created public boating areas.\n\n* [Waterport Pond](https://www.dec.ny.gov/outdoor/88296.html) in the town of [Carlton](/wiki/Carlton%2C_New_York \"Carlton, New York\") also called lake Alice by locals.\n* [Glenwood Lake](https://www.dec.ny.gov/outdoor/88301.html) in the town of [Ridgeway](/wiki/Ridgeway%2C_New_York \"Ridgeway, New York\") and the village of [Medina](/wiki/Medina%2C_New_York \"Medina, New York\")\n", "### Libraries\n\nOrleans County has 4 public libraries serving its population.\n* Community Free Library, located in Holley\n* Hoag Library, located in Albion\n* Lee\\-Whedon Memorial Library, located in Medina\n* Yates Community Library, located in Lyndonville\n\n", "### Museums\n\nOrleans County has 6 museums that are open to the public.\n* Clarendon Historical Society Museum \\& Farwell's Settlement\n* [The Cobblestone Museum](https://www.cobblestonemuseum.org/)\n* Holley Depot Museum\n* [Medina Railroad Museum](https://www.medinarailroadmuseum.org/)\n* Murray\\-Holley Historical Society\n* [Oak Orchard Lighthouse Museum](https://oakorchardlighthouse.org/)\n\n", "### Parks\n\nThere are two State Parks and many municipal parks spread throughout the county.\n* [Lakeside Beach State Park](https://parks.ny.gov/parks/161/details.aspx)\n* [Oak Orchard Marine State Park](https://parks.ny.gov/parks/131/details.aspx)\n\n", "Transportation\n--------------\n\nOrleans County has eight private airstrips and one public\\-use airport:\n* [Pine Hill Airport (New York)](/wiki/Pine_Hill_Airport_%28New_York%29 \"Pine Hill Airport (New York)\") (9G6\\)\n\n[RTS Orleans](/wiki/Rochester-Genesee_Regional_Transportation_Authority \"Rochester-Genesee Regional Transportation Authority\") provides bus service to Orleans County. The county's Department of Public Works is headquartered in Albion and is charged with maintaining roads, including:\n* Overseeing construction and repair of county roads, bridges, and ditches\n* Removing snow and ice\nEach town and village within Orleans County maintains its own highway department.\n\n### Major roadways\n\n* [20px](/wiki/Image:NY-18.svg \"NY-18.svg\") [New York State Route 18](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_18 \"New York State Route 18\")\n* [20px](/wiki/Image:NY-31.svg \"NY-31.svg\") [New York State Route 31](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_31 \"New York State Route 31\")\n* [20px](/wiki/Image:NY-31A.svg \"NY-31A.svg\") [New York State Route 31A](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_31A \"New York State Route 31A\")\n* [20px](/wiki/Image:NY-31E.svg \"NY-31E.svg\") [New York State Route 31E](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_31E \"New York State Route 31E\")\n* [20px](/wiki/Image:NY-63.svg \"NY-63.svg\") [New York State Route 63](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_63 \"New York State Route 63\")\n* [20px](/wiki/Image:NY-98.svg \"NY-98.svg\") [New York State Route 98](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_98 \"New York State Route 98\")\n* [22px](/wiki/Image:NY-104.svg \"NY-104.svg\") [New York State Route 104](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_104 \"New York State Route 104\")\n* [22px](/wiki/Image:NY-237.svg \"NY-237.svg\") [New York State Route 237](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_237 \"New York State Route 237\")\n* [22px](/wiki/Image:NY-269.svg \"NY-269.svg\") [New York State Route 269](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_269 \"New York State Route 269\")\n* [22px](/wiki/Image:NY-272.svg \"NY-272.svg\") [New York State Route 272](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_272 \"New York State Route 272\")\n* [22px](/wiki/Image:NY-279.svg \"NY-279.svg\") [New York State Route 279](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_279 \"New York State Route 279\")\n* [22px](/wiki/Image:NY-387.svg \"NY-387.svg\") [New York State Route 387](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_387 \"New York State Route 387\")\n* [26px](/wiki/Image:Lake_Ontario_State_Parkway.svg \"Lake Ontario State Parkway.svg\") [Lake Ontario State Parkway](/wiki/Lake_Ontario_State_Parkway \"Lake Ontario State Parkway\")\n* [List of county routes in Orleans County, New York](/wiki/List_of_county_routes_in_Orleans_County%2C_New_York \"List of county routes in Orleans County, New York\")\n\nThe former [New York State Route 941M](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_941M \"New York State Route 941M\") was located in Orleans County.\n\n", "### Major roadways\n\n* [20px](/wiki/Image:NY-18.svg \"NY-18.svg\") [New York State Route 18](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_18 \"New York State Route 18\")\n* [20px](/wiki/Image:NY-31.svg \"NY-31.svg\") [New York State Route 31](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_31 \"New York State Route 31\")\n* [20px](/wiki/Image:NY-31A.svg \"NY-31A.svg\") [New York State Route 31A](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_31A \"New York State Route 31A\")\n* [20px](/wiki/Image:NY-31E.svg \"NY-31E.svg\") [New York State Route 31E](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_31E \"New York State Route 31E\")\n* [20px](/wiki/Image:NY-63.svg \"NY-63.svg\") [New York State Route 63](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_63 \"New York State Route 63\")\n* [20px](/wiki/Image:NY-98.svg \"NY-98.svg\") [New York State Route 98](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_98 \"New York State Route 98\")\n* [22px](/wiki/Image:NY-104.svg \"NY-104.svg\") [New York State Route 104](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_104 \"New York State Route 104\")\n* [22px](/wiki/Image:NY-237.svg \"NY-237.svg\") [New York State Route 237](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_237 \"New York State Route 237\")\n* [22px](/wiki/Image:NY-269.svg \"NY-269.svg\") [New York State Route 269](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_269 \"New York State Route 269\")\n* [22px](/wiki/Image:NY-272.svg \"NY-272.svg\") [New York State Route 272](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_272 \"New York State Route 272\")\n* [22px](/wiki/Image:NY-279.svg \"NY-279.svg\") [New York State Route 279](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_279 \"New York State Route 279\")\n* [22px](/wiki/Image:NY-387.svg \"NY-387.svg\") [New York State Route 387](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_387 \"New York State Route 387\")\n* [26px](/wiki/Image:Lake_Ontario_State_Parkway.svg \"Lake Ontario State Parkway.svg\") [Lake Ontario State Parkway](/wiki/Lake_Ontario_State_Parkway \"Lake Ontario State Parkway\")\n* [List of county routes in Orleans County, New York](/wiki/List_of_county_routes_in_Orleans_County%2C_New_York \"List of county routes in Orleans County, New York\")\n\nThe former [New York State Route 941M](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_941M \"New York State Route 941M\") was located in Orleans County.\n\n", "Communities\n-----------\n\n### Larger Settlements\n\nAll larger settlements are Villages\n\n| \\+ | \\# | Location | Population |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | [Medina](/wiki/Medina%2C_New_York \"Medina, New York\") | 6,065 |\n| 2 | †[Albion](/wiki/Albion_%28village%29%2C_New_York \"Albion (village), New York\") | 6,056 |\n| 3 | [Holley](/wiki/Holley%2C_New_York \"Holley, New York\") | 1,811 |\n| 4 | [Lyndonville](/wiki/Lyndonville%2C_New_York \"Lyndonville, New York\") | 838 |\n\n[thumb\\|300px\\|right\\|The town and village borders](/wiki/File:Orleans_County_%28New_York%29_-_Towns_and_Villages.svg \"Orleans County (New York) - Towns and Villages.svg\")\n\n### Towns\n\n* [Albion](/wiki/Albion_%28town%29%2C_Orleans_County%2C_New_York \"Albion (town), Orleans County, New York\")\n* [Barre](/wiki/Barre%2C_New_York \"Barre, New York\")\n* [Carlton](/wiki/Carlton%2C_New_York \"Carlton, New York\")\n* [Clarendon](/wiki/Clarendon%2C_New_York \"Clarendon, New York\")\n* [Gaines](/wiki/Gaines%2C_New_York \"Gaines, New York\")\n* [Kendall](/wiki/Kendall%2C_New_York \"Kendall, New York\")\n* [Murray](/wiki/Murray%2C_New_York \"Murray, New York\")\n* [Ridgeway](/wiki/Ridgeway%2C_New_York \"Ridgeway, New York\")\n* [Shelby](/wiki/Shelby%2C_New_York \"Shelby, New York\")\n* [Yates](/wiki/Yates%2C_New_York \"Yates, New York\")\n\n### Villages\n\n* [Albion](/wiki/Albion_%28village%29%2C_New_York \"Albion (village), New York\") (county seat)\n* [Holley](/wiki/Holley%2C_New_York \"Holley, New York\")\n* [Lyndonville](/wiki/Lyndonville%2C_New_York \"Lyndonville, New York\")\n* [Medina](/wiki/Medina%2C_New_York \"Medina, New York\")\n\n### Hamlets\n\n* [Ashwood](/wiki/Ashwood%2C_New_York \"Ashwood, New York\")\n* [Barre Center](/wiki/Barre_Center%2C_New_York \"Barre Center, New York\")\n* [Baldwin Corner](/wiki/Baldwin_Corner%2C_New_York \"Baldwin Corner, New York\")\n* [Brockville](/wiki/Brockville%2C_New_York \"Brockville, New York\")\n* [Carlton Station](/wiki/Carlton_Station%2C_New_York \"Carlton Station, New York\")\n* [Childs](/wiki/Childs%2C_New_York \"Childs, New York\")\n* [County Line](/wiki/County_Line%2C_New_York \"County Line, New York\")\n* [Eagle Harbor](/wiki/Eagle_Harbor%2C_New_York \"Eagle Harbor, New York\")\n* [East Shelby](/wiki/East_Shelby%2C_New_York \"East Shelby, New York\")\n* [Fancher](/wiki/Fancher%2C_New_York \"Fancher, New York\")\n* Gaines\n* [Hindsburg](/wiki/Hindsburg%2C_New_York \"Hindsburg, New York\")\n* [Hulberton](/wiki/Hulberton%2C_New_York \"Hulberton, New York\")\n* [Jeddo](/wiki/Jeddo%2C_New_York \"Jeddo, New York\")\n* [Jones Beach](/wiki/Jones_Beach%2C_Orleans_County%2C_New_York \"Jones Beach, Orleans County, New York\")\n* [Kendall Mills](/wiki/Kendall_Mills%2C_New_York \"Kendall Mills, New York\")\n* [Kent](/wiki/Kent%2C_Orleans_County%2C_New_York \"Kent, Orleans County, New York\")\n* [Kenyonville](/wiki/Kenyonville%2C_New_York \"Kenyonville, New York\")\n* [Knowlesville](/wiki/Knowlesville%2C_New_York \"Knowlesville, New York\")\n* [Kuckville](/wiki/Kuckville \"Kuckville\")\n* [Lomond Shore](/wiki/Lomond_Shore%2C_New_York \"Lomond Shore, New York\")\n* [Millers](/wiki/Millers%2C_New_York \"Millers, New York\")\n* [Millville](/wiki/Millville%2C_New_York \"Millville, New York\")\n* [Oak Orchard](/wiki/Oak_Orchard%2C_New_York \"Oak Orchard, New York\")\n* [Point Breeze](/wiki/Point_Breeze%2C_New_York \"Point Breeze, New York\")\n* [Sawyer](/wiki/Sawyer%2C_Orleans_County%2C_New_York \"Sawyer, Orleans County, New York\")\n* [Shadigee](/wiki/Shadigee%2C_New_York \"Shadigee, New York\")\n* [Shelby Center](/wiki/Shelby_Center%2C_New_York \"Shelby Center, New York\")\n* [Sunset Beach](/wiki/Sunset_Beach%2C_Orleans_County%2C_New_York \"Sunset Beach, Orleans County, New York\")\n* [Yates Center](/wiki/Yates_Center%2C_New_York \"Yates Center, New York\")\n* [Waterport](/wiki/Waterport%2C_New_York \"Waterport, New York\")\n* [West Barre](/wiki/West_Barre%2C_New_York \"West Barre, New York\")\n* [West Gaines](/wiki/West_Gaines%2C_New_York \"West Gaines, New York\")\n* [West Shelby](/wiki/West_Shelby%2C_New_York \"West Shelby, New York\")\n", "### Larger Settlements\n\nAll larger settlements are Villages\n\n| \\+ | \\# | Location | Population |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | [Medina](/wiki/Medina%2C_New_York \"Medina, New York\") | 6,065 |\n| 2 | †[Albion](/wiki/Albion_%28village%29%2C_New_York \"Albion (village), New York\") | 6,056 |\n| 3 | [Holley](/wiki/Holley%2C_New_York \"Holley, New York\") | 1,811 |\n| 4 | [Lyndonville](/wiki/Lyndonville%2C_New_York \"Lyndonville, New York\") | 838 |\n\n[thumb\\|300px\\|right\\|The town and village borders](/wiki/File:Orleans_County_%28New_York%29_-_Towns_and_Villages.svg \"Orleans County (New York) - Towns and Villages.svg\")\n\n", "### Towns\n\n* [Albion](/wiki/Albion_%28town%29%2C_Orleans_County%2C_New_York \"Albion (town), Orleans County, New York\")\n* [Barre](/wiki/Barre%2C_New_York \"Barre, New York\")\n* [Carlton](/wiki/Carlton%2C_New_York \"Carlton, New York\")\n* [Clarendon](/wiki/Clarendon%2C_New_York \"Clarendon, New York\")\n* [Gaines](/wiki/Gaines%2C_New_York \"Gaines, New York\")\n* [Kendall](/wiki/Kendall%2C_New_York \"Kendall, New York\")\n* [Murray](/wiki/Murray%2C_New_York \"Murray, New York\")\n* [Ridgeway](/wiki/Ridgeway%2C_New_York \"Ridgeway, New York\")\n* [Shelby](/wiki/Shelby%2C_New_York \"Shelby, New York\")\n* [Yates](/wiki/Yates%2C_New_York \"Yates, New York\")\n\n", "### Villages\n\n* [Albion](/wiki/Albion_%28village%29%2C_New_York \"Albion (village), New York\") (county seat)\n* [Holley](/wiki/Holley%2C_New_York \"Holley, New York\")\n* [Lyndonville](/wiki/Lyndonville%2C_New_York \"Lyndonville, New York\")\n* [Medina](/wiki/Medina%2C_New_York \"Medina, New York\")\n", "### Hamlets\n\n* [Ashwood](/wiki/Ashwood%2C_New_York \"Ashwood, New York\")\n* [Barre Center](/wiki/Barre_Center%2C_New_York \"Barre Center, New York\")\n* [Baldwin Corner](/wiki/Baldwin_Corner%2C_New_York \"Baldwin Corner, New York\")\n* [Brockville](/wiki/Brockville%2C_New_York \"Brockville, New York\")\n* [Carlton Station](/wiki/Carlton_Station%2C_New_York \"Carlton Station, New York\")\n* [Childs](/wiki/Childs%2C_New_York \"Childs, New York\")\n* [County Line](/wiki/County_Line%2C_New_York \"County Line, New York\")\n* [Eagle Harbor](/wiki/Eagle_Harbor%2C_New_York \"Eagle Harbor, New York\")\n* [East Shelby](/wiki/East_Shelby%2C_New_York \"East Shelby, New York\")\n* [Fancher](/wiki/Fancher%2C_New_York \"Fancher, New York\")\n* Gaines\n* [Hindsburg](/wiki/Hindsburg%2C_New_York \"Hindsburg, New York\")\n* [Hulberton](/wiki/Hulberton%2C_New_York \"Hulberton, New York\")\n* [Jeddo](/wiki/Jeddo%2C_New_York \"Jeddo, New York\")\n* [Jones Beach](/wiki/Jones_Beach%2C_Orleans_County%2C_New_York \"Jones Beach, Orleans County, New York\")\n* [Kendall Mills](/wiki/Kendall_Mills%2C_New_York \"Kendall Mills, New York\")\n* [Kent](/wiki/Kent%2C_Orleans_County%2C_New_York \"Kent, Orleans County, New York\")\n* [Kenyonville](/wiki/Kenyonville%2C_New_York \"Kenyonville, New York\")\n* [Knowlesville](/wiki/Knowlesville%2C_New_York \"Knowlesville, New York\")\n* [Kuckville](/wiki/Kuckville \"Kuckville\")\n* [Lomond Shore](/wiki/Lomond_Shore%2C_New_York \"Lomond Shore, New York\")\n* [Millers](/wiki/Millers%2C_New_York \"Millers, New York\")\n* [Millville](/wiki/Millville%2C_New_York \"Millville, New York\")\n* [Oak Orchard](/wiki/Oak_Orchard%2C_New_York \"Oak Orchard, New York\")\n* [Point Breeze](/wiki/Point_Breeze%2C_New_York \"Point Breeze, New York\")\n* [Sawyer](/wiki/Sawyer%2C_Orleans_County%2C_New_York \"Sawyer, Orleans County, New York\")\n* [Shadigee](/wiki/Shadigee%2C_New_York \"Shadigee, New York\")\n* [Shelby Center](/wiki/Shelby_Center%2C_New_York \"Shelby Center, New York\")\n* [Sunset Beach](/wiki/Sunset_Beach%2C_Orleans_County%2C_New_York \"Sunset Beach, Orleans County, New York\")\n* [Yates Center](/wiki/Yates_Center%2C_New_York \"Yates Center, New York\")\n* [Waterport](/wiki/Waterport%2C_New_York \"Waterport, New York\")\n* [West Barre](/wiki/West_Barre%2C_New_York \"West Barre, New York\")\n* [West Gaines](/wiki/West_Gaines%2C_New_York \"West Gaines, New York\")\n* [West Shelby](/wiki/West_Shelby%2C_New_York \"West Shelby, New York\")\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [Orleans County Sheriff's Office](/wiki/Orleans_County_Sheriff%27s_Office_%28New_York%29 \"Orleans County Sheriff's Office (New York)\")\n* [List of fire departments in Orleans County, New York](/wiki/List_of_fire_departments_in_Orleans_County%2C_New_York \"List of fire departments in Orleans County, New York\")\n* [List of counties in New York](/wiki/List_of_counties_in_New_York \"List of counties in New York\")\n* [National Register of Historic Places listings in Orleans County, New York](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Orleans_County%2C_New_York \"National Register of Historic Places listings in Orleans County, New York\")\n* [The Orleans County Libertarian Party](/wiki/The_Orleans_County_Libertarian_Party \"The Orleans County Libertarian Party\")\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "Further reading\n---------------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [Official Webpage](http://www.orleansny.com)\n* [Genesee Community College in Orleans County](http://www.genesee.edu/)\n* [Brief historical summary of Orleans County, NY](https://web.archive.org/web/20060227035550/http://www.usgennet.org/usa/ny/state/his/bk8/ch3.html)\n\n[Category:Finger Lakes](/wiki/Category:Finger_Lakes \"Finger Lakes\")\n[Category:1824 establishments in New York (state)](/wiki/Category:1824_establishments_in_New_York_%28state%29 \"1824 establishments in New York (state)\")\n[Category:Populated places established in 1824](/wiki/Category:Populated_places_established_in_1824 \"Populated places established in 1824\")\n[Category:Rochester metropolitan area, New York](/wiki/Category:Rochester_metropolitan_area%2C_New_York \"Rochester metropolitan area, New York\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 19404073 ], "name": [ "Liz" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Etymology", "Causes and use", "Late release", "Duke Nukem", "Early announcement", "Antitrust allegations", "See also", "Notes", "References", "External links", "''Wired'' Magazine Vaporware Awards" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3 ], "content": [ "\n\n[thumb\\|280px\\|The U.S. Justice Department accused IBM of intentionally announcing its [IBM System/360 Model 91](/wiki/IBM_System/360_Model_91 \"IBM System/360 Model 91\") computer (pictured) nearly two years early to hurt sales of its competitor's computer.](/wiki/File:360-91-panel.jpg \"360-91-panel.jpg\")\n\nIn the computer industry, **vaporware** (or **vapourware**) is a product, typically computer [hardware](/wiki/Computer_hardware \"Computer hardware\") or [software](/wiki/Software \"Software\"), that is announced to the general public but is late, never actually manufactured, or officially cancelled. Use of the word has broadened to include products such as automobiles.\n\nVaporware is often announced months or years before its purported release, with few details about its development being released. Developers have been accused of intentionally promoting vaporware to keep customers from switching to competing products that offer more features.[Vapour\\-ware definition of Vapour\\-ware in the Free Online Encyclopedia](http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Vapour-ware). Encyclopedia2\\.thefreedictionary.com. *[Network World](/wiki/Network_World \"Network World\")* magazine called vaporware an \"epidemic\" in 1989 and blamed the press for not investigating if developers' claims were true. Seven major companies issued a report in 1990 saying that they felt vaporware had hurt the industry's credibility. The United States accused several companies of announcing vaporware early enough to violate [antitrust laws](/wiki/Competition_law \"Competition law\"), but few have been found guilty.\n\n\"Vaporware\" was coined by a [Microsoft](/wiki/Microsoft \"Microsoft\") engineer in 1982 to describe the company's [Xenix operating system](/wiki/Xenix \"Xenix\") and appeared in print at least as early as the May 1983 issue of [Sinclair User](/wiki/Sinclair_User \"Sinclair User\") magazine (spelled as 'Vapourware' in UK English). It became popular among writers in the industry as a way to describe products they felt took too long to be released. *[InfoWorld](/wiki/InfoWorld \"InfoWorld\")* magazine editor Stewart Alsop helped popularize it by lampooning [Bill Gates](/wiki/Bill_Gates \"Bill Gates\") with a *Golden Vaporware* award for the late release of his company's first version of [Windows](/wiki/Windows_1.0 \"Windows 1.0\") in 1985\\.\n\n", "Etymology\n---------\n\n\"Vaporware\", sometimes synonymous with \"vaportalk\" in the 1980s, has no single definition. It is generally used to describe a hardware or software product that has been announced, but that the developer is unlikely to release any time soon, if ever.[Bayus; Jain; Rao (2001\\)](/wiki/%23refBRJ \"#refBRJ\") p. 3\\.[Prentice; Langmore](/wiki/%23refPrenLang \"#refPrenLang\") (1994\\) p. 11\\.\n\nThe first reported use of the word was in 1982 by an engineer at the computer software company [Microsoft](/wiki/Microsoft \"Microsoft\").[Flynn (1995\\)](/wiki/%23refFlynn \"#refFlynn\"), p. 1\\. [Ann Winblad](/wiki/Ann_Winblad \"Ann Winblad\"), president of [Open Systems Accounting Software](/wiki/Open_Systems_Accounting_Software \"Open Systems Accounting Software\"), wanted to know if Microsoft planned to stop developing its [Xenix](/wiki/Xenix \"Xenix\") [operating system](/wiki/Operating_system \"Operating system\") as some of Open System's products depended on it. She asked two Microsoft software engineers, John Ulett and Mark Ursino, who confirmed that development of Xenix had stopped. \"One of them told me, 'Basically, it's vaporware',\" she later said. Winblad compared the word to the idea of \"selling smoke\", implying Microsoft was selling a product it would soon not support.[Shea (1984\\)](/wiki/%23refShea \"#refShea\").\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|Influential writer Esther Dyson (pictured here in 2008\\) popularized the term \"vaporware\" in her November 1983 issue of *RELease 1\\.0*.](/wiki/File:Esther_Dyson_Monaco_Media_Forum.jpg \"Esther Dyson Monaco Media Forum.jpg\")\n\nWinblad described the word to influential computer expert [Esther Dyson](/wiki/Esther_Dyson \"Esther Dyson\"), who published it for the first time in her monthly newsletter *RELease 1\\.0*. In an article titled \"Vaporware\" in the November 1983 issue of *RELease 1\\.0*, Dyson defined the word as \"good ideas incompletely implemented\". She described three software products shown at [COMDEX](/wiki/COMDEX \"COMDEX\") in Las Vegas that year with bombastic advertisements. She stated that demonstrations of the \"purported revolutions, breakthroughs and new generations\" at the exhibition did not meet those claims.[Dyson (1983\\)](/wiki/%23refDyson \"#refDyson\"), pp. –6\\.\n\nThe practice existed before Winblad's account. In a January 1982 review of the new [IBM Personal Computer](/wiki/IBM_Personal_Computer \"IBM Personal Computer\"), *[BYTE](/wiki/BYTE \"BYTE\")* favorably noted that IBM \"refused to acknowledge the existence of any product that is not ready to be put on dealers' shelves tomorrow. Although this is frustrating at times, it is a refreshing change from some companies' practice of announcing a product even before its design is finished\". When discussing [Coleco](/wiki/Coleco \"Coleco\")'s delay in releasing the [Adam](/wiki/Coleco_Adam \"Coleco Adam\"), *[Creative Computing](/wiki/Creative_Computing \"Creative Computing\")* in March 1984 stated that the company \"did not invent the common practice of debuting products before they actually exist. In microcomputers, to do so otherwise would be to break with a veritable tradition\". After Dyson's article, the word \"vaporware\" became popular among writers in the personal computer software industry as a way to describe products they believed took too long to be released after their first announcement. *[InfoWorld](/wiki/InfoWorld \"InfoWorld\")* magazine editor Stewart Alsop helped popularize its use by giving [Bill Gates](/wiki/Bill_Gates \"Bill Gates\"), then\\-CEO of Microsoft, with a *Golden Vaporware* award for Microsoft releasing [Windows](/wiki/Windows_1.0x \"Windows 1.0x\") in 1985, 18 months late. Alsop presented it to Gates at a celebration for the release while the song \"[The Impossible Dream](/wiki/The_Impossible_Dream_%28The_Quest%29 \"The Impossible Dream (The Quest)\")\" played in the background.Garud (1997\\); Ichbiah cited in [Bayus; Jain; Rao (2001\\)](/wiki/%23refBRJ \"#refBRJ\") p. 3\\.[Bayus; Jain; Rao (2001\\)](/wiki/%23refBRJ \"#refBRJ\"), p. 5\\.\n\n\"Vaporware\" took another meaning when it was used to describe a product that did not exist. A new company named [Ovation Technologies](/wiki/Ovation_Technologies \"Ovation Technologies\") announced its [office suite](/wiki/Productivity_software%23Office_suite \"Productivity software#Office suite\") Ovation in 1983\\. The company invested in an advertising campaign that promoted Ovation as a \"great innovation\", and showed a demonstration of the program at computer trade shows. The demonstration was well received by writers in the press, was featured in a cover story for an industry magazine, and reportedly created anticipation among potential customers.[Jenkins (1998\\)](/wiki/%23refJenkins \"#refJenkins\"). Executives later revealed that Ovation never existed. The company created the fake demonstration in an unsuccessful attempt to raise money to finish their product,[Flynn (1995\\)](/wiki/%23refFlynn \"#refFlynn\"), p. 2\\. and is \"widely considered the mother of all vaporware,\" according to Laurie Flynn of *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")*.\n\nUse of the term spread beyond the computer industry. *[Newsweek](/wiki/Newsweek \"Newsweek\")* magazine's [Allan Sloan](/wiki/Allan_Sloan \"Allan Sloan\") described the manipulation of stocks by [Yahoo!](/wiki/Yahoo%21 \"Yahoo!\") and [Amazon.com](/wiki/Amazon_%28company%29 \"Amazon (company)\") as \"financial vaporware\" in 1997\\.[Sloan](/wiki/%23refSloan \"#refSloan\") (1997\\) *[Popular Science](/wiki/Popular_Science \"Popular Science\")* magazine uses a scale ranging from \"vaporware\" to \"bet on it\" to describe release dates of new consumer electronics. Car manufacturer [General Motors](/wiki/General_Motors \"General Motors\")' plans to develop and sell an electric car were called vaporware by an advocacy group in 2008 and *[Car and Driver](/wiki/Car_and_Driver \"Car and Driver\")* magazine retroactively described the [Vector W8](/wiki/Vector_W8 \"Vector W8\") supercar as vaporware in 2017\\.\n\n", "Causes and use\n--------------\n\n### Late release\n\nA product missing its announced release date, and the labeling of it as vaporware by the press, can be caused by its development taking longer than planned. Most software products are not released on time, according to researchers in 2001 who studied the causes and effects of vaporware; \"I hate to say yes, but yes\", a Microsoft product manager stated in 1984, adding that \"the problem isn't just at Microsoft\". The phenomenon is so common that [Lotus](/wiki/Lotus_Development_Corporation \"Lotus Development Corporation\")' release of [1\\-2\\-3](/wiki/Lotus_1-2-3 \"Lotus 1-2-3\") on time in January 1983, three months after announcing it, amazed many.\n\n[Software development](/wiki/Software_development \"Software development\") is a complex process, and developers are often uncertain how long it will take to complete any given project.[Johnston; Betts (1995\\)](/wiki/%23refJohnston \"#refJohnston\"). Fixing errors in software, for example, can make up a significant portion of its development time, and developers are motivated not to release software with errors because it could damage their reputation with customers. Last\\-minute design changes are also common. Large organizations seem to have more late projects than smaller ones, and may benefit from hiring individual programmers on contract to write software rather than using in\\-house development teams. Adding people to a late software project does not help; according to [Brooks' Law](/wiki/Brooks%27_Law \"Brooks' Law\"), doing so increases the delay.\n\nNot all delays in software are the developers' fault. In 1986, the [American National Standards Institute](/wiki/American_National_Standards_Institute \"American National Standards Institute\") adopted [SQL](/wiki/SQL \"SQL\") as the standard database manipulation language. Software company [Ashton\\-Tate](/wiki/Ashton-Tate \"Ashton-Tate\") was ready to release [dBase IV](/wiki/DBase_IV \"DBase IV\"), but pushed the release date back to add support for SQL. The company believed that the product would not be competitive without it. As the word became more commonly used by writers in the mid\\-1980s, *InfoWorld* magazine editor James Fawcette wrote that its negative connotations were unfair to developers because of these types of circumstances.[Fawcette (1985\\)](/wiki/%23refFawcette \"#refFawcette\").\n\n#### Duke Nukem\n\n[thumb\\|*Duke Nukem Forever* booth at [PAX Prime](/wiki/PAX_Prime \"PAX Prime\") 2010](/wiki/File:Duke_Nukem_Forever_at_PAX_Prime_2010_%284956509224%29.jpg \"Duke Nukem Forever at PAX Prime 2010 (4956509224).jpg\")\nVaporware also includes announced products that are never released because of financial problems, or because the industry changes during its development. When [3D Realms](/wiki/3D_Realms \"3D Realms\") first announced *[Duke Nukem Forever](/wiki/Duke_Nukem_Forever \"Duke Nukem Forever\")* in 1997, the video game was early in its development.[Thompson (2009\\)](/wiki/%23refThompson \"#refThompson\"). The company's previous game released in 1996, *[Duke Nukem 3D](/wiki/Duke_Nukem_3D \"Duke Nukem 3D\")*, was a critical and financial success, and customer anticipation for its sequel was high. As personal computer hardware speeds improved at a rapid pace in the late 1990s, it created an \"arms race\" between companies in the video game industry, according to *[Wired News](/wiki/Wired_News \"Wired News\")*. 3D Realms repeatedly moved the release date back over the next 12 years to add new, more advanced features. By the time 3D Realms went out of business in 2009 with the game still unreleased, *Duke Nukem Forever* had become synonymous with the word \"vaporware\" among industry writers. The game was revived and released in 2011\\. However, due to a 13\\-year period of fan anticipation and design changes in the industry, the game received a mostly negative reception from critics and fans.\n\nA company notorious for vaporware can improve its reputation. In the 1980s, video game maker [Westwood Studios](/wiki/Westwood_Studios \"Westwood Studios\") was known for shipping products late. However, by 1993, it had so improved that *Computer Gaming World* reported \"many publishers would assure \\[us] that a project was going to be completed on time *because* Westwood was doing it\".\n\n### Early announcement\n\nAnnouncing products early—months or years before their release date,[Prentice; Langmore](/wiki/%23refPrenLang \"#refPrenLang\") (1994\\) p. 2\\. also called \"preannouncing\", has been an effective way by some developers to make their products successful. It can be seen as a legitimate part of their marketing strategy, but is generally not popular with industry press.[Prentice (1996\\)](/wiki/%23refPrentice \"#refPrentice\"), p. 4\\. The first company to release a product in a given market often gains an advantage. It can set the standard for similar future products, attract a large number of customers, and establish its brand before competitor's products are released. Public relations firm Coakley\\-Heagerty used an early announcement in 1984 to build interest among potential customers. Its client was [Nolan Bushnell](/wiki/Nolan_Bushnell \"Nolan Bushnell\"), formerly of [Atari Inc.](/wiki/Atari_Inc. \"Atari Inc.\") who wanted to promote the new [Sente Technologies](/wiki/Sente_Technologies \"Sente Technologies\"), but his contract with Atari prohibited doing so until a later date. The firm created an advertising campaign—including brochures and a shopping\\-mall appearance—around a large ambiguous box covered in brown paper to increase curiosity until Sente could be announced.\n\nEarly announcements send signals not only to customers and the media, but also to providers of support products, [regulatory agencies](/wiki/Regulatory_agency \"Regulatory agency\"), financial analysts, investors, and other parties. For example, an early announcement can relay information to vendors, letting them know to prepare marketing and shelf space. It can signal third\\-party developers to begin work on their own products, and it can be used to persuade a company's investors that they are actively developing new, profitable ideas.[Prentice (1996\\)](/wiki/%23refPrentice \"#refPrentice\"), p. 3\\. When [IBM](/wiki/IBM \"IBM\") announced its Professional Workstation computer in 1986, they noted the lack of third\\-party programs written for it at the time, signaling those developers to start preparing. Microsoft usually announces information about its operating systems early because third\\-party developers are dependent on that information to develop their own products.\n\nA developer can strategically announce a product that is in the early stages of development, or before development begins, to gain competitive advantage over other developers.[Bayus; Jain; Rao (2001\\)](/wiki/%23refBRJ \"#refBRJ\"), p. 4\\. In addition to the \"vaporware\" label, this is also called \"[ambush marketing](/wiki/Ambush_marketing \"Ambush marketing\")\", and \"[fear, uncertainty and doubt](/wiki/Fear%2C_uncertainty_and_doubt \"Fear, uncertainty and doubt\")\" (FUD) by the press. If the announcing developer is a large company, this may be done to influence smaller companies to stop development of similar products. The smaller company might decide their product will not be able to compete, and that it is not worth the development costs. It can also be done in response to a competitor's already released product. The goal is to make potential customers believe a second, better product will be released soon. The customer might reconsider buying from the competitor, and wait.[Haan (2003\\)](/wiki/%23refHaan \"#refHaan\"). In 1994, as customer anticipation increased for Microsoft's new version of Windows (codenamed \"[Chicago](/wiki/Windows_95 \"Windows 95\")\"), [Apple](/wiki/Apple_Inc. \"Apple Inc.\") announced a set of upgrades to its own [System 7](/wiki/System_7 \"System 7\") operating system that were not due to be released until nearly two years later. *[The Wall Street Journal](/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal \"The Wall Street Journal\")* wrote that Apple did this to \"blunt Chicago's momentum\".[Zachary; Carlton](/wiki/%23refZachary \"#refZachary\") (1994\\)\n\nA premature announcement can cause others to respond with their own. When [VisiCorp](/wiki/VisiCorp \"VisiCorp\") announced [Visi On](/wiki/Visi_On \"Visi On\") in November 1982, it promised to ship the product by spring 1983\\. The news forced [Quarterdeck Office Systems](/wiki/Quarterdeck_Office_Systems \"Quarterdeck Office Systems\") to announce in April 1983 that its [DESQ](/wiki/DESQ \"DESQ\") would ship in November 1983\\. Microsoft responded by announcing [Windows 1\\.0](/wiki/Windows_1.0 \"Windows 1.0\") in fall 1983, and Ovation Technologies followed by announcing Ovation in November. *InfoWorld* noted in May 1984 that of the four products only Visi On had shipped, albeit more than a year late and with only two supported applications.\n\nIndustry publications widely accused companies of using early announcements intentionally to gain competitive advantage over others. In his 1989 *Network World* article, [Joe Mohen](/wiki/Joe_Mohen \"Joe Mohen\") wrote the practice had become a \"vaporware epidemic\", and blamed the press for not investigating claims by developers. \"If the pharmaceutical industry were this careless, I could announce a cure for cancer today – to a believing press.\"[Mohen (1989\\)](/wiki/%23refMohen \"#refMohen\"). In 1985 Stewart Alsop began publishing his influential monthly *Vaporlist*, a list of companies he felt announced their products too early, hoping to dissuade them from the practice; among the entries in January 1988 were a [Verbatim Corp.](/wiki/Verbatim_Corp. \"Verbatim Corp.\") [optical drive](/wiki/Optical_drive \"Optical drive\") that was 30 months late, [WordPerfect](/wiki/WordPerfect \"WordPerfect\") for Macintosh (12 months), IBM [OS/2 1\\.1](/wiki/OS/2_1.1 \"OS/2 1.1\") (nine months), and Lotus 1\\-2\\-3 for OS/2 and Macintosh (nine and three months late, respectively). *[Wired](/wiki/Wired_%28magazine%29 \"Wired (magazine)\")* Magazine began publishing a similar list in 1997\\. Seven major software developers—including Ashton\\-Tate, [Hewlett\\-Packard](/wiki/Hewlett-Packard \"Hewlett-Packard\"), and [Sybase](/wiki/Sybase \"Sybase\")—formed a council in 1990, and issued a report condemning the \"vacuous product announcement dubbed vaporware and other misrepresentations of product availability\" because they felt it had hurt the industry's credibility.[Messmer (1990\\)](/wiki/%23refMessmer \"#refMessmer\").\n\n", "### Late release\n\nA product missing its announced release date, and the labeling of it as vaporware by the press, can be caused by its development taking longer than planned. Most software products are not released on time, according to researchers in 2001 who studied the causes and effects of vaporware; \"I hate to say yes, but yes\", a Microsoft product manager stated in 1984, adding that \"the problem isn't just at Microsoft\". The phenomenon is so common that [Lotus](/wiki/Lotus_Development_Corporation \"Lotus Development Corporation\")' release of [1\\-2\\-3](/wiki/Lotus_1-2-3 \"Lotus 1-2-3\") on time in January 1983, three months after announcing it, amazed many.\n\n[Software development](/wiki/Software_development \"Software development\") is a complex process, and developers are often uncertain how long it will take to complete any given project.[Johnston; Betts (1995\\)](/wiki/%23refJohnston \"#refJohnston\"). Fixing errors in software, for example, can make up a significant portion of its development time, and developers are motivated not to release software with errors because it could damage their reputation with customers. Last\\-minute design changes are also common. Large organizations seem to have more late projects than smaller ones, and may benefit from hiring individual programmers on contract to write software rather than using in\\-house development teams. Adding people to a late software project does not help; according to [Brooks' Law](/wiki/Brooks%27_Law \"Brooks' Law\"), doing so increases the delay.\n\nNot all delays in software are the developers' fault. In 1986, the [American National Standards Institute](/wiki/American_National_Standards_Institute \"American National Standards Institute\") adopted [SQL](/wiki/SQL \"SQL\") as the standard database manipulation language. Software company [Ashton\\-Tate](/wiki/Ashton-Tate \"Ashton-Tate\") was ready to release [dBase IV](/wiki/DBase_IV \"DBase IV\"), but pushed the release date back to add support for SQL. The company believed that the product would not be competitive without it. As the word became more commonly used by writers in the mid\\-1980s, *InfoWorld* magazine editor James Fawcette wrote that its negative connotations were unfair to developers because of these types of circumstances.[Fawcette (1985\\)](/wiki/%23refFawcette \"#refFawcette\").\n\n#### Duke Nukem\n\n[thumb\\|*Duke Nukem Forever* booth at [PAX Prime](/wiki/PAX_Prime \"PAX Prime\") 2010](/wiki/File:Duke_Nukem_Forever_at_PAX_Prime_2010_%284956509224%29.jpg \"Duke Nukem Forever at PAX Prime 2010 (4956509224).jpg\")\nVaporware also includes announced products that are never released because of financial problems, or because the industry changes during its development. When [3D Realms](/wiki/3D_Realms \"3D Realms\") first announced *[Duke Nukem Forever](/wiki/Duke_Nukem_Forever \"Duke Nukem Forever\")* in 1997, the video game was early in its development.[Thompson (2009\\)](/wiki/%23refThompson \"#refThompson\"). The company's previous game released in 1996, *[Duke Nukem 3D](/wiki/Duke_Nukem_3D \"Duke Nukem 3D\")*, was a critical and financial success, and customer anticipation for its sequel was high. As personal computer hardware speeds improved at a rapid pace in the late 1990s, it created an \"arms race\" between companies in the video game industry, according to *[Wired News](/wiki/Wired_News \"Wired News\")*. 3D Realms repeatedly moved the release date back over the next 12 years to add new, more advanced features. By the time 3D Realms went out of business in 2009 with the game still unreleased, *Duke Nukem Forever* had become synonymous with the word \"vaporware\" among industry writers. The game was revived and released in 2011\\. However, due to a 13\\-year period of fan anticipation and design changes in the industry, the game received a mostly negative reception from critics and fans.\n\nA company notorious for vaporware can improve its reputation. In the 1980s, video game maker [Westwood Studios](/wiki/Westwood_Studios \"Westwood Studios\") was known for shipping products late. However, by 1993, it had so improved that *Computer Gaming World* reported \"many publishers would assure \\[us] that a project was going to be completed on time *because* Westwood was doing it\".\n\n", "#### Duke Nukem\n\n[thumb\\|*Duke Nukem Forever* booth at [PAX Prime](/wiki/PAX_Prime \"PAX Prime\") 2010](/wiki/File:Duke_Nukem_Forever_at_PAX_Prime_2010_%284956509224%29.jpg \"Duke Nukem Forever at PAX Prime 2010 (4956509224).jpg\")\nVaporware also includes announced products that are never released because of financial problems, or because the industry changes during its development. When [3D Realms](/wiki/3D_Realms \"3D Realms\") first announced *[Duke Nukem Forever](/wiki/Duke_Nukem_Forever \"Duke Nukem Forever\")* in 1997, the video game was early in its development.[Thompson (2009\\)](/wiki/%23refThompson \"#refThompson\"). The company's previous game released in 1996, *[Duke Nukem 3D](/wiki/Duke_Nukem_3D \"Duke Nukem 3D\")*, was a critical and financial success, and customer anticipation for its sequel was high. As personal computer hardware speeds improved at a rapid pace in the late 1990s, it created an \"arms race\" between companies in the video game industry, according to *[Wired News](/wiki/Wired_News \"Wired News\")*. 3D Realms repeatedly moved the release date back over the next 12 years to add new, more advanced features. By the time 3D Realms went out of business in 2009 with the game still unreleased, *Duke Nukem Forever* had become synonymous with the word \"vaporware\" among industry writers. The game was revived and released in 2011\\. However, due to a 13\\-year period of fan anticipation and design changes in the industry, the game received a mostly negative reception from critics and fans.\n\nA company notorious for vaporware can improve its reputation. In the 1980s, video game maker [Westwood Studios](/wiki/Westwood_Studios \"Westwood Studios\") was known for shipping products late. However, by 1993, it had so improved that *Computer Gaming World* reported \"many publishers would assure \\[us] that a project was going to be completed on time *because* Westwood was doing it\".\n\n", "### Early announcement\n\nAnnouncing products early—months or years before their release date,[Prentice; Langmore](/wiki/%23refPrenLang \"#refPrenLang\") (1994\\) p. 2\\. also called \"preannouncing\", has been an effective way by some developers to make their products successful. It can be seen as a legitimate part of their marketing strategy, but is generally not popular with industry press.[Prentice (1996\\)](/wiki/%23refPrentice \"#refPrentice\"), p. 4\\. The first company to release a product in a given market often gains an advantage. It can set the standard for similar future products, attract a large number of customers, and establish its brand before competitor's products are released. Public relations firm Coakley\\-Heagerty used an early announcement in 1984 to build interest among potential customers. Its client was [Nolan Bushnell](/wiki/Nolan_Bushnell \"Nolan Bushnell\"), formerly of [Atari Inc.](/wiki/Atari_Inc. \"Atari Inc.\") who wanted to promote the new [Sente Technologies](/wiki/Sente_Technologies \"Sente Technologies\"), but his contract with Atari prohibited doing so until a later date. The firm created an advertising campaign—including brochures and a shopping\\-mall appearance—around a large ambiguous box covered in brown paper to increase curiosity until Sente could be announced.\n\nEarly announcements send signals not only to customers and the media, but also to providers of support products, [regulatory agencies](/wiki/Regulatory_agency \"Regulatory agency\"), financial analysts, investors, and other parties. For example, an early announcement can relay information to vendors, letting them know to prepare marketing and shelf space. It can signal third\\-party developers to begin work on their own products, and it can be used to persuade a company's investors that they are actively developing new, profitable ideas.[Prentice (1996\\)](/wiki/%23refPrentice \"#refPrentice\"), p. 3\\. When [IBM](/wiki/IBM \"IBM\") announced its Professional Workstation computer in 1986, they noted the lack of third\\-party programs written for it at the time, signaling those developers to start preparing. Microsoft usually announces information about its operating systems early because third\\-party developers are dependent on that information to develop their own products.\n\nA developer can strategically announce a product that is in the early stages of development, or before development begins, to gain competitive advantage over other developers.[Bayus; Jain; Rao (2001\\)](/wiki/%23refBRJ \"#refBRJ\"), p. 4\\. In addition to the \"vaporware\" label, this is also called \"[ambush marketing](/wiki/Ambush_marketing \"Ambush marketing\")\", and \"[fear, uncertainty and doubt](/wiki/Fear%2C_uncertainty_and_doubt \"Fear, uncertainty and doubt\")\" (FUD) by the press. If the announcing developer is a large company, this may be done to influence smaller companies to stop development of similar products. The smaller company might decide their product will not be able to compete, and that it is not worth the development costs. It can also be done in response to a competitor's already released product. The goal is to make potential customers believe a second, better product will be released soon. The customer might reconsider buying from the competitor, and wait.[Haan (2003\\)](/wiki/%23refHaan \"#refHaan\"). In 1994, as customer anticipation increased for Microsoft's new version of Windows (codenamed \"[Chicago](/wiki/Windows_95 \"Windows 95\")\"), [Apple](/wiki/Apple_Inc. \"Apple Inc.\") announced a set of upgrades to its own [System 7](/wiki/System_7 \"System 7\") operating system that were not due to be released until nearly two years later. *[The Wall Street Journal](/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal \"The Wall Street Journal\")* wrote that Apple did this to \"blunt Chicago's momentum\".[Zachary; Carlton](/wiki/%23refZachary \"#refZachary\") (1994\\)\n\nA premature announcement can cause others to respond with their own. When [VisiCorp](/wiki/VisiCorp \"VisiCorp\") announced [Visi On](/wiki/Visi_On \"Visi On\") in November 1982, it promised to ship the product by spring 1983\\. The news forced [Quarterdeck Office Systems](/wiki/Quarterdeck_Office_Systems \"Quarterdeck Office Systems\") to announce in April 1983 that its [DESQ](/wiki/DESQ \"DESQ\") would ship in November 1983\\. Microsoft responded by announcing [Windows 1\\.0](/wiki/Windows_1.0 \"Windows 1.0\") in fall 1983, and Ovation Technologies followed by announcing Ovation in November. *InfoWorld* noted in May 1984 that of the four products only Visi On had shipped, albeit more than a year late and with only two supported applications.\n\nIndustry publications widely accused companies of using early announcements intentionally to gain competitive advantage over others. In his 1989 *Network World* article, [Joe Mohen](/wiki/Joe_Mohen \"Joe Mohen\") wrote the practice had become a \"vaporware epidemic\", and blamed the press for not investigating claims by developers. \"If the pharmaceutical industry were this careless, I could announce a cure for cancer today – to a believing press.\"[Mohen (1989\\)](/wiki/%23refMohen \"#refMohen\"). In 1985 Stewart Alsop began publishing his influential monthly *Vaporlist*, a list of companies he felt announced their products too early, hoping to dissuade them from the practice; among the entries in January 1988 were a [Verbatim Corp.](/wiki/Verbatim_Corp. \"Verbatim Corp.\") [optical drive](/wiki/Optical_drive \"Optical drive\") that was 30 months late, [WordPerfect](/wiki/WordPerfect \"WordPerfect\") for Macintosh (12 months), IBM [OS/2 1\\.1](/wiki/OS/2_1.1 \"OS/2 1.1\") (nine months), and Lotus 1\\-2\\-3 for OS/2 and Macintosh (nine and three months late, respectively). *[Wired](/wiki/Wired_%28magazine%29 \"Wired (magazine)\")* Magazine began publishing a similar list in 1997\\. Seven major software developers—including Ashton\\-Tate, [Hewlett\\-Packard](/wiki/Hewlett-Packard \"Hewlett-Packard\"), and [Sybase](/wiki/Sybase \"Sybase\")—formed a council in 1990, and issued a report condemning the \"vacuous product announcement dubbed vaporware and other misrepresentations of product availability\" because they felt it had hurt the industry's credibility.[Messmer (1990\\)](/wiki/%23refMessmer \"#refMessmer\").\n\n", "Antitrust allegations\n---------------------\n\nIn the United States, announcing a product that does not exist to gain a competitive advantage is illegal via Section 2 of the [Sherman Antitrust Act](/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act \"Sherman Antitrust Act\") of 1890, but few hardware or software developers have been found guilty of it. The section requires proof that the announcement is both provably false, and has actual or likely market impact.[Bayus; Jain; Rao (2001\\)](/wiki/%23refBRJ \"#refBRJ\"), p. 11\\.\nFalse or misleading announcements designed to influence stock prices are illegal under United States [securities fraud](/wiki/Securities_fraud \"Securities fraud\") laws.[Prentice; Langmore](/wiki/%23refPrenLang \"#refPrenLang\") (1994\\) p. 15\\. The complex and changing nature of the computer industry, marketing techniques, and lack of precedent for applying these laws to the industry can mean developers are not aware their actions are illegal. The [U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission](/wiki/U.S._Securities_and_Exchange_Commission \"U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission\") issued a statement in 1984 with the goal of reminding companies that securities fraud also applies to \"statements that can reasonably be expected to reach investors and the trading markets\".SEC (1994\\) cited in [Prentice; Langmore](/wiki/%23refPrenLang \"#refPrenLang\") (1994\\) p. 17\\.\n\nSeveral companies have been accused in court of using knowingly false announcements to gain market advantage. In 1969, the United States Justice Department accused IBM of doing this in the case *[United States v. IBM](/wiki/History_of_IBM%231960%E2%80%931969:The_System/360_era%2C_Unbundling_software_and_services \"The System/360 era, Unbundling software and services\")*. After IBM's competitor, [Control Data Corporation](/wiki/Control_Data_Corporation \"Control Data Corporation\") (CDC), released a computer, IBM announced the [System/360 Model 91](/wiki/IBM_System/360_Model_91 \"IBM System/360 Model 91\"). The announcement resulted in a significant reduction in sales of CDC's product. The Justice Department accused IBM of doing this intentionally because the System/360 Model 91 was not released until two years later.[Gerlach (2004\\)](/wiki/%23refGerlach \"#refGerlach\"). IBM avoided preannouncing products during the antitrust case, but after the case ended it resumed the practice. The company likely announced its [PCjr](/wiki/IBM_PCjr \"IBM PCjr\") in November 1983—four months before general availability in March 1984—to hurt sales of rival home computers during the [important Christmas sales season](/wiki/Economics_of_Christmas \"Economics of Christmas\"). In 1985 *The New York Times* wrote\n\nThe practice was not called \"vaporware\" at the time, but publications have since used the word to refer specifically to it. Similar cases have been filed against [Kodak](/wiki/Eastman_Kodak \"Eastman Kodak\"), [AT\\&T](/wiki/AT%26T_Inc. \"AT&T Inc.\"), and [Xerox](/wiki/Xerox \"Xerox\").\n\nUS District Judge [Stanley Sporkin](/wiki/Stanley_Sporkin \"Stanley Sporkin\") was a vocal opponent of the practice during his review of the settlement resulting from *[United States v. Microsoft Corp.](/wiki/United_States_v._Microsoft_Corp._%282001%29 \"United States v. Microsoft Corp. (2001)\")* in 1994\\. \"Vaporware is a practice that is deceitful on its face and everybody in the business community knows it,\" said Sporkin.Yoder (1995\\) cited in [Bayus; Jain; Rao (2001\\)](/wiki/%23refBRJ \"#refBRJ\"), p. 5\\. One of the accusations made during the trial was that Microsoft has illegally used early announcements. The review began when three anonymous companies protested the settlement, claiming the government did not thoroughly investigate Microsoft's use of the practice. Specifically, they claimed [Microsoft](/wiki/Microsoft \"Microsoft\") announced its Quick Basic 3 program to slow sales of its competitor [Borland](/wiki/Borland \"Borland\")'s recently released Turbo Basic program.[Stern (1995\\)](/wiki/%23refStern \"#refStern\"). The review was dismissed for lack of explicit proof.\n\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [List of vaporware](/wiki/List_of_vaporware \"List of vaporware\")\n* [List of commercial failures in video games](/wiki/List_of_commercial_failures_in_video_games \"List of commercial failures in video games\")\n* [Technology demonstration](/wiki/Technology_demonstration \"Technology demonstration\")\n* [Osborne effect](/wiki/Osborne_effect \"Osborne effect\")\n* [Development hell](/wiki/Development_hell \"Development hell\")\n* [Abandonware](/wiki/Abandonware \"Abandonware\")\n", "Notes\n-----\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [Community Memory](/wiki/Community_Memory \"Community Memory\") [postings](http://memex.org/cm-archive7.html) from 1996 on the term's origins crediting [Ann Winblad](/wiki/Ann_Winblad \"Ann Winblad\") and Stewart Alsop.\n* [*RELease 1\\.0* November 1983](http://cdn.oreillystatic.com/radar/r1/11-83.pdf) — a scanned copy of Esther Dyson's original article\n\n### *Wired* Magazine Vaporware Awards\n\n* [Vaporware 1997: We Hardly Knew Ye](https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/1997/12/9431)\n* [Vaporware 1998: Windows NT Wins](https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/1998/12/16974)\n* [Vaporware 1999: The 'Winners'](https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2000/01/33142)\n* [Vaporware 2000: Missing Inaction](https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2000/12/40484?currentPage=all)\n* [Vaporware 2001: Empty Promises](https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2002/01/49326)\n* [Vaporware 2002: Tech up in Smoke?](https://www.wired.com/culture/lifestyle/news/2003/01/57023?currentPage=all)\n* [Vaporware 2003: Nuke 'Em if Ya Got 'Em](https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2004/01/61935?currentPage=all)\n* [Vaporware 2004: Phantom Haunts Us All](https://www.wired.com/culture/lifestyle/news/2005/01/66195?currentPage=all)\n* [Vaporware 2005: Better Late Than Never](https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2006/02/70143?currentPage=all)\n* [Vaporware 2006: Return of the King](https://www.wired.com/software/softwarereviews/news/2006/12/72350)\n* [Vaporware 2007: Long Live the King](https://www.wired.com/gadgets/gadgetreviews/multimedia/2007/12/YE_Vaporware)\n* [Vaporware 2008: Crushing Disappointments, False Promises and Plain Old BS](https://www.wired.com/culture/culturereviews/news/2008/12/YE8_vaporware?currentPage=all)\n* [Vaporware 2009: Inhale the Fail](https://www.wired.com/epicenter/2009/12/vaporware-2009-inhale-the-fail/)\n* [Vaporware 2010: The Great White Duke](https://www.wired.com/epicenter/2011/01/vaporware-2010-the-great-white-duke?viewall=true)\n\n[Category:Software release](/wiki/Category:Software_release \"Software release\")\n\n", "### *Wired* Magazine Vaporware Awards\n\n* [Vaporware 1997: We Hardly Knew Ye](https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/1997/12/9431)\n* [Vaporware 1998: Windows NT Wins](https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/1998/12/16974)\n* [Vaporware 1999: The 'Winners'](https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2000/01/33142)\n* [Vaporware 2000: Missing Inaction](https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2000/12/40484?currentPage=all)\n* [Vaporware 2001: Empty Promises](https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2002/01/49326)\n* [Vaporware 2002: Tech up in Smoke?](https://www.wired.com/culture/lifestyle/news/2003/01/57023?currentPage=all)\n* [Vaporware 2003: Nuke 'Em if Ya Got 'Em](https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2004/01/61935?currentPage=all)\n* [Vaporware 2004: Phantom Haunts Us All](https://www.wired.com/culture/lifestyle/news/2005/01/66195?currentPage=all)\n* [Vaporware 2005: Better Late Than Never](https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2006/02/70143?currentPage=all)\n* [Vaporware 2006: Return of the King](https://www.wired.com/software/softwarereviews/news/2006/12/72350)\n* [Vaporware 2007: Long Live the King](https://www.wired.com/gadgets/gadgetreviews/multimedia/2007/12/YE_Vaporware)\n* [Vaporware 2008: Crushing Disappointments, False Promises and Plain Old BS](https://www.wired.com/culture/culturereviews/news/2008/12/YE8_vaporware?currentPage=all)\n* [Vaporware 2009: Inhale the Fail](https://www.wired.com/epicenter/2009/12/vaporware-2009-inhale-the-fail/)\n* [Vaporware 2010: The Great White Duke](https://www.wired.com/epicenter/2011/01/vaporware-2010-the-great-white-duke?viewall=true)\n\n[Category:Software release](/wiki/Category:Software_release \"Software release\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 16535251 ], "name": [ "PopePompus" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "History", "Geography", "Major highways", "Adjacent counties", "Demographics", "2020 census", "2010 census", "2000 census", "Communities", "Cities", "Townships", "Census-designated place", "Population ranking", "Politics", "Education", "See also", "References" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**Benton County** is a [county](/wiki/County_%28United_States%29 \"County (United States)\") in the [U.S. state](/wiki/U.S._state \"U.S. state\") of [Iowa](/wiki/Iowa \"Iowa\"). As of the [2020 census](/wiki/2020_United_States_Census \"2020 United States Census\"), the population was 25,575\\. \nIts [county seat](/wiki/County_seat \"County seat\") and largest city is [Vinton](/wiki/Vinton%2C_Iowa \"Vinton, Iowa\"). The county is named for [Thomas Hart Benton](/wiki/Thomas_Hart_Benton_%28senator%29 \"Thomas Hart Benton (senator)\"), a [U.S. Senator](/wiki/United_States_Senate \"United States Senate\") from [Missouri](/wiki/Missouri \"Missouri\").\n\nBenton County is part of the [Cedar Rapids](/wiki/Cedar_Rapids%2C_Iowa \"Cedar Rapids, Iowa\"), IA [Metropolitan Statistical Area](/wiki/Cedar_Rapids_metropolitan_area \"Cedar Rapids metropolitan area\").\n\n", "History\n-------\n\nBenton County was formed on December 21, 1837, from sections of Dubuque County. It was named after US Senator [Thomas Hart Benton](/wiki/Thomas_Hart_Benton_%28senator%29 \"Thomas Hart Benton (senator)\").\n\n", "Geography\n---------\n\nAccording to the [U.S. Census Bureau](/wiki/U.S._Census_Bureau \"U.S. Census Bureau\"), the county has a total area of , of which is land and (0\\.3%) is water.\n\n### Major highways\n\n* [x20px](/wiki/File:I-380.svg \"I-380.svg\") [Interstate 380](/wiki/Interstate_380_%28Iowa%29 \"Interstate 380 (Iowa)\")\n* [x20px](/wiki/File:US_30.svg \"US 30.svg\") [U.S. Highway 30](/wiki/U.S._Route_30_in_Iowa \"U.S. Route 30 in Iowa\")\n* [x20px](/wiki/File:US_151.svg \"US 151.svg\") [U.S. Highway 151](/wiki/U.S._Route_151%23Iowa \"U.S. Route 151#Iowa\")\n* [x20px](/wiki/File:US_218.svg \"US 218.svg\") [U.S. Highway 218](/wiki/U.S._Route_218 \"U.S. Route 218\")\n* [x20px](/wiki/File:Circle_sign_8.svg \"Circle sign 8.svg\") [Iowa Highway 8](/wiki/Iowa_Highway_8 \"Iowa Highway 8\")\n* [x20px](/wiki/File:Elongated_circle_21.svg \"Elongated circle 21.svg\") [Iowa Highway 21](/wiki/Iowa_Highway_21 \"Iowa Highway 21\")\n* [x20px](/wiki/File:Elongated_circle_27.svg \"Elongated circle 27.svg\") [Iowa Highway 27](/wiki/Iowa_Highway_27 \"Iowa Highway 27\")\n* [x20px](/wiki/File:Elongated_circle_150.svg \"Elongated circle 150.svg\") [Iowa Highway 150](/wiki/Iowa_Highway_150 \"Iowa Highway 150\")\n\n### Adjacent counties\n\n* [Black Hawk County](/wiki/Black_Hawk_County%2C_Iowa \"Black Hawk County, Iowa\") (northwest)\n* [Buchanan County](/wiki/Buchanan_County%2C_Iowa \"Buchanan County, Iowa\") (northeast)\n* [Linn County](/wiki/Linn_County%2C_Iowa \"Linn County, Iowa\") (east)\n* [Iowa County](/wiki/Iowa_County%2C_Iowa \"Iowa County, Iowa\") (south)\n* [Tama County](/wiki/Tama_County%2C_Iowa \"Tama County, Iowa\") (west)\n", "### Major highways\n\n* [x20px](/wiki/File:I-380.svg \"I-380.svg\") [Interstate 380](/wiki/Interstate_380_%28Iowa%29 \"Interstate 380 (Iowa)\")\n* [x20px](/wiki/File:US_30.svg \"US 30.svg\") [U.S. Highway 30](/wiki/U.S._Route_30_in_Iowa \"U.S. Route 30 in Iowa\")\n* [x20px](/wiki/File:US_151.svg \"US 151.svg\") [U.S. Highway 151](/wiki/U.S._Route_151%23Iowa \"U.S. Route 151#Iowa\")\n* [x20px](/wiki/File:US_218.svg \"US 218.svg\") [U.S. Highway 218](/wiki/U.S._Route_218 \"U.S. Route 218\")\n* [x20px](/wiki/File:Circle_sign_8.svg \"Circle sign 8.svg\") [Iowa Highway 8](/wiki/Iowa_Highway_8 \"Iowa Highway 8\")\n* [x20px](/wiki/File:Elongated_circle_21.svg \"Elongated circle 21.svg\") [Iowa Highway 21](/wiki/Iowa_Highway_21 \"Iowa Highway 21\")\n* [x20px](/wiki/File:Elongated_circle_27.svg \"Elongated circle 27.svg\") [Iowa Highway 27](/wiki/Iowa_Highway_27 \"Iowa Highway 27\")\n* [x20px](/wiki/File:Elongated_circle_150.svg \"Elongated circle 150.svg\") [Iowa Highway 150](/wiki/Iowa_Highway_150 \"Iowa Highway 150\")\n\n", "### Adjacent counties\n\n* [Black Hawk County](/wiki/Black_Hawk_County%2C_Iowa \"Black Hawk County, Iowa\") (northwest)\n* [Buchanan County](/wiki/Buchanan_County%2C_Iowa \"Buchanan County, Iowa\") (northeast)\n* [Linn County](/wiki/Linn_County%2C_Iowa \"Linn County, Iowa\") (east)\n* [Iowa County](/wiki/Iowa_County%2C_Iowa \"Iowa County, Iowa\") (south)\n* [Tama County](/wiki/Tama_County%2C_Iowa \"Tama County, Iowa\") (west)\n", "Demographics\n------------\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|Population of Benton County from US census data](/wiki/File:BentonCountyIowaPop2020.png \"BentonCountyIowaPop2020.png\")\n\n### 2020 census\n\nThe 2020 census recorded a population of 25,575 in the county, with a population density of . 96\\.29% of the population reported being of one race. 93\\.04% were non\\-Hispanic White, 0\\.45% were Black, 1\\.81% were Hispanic, 0\\.13% were Native American, 0\\.32% were Asian, 0\\.01% were Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander and 4\\.24% were some other race or more than one race. There were 11,076 housing units of which 10,282 were occupied.\n\n### 2010 census\n\nThe 2010 census recorded a population of 26,076 in the county, with a population density of . There were 11,095 housing units, of which 10,302 were occupied.\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|2022 US Census [population pyramid](/wiki/Population_pyramid \"Population pyramid\") for Benton County from [ACS](/wiki/American_Community_Survey \"American Community Survey\") 5\\-year estimates](/wiki/File:BentonCountyIA2022PopPyr.png \"BentonCountyIA2022PopPyr.png\")\n### 2000 census\n\nAs of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 25,308 people, 9,746 households, and 7,056 families residing in the county. The population density was . There were 10,377 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the county was 98\\.84% [White](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 0\\.20% [Black](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\") or [African American](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 0\\.15% [Native American](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 0\\.17% [Asian](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 0\\.02% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 0\\.11% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 0\\.52% from two or more races. 0\\.62% of the population were [Hispanic](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\") of any race.\n\nThere were 9,746 households, out of which 34\\.90% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 62\\.70% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 6\\.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27\\.6% were non\\-families. 23\\.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11\\.70% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.56 and the average family size was 3\\.04\\.\n\nIn the county, the population was spread out, with 27\\.4% under the age of 18, 6\\.8% from 18 to 24, 29\\.3% from 25 to 44, 21\\.1% from 45 to 64, and 15\\.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 100\\.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95\\.8 males.\n\nThe median income for a household in the county was $42,427, and the median income for a family was $49,701\\. Males had a median income of $35,044 versus $23,978 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the county was $18,891\\. About 4\\.6% of families and 6\\.1% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 7\\.2% of those under age 18 and 7\\.0% of those age 65 or over.\n\n", "### 2020 census\n\nThe 2020 census recorded a population of 25,575 in the county, with a population density of . 96\\.29% of the population reported being of one race. 93\\.04% were non\\-Hispanic White, 0\\.45% were Black, 1\\.81% were Hispanic, 0\\.13% were Native American, 0\\.32% were Asian, 0\\.01% were Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander and 4\\.24% were some other race or more than one race. There were 11,076 housing units of which 10,282 were occupied.\n\n", "### 2010 census\n\nThe 2010 census recorded a population of 26,076 in the county, with a population density of . There were 11,095 housing units, of which 10,302 were occupied.\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|2022 US Census [population pyramid](/wiki/Population_pyramid \"Population pyramid\") for Benton County from [ACS](/wiki/American_Community_Survey \"American Community Survey\") 5\\-year estimates](/wiki/File:BentonCountyIA2022PopPyr.png \"BentonCountyIA2022PopPyr.png\")\n\n", "### 2000 census\n\nAs of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 25,308 people, 9,746 households, and 7,056 families residing in the county. The population density was . There were 10,377 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the county was 98\\.84% [White](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 0\\.20% [Black](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\") or [African American](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 0\\.15% [Native American](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 0\\.17% [Asian](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 0\\.02% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 0\\.11% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 0\\.52% from two or more races. 0\\.62% of the population were [Hispanic](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\") of any race.\n\nThere were 9,746 households, out of which 34\\.90% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 62\\.70% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 6\\.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27\\.6% were non\\-families. 23\\.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11\\.70% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.56 and the average family size was 3\\.04\\.\n\nIn the county, the population was spread out, with 27\\.4% under the age of 18, 6\\.8% from 18 to 24, 29\\.3% from 25 to 44, 21\\.1% from 45 to 64, and 15\\.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 100\\.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95\\.8 males.\n\nThe median income for a household in the county was $42,427, and the median income for a family was $49,701\\. Males had a median income of $35,044 versus $23,978 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the county was $18,891\\. About 4\\.6% of families and 6\\.1% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 7\\.2% of those under age 18 and 7\\.0% of those age 65 or over.\n\n", "", "### Cities\n\n* [Atkins](/wiki/Atkins%2C_Iowa \"Atkins, Iowa\")\n* [Belle Plaine](/wiki/Belle_Plaine%2C_Iowa \"Belle Plaine, Iowa\")\n* [Blairstown](/wiki/Blairstown%2C_Iowa \"Blairstown, Iowa\")\n* [Garrison](/wiki/Garrison%2C_Iowa \"Garrison, Iowa\")\n* [Keystone](/wiki/Keystone%2C_Iowa \"Keystone, Iowa\")\n* [Luzerne](/wiki/Luzerne%2C_Iowa \"Luzerne, Iowa\")\n* [Mount Auburn](/wiki/Mount_Auburn%2C_Iowa \"Mount Auburn, Iowa\")\n* [Newhall](/wiki/Newhall%2C_Iowa \"Newhall, Iowa\")\n* [Norway](/wiki/Norway%2C_Iowa \"Norway, Iowa\")\n* [Shellsburg](/wiki/Shellsburg%2C_Iowa \"Shellsburg, Iowa\")\n* [Urbana](/wiki/Urbana%2C_Iowa \"Urbana, Iowa\")\n* [Van Horne](/wiki/Van_Horne%2C_Iowa \"Van Horne, Iowa\")\n* [Vinton](/wiki/Vinton%2C_Iowa \"Vinton, Iowa\")\n* [Walford](/wiki/Walford%2C_Iowa \"Walford, Iowa\")\n\n", "### Townships\n\nBenton County is divided into twenty [townships](/wiki/Township_%28United_States%29 \"Township (United States)\"):\n\n* [Benton](/wiki/Benton_Township%2C_Benton_County%2C_Iowa \"Benton Township, Benton County, Iowa\")\n* [Big Grove](/wiki/Big_Grove_Township%2C_Benton_County%2C_Iowa \"Big Grove Township, Benton County, Iowa\")\n* [Bruce](/wiki/Bruce_Township%2C_Benton_County%2C_Iowa \"Bruce Township, Benton County, Iowa\")\n* [Canton](/wiki/Canton_Township%2C_Benton_County%2C_Iowa \"Canton Township, Benton County, Iowa\")\n* [Cedar](/wiki/Cedar_Township%2C_Benton_County%2C_Iowa \"Cedar Township, Benton County, Iowa\")\n* [Eden](/wiki/Eden_Township%2C_Benton_County%2C_Iowa \"Eden Township, Benton County, Iowa\")\n* [Eldorado](/wiki/Eldorado_Township%2C_Benton_County%2C_Iowa \"Eldorado Township, Benton County, Iowa\")\n* [Florence](/wiki/Florence_Township%2C_Benton_County%2C_Iowa \"Florence Township, Benton County, Iowa\")\n* [Fremont](/wiki/Fremont_Township%2C_Benton_County%2C_Iowa \"Fremont Township, Benton County, Iowa\")\n* [Harrison](/wiki/Harrison_Township%2C_Benton_County%2C_Iowa \"Harrison Township, Benton County, Iowa\")\n* [Homer](/wiki/Homer_Township%2C_Benton_County%2C_Iowa \"Homer Township, Benton County, Iowa\")\n* [Iowa](/wiki/Iowa_Township%2C_Benton_County%2C_Iowa \"Iowa Township, Benton County, Iowa\")\n* [Jackson](/wiki/Jackson_Township%2C_Benton_County%2C_Iowa \"Jackson Township, Benton County, Iowa\")\n* [Kane](/wiki/Kane_Township%2C_Benton_County%2C_Iowa \"Kane Township, Benton County, Iowa\")\n* [Leroy](/wiki/Leroy_Township%2C_Benton_County%2C_Iowa \"Leroy Township, Benton County, Iowa\")\n* [Monroe](/wiki/Monroe_Township%2C_Benton_County%2C_Iowa \"Monroe Township, Benton County, Iowa\")\n* [Polk](/wiki/Polk_Township%2C_Benton_County%2C_Iowa \"Polk Township, Benton County, Iowa\")\n* [St. Clair](/wiki/St._Clair_Township%2C_Benton_County%2C_Iowa \"St. Clair Township, Benton County, Iowa\")\n* [Taylor](/wiki/Taylor_Township%2C_Benton_County%2C_Iowa \"Taylor Township, Benton County, Iowa\")\n* [Union](/wiki/Union_Township%2C_Benton_County%2C_Iowa \"Union Township, Benton County, Iowa\")\n\n", "### Census\\-designated place\n\n* [Watkins](/wiki/Watkins%2C_Iowa \"Watkins, Iowa\")\n", "", "Politics\n--------\n\n", "Education\n---------\n\nSchool districts: \\- [Text list](https://www2.census.gov/geo/maps/DC2020/PL20/st19_ia/schooldistrict_maps/c19011_benton/DC20SD_C19011_SD2MS.txt), [2010 map](https://www2.census.gov/geo/maps/dc10map/sch_dist/st19_ia/c19011_benton/DC10SD_C19011_001.pdf), [2010 text list](https://www2.census.gov/geo/maps/dc10map/sch_dist/st19_ia/c19011_benton/DC10SD_C19011_SD2MS.txt)\n* [Belle Plaine Community School District](/wiki/Belle_Plaine_Community_School_District \"Belle Plaine Community School District\")\n* [Benton Community School District](/wiki/Benton_Community_School_District \"Benton Community School District\")\n* [Center Point\\-Urbana Community School District](/wiki/Center_Point-Urbana_Community_School_District \"Center Point-Urbana Community School District\")\n* [College Community School District](/wiki/College_Community_School_District \"College Community School District\")\n* [Independence Community School District](/wiki/Independence_Community_School_District \"Independence Community School District\")\n* [North Linn Community School District](/wiki/North_Linn_Community_School_District \"North Linn Community School District\")\n* [Vinton\\-Shellsburg Community School District](/wiki/Vinton-Shellsburg_Community_School_District \"Vinton-Shellsburg Community School District\")\n* [Union Community School District](/wiki/Union_Community_School_District \"Union Community School District\")\n\nThere was formerly a state\\-operated school, [Iowa Braille and Sight Saving School](/wiki/Iowa_Braille_and_Sight_Saving_School \"Iowa Braille and Sight Saving School\").\n\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [Benton County Courthouse (Iowa)](/wiki/Benton_County_Courthouse_%28Iowa%29 \"Benton County Courthouse (Iowa)\")\n* [National Register of Historic Places listings in Benton County, Iowa](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Benton_County%2C_Iowa \"National Register of Historic Places listings in Benton County, Iowa\")\n* [Civil Bend](/wiki/Civil_Bend%2C_Iowa \"Civil Bend, Iowa\")\n", "References\n----------\n\n[Category:1837 establishments in Wisconsin Territory](/wiki/Category:1837_establishments_in_Wisconsin_Territory \"1837 establishments in Wisconsin Territory\")\n[Category:Populated places established in 1837](/wiki/Category:Populated_places_established_in_1837 \"Populated places established in 1837\")\n[Category:Cedar Rapids, Iowa metropolitan area](/wiki/Category:Cedar_Rapids%2C_Iowa_metropolitan_area \"Cedar Rapids, Iowa metropolitan area\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 753665 ], "name": [ "Ser Amantio di Nicolao" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Geography", "Lakes", "Adjacent townships", "Demographics", "References" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 3, 3, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**Sigel Township** is a township in [Brown County](/wiki/Brown_County%2C_Minnesota \"Brown County, Minnesota\"), [Minnesota](/wiki/Minnesota \"Minnesota\"), United States. The population was 432 as of the [2000 census](/wiki/2000_United_States_Census \"2000 United States Census\"). The township was first settled in 1856 and organized during the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\") in 1862, and was named in honor of German immigrant and Union Army general [Franz Sigel](/wiki/Franz_Sigel \"Franz Sigel\").\n\n", "Geography\n---------\n\nAccording to the [United States Census Bureau](/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau \"United States Census Bureau\"), the township has a total area of 39\\.6 square miles (102\\.6 km), of which 38\\.8 square miles (100\\.4 km) is land and 0\\.9 square miles (2\\.2 km) (2\\.15%) is water. The [Cottonwood](/wiki/Cottonwood_River_%28Minnesota%29 \"Cottonwood River (Minnesota)\") and [Little Cottonwood](/wiki/Little_Cottonwood_River \"Little Cottonwood River\") Rivers flow through the township.\n\n### Lakes\n\n* Clear Lake\n* Juni Lake\n* School Lake\n* Zanders Lake (east quarter)\n\n### Adjacent townships\n\n* [Milford Township](/wiki/Milford_Township%2C_Brown_County%2C_Minnesota \"Milford Township, Brown County, Minnesota\") (north)\n* [Cottonwood Township](/wiki/Cottonwood_Township%2C_Brown_County%2C_Minnesota \"Cottonwood Township, Brown County, Minnesota\") (east)\n* [Lake Hanska Township](/wiki/Lake_Hanska_Township%2C_Brown_County%2C_Minnesota \"Lake Hanska Township, Brown County, Minnesota\") (south)\n* [Albin Township](/wiki/Albin_Township%2C_Brown_County%2C_Minnesota \"Albin Township, Brown County, Minnesota\") (southwest)\n* [Stark Township](/wiki/Stark_Township%2C_Brown_County%2C_Minnesota \"Stark Township, Brown County, Minnesota\") (west)\n* [Home Township](/wiki/Home_Township%2C_Brown_County%2C_Minnesota \"Home Township, Brown County, Minnesota\") (northwest)\n", "### Lakes\n\n* Clear Lake\n* Juni Lake\n* School Lake\n* Zanders Lake (east quarter)\n", "### Adjacent townships\n\n* [Milford Township](/wiki/Milford_Township%2C_Brown_County%2C_Minnesota \"Milford Township, Brown County, Minnesota\") (north)\n* [Cottonwood Township](/wiki/Cottonwood_Township%2C_Brown_County%2C_Minnesota \"Cottonwood Township, Brown County, Minnesota\") (east)\n* [Lake Hanska Township](/wiki/Lake_Hanska_Township%2C_Brown_County%2C_Minnesota \"Lake Hanska Township, Brown County, Minnesota\") (south)\n* [Albin Township](/wiki/Albin_Township%2C_Brown_County%2C_Minnesota \"Albin Township, Brown County, Minnesota\") (southwest)\n* [Stark Township](/wiki/Stark_Township%2C_Brown_County%2C_Minnesota \"Stark Township, Brown County, Minnesota\") (west)\n* [Home Township](/wiki/Home_Township%2C_Brown_County%2C_Minnesota \"Home Township, Brown County, Minnesota\") (northwest)\n", "Demographics\n------------\n\nAs of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 432 people, 151 households, and 122 families residing in the township. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was 11\\.1 people per square mile (4\\.3/km). There were 158 housing units at an average density of 4\\.1/sq mi (1\\.6/km). The racial makeup of the township was 98\\.84% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.23% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), and 0\\.93% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 1\\.62% of the population.\n\nThere were 151 households, out of which 36\\.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 75\\.5% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 1\\.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 19\\.2% were non\\-families. 14\\.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 4\\.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.86 and the average family size was 3\\.20\\.\n\nIn the township the population was spread out, with 28\\.5% under the age of 18, 7\\.4% from 18 to 24, 28\\.0% from 25 to 44, 22\\.7% from 45 to 64, and 13\\.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 117\\.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 123\\.9 males.\n\nThe median income for a household in the township was $43,472, and the median income for a family was $45,750\\. Males had a median income of $30,781 versus $26,136 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the township was $17,051\\. About 1\\.6% of families and 3\\.1% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 1\\.7% of those under age 18 and 6\\.0% of those age 65 or over.\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n* [United States National Atlas](https://web.archive.org/web/20081205020547/http://www.nationalatlas.gov/)\n* [United States Census Bureau 2007 TIGER/Line Shapefiles](https://web.archive.org/web/20070310144543/http://www.cyberdriveillinois.com/departments/archives/irad/edgar.html)\n* [United States Board on Geographic Names (GNIS)](http://geonames.usgs.gov/domestic/)\n\n[Category:Townships in Brown County, Minnesota](/wiki/Category:Townships_in_Brown_County%2C_Minnesota \"Townships in Brown County, Minnesota\")\n[Category:Townships in Minnesota](/wiki/Category:Townships_in_Minnesota \"Townships in Minnesota\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 1261736 ], "name": [ "Red Director" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "History", "Geography", "Demographics", "Schools", "Transportation", "Notable people", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**East Bradford Township** is a [township](/wiki/Township_%28Pennsylvania%29 \"Township (Pennsylvania)\") in [Chester County](/wiki/Chester_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"Chester County, Pennsylvania\"), [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania \"Pennsylvania\"), United States. The population was 10,308 at the [2020 census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census \"2020 United States census\").\n\n", "History\n-------\n\nThe [Cope's Bridge](/wiki/Cope%27s_Bridge \"Cope's Bridge\"), [Gibson's Covered Bridge](/wiki/Gibson%27s_Covered_Bridge \"Gibson's Covered Bridge\"), [Worth\\-Jefferis Rural Historic District](/wiki/Worth-Jefferis_Rural_Historic_District \"Worth-Jefferis Rural Historic District\"), [Carter\\-Worth House and Farm](/wiki/Carter-Worth_House_and_Farm \"Carter-Worth House and Farm\"), [East Bradford Boarding School for Boys](/wiki/East_Bradford_Boarding_School_for_Boys \"East Bradford Boarding School for Boys\"), [Hance House and Barn](/wiki/Hance_House_and_Barn \"Hance House and Barn\"), [Col. John Hannum House](/wiki/Col._John_Hannum_House \"Col. John Hannum House\"), [Paradise Valley Historic District](/wiki/Paradise_Valley_Historic_District \"Paradise Valley Historic District\"), [Strode's Mill](/wiki/Strode%27s_Mill \"Strode's Mill\"), [Strode's Mill Historic District](/wiki/Strode%27s_Mill_Historic_District \"Strode's Mill Historic District\"), [Taylor\\-Cope Historic District](/wiki/Taylor-Cope_Historic_District \"Taylor-Cope Historic District\"), and [Taylor House](/wiki/Taylor_House_%28Marshallton%2C_Pennsylvania%29 \"Taylor House (Marshallton, Pennsylvania)\") are listed on the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places \"National Register of Historic Places\").\n\n", "Geography\n---------\n\nAccording to the [U.S. Census Bureau](/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau \"United States Census Bureau\"), the township has a total area of , of which is land and 0\\.07% is water.\n\n**Adjacent townships**\n* [East Caln Township](/wiki/East_Caln_Township%2C_Chester_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"East Caln Township, Chester County, Pennsylvania\") (north)\n* [West Whiteland Township](/wiki/West_Whiteland_Township%2C_Pennsylvania \"West Whiteland Township, Pennsylvania\") (northeast)\n* [West Goshen Township](/wiki/West_Goshen_Township%2C_Pennsylvania \"West Goshen Township, Pennsylvania\") (east)\n* [Westtown Township](/wiki/Westtown_Township%2C_Pennsylvania \"Westtown Township, Pennsylvania\") (southeast)\n* [Birmingham Township](/wiki/Birmingham_Township%2C_Chester_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"Birmingham Township, Chester County, Pennsylvania\") (south)\n* [Pocopson Township](/wiki/Pocopson_Township%2C_Pennsylvania \"Pocopson Township, Pennsylvania\") (southwest)\n* [West Bradford Township](/wiki/West_Bradford_Township%2C_Pennsylvania \"West Bradford Township, Pennsylvania\") (west)\n\n[West Chester](/wiki/West_Chester%2C_Pennsylvania \"West Chester, Pennsylvania\"), the county seat, is on the east side, between East Bradford and West Goshen townships.\n\n", "Demographics\n------------\n\nAt the 2010 census, the township was 91\\.5% non\\-Hispanic White, 3\\.3% Black or African American, 0\\.1% Native American, 2\\.0% Asian, and 1\\.4% were two or more races. 2\\.0% of the population were of Hispanic or Latino ancestry.\n\nAs of the census of 2000, there were 9,405 people, 3,076 households, and 2,408 families residing in the township. The population density was . There were 3,150 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the township was 93\\.45% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 3\\.49% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.17% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.87% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.05% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.40% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 0\\.56% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 1\\.40% of the population.\n\nThere were 3,076 households, out of which 41\\.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 70\\.7% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 5\\.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 21\\.7% were non\\-families. 16\\.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 3\\.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.84 and the average family size was 3\\.24\\.\n\nIn the township the population was spread out, with 27\\.4% under the age of 18, 9\\.2% from 18 to 24, 28\\.2% from 25 to 44, 26\\.0% from 45 to 64, and 9\\.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 92\\.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87\\.7 males.\n\nThe median income for a household in the township was $100,732, and the median income for a family was $109,459\\. Males had a median income of $82,811 versus $38,220 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the township was $41,158\\. About 0\\.9% of families and 2\\.0% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 0\\.7% of those under age 18 and 2\\.3% of those age 65 or over.\n\n", "Schools\n-------\n\nThe township is served by the [West Chester Area School District](/wiki/West_Chester_Area_School_District \"West Chester Area School District\"). Elementary schools serving sections of East Bradford township include East Bradford, Hillsdale, Mary C. Howse, and Sarah Starkweather.\"[School Boundary Adjustment Draft SK8C \\- Current Boundaries with Zones of Change](https://www.wcasd.net/cms/lib/PA02203541/Centricity/Domain/1056/Elementary_Boundaries_SK8C.pdf) \" (Elementary). [West Chester Area School District](/wiki/West_Chester_Area_School_District \"West Chester Area School District\"). Retrieved on September 26, 2018\\. Almost all areas of East Bradford township are zoned to Pierce Middle School and [West Chester Henderson High School](/wiki/West_Chester_Henderson_High_School \"West Chester Henderson High School\"), while a small portion is zoned to G.A. Stetson Middle School and [Rustin High School](/wiki/West_Chester_Rustin_High_School \"West Chester Rustin High School\").\"[School Boundary Adjustment Draft SK8C \\- Current Boundaries with Zones of Change](https://www.wcasd.net/cms/lib/PA02203541/Centricity/Domain/1056/Secondary_Boundaries_SK8C.pdf) \" (Secondary). [West Chester Area School District](/wiki/West_Chester_Area_School_District \"West Chester Area School District\"). Retrieved on September 26, 2018\\.\n\nA portion of [West Chester University](/wiki/West_Chester_University \"West Chester University\") South Campus is in East Bradford Township.\"[South Campus Map](https://www.wcupa.edu/campusmap/documents/WCUSouthCampusMap.pdf).\" [West Chester University](/wiki/West_Chester_University \"West Chester University\"). Retrieved on October 9, 2018\\. See: \"[West Chester Area Council of Governments Map](https://www.westgoshen.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2016/10/WCACOG-Map.pdf) .\"\n\n", "Transportation\n--------------\n\nAs of 2020, there were of public roads in East Bradford Township, of which were maintained by the [Pennsylvania Department of Transportation](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Department_of_Transportation \"Pennsylvania Department of Transportation\") (PennDOT) and were maintained by the township.\n\nNumbered highways serving East Bradford Township include [U.S. Route 322](/wiki/U.S._Route_322_in_Pennsylvania \"U.S. Route 322 in Pennsylvania\"), [U.S. Route 322 Business](/wiki/U.S._Route_322_Business_%28West_Chester%2C_Pennsylvania%29 \"U.S. Route 322 Business (West Chester, Pennsylvania)\"), [Pennsylvania Route 52](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Route_52 \"Pennsylvania Route 52\"), [Pennsylvania Route 162](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Route_162 \"Pennsylvania Route 162\") and [Pennsylvania Route 842](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Route_842 \"Pennsylvania Route 842\"). US 322 follows West Chester Bypass and Downingtown Pike along an east\\-west alignment through the central portion of the township. US 322 Business begins at the western end of West Chester Bypass and heads southeast along the Downingtown Pike in the eastern portion of the township. PA 52 follows Lenape Road along a northeast\\-southwest alignment through the southeastern portion of the township. PA 162 follows Strasburg Road along an east\\-west alignment through the central portion of the township, just south of US 322\\. Finally, PA 842 follows Bridge Road, Creek Road and West Miner Street along a southwest\\-northeast alignment through southern and eastern portions of the township.\n\n", "Notable people\n--------------\n\n* [Richard J. Baldwin](/wiki/Richard_J._Baldwin \"Richard J. Baldwin\") (1853–1944\\), Pennsylvania State Senator and Representative\n* [Gilbert Cope](/wiki/Gilbert_Cope \"Gilbert Cope\") (1840–1928\\), genealogist and historian of Chester County, Pennsylvania\n* [Eli Kirk Price](/wiki/Eli_Kirk_Price \"Eli Kirk Price\") (1797–1884\\), Pennsylvania State Senator, commissioner of Fairmount Park in Philadelphia\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [East Bradford Township official website](http://www.eastbradford.org/)\n\n[Category:Townships in Chester County, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Category:Townships_in_Chester_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"Townships in Chester County, Pennsylvania\")\n[Category:Townships in Pennsylvania](/wiki/Category:Townships_in_Pennsylvania \"Townships in Pennsylvania\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 39872398 ], "name": [ "ShadyCrack" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "History", "Geography", "Transportation", "Petroleum and port", "Educational system", "Demographics", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**Trainer** is a [borough](/wiki/Borough_%28Pennsylvania%29 \"Borough (Pennsylvania)\") in [Delaware County, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Delaware_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"Delaware County, Pennsylvania\"), United States. The population was 1,828 at the [2010 census](/wiki/2010_United_States_Census \"2010 United States Census\"), down from 1,901 at the 2000 census. The borough was named after [David Trainer](/wiki/David_Trainer_%28textile_manufacturer%29 \"David Trainer (textile manufacturer)\"), a wealthy textile manufacturer.\n\n", "History\n-------\n\nTrainer is named after the Linwood Mills owner David Trainer Sr. The borough of Trainer was originally part of [Lower Chichester Township](/wiki/Lower_Chichester_Township%2C_Pennsylvania \"Lower Chichester Township, Pennsylvania\") and was incorporated as a borough in 1919\\.\n\n", "Geography\n---------\n\nTrainer is located in southern Delaware County at (39\\.828612, \\-75\\.403599\\), on the northwest bank of the [Delaware River](/wiki/Delaware_River \"Delaware River\"). It is bordered to the southwest by the borough of [Marcus Hook](/wiki/Marcus_Hook%2C_Pennsylvania \"Marcus Hook, Pennsylvania\"), to the west by the community of [Linwood](/wiki/Linwood%2C_Pennsylvania \"Linwood, Pennsylvania\") in [Lower Chichester Township](/wiki/Lower_Chichester_Township%2C_Pennsylvania \"Lower Chichester Township, Pennsylvania\"), to the north by [Upper Chichester Township](/wiki/Upper_Chichester_Township%2C_Pennsylvania \"Upper Chichester Township, Pennsylvania\"), to the east by the city of [Chester](/wiki/Chester%2C_Pennsylvania \"Chester, Pennsylvania\"), and to the south across the Delaware River by [Gloucester County, New Jersey](/wiki/Gloucester_County%2C_New_Jersey \"Gloucester County, New Jersey\").\n\n[Stoney Creek](/wiki/Stoney_Creek_%28Delaware_River_tributary%29 \"Stoney Creek (Delaware River tributary)\") passes through the town, emptying into the Delaware River.\n\nAccording to the [United States Census Bureau](/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau \"United States Census Bureau\"), the borough has a total area of , of which is land and , or 22\\.94%, is water.\n\n", "Transportation\n--------------\n\nAs of 2018 there were of public roads in Trainer, of which were maintained by the [Pennsylvania Department of Transportation](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Department_of_Transportation \"Pennsylvania Department of Transportation\") (PennDOT) and were maintained by the borough.\n\n[U.S. Route 13](/wiki/U.S._Route_13_in_Pennsylvania \"U.S. Route 13 in Pennsylvania\") crosses the central portion of Trainer, leading northeast through Chester to [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia \"Philadelphia\") and southwest to [Wilmington, Delaware](/wiki/Wilmington%2C_Delaware \"Wilmington, Delaware\"). [Pennsylvania Route 291](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Route_291 \"Pennsylvania Route 291\") reaches its western terminus at US 13 in the borough. [U.S. Route 13 Business](/wiki/U.S._Route_13_Business_%28Chester%2C_Pennsylvania%29 \"U.S. Route 13 Business (Chester, Pennsylvania)\") also terminates at the junction of US 13 and PA 291 in Trainer.\n\n", "Petroleum and port\n------------------\n\nThe shore of the Delaware River is heavily industrialized and is an extension of the [Port of Chester](/wiki/Port_of_Chester \"Port of Chester\"). The [Stoney Creek Secondary](/wiki/Stoney_Creek_Secondary \"Stoney Creek Secondary\") has a rail yard north of its namesake. [Delta Air Lines](/wiki/Delta_Air_Lines \"Delta Air Lines\") owns an oil refinery in Trainer called the [Trainer Refinery](/wiki/Trainer_Refinery \"Trainer Refinery\"). It purchased the refinery for $180 million from [Phillips 66](/wiki/Phillips_66 \"Phillips 66\") in 2012\\.Helman, Christopher. \"[How Cheap Oil Has Delta Air Lines Jet Fooled](https://www.forbes.com/sites/christopherhelman/2015/01/21/how-cheap-oil-has-delta-air-lines-jet-fooled/).\" *[Forbes](/wiki/Forbes \"Forbes\")*. January 21, 2015\\. Retrieved on August 5, 2015\\.\n\n", "Educational system\n------------------\n\nTrainer is a part of [Chichester School District](/wiki/Chichester_School_District \"Chichester School District\"). Children within the borough usually attend [Marcus Hook Elementary School](https://web.archive.org/web/20090824075818/http://www.chichestersd.org/schools/marcushook/Pages/default.aspx) (Grades K\\-4\\), [Chichester Middle School](https://web.archive.org/web/20090422110333/http://www.chichestersd.org/schools/middleschool/Pages/default.aspx) (Grades 5\\-8\\), or [Chichester High School](/wiki/Chichester_High_School_%28Pennsylvania%29 \"Chichester High School (Pennsylvania)\") (Grades 9\\-12\\).\n\nTrainer Elementary School closed in 1984\\. There were plans to reopen the school in 1989, \\- [Clipping](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/137344677/) at [Newspapers.com](/wiki/Newspapers.com \"Newspapers.com\"). but the reopening did not happen. \\- [Clipping](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/137344788/) at [Newspapers.com](/wiki/Newspapers.com \"Newspapers.com\").\n\nThe area Catholic K\\-8 school is Holy Family Regional Catholic School in [Aston](/wiki/Aston%2C_Pennsylvania \"Aston, Pennsylvania\"). Trainer previously was served by Resurrection of Our Lord School in [Chester](/wiki/Chester%2C_Pennsylvania \"Chester, Pennsylvania\"). It closed in 1993, with Trainer students moved to what became Holy Savior\\-St. John Fisher School in [Linwood](/wiki/Linwood%2C_Pennsylvania \"Linwood, Pennsylvania\"), which in turn merged into Holy Family in 2012\\.\n\n", "Demographics\n------------\n\nAs of Census 2010, the racial makeup of the borough was 76\\.4% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 18\\.9% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.3% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.5% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.7% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 2\\.2% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 5\\.5% of the population [http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid\\=DEC\\_10\\_PL\\_GCTPL2\\.ST13\\&prodType\\=table](http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_PL_GCTPL2.ST13&prodType=table).\n\nAs of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 1,901 people, 712 households, and 489 families residing in the borough. The population density was . There were 797 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the borough was 88\\.58% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 9\\.21% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.05% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.16% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.00% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 1\\.00% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 2\\.52% of the population.\n\nThere were 712 households, out of which 32\\.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44\\.7% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 17\\.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31\\.2% were non\\-families. 27\\.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12\\.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.67 and the average family size was 3\\.23\\.\n\nIn the borough the population was spread out, with 27\\.7% under the age of 18, 7\\.8% from 18 to 24, 29\\.3% from 25 to 44, 21\\.3% from 45 to 64, and 13\\.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 95\\.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93\\.2 males.\n\nThe median income for a household in the borough was $34,250, and the median income for a family was $45,625\\. Males had a median income of $39,293 versus $26,719 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the borough was $15,753\\. About 14\\.9% of families and 16\\.5% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 18\\.2% of those under age 18 and 13\\.1% of those age 65 or over.\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [Borough of Trainer official website](http://www.trainerboro.com)\n\n[Category:Populated places established in 1919](/wiki/Category:Populated_places_established_in_1919 \"Populated places established in 1919\")\n[Category:Boroughs in Delaware County, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Category:Boroughs_in_Delaware_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"Boroughs in Delaware County, Pennsylvania\")\n[Category:1919 establishments in Pennsylvania](/wiki/Category:1919_establishments_in_Pennsylvania \"1919 establishments in Pennsylvania\")\n[Category:Pennsylvania populated places on the Delaware River](/wiki/Category:Pennsylvania_populated_places_on_the_Delaware_River \"Pennsylvania populated places on the Delaware River\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 4652171 ], "name": [ "Scottyoak2" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Demographics", "References" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**Logan Township** is a [township](/wiki/Township_%28Pennsylvania%29 \"Township (Pennsylvania)\") that is located in [Huntingdon County](/wiki/Huntingdon_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"Huntingdon County, Pennsylvania\"), [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania \"Pennsylvania\"), United States. The population was 614 at the time of the [2020 census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census \"2020 United States census\").\n\nAccording to the [United States Census Bureau](/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau \"United States Census Bureau\"), the township has a total area of 22\\.8 square miles (59\\.2 km2), of which 22\\.7 square miles (58\\.8 km2) is land and 0\\.2 square mile (0\\.4 km2) (0\\.66%) is water.\n\n", "Demographics\n------------\n\nAt the time of the [2000 census](/wiki/2000_United_States_Census \"2000 United States Census\") there were 703 people in 273 households, including 202 families, in the township.\n\nThe population density was . There were 315 housing units at an average density of 13\\.9/sq mi (5\\.4/km2).\n\nThe [racial makeup](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_Census%232000_census \"Race and ethnicity in the United States Census#2000 census\") of the township was 97\\.72% White, 1\\.56% African American, 0\\.14% Native American, 0\\.14% Asian, and 0\\.43% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0\\.14%.\n\nThere were 273 households, 33\\.0% had children under the age of eighteen living with them; 64\\.5% were married couples living together, 8\\.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26\\.0% were non\\-families. 23\\.4% of households were made up of individuals, and 12\\.1% were one\\-person households with residents who were aged sixty\\-five or older.\n\nThe average household size was 2\\.58 and the average family size was 3\\.06\\.\n\nThe age distribution was 24\\.3% who were under the age of eighteen, 7\\.8% who were aged eighteen to twenty\\-four, 26\\.7% who were aged twenty\\-five to forty\\-four, 27\\.3% who were aged forty\\-five to sixty\\-four, and 13\\.8% who were aged sixty\\-five or older. The median age was forty years.\n\nFor every one hundred females there were 100\\.9 males. For every one hundred females who were aged eighteen or older, there were 101\\.5 males.\n\nThe median household income was $36,083 and the median family income was $39,531\\. Males had a median income of $26,667 compared with that of $23,438 for females.\n\nThe per capita income for the township was $15,051\\.\n\nApproximately 8\\.0% of families and 8\\.5% of the population were living below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 8\\.4% of those who were under the age of eighteen and 9\\.5% of those who were aged sixty\\-five or older.\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n[Category:Townships in Huntingdon County, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Category:Townships_in_Huntingdon_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"Townships in Huntingdon County, Pennsylvania\")\n[Category:Townships in Pennsylvania](/wiki/Category:Townships_in_Pennsylvania \"Townships in Pennsylvania\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 3022076 ], "name": [ "Deor" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "History", "Geography", "Culture and contemporary life", "Demographics", "Education", "Notable people", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**Moosic** ( ) is a [borough](/wiki/Borough_%28Pennsylvania%29 \"Borough (Pennsylvania)\") in [Lackawanna County, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Lackawanna_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"Lackawanna County, Pennsylvania\"), United States, south of downtown [Scranton](/wiki/Scranton%2C_Pennsylvania \"Scranton, Pennsylvania\") and northeast of downtown [Wilkes\\-Barre](/wiki/Wilkes-Barre%2C_Pennsylvania \"Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania\"), on the [Lackawanna River](/wiki/Lackawanna_River \"Lackawanna River\").\n\nMoosic is in a former coal\\-mining region. A few older industries existed at one time, including the manufacturing of canvas gloves and silk products. The population was 5,972 at the 2020 census.\n\n", "History\n-------\n\nThe name \"Moosic\" probably derives from the [Unami language](/wiki/Unami_language \"Unami language\") of the [Lenape people](/wiki/Lenape_people \"Lenape people\"), meaning \"elk place\". The Lenape, a [Native American people](/wiki/Native_American_people \"Native American people\"), are the earliest\\-known inhabitants of Moosic. The borough was incorporated on December 9, 1898\\. Before incorporation, the villages of Moosic and Greenwood had been a part of Lackawanna Township. From 1886 to 1987, Moosic was the site of [Rocky Glen Park](/wiki/Rocky_Glen_Park \"Rocky Glen Park\"), an [amusement park](/wiki/Amusement_park \"Amusement park\"). The former grounds are now a [Pennsylvania state historical marker](/wiki/List_of_Pennsylvania_state_historical_markers_in_Lackawanna_County \"List of Pennsylvania state historical markers in Lackawanna County\").\n\n", "Geography\n---------\n\nMoosic is located in the [Wyoming Valley](/wiki/Wyoming_Valley \"Wyoming Valley\") of [northeastern Pennsylvania](/wiki/Northeastern_Pennsylvania \"Northeastern Pennsylvania\"). In terms of [physiography](/wiki/Physiography \"Physiography\"), Moosic is part of the [Ridge and Valley province](/wiki/Ridge_and_Valley_province \"Ridge and Valley province\") of the [Appalachian Mountains](/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains \"Appalachian Mountains\"). Moosic is located at an elevation of above sea level. The major [body of water](/wiki/Body_of_water \"Body of water\") flowing through the borough is the [Lackawanna River](/wiki/Lackawanna_River \"Lackawanna River\"), part of the Upper [Susquehanna](/wiki/Susquehanna_River \"Susquehanna River\")\\-Lackawanna Watershed. Moosic has a total area of , of which is land and (1\\.52%) is water. Moosic has a [humid continental climate](/wiki/Humid_continental_climate \"Humid continental climate\") ([Köppen](/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification \"Köppen climate classification\") *Dfa*) with four distinct seasons. Summers are humid and warm, with an occasional heatwave. Winters are cold and snowy.\n\n", "Culture and contemporary life\n-----------------------------\n\nRecent developments in Moosic have created a restaurant, retail, and entertainment scene, including a [multiplex](/wiki/Multiplex_%28movie_theater%29 \"Multiplex (movie theater)\") movie theater, along with several restaurants and hotels. In 2005, a plan to build a large outdoor shopping mall near the theater was announced. [The Shoppes at Montage](/wiki/The_Shoppes_at_Montage \"The Shoppes at Montage\") were completed in 2007, consisting of an open\\-air, outdoor plaza housing over forty stores and restaurants.\n\nThe [Scranton/Wilkes\\-Barre RailRiders](/wiki/Scranton/Wilkes-Barre_RailRiders \"Scranton/Wilkes-Barre RailRiders\") are a [Triple\\-A](/wiki/Triple-A_%28baseball%29 \"Triple-A (baseball)\") [Minor League Baseball](/wiki/Minor_League_Baseball \"Minor League Baseball\") team in Moosic. They are a farm team of the [New York Yankees](/wiki/New_York_Yankees \"New York Yankees\") and play at [PNC Field](/wiki/PNC_Field \"PNC Field\").\n\nOther sites in the borough include the Lackawanna County Visitors Center, a [Boy Scouts](/wiki/Scouting_in_Pennsylvania \"Scouting in Pennsylvania\") center, and the Glenmaura complex of upscale houses. Glenmaura National Golf Club is recognized as a [PGA](/wiki/Professional_Golfers%27_Association_of_America \"Professional Golfers' Association of America\") tournament course and identified by a major U.S. golf magazine as one of the top 100 courses in the nation.\n\nDirectly to the north of the borough is the Toyota Pavilion and [Montage Mountain Ski Area](/wiki/Montage_Mountain_Ski_Resort \"Montage Mountain Ski Resort\"), and directly south is [Wilkes\\-Barre/Scranton International Airport](/wiki/Wilkes-Barre/Scranton_International_Airport \"Wilkes-Barre/Scranton International Airport\"), located in the adjacent borough of [Avoca](/wiki/Avoca%2C_Pennsylvania \"Avoca, Pennsylvania\"). In 2008, a water park was built on the grounds of Montage Mountain ski resort. Known as Montage Meltdown, the park was completed in June 2009\\.\n\nThe major daily newspaper in Moosic is *[The Times\\-Tribune](/wiki/The_Scranton_Times-Tribune \"The Scranton Times-Tribune\")* of Scranton. The main television studios of [WNEP\\-TV](/wiki/WNEP-TV \"WNEP-TV\"), the local ABC\\-TV affiliate, are located in Moosic.\n\nVehicle traffic is the major mode of transport. [Walk Score](/wiki/Walk_Score \"Walk Score\") rated Moosic as car\\-dependent, as \"few amenities are within walking distance.\" Public transportation is provided by the County of Lackawanna Transit System (COLTS). Baseball fans can take a trolley from the [Electric City Trolley Museum](/wiki/Electric_City_Trolley_Museum \"Electric City Trolley Museum\") at the [Steamtown National Historic Site](/wiki/Steamtown_National_Historic_Site \"Steamtown National Historic Site\") in Scranton to a station next to PNC Field.\n\n", "Demographics\n------------\n\nAs of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2010, there were 5,719 people, 2,363 households, and 1,596 families residing in the borough. The population density was . There were 2,500 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the borough was 95\\.3% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 1% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.1% [American Indian](/wiki/American_Indian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"American Indian (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.8% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.1% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 0\\.6% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 3\\.7% of the population.\n\nThere were 2,363 households, out of which 24\\.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50\\.7% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 11\\.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32\\.5% were non\\-families. 28\\.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12\\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.41 and the average family size was 2\\.98\\.\n\nIn the borough the population was spread out, with 19\\.6% under the age of 18, 61\\.6% from 18 to 64, and 18\\.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 44\\.4 years.\n\nThe median income for a household in the borough was $38,987, and the median income for a family was $47,703\\. Males had a median income of $35,878 versus $22,261 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the borough was $21,178\\. About 4\\.3% of families and 8\\.1% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 15\\.0% of those under age 18 and 6\\.1% of those age 65 or over.\n\n|\n\n| Demographic profile | 2010 | 2000 |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| One race 99\\.4% | 99\\.7% |\n| White 95\\.3% | 98\\.7% |\n| Asian 1\\.8% | 0\\.5% |\n| Black or African American 1\\.0% | 0\\.3% |\n| American Indian and Alaska Native 0\\.1% | 0\\.0% |\n| Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander 0\\.0% | 0\\.0% |\n| Some other race 1\\.1% | 0\\.3% |\n| Two or more races 0\\.6% | 0\\.3% |\n| Hispanic or Latino (of any race) 3\\.7% | 0\\.5% |\n| White alone 92\\.8% | 98\\.4% |\n\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n\n", "Education\n---------\n\n[Riverside School District](/wiki/Riverside_School_District_%28Pennsylvania%29 \"Riverside School District (Pennsylvania)\") serves residents of Moosic and neighboring [Taylor](/wiki/Taylor%2C_Pennsylvania \"Taylor, Pennsylvania\"). Moosic has two elementary schools, Riverside Elementary East and Riverside Elementary West which serves both Moosic residents and Taylor residents. Riverside Elementary West serves for Kindergarten,1st, and 2nd grade. Riverside Elementary East serves for 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th grade. High school students attend Riverside Jr.\\-Sr. High school for grades 7\\-12, which is located across the Lackawanna River in [Taylor](/wiki/Taylor%2C_Pennsylvania \"Taylor, Pennsylvania\"). Riverside is known for its [high school football](/wiki/High_school_football \"High school football\") rivalry with neighboring [Old Forge](/wiki/Old_Forge%2C_Lackawanna_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"Old Forge, Lackawanna County, Pennsylvania\"). The two schools are \"archrivals\", who have \"arguably the most fierce rivalry in the Lackawanna Football Conference.\" Old Forge leads head\\-to\\-head with a record of 32\\-30\\-4\\.\n\n", "Notable people\n--------------\n\n* [Matthew Cartwright](/wiki/Matthew_Cartwright \"Matthew Cartwright\"), member of the U.S. House of Representatives, Pennsylvania's 8th district\n* [Joe Grzenda](/wiki/Joe_Grzenda \"Joe Grzenda\"), eight\\-year Major League Baseball relief pitcher\n* [Frank Serafini](/wiki/Frank_Serafini \"Frank Serafini\"), former member of the PA House of Representatives, from the 114th District\n \n\nMoosic PA Presby.jpg\\|Moosic Presbyterian Church in 2015\nMoosic PA Presby PHS379\\.jpg\\|Presbyterian church on an old postcard\nElectric Trolley PA.JPG\\|Moosic Trolley Works\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n[Category:Populated places established in 1898](/wiki/Category:Populated_places_established_in_1898 \"Populated places established in 1898\")\n[Category:Boroughs in Lackawanna County, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Category:Boroughs_in_Lackawanna_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"Boroughs in Lackawanna County, Pennsylvania\")\n[Category:1898 establishments in Pennsylvania](/wiki/Category:1898_establishments_in_Pennsylvania \"1898 establishments in Pennsylvania\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 31812356 ], "name": [ "Leonidlednev" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Life and career", "Early years", "Royal College of Music and Trinity College, Cambridge", "Early career", "Ravel; rising fame; First World War", "Inter-war years", "1939–1952", "Second marriage and last years", "Music", "Symphonies", "''Sea'', ''London'' and ''Pastoral'' Symphonies (1910–1922)", "Symphonies 4–6 (1935–1948)", "''Sinfonia antartica'', Symphonies 8 and 9 (1952–1957)", "Other orchestral music", "Chamber and instrumental", "Vocal music", "Songs", "Choral music", "Stage works", "Recordings", "Honours and legacy", "Cultural legacy", "Notes, references and sources", "Notes", "References", "Sources", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 4, 4, 4, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 3, 2, 2, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n[thumb\\|alt\\=Semi\\-profile of European man in early middle age, clean\\-shaven, with full head of dark hair\\|Vaughan Williams ](/wiki/File:Ralph-Vaughan-Williams-by-Hopp%C3%A9-1921.jpg \"Ralph-Vaughan-Williams-by-Hoppé-1921.jpg\")\n**Ralph Vaughan Williams** ( ;[Collins English Dictionary](https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/vaughan-williams) 12 October 1872– 26 August 1958\\) was an English composer. His works include operas, ballets, chamber music, secular and religious vocal pieces and orchestral compositions including nine symphonies, written over sixty years. Strongly influenced by [Tudor music](/wiki/Tudor_music \"Tudor music\") and [English folk\\-song](/wiki/English_folk-song \"English folk-song\"), his output marked a decisive break in British music from its German\\-dominated style of the 19th century.\n\nVaughan Williams was born to a well\\-to\\-do family with strong moral views and a progressive social outlook. Throughout his life he sought to be of service to his fellow citizens, and believed in making music as available as possible to everybody. He wrote many works for amateur and student performance. He was musically a late developer, not finding his true voice until his late thirties; his studies in 1907–1908 with the French composer [Maurice Ravel](/wiki/Maurice_Ravel \"Maurice Ravel\") helped him clarify the textures of his music and free it from [Teutonic influences](/wiki/Music_of_Germany \"Music of Germany\").\n\nVaughan Williams is among the best\\-known British symphonists, noted for his very wide range of moods, from stormy and impassioned to tranquil, from mysterious to exuberant. Among the most familiar of his other concert works are *[Fantasia on a Theme by Thomas Tallis](/wiki/Fantasia_on_a_Theme_by_Thomas_Tallis \"Fantasia on a Theme by Thomas Tallis\")* (1910\\) and *[The Lark Ascending](/wiki/The_Lark_Ascending_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"The Lark Ascending (Vaughan Williams)\")* (1914\\). His vocal works include hymns, folk\\-song arrangements and large\\-scale choral pieces. He wrote eight works for stage performance between 1919 and 1951\\. Although none of his operas became popular repertoire pieces, his ballet *[Job: A Masque for Dancing](/wiki/Job:A_Masque_for_Dancing \"A Masque for Dancing\")* (1930\\) was successful and has been frequently staged.\n\nTwo episodes made notably deep impressions in Vaughan Williams's personal life. The [First World War](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), in which he served in the army, had a lasting emotional effect. Twenty years later, though in his sixties and devotedly married, he was reinvigorated by a love affair with a much younger woman, who later became his second wife. He went on composing through his seventies and eighties, producing his last symphony months before his death at the age of eighty\\-five. His works have continued to be a staple of the British concert repertoire, and all his major compositions and many of the minor ones have been recorded.\n\n", "Life and career\n---------------\n\n### Early years\n\nVaughan Williams was born at [Down Ampney](/wiki/Down_Ampney \"Down Ampney\"), [Gloucestershire](/wiki/Gloucestershire \"Gloucestershire\"), the third child and younger son of the [vicar](/wiki/Vicar \"Vicar\"), the Reverend Arthur Vaughan Williams (1834–1875\\), and his wife, Margaret, *née* Wedgwood (1842–1937\\).Frogley, Alain. [\"Williams, Ralph Vaughan (1872–1958\\)\"](http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/36636) , *Oxford Dictionary of National Biography*, Oxford University Press, retrieved 10 October 2015 His paternal forebears were of mixed English and Welsh descent; many of them went into the law or the [Church](/wiki/Church_of_England \"Church of England\"). The judges [Sir Edward](/wiki/Edward_Vaughan_Williams \"Edward Vaughan Williams\") and [Sir Roland Vaughan Williams](/wiki/Roland_Vaughan_Williams \"Roland Vaughan Williams\") were respectively Arthur's father and brother. Margaret Vaughan Williams was a great\\-granddaughter of [Josiah Wedgwood](/wiki/Josiah_Wedgwood \"Josiah Wedgwood\") and niece of [Charles Darwin](/wiki/Charles_Darwin \"Charles Darwin\").\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.2\\|alt\\=Exterior of quite large country house in extensive gardens\\|[Leith Hill Place](/wiki/Leith_Hill_Place \"Leith Hill Place\"), Surrey, Vaughan Williams's childhood home](/wiki/File:Leith_Hill_Place.jpg \"Leith Hill Place.jpg\")\nArthur Vaughan Williams died suddenly in February 1875, and his widow took the children to live in her family home, Leith Hill Place, [Wotton, Surrey](/wiki/Wotton%2C_Surrey \"Wotton, Surrey\"). The children were under the care of a nurse, Sara Wager, who instilled in them not only polite manners and good behaviour but also liberal social and philosophical opinions.Vaughan Williams (1964\\) p. 11 Such views were consistent with the progressive\\-minded tradition of both sides of the family. When the young Vaughan Williams asked his mother about Darwin's controversial book *[On the Origin of Species](/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species \"On the Origin of Species\")*, she answered, \"The Bible says that God made the world in six days. Great Uncle Charles thinks it took longer: but we need not worry about it, for it is equally wonderful either way\".Vaughan Williams (1964\\), p. 13\n\nIn 1878, at the age of five, Vaughan Williams began receiving piano lessons from his aunt, Sophy Wedgwood. He displayed signs of musical talent early on, composing his first piece of music, a four\\-bar piano piece called \"The Robin's Nest\", in the same year. He did not greatly like the piano, and was pleased to begin violin lessons the following year.De Savage, pp. xvii–xxKennedy (1980\\), p. 11 In 1880, when he was eight, he took a correspondence course in music from [Edinburgh University](/wiki/Edinburgh_University \"Edinburgh University\") and passed the associated examinations.\n\nIn September 1883 he went as a boarder to Field House [preparatory school](/wiki/Preparatory_school_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Preparatory school (United Kingdom)\") in [Rottingdean](/wiki/Rottingdean \"Rottingdean\") on the south coast of England, forty miles (64 km) from Wotton. He was generally happy there, although he was shocked to encounter for the first time social snobbery and political conservatism, which were rife among his fellow pupils.Vaughan Williams (1964\\), p. 24 From there he moved on to the [public school](/wiki/Public_school_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Public school (United Kingdom)\") [Charterhouse](/wiki/Charterhouse_School \"Charterhouse School\") in January 1887\\. His academic and sporting achievements there were satisfactory, and the school encouraged his musical development.Kennedy (1980\\), pp. 12–13; and Vaughan Williams (1964\\), pp. 25–27 In 1888 he organised a concert in the school hall, which included a performance of his G major Piano Trio (now lost) with the composer as violinist.\n\nWhile at Charterhouse Vaughan Williams found that religion meant less and less to him, and for a while he was an [atheist](/wiki/Atheism \"Atheism\"). This softened into \"a cheerful [agnosticism](/wiki/Agnosticism \"Agnosticism\")\", and he continued to attend church regularly to avoid upsetting the family. His views on religion did not affect his love of the [Authorised Version of the Bible](/wiki/King_James_Version \"King James Version\"), the beauty of which, in the words of his widow [Ursula Vaughan Williams](/wiki/Ursula_Vaughan_Williams \"Ursula Vaughan Williams\") in her 1964 biography of the composer, remained \"one of his essential companions through life.\"Vaughan Williams (1964\\), p. 29 In this, as in many other things in his life, he was, according to his biographer [Michael Kennedy](/wiki/Michael_Kennedy_%28music_critic%29 \"Michael Kennedy (music critic)\"), \"that extremely English product the natural nonconformist with a conservative regard for the best tradition\".Kennedy (1980\\), p. 43\n\n### Royal College of Music and Trinity College, Cambridge\n\n[thumb\\|alt\\=A man in late middle age, bald and moustached\\|upright\\|[Hubert Parry](/wiki/Hubert_Parry \"Hubert Parry\"), Vaughan Williams's first composition teacher at the [Royal College of Music](/wiki/Royal_College_of_Music \"Royal College of Music\")](/wiki/file:Hubert_Parry.jpg \"Hubert Parry.jpg\")\nIn July 1890 Vaughan Williams left Charterhouse and in September he was enrolled as a student at the [Royal College of Music](/wiki/Royal_College_of_Music \"Royal College of Music\") (RCM), London. After a compulsory course in [harmony](/wiki/Harmony \"Harmony\") with [Francis Edward Gladstone](/wiki/Francis_Edward_Gladstone \"Francis Edward Gladstone\"), professor of organ, counterpoint and harmony, he studied organ with [Walter Parratt](/wiki/Walter_Parratt \"Walter Parratt\") and composition with [Hubert Parry](/wiki/Hubert_Parry \"Hubert Parry\"). He idolised Parry,Vaughan Williams (1964\\), p. 31 and recalled in his *Musical Autobiography* (1950\\):\n\nVaughan Williams's family would have preferred him to have remained at Charterhouse for two more years and then go on to [Cambridge University](/wiki/University_of_Cambridge \"University of Cambridge\"). They were not convinced that he was talented enough to pursue a musical career, but feeling it would be wrong to prevent him from trying, they had allowed him to go to the RCM. Nevertheless, a university education was expected of him, and in 1892 he temporarily left the RCM and entered [Trinity College, Cambridge](/wiki/Trinity_College%2C_Cambridge \"Trinity College, Cambridge\"), where he spent three years, studying music and history.\n\nAmong those with whom Vaughan Williams became friendly at Cambridge were the philosophers [G. E. Moore](/wiki/G._E._Moore \"G. E. Moore\") and [Bertrand Russell](/wiki/Bertrand_Russell \"Bertrand Russell\"), the historian [G. M. Trevelyan](/wiki/G._M._Trevelyan \"G. M. Trevelyan\") and the musician [Hugh Allen](/wiki/Hugh_Allen_%28conductor%29 \"Hugh Allen (conductor)\").Cobbe, p. 8 He felt intellectually overshadowed by some of his companions, but he learned much from them and formed lifelong friendships with several.Kennedy (1980\\), pp. 37–38 Among the women with whom he mixed socially at Cambridge was Adeline Fisher, the daughter of [Herbert Fisher](/wiki/Herbert_William_Fisher \"Herbert William Fisher\"), an old friend of the Vaughan Williams family. She and Vaughan Williams grew close, and in June 1897, after he had left Cambridge, they became engaged to be married.Cobbe, p. 9\n\n[thumb\\|alt\\=Man in late middle age, wearing pince\\-nez and a moustache\\|upright\\|left\\|[Charles Villiers Stanford](/wiki/Charles_Villiers_Stanford \"Charles Villiers Stanford\"), Vaughan Williams's second composition teacher at the RCM](/wiki/file:Stanford-Bassano-1921.jpg \"Stanford-Bassano-1921.jpg\")\nDuring his time at Cambridge Vaughan Williams continued his weekly lessons with Parry, and studied composition with [Charles Wood](/wiki/Charles_Wood_%28composer%29 \"Charles Wood (composer)\") and organ with [Alan Gray](/wiki/Alan_Gray \"Alan Gray\"). He graduated as [Bachelor of Music](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Music \"Bachelor of Music\") in 1894 and [Bachelor of Arts](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts \"Bachelor of Arts\") the following year. After leaving the university he returned to complete his training at the RCM. Parry had by then succeeded [Sir George Grove](/wiki/George_Grove \"George Grove\") as director of the college, and Vaughan Williams's new professor of composition was [Charles Villiers Stanford](/wiki/Charles_Villiers_Stanford \"Charles Villiers Stanford\"). Relations between teacher and student were stormy but affectionate. Stanford, who had been adventurous in his younger days, had grown deeply conservative; he clashed vigorously with his modern\\-minded pupil. Vaughan Williams had no wish to follow in the traditions of Stanford's idols, [Brahms](/wiki/Johannes_Brahms \"Johannes Brahms\") and [Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner \"Richard Wagner\"), and he stood up to his teacher as few students dared to do.Kennedy (1980\\), p. 19 Beneath Stanford's severity lay a recognition of Vaughan Williams's talent and a desire to help the young man correct his opaque orchestration and extreme predilection for [modal music](/wiki/Mode_%28music%29 \"Mode (music)\").Dibble, p. 268; and Kennedy (1980\\), p. 19\n\nIn his second spell at the RCM (1895–1896\\) Vaughan Williams got to know a fellow student, [Gustav Holst](/wiki/Gustav_Holst \"Gustav Holst\"), who became a lifelong friend. Stanford emphasised the need for his students to be self\\-critical, but Vaughan Williams and Holst became, and remained, one another's most valued critics; each would play his latest composition to the other while still working on it. Vaughan Williams later observed, \"What one really learns from an Academy or College is not so much from one's official teachers as from one's fellow\\-students ... \\[we discussed] every subject under the sun from the lowest note of the double bassoon to the philosophy of *[Jude the Obscure](/wiki/Jude_the_Obscure \"Jude the Obscure\")*\".Moore, p. 26 In 1949 he wrote of their relationship, \"Holst declared that his music was influenced by that of his friend: the converse is certainly true.\"Vaughan Williams, Ralph. [\"Holst, Gustav Theodore (1874–1934\\)\"](http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/olddnb/33963) , *Dictionary of National Biography* Archive, Oxford University Press, 1949, retrieved 13 October 2015 \n\n### Early career\n\n[thumb\\|Vaughan Williams in 1898](/wiki/File:Ralph_Vaughan_Williams_1898.png \"Ralph Vaughan Williams 1898.png\")\nVaughan Williams had a modest private income, which in his early career he supplemented with a variety of musical activities. Although the organ was not his preferred instrument, the only post he ever held for an annual salary was as a church organist and choirmaster. He held the position at St Barnabas, in the inner London district of South [Lambeth](/wiki/Lambeth \"Lambeth\"), from 1895 to 1899 for a salary of £50 a year. He disliked the job, but working closely with a choir was valuable experience for his later undertakings.Cobbe, p. 10\n[thumb\\|alt\\=Exterior of rather grand town\\-houses\\|Vaughan Williams lived in [Cheyne Walk](/wiki/Cheyne_Walk \"Cheyne Walk\"), [Chelsea](/wiki/Chelsea%2C_London \"Chelsea, London\"), from 1905 to 1929](/wiki/File:Grandiose_Cheyne_Walk_-_geograph.org.uk_-_466071.jpg \"Grandiose Cheyne Walk - geograph.org.uk - 466071.jpg\")\nIn October 1897 Adeline and Vaughan Williams were married. They honeymooned for several months in Berlin, where he studied with [Max Bruch](/wiki/Max_Bruch \"Max Bruch\"). On their return they settled in London, originally in [Westminster](/wiki/Westminster \"Westminster\") and, from 1905, in [Chelsea](/wiki/Chelsea%2C_London \"Chelsea, London\"). There were no children of the marriage.\n\nIn 1899 Vaughan Williams passed the examination for the degree of Doctor of Music at Cambridge; the title was formally conferred on him in 1901\\.[\"Vaughan Williams, Ralph\"](http://www.ukwhoswho.com/view/article/oupww/whowaswho/U243980), *Who Was Who*, Oxford University Press, 2014, retrieved 10 October 2015 Kennedy (1980\\), p. 44 The song \"Linden Lea\" became the first of his works to appear in print, published in the magazine *The Vocalist* in April 1902 and then as separate sheet music.Cobbe, pp. 41–42 In addition to composition he occupied himself in several capacities during the first decade of the century. He wrote articles for musical journals and for the second edition of *[Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians](/wiki/Grove%27s_Dictionary_of_Music_and_Musicians \"Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians\")*, edited the first volume of Purcell's *Welcome Songs* for the [Purcell Society](/wiki/Purcell_Society \"Purcell Society\"), and was for a while involved in adult education in the University Extension Lectures. From 1904 to 1906 he was music editor of a new hymn\\-book, *[The English Hymnal](/wiki/The_English_Hymnal \"The English Hymnal\")*, of which he later said, \"I now know that two years of close association with some of the best (as well as some of the worst) tunes in the world was a better musical education than any amount of sonatas and fugues\".Kennedy (1980\\), p. 74 Always committed to music\\-making for the whole community, he helped found the amateur [Leith Hill Musical Festival](/wiki/Leith_Hill_Musical_Festival \"Leith Hill Musical Festival\") in 1905, and was appointed its principal conductor, a post he held until 1953\\.\n\nIn 1903–1904 Vaughan Williams started [collecting folk\\-songs](/wiki/British_folk_revival \"British folk revival\"). He had always been interested in them, and now followed the example of a recent generation of enthusiasts such as [Cecil Sharp](/wiki/Cecil_Sharp \"Cecil Sharp\") and [Lucy Broadwood](/wiki/Lucy_Broadwood \"Lucy Broadwood\") in going into the English countryside noting down and transcribing songs traditionally sung in various locations.Heaney, Michael. [\"Sharp, Cecil James (1859–1924\\)\"](http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/36040) ; and de Val, Dorothy, [\"Broadwood, Lucy Etheldred (1858–1929\\)\"](http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/57238) , *Oxford Dictionary of National Biography*, Oxford University Press, 2008 and 2007, retrieved 16 October 2015 Collections of the songs were published, preserving many that could otherwise have vanished as oral traditions died out. Vaughan Williams incorporated some into his own compositions, and more generally was influenced by their prevailing modal forms. This, together with his love of [Tudor](/wiki/Tudor_music \"Tudor music\") and Stuart music, helped shape his compositional style for the rest of his career.\n\nOver this period Vaughan Williams composed steadily, producing songs, choral music, chamber works and orchestral pieces, gradually finding the beginnings of his mature style.Kennedy (1980\\), p. 76 His compositions included the [tone poem](/wiki/Symphonic_poem \"Symphonic poem\") *[In the Fen Country](/wiki/In_the_Fen_Country \"In the Fen Country\")* (1904\\) and the *[Norfolk Rhapsody No. 1](/wiki/Norfolk_Rhapsodies%23Norfolk_Rhapsody_No._1_in_E_minor \"Norfolk Rhapsodies#Norfolk Rhapsody No. 1 in E minor\")* (1906\\).Frogley, p. 88 He remained unsatisfied with his technique as a composer. After unsuccessfully seeking lessons from [Sir Edward Elgar](/wiki/Edward_Elgar \"Edward Elgar\"),Adams (2013\\), p. 38 he contemplated studying with [Vincent d'Indy](/wiki/Vincent_d%27Indy \"Vincent d'Indy\") in Paris. Instead, he was introduced by the critic and musicologist [M.D.Calvocoressi](/wiki/Michel-Dimitri_Calvocoressi \"Michel-Dimitri Calvocoressi\") to [Maurice Ravel](/wiki/Maurice_Ravel \"Maurice Ravel\"), a more modernist, less dogmatic musician than d'Indy.\n\n### Ravel; rising fame; First World War\n\n[alt\\=Head of a young man with moustache and beard and a full head of hair\\|thumb\\|upright\\=.75\\|[Maurice Ravel](/wiki/Maurice_Ravel \"Maurice Ravel\") in 1906](/wiki/File:Ravel-1906-pierre-petit-cropped.jpg \"Ravel-1906-pierre-petit-cropped.jpg\")\nRavel took few pupils, and was known as a demanding taskmaster for those he agreed to teach.Nichols, p. 67 Vaughan Williams spent three months in Paris in the winter of 1907–1908, working with him four or five times each week.Vaughan Williams (1964\\), p. 80 There is little documentation of Vaughan Williams's time with Ravel; the musicologist [Byron Adams](/wiki/Byron_Adams \"Byron Adams\") advises caution in relying on Vaughan Williams's recollections in the *Musical Autobiography* written forty\\-three years after the event.Adams (2013\\), pp. 40–41 The degree to which the French composer influenced the Englishman's style is debated.Cobbe, p. 11 Ravel declared Vaughan Williams to be \"my only pupil who does not write my music\";Adams (2013\\), p. 40 nevertheless, commentators including Kennedy, Adams, [Hugh Ottaway](/wiki/Hugh_Ottaway \"Hugh Ottaway\") and Alain Frogley find Vaughan Williams's instrumental textures lighter and sharper in the music written after his return from Paris, such as the String Quartet in G minor, *[On Wenlock Edge](/wiki/On_Wenlock_Edge_%28song_cycle%29 \"On Wenlock Edge (song cycle)\")*, the Overture to *[The Wasps](/wiki/The_Wasps_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"The Wasps (Vaughan Williams)\")* and *[A Sea Symphony](/wiki/A_Sea_Symphony \"A Sea Symphony\")*.Kennedy (1980\\), p. 114; and Adams (2013\\) pp. 41 and 44–46 Vaughan Williams himself said that Ravel had helped him escape from \"the heavy contrapuntal Teutonic manner\".Nichols, p. 68\n\nIn the years between his return from Paris in 1908 and the outbreak of the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War \"First World War\") in 1914, Vaughan Williams increasingly established himself as a figure in British music. For a rising composer it was important to receive performances at the big provincial music festivals, which generated publicity and royalties.McGuire, p. 123 In 1910 his music featured at two of the largest and most prestigious festivals, with the premieres of the *[Fantasia on a Theme by Thomas Tallis](/wiki/Fantasia_on_a_Theme_by_Thomas_Tallis \"Fantasia on a Theme by Thomas Tallis\")* at the [Three Choirs Festival](/wiki/Three_Choirs_Festival \"Three Choirs Festival\") in [Gloucester Cathedral](/wiki/Gloucester_Cathedral \"Gloucester Cathedral\") in September and *A Sea Symphony* at the [Leeds Festival](/wiki/Leeds_Festival_%28classical_music%29 \"Leeds Festival (classical music)\") the following month.\"Music\", *The Times*, 7 September 1910, p. 11\"Leeds Musical Festival\", *The Times*, 14 October 1910, p. 10 The leading British music critics of the time, [J. A. Fuller Maitland](/wiki/J._A._Fuller_Maitland \"J. A. Fuller Maitland\") of *[The Times](/wiki/The_Times \"The Times\")* and [Samuel Langford](/wiki/Samuel_Langford \"Samuel Langford\") of *[The Manchester Guardian](/wiki/The_Manchester_Guardian \"The Manchester Guardian\")*, were strong in their praise. The former wrote of the fantasia, \"The work is wonderful because it seems to lift one into some unknown region of musical thought and feeling. Throughout its course one is never sure whether one is listening to something very old or very new\". Langford declared that the symphony \"definitely places a new figure in the first rank of our English composers\".Langford, Samuel. \"Leeds Musical Festival: Dr. Vaughan Williams's *Sea Symphony*\", *The Manchester Guardian*, 13 October 1910, p. 9 Between these successes and the start of war Vaughan Williams's largest\\-scale work was the first version of *[A London Symphony](/wiki/A_London_Symphony \"A London Symphony\")* (1914\\). In the same year he wrote *[The Lark Ascending](/wiki/The_Lark_Ascending_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"The Lark Ascending (Vaughan Williams)\")* in its original form for violin and piano.\n[thumb\\|upright\\|alt\\=European man of early middle age, in sem\\-profile; he is clean\\-shaven and has a full head of dark hair\\|Vaughan Williams in 1913](/wiki/File:Ralph-Vaughan-Williams-1913.jpg \"Ralph-Vaughan-Williams-1913.jpg\")\n\nDespite his age—he was approaching forty\\-two in October—Vaughan Williams volunteered for military service on the outbreak of the [First World War](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") in August. Joining the [Royal Army Medical Corps](/wiki/Royal_Army_Medical_Corps \"Royal Army Medical Corps\") as a [private](/wiki/Private_%28rank%29 \"Private (rank)\"), he served as a stretcher bearer in an ambulance crew in France and later in Greece.Vaughan Williams (1964\\), p. 12w0 Frogley writes of this period that Vaughan Williams was considerably older than most of his comrades, and \"the back\\-breaking labour of dangerous night\\-time journeys through mud and rain must have been more than usually punishing\". The war left its emotional mark on Vaughan Williams, who lost many comrades and friends, including the young composer [George Butterworth](/wiki/George_Butterworth \"George Butterworth\").Frogley, p. 99 In 1917 Vaughan Williams was commissioned as a [lieutenant](/wiki/Lieutenant_%28British_Army_and_Royal_Marines%29 \"Lieutenant (British Army and Royal Marines)\") in the [Royal Artillery](/wiki/Royal_Artillery \"Royal Artillery\"), seeing action in France from March 1918\\. The continual noise of the guns damaged his hearing, and led to deafness in his later years.Moore, p. 54 After the armistice in 1918 he served as director of music for the British [First Army](/wiki/First_Army_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"First Army (United Kingdom)\") until demobilised in February 1919\\.\n\n### Inter\\-war years\n\nDuring the war Vaughan Williams stopped writing music, and after returning to civilian life he took some time before feeling ready to compose new works. He revised some earlier pieces, and turned his attention to other musical activities. In 1919 he accepted an invitation from Hugh Allen, who had succeeded Parry as director, to teach composition at the RCM; he remained on the faculty of the college for the next twenty years.Vaughan Williams (1964\\), p. 136 In 1921 he succeeded Allen as conductor of the [Bach Choir](/wiki/Bach_Choir \"Bach Choir\"), London. It was not until 1922 that he produced a major new composition, *[A Pastoral Symphony](/wiki/Pastoral_Symphony_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Pastoral Symphony (Vaughan Williams)\")*; the work was given its first performance in London in May conducted by [Adrian Boult](/wiki/Adrian_Boult \"Adrian Boult\") and its American premiere in June conducted by the composer.Vaughan Williams (1964\\), pp. 140 and 143\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\|left\\|alt\\=Smartly dressed European man looking towards camera\\|Vaughan Williams in 1922](/wiki/File:Vaughan-Williams-Musical-Times-1922.jpg \"Vaughan-Williams-Musical-Times-1922.jpg\")\nThroughout the 1920s Vaughan Williams continued to compose, conduct and teach. Kennedy lists forty works premiered during the decade, including the [Mass in G minor](/wiki/Mass_in_G_minor_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Mass in G minor (Vaughan Williams)\") (1922\\), the ballet *Old King Cole* (1923\\), the operas *[Hugh the Drover](/wiki/Hugh_the_Drover \"Hugh the Drover\")* and *[Sir John in Love](/wiki/Sir_John_in_Love \"Sir John in Love\")* (1924 and 1928\\), the suite *[Flos Campi](/wiki/Flos_Campi \"Flos Campi\")* (1925\\) and the oratorio *[Sancta Civitas](/wiki/Sancta_Civitas \"Sancta Civitas\")* (1925\\).Kennedy (1980\\), pp. 412–416\n\nDuring the decade Adeline became increasingly immobilised by arthritis, and the numerous stairs in their London house finally caused the Vaughan Williamses to move in 1929 to a more manageable home, \"The White Gates\", [Dorking](/wiki/Dorking \"Dorking\"), where they lived until Adeline's death in 1951\\. Vaughan Williams, who thought of himself as a complete Londoner, was sorry to leave the capital, but his wife was anxious to live in the country, and Dorking was within reasonably convenient reach of town.Vaughan Williams (1964\\), pp. 171 and 179\n\nIn 1932 Vaughan Williams was elected president of the [English Folk Dance and Song Society](/wiki/English_Folk_Dance_and_Song_Society \"English Folk Dance and Song Society\"). From September to December of that year he was in the US as a visiting lecturer at [Bryn Mawr College](/wiki/Bryn_Mawr_College \"Bryn Mawr College\"), Pennsylvania. The texts of his lectures were published under the title *National Music* in 1934; they sum up his artistic and social credo more fully than anything he had published previously, and remained in print for most of the remainder of the century.\n\nDuring the 1930s Vaughan Williams came to be regarded as a leading figure in British music, particularly after the deaths of Elgar, [Delius](/wiki/Frederick_Delius \"Frederick Delius\") and Holst in 1934\\.Cobbe, p. 175 Holst's death was a severe personal and professional blow to Vaughan Williams; the two had been each other's closest friends and musical advisers since their college days. After Holst's death Vaughan Williams was glad of the advice and support of other friends including Boult and the composer [Gerald Finzi](/wiki/Gerald_Finzi \"Gerald Finzi\"),Cobbe, pp. 174–175 but his relationship with Holst was irreplaceable.Vaughan Williams (1964\\), p. 200\n\nIn some of Vaughan Williams's music of the 1930s there is an explicitly dark, even violent tone. The ballet *[Job: A Masque for Dancing](/wiki/Job:A_Masque_for_Dancing \"A Masque for Dancing\")* (1930\\) and the [Fourth Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._4_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Symphony No. 4 (Vaughan Williams)\") (1935\\) surprised the public and critics. The discordant and violent tone of the symphony, written at a time of growing international tension, led many critics to suppose the symphony to be [programmatic](/wiki/Program_music \"Program music\"). [Hubert Foss](/wiki/Hubert_J._Foss \"Hubert J. Foss\") dubbed it \"The Romantic\" and [Frank Howes](/wiki/Frank_Howes \"Frank Howes\") called it \"The Fascist\".Schwartz. p. 74 The composer dismissed such interpretations, and insisted that the work was [absolute music](/wiki/Absolute_music \"Absolute music\"), with no programme of any kind; nonetheless, some of those close to him, including Foss and Boult, remained convinced that something of the troubled spirit of the age was captured in the work.\n\nAs the decade progressed, Vaughan Williams found musical inspiration lacking, and experienced his first fallow period since his wartime musical silence. After his anti\\-war cantata *[Dona nobis pacem](/wiki/Dona_nobis_pacem_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Dona nobis pacem (Vaughan Williams)\")* in 1936 he did not complete another work of substantial length until late in 1941, when the first version of the [Fifth Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._5_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Symphony No. 5 (Vaughan Williams)\") was completed.\n\nIn 1938 Vaughan Williams met [Ursula Wood](/wiki/Ursula_Vaughan_Williams \"Ursula Vaughan Williams\") (1911–2007\\), the wife of an army officer, Captain (later Lieutenant\\-Colonel) Michael Forrester Wood.[\"Obituary of Ursula Vaughan Williams\"](http://docs.newsbank.com/openurl?ctx_ver=z39.88-2004&rft_id=info:sid/iw.newsbank.com:UKNB:DST1&rft_val_format=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:ctx&rft_dat=11C89CD56F084C68&svc_dat=InfoWeb:aggregated5&req_dat=102CDD40F14C6BDA) , *The Daily Telegraph*, 25 October 2007 She was a poet, and had approached the composer with a proposed scenario for a ballet. Despite their both being married, and a four\\-decade age\\-gap, they fell in love almost from their first meeting; they maintained a secret love affair for more than a decade. Ursula became the composer's muse, helper and London companion, and later helped him care for his ailing wife. Whether Adeline knew, or suspected, that Ursula and Vaughan Williams were lovers is uncertain, but the relations between the two women were of warm friendship throughout the years they knew each other. The composer's concern for his first wife never faltered, according to Ursula, who admitted in the 1980s that she had been jealous of Adeline, whose place in Vaughan Williams's life and affections was unchallengeable.Neighbour, pp. 337–338 and 345\n\n### 1939–1952\n\nDuring the Second World War Vaughan Williams was active in civilian war work, chairing the [Home Office](/wiki/Home_Office \"Home Office\") Committee for the Release of Interned Alien Musicians, helping [Myra Hess](/wiki/Myra_Hess \"Myra Hess\") with the organisation of the daily [National Gallery](/wiki/National_Gallery \"National Gallery\") concerts, serving on a committee for refugees from Nazi oppression, and on the Council for the Encouragement of Music and the Arts (CEMA), the forerunner of the [Arts Council](/wiki/Arts_Council_of_Great_Britain \"Arts Council of Great Britain\"). In 1940 he composed his first film score, for the propaganda film *[49th Parallel](/wiki/49th_Parallel_%28film%29 \"49th Parallel (film)\")*.[\"When is an Opera not an Opera? When it could be a Film\"](https://search.proquest.com/docview/1326412486), *Musical Opinion*, January 2013, p. 136 \n\nIn 1942 Michael Wood died suddenly of heart failure. At Adeline's behest the widowed Ursula was invited to stay with the Vaughan Williamses in Dorking, and thereafter was a regular visitor there, sometimes staying for weeks at a time. The critic Michael White suggests that Adeline \"appears, in the most amicable way, to have adopted Ursula as her successor\".White, Michael. [\"The merry widow\"](http://docs.newsbank.com/openurl?ctx_ver=z39.88-2004&rft_id=info:sid/iw.newsbank.com:UKNB:DST1&rft_val_format=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:ctx&rft_dat=0F35A23D68CE9F99&svc_dat=InfoWeb:aggregated5&req_dat=102CDD40F14C6BDA) , *The Daily Telegraph*, 4 May 2002 Ursula recorded that during air raids all three slept in the same room in adjacent beds, holding hands for comfort.\n\n[alt\\=Title page of 17th\\-century printed book showing engraving of the author\\|thumb\\|*[The Pilgrim's Progress](/wiki/The_Pilgrim%27s_Progress \"The Pilgrim's Progress\")* – inspiration to Vaughan Williams across forty\\-five years](/wiki/File:Pilgrim%27s_Progress.jpg \"Pilgrim's Progress.jpg\")\nIn 1943 Vaughan Williams conducted the premiere of his Fifth Symphony at the [Proms](/wiki/The_Proms \"The Proms\"). Its serene tone contrasted with the stormy Fourth, and led some commentators to think it a symphonic valediction. [William Glock](/wiki/William_Glock \"William Glock\") wrote that it was \"like the work of a distinguished poet who has nothing very new to say, but says it in exquisitely flowing language\".Glock, William. \"Music\", *The Observer*, 18 July 1943, p. 2 The music Vaughan Williams wrote for the BBC to celebrate the end of the war, *Thanksgiving for Victory*, was marked by what the critic [Edward Lockspeiser](/wiki/Edward_Lockspeiser \"Edward Lockspeiser\") called the composer's characteristic avoidance of \"any suggestion of rhetorical pompousness\".Lockspeiser, Edward. \"Thanksgiving for Victory, for Soprano Solo, Speaker, Chorus and Orchestra by R. Vaughan Williams\", *[Music \\& Letters](/wiki/Music_%26_Letters \"Music & Letters\")*, October 1945, p. 243 Any suspicion that the septuagenarian composer had settled into benign tranquillity was dispelled by his [Sixth Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._6_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Symphony No. 6 (Vaughan Williams)\") (1948\\), described by the critic Gwyn Parry\\-Jones as \"one of the most disturbing musical statements of the 20th century\", opening with a \"primal scream, plunging the listener immediately into a world of aggression and impending chaos.\"Parry\\-Jones, Gwyn. [\"The Inner and Outer Worlds of RVW\"](http://www.rvwsociety.com/journal_pdfs/rvw_journal_03.pdf) , *Journal of the RVW Society*, July 1995 Coming as it did near the start of the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War \"Cold War\"), many critics thought its *pianissimo* last movement a depiction of a nuclear\\-scorched wasteland.Horton, p. 210; and Kennedy (1980\\) pp. 301–302 The composer was dismissive of programmatic theories: \"It never seems to occur to people that a man might just want to write a piece of music.\"Kennedy (1980\\), p. 302\n\nIn 1951 Adeline died, aged eighty.\"Obituary\", *The Times*, 12 May 1951, p. 8 In the same year Vaughan Williams's last opera, *[The Pilgrim's Progress](/wiki/The_Pilgrim%27s_Progress_%28opera%29 \"The Pilgrim's Progress (opera)\")*, was staged at [Covent Garden](/wiki/Royal_Opera_House \"Royal Opera House\") as part of the [Festival of Britain](/wiki/Festival_of_Britain \"Festival of Britain\"). He had been working intermittently on a musical treatment of [John Bunyan](/wiki/John_Bunyan \"John Bunyan\")'s allegory for forty\\-five years, and the 1951 \"morality\" was the final result. The reviews were respectful,\"The Royal Opera\", *The Times*, 27 April 1951, p. 8; Hope\\-Wallace, Philip. \"*The Pilgrim's Progress*: New Work by Vaughan Williams\", *The Manchester Guardian*, 27 April 1951, p. 3; and Blom, Eric. \"Progress and Arrival\", *The Observer*, 29 April 1951, p. 6 but the work did not catch the opera\\-going public's imagination, and the Royal Opera House's production was \"insultingly half\\-hearted\" according to Frogley. The piece was revived the following year, but was still not a great success. Vaughan Williams commented to Ursula, \"They don't like it, they won't like it, they don't want an opera with no heroine and no love duets—and I don't care, it's what I meant, and there it is.\"Hayes, Malcolm. [\"Progress at last\"](http://docs.newsbank.com/openurl?ctx_ver=z39.88-2004&rft_id=info:sid/iw.newsbank.com:UKNB:TND1&rft_val_format=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:ctx&rft_dat=132048A0E4A18870&svc_dat=InfoWeb:aggregated5&req_dat=102CDD40F14C6BDA) , *[The Independent](/wiki/The_Independent \"The Independent\")*, 31 October 1997\n\n### Second marriage and last years\n\nIn February 1953 Vaughan Williams and Ursula were married. He left the Dorking house and they took a lease of 10 [Hanover Terrace](/wiki/Hanover_Terrace \"Hanover Terrace\"), [Regent's Park](/wiki/Regent%27s_Park \"Regent's Park\"), London. It was the year of [Queen Elizabeth II's coronation](/wiki/Queen_Elizabeth_II%27s_coronation \"Queen Elizabeth II's coronation\"); Vaughan Williams's contribution was an arrangement of the [Old Hundredth](/wiki/Old_100th \"Old 100th\") psalm tune, and a new setting of \"O taste and see\" from [Psalm 34](/wiki/Psalm_34 \"Psalm 34\"), performed at the service in [Westminster Abbey](/wiki/Westminster_Abbey \"Westminster Abbey\").Howes, Frank. \"The New Compositions\", *The Times*, 18 March 1953, p. 2\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|alt\\=Old man, with white hair, seated at a desk, writing\\|Vaughan Williams signing the guest book at [Yale University](/wiki/Yale_University \"Yale University\") in 1954](/wiki/File:Ralph_Vaughan_Williams%2C_1954.jpg \"Ralph Vaughan Williams, 1954.jpg\")\nHaving returned to live in London, Vaughan Williams, with Ursula's encouragement, became much more active socially and in *[pro bono publico](/wiki/Pro_bono_publico \"Pro bono publico\")* activities. He was a leading figure in the [Society for the Promotion of New Music](/wiki/Society_for_the_Promotion_of_New_Music \"Society for the Promotion of New Music\"),Payne, Anthony. [\"Society for the Promotion of New Music\"](http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/26075), *Grove Music Online*, Oxford University Press, retrieved 19 October 2015 and in 1956 he set up and endowed the RVW Trust to support young composers and promote new or neglected music.[\"History of the Vaughan Williams Foundation\"](https://vaughanwilliamsfoundation.org/the-foundation/history/), Vaughan Williams Foundation, October 2022 He and his wife travelled extensively in Europe, and in 1954 he visited the US once again, having been invited to lecture at [Cornell](/wiki/Cornell_University \"Cornell University\") and other universities and to conduct. He received an enthusiastic welcome from large audiences, and was overwhelmed at the warmth of his reception.[\"Vaughan Williams Hailed at Cornell\"](https://www.nytimes.com/1954/11/10/archives/vaughan-williams-hailed-at-cornell.html), *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")*, 10 November 1954, p. 42 Kennedy describes it as \"like a musical state occasion\".Kennedy (2013\\), pp. 294–295\n\nOf Vaughan Williams's works from the 1950s, *Grove* makes particular mention of *[Three Shakespeare Songs](/wiki/Three_Shakespeare_Songs \"Three Shakespeare Songs\")* (1951\\) for unaccompanied chorus, the Christmas cantata *[Hodie](/wiki/Hodie \"Hodie\")* (1953–1954\\), the Violin Sonata, and, most particularly, the *[Ten Blake Songs](/wiki/Ten_Blake_Songs \"Ten Blake Songs\")* (1957\\) for voice and oboe, \"a masterpiece of economy and precision\". Unfinished works from the decade were a cello concerto and a new opera, *Thomas the Rhymer*.Kennedy (1980\\), p. 432 The predominant works of the 1950s were his three last symphonies. The seventh—officially unnumbered, and titled *[Sinfonia antartica](/wiki/Sinfonia_antartica \"Sinfonia antartica\")*—divided opinion; the score is a reworking of music Vaughan Williams had written for the 1948 film *[Scott of the Antarctic](/wiki/Scott_of_the_Antarctic_%28film%29 \"Scott of the Antarctic (film)\")*, and some critics thought it not truly symphonic. The [Eighth](/wiki/Symphony_No._8_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Symphony No. 8 (Vaughan Williams)\"), though wistful in parts, is predominantly lighthearted in tone; it was received enthusiastically at its premiere in 1956, given by the [Hallé Orchestra](/wiki/The_Hall%C3%A9 \"The Hallé\") under the dedicatee, [Sir John Barbirolli](/wiki/John_Barbirolli \"John Barbirolli\").\"Audience Cheers Dr Vaughan Williams: New Symphony Performed\", *The Manchester Guardian*, 3 May 1956, p. 1 The [Ninth](/wiki/Symphony_No._9_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Symphony No. 9 (Vaughan Williams)\"), premiered at a [Royal Philharmonic Society](/wiki/Royal_Philharmonic_Society \"Royal Philharmonic Society\") concert conducted by [Sir Malcolm Sargent](/wiki/Malcolm_Sargent \"Malcolm Sargent\") in April 1958, puzzled critics with its sombre, questing tone, and did not immediately achieve the recognition it later gained.\n\nHaving been in excellent health, Vaughan Williams died suddenly in the early hours of 26 August 1958 at Hanover Terrace, aged 85\\.[\"Ralph Vaughan Williams Dies\"](https://www.nytimes.com/1958/08/27/archives/ralph-vaughan-williams-dies-dean-of-british-composers-85-grand-old.html), *The New York Times*, 27 August 1958, p. 1 Two days later, after a private funeral at [Golders Green](/wiki/Golders_Green_Crematorium \"Golders Green Crematorium\"), he was cremated. On 19 September, at a crowded memorial service, his ashes were interred near the burial plots of Purcell and Stanford in the north choir aisle of Westminster Abbey.\"Dr. Ralph Vaughan Williams: Abbey Commemoration\", *The Times*, 20 September 1958, p. 8[\"Sir Charles Villiers Stanford\"](http://www.westminster-abbey.org/our-history/people/sir-charles-villiers-stanford) and [\"Ralph Vaughan Williams\"](http://westminster-abbey.org/our-history/people/ralph-vaughan-williams) , Westminster Abbey, retrieved 19 October 2015\n\n", "### Early years\n\nVaughan Williams was born at [Down Ampney](/wiki/Down_Ampney \"Down Ampney\"), [Gloucestershire](/wiki/Gloucestershire \"Gloucestershire\"), the third child and younger son of the [vicar](/wiki/Vicar \"Vicar\"), the Reverend Arthur Vaughan Williams (1834–1875\\), and his wife, Margaret, *née* Wedgwood (1842–1937\\).Frogley, Alain. [\"Williams, Ralph Vaughan (1872–1958\\)\"](http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/36636) , *Oxford Dictionary of National Biography*, Oxford University Press, retrieved 10 October 2015 His paternal forebears were of mixed English and Welsh descent; many of them went into the law or the [Church](/wiki/Church_of_England \"Church of England\"). The judges [Sir Edward](/wiki/Edward_Vaughan_Williams \"Edward Vaughan Williams\") and [Sir Roland Vaughan Williams](/wiki/Roland_Vaughan_Williams \"Roland Vaughan Williams\") were respectively Arthur's father and brother. Margaret Vaughan Williams was a great\\-granddaughter of [Josiah Wedgwood](/wiki/Josiah_Wedgwood \"Josiah Wedgwood\") and niece of [Charles Darwin](/wiki/Charles_Darwin \"Charles Darwin\").\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.2\\|alt\\=Exterior of quite large country house in extensive gardens\\|[Leith Hill Place](/wiki/Leith_Hill_Place \"Leith Hill Place\"), Surrey, Vaughan Williams's childhood home](/wiki/File:Leith_Hill_Place.jpg \"Leith Hill Place.jpg\")\nArthur Vaughan Williams died suddenly in February 1875, and his widow took the children to live in her family home, Leith Hill Place, [Wotton, Surrey](/wiki/Wotton%2C_Surrey \"Wotton, Surrey\"). The children were under the care of a nurse, Sara Wager, who instilled in them not only polite manners and good behaviour but also liberal social and philosophical opinions.Vaughan Williams (1964\\) p. 11 Such views were consistent with the progressive\\-minded tradition of both sides of the family. When the young Vaughan Williams asked his mother about Darwin's controversial book *[On the Origin of Species](/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species \"On the Origin of Species\")*, she answered, \"The Bible says that God made the world in six days. Great Uncle Charles thinks it took longer: but we need not worry about it, for it is equally wonderful either way\".Vaughan Williams (1964\\), p. 13\n\nIn 1878, at the age of five, Vaughan Williams began receiving piano lessons from his aunt, Sophy Wedgwood. He displayed signs of musical talent early on, composing his first piece of music, a four\\-bar piano piece called \"The Robin's Nest\", in the same year. He did not greatly like the piano, and was pleased to begin violin lessons the following year.De Savage, pp. xvii–xxKennedy (1980\\), p. 11 In 1880, when he was eight, he took a correspondence course in music from [Edinburgh University](/wiki/Edinburgh_University \"Edinburgh University\") and passed the associated examinations.\n\nIn September 1883 he went as a boarder to Field House [preparatory school](/wiki/Preparatory_school_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Preparatory school (United Kingdom)\") in [Rottingdean](/wiki/Rottingdean \"Rottingdean\") on the south coast of England, forty miles (64 km) from Wotton. He was generally happy there, although he was shocked to encounter for the first time social snobbery and political conservatism, which were rife among his fellow pupils.Vaughan Williams (1964\\), p. 24 From there he moved on to the [public school](/wiki/Public_school_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Public school (United Kingdom)\") [Charterhouse](/wiki/Charterhouse_School \"Charterhouse School\") in January 1887\\. His academic and sporting achievements there were satisfactory, and the school encouraged his musical development.Kennedy (1980\\), pp. 12–13; and Vaughan Williams (1964\\), pp. 25–27 In 1888 he organised a concert in the school hall, which included a performance of his G major Piano Trio (now lost) with the composer as violinist.\n\nWhile at Charterhouse Vaughan Williams found that religion meant less and less to him, and for a while he was an [atheist](/wiki/Atheism \"Atheism\"). This softened into \"a cheerful [agnosticism](/wiki/Agnosticism \"Agnosticism\")\", and he continued to attend church regularly to avoid upsetting the family. His views on religion did not affect his love of the [Authorised Version of the Bible](/wiki/King_James_Version \"King James Version\"), the beauty of which, in the words of his widow [Ursula Vaughan Williams](/wiki/Ursula_Vaughan_Williams \"Ursula Vaughan Williams\") in her 1964 biography of the composer, remained \"one of his essential companions through life.\"Vaughan Williams (1964\\), p. 29 In this, as in many other things in his life, he was, according to his biographer [Michael Kennedy](/wiki/Michael_Kennedy_%28music_critic%29 \"Michael Kennedy (music critic)\"), \"that extremely English product the natural nonconformist with a conservative regard for the best tradition\".Kennedy (1980\\), p. 43\n\n", "### Royal College of Music and Trinity College, Cambridge\n\n[thumb\\|alt\\=A man in late middle age, bald and moustached\\|upright\\|[Hubert Parry](/wiki/Hubert_Parry \"Hubert Parry\"), Vaughan Williams's first composition teacher at the [Royal College of Music](/wiki/Royal_College_of_Music \"Royal College of Music\")](/wiki/file:Hubert_Parry.jpg \"Hubert Parry.jpg\")\nIn July 1890 Vaughan Williams left Charterhouse and in September he was enrolled as a student at the [Royal College of Music](/wiki/Royal_College_of_Music \"Royal College of Music\") (RCM), London. After a compulsory course in [harmony](/wiki/Harmony \"Harmony\") with [Francis Edward Gladstone](/wiki/Francis_Edward_Gladstone \"Francis Edward Gladstone\"), professor of organ, counterpoint and harmony, he studied organ with [Walter Parratt](/wiki/Walter_Parratt \"Walter Parratt\") and composition with [Hubert Parry](/wiki/Hubert_Parry \"Hubert Parry\"). He idolised Parry,Vaughan Williams (1964\\), p. 31 and recalled in his *Musical Autobiography* (1950\\):\n\nVaughan Williams's family would have preferred him to have remained at Charterhouse for two more years and then go on to [Cambridge University](/wiki/University_of_Cambridge \"University of Cambridge\"). They were not convinced that he was talented enough to pursue a musical career, but feeling it would be wrong to prevent him from trying, they had allowed him to go to the RCM. Nevertheless, a university education was expected of him, and in 1892 he temporarily left the RCM and entered [Trinity College, Cambridge](/wiki/Trinity_College%2C_Cambridge \"Trinity College, Cambridge\"), where he spent three years, studying music and history.\n\nAmong those with whom Vaughan Williams became friendly at Cambridge were the philosophers [G. E. Moore](/wiki/G._E._Moore \"G. E. Moore\") and [Bertrand Russell](/wiki/Bertrand_Russell \"Bertrand Russell\"), the historian [G. M. Trevelyan](/wiki/G._M._Trevelyan \"G. M. Trevelyan\") and the musician [Hugh Allen](/wiki/Hugh_Allen_%28conductor%29 \"Hugh Allen (conductor)\").Cobbe, p. 8 He felt intellectually overshadowed by some of his companions, but he learned much from them and formed lifelong friendships with several.Kennedy (1980\\), pp. 37–38 Among the women with whom he mixed socially at Cambridge was Adeline Fisher, the daughter of [Herbert Fisher](/wiki/Herbert_William_Fisher \"Herbert William Fisher\"), an old friend of the Vaughan Williams family. She and Vaughan Williams grew close, and in June 1897, after he had left Cambridge, they became engaged to be married.Cobbe, p. 9\n\n[thumb\\|alt\\=Man in late middle age, wearing pince\\-nez and a moustache\\|upright\\|left\\|[Charles Villiers Stanford](/wiki/Charles_Villiers_Stanford \"Charles Villiers Stanford\"), Vaughan Williams's second composition teacher at the RCM](/wiki/file:Stanford-Bassano-1921.jpg \"Stanford-Bassano-1921.jpg\")\nDuring his time at Cambridge Vaughan Williams continued his weekly lessons with Parry, and studied composition with [Charles Wood](/wiki/Charles_Wood_%28composer%29 \"Charles Wood (composer)\") and organ with [Alan Gray](/wiki/Alan_Gray \"Alan Gray\"). He graduated as [Bachelor of Music](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Music \"Bachelor of Music\") in 1894 and [Bachelor of Arts](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts \"Bachelor of Arts\") the following year. After leaving the university he returned to complete his training at the RCM. Parry had by then succeeded [Sir George Grove](/wiki/George_Grove \"George Grove\") as director of the college, and Vaughan Williams's new professor of composition was [Charles Villiers Stanford](/wiki/Charles_Villiers_Stanford \"Charles Villiers Stanford\"). Relations between teacher and student were stormy but affectionate. Stanford, who had been adventurous in his younger days, had grown deeply conservative; he clashed vigorously with his modern\\-minded pupil. Vaughan Williams had no wish to follow in the traditions of Stanford's idols, [Brahms](/wiki/Johannes_Brahms \"Johannes Brahms\") and [Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner \"Richard Wagner\"), and he stood up to his teacher as few students dared to do.Kennedy (1980\\), p. 19 Beneath Stanford's severity lay a recognition of Vaughan Williams's talent and a desire to help the young man correct his opaque orchestration and extreme predilection for [modal music](/wiki/Mode_%28music%29 \"Mode (music)\").Dibble, p. 268; and Kennedy (1980\\), p. 19\n\nIn his second spell at the RCM (1895–1896\\) Vaughan Williams got to know a fellow student, [Gustav Holst](/wiki/Gustav_Holst \"Gustav Holst\"), who became a lifelong friend. Stanford emphasised the need for his students to be self\\-critical, but Vaughan Williams and Holst became, and remained, one another's most valued critics; each would play his latest composition to the other while still working on it. Vaughan Williams later observed, \"What one really learns from an Academy or College is not so much from one's official teachers as from one's fellow\\-students ... \\[we discussed] every subject under the sun from the lowest note of the double bassoon to the philosophy of *[Jude the Obscure](/wiki/Jude_the_Obscure \"Jude the Obscure\")*\".Moore, p. 26 In 1949 he wrote of their relationship, \"Holst declared that his music was influenced by that of his friend: the converse is certainly true.\"Vaughan Williams, Ralph. [\"Holst, Gustav Theodore (1874–1934\\)\"](http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/olddnb/33963) , *Dictionary of National Biography* Archive, Oxford University Press, 1949, retrieved 13 October 2015 \n\n", "### Early career\n\n[thumb\\|Vaughan Williams in 1898](/wiki/File:Ralph_Vaughan_Williams_1898.png \"Ralph Vaughan Williams 1898.png\")\nVaughan Williams had a modest private income, which in his early career he supplemented with a variety of musical activities. Although the organ was not his preferred instrument, the only post he ever held for an annual salary was as a church organist and choirmaster. He held the position at St Barnabas, in the inner London district of South [Lambeth](/wiki/Lambeth \"Lambeth\"), from 1895 to 1899 for a salary of £50 a year. He disliked the job, but working closely with a choir was valuable experience for his later undertakings.Cobbe, p. 10\n[thumb\\|alt\\=Exterior of rather grand town\\-houses\\|Vaughan Williams lived in [Cheyne Walk](/wiki/Cheyne_Walk \"Cheyne Walk\"), [Chelsea](/wiki/Chelsea%2C_London \"Chelsea, London\"), from 1905 to 1929](/wiki/File:Grandiose_Cheyne_Walk_-_geograph.org.uk_-_466071.jpg \"Grandiose Cheyne Walk - geograph.org.uk - 466071.jpg\")\nIn October 1897 Adeline and Vaughan Williams were married. They honeymooned for several months in Berlin, where he studied with [Max Bruch](/wiki/Max_Bruch \"Max Bruch\"). On their return they settled in London, originally in [Westminster](/wiki/Westminster \"Westminster\") and, from 1905, in [Chelsea](/wiki/Chelsea%2C_London \"Chelsea, London\"). There were no children of the marriage.\n\nIn 1899 Vaughan Williams passed the examination for the degree of Doctor of Music at Cambridge; the title was formally conferred on him in 1901\\.[\"Vaughan Williams, Ralph\"](http://www.ukwhoswho.com/view/article/oupww/whowaswho/U243980), *Who Was Who*, Oxford University Press, 2014, retrieved 10 October 2015 Kennedy (1980\\), p. 44 The song \"Linden Lea\" became the first of his works to appear in print, published in the magazine *The Vocalist* in April 1902 and then as separate sheet music.Cobbe, pp. 41–42 In addition to composition he occupied himself in several capacities during the first decade of the century. He wrote articles for musical journals and for the second edition of *[Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians](/wiki/Grove%27s_Dictionary_of_Music_and_Musicians \"Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians\")*, edited the first volume of Purcell's *Welcome Songs* for the [Purcell Society](/wiki/Purcell_Society \"Purcell Society\"), and was for a while involved in adult education in the University Extension Lectures. From 1904 to 1906 he was music editor of a new hymn\\-book, *[The English Hymnal](/wiki/The_English_Hymnal \"The English Hymnal\")*, of which he later said, \"I now know that two years of close association with some of the best (as well as some of the worst) tunes in the world was a better musical education than any amount of sonatas and fugues\".Kennedy (1980\\), p. 74 Always committed to music\\-making for the whole community, he helped found the amateur [Leith Hill Musical Festival](/wiki/Leith_Hill_Musical_Festival \"Leith Hill Musical Festival\") in 1905, and was appointed its principal conductor, a post he held until 1953\\.\n\nIn 1903–1904 Vaughan Williams started [collecting folk\\-songs](/wiki/British_folk_revival \"British folk revival\"). He had always been interested in them, and now followed the example of a recent generation of enthusiasts such as [Cecil Sharp](/wiki/Cecil_Sharp \"Cecil Sharp\") and [Lucy Broadwood](/wiki/Lucy_Broadwood \"Lucy Broadwood\") in going into the English countryside noting down and transcribing songs traditionally sung in various locations.Heaney, Michael. [\"Sharp, Cecil James (1859–1924\\)\"](http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/36040) ; and de Val, Dorothy, [\"Broadwood, Lucy Etheldred (1858–1929\\)\"](http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/57238) , *Oxford Dictionary of National Biography*, Oxford University Press, 2008 and 2007, retrieved 16 October 2015 Collections of the songs were published, preserving many that could otherwise have vanished as oral traditions died out. Vaughan Williams incorporated some into his own compositions, and more generally was influenced by their prevailing modal forms. This, together with his love of [Tudor](/wiki/Tudor_music \"Tudor music\") and Stuart music, helped shape his compositional style for the rest of his career.\n\nOver this period Vaughan Williams composed steadily, producing songs, choral music, chamber works and orchestral pieces, gradually finding the beginnings of his mature style.Kennedy (1980\\), p. 76 His compositions included the [tone poem](/wiki/Symphonic_poem \"Symphonic poem\") *[In the Fen Country](/wiki/In_the_Fen_Country \"In the Fen Country\")* (1904\\) and the *[Norfolk Rhapsody No. 1](/wiki/Norfolk_Rhapsodies%23Norfolk_Rhapsody_No._1_in_E_minor \"Norfolk Rhapsodies#Norfolk Rhapsody No. 1 in E minor\")* (1906\\).Frogley, p. 88 He remained unsatisfied with his technique as a composer. After unsuccessfully seeking lessons from [Sir Edward Elgar](/wiki/Edward_Elgar \"Edward Elgar\"),Adams (2013\\), p. 38 he contemplated studying with [Vincent d'Indy](/wiki/Vincent_d%27Indy \"Vincent d'Indy\") in Paris. Instead, he was introduced by the critic and musicologist [M.D.Calvocoressi](/wiki/Michel-Dimitri_Calvocoressi \"Michel-Dimitri Calvocoressi\") to [Maurice Ravel](/wiki/Maurice_Ravel \"Maurice Ravel\"), a more modernist, less dogmatic musician than d'Indy.\n\n", "### Ravel; rising fame; First World War\n\n[alt\\=Head of a young man with moustache and beard and a full head of hair\\|thumb\\|upright\\=.75\\|[Maurice Ravel](/wiki/Maurice_Ravel \"Maurice Ravel\") in 1906](/wiki/File:Ravel-1906-pierre-petit-cropped.jpg \"Ravel-1906-pierre-petit-cropped.jpg\")\nRavel took few pupils, and was known as a demanding taskmaster for those he agreed to teach.Nichols, p. 67 Vaughan Williams spent three months in Paris in the winter of 1907–1908, working with him four or five times each week.Vaughan Williams (1964\\), p. 80 There is little documentation of Vaughan Williams's time with Ravel; the musicologist [Byron Adams](/wiki/Byron_Adams \"Byron Adams\") advises caution in relying on Vaughan Williams's recollections in the *Musical Autobiography* written forty\\-three years after the event.Adams (2013\\), pp. 40–41 The degree to which the French composer influenced the Englishman's style is debated.Cobbe, p. 11 Ravel declared Vaughan Williams to be \"my only pupil who does not write my music\";Adams (2013\\), p. 40 nevertheless, commentators including Kennedy, Adams, [Hugh Ottaway](/wiki/Hugh_Ottaway \"Hugh Ottaway\") and Alain Frogley find Vaughan Williams's instrumental textures lighter and sharper in the music written after his return from Paris, such as the String Quartet in G minor, *[On Wenlock Edge](/wiki/On_Wenlock_Edge_%28song_cycle%29 \"On Wenlock Edge (song cycle)\")*, the Overture to *[The Wasps](/wiki/The_Wasps_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"The Wasps (Vaughan Williams)\")* and *[A Sea Symphony](/wiki/A_Sea_Symphony \"A Sea Symphony\")*.Kennedy (1980\\), p. 114; and Adams (2013\\) pp. 41 and 44–46 Vaughan Williams himself said that Ravel had helped him escape from \"the heavy contrapuntal Teutonic manner\".Nichols, p. 68\n\nIn the years between his return from Paris in 1908 and the outbreak of the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War \"First World War\") in 1914, Vaughan Williams increasingly established himself as a figure in British music. For a rising composer it was important to receive performances at the big provincial music festivals, which generated publicity and royalties.McGuire, p. 123 In 1910 his music featured at two of the largest and most prestigious festivals, with the premieres of the *[Fantasia on a Theme by Thomas Tallis](/wiki/Fantasia_on_a_Theme_by_Thomas_Tallis \"Fantasia on a Theme by Thomas Tallis\")* at the [Three Choirs Festival](/wiki/Three_Choirs_Festival \"Three Choirs Festival\") in [Gloucester Cathedral](/wiki/Gloucester_Cathedral \"Gloucester Cathedral\") in September and *A Sea Symphony* at the [Leeds Festival](/wiki/Leeds_Festival_%28classical_music%29 \"Leeds Festival (classical music)\") the following month.\"Music\", *The Times*, 7 September 1910, p. 11\"Leeds Musical Festival\", *The Times*, 14 October 1910, p. 10 The leading British music critics of the time, [J. A. Fuller Maitland](/wiki/J._A._Fuller_Maitland \"J. A. Fuller Maitland\") of *[The Times](/wiki/The_Times \"The Times\")* and [Samuel Langford](/wiki/Samuel_Langford \"Samuel Langford\") of *[The Manchester Guardian](/wiki/The_Manchester_Guardian \"The Manchester Guardian\")*, were strong in their praise. The former wrote of the fantasia, \"The work is wonderful because it seems to lift one into some unknown region of musical thought and feeling. Throughout its course one is never sure whether one is listening to something very old or very new\". Langford declared that the symphony \"definitely places a new figure in the first rank of our English composers\".Langford, Samuel. \"Leeds Musical Festival: Dr. Vaughan Williams's *Sea Symphony*\", *The Manchester Guardian*, 13 October 1910, p. 9 Between these successes and the start of war Vaughan Williams's largest\\-scale work was the first version of *[A London Symphony](/wiki/A_London_Symphony \"A London Symphony\")* (1914\\). In the same year he wrote *[The Lark Ascending](/wiki/The_Lark_Ascending_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"The Lark Ascending (Vaughan Williams)\")* in its original form for violin and piano.\n[thumb\\|upright\\|alt\\=European man of early middle age, in sem\\-profile; he is clean\\-shaven and has a full head of dark hair\\|Vaughan Williams in 1913](/wiki/File:Ralph-Vaughan-Williams-1913.jpg \"Ralph-Vaughan-Williams-1913.jpg\")\n\nDespite his age—he was approaching forty\\-two in October—Vaughan Williams volunteered for military service on the outbreak of the [First World War](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") in August. Joining the [Royal Army Medical Corps](/wiki/Royal_Army_Medical_Corps \"Royal Army Medical Corps\") as a [private](/wiki/Private_%28rank%29 \"Private (rank)\"), he served as a stretcher bearer in an ambulance crew in France and later in Greece.Vaughan Williams (1964\\), p. 12w0 Frogley writes of this period that Vaughan Williams was considerably older than most of his comrades, and \"the back\\-breaking labour of dangerous night\\-time journeys through mud and rain must have been more than usually punishing\". The war left its emotional mark on Vaughan Williams, who lost many comrades and friends, including the young composer [George Butterworth](/wiki/George_Butterworth \"George Butterworth\").Frogley, p. 99 In 1917 Vaughan Williams was commissioned as a [lieutenant](/wiki/Lieutenant_%28British_Army_and_Royal_Marines%29 \"Lieutenant (British Army and Royal Marines)\") in the [Royal Artillery](/wiki/Royal_Artillery \"Royal Artillery\"), seeing action in France from March 1918\\. The continual noise of the guns damaged his hearing, and led to deafness in his later years.Moore, p. 54 After the armistice in 1918 he served as director of music for the British [First Army](/wiki/First_Army_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"First Army (United Kingdom)\") until demobilised in February 1919\\.\n\n", "### Inter\\-war years\n\nDuring the war Vaughan Williams stopped writing music, and after returning to civilian life he took some time before feeling ready to compose new works. He revised some earlier pieces, and turned his attention to other musical activities. In 1919 he accepted an invitation from Hugh Allen, who had succeeded Parry as director, to teach composition at the RCM; he remained on the faculty of the college for the next twenty years.Vaughan Williams (1964\\), p. 136 In 1921 he succeeded Allen as conductor of the [Bach Choir](/wiki/Bach_Choir \"Bach Choir\"), London. It was not until 1922 that he produced a major new composition, *[A Pastoral Symphony](/wiki/Pastoral_Symphony_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Pastoral Symphony (Vaughan Williams)\")*; the work was given its first performance in London in May conducted by [Adrian Boult](/wiki/Adrian_Boult \"Adrian Boult\") and its American premiere in June conducted by the composer.Vaughan Williams (1964\\), pp. 140 and 143\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\|left\\|alt\\=Smartly dressed European man looking towards camera\\|Vaughan Williams in 1922](/wiki/File:Vaughan-Williams-Musical-Times-1922.jpg \"Vaughan-Williams-Musical-Times-1922.jpg\")\nThroughout the 1920s Vaughan Williams continued to compose, conduct and teach. Kennedy lists forty works premiered during the decade, including the [Mass in G minor](/wiki/Mass_in_G_minor_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Mass in G minor (Vaughan Williams)\") (1922\\), the ballet *Old King Cole* (1923\\), the operas *[Hugh the Drover](/wiki/Hugh_the_Drover \"Hugh the Drover\")* and *[Sir John in Love](/wiki/Sir_John_in_Love \"Sir John in Love\")* (1924 and 1928\\), the suite *[Flos Campi](/wiki/Flos_Campi \"Flos Campi\")* (1925\\) and the oratorio *[Sancta Civitas](/wiki/Sancta_Civitas \"Sancta Civitas\")* (1925\\).Kennedy (1980\\), pp. 412–416\n\nDuring the decade Adeline became increasingly immobilised by arthritis, and the numerous stairs in their London house finally caused the Vaughan Williamses to move in 1929 to a more manageable home, \"The White Gates\", [Dorking](/wiki/Dorking \"Dorking\"), where they lived until Adeline's death in 1951\\. Vaughan Williams, who thought of himself as a complete Londoner, was sorry to leave the capital, but his wife was anxious to live in the country, and Dorking was within reasonably convenient reach of town.Vaughan Williams (1964\\), pp. 171 and 179\n\nIn 1932 Vaughan Williams was elected president of the [English Folk Dance and Song Society](/wiki/English_Folk_Dance_and_Song_Society \"English Folk Dance and Song Society\"). From September to December of that year he was in the US as a visiting lecturer at [Bryn Mawr College](/wiki/Bryn_Mawr_College \"Bryn Mawr College\"), Pennsylvania. The texts of his lectures were published under the title *National Music* in 1934; they sum up his artistic and social credo more fully than anything he had published previously, and remained in print for most of the remainder of the century.\n\nDuring the 1930s Vaughan Williams came to be regarded as a leading figure in British music, particularly after the deaths of Elgar, [Delius](/wiki/Frederick_Delius \"Frederick Delius\") and Holst in 1934\\.Cobbe, p. 175 Holst's death was a severe personal and professional blow to Vaughan Williams; the two had been each other's closest friends and musical advisers since their college days. After Holst's death Vaughan Williams was glad of the advice and support of other friends including Boult and the composer [Gerald Finzi](/wiki/Gerald_Finzi \"Gerald Finzi\"),Cobbe, pp. 174–175 but his relationship with Holst was irreplaceable.Vaughan Williams (1964\\), p. 200\n\nIn some of Vaughan Williams's music of the 1930s there is an explicitly dark, even violent tone. The ballet *[Job: A Masque for Dancing](/wiki/Job:A_Masque_for_Dancing \"A Masque for Dancing\")* (1930\\) and the [Fourth Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._4_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Symphony No. 4 (Vaughan Williams)\") (1935\\) surprised the public and critics. The discordant and violent tone of the symphony, written at a time of growing international tension, led many critics to suppose the symphony to be [programmatic](/wiki/Program_music \"Program music\"). [Hubert Foss](/wiki/Hubert_J._Foss \"Hubert J. Foss\") dubbed it \"The Romantic\" and [Frank Howes](/wiki/Frank_Howes \"Frank Howes\") called it \"The Fascist\".Schwartz. p. 74 The composer dismissed such interpretations, and insisted that the work was [absolute music](/wiki/Absolute_music \"Absolute music\"), with no programme of any kind; nonetheless, some of those close to him, including Foss and Boult, remained convinced that something of the troubled spirit of the age was captured in the work.\n\nAs the decade progressed, Vaughan Williams found musical inspiration lacking, and experienced his first fallow period since his wartime musical silence. After his anti\\-war cantata *[Dona nobis pacem](/wiki/Dona_nobis_pacem_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Dona nobis pacem (Vaughan Williams)\")* in 1936 he did not complete another work of substantial length until late in 1941, when the first version of the [Fifth Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._5_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Symphony No. 5 (Vaughan Williams)\") was completed.\n\nIn 1938 Vaughan Williams met [Ursula Wood](/wiki/Ursula_Vaughan_Williams \"Ursula Vaughan Williams\") (1911–2007\\), the wife of an army officer, Captain (later Lieutenant\\-Colonel) Michael Forrester Wood.[\"Obituary of Ursula Vaughan Williams\"](http://docs.newsbank.com/openurl?ctx_ver=z39.88-2004&rft_id=info:sid/iw.newsbank.com:UKNB:DST1&rft_val_format=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:ctx&rft_dat=11C89CD56F084C68&svc_dat=InfoWeb:aggregated5&req_dat=102CDD40F14C6BDA) , *The Daily Telegraph*, 25 October 2007 She was a poet, and had approached the composer with a proposed scenario for a ballet. Despite their both being married, and a four\\-decade age\\-gap, they fell in love almost from their first meeting; they maintained a secret love affair for more than a decade. Ursula became the composer's muse, helper and London companion, and later helped him care for his ailing wife. Whether Adeline knew, or suspected, that Ursula and Vaughan Williams were lovers is uncertain, but the relations between the two women were of warm friendship throughout the years they knew each other. The composer's concern for his first wife never faltered, according to Ursula, who admitted in the 1980s that she had been jealous of Adeline, whose place in Vaughan Williams's life and affections was unchallengeable.Neighbour, pp. 337–338 and 345\n\n", "### 1939–1952\n\nDuring the Second World War Vaughan Williams was active in civilian war work, chairing the [Home Office](/wiki/Home_Office \"Home Office\") Committee for the Release of Interned Alien Musicians, helping [Myra Hess](/wiki/Myra_Hess \"Myra Hess\") with the organisation of the daily [National Gallery](/wiki/National_Gallery \"National Gallery\") concerts, serving on a committee for refugees from Nazi oppression, and on the Council for the Encouragement of Music and the Arts (CEMA), the forerunner of the [Arts Council](/wiki/Arts_Council_of_Great_Britain \"Arts Council of Great Britain\"). In 1940 he composed his first film score, for the propaganda film *[49th Parallel](/wiki/49th_Parallel_%28film%29 \"49th Parallel (film)\")*.[\"When is an Opera not an Opera? When it could be a Film\"](https://search.proquest.com/docview/1326412486), *Musical Opinion*, January 2013, p. 136 \n\nIn 1942 Michael Wood died suddenly of heart failure. At Adeline's behest the widowed Ursula was invited to stay with the Vaughan Williamses in Dorking, and thereafter was a regular visitor there, sometimes staying for weeks at a time. The critic Michael White suggests that Adeline \"appears, in the most amicable way, to have adopted Ursula as her successor\".White, Michael. [\"The merry widow\"](http://docs.newsbank.com/openurl?ctx_ver=z39.88-2004&rft_id=info:sid/iw.newsbank.com:UKNB:DST1&rft_val_format=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:ctx&rft_dat=0F35A23D68CE9F99&svc_dat=InfoWeb:aggregated5&req_dat=102CDD40F14C6BDA) , *The Daily Telegraph*, 4 May 2002 Ursula recorded that during air raids all three slept in the same room in adjacent beds, holding hands for comfort.\n\n[alt\\=Title page of 17th\\-century printed book showing engraving of the author\\|thumb\\|*[The Pilgrim's Progress](/wiki/The_Pilgrim%27s_Progress \"The Pilgrim's Progress\")* – inspiration to Vaughan Williams across forty\\-five years](/wiki/File:Pilgrim%27s_Progress.jpg \"Pilgrim's Progress.jpg\")\nIn 1943 Vaughan Williams conducted the premiere of his Fifth Symphony at the [Proms](/wiki/The_Proms \"The Proms\"). Its serene tone contrasted with the stormy Fourth, and led some commentators to think it a symphonic valediction. [William Glock](/wiki/William_Glock \"William Glock\") wrote that it was \"like the work of a distinguished poet who has nothing very new to say, but says it in exquisitely flowing language\".Glock, William. \"Music\", *The Observer*, 18 July 1943, p. 2 The music Vaughan Williams wrote for the BBC to celebrate the end of the war, *Thanksgiving for Victory*, was marked by what the critic [Edward Lockspeiser](/wiki/Edward_Lockspeiser \"Edward Lockspeiser\") called the composer's characteristic avoidance of \"any suggestion of rhetorical pompousness\".Lockspeiser, Edward. \"Thanksgiving for Victory, for Soprano Solo, Speaker, Chorus and Orchestra by R. Vaughan Williams\", *[Music \\& Letters](/wiki/Music_%26_Letters \"Music & Letters\")*, October 1945, p. 243 Any suspicion that the septuagenarian composer had settled into benign tranquillity was dispelled by his [Sixth Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._6_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Symphony No. 6 (Vaughan Williams)\") (1948\\), described by the critic Gwyn Parry\\-Jones as \"one of the most disturbing musical statements of the 20th century\", opening with a \"primal scream, plunging the listener immediately into a world of aggression and impending chaos.\"Parry\\-Jones, Gwyn. [\"The Inner and Outer Worlds of RVW\"](http://www.rvwsociety.com/journal_pdfs/rvw_journal_03.pdf) , *Journal of the RVW Society*, July 1995 Coming as it did near the start of the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War \"Cold War\"), many critics thought its *pianissimo* last movement a depiction of a nuclear\\-scorched wasteland.Horton, p. 210; and Kennedy (1980\\) pp. 301–302 The composer was dismissive of programmatic theories: \"It never seems to occur to people that a man might just want to write a piece of music.\"Kennedy (1980\\), p. 302\n\nIn 1951 Adeline died, aged eighty.\"Obituary\", *The Times*, 12 May 1951, p. 8 In the same year Vaughan Williams's last opera, *[The Pilgrim's Progress](/wiki/The_Pilgrim%27s_Progress_%28opera%29 \"The Pilgrim's Progress (opera)\")*, was staged at [Covent Garden](/wiki/Royal_Opera_House \"Royal Opera House\") as part of the [Festival of Britain](/wiki/Festival_of_Britain \"Festival of Britain\"). He had been working intermittently on a musical treatment of [John Bunyan](/wiki/John_Bunyan \"John Bunyan\")'s allegory for forty\\-five years, and the 1951 \"morality\" was the final result. The reviews were respectful,\"The Royal Opera\", *The Times*, 27 April 1951, p. 8; Hope\\-Wallace, Philip. \"*The Pilgrim's Progress*: New Work by Vaughan Williams\", *The Manchester Guardian*, 27 April 1951, p. 3; and Blom, Eric. \"Progress and Arrival\", *The Observer*, 29 April 1951, p. 6 but the work did not catch the opera\\-going public's imagination, and the Royal Opera House's production was \"insultingly half\\-hearted\" according to Frogley. The piece was revived the following year, but was still not a great success. Vaughan Williams commented to Ursula, \"They don't like it, they won't like it, they don't want an opera with no heroine and no love duets—and I don't care, it's what I meant, and there it is.\"Hayes, Malcolm. [\"Progress at last\"](http://docs.newsbank.com/openurl?ctx_ver=z39.88-2004&rft_id=info:sid/iw.newsbank.com:UKNB:TND1&rft_val_format=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:ctx&rft_dat=132048A0E4A18870&svc_dat=InfoWeb:aggregated5&req_dat=102CDD40F14C6BDA) , *[The Independent](/wiki/The_Independent \"The Independent\")*, 31 October 1997\n\n", "### Second marriage and last years\n\nIn February 1953 Vaughan Williams and Ursula were married. He left the Dorking house and they took a lease of 10 [Hanover Terrace](/wiki/Hanover_Terrace \"Hanover Terrace\"), [Regent's Park](/wiki/Regent%27s_Park \"Regent's Park\"), London. It was the year of [Queen Elizabeth II's coronation](/wiki/Queen_Elizabeth_II%27s_coronation \"Queen Elizabeth II's coronation\"); Vaughan Williams's contribution was an arrangement of the [Old Hundredth](/wiki/Old_100th \"Old 100th\") psalm tune, and a new setting of \"O taste and see\" from [Psalm 34](/wiki/Psalm_34 \"Psalm 34\"), performed at the service in [Westminster Abbey](/wiki/Westminster_Abbey \"Westminster Abbey\").Howes, Frank. \"The New Compositions\", *The Times*, 18 March 1953, p. 2\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|alt\\=Old man, with white hair, seated at a desk, writing\\|Vaughan Williams signing the guest book at [Yale University](/wiki/Yale_University \"Yale University\") in 1954](/wiki/File:Ralph_Vaughan_Williams%2C_1954.jpg \"Ralph Vaughan Williams, 1954.jpg\")\nHaving returned to live in London, Vaughan Williams, with Ursula's encouragement, became much more active socially and in *[pro bono publico](/wiki/Pro_bono_publico \"Pro bono publico\")* activities. He was a leading figure in the [Society for the Promotion of New Music](/wiki/Society_for_the_Promotion_of_New_Music \"Society for the Promotion of New Music\"),Payne, Anthony. [\"Society for the Promotion of New Music\"](http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/26075), *Grove Music Online*, Oxford University Press, retrieved 19 October 2015 and in 1956 he set up and endowed the RVW Trust to support young composers and promote new or neglected music.[\"History of the Vaughan Williams Foundation\"](https://vaughanwilliamsfoundation.org/the-foundation/history/), Vaughan Williams Foundation, October 2022 He and his wife travelled extensively in Europe, and in 1954 he visited the US once again, having been invited to lecture at [Cornell](/wiki/Cornell_University \"Cornell University\") and other universities and to conduct. He received an enthusiastic welcome from large audiences, and was overwhelmed at the warmth of his reception.[\"Vaughan Williams Hailed at Cornell\"](https://www.nytimes.com/1954/11/10/archives/vaughan-williams-hailed-at-cornell.html), *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")*, 10 November 1954, p. 42 Kennedy describes it as \"like a musical state occasion\".Kennedy (2013\\), pp. 294–295\n\nOf Vaughan Williams's works from the 1950s, *Grove* makes particular mention of *[Three Shakespeare Songs](/wiki/Three_Shakespeare_Songs \"Three Shakespeare Songs\")* (1951\\) for unaccompanied chorus, the Christmas cantata *[Hodie](/wiki/Hodie \"Hodie\")* (1953–1954\\), the Violin Sonata, and, most particularly, the *[Ten Blake Songs](/wiki/Ten_Blake_Songs \"Ten Blake Songs\")* (1957\\) for voice and oboe, \"a masterpiece of economy and precision\". Unfinished works from the decade were a cello concerto and a new opera, *Thomas the Rhymer*.Kennedy (1980\\), p. 432 The predominant works of the 1950s were his three last symphonies. The seventh—officially unnumbered, and titled *[Sinfonia antartica](/wiki/Sinfonia_antartica \"Sinfonia antartica\")*—divided opinion; the score is a reworking of music Vaughan Williams had written for the 1948 film *[Scott of the Antarctic](/wiki/Scott_of_the_Antarctic_%28film%29 \"Scott of the Antarctic (film)\")*, and some critics thought it not truly symphonic. The [Eighth](/wiki/Symphony_No._8_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Symphony No. 8 (Vaughan Williams)\"), though wistful in parts, is predominantly lighthearted in tone; it was received enthusiastically at its premiere in 1956, given by the [Hallé Orchestra](/wiki/The_Hall%C3%A9 \"The Hallé\") under the dedicatee, [Sir John Barbirolli](/wiki/John_Barbirolli \"John Barbirolli\").\"Audience Cheers Dr Vaughan Williams: New Symphony Performed\", *The Manchester Guardian*, 3 May 1956, p. 1 The [Ninth](/wiki/Symphony_No._9_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Symphony No. 9 (Vaughan Williams)\"), premiered at a [Royal Philharmonic Society](/wiki/Royal_Philharmonic_Society \"Royal Philharmonic Society\") concert conducted by [Sir Malcolm Sargent](/wiki/Malcolm_Sargent \"Malcolm Sargent\") in April 1958, puzzled critics with its sombre, questing tone, and did not immediately achieve the recognition it later gained.\n\nHaving been in excellent health, Vaughan Williams died suddenly in the early hours of 26 August 1958 at Hanover Terrace, aged 85\\.[\"Ralph Vaughan Williams Dies\"](https://www.nytimes.com/1958/08/27/archives/ralph-vaughan-williams-dies-dean-of-british-composers-85-grand-old.html), *The New York Times*, 27 August 1958, p. 1 Two days later, after a private funeral at [Golders Green](/wiki/Golders_Green_Crematorium \"Golders Green Crematorium\"), he was cremated. On 19 September, at a crowded memorial service, his ashes were interred near the burial plots of Purcell and Stanford in the north choir aisle of Westminster Abbey.\"Dr. Ralph Vaughan Williams: Abbey Commemoration\", *The Times*, 20 September 1958, p. 8[\"Sir Charles Villiers Stanford\"](http://www.westminster-abbey.org/our-history/people/sir-charles-villiers-stanford) and [\"Ralph Vaughan Williams\"](http://westminster-abbey.org/our-history/people/ralph-vaughan-williams) , Westminster Abbey, retrieved 19 October 2015\n\n", "Music\n-----\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.4\\|alt\\=Page of printed musical score\\|Opening of *Fantasia on a Theme by Thomas Tallis*, 1910](/wiki/File:Tallis-fantasia-page1.jpg \"Tallis-fantasia-page1.jpg\")\nMichael Kennedy characterises Vaughan Williams's music as a strongly individual blending of the modal harmonies familiar from folk‐song with the French influence of Ravel and Debussy. The basis of his work is melody, his rhythms, in Kennedy's view, being unsubtle at times.Kennedy, Michael (ed). [\"Vaughan Williams, Ralph\"](http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/opr/t237/e10634), *The Oxford Dictionary of Music*, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, retrieved 10 October 2015 Vaughan Williams's music is often described as visionary; Kennedy cites the masque *Job* and the Fifth and Ninth Symphonies. Vaughan Williams's output was prolific and wide\\-ranging. For the voice he composed songs, operas, and choral works ranging from simpler pieces suitable for amateurs to demanding works for professional choruses. His comparatively few chamber works are not among his better\\-known compositions.Mark, p. 179 Some of his finest works elude conventional categorisation, such as the *[Serenade to Music](/wiki/Serenade_to_Music \"Serenade to Music\")* (1938\\) for sixteen solo singers and orchestra; *Flos Campi* (1925\\) for solo viola, small orchestra, and small chorus; and his most important chamber work, in Howes's view—not purely instrumental but a song cycle—*On Wenlock Edge* (1909\\) with accompaniment for string quartet and piano.\n\nIn 1955 the authors of *The Record Guide*, [Edward Sackville\\-West](/wiki/Edward_Sackville-West%2C_5th_Baron_Sackville \"Edward Sackville-West, 5th Baron Sackville\") and [Desmond Shawe\\-Taylor](/wiki/Desmond_Shawe-Taylor_%28music_critic%29 \"Desmond Shawe-Taylor (music critic)\"), wrote that Vaughan Williams's music showed an exceptionally strong individual voice: Vaughan Williams's style is \"not remarkable for grace or politeness or inventive colour\", but expresses \"a consistent vision in which thought and feeling and their equivalent images in music never fall below a certain high level of natural distinction\". They commented that the composer's vision is expressed in two main contrasting moods: \"the one contemplative and trance\\-like, the other pugnacious and sinister\". The first mood, generally predominant in the composer's output, was more popular, as audiences preferred \"the stained\\-glass beauty of the Tallis Fantasia, the direct melodic appeal of the *Serenade to Music*, the pastoral poetry of *The Lark Ascending*, and the grave serenity of the Fifth Symphony\". By contrast, as in the ferocity of the Fourth and Sixth Symphonies and the Concerto for Two Pianos: \"in his grimmer moods Vaughan Williams can be as frightening as Sibelius and [Bartók](/wiki/B%C3%A9la_Bart%C3%B3k \"Béla Bartók\")\".Sackville\\-West and Shawe\\-Taylor, p. 786\n\n### Symphonies\n\nIt is as a symphonist that Vaughan Williams is best known. The composer and academic [Elliott Schwartz](/wiki/Elliott_Schwartz \"Elliott Schwartz\") wrote (1964\\), \"It may be said with truth that Vaughan Williams, [Sibelius](/wiki/Jean_Sibelius \"Jean Sibelius\") and [Prokofieff](/wiki/Sergei_Prokofiev \"Sergei Prokofiev\") are the symphonists of this century\".Schwartz, p. 201 Although Vaughan Williams did not complete the first of them until he was thirty\\-eight years old, the nine symphonies span nearly half a century of his creative life. In his 1964 analysis of the nine, Schwartz found it striking that no two of the symphonies are alike, either in structure or in mood.Schwartz, p. 17 Commentators have found it useful to consider the nine in three groups of three—early, middle and late.\n\n#### *Sea*, *London* and *Pastoral* Symphonies (1910–1922\\)\n\nThe first three symphonies, to which Vaughan Williams assigned titles rather than numbers, form a sub\\-group within the nine, having [programmatic](/wiki/Programme_music \"Programme music\") elements absent from the later six.Schwartz, p. 18\n\n*[A Sea Symphony](/wiki/A_Sea_Symphony \"A Sea Symphony\")* (1910\\), the only one of the series to include a part for full choir, differs from most earlier [choral symphonies](/wiki/Choral_symphony \"Choral symphony\") in that the choir sings in all the movements. The extent to which it is a true symphony has been debated; in a 2013 study, Alain Frogley describes it as a hybrid work, with elements of symphony, oratorio and cantata.Frogley, p. 93 Its sheer length—about eighty minutes—was unprecedented for an English symphonic work, and within its thoroughly tonal construction it contains harmonic dissonances that pre\\-echo the early works of [Stravinsky](/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky \"Igor Stravinsky\") which were soon to follow.Frogley, pp. 93–94\n*[A London Symphony](/wiki/A_London_Symphony \"A London Symphony\")* (1911–1913\\) which the composer later observed might more accurately be called a \"symphony by a Londoner\",Thomson, p. 73 is for the most part not overtly pictorial in its presentation of London. Vaughan Williams insisted that it is \"self\\-expressive, and must stand or fall as 'absolute' music\".McVeagh, p. 115 There are some references to the urban soundscape: brief impressions of street music, with the sound of the [barrel organ](/wiki/Barrel_organ \"Barrel organ\") mimicked by the orchestra; the characteristic [chant](/wiki/Street_cries \"Street cries\") of the lavender\\-seller; the jingle of [hansom cabs](/wiki/Hansom_cab \"Hansom cab\"); and the chimes of [Big Ben](/wiki/Big_Ben \"Big Ben\") played by harp and clarinet.Frogley, p. 97 But commentators have heard—and the composer never denied or confirmed—some social comment in sinister echoes at the end of the scherzo and an orchestral outburst of pain and despair at the opening of the finale.Kennedy (1980\\), p. 139 Schwartz comments that the symphony, in its \"unified presentation of widely heterogeneous elements\", is \"very much like the city itself\".Schwartz, p. 57 Vaughan Williams said in his later years that this was his favourite of the symphonies.\n\nThe last of the first group is *[A Pastoral Symphony](/wiki/Pastoral_Symphony_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Pastoral Symphony (Vaughan Williams)\")* (1921\\). The first three movements are for orchestra alone; a wordless solo soprano or tenor voice is added in the finale. Despite the title the symphony draws little on the folk\\-songs beloved of the composer, and the pastoral landscape evoked is not a tranquil English scene, but the French countryside ravaged by war.Kennedy (2008\\), p. 36 Some English musicians who had not fought in the First World War misunderstood the work and heard only the slow tempi and quiet tone, failing to notice the character of a requiem in the music and mistaking the piece for a rustic idyll. Kennedy comments that it was not until after the Second World War that \"the spectral 'Last Post' in the second movement and the girl's lamenting voice in the finale\" were widely noticed and understood.\n\n#### Symphonies 4–6 (1935–1948\\)\n\nThe middle three symphonies are purely orchestral, and generally conventional in form, with [sonata form](/wiki/Sonata_form \"Sonata form\") (modified in places), specified [home keys](/wiki/Tonic_%28music%29 \"Tonic (music)\"), and four\\-movement structure.Schwartz, pp. 75, 78, 80, 84, 90, 93, 97, 100, 106, 110, 114 and 117 The orchestral forces required are not large by the standards of the first half of the 20th century, although the Fourth calls for an augmented woodwind section and the Sixth includes a part for [tenor saxophone](/wiki/Tenor_saxophone \"Tenor saxophone\").[\"Symphony No.4 in F minor (Vaughan Williams, Ralph)\"](http://imslp.org/wiki/Symphony_No.4_in_F_minor_(Vaughan_Williams,_Ralph)) ; and [\"Symphony No.6 in E minor (Vaughan Williams, Ralph)\"](http://imslp.org/wiki/Symphony_No.6_in_E_minor_(Vaughan_Williams,_Ralph)) , International Music Score Library Project, retrieved 11 October 2015 The [Fourth Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._4_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Symphony No. 4 (Vaughan Williams)\") (1935\\) astonished listeners with its striking dissonance, far removed from the prevailing quiet tone of the previous symphony.Schwartz, p. 88 The composer firmly contradicted any notions that the work was programmatical in any respect, and Kennedy calls attempts to give the work \"a meretricious programme ... a poor compliment to its musical vitality and self\\-sufficiency\".Kennedy (1980\\), p. 268\n\nThe [Fifth Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._5_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Symphony No. 5 (Vaughan Williams)\") (1943\\) was in complete contrast to its predecessor. Vaughan Williams had been working on and off for many years on his operatic version of Bunyan's *The Pilgrim's Progress*. Fearing—wrongly as it turned out—that the opera would never be completed, Vaughan Williams reworked some of the music already written for it into a new symphony. Despite the internal tensions caused by the deliberate conflict of modality in places, the work is generally serene in character, and was particularly well received for the comfort it gave at a time of all\\-out war.Cox, pp. 122–123; and Schwartz. p. 104 [Neville Cardus](/wiki/Neville_Cardus \"Neville Cardus\") later wrote, \"The Fifth Symphony contains the most benedictory and consoling music of our time.\"Cardus, Neville, \"The Measure of Vaughan Williams\", *[The Saturday Review](/wiki/Saturday_Review_%28U.S._magazine%29 \"Saturday Review (U.S. magazine)\")*, 31 July 1954, p. 45\n\nWith the [Sixth Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._6_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Symphony No. 6 (Vaughan Williams)\") (1948\\) Vaughan Williams once again confounded expectations. Many had seen the Fifth, composed when he was seventy, as a valedictory work, and the turbulent, troubled Sixth came as a shock. After violent orchestral clashes in the first movement, the obsessive *[ostinato](/wiki/Ostinato \"Ostinato\")* of the second and the \"diabolic\" scherzo, the finale perplexed many listeners. Described as \"one of the strangest journeys ever undertaken in music\",Cox, p. 111 it is marked *pianissimo* throughout its 10–12\\-minute duration.\n\n#### *Sinfonia antartica*, Symphonies 8 and 9 (1952–1957\\)\n\nThe seventh symphony, the *[Sinfonia antartica](/wiki/Sinfonia_antartica \"Sinfonia antartica\")* (1952\\), a by\\-product of the composer's score for *Scott of the Antarctic*, has consistently divided critical opinion on whether it can be properly classed as a symphony.Schwartz, p. 135 Alain Frogley in *Grove* argues that though the work can make a deep impression on the listener, it is neither a true symphony in the understood sense of the term nor a tone poem and is consequently the least successful of the mature symphonies. The work is in five movements, with wordless vocal lines for female chorus and solo soprano in the first and last movements.Ottaway, Hugh and Alain Frogley. [\"Vaughan Williams, Ralph\"](http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/42507), *Grove Music Online*, Oxford University Press, retrieved 10 October 2015 In addition to large woodwind and percussion sections the score features a prominent part for [wind machine](/wiki/Wind_machine \"Wind machine\").Schwartz, p. 121\n\nThe [Eighth Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._8_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Symphony No. 8 (Vaughan Williams)\") (1956\\) in D minor is noticeably different from its seven predecessors by virtue of its brevity and, despite its minor key, its general light\\-heartedness. The orchestra is smaller than for most of the symphonies, with the exception of the percussion section, which is particularly large, with, as Vaughan Williams put it, \"all the 'phones' and 'spiels' known to the composer\".Kennedy (2013\\), p. 293 The work was enthusiastically received at its early performances, and has remained among Vaughan Williams's most popular works.Schwartz, p. 150\n\nThe final symphony, the [Ninth](/wiki/Symphony_No._9_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Symphony No. 9 (Vaughan Williams)\"), was completed in late 1957 and premiered in April 1958, four months before the composer's death. It is scored for a large orchestra, including three saxophones, a [flugelhorn](/wiki/Flugelhorn \"Flugelhorn\"), and an enlarged percussion section. The mood is more sombre than that of the Eighth; *Grove* calls its mood \"at once heroic and contemplative, defiant and wistfully absorbed\". The work received an ovation at its premiere,[\"Ninth Symphony by Vaughan Williams Cheered at World Premiere in London\"](https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9E06E7DF1E3FE43BBC4B53DFB2668383649EDE), *The New York Times*, 3 April 1958, p. 22 but at first the critics were not sure what to make of it, and it took some years for it to be generally ranked alongside its eight predecessors.Kennedy (2013\\), pp. 296–297\n\n### Other orchestral music\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\|alt\\=Drawing of a man in early middle age, clean shaven, with a good head of hair, looking towards the viewer\\|Vaughan Williams in 1919, by [William Rothenstein](/wiki/William_Rothenstein \"William Rothenstein\")](/wiki/File:Vaughan-Williams-by-Rothenstein.jpg \"Vaughan-Williams-by-Rothenstein.jpg\")\n\n*Grove* lists more than thirty works by Vaughan Williams for orchestra or band over and above the symphonies. They include two of his most popular works—the *[Fantasia on a Theme by Thomas Tallis](/wiki/Fantasia_on_a_Theme_by_Thomas_Tallis \"Fantasia on a Theme by Thomas Tallis\")* (1910, revised 1919\\), and *[The Lark Ascending](/wiki/The_Lark_Ascending_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"The Lark Ascending (Vaughan Williams)\")*, originally for violin and piano (1914\\); orchestrated 1920\\.Foreman, p. 19 Other works that survive in the repertoire in Britain are the *Norfolk Rhapsody No 1* (1905–1906\\), *The Wasps, Aristophanic suite*—particularly the overture (1909\\), the *[English Folk Song Suite](/wiki/English_Folk_Song_Suite \"English Folk Song Suite\")* (1923\\) and the *Fantasia on Greensleeves* (1934\\).\n\nVaughan Williams wrote four concertos: for violin (1925\\), [piano](/wiki/Piano_Concerto_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Piano Concerto (Vaughan Williams)\") (1926\\), [oboe](/wiki/Oboe_Concerto_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Oboe Concerto (Vaughan Williams)\") (1944\\) and [tuba](/wiki/Tuba_Concerto_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Tuba Concerto (Vaughan Williams)\") (1954\\); another concertante piece is his Romance for [harmonica](/wiki/Harmonica \"Harmonica\"), strings and piano (1951\\). None of these works has rivalled the popularity of the symphonies or the short orchestral works mentioned above. Bartók was among the admirers of the Piano Concerto, written for and championed by [Harriet Cohen](/wiki/Harriet_Cohen \"Harriet Cohen\"), but it has remained, in the words of the critic Andrew Achenbach, a neglected masterpiece.Achenbach, p. 45\n\nIn addition to the music for *Scott of the Antarctic*, Vaughan Williams composed incidental music for eleven other films, from *49th Parallel* (1941\\) to *The Vision of William Blake* (1957\\).\n\n### Chamber and instrumental\n\nBy comparison with his output in other genres, Vaughan Williams's music for chamber ensembles and solo instruments forms a small part of his oeuvre. *Grove* lists twenty\\-four pieces under the heading \"Chamber and instrumental\"; three are early, unpublished works. Vaughan Williams, like most leading British 20th\\-century composers, was not drawn to the solo piano and wrote little for it. From his mature years, there survive for standard chamber groupings two string quartets (1908–1909, revised 1921; and 1943–1944\\), a \"phantasy\" string quintet (1912\\), and a sonata for violin and piano (1954\\). The first quartet was written soon after Vaughan Williams's studies in Paris with Ravel, whose influence is strongly evident. In 2002 the magazine *[Gramophone](/wiki/Gramophone_%28magazine%29 \"Gramophone (magazine)\")* described the second quartet as a masterpiece that should be, but is not, part of the international chamber repertory.Roach, p. 1047 It is from the same period as the Sixth Symphony, and has something of that work's severity and anguish.Mark, p. 194 The quintet (1912\\) was written two years after the success of the *Tallis Fantasia*, with which it has elements in common, both in terms of instrumental layout and the mood of rapt contemplation.Mark, pp. 182–183 The violin sonata has made little impact.Mark, pp. 195–196\n\n### Vocal music\n\nUrsula Vaughan Williams wrote of her husband's love of literature, and listed some of his favourite writers and writings:\n\nIn addition to his love of poetry, Vaughan Williams's vocal music is inspired by his lifelong belief that the voice \"can be made the medium of the best and deepest human emotion.\"Manning, p. 28\n\n#### Songs\n\nBetween the mid\\-1890s and the late 1950s Vaughan Williams set more than eighty poems for voice and piano accompaniment. The earliest to survive is \"A Cradle Song\", to [Coleridge](/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge \"Samuel Taylor Coleridge\")'s words, from about 1894\\. The songs include many that have entered the repertory, such as \"Linden Lea\" (1902\\), \"Silent Noon\" (1904\\) and the song cycles *[Songs of Travel](/wiki/Songs_of_Travel \"Songs of Travel\")* (1905 and 1907\\) and *On Wenlock Edge*.Fuller, pp. 106–107 To Vaughan Williams the human voice was \"the oldest and greatest of musical instruments\".Vaughan Williams, Ralph. \"The Composer in Wartime\", *[The Listener](/wiki/The_Listener_%28magazine%29 \"The Listener (magazine)\")*, 1940, *quoted* in Fuller, p. 106 He described his early songs as \"more or less simple and popular in character\",Cobbe, p. 41 and the musicologist Sophie Fuller describes this simplicity and popularity as consistent throughout his career.Fuller, p. 108 Many composers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries wrote sentimental works for female voice; by contrast, songs by Vaughan Williams, such as \"The Vagabond\" from *Songs of Travel*, to words by [Robert Louis Stevenson](/wiki/Robert_Louis_Stevenson \"Robert Louis Stevenson\"), are \"a particularly masculine breath of fresh air\" (Fuller), \"virile open\\-air verses\" (Kennedy).Fuller, p. 114 and Kennedy (1980\\), p. 80 Some of Vaughan Williams's later songs are less well known; Fuller singles out the cycle *Three Poems by Walt Whitman*, a largely dark work, as too often overlooked by singers and critics.Fuller, p. 118 For some of his songs the composer expands the accompaniment to include two or more string instruments in addition to the piano; they include *On Wenlock Edge*, and the Chaucer cycle *Merciless Beauty* (1921\\), judged by an anonymous contemporary critic as \"surely among the best of modern English songs\".\n\n#### Choral music\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|alt\\=Outdoor statue of middle\\-aged man with raised arms as if conducting an orchestra\\|Statue of Vaughan Williams by [William Fawke](/wiki/William_Fawke \"William Fawke\"), [Dorking](/wiki/Dorking \"Dorking\")](/wiki/File:Ralph_Vaughan_William_staute_in_Dorking%2C_top.jpg \"Ralph Vaughan William staute in Dorking, top.jpg\") Despite his agnosticism Vaughan Williams composed many works for church performance. His two best known hymn tunes, both from c. 1905, are \"Down Ampney\" to the words \"[Come Down, O Love Divine](/wiki/Come_Down%2C_O_Love_Divine \"Come Down, O Love Divine\")\", and \"*Sine nomine*\" \"[For All the Saints](/wiki/For_All_the_Saints \"For All the Saints\")\".Kennedy (1980\\), p. 85 *Grove* lists a dozen more, composed between 1905 and 1935\\. Other church works include a *Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis* (1925\\), the [Mass in G minor](/wiki/Mass_in_G_minor_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Mass in G minor (Vaughan Williams)\") (1920–1921\\), a Te Deum (1928\\) and the motets *[O Clap Your Hands](/wiki/O_clap_your_hands_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"O clap your hands (Vaughan Williams)\")* (1920\\), *Lord, Thou hast been our Refuge* (1921\\) and *O Taste and See* (1953, first performed at the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II).Kennedy (1980\\), pp. 412 and 428\n\nVaughan Williams's choral works for concert performance include settings of both secular and religious words. The former include *Toward the Unknown Region* to words by Whitman (composed 1904–1906\\), *[Five Tudor Portraits](/wiki/Five_Tudor_Portraits \"Five Tudor Portraits\")*, words by John Skelton (1935\\), and the Shakespearean *Serenade to Music* (in its alternative version for chorus and orchestra, 1938\\). Choral pieces with religious words include the oratorio *[Sancta Civitas](/wiki/Sancta_Civitas \"Sancta Civitas\")* (1923–1925\\) and the Christmas cantata *[Hodie](/wiki/Hodie \"Hodie\")* (1954\\). In 1953 the composer said that of his choral works *Sancta Civitas* was his favourite.Steinberg, p. 297 The *[Dona Nobis Pacem](/wiki/Dona_nobis_pacem_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Dona nobis pacem (Vaughan Williams)\")*, an impassioned anti\\-war cantata (1936\\) is a combination of both, with words from Whitman and others juxtaposed with extracts from the Latin mass, anticipating a similar mixture of sacred and secular text in [Britten](/wiki/Benjamin_Britten \"Benjamin Britten\")'s *[War Requiem](/wiki/War_Requiem \"War Requiem\")* twenty\\-five years later.Kennedy (1980\\), p. 254\n\n### Stage works\n\nVaughan Williams was wary of conventional labels; his best known ballet is described on the title page as \"a masque for dancing\" and only one of his operatic works is categorised by the composer simply as an opera. For some of his theatre pieces that could be classed as operas or ballets, he preferred the terms \"masque\", \"romantic extravaganza\", \"play set to music\", or \"morality\".\n\nIn a 2013 survey of Vaughan Williams's stage works, Eric Saylor writes, \"With the possible exception of [Tchaikovsky](/wiki/Peter_Ilyitch_Tchaikovsky \"Peter Ilyitch Tchaikovsky\"), no composer's operatic career was less emblematic of his success elsewhere.\"Saylor, p. 157 Although Vaughan Williams was a regular opera\\-goer, enthusiastic and knowledgeable about works by operatic masters from [Mozart](/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart \"Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart\") to Wagner and [Verdi](/wiki/Giuseppe_Verdi \"Giuseppe Verdi\"), his success in the operatic field was at best patchy. There is widespread agreement among commentators that this was partly due to the composer's poor choice of librettists for some, though not all, of his operas.Kennedy (1980\\), pp. 179 and 276; and Saylor, pp. 157 and 161 Another problem was his keenness to encourage amateurs and student groups, which sometimes led to the staging of his operas with less than professional standards. A further factor was the composer's expressed preference for \"slow, long *tableaux*\", which tended to reduce dramatic impact, although he believed them essential, as \"music takes a long time to speak—much longer than words by themselves.\"Cobbe, p. 73\n\n*Hugh the Drover, or Love in the Stocks* (completed 1919, premiere 1924\\) has a libretto, by the writer and theatre critic Harold Child, which was described by *[The Stage](/wiki/The_Stage \"The Stage\")* as \"replete with folksy, Cotswold village archetypes\".Gutman, David. [\"Hugh the Drover\"](http://search.proquest.com/docview/850701387), *The Stage*, 25 November 2010, retrieved 13 October 2015 In the view of the critic [Richard Traubner](/wiki/Richard_Traubner \"Richard Traubner\") the piece is a cross between traditional ballad opera and the works of Puccini and Ravel, \"with rhapsodic results.\" The score uses genuine and pastiche folk\\-songs but ends with a passionate love duet that Traubner considers has few equals in English opera.Traubner, Richard. [\"Vaughan Williams: Riders to the Sea and Hugh the Drover\"](https://search.proquest.com/docview/1783409), *Opera News*, 17 February 1996, p. 40 Its first performance was by students at the Royal College of Music, and the work is rarely staged by major professional companies.\n\n*Old King Cole* (1923\\) is a humorous ballet. The score, which makes liberal use of folk\\-song melodies, was thought by critics to be strikingly modern when first heard. Kennedy comments that the music \"is not a major work but it is fun.\" The piece has not been seen frequently since its premiere, but was revived in a student production at the RCM in 1937\\.\"Royal College of Music\", *The Times*, 2 December 1937, p. 12\n\n*On Christmas Night* (1926\\), a masque by [Adolph Bolm](/wiki/Adolph_Bolm \"Adolph Bolm\") and Vaughan Williams, combines singing, dancing and mime. The story is loosely based on [Dickens](/wiki/Charles_Dickens \"Charles Dickens\")'s *[A Christmas Carol](/wiki/A_Christmas_Carol \"A Christmas Carol\")*.Kennedy (1980\\), p. 415 The piece was first given in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\") by Bolm's company; the London premiere was in 1935\\. Saylor describes the work as a \"dramatic hodgepodge\" which has not attracted the interest of later performers.Saylor, p. 163\n\nThe only work that the composer designated as an opera is the comedy *Sir John in Love* (1924–1928\\). It is based on [Shakespeare](/wiki/William_Shakespeare \"William Shakespeare\")'s *[The Merry Wives of Windsor](/wiki/The_Merry_Wives_of_Windsor \"The Merry Wives of Windsor\")*. Folk\\-song is used, though more discreetly than in *Hugh the Drover*, and the score is described by Saylor as \"ravishingly tuneful\".Saylor, p. 159 Although versions of the play had already been set by [Nicolai](/wiki/Otto_Nicolai \"Otto Nicolai\"), Verdi, and Holst, Vaughan Williams's is distinctive for its greater emphasis on the love music rather than on the robust comedy.Kennedy (1980\\), p. 218 In 1931, with the Leith Hill Festival in mind, the composer recast some of the music as a five\\-section cantata, *In Windsor Forest*, giving the public \"the plums and no cake\", as he put it.Kennedy, Michael (1981\\). Notes to EMI CD CDM 5 65131 2, OCLC 36534224\n\n*[The Poisoned Kiss](/wiki/The_Poisoned_Kiss \"The Poisoned Kiss\")* (1927–1929, premiered in 1936\\) is a light comedy. Vaughan Williams knew the [Savoy operas](/wiki/Savoy_operas \"Savoy operas\") well,Vaughan Williams (1964\\), pp. 289, 315 and 334 and his music for this piece was and is widely regarded as in the [Sullivan](/wiki/Arthur_Sullivan \"Arthur Sullivan\") vein.Hughes, pp. 232–233; and Greenfield, Edward. \"Vaughan Williams: *The Poisoned Kiss*\", *[Gramophone](/wiki/Gramophone_%28magazine%29 \"Gramophone (magazine)\")*, January 2004, p. 77 The words, by an inexperienced librettist, were judged to fall far short of [Gilbert](/wiki/W._S._Gilbert \"W. S. Gilbert\")'s standards.[Warrack, John](/wiki/John_Warrack \"John Warrack\"). \"Vaughan Williams's *The Poisoned Kiss*\", *[The Musical Times](/wiki/The_Musical_Times \"The Musical Times\")*, June 1956, p. 322 Saylor sums up the critical consensus that the work is something between \"a frothy romantic comedy \\[and] a satirical fairy\\-tale\", and not quite successful in either category.Saylor, p. 161; and Clements, Andrew. [\"Flower power: Vaughan Williams's botanically themed opera reeks of tweeness\"](http://docs.newsbank.com/openurl?ctx_ver=z39.88-2004&rft_id=info:sid/iw.newsbank.com:UKNB:EGLL&rft_val_format=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:ctx&rft_dat=0FEBED8E507A47FD&svc_dat=InfoWeb:aggregated5&req_dat=102CDD40F14C6BDA) , *The Guardian*, 7 November 2003\n\n[alt\\=19th century engraving showing the Old Testament character Job, and his hypocritical comforters\\|thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.0\\|left\\|[William Blake](/wiki/William_Blake \"William Blake\")'s engraving of [Job](/wiki/Job_%28biblical_figure%29 \"Job (biblical figure)\") and his comforters](/wiki/File:Blake-Job%27s-Comforters.jpg \"Blake-Job's-Comforters.jpg\")\n*Job: A Masque for Dancing* (1930\\) was the first large\\-scale ballet by a modern British composer.Kennedy, Michael (ed). [\"Ballet\"](http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/opr/t237/e788) , *The Oxford Dictionary of Music*, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, retrieved 13 October 2015 Vaughan Williams's liking for long *tableaux*, however disadvantageous in his operas, worked to successful effect in this ballet. The work is inspired by [William Blake](/wiki/William_Blake \"William Blake\")'s *[Illustrations of the Book of Job](/wiki/William_Blake%27s_Illustrations_of_the_Book_of_Job \"William Blake's Illustrations of the Book of Job\")* (1826\\). The score is divided into nine sections and an epilogue, presenting dance interpretations of some of Blake's engravings.Weltzien, pp. 335–336 The work, choreographed by [Ninette de Valois](/wiki/Ninette_de_Valois \"Ninette de Valois\"), made a powerful impression at its early stagings, and has been revived by the [Royal Ballet](/wiki/Royal_Ballet \"Royal Ballet\") several times.[\"Job\"](http://www.rohcollections.org.uk/Work.aspx?work=844) , Royal Opera House performance database, retrieved 13 October 2015 Kennedy ranks the score as \"one of Vaughan Williams's mightiest achievements\", and notes that it is familiar in concert programmes, having \"the stature and cohesion of a symphony.\"Kennedy (1980\\), pp. 221 and 224\n\nIn Kennedy's view the one\\-act *Riders to the Sea* (1925–1931, premiered 1937\\) is artistically Vaughan Williams's most successful opera; Saylor names *Sir John in Love* for that distinction, but rates *Riders to the Sea* as one of the composer's finest works in any genre.Kennedy (1980\\), p. 427; and Saylor, p. 159 It is an almost verbatim setting of [J. M. Synge](/wiki/J._M._Synge \"J. M. Synge\")'s 1902 play of the same name, depicting family tragedy in an Irish fishing village. Kennedy describes the score as \"organized almost symphonically\" with much of the thematic material developed from the brief prelude. The orchestration is subtle, and foreshadows the ghostly finale of the Sixth Symphony; there are also pre\\-echoes of the *Sinfonia antartica* in the lamenting voices of the women and in the sound of the sea.Kennedy (1997\\) pp. 427–428\n\n*The Bridal Day* (1938–1939\\) is a masque, to a scenario by Ursula, combining voice, mime and dance, first performed in 1953 on [BBC](/wiki/BBC \"BBC\") television. Vaughan Williams later recast it a [cantata](/wiki/Cantata \"Cantata\"), *Epithalamion* (1957\\).Kennedy (1980\\) pp. 421 and 431\n\n*The Pilgrim's Progress* (1951\\), the composer's last opera, was the culmination of more than forty years' intermittent work on the theme of Bunyan's religious allegory. Vaughan Williams had written incidental music for an amateur dramatisation in 1906, and had returned to the theme in 1921 with the one\\-act *The Shepherds of the Delectable Mountains* (finally incorporated, with amendments, into the 1951 opera). The work has been criticised for a preponderance of slow music and stretches lacking in dramatic action,Kennedy (1997\\), p. 428 but some commentators believe the work to be one of Vaughan Williams's supreme achievements. Summaries of the music vary from \"beautiful, if something of a stylistic jumble\" (Saylor) to \"a synthesis of Vaughan Williams's stylistic progress over the years, from the pastoral mediation of the 1920s to the angry music of the middle symphonies and eventually the more experimental phase of the *Sinfonia antartica* in his last decade\" (Kennedy).Saylor, p. 174\n\n", "### Symphonies\n\nIt is as a symphonist that Vaughan Williams is best known. The composer and academic [Elliott Schwartz](/wiki/Elliott_Schwartz \"Elliott Schwartz\") wrote (1964\\), \"It may be said with truth that Vaughan Williams, [Sibelius](/wiki/Jean_Sibelius \"Jean Sibelius\") and [Prokofieff](/wiki/Sergei_Prokofiev \"Sergei Prokofiev\") are the symphonists of this century\".Schwartz, p. 201 Although Vaughan Williams did not complete the first of them until he was thirty\\-eight years old, the nine symphonies span nearly half a century of his creative life. In his 1964 analysis of the nine, Schwartz found it striking that no two of the symphonies are alike, either in structure or in mood.Schwartz, p. 17 Commentators have found it useful to consider the nine in three groups of three—early, middle and late.\n\n#### *Sea*, *London* and *Pastoral* Symphonies (1910–1922\\)\n\nThe first three symphonies, to which Vaughan Williams assigned titles rather than numbers, form a sub\\-group within the nine, having [programmatic](/wiki/Programme_music \"Programme music\") elements absent from the later six.Schwartz, p. 18\n\n*[A Sea Symphony](/wiki/A_Sea_Symphony \"A Sea Symphony\")* (1910\\), the only one of the series to include a part for full choir, differs from most earlier [choral symphonies](/wiki/Choral_symphony \"Choral symphony\") in that the choir sings in all the movements. The extent to which it is a true symphony has been debated; in a 2013 study, Alain Frogley describes it as a hybrid work, with elements of symphony, oratorio and cantata.Frogley, p. 93 Its sheer length—about eighty minutes—was unprecedented for an English symphonic work, and within its thoroughly tonal construction it contains harmonic dissonances that pre\\-echo the early works of [Stravinsky](/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky \"Igor Stravinsky\") which were soon to follow.Frogley, pp. 93–94\n*[A London Symphony](/wiki/A_London_Symphony \"A London Symphony\")* (1911–1913\\) which the composer later observed might more accurately be called a \"symphony by a Londoner\",Thomson, p. 73 is for the most part not overtly pictorial in its presentation of London. Vaughan Williams insisted that it is \"self\\-expressive, and must stand or fall as 'absolute' music\".McVeagh, p. 115 There are some references to the urban soundscape: brief impressions of street music, with the sound of the [barrel organ](/wiki/Barrel_organ \"Barrel organ\") mimicked by the orchestra; the characteristic [chant](/wiki/Street_cries \"Street cries\") of the lavender\\-seller; the jingle of [hansom cabs](/wiki/Hansom_cab \"Hansom cab\"); and the chimes of [Big Ben](/wiki/Big_Ben \"Big Ben\") played by harp and clarinet.Frogley, p. 97 But commentators have heard—and the composer never denied or confirmed—some social comment in sinister echoes at the end of the scherzo and an orchestral outburst of pain and despair at the opening of the finale.Kennedy (1980\\), p. 139 Schwartz comments that the symphony, in its \"unified presentation of widely heterogeneous elements\", is \"very much like the city itself\".Schwartz, p. 57 Vaughan Williams said in his later years that this was his favourite of the symphonies.\n\nThe last of the first group is *[A Pastoral Symphony](/wiki/Pastoral_Symphony_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Pastoral Symphony (Vaughan Williams)\")* (1921\\). The first three movements are for orchestra alone; a wordless solo soprano or tenor voice is added in the finale. Despite the title the symphony draws little on the folk\\-songs beloved of the composer, and the pastoral landscape evoked is not a tranquil English scene, but the French countryside ravaged by war.Kennedy (2008\\), p. 36 Some English musicians who had not fought in the First World War misunderstood the work and heard only the slow tempi and quiet tone, failing to notice the character of a requiem in the music and mistaking the piece for a rustic idyll. Kennedy comments that it was not until after the Second World War that \"the spectral 'Last Post' in the second movement and the girl's lamenting voice in the finale\" were widely noticed and understood.\n\n#### Symphonies 4–6 (1935–1948\\)\n\nThe middle three symphonies are purely orchestral, and generally conventional in form, with [sonata form](/wiki/Sonata_form \"Sonata form\") (modified in places), specified [home keys](/wiki/Tonic_%28music%29 \"Tonic (music)\"), and four\\-movement structure.Schwartz, pp. 75, 78, 80, 84, 90, 93, 97, 100, 106, 110, 114 and 117 The orchestral forces required are not large by the standards of the first half of the 20th century, although the Fourth calls for an augmented woodwind section and the Sixth includes a part for [tenor saxophone](/wiki/Tenor_saxophone \"Tenor saxophone\").[\"Symphony No.4 in F minor (Vaughan Williams, Ralph)\"](http://imslp.org/wiki/Symphony_No.4_in_F_minor_(Vaughan_Williams,_Ralph)) ; and [\"Symphony No.6 in E minor (Vaughan Williams, Ralph)\"](http://imslp.org/wiki/Symphony_No.6_in_E_minor_(Vaughan_Williams,_Ralph)) , International Music Score Library Project, retrieved 11 October 2015 The [Fourth Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._4_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Symphony No. 4 (Vaughan Williams)\") (1935\\) astonished listeners with its striking dissonance, far removed from the prevailing quiet tone of the previous symphony.Schwartz, p. 88 The composer firmly contradicted any notions that the work was programmatical in any respect, and Kennedy calls attempts to give the work \"a meretricious programme ... a poor compliment to its musical vitality and self\\-sufficiency\".Kennedy (1980\\), p. 268\n\nThe [Fifth Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._5_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Symphony No. 5 (Vaughan Williams)\") (1943\\) was in complete contrast to its predecessor. Vaughan Williams had been working on and off for many years on his operatic version of Bunyan's *The Pilgrim's Progress*. Fearing—wrongly as it turned out—that the opera would never be completed, Vaughan Williams reworked some of the music already written for it into a new symphony. Despite the internal tensions caused by the deliberate conflict of modality in places, the work is generally serene in character, and was particularly well received for the comfort it gave at a time of all\\-out war.Cox, pp. 122–123; and Schwartz. p. 104 [Neville Cardus](/wiki/Neville_Cardus \"Neville Cardus\") later wrote, \"The Fifth Symphony contains the most benedictory and consoling music of our time.\"Cardus, Neville, \"The Measure of Vaughan Williams\", *[The Saturday Review](/wiki/Saturday_Review_%28U.S._magazine%29 \"Saturday Review (U.S. magazine)\")*, 31 July 1954, p. 45\n\nWith the [Sixth Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._6_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Symphony No. 6 (Vaughan Williams)\") (1948\\) Vaughan Williams once again confounded expectations. Many had seen the Fifth, composed when he was seventy, as a valedictory work, and the turbulent, troubled Sixth came as a shock. After violent orchestral clashes in the first movement, the obsessive *[ostinato](/wiki/Ostinato \"Ostinato\")* of the second and the \"diabolic\" scherzo, the finale perplexed many listeners. Described as \"one of the strangest journeys ever undertaken in music\",Cox, p. 111 it is marked *pianissimo* throughout its 10–12\\-minute duration.\n\n#### *Sinfonia antartica*, Symphonies 8 and 9 (1952–1957\\)\n\nThe seventh symphony, the *[Sinfonia antartica](/wiki/Sinfonia_antartica \"Sinfonia antartica\")* (1952\\), a by\\-product of the composer's score for *Scott of the Antarctic*, has consistently divided critical opinion on whether it can be properly classed as a symphony.Schwartz, p. 135 Alain Frogley in *Grove* argues that though the work can make a deep impression on the listener, it is neither a true symphony in the understood sense of the term nor a tone poem and is consequently the least successful of the mature symphonies. The work is in five movements, with wordless vocal lines for female chorus and solo soprano in the first and last movements.Ottaway, Hugh and Alain Frogley. [\"Vaughan Williams, Ralph\"](http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/42507), *Grove Music Online*, Oxford University Press, retrieved 10 October 2015 In addition to large woodwind and percussion sections the score features a prominent part for [wind machine](/wiki/Wind_machine \"Wind machine\").Schwartz, p. 121\n\nThe [Eighth Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._8_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Symphony No. 8 (Vaughan Williams)\") (1956\\) in D minor is noticeably different from its seven predecessors by virtue of its brevity and, despite its minor key, its general light\\-heartedness. The orchestra is smaller than for most of the symphonies, with the exception of the percussion section, which is particularly large, with, as Vaughan Williams put it, \"all the 'phones' and 'spiels' known to the composer\".Kennedy (2013\\), p. 293 The work was enthusiastically received at its early performances, and has remained among Vaughan Williams's most popular works.Schwartz, p. 150\n\nThe final symphony, the [Ninth](/wiki/Symphony_No._9_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Symphony No. 9 (Vaughan Williams)\"), was completed in late 1957 and premiered in April 1958, four months before the composer's death. It is scored for a large orchestra, including three saxophones, a [flugelhorn](/wiki/Flugelhorn \"Flugelhorn\"), and an enlarged percussion section. The mood is more sombre than that of the Eighth; *Grove* calls its mood \"at once heroic and contemplative, defiant and wistfully absorbed\". The work received an ovation at its premiere,[\"Ninth Symphony by Vaughan Williams Cheered at World Premiere in London\"](https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9E06E7DF1E3FE43BBC4B53DFB2668383649EDE), *The New York Times*, 3 April 1958, p. 22 but at first the critics were not sure what to make of it, and it took some years for it to be generally ranked alongside its eight predecessors.Kennedy (2013\\), pp. 296–297\n\n", "#### *Sea*, *London* and *Pastoral* Symphonies (1910–1922\\)\n\nThe first three symphonies, to which Vaughan Williams assigned titles rather than numbers, form a sub\\-group within the nine, having [programmatic](/wiki/Programme_music \"Programme music\") elements absent from the later six.Schwartz, p. 18\n\n*[A Sea Symphony](/wiki/A_Sea_Symphony \"A Sea Symphony\")* (1910\\), the only one of the series to include a part for full choir, differs from most earlier [choral symphonies](/wiki/Choral_symphony \"Choral symphony\") in that the choir sings in all the movements. The extent to which it is a true symphony has been debated; in a 2013 study, Alain Frogley describes it as a hybrid work, with elements of symphony, oratorio and cantata.Frogley, p. 93 Its sheer length—about eighty minutes—was unprecedented for an English symphonic work, and within its thoroughly tonal construction it contains harmonic dissonances that pre\\-echo the early works of [Stravinsky](/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky \"Igor Stravinsky\") which were soon to follow.Frogley, pp. 93–94\n*[A London Symphony](/wiki/A_London_Symphony \"A London Symphony\")* (1911–1913\\) which the composer later observed might more accurately be called a \"symphony by a Londoner\",Thomson, p. 73 is for the most part not overtly pictorial in its presentation of London. Vaughan Williams insisted that it is \"self\\-expressive, and must stand or fall as 'absolute' music\".McVeagh, p. 115 There are some references to the urban soundscape: brief impressions of street music, with the sound of the [barrel organ](/wiki/Barrel_organ \"Barrel organ\") mimicked by the orchestra; the characteristic [chant](/wiki/Street_cries \"Street cries\") of the lavender\\-seller; the jingle of [hansom cabs](/wiki/Hansom_cab \"Hansom cab\"); and the chimes of [Big Ben](/wiki/Big_Ben \"Big Ben\") played by harp and clarinet.Frogley, p. 97 But commentators have heard—and the composer never denied or confirmed—some social comment in sinister echoes at the end of the scherzo and an orchestral outburst of pain and despair at the opening of the finale.Kennedy (1980\\), p. 139 Schwartz comments that the symphony, in its \"unified presentation of widely heterogeneous elements\", is \"very much like the city itself\".Schwartz, p. 57 Vaughan Williams said in his later years that this was his favourite of the symphonies.\n\nThe last of the first group is *[A Pastoral Symphony](/wiki/Pastoral_Symphony_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Pastoral Symphony (Vaughan Williams)\")* (1921\\). The first three movements are for orchestra alone; a wordless solo soprano or tenor voice is added in the finale. Despite the title the symphony draws little on the folk\\-songs beloved of the composer, and the pastoral landscape evoked is not a tranquil English scene, but the French countryside ravaged by war.Kennedy (2008\\), p. 36 Some English musicians who had not fought in the First World War misunderstood the work and heard only the slow tempi and quiet tone, failing to notice the character of a requiem in the music and mistaking the piece for a rustic idyll. Kennedy comments that it was not until after the Second World War that \"the spectral 'Last Post' in the second movement and the girl's lamenting voice in the finale\" were widely noticed and understood.\n\n", "#### Symphonies 4–6 (1935–1948\\)\n\nThe middle three symphonies are purely orchestral, and generally conventional in form, with [sonata form](/wiki/Sonata_form \"Sonata form\") (modified in places), specified [home keys](/wiki/Tonic_%28music%29 \"Tonic (music)\"), and four\\-movement structure.Schwartz, pp. 75, 78, 80, 84, 90, 93, 97, 100, 106, 110, 114 and 117 The orchestral forces required are not large by the standards of the first half of the 20th century, although the Fourth calls for an augmented woodwind section and the Sixth includes a part for [tenor saxophone](/wiki/Tenor_saxophone \"Tenor saxophone\").[\"Symphony No.4 in F minor (Vaughan Williams, Ralph)\"](http://imslp.org/wiki/Symphony_No.4_in_F_minor_(Vaughan_Williams,_Ralph)) ; and [\"Symphony No.6 in E minor (Vaughan Williams, Ralph)\"](http://imslp.org/wiki/Symphony_No.6_in_E_minor_(Vaughan_Williams,_Ralph)) , International Music Score Library Project, retrieved 11 October 2015 The [Fourth Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._4_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Symphony No. 4 (Vaughan Williams)\") (1935\\) astonished listeners with its striking dissonance, far removed from the prevailing quiet tone of the previous symphony.Schwartz, p. 88 The composer firmly contradicted any notions that the work was programmatical in any respect, and Kennedy calls attempts to give the work \"a meretricious programme ... a poor compliment to its musical vitality and self\\-sufficiency\".Kennedy (1980\\), p. 268\n\nThe [Fifth Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._5_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Symphony No. 5 (Vaughan Williams)\") (1943\\) was in complete contrast to its predecessor. Vaughan Williams had been working on and off for many years on his operatic version of Bunyan's *The Pilgrim's Progress*. Fearing—wrongly as it turned out—that the opera would never be completed, Vaughan Williams reworked some of the music already written for it into a new symphony. Despite the internal tensions caused by the deliberate conflict of modality in places, the work is generally serene in character, and was particularly well received for the comfort it gave at a time of all\\-out war.Cox, pp. 122–123; and Schwartz. p. 104 [Neville Cardus](/wiki/Neville_Cardus \"Neville Cardus\") later wrote, \"The Fifth Symphony contains the most benedictory and consoling music of our time.\"Cardus, Neville, \"The Measure of Vaughan Williams\", *[The Saturday Review](/wiki/Saturday_Review_%28U.S._magazine%29 \"Saturday Review (U.S. magazine)\")*, 31 July 1954, p. 45\n\nWith the [Sixth Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._6_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Symphony No. 6 (Vaughan Williams)\") (1948\\) Vaughan Williams once again confounded expectations. Many had seen the Fifth, composed when he was seventy, as a valedictory work, and the turbulent, troubled Sixth came as a shock. After violent orchestral clashes in the first movement, the obsessive *[ostinato](/wiki/Ostinato \"Ostinato\")* of the second and the \"diabolic\" scherzo, the finale perplexed many listeners. Described as \"one of the strangest journeys ever undertaken in music\",Cox, p. 111 it is marked *pianissimo* throughout its 10–12\\-minute duration.\n\n", "#### *Sinfonia antartica*, Symphonies 8 and 9 (1952–1957\\)\n\nThe seventh symphony, the *[Sinfonia antartica](/wiki/Sinfonia_antartica \"Sinfonia antartica\")* (1952\\), a by\\-product of the composer's score for *Scott of the Antarctic*, has consistently divided critical opinion on whether it can be properly classed as a symphony.Schwartz, p. 135 Alain Frogley in *Grove* argues that though the work can make a deep impression on the listener, it is neither a true symphony in the understood sense of the term nor a tone poem and is consequently the least successful of the mature symphonies. The work is in five movements, with wordless vocal lines for female chorus and solo soprano in the first and last movements.Ottaway, Hugh and Alain Frogley. [\"Vaughan Williams, Ralph\"](http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/42507), *Grove Music Online*, Oxford University Press, retrieved 10 October 2015 In addition to large woodwind and percussion sections the score features a prominent part for [wind machine](/wiki/Wind_machine \"Wind machine\").Schwartz, p. 121\n\nThe [Eighth Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._8_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Symphony No. 8 (Vaughan Williams)\") (1956\\) in D minor is noticeably different from its seven predecessors by virtue of its brevity and, despite its minor key, its general light\\-heartedness. The orchestra is smaller than for most of the symphonies, with the exception of the percussion section, which is particularly large, with, as Vaughan Williams put it, \"all the 'phones' and 'spiels' known to the composer\".Kennedy (2013\\), p. 293 The work was enthusiastically received at its early performances, and has remained among Vaughan Williams's most popular works.Schwartz, p. 150\n\nThe final symphony, the [Ninth](/wiki/Symphony_No._9_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Symphony No. 9 (Vaughan Williams)\"), was completed in late 1957 and premiered in April 1958, four months before the composer's death. It is scored for a large orchestra, including three saxophones, a [flugelhorn](/wiki/Flugelhorn \"Flugelhorn\"), and an enlarged percussion section. The mood is more sombre than that of the Eighth; *Grove* calls its mood \"at once heroic and contemplative, defiant and wistfully absorbed\". The work received an ovation at its premiere,[\"Ninth Symphony by Vaughan Williams Cheered at World Premiere in London\"](https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9E06E7DF1E3FE43BBC4B53DFB2668383649EDE), *The New York Times*, 3 April 1958, p. 22 but at first the critics were not sure what to make of it, and it took some years for it to be generally ranked alongside its eight predecessors.Kennedy (2013\\), pp. 296–297\n\n", "### Other orchestral music\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\|alt\\=Drawing of a man in early middle age, clean shaven, with a good head of hair, looking towards the viewer\\|Vaughan Williams in 1919, by [William Rothenstein](/wiki/William_Rothenstein \"William Rothenstein\")](/wiki/File:Vaughan-Williams-by-Rothenstein.jpg \"Vaughan-Williams-by-Rothenstein.jpg\")\n\n*Grove* lists more than thirty works by Vaughan Williams for orchestra or band over and above the symphonies. They include two of his most popular works—the *[Fantasia on a Theme by Thomas Tallis](/wiki/Fantasia_on_a_Theme_by_Thomas_Tallis \"Fantasia on a Theme by Thomas Tallis\")* (1910, revised 1919\\), and *[The Lark Ascending](/wiki/The_Lark_Ascending_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"The Lark Ascending (Vaughan Williams)\")*, originally for violin and piano (1914\\); orchestrated 1920\\.Foreman, p. 19 Other works that survive in the repertoire in Britain are the *Norfolk Rhapsody No 1* (1905–1906\\), *The Wasps, Aristophanic suite*—particularly the overture (1909\\), the *[English Folk Song Suite](/wiki/English_Folk_Song_Suite \"English Folk Song Suite\")* (1923\\) and the *Fantasia on Greensleeves* (1934\\).\n\nVaughan Williams wrote four concertos: for violin (1925\\), [piano](/wiki/Piano_Concerto_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Piano Concerto (Vaughan Williams)\") (1926\\), [oboe](/wiki/Oboe_Concerto_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Oboe Concerto (Vaughan Williams)\") (1944\\) and [tuba](/wiki/Tuba_Concerto_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Tuba Concerto (Vaughan Williams)\") (1954\\); another concertante piece is his Romance for [harmonica](/wiki/Harmonica \"Harmonica\"), strings and piano (1951\\). None of these works has rivalled the popularity of the symphonies or the short orchestral works mentioned above. Bartók was among the admirers of the Piano Concerto, written for and championed by [Harriet Cohen](/wiki/Harriet_Cohen \"Harriet Cohen\"), but it has remained, in the words of the critic Andrew Achenbach, a neglected masterpiece.Achenbach, p. 45\n\nIn addition to the music for *Scott of the Antarctic*, Vaughan Williams composed incidental music for eleven other films, from *49th Parallel* (1941\\) to *The Vision of William Blake* (1957\\).\n\n", "### Chamber and instrumental\n\nBy comparison with his output in other genres, Vaughan Williams's music for chamber ensembles and solo instruments forms a small part of his oeuvre. *Grove* lists twenty\\-four pieces under the heading \"Chamber and instrumental\"; three are early, unpublished works. Vaughan Williams, like most leading British 20th\\-century composers, was not drawn to the solo piano and wrote little for it. From his mature years, there survive for standard chamber groupings two string quartets (1908–1909, revised 1921; and 1943–1944\\), a \"phantasy\" string quintet (1912\\), and a sonata for violin and piano (1954\\). The first quartet was written soon after Vaughan Williams's studies in Paris with Ravel, whose influence is strongly evident. In 2002 the magazine *[Gramophone](/wiki/Gramophone_%28magazine%29 \"Gramophone (magazine)\")* described the second quartet as a masterpiece that should be, but is not, part of the international chamber repertory.Roach, p. 1047 It is from the same period as the Sixth Symphony, and has something of that work's severity and anguish.Mark, p. 194 The quintet (1912\\) was written two years after the success of the *Tallis Fantasia*, with which it has elements in common, both in terms of instrumental layout and the mood of rapt contemplation.Mark, pp. 182–183 The violin sonata has made little impact.Mark, pp. 195–196\n\n", "### Vocal music\n\nUrsula Vaughan Williams wrote of her husband's love of literature, and listed some of his favourite writers and writings:\n\nIn addition to his love of poetry, Vaughan Williams's vocal music is inspired by his lifelong belief that the voice \"can be made the medium of the best and deepest human emotion.\"Manning, p. 28\n\n#### Songs\n\nBetween the mid\\-1890s and the late 1950s Vaughan Williams set more than eighty poems for voice and piano accompaniment. The earliest to survive is \"A Cradle Song\", to [Coleridge](/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge \"Samuel Taylor Coleridge\")'s words, from about 1894\\. The songs include many that have entered the repertory, such as \"Linden Lea\" (1902\\), \"Silent Noon\" (1904\\) and the song cycles *[Songs of Travel](/wiki/Songs_of_Travel \"Songs of Travel\")* (1905 and 1907\\) and *On Wenlock Edge*.Fuller, pp. 106–107 To Vaughan Williams the human voice was \"the oldest and greatest of musical instruments\".Vaughan Williams, Ralph. \"The Composer in Wartime\", *[The Listener](/wiki/The_Listener_%28magazine%29 \"The Listener (magazine)\")*, 1940, *quoted* in Fuller, p. 106 He described his early songs as \"more or less simple and popular in character\",Cobbe, p. 41 and the musicologist Sophie Fuller describes this simplicity and popularity as consistent throughout his career.Fuller, p. 108 Many composers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries wrote sentimental works for female voice; by contrast, songs by Vaughan Williams, such as \"The Vagabond\" from *Songs of Travel*, to words by [Robert Louis Stevenson](/wiki/Robert_Louis_Stevenson \"Robert Louis Stevenson\"), are \"a particularly masculine breath of fresh air\" (Fuller), \"virile open\\-air verses\" (Kennedy).Fuller, p. 114 and Kennedy (1980\\), p. 80 Some of Vaughan Williams's later songs are less well known; Fuller singles out the cycle *Three Poems by Walt Whitman*, a largely dark work, as too often overlooked by singers and critics.Fuller, p. 118 For some of his songs the composer expands the accompaniment to include two or more string instruments in addition to the piano; they include *On Wenlock Edge*, and the Chaucer cycle *Merciless Beauty* (1921\\), judged by an anonymous contemporary critic as \"surely among the best of modern English songs\".\n\n#### Choral music\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|alt\\=Outdoor statue of middle\\-aged man with raised arms as if conducting an orchestra\\|Statue of Vaughan Williams by [William Fawke](/wiki/William_Fawke \"William Fawke\"), [Dorking](/wiki/Dorking \"Dorking\")](/wiki/File:Ralph_Vaughan_William_staute_in_Dorking%2C_top.jpg \"Ralph Vaughan William staute in Dorking, top.jpg\") Despite his agnosticism Vaughan Williams composed many works for church performance. His two best known hymn tunes, both from c. 1905, are \"Down Ampney\" to the words \"[Come Down, O Love Divine](/wiki/Come_Down%2C_O_Love_Divine \"Come Down, O Love Divine\")\", and \"*Sine nomine*\" \"[For All the Saints](/wiki/For_All_the_Saints \"For All the Saints\")\".Kennedy (1980\\), p. 85 *Grove* lists a dozen more, composed between 1905 and 1935\\. Other church works include a *Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis* (1925\\), the [Mass in G minor](/wiki/Mass_in_G_minor_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Mass in G minor (Vaughan Williams)\") (1920–1921\\), a Te Deum (1928\\) and the motets *[O Clap Your Hands](/wiki/O_clap_your_hands_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"O clap your hands (Vaughan Williams)\")* (1920\\), *Lord, Thou hast been our Refuge* (1921\\) and *O Taste and See* (1953, first performed at the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II).Kennedy (1980\\), pp. 412 and 428\n\nVaughan Williams's choral works for concert performance include settings of both secular and religious words. The former include *Toward the Unknown Region* to words by Whitman (composed 1904–1906\\), *[Five Tudor Portraits](/wiki/Five_Tudor_Portraits \"Five Tudor Portraits\")*, words by John Skelton (1935\\), and the Shakespearean *Serenade to Music* (in its alternative version for chorus and orchestra, 1938\\). Choral pieces with religious words include the oratorio *[Sancta Civitas](/wiki/Sancta_Civitas \"Sancta Civitas\")* (1923–1925\\) and the Christmas cantata *[Hodie](/wiki/Hodie \"Hodie\")* (1954\\). In 1953 the composer said that of his choral works *Sancta Civitas* was his favourite.Steinberg, p. 297 The *[Dona Nobis Pacem](/wiki/Dona_nobis_pacem_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Dona nobis pacem (Vaughan Williams)\")*, an impassioned anti\\-war cantata (1936\\) is a combination of both, with words from Whitman and others juxtaposed with extracts from the Latin mass, anticipating a similar mixture of sacred and secular text in [Britten](/wiki/Benjamin_Britten \"Benjamin Britten\")'s *[War Requiem](/wiki/War_Requiem \"War Requiem\")* twenty\\-five years later.Kennedy (1980\\), p. 254\n\n", "#### Songs\n\nBetween the mid\\-1890s and the late 1950s Vaughan Williams set more than eighty poems for voice and piano accompaniment. The earliest to survive is \"A Cradle Song\", to [Coleridge](/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge \"Samuel Taylor Coleridge\")'s words, from about 1894\\. The songs include many that have entered the repertory, such as \"Linden Lea\" (1902\\), \"Silent Noon\" (1904\\) and the song cycles *[Songs of Travel](/wiki/Songs_of_Travel \"Songs of Travel\")* (1905 and 1907\\) and *On Wenlock Edge*.Fuller, pp. 106–107 To Vaughan Williams the human voice was \"the oldest and greatest of musical instruments\".Vaughan Williams, Ralph. \"The Composer in Wartime\", *[The Listener](/wiki/The_Listener_%28magazine%29 \"The Listener (magazine)\")*, 1940, *quoted* in Fuller, p. 106 He described his early songs as \"more or less simple and popular in character\",Cobbe, p. 41 and the musicologist Sophie Fuller describes this simplicity and popularity as consistent throughout his career.Fuller, p. 108 Many composers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries wrote sentimental works for female voice; by contrast, songs by Vaughan Williams, such as \"The Vagabond\" from *Songs of Travel*, to words by [Robert Louis Stevenson](/wiki/Robert_Louis_Stevenson \"Robert Louis Stevenson\"), are \"a particularly masculine breath of fresh air\" (Fuller), \"virile open\\-air verses\" (Kennedy).Fuller, p. 114 and Kennedy (1980\\), p. 80 Some of Vaughan Williams's later songs are less well known; Fuller singles out the cycle *Three Poems by Walt Whitman*, a largely dark work, as too often overlooked by singers and critics.Fuller, p. 118 For some of his songs the composer expands the accompaniment to include two or more string instruments in addition to the piano; they include *On Wenlock Edge*, and the Chaucer cycle *Merciless Beauty* (1921\\), judged by an anonymous contemporary critic as \"surely among the best of modern English songs\".\n\n", "#### Choral music\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|alt\\=Outdoor statue of middle\\-aged man with raised arms as if conducting an orchestra\\|Statue of Vaughan Williams by [William Fawke](/wiki/William_Fawke \"William Fawke\"), [Dorking](/wiki/Dorking \"Dorking\")](/wiki/File:Ralph_Vaughan_William_staute_in_Dorking%2C_top.jpg \"Ralph Vaughan William staute in Dorking, top.jpg\") Despite his agnosticism Vaughan Williams composed many works for church performance. His two best known hymn tunes, both from c. 1905, are \"Down Ampney\" to the words \"[Come Down, O Love Divine](/wiki/Come_Down%2C_O_Love_Divine \"Come Down, O Love Divine\")\", and \"*Sine nomine*\" \"[For All the Saints](/wiki/For_All_the_Saints \"For All the Saints\")\".Kennedy (1980\\), p. 85 *Grove* lists a dozen more, composed between 1905 and 1935\\. Other church works include a *Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis* (1925\\), the [Mass in G minor](/wiki/Mass_in_G_minor_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Mass in G minor (Vaughan Williams)\") (1920–1921\\), a Te Deum (1928\\) and the motets *[O Clap Your Hands](/wiki/O_clap_your_hands_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"O clap your hands (Vaughan Williams)\")* (1920\\), *Lord, Thou hast been our Refuge* (1921\\) and *O Taste and See* (1953, first performed at the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II).Kennedy (1980\\), pp. 412 and 428\n\nVaughan Williams's choral works for concert performance include settings of both secular and religious words. The former include *Toward the Unknown Region* to words by Whitman (composed 1904–1906\\), *[Five Tudor Portraits](/wiki/Five_Tudor_Portraits \"Five Tudor Portraits\")*, words by John Skelton (1935\\), and the Shakespearean *Serenade to Music* (in its alternative version for chorus and orchestra, 1938\\). Choral pieces with religious words include the oratorio *[Sancta Civitas](/wiki/Sancta_Civitas \"Sancta Civitas\")* (1923–1925\\) and the Christmas cantata *[Hodie](/wiki/Hodie \"Hodie\")* (1954\\). In 1953 the composer said that of his choral works *Sancta Civitas* was his favourite.Steinberg, p. 297 The *[Dona Nobis Pacem](/wiki/Dona_nobis_pacem_%28Vaughan_Williams%29 \"Dona nobis pacem (Vaughan Williams)\")*, an impassioned anti\\-war cantata (1936\\) is a combination of both, with words from Whitman and others juxtaposed with extracts from the Latin mass, anticipating a similar mixture of sacred and secular text in [Britten](/wiki/Benjamin_Britten \"Benjamin Britten\")'s *[War Requiem](/wiki/War_Requiem \"War Requiem\")* twenty\\-five years later.Kennedy (1980\\), p. 254\n\n", "### Stage works\n\nVaughan Williams was wary of conventional labels; his best known ballet is described on the title page as \"a masque for dancing\" and only one of his operatic works is categorised by the composer simply as an opera. For some of his theatre pieces that could be classed as operas or ballets, he preferred the terms \"masque\", \"romantic extravaganza\", \"play set to music\", or \"morality\".\n\nIn a 2013 survey of Vaughan Williams's stage works, Eric Saylor writes, \"With the possible exception of [Tchaikovsky](/wiki/Peter_Ilyitch_Tchaikovsky \"Peter Ilyitch Tchaikovsky\"), no composer's operatic career was less emblematic of his success elsewhere.\"Saylor, p. 157 Although Vaughan Williams was a regular opera\\-goer, enthusiastic and knowledgeable about works by operatic masters from [Mozart](/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart \"Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart\") to Wagner and [Verdi](/wiki/Giuseppe_Verdi \"Giuseppe Verdi\"), his success in the operatic field was at best patchy. There is widespread agreement among commentators that this was partly due to the composer's poor choice of librettists for some, though not all, of his operas.Kennedy (1980\\), pp. 179 and 276; and Saylor, pp. 157 and 161 Another problem was his keenness to encourage amateurs and student groups, which sometimes led to the staging of his operas with less than professional standards. A further factor was the composer's expressed preference for \"slow, long *tableaux*\", which tended to reduce dramatic impact, although he believed them essential, as \"music takes a long time to speak—much longer than words by themselves.\"Cobbe, p. 73\n\n*Hugh the Drover, or Love in the Stocks* (completed 1919, premiere 1924\\) has a libretto, by the writer and theatre critic Harold Child, which was described by *[The Stage](/wiki/The_Stage \"The Stage\")* as \"replete with folksy, Cotswold village archetypes\".Gutman, David. [\"Hugh the Drover\"](http://search.proquest.com/docview/850701387), *The Stage*, 25 November 2010, retrieved 13 October 2015 In the view of the critic [Richard Traubner](/wiki/Richard_Traubner \"Richard Traubner\") the piece is a cross between traditional ballad opera and the works of Puccini and Ravel, \"with rhapsodic results.\" The score uses genuine and pastiche folk\\-songs but ends with a passionate love duet that Traubner considers has few equals in English opera.Traubner, Richard. [\"Vaughan Williams: Riders to the Sea and Hugh the Drover\"](https://search.proquest.com/docview/1783409), *Opera News*, 17 February 1996, p. 40 Its first performance was by students at the Royal College of Music, and the work is rarely staged by major professional companies.\n\n*Old King Cole* (1923\\) is a humorous ballet. The score, which makes liberal use of folk\\-song melodies, was thought by critics to be strikingly modern when first heard. Kennedy comments that the music \"is not a major work but it is fun.\" The piece has not been seen frequently since its premiere, but was revived in a student production at the RCM in 1937\\.\"Royal College of Music\", *The Times*, 2 December 1937, p. 12\n\n*On Christmas Night* (1926\\), a masque by [Adolph Bolm](/wiki/Adolph_Bolm \"Adolph Bolm\") and Vaughan Williams, combines singing, dancing and mime. The story is loosely based on [Dickens](/wiki/Charles_Dickens \"Charles Dickens\")'s *[A Christmas Carol](/wiki/A_Christmas_Carol \"A Christmas Carol\")*.Kennedy (1980\\), p. 415 The piece was first given in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\") by Bolm's company; the London premiere was in 1935\\. Saylor describes the work as a \"dramatic hodgepodge\" which has not attracted the interest of later performers.Saylor, p. 163\n\nThe only work that the composer designated as an opera is the comedy *Sir John in Love* (1924–1928\\). It is based on [Shakespeare](/wiki/William_Shakespeare \"William Shakespeare\")'s *[The Merry Wives of Windsor](/wiki/The_Merry_Wives_of_Windsor \"The Merry Wives of Windsor\")*. Folk\\-song is used, though more discreetly than in *Hugh the Drover*, and the score is described by Saylor as \"ravishingly tuneful\".Saylor, p. 159 Although versions of the play had already been set by [Nicolai](/wiki/Otto_Nicolai \"Otto Nicolai\"), Verdi, and Holst, Vaughan Williams's is distinctive for its greater emphasis on the love music rather than on the robust comedy.Kennedy (1980\\), p. 218 In 1931, with the Leith Hill Festival in mind, the composer recast some of the music as a five\\-section cantata, *In Windsor Forest*, giving the public \"the plums and no cake\", as he put it.Kennedy, Michael (1981\\). Notes to EMI CD CDM 5 65131 2, OCLC 36534224\n\n*[The Poisoned Kiss](/wiki/The_Poisoned_Kiss \"The Poisoned Kiss\")* (1927–1929, premiered in 1936\\) is a light comedy. Vaughan Williams knew the [Savoy operas](/wiki/Savoy_operas \"Savoy operas\") well,Vaughan Williams (1964\\), pp. 289, 315 and 334 and his music for this piece was and is widely regarded as in the [Sullivan](/wiki/Arthur_Sullivan \"Arthur Sullivan\") vein.Hughes, pp. 232–233; and Greenfield, Edward. \"Vaughan Williams: *The Poisoned Kiss*\", *[Gramophone](/wiki/Gramophone_%28magazine%29 \"Gramophone (magazine)\")*, January 2004, p. 77 The words, by an inexperienced librettist, were judged to fall far short of [Gilbert](/wiki/W._S._Gilbert \"W. S. Gilbert\")'s standards.[Warrack, John](/wiki/John_Warrack \"John Warrack\"). \"Vaughan Williams's *The Poisoned Kiss*\", *[The Musical Times](/wiki/The_Musical_Times \"The Musical Times\")*, June 1956, p. 322 Saylor sums up the critical consensus that the work is something between \"a frothy romantic comedy \\[and] a satirical fairy\\-tale\", and not quite successful in either category.Saylor, p. 161; and Clements, Andrew. [\"Flower power: Vaughan Williams's botanically themed opera reeks of tweeness\"](http://docs.newsbank.com/openurl?ctx_ver=z39.88-2004&rft_id=info:sid/iw.newsbank.com:UKNB:EGLL&rft_val_format=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:ctx&rft_dat=0FEBED8E507A47FD&svc_dat=InfoWeb:aggregated5&req_dat=102CDD40F14C6BDA) , *The Guardian*, 7 November 2003\n\n[alt\\=19th century engraving showing the Old Testament character Job, and his hypocritical comforters\\|thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.0\\|left\\|[William Blake](/wiki/William_Blake \"William Blake\")'s engraving of [Job](/wiki/Job_%28biblical_figure%29 \"Job (biblical figure)\") and his comforters](/wiki/File:Blake-Job%27s-Comforters.jpg \"Blake-Job's-Comforters.jpg\")\n*Job: A Masque for Dancing* (1930\\) was the first large\\-scale ballet by a modern British composer.Kennedy, Michael (ed). [\"Ballet\"](http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/opr/t237/e788) , *The Oxford Dictionary of Music*, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, retrieved 13 October 2015 Vaughan Williams's liking for long *tableaux*, however disadvantageous in his operas, worked to successful effect in this ballet. The work is inspired by [William Blake](/wiki/William_Blake \"William Blake\")'s *[Illustrations of the Book of Job](/wiki/William_Blake%27s_Illustrations_of_the_Book_of_Job \"William Blake's Illustrations of the Book of Job\")* (1826\\). The score is divided into nine sections and an epilogue, presenting dance interpretations of some of Blake's engravings.Weltzien, pp. 335–336 The work, choreographed by [Ninette de Valois](/wiki/Ninette_de_Valois \"Ninette de Valois\"), made a powerful impression at its early stagings, and has been revived by the [Royal Ballet](/wiki/Royal_Ballet \"Royal Ballet\") several times.[\"Job\"](http://www.rohcollections.org.uk/Work.aspx?work=844) , Royal Opera House performance database, retrieved 13 October 2015 Kennedy ranks the score as \"one of Vaughan Williams's mightiest achievements\", and notes that it is familiar in concert programmes, having \"the stature and cohesion of a symphony.\"Kennedy (1980\\), pp. 221 and 224\n\nIn Kennedy's view the one\\-act *Riders to the Sea* (1925–1931, premiered 1937\\) is artistically Vaughan Williams's most successful opera; Saylor names *Sir John in Love* for that distinction, but rates *Riders to the Sea* as one of the composer's finest works in any genre.Kennedy (1980\\), p. 427; and Saylor, p. 159 It is an almost verbatim setting of [J. M. Synge](/wiki/J._M._Synge \"J. M. Synge\")'s 1902 play of the same name, depicting family tragedy in an Irish fishing village. Kennedy describes the score as \"organized almost symphonically\" with much of the thematic material developed from the brief prelude. The orchestration is subtle, and foreshadows the ghostly finale of the Sixth Symphony; there are also pre\\-echoes of the *Sinfonia antartica* in the lamenting voices of the women and in the sound of the sea.Kennedy (1997\\) pp. 427–428\n\n*The Bridal Day* (1938–1939\\) is a masque, to a scenario by Ursula, combining voice, mime and dance, first performed in 1953 on [BBC](/wiki/BBC \"BBC\") television. Vaughan Williams later recast it a [cantata](/wiki/Cantata \"Cantata\"), *Epithalamion* (1957\\).Kennedy (1980\\) pp. 421 and 431\n\n*The Pilgrim's Progress* (1951\\), the composer's last opera, was the culmination of more than forty years' intermittent work on the theme of Bunyan's religious allegory. Vaughan Williams had written incidental music for an amateur dramatisation in 1906, and had returned to the theme in 1921 with the one\\-act *The Shepherds of the Delectable Mountains* (finally incorporated, with amendments, into the 1951 opera). The work has been criticised for a preponderance of slow music and stretches lacking in dramatic action,Kennedy (1997\\), p. 428 but some commentators believe the work to be one of Vaughan Williams's supreme achievements. Summaries of the music vary from \"beautiful, if something of a stylistic jumble\" (Saylor) to \"a synthesis of Vaughan Williams's stylistic progress over the years, from the pastoral mediation of the 1920s to the angry music of the middle symphonies and eventually the more experimental phase of the *Sinfonia antartica* in his last decade\" (Kennedy).Saylor, p. 174\n\n", "Recordings\n----------\n\nVaughan Williams conducted a handful of recordings for gramophone and radio. His studio recordings are the overture to *The Wasps* and the ballet *Old King Cole* (both made in 1925\\),Kennedy (1980\\), p. 189 and the Fourth Symphony (1937\\). Live concert tapings include *Dona Nobis Pacem* (1936\\),[\"Vaughan Williams, Symphony No 5 and Dona Nobis Pacem\"](http://www.worldcat.org/title/symphony-no-5-in-d-dona-nobis-pacem/oclc/185708738&referer=brief_results) , WorldCat, retrieved 18 October 2015 the *Serenade to Music*,[\"Vaughan Williams, Serenade to Music\"](http://www.worldcat.org/title/music-in-the-heart/oclc/811454187&referer=brief_results) , WorldCat, retrieved 18 October 2015 and the Fifth Symphony, recorded in 1951 and 1952, respectively. There is a recording of Vaughan Williams conducting the *St Matthew Passion* with his Leith Hill Festival forces.[\"Bach, St Matthew Passion\"](http://www.worldcat.org/title/st-matthew-passion/oclc/49038653&referer=brief_results) , WorldCat, retrieved 18 October 2015 In the early days of LP in the 1950s Vaughan Williams was better represented in the record catalogues than most British composers. *The Record Guide* (1955\\) contained nine pages of listings of his music on disc, compared with five for [Walton](/wiki/William_Walton \"William Walton\"), and four apiece for Elgar and Britten.Sackville\\-West and Shawe\\-Taylor, pp. 164–167 (Britten), 254–257 (Elgar), 786–794 (Vaughan Williams), and 848–852 (Walton)\n\nAll the composer's major works and many of the minor ones have been recorded. There have been numerous complete LP and CD sets of the nine symphonies, beginning with Boult's [Decca](/wiki/Decca_Classics \"Decca Classics\") cycle of the 1950s, most of which was recorded in the composer's presence.Culshaw, p. 121 Although rarely staged, the operas have fared well on disc. The earliest recording of a Vaughan Williams opera was *Hugh the Drover*, in an abridged version conducted by Sargent in 1924\\.[\"Hugh the Drover\"](http://www.worldcat.org/title/wasps-overture-old-king-cole-ballet-suite-hugh-the-drover-opera-in-two-acts/oclc/32744608&referer=brief_results) , WorldCat, retrieved 18 October 2015 Since the 1960s there have been stereophonic recordings of *Hugh the Drover*, *Sir John in Love*, *Riders to the Sea*, *The Poisoned Kiss*, and *The Pilgrim's Progress*.[\"Vaughan Williams: The Collectors' Edition\"](http://www.worldcat.org/title/vaughan-williams-the-masterpieces-the-greatest-artists/oclc/229056470&referer=brief_results) , WorldCat, retrieved 18 October 2015 Most of the orchestral recordings have been by British orchestras and conductors, but notable non\\-British conductors who have made recordings of Vaughan Williams's works include [Herbert von Karajan](/wiki/Herbert_von_Karajan \"Herbert von Karajan\"), [Leonard Bernstein](/wiki/Leonard_Bernstein \"Leonard Bernstein\"), [Leopold Stokowski](/wiki/Leopold_Stokowski \"Leopold Stokowski\"),March *et al*, pp. 1372 (Karajan), 1378 (Bernstein) and 1381 (Stokowski) and, most frequently, [André Previn](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Previn \"André Previn\"), who conducted the [London Symphony Orchestra](/wiki/London_Symphony_Orchestra \"London Symphony Orchestra\") in the first complete stereo cycle of the symphonies, recorded between 1967 and 1972\\.Achenbach, p. 40 Among the British conductors most closely associated with Vaughan Williams's music on disc and in concert in the generations after Boult, Sargent and Barbirolli are [Vernon Handley](/wiki/Vernon_Handley \"Vernon Handley\"), [Richard Hickox](/wiki/Richard_Hickox \"Richard Hickox\"), [Sir Mark Elder](/wiki/Mark_Elder \"Mark Elder\") and [Sir Andrew Davis](/wiki/Andrew_Davis_%28conductor%29 \"Andrew Davis (conductor)\").Achenbach, pp. 41 (Hickox) and 45 (Handley); and Kennedy (2008\\), p. 39 (Hickox, Elder and Davis) Record companies with extensive lists of Vaughan Williams recordings include [EMI](/wiki/EMI_Classics \"EMI Classics\"), Decca, [Chandos](/wiki/Chandos_Records \"Chandos Records\"), [Hyperion](/wiki/Hyperion_Records \"Hyperion Records\") and [Naxos](/wiki/Naxos_Records \"Naxos Records\").March *et al*, pp. 1368–1386\n\n", "Honours and legacy\n------------------\n\nVaughan Williams refused a [knighthood](/wiki/Knight_bachelor \"Knight bachelor\") at least once, and declined the post of [Master of the King's Music](/wiki/Master_of_the_King%27s_Music \"Master of the King's Music\") after Elgar's death.Onderdonk, ch 1, p. 19 The one state honour he accepted was the [Order of Merit](/wiki/Order_of_Merit \"Order of Merit\") in 1935, which confers no prenominal title: he preferred to remain \"Dr Vaughan Williams\".Vaughan Williams (1964\\), p. 207 His academic and musical honours included an honorary doctorate of music from the [University of Oxford](/wiki/University_of_Oxford \"University of Oxford\") (1919\\); the [Cobbett](/wiki/Walter_Willson_Cobbett_Medal \"Walter Willson Cobbett Medal\") medal for services to chamber music (1930\\); the gold medal of the Royal Philharmonic Society (1930\\); the Collard life fellowship of the Worshipful Company of Musicians (1934, in succession to Elgar); an honorary fellowship of Trinity College, Cambridge (1935\\); the [Shakespeare prize](/wiki/Shakespeare_Prize \"Shakespeare Prize\") of the [University of Hamburg](/wiki/University_of_Hamburg \"University of Hamburg\") (1937\\); the [Albert medal](/wiki/Albert_Medal_%28Royal_Society_of_Arts%29 \"Albert Medal (Royal Society of Arts)\") of the [Royal Society of Arts](/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Arts \"Royal Society of Arts\") (1955\\); and the [Howland memorial prize](/wiki/Howland_Memorial_Prize \"Howland Memorial Prize\") of Yale University (1954\\).\n\nAfter Vaughan Williams's death, *The Times* summed up his legacy in a [leading article](/wiki/Editorial \"Editorial\"):\n\nIn 1994 a group of enthusiasts founded the Ralph Vaughan Williams Society, with the composer's widow as its president and [Roy Douglas](/wiki/Roy_Douglas \"Roy Douglas\") and Michael Kennedy as vice presidents. The society, a [registered charity](/wiki/Charitable_organization \"Charitable organization\"), has sponsored and encouraged performances of the composer's works including complete symphony cycles and a Vaughan Williams opera festival. The society has promoted premieres of neglected works, and has its own record label, Albion Records.[\"About the Society\"](http://www.rvwsociety.com/aboutsociety.html) , Ralph Vaughan Williams Society, retrieved 10 October 2015\n\n[thumb\\|alt\\=Outdoor bust of middle aged man with good head of hair, against a garden background\\|upright\\|Bust of Vaughan Williams by [Marcus Cornish](/wiki/Marcus_Cornish \"Marcus Cornish\"), Chelsea Embankment](/wiki/File:Bust_of_Ralph_Vaughan_Williams_in_Chelsea_Embankment_Gardens_%28geograph_3010690%29.jpg \"Bust of Ralph Vaughan Williams in Chelsea Embankment Gardens (geograph 3010690).jpg\")\nComposers of the generation after Vaughan Williams reacted against his style, which became unfashionable in influential musical circles in the 1960s; [diatonic](/wiki/Diatonic \"Diatonic\") and melodic music such as his was neglected in favour of [atonal](/wiki/Atonal \"Atonal\") and other modernist compositions.Kennedy (1989\\), p. 200; and Frogley and Thomson, p. 1 In the 21st century this neglect has been reversed. In the fiftieth anniversary year of his death two contrasting documentary films were released: [Tony Palmer](/wiki/Tony_Palmer_%28director%29 \"Tony Palmer (director)\")'s *O Thou Transcendent: The Life of Vaughan Williams* and [John Bridcut](/wiki/John_Bridcut \"John Bridcut\")'s *The Passions of Vaughan Williams*.Frogley and Thomson, p. 2 British audiences were prompted to reappraise the composer. The popularity of his most accessible works, particularly the *Tallis Fantasia* and *The Lark Ascending*, increased, but a wide public also became aware of what a reviewer of Bridcut's film called \"a genius driven by emotion\".Morrison, Richard. [\"Always up for a lark ascending\"](http://docs.newsbank.com/openurl?ctx_ver=z39.88-2004&rft_id=info:sid/iw.newsbank.com:UKNB:LTIB&rft_val_format=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:ctx&rft_dat=122BA1CE54A68B78&svc_dat=InfoWeb:aggregated5&req_dat=102CDD40F14C6BDA) , *The Times*, 22 August 2008; Walker, Lynne. [\"Just Williams—Almost 50 years after his death, the composer Ralph Vaughan Williams is finally being celebrated on film. About time too.\"](http://docs.newsbank.com/openurl?ctx_ver=z39.88-2004&rft_id=info:sid/iw.newsbank.com:UKNB:TND1&rft_val_format=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:ctx&rft_dat=11D366AF2C742850&svc_dat=InfoWeb:aggregated5&req_dat=102CDD40F14C6BDA) , *The Independent*, 28 November 2007; and [\"Portrait of a genius driven by emotion\"](http://docs.newsbank.com/openurl?ctx_ver=z39.88-2004&rft_id=info:sid/iw.newsbank.com:UKNB:WMN1&rft_val_format=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:ctx&rft_dat=120E40649DB22C40&svc_dat=InfoWeb:aggregated5&req_dat=102CDD40F14C6BDA) , *Western Morning News*, 28 November 2007 Among the 21st\\-century musicians who have acknowledged Vaughan Williams's influence on their development are [John Adams](/wiki/John_Adams_%28composer%29 \"John Adams (composer)\"), [PJ Harvey](/wiki/PJ_Harvey \"PJ Harvey\"), [Sir Peter Maxwell Davies](/wiki/Peter_Maxwell_Davies \"Peter Maxwell Davies\"), [Anthony Payne](/wiki/Anthony_Payne \"Anthony Payne\"), [Wayne Shorter](/wiki/Wayne_Shorter \"Wayne Shorter\"), [Neil Tennant](/wiki/Neil_Tennant \"Neil Tennant\") and [Mark\\-Anthony Turnage](/wiki/Mark-Anthony_Turnage \"Mark-Anthony Turnage\").Frogley and Thomson, pp. 2–3\n\n### Cultural legacy\n\nThe Royal College of Music commissioned an official portrait of the composer from [Sir Gerald Kelly](/wiki/Gerald_Kelly \"Gerald Kelly\") (1952\\) which hangs in the college. The [Manchester Art Gallery](/wiki/Manchester_Art_Gallery \"Manchester Art Gallery\") has a bronze sculpture of Vaughan Williams by Epstein (1952\\) and the [National Portrait Gallery](/wiki/National_Portrait_Gallery%2C_London \"National Portrait Gallery, London\") (NPG) has drawings by Joyce Finzi (1947\\) and [Juliet Pannett](/wiki/Juliet_Pannett \"Juliet Pannett\") (1957 and 1958\\); versions of a bronze head of the composer by [David McFall](/wiki/David_McFall \"David McFall\") (1956\\) are in the NPG and at the entrance to the Music reading room of the [British Library](/wiki/British_Library \"British Library\").Stonehouse and Stromberg, p. 257 There is a statue of Vaughan Williams in Dorking,[\"Ralph Vaughan Williams\"](http://www.dorkingmuseum.org.uk/local-history/famous-dorking-residents/ralph-vaughan-williams/) , Dorking Museum, retrieved 19 October 2015 and a bust by [Marcus Cornish](/wiki/Marcus_Cornish \"Marcus Cornish\") in [Chelsea Embankment Gardens](/wiki/Chelsea_Embankment \"Chelsea Embankment\"), near his old house in Cheyne Walk.[\"Plaque: Ralph Vaughan Williams—Bust\"](http://www.londonremembers.com/memorials/ralph-vaughan-williams-bust) , London Remembers, retrieved 19 October\n\n", "### Cultural legacy\n\nThe Royal College of Music commissioned an official portrait of the composer from [Sir Gerald Kelly](/wiki/Gerald_Kelly \"Gerald Kelly\") (1952\\) which hangs in the college. The [Manchester Art Gallery](/wiki/Manchester_Art_Gallery \"Manchester Art Gallery\") has a bronze sculpture of Vaughan Williams by Epstein (1952\\) and the [National Portrait Gallery](/wiki/National_Portrait_Gallery%2C_London \"National Portrait Gallery, London\") (NPG) has drawings by Joyce Finzi (1947\\) and [Juliet Pannett](/wiki/Juliet_Pannett \"Juliet Pannett\") (1957 and 1958\\); versions of a bronze head of the composer by [David McFall](/wiki/David_McFall \"David McFall\") (1956\\) are in the NPG and at the entrance to the Music reading room of the [British Library](/wiki/British_Library \"British Library\").Stonehouse and Stromberg, p. 257 There is a statue of Vaughan Williams in Dorking,[\"Ralph Vaughan Williams\"](http://www.dorkingmuseum.org.uk/local-history/famous-dorking-residents/ralph-vaughan-williams/) , Dorking Museum, retrieved 19 October 2015 and a bust by [Marcus Cornish](/wiki/Marcus_Cornish \"Marcus Cornish\") in [Chelsea Embankment Gardens](/wiki/Chelsea_Embankment \"Chelsea Embankment\"), near his old house in Cheyne Walk.[\"Plaque: Ralph Vaughan Williams—Bust\"](http://www.londonremembers.com/memorials/ralph-vaughan-williams-bust) , London Remembers, retrieved 19 October\n\n", "Notes, references and sources\n-----------------------------\n\n### Notes\n\n### References\n\n### Sources\n\n", "### Notes\n\n", "### References\n\n", "### Sources\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [The Ralph Vaughan Williams Society](http://www.rvwsociety.com/)\n* [The Letters of Ralph Vaughan Williams](http://www.vaughanwilliams.uk/)\n[Category:1872 births](/wiki/Category:1872_births \"1872 births\")\n[Category:1958 deaths](/wiki/Category:1958_deaths \"1958 deaths\")\n[Category:19th\\-century British composers](/wiki/Category:19th-century_British_composers \"19th-century British composers\")\n[Category:19th\\-century English male musicians](/wiki/Category:19th-century_English_male_musicians \"19th-century English male musicians\")\n[Category:19th\\-century classical composers](/wiki/Category:19th-century_classical_composers \"19th-century classical composers\")\n[Category:19th\\-century English musicians](/wiki/Category:19th-century_English_musicians \"19th-century English musicians\")\n[Category:20th\\-century English male musicians](/wiki/Category:20th-century_English_male_musicians \"20th-century English male musicians\")\n[Category:20th\\-century classical composers](/wiki/Category:20th-century_classical_composers \"20th-century classical composers\")\n[Category:20th\\-century English composers](/wiki/Category:20th-century_English_composers \"20th-century English composers\")\n[Category:20th\\-century English musicians](/wiki/Category:20th-century_English_musicians \"20th-century English musicians\")\n[Category:String quartet composers](/wiki/Category:String_quartet_composers \"String quartet composers\")\n[Category:Academics of Birkbeck, University of London](/wiki/Category:Academics_of_Birkbeck%2C_University_of_London \"Academics of Birkbeck, University of London\")\n[Category:Alumni of the Royal College of Music](/wiki/Category:Alumni_of_the_Royal_College_of_Music \"Alumni of the Royal College of Music\")\n[Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge](/wiki/Category:Alumni_of_Trinity_College%2C_Cambridge \"Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge\")\n[Category:Brass band composers](/wiki/Category:Brass_band_composers \"Brass band composers\")\n[Category:British Army personnel of World War I](/wiki/Category:British_Army_personnel_of_World_War_I \"British Army personnel of World War I\")\n[Category:British ballet composers](/wiki/Category:British_ballet_composers \"British ballet composers\")\n[Category:Burials at Westminster Abbey](/wiki/Category:Burials_at_Westminster_Abbey \"Burials at Westminster Abbey\")\n[Category:Choral composers](/wiki/Category:Choral_composers \"Choral composers\")\n[Category:English classical composers of church music](/wiki/Category:English_classical_composers_of_church_music \"English classical composers of church music\")\n[Category:Composers for harmonica](/wiki/Category:Composers_for_harmonica \"Composers for harmonica\")\n[Category:Darwin–Wedgwood family](/wiki/Category:Darwin%E2%80%93Wedgwood_family \"Darwin–Wedgwood family\")\n[Category:Deaf classical musicians](/wiki/Category:Deaf_classical_musicians \"Deaf classical musicians\")\n[Category:English deaf people](/wiki/Category:English_deaf_people \"English deaf people\")\n[Category:Decca Records artists](/wiki/Category:Decca_Records_artists \"Decca Records artists\")\n[Category:Oratorio composers](/wiki/Category:Oratorio_composers \"Oratorio composers\")\n[Category:English agnostics](/wiki/Category:English_agnostics \"English agnostics\")\n[Category:English folk\\-song collectors](/wiki/Category:English_folk-song_collectors \"English folk-song collectors\")\n[Category:English opera composers](/wiki/Category:English_opera_composers \"English opera composers\")\n[Category:English people of Welsh descent](/wiki/Category:English_people_of_Welsh_descent \"English people of Welsh descent\")\n[Category:English Romantic composers](/wiki/Category:English_Romantic_composers \"English Romantic composers\")\n[Category:Golders Green Crematorium](/wiki/Category:Golders_Green_Crematorium \"Golders Green Crematorium\")\n[Category:English male opera composers](/wiki/Category:English_male_opera_composers \"English male opera composers\")\n[Category:Military personnel from Gloucestershire](/wiki/Category:Military_personnel_from_Gloucestershire \"Military personnel from Gloucestershire\")\n[Category:Members of the Order of Merit](/wiki/Category:Members_of_the_Order_of_Merit \"Members of the Order of Merit\")\n[Category:Music in Gloucestershire](/wiki/Category:Music_in_Gloucestershire \"Music in Gloucestershire\")\n[Category:Musicians from Gloucestershire](/wiki/Category:Musicians_from_Gloucestershire \"Musicians from Gloucestershire\")\n[Category:People educated at Charterhouse School](/wiki/Category:People_educated_at_Charterhouse_School \"People educated at Charterhouse School\")\n[Category:People from Cotswold District](/wiki/Category:People_from_Cotswold_District \"People from Cotswold District\")\n[Category:People of the Victorian era](/wiki/Category:People_of_the_Victorian_era \"People of the Victorian era\")\n[Category:Pupils of Charles Villiers Stanford](/wiki/Category:Pupils_of_Charles_Villiers_Stanford \"Pupils of Charles Villiers Stanford\")\n[Category:Royal Army Medical Corps soldiers](/wiki/Category:Royal_Army_Medical_Corps_soldiers \"Royal Army Medical Corps soldiers\")\n[Category:Royal Artillery officers](/wiki/Category:Royal_Artillery_officers \"Royal Artillery officers\")\n[Category:Royal Philharmonic Society Gold Medallists](/wiki/Category:Royal_Philharmonic_Society_Gold_Medallists \"Royal Philharmonic Society Gold Medallists\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 36110000 ], "name": [ "Conan Wolff" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Corolla", "Variations", "Genetics", "Significance of pollination", "Functions and purposes", "Function", "Scent", "Colour", "Shape and size", "Types of pollination", "Wind pollination", "Attracting insects", "Attracting birds", "Bat-pollinated flowers", "References", "Bibliography" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.4\\|Diagram showing the parts of a mature flower. In this example, the perianth is separated into a calyx (sepals) and corolla (petals)](/wiki/Image:Mature_flower_diagram.svg \"Mature flower diagram.svg\")\n\n**Petals** are modified [leaves](/wiki/Leaf \"Leaf\") that surround the reproductive parts of [flowers](/wiki/Flower \"Flower\"). They are often [brightly coloured](/wiki/Advertising_coloration \"Advertising coloration\") or unusually shaped to attract [pollinators](/wiki/Pollinator \"Pollinator\"). All of the petals of a flower are collectively known as the ***corolla***. Petals are usually accompanied by another set of modified leaves called [sepals](/wiki/Sepal \"Sepal\"), that collectively form the *calyx* and lie just beneath the corolla. The calyx and the corolla together make up the [perianth](/wiki/Perianth \"Perianth\"), the non\\-reproductive portion of a flower. When the petals and sepals of a flower are difficult to distinguish, they are collectively called [tepals](/wiki/Tepal \"Tepal\"). Examples of plants in which the term *tepal* is appropriate include [genera](/wiki/Genus \"Genus\") such as *[Aloe](/wiki/Aloe \"Aloe\")* and *[Tulipa](/wiki/Tulipa \"Tulipa\")*. Conversely, genera such as *[Rosa](/wiki/Rose \"Rose\")* and *[Phaseolus](/wiki/Phaseolus \"Phaseolus\")* have well\\-distinguished sepals and petals. When the undifferentiated tepals resemble petals, they are referred to as \"petaloid\", as in [petaloid monocots](/wiki/Petaloid_monocots \"Petaloid monocots\"), orders of monocots with brightly coloured tepals. Since they include [Liliales](/wiki/Liliales \"Liliales\"), an alternative name is lilioid monocots.\n\nAlthough petals are usually the most conspicuous parts of animal\\-pollinated flowers, wind\\-pollinated species, such as the [grasses](/wiki/Poaceae \"Poaceae\"), either have very small petals or lack them entirely (apetalous).\n\n", "Corolla\n-------\n\n[thumb\\|Apopetalous corolla\\|alt\\=Diagram of apopetalous corolla](/wiki/File:Perianth_morphology_fusion_aposepalous_apopetalous.png \"Perianth morphology fusion aposepalous apopetalous.png\")\n[thumb\\|Tubular\\-campanulate corolla, bearing long points and emergent from tubular calyx (*[Brugmansia aurea](/wiki/Brugmansia_aurea \"Brugmansia aurea\")*, Golden Angel's Trumpet, family [Solanaceae](/wiki/Solanaceae \"Solanaceae\")).](/wiki/File:2007_brugmansia_aurea.jpg \"2007 brugmansia aurea.jpg\")\nThe collection of all petals in a flower is referred to as the corolla. The role of the corolla in plant [evolution](/wiki/Evolution \"Evolution\") has been studied extensively since [Charles Darwin](/wiki/Charles_Darwin \"Charles Darwin\") postulated a theory of the origin of elongated corollae and corolla tubes.\n\nA corolla of separate petals, without fusion of individual segments, is *[apopetalous](/wiki/wikt:Apopetalous \"Apopetalous\")*. If the petals are free from one another in the corolla, the plant is *polypetalous* or *choripetalous*; while if the petals are at least partially fused, it is *gamopetalous* or *sympetalous*. In the case of fused tepals, the term is *syntepalous*. The corolla in some plants forms a tube.\n\n", "Variations\n----------\n\n[thumb\\|*[Pelargonium peltatum](/wiki/Pelargonium_peltatum \"Pelargonium peltatum\")*, the Ivy\\-leaved Pelargonium : its floral structure is almost identical to that of geraniums, but it is conspicuously zygomorphic](/wiki/File:Pelargonium_peltatum_9245s.jpg \"Pelargonium peltatum 9245s.jpg\")\n[left\\|thumb\\|*Geranium incanum*, with an actinomorphic flower typical of the genus](/wiki/File:Geranium_incanum_9156s.jpg \"Geranium incanum 9156s.jpg\") [thumb\\|The white flower of *[Pisum sativum](/wiki/Pisum_sativum \"Pisum sativum\")*, the Garden Pea: an example of a zygomorphic flower.](/wiki/File:White_pea_flower.jpg \"White pea flower.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|*[Narcissus pseudonarcissus](/wiki/Narcissus_pseudonarcissus \"Narcissus pseudonarcissus\")*, the Wild Daffodil, showing ( from bend to tip of flower ) [spathe](/wiki/Spathe \"Spathe\"), [floral cup](/wiki/Floral_cup \"Floral cup\"), [tepals](/wiki/Tepal \"Tepal\"), [corona](/wiki/Perianth%23corona \"Perianth#corona\")](/wiki/File:20140226Narcissus2.jpg \"20140226Narcissus2.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|The petals of *[Combretum indicum](/wiki/Combretum_indicum \"Combretum indicum\")* grow on the sepals of the flower.](/wiki/File:%E4%BD%BF%E5%90%9B%E5%AD%90Combretum_indicum_20210523080843_01.jpg \"使君子Combretum indicum 20210523080843 01.jpg\")\nPetals can differ dramatically in different species. The [number of petals in a flower](/wiki/Merosity \"Merosity\") may hold clues to a plant's classification. For example, flowers on [eudicots](/wiki/Eudicots \"Eudicots\") (the largest group of [dicots](/wiki/Dicotyledon \"Dicotyledon\")) most frequently have four or five petals while flowers on [monocots](/wiki/Monocotyledon \"Monocotyledon\") have three or six petals, although there are many exceptions to this rule.\n\nThe petal whorl or corolla may be either radially or bilaterally symmetrical (see [Symmetry in biology](/wiki/Symmetry_in_biology \"Symmetry in biology\") and [Floral symmetry](/wiki/Floral_symmetry \"Floral symmetry\")). If all of the petals are essentially identical in size and shape, the flower is said to be **regular** or **actinomorphic** (meaning \"ray\\-formed\"). Many flowers are symmetrical in only one plane (i.e., symmetry is bilateral) and are termed **irregular** or **zygomorphic** (meaning \"yoke\\-\" or \"pair\\-formed\"). In *irregular* flowers, other floral parts may be modified from the *regular* form, but the petals show the greatest deviation from radial symmetry. Examples of [zygomorphic](/wiki/Floral_symmetry \"Floral symmetry\") flowers may be seen in [orchids](/wiki/Orchid \"Orchid\") and members of the [pea family](/wiki/Fabaceae \"Fabaceae\").\n\nIn many plants of the [aster family](/wiki/Asteraceae \"Asteraceae\") such as the sunflower, *[Helianthus annuus](/wiki/Helianthus_annuus \"Helianthus annuus\")*, the circumference of the [flower head](/wiki/Head_%28botany%29 \"Head (botany)\") is composed of ray florets. Each ray floret is anatomically an individual flower with a single large petal. Florets in the centre of the disc typically have no or very reduced petals. In some plants such as *[Narcissus](/wiki/Narcissus_%28plant%29 \"Narcissus (plant)\")*, the lower part of the petals or tepals are fused to form a floral cup (**[hypanthium](/wiki/Hypanthium \"Hypanthium\")**) above the ovary, and from which the petals proper extend.\n\nA petal often consists of two parts: the upper broader part, similar to a leaf blade, also called the *blade;* and the lower narrower part, similar to a leaf [petiole](/wiki/Petiole_%28botany%29 \"Petiole (botany)\"), called the *claw*, separated from each other at the *limb*. Claws are distinctly developed in petals of some flowers of the family *[Brassicaceae](/wiki/Brassicaceae \"Brassicaceae\")*, such as *[Erysimum cheiri](/wiki/Erysimum_cheiri \"Erysimum cheiri\")*.\n\nThe inception and further development of petals show a great variety of patterns.Sattler, R. 1973\\. *Organogenesis of Flowers. A Photographic Text\\-Atlas*. University of Toronto Press. Petals of different species of plants vary greatly in colour or colour pattern, both in visible light and in ultraviolet. Such patterns often function as guides to pollinators and are variously known as [nectar guides](/wiki/Nectar_guide \"Nectar guide\"), pollen guides, and floral guides.\n\n", "Genetics\n--------\n\nThe genetics behind the formation of petals, in accordance with the [ABC model of flower development](/wiki/ABC_Model_of_Flower_Development \"ABC Model of Flower Development\"), are that sepals, petals, [stamens](/wiki/Stamen \"Stamen\"), and [carpels](/wiki/Carpels \"Carpels\") are modified versions of each other. It appears that the mechanisms to form petals evolved very few times (perhaps only once), rather than evolving repeatedly from stamens.\n\n", "Significance of pollination\n---------------------------\n\nPollination is an important step in the sexual reproduction of higher plants. Pollen is produced by the male flower or by the male organs of [hermaphroditic](/wiki/Monoecious \"Monoecious\") flowers.\n\nPollen does not move on its own and thus requires wind or animal pollinators to disperse the pollen to the [stigma](/wiki/Stigma_%28botany%29 \"Stigma (botany)\") of the same or nearby flowers. However, pollinators are rather selective in determining the flowers they choose to pollinate. This develops competition between flowers and as a result flowers must provide incentives to appeal to pollinators (unless the flower self\\-pollinates or is involved in wind pollination). Petals play a major role in competing to attract pollinators. Henceforth pollination dispersal could occur and the survival of many species of flowers could prolong.\n\n", "Functions and purposes\n----------------------\n\nPetals have various functions and purposes depending on the type of plant. In general, petals operate to protect some parts of the flower and attract/repel specific pollinators.\n\n### Function\n\nThis is where the positioning of the flower petals are located on the flower is the corolla e.g. the buttercup having shiny yellow flower petals which contain guidelines amongst the petals in aiding the pollinator towards the nectar. Pollinators have the ability to determine specific flowers they wish to pollinate.Cares\\-Suarez, R, Poch, T, Acevedo, R.F, Acosta\\-Bravo, I, Pimentel, C, Espinoza, C, Cares, R.A, Munoz, P, Gonzalez, A.V, Botto\\-Mahan, C (2011\\) Do pollinators respond in a dose\\-dependent manner to flower herbivory?: An experimental assessment in Loasa tricolor (Loasaceae). [Gayana. Botánica](/wiki/Gayana._Bot%C3%A1nica \"Gayana. Botánica\"), Volume 68, Pages 176\\-181 Using incentives, flowers draw pollinators and set up a mutual relation between each other in which case the pollinators will remember to always guard and pollinate these flowers (unless incentives are not consistently met and competition prevails).\n\n### Scent\n\nThe petals could produce different scents to allure desirable pollinators or repel undesirable pollinators. Some flowers will also mimic the scents produced by materials such as decaying meat, to attract pollinators to them.\n\n### Colour\n\nVarious colour traits are used by different petals that could attract pollinators that have poor smelling abilities, or that only come out at certain parts of the day. Some flowers can change the colour of their petals as a signal to mutual pollinators to approach or keep away.Science Learning Hub. (2012\\). The University of Waikato. \"Attracting pollinators\". Date Retrieved: August 2013\\. [http://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/Contexts/Pollination/Science\\-Ideas\\-and\\-Concepts/Attracting\\-pollinators](http://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/Contexts/Pollination/Science-Ideas-and-Concepts/Attracting-pollinators) \n\n### Shape and size\n\nFurthermore, the shape and size of the flower/petals are important in selecting the type of pollinators they need. For example, large petals and flowers will attract pollinators at a large distance or that are large themselves.\nCollectively, the scent, colour, and shape of petals all play a role in attracting/repelling specific pollinators and providing suitable conditions for pollinating. Some pollinators include insects, birds, bats, and wind.\nIn some petals, a distinction can be made between a lower narrowed, stalk\\-like basal part referred to as the claw, and a wider distal part referred to as the blade (or limb). Often, the claw and blade are at an angle with one another.\n\n", "### Function\n\nThis is where the positioning of the flower petals are located on the flower is the corolla e.g. the buttercup having shiny yellow flower petals which contain guidelines amongst the petals in aiding the pollinator towards the nectar. Pollinators have the ability to determine specific flowers they wish to pollinate.Cares\\-Suarez, R, Poch, T, Acevedo, R.F, Acosta\\-Bravo, I, Pimentel, C, Espinoza, C, Cares, R.A, Munoz, P, Gonzalez, A.V, Botto\\-Mahan, C (2011\\) Do pollinators respond in a dose\\-dependent manner to flower herbivory?: An experimental assessment in Loasa tricolor (Loasaceae). [Gayana. Botánica](/wiki/Gayana._Bot%C3%A1nica \"Gayana. Botánica\"), Volume 68, Pages 176\\-181 Using incentives, flowers draw pollinators and set up a mutual relation between each other in which case the pollinators will remember to always guard and pollinate these flowers (unless incentives are not consistently met and competition prevails).\n\n", "### Scent\n\nThe petals could produce different scents to allure desirable pollinators or repel undesirable pollinators. Some flowers will also mimic the scents produced by materials such as decaying meat, to attract pollinators to them.\n\n", "### Colour\n\nVarious colour traits are used by different petals that could attract pollinators that have poor smelling abilities, or that only come out at certain parts of the day. Some flowers can change the colour of their petals as a signal to mutual pollinators to approach or keep away.Science Learning Hub. (2012\\). The University of Waikato. \"Attracting pollinators\". Date Retrieved: August 2013\\. [http://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/Contexts/Pollination/Science\\-Ideas\\-and\\-Concepts/Attracting\\-pollinators](http://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/Contexts/Pollination/Science-Ideas-and-Concepts/Attracting-pollinators) \n\n", "### Shape and size\n\nFurthermore, the shape and size of the flower/petals are important in selecting the type of pollinators they need. For example, large petals and flowers will attract pollinators at a large distance or that are large themselves.\nCollectively, the scent, colour, and shape of petals all play a role in attracting/repelling specific pollinators and providing suitable conditions for pollinating. Some pollinators include insects, birds, bats, and wind.\nIn some petals, a distinction can be made between a lower narrowed, stalk\\-like basal part referred to as the claw, and a wider distal part referred to as the blade (or limb). Often, the claw and blade are at an angle with one another.\n\n", "Types of pollination\n--------------------\n\n### Wind pollination\n\nWind\\-pollinated flowers often have small, dull petals and produce little or no scent. Some of these flowers will often have no petals at all. Flowers that depend on wind pollination will produce large amounts of pollen because most of the pollen scattered by the wind tends to not reach other flowers.\n\n### Attracting insects\n\nFlowers have various regulatory mechanisms to attract insects. One such helpful mechanism is the use of colour guiding marks. Insects such as the bee or butterfly can see the ultraviolet marks which are contained on these flowers, acting as an attractive mechanism which is not visible towards the human eye. Many flowers contain a variety of shapes acting to aid with the landing of the visiting insect and also influence the insect to brush against anthers and stigmas (parts of the flower). One such example of a flower is the pohutukawa (*Metrosideros excelsa*), which acts to regulate colour in a different way. The pohutukawa contains small petals also having bright large red clusters of stamens.\nAnother attractive mechanism for flowers is the use of scents which are highly attractive to humans. One such example is the rose. On the other hand, some flowers produce the smell of rotting meat and are attractive to insects such as flies. Darkness is another factor that flowers have adapted to as nighttime conditions limit vision and colour\\-perception. Fragrancy can be especially useful for flowers that are pollinated at night by moths and other flying insects.\n\n### Attracting birds\n\nFlowers are also pollinated by birds and must be large and colourful to be visible against natural scenery. In New Zealand, such bird–pollinated native plants include: kowhai (*Sophora* species), flax (*Phormium tenax*) and kaka beak (*Clianthus puniceus*). Flowers adapt the mechanism on their petals to change colour in acting as a communicative mechanism for the bird to visit. An example is the tree fuchsia (*Fuchsia excorticata*), which are green when needing to be pollinated and turn red for the birds to stop coming and pollinating the flower.\n\n### Bat\\-pollinated flowers\n\nFlowers can be pollinated by short\\-tailed bats. An example of this is the dactylanthus (*Dactylanthus taylorii*). This plant has its home under the ground acting the role of a parasite on the roots of forest trees. The dactylanthus has only its flowers pointing to the surface and the flowers lack colour but have the advantage of containing much nectar and a strong scent. These act as a useful mechanism in attracting the bat.Physics.org (2012\\). The University of Adelaide. \"Flightless parrots, burrowing bats helped parasitic Hades flower\". Date Retrieved August 2013\\. [http://phys.org/news/2012\\-10\\-flightless\\-parrots\\-burrowing\\-parasitic\\-hades.html](http://phys.org/news/2012-10-flightless-parrots-burrowing-parasitic-hades.html)\n\n", "### Wind pollination\n\nWind\\-pollinated flowers often have small, dull petals and produce little or no scent. Some of these flowers will often have no petals at all. Flowers that depend on wind pollination will produce large amounts of pollen because most of the pollen scattered by the wind tends to not reach other flowers.\n\n", "### Attracting insects\n\nFlowers have various regulatory mechanisms to attract insects. One such helpful mechanism is the use of colour guiding marks. Insects such as the bee or butterfly can see the ultraviolet marks which are contained on these flowers, acting as an attractive mechanism which is not visible towards the human eye. Many flowers contain a variety of shapes acting to aid with the landing of the visiting insect and also influence the insect to brush against anthers and stigmas (parts of the flower). One such example of a flower is the pohutukawa (*Metrosideros excelsa*), which acts to regulate colour in a different way. The pohutukawa contains small petals also having bright large red clusters of stamens.\nAnother attractive mechanism for flowers is the use of scents which are highly attractive to humans. One such example is the rose. On the other hand, some flowers produce the smell of rotting meat and are attractive to insects such as flies. Darkness is another factor that flowers have adapted to as nighttime conditions limit vision and colour\\-perception. Fragrancy can be especially useful for flowers that are pollinated at night by moths and other flying insects.\n\n", "### Attracting birds\n\nFlowers are also pollinated by birds and must be large and colourful to be visible against natural scenery. In New Zealand, such bird–pollinated native plants include: kowhai (*Sophora* species), flax (*Phormium tenax*) and kaka beak (*Clianthus puniceus*). Flowers adapt the mechanism on their petals to change colour in acting as a communicative mechanism for the bird to visit. An example is the tree fuchsia (*Fuchsia excorticata*), which are green when needing to be pollinated and turn red for the birds to stop coming and pollinating the flower.\n\n", "### Bat\\-pollinated flowers\n\nFlowers can be pollinated by short\\-tailed bats. An example of this is the dactylanthus (*Dactylanthus taylorii*). This plant has its home under the ground acting the role of a parasite on the roots of forest trees. The dactylanthus has only its flowers pointing to the surface and the flowers lack colour but have the advantage of containing much nectar and a strong scent. These act as a useful mechanism in attracting the bat.Physics.org (2012\\). The University of Adelaide. \"Flightless parrots, burrowing bats helped parasitic Hades flower\". Date Retrieved August 2013\\. [http://phys.org/news/2012\\-10\\-flightless\\-parrots\\-burrowing\\-parasitic\\-hades.html](http://phys.org/news/2012-10-flightless-parrots-burrowing-parasitic-hades.html)\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "Bibliography\n------------\n\n[Category:Plant morphology](/wiki/Category:Plant_morphology \"Plant morphology\")\n[Category:Plant reproductive system](/wiki/Category:Plant_reproductive_system \"Plant reproductive system\")\n[Category:Pollination](/wiki/Category:Pollination \"Pollination\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 13910558 ], "name": [ "Psubhashish" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Kusunda language", "Notes", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "The **Kusunda** () or Ban Raja (\"people of the forest\"), known to themselves as the *Mihaq* or *Myahq* (\\< \\**Myahak*),[B. K. Rana (Linguistic Society of Nepal), \"New Materials on Kusunda Language\"](http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/kusunda.htm) (Presented to the Fourth Round Table International Conference on Ethnogenesis of South and Central Asia, Harvard University, Cambridge MA, USA. May 11–13, 2002\\) are a tribe of former [hunter\\-gatherers](/wiki/Hunter-gatherer \"Hunter-gatherer\") of the forests of western [Nepal](/wiki/Nepal \"Nepal\"), who are now intermarried with neighboring peoples and settled in villages.\n\nIn 1968 American anthropologist Johan Reinhard located a few of the last surviving Kusunda near Gorkha in Central Nepal, and in 1969 and 1975 he found further members in Dang and Surkhet valleys in western Nepal, collecting basic linguistic and ethnographic data (see references below). Shortly earlier, in about 1956, René Nebesky\\-Wojokowitz wrote a report after he was told by villagers of Kusundas conducting [silent trade](/wiki/Silent_trade \"Silent trade\") with Nepali farmers. The Kusunda were said to have brought a deer hunted recently and left it for a farm household with the unspoken expectation that the farmers would give the Kusunda farm goods.Nebesky\\-Wojkowitz, René. 1959\\. Kusunda and Chepang: Notes on Two Little\\-Known Tribes of Nepal. Bulletin of the International Committee on Urgent Anthropological and Ethnological Research 2: 77\\-84\\.\n\nThe Kusunda mainly hunted birds resting in trees at night with bows and exceptionally long (ca. 160 cm) unfeathered arrows, which were poorly suited for the hunting of land animals. Their custom of eating only the meat of wild animals extended until recent times. The Kusunda are followers of [animism](/wiki/Animism \"Animism\"), though [Hindu](/wiki/Hindu \"Hindu\") overtones may be seen in their religious rituals. According to the 2011 Nepal census, there are a total of 273 ethnic Kusunda. In 2001 Census, there were 164 Kusunda of whom 160 were Hindus and 4 were Buddhists. The [Nepali](/wiki/Nepali_language \"Nepali language\") word *Kusunda* originally meant \"savage\", as the neighboring [Chepang](/wiki/Chepang_people \"Chepang people\") and other groups traditionally thought of them as savages. \n\n", "Kusunda language\n----------------\n\n[Watters](/wiki/David_E._Watters \"David E. Watters\") (2005\\) published a mid\\-sized grammatical description of the [Kusunda language](/wiki/Kusunda_language \"Kusunda language\"), plus vocabulary, which shows that Kusunda is indeed a language isolate. Nepali is now their language of everyday communication. The language is almost [moribund](/wiki/Moribund_language \"Moribund language\"), with no children learning it, as all Kusunda speakers have married outside their ethnicity. Only one speaker survives in Nepal, an elderly woman.\n\n", "Notes\n-----\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n* Reinhard, Johan (1968\\) “The Kusunda: Ethnographic Notes on a Hunting Tribe of Nepal.” *Bulletin of the International Committee on Urgent Anthropological Ethnological Research* 10:95\\-110, Vienna.\n* Reinhard, Johan (1969\\) \"Aperçu sur les Kusunda: Peuple Chasseur du Népal.\" *Objets et Mondes* 9(1\\):89\\-106, Paris.\n* Reinhard, Johan (1976\\) “The Bana Rajas: A Vanishing Himalayan Tribe.” *Contributions to Nepalese Studies* 4(1\\):1\\-22, Kathmandu.\n* Reinhard, Johan and Sueyoshi Toba (1970\\) *A Preliminary Linguistic Analysis and Vocabulary of the Kusunda Language*. Kathmandu: Summer Institute of Linguistics/Tribhuvan University.\n* D. E. Watters (2005\\): [Notes on Kusunda Grammar: A language isolate of Nepal. Himalayan Linguistics Archive 3\\. 1\\-182\\.](https://web.archive.org/web/20070501102013/http://www.linguistics.ucsb.edu/HimalayanLinguistics/grammars/HLA03.html) NFDIN Katmandu, .\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [Genetic evidence for origins of Ban Rajas (Kusundas) of Nepal](http://nepaliaashish.wordpress.com/2006/08/26/genetic-evidence-for-origins-of-ban-rajas-kusundas-of-nepal/)\n* [Ethnologue](http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=kgg) reports the Kusunda language to be extinct.\n* P. Whitehouse, T. Usher, [M. Ruhlen](/wiki/Merritt_Ruhlen \"Merritt Ruhlen\") \\& [William S\\-Y. Wang](/wiki/William_S-Y._Wang \"William S-Y. Wang\") (2004\\): [Kusunda: An Indo\\-Pacific language in Nepal](http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/101/15/5692), PNAS 101:5692–5695 (free access) attempts to link Kusunda to other languages, using old data.\n* [BBC News: Nepal's mystery language on the verge of extinction](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-17537845)\n* 2011 Nepal's Census [https://unstats.un.org/unsD/demographic/sources/census/wphc/Nepal/Nepal\\-Census\\-2011\\-Vol1\\.pdf](https://unstats.un.org/unsD/demographic/sources/census/wphc/Nepal/Nepal-Census-2011-Vol1.pdf)\n\n[Category:Kusunda people](/wiki/Category:Kusunda_people \"Kusunda people\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 29431956 ], "name": [ "JenOttawa" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Signs and symptoms", "Risk factors", "Causes and mechanisms", "Cardiac causes", "Coronary artery disease", "Non-atherosclerotic coronary artery abnormalities", "Structural heart disease", "Inherited arrhythmia syndromes", "Non-cardiac causes", "Mechanism", "Diagnosis", "Prevention", "Primary prevention", "Secondary prevention", "Crash teams", "Management", "Cardiopulmonary resuscitation", "Airway management", "Defibrillation", "Medications", "Additional medications", "Special considerations", "Targeted temperature management", "Do not resuscitate", "Chain of survival", "Other", "Prognosis", "Epidemiology", "United States", "Other regions", "Society and culture", "Names", "Slow code", "Children", "See also", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 3, 3, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 2, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**Cardiac arrest**, also known as **sudden cardiac arrest**, is when the heart suddenly and unexpectedly stops beating. When the heart stops beating, blood cannot properly [circulate](/wiki/Circulatory_system \"Circulatory system\") around the body and the blood flow to the brain and other organs is decreased. When the brain does not receive enough blood, this can cause a person to lose consciousness and brain cells can start to die due to lack of oxygen. [Coma](/wiki/Coma \"Coma\") and [persistent vegetative state](/wiki/Persistent_vegetative_state \"Persistent vegetative state\") may result from cardiac arrest. Cardiac arrest is also identified by a lack of [central pulses](/wiki/Pulse \"Pulse\") and [abnormal or absent](/wiki/Respiratory_arrest \"Respiratory arrest\") breathing.\n\nCardiac arrest and resultant hemodynamic collapse often occur due to [arrhythmias](/wiki/Arrhythmia \"Arrhythmia\") (irregular heart rhythms). [Ventricular fibrillation](/wiki/Ventricular_fibrillation \"Ventricular fibrillation\") and [ventricular tachycardia](/wiki/Ventricular_tachycardia \"Ventricular tachycardia\") are most commonly recorded. However, as many incidents of cardiac arrest occur out\\-of\\-hospital or when a person is not having their cardiac activity monitored, it is difficult to identify the specific mechanism in each case.\n\n[Structural heart disease](/wiki/Structural_heart_disease \"Structural heart disease\"), such as [coronary artery disease](/wiki/Coronary_artery_disease \"Coronary artery disease\"), is a common underlying condition in people who experience cardiac arrest. The most common risk factors include age and cardiovascular disease. Additional underlying cardiac conditions include [heart failure](/wiki/Heart_failure \"Heart failure\") and inherited [arrhythmias](/wiki/Arrhythmia \"Arrhythmia\"). Additional factors that may contribute to cardiac arrest include major [blood loss](/wiki/Bleeding \"Bleeding\"), [lack of oxygen](/wiki/Hypoxia_%28medicine%29 \"Hypoxia (medicine)\"), electrolyte disturbance (such as [very low potassium](/wiki/Hypokalemia \"Hypokalemia\")), [electrical injury](/wiki/Electrical_injury \"Electrical injury\"), and [intense physical exercise](/wiki/Anaerobic_exercise \"Anaerobic exercise\").\n\nCardiac arrest is diagnosed by the inability to find a pulse in an unresponsive patient. The goal of treatment for cardiac arrest is to rapidly achieve [return of spontaneous circulation](/wiki/Return_of_spontaneous_circulation \"Return of spontaneous circulation\") using a variety of interventions including [CPR](/wiki/Cardiopulmonary_resuscitation \"Cardiopulmonary resuscitation\"), [defibrillation](/wiki/Defibrillation \"Defibrillation\"), and/or cardiac pacing. Two protocols have been established for CPR: [basic life support](/wiki/Basic_life_support \"Basic life support\") (BLS) and [advanced cardiac life support](/wiki/Advanced_cardiac_life_support \"Advanced cardiac life support\") (ACLS).\n\nIf return of spontaneous circulation is achieved with these interventions, then sudden cardiac arrest has occurred. By contrast, if the person does not survive the event, this is referred to as sudden cardiac death. Among those whose pulses are re\\-established, the care team may initiate measures to protect the person from brain injury and preserve neurological function. Some methods may include airway management and mechanical ventilation, maintenance of blood pressure and end\\-organ perfusion via fluid resuscitation and vasopressor support, correction of electrolyte imbalance, EKG monitoring and management of reversible causes, and temperature management. [Targeted temperature management](/wiki/Targeted_temperature_management \"Targeted temperature management\") may improve outcomes. In post\\-resuscitation care, an [implantable cardiac defibrillator](/wiki/Implantable_cardiac_defibrillator \"Implantable cardiac defibrillator\") may be considered to reduce the chance of death from recurrence.\n\nPer the 2015 American Heart Association Guidelines, there were approximately 535,000 incidents of cardiac arrest annually in the United States (about 13 per 10,000 people). Of these, 326,000 (61%) experience cardiac arrest outside of a hospital setting, while 209,000 (39%) occur within a hospital.\n\nCardiac arrest becomes more common with age and affects males more often than females. Black people are twice as likely to die from cardiac arrest as white people. Asian and Hispanic people are not as frequently affected as white people.\n\n", "Signs and symptoms\n------------------\n\nCardiac arrest is not preceded by any warning symptoms in approximately 50 percent of people. For individuals who do experience symptoms, the symptoms are usually nonspecific to the cardiac arrest. For example, new or worsening [chest pain](/wiki/Chest_pain \"Chest pain\"), [fatigue](/wiki/Fatigue_%28medical%29 \"Fatigue (medical)\"), [blackouts](/wiki/Syncope_%28medicine%29 \"Syncope (medicine)\"), [dizziness](/wiki/Dizziness \"Dizziness\"), [shortness of breath](/wiki/Shortness_of_breath \"Shortness of breath\"), [weakness](/wiki/Weakness \"Weakness\"), or [vomiting](/wiki/Vomiting \"Vomiting\").\n\nWhen cardiac arrest is suspected by a layperson (due to signs of unconsciousness, abnormal breathing, and/or no pulse) it should be assumed that the victim is in cardiac arrest. Bystanders should call [emergency medical services](/wiki/Emergency_medical_services \"Emergency medical services\") (such as 911 or 112\\) and initiate [CPR](/wiki/Cardiopulmonary_resuscitation \"Cardiopulmonary resuscitation\").\n\n", "Risk factors\n------------\n\nMajor risk factors for cardiac arrest include age and underlying [cardiovascular disease](/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease \"Cardiovascular disease\"). A prior episode of sudden cardiac arrest increases the likelihood of future episodes. A 2021 meta\\-analysis assessing the recurrence of cardiac arrest in out\\-of\\-hospital cardiac arrest survivors identified that 15% of survivors experienced a second event, most often in the first year. Furthermore, of those who experienced recurrence, 35% had a third episode.\n\nAdditional significant risk factors include [cigarette smoking](/wiki/Tobacco_smoking \"Tobacco smoking\"), [high blood pressure](/wiki/Hypertension \"Hypertension\"), [high cholesterol](/wiki/High_cholesterol \"High cholesterol\"), history of [arrhythmia](/wiki/Arrhythmia \"Arrhythmia\"), lack of [physical exercise](/wiki/Physical_exercise \"Physical exercise\"), [obesity](/wiki/Obesity \"Obesity\"), [diabetes](/wiki/Diabetes \"Diabetes\"), [family history](/wiki/Family_history_%28medicine%29 \"Family history (medicine)\"), [cardiomyopathy](/wiki/Cardiomyopathy \"Cardiomyopathy\"), alcohol use, and possibly caffeine intake. Current cigarette smokers with coronary artery disease were found to have a two to threefold increase in the risk of sudden death between ages 30 and 59\\. Furthermore, it was found that former smokers' risk was closer to that of those who had never smoked. A statistical analysis of many of these risk factors determined that approximately 50% of all cardiac arrests occur in 10% of the population perceived to be at greatest risk, due to aggregate harm of multiple risk factors, demonstrating that cumulative risk of multiple comorbidities exceeds the sum of each risk individually.\n\n", "Causes and mechanisms\n---------------------\n\n[thumb\\|221x221px\\|[Conduction of the heart](/wiki/Cardiac_conduction_system \"Cardiac conduction system\"). Changes in this pattern can result from injury to the cardiac muscle and lead to non\\-conducted beats and ultimately cardiac arrest.](/wiki/File:Basic_representation_of_cardiac_conduction.gif \"Basic representation of cardiac conduction.gif\")\n[thumb\\|EKG depiction of ventricular fibrillation (no organized rhythm)](/wiki/File:Ventricular_fibrillation.png \"Ventricular fibrillation.png\")\nThe underlying causes of sudden cardiac arrest can result from cardiac and non\\-cardiac etiologies. The most common underlying causes are different, depending on the patient's age. Common cardiac causes include [coronary artery disease](/wiki/Coronary_artery_disease \"Coronary artery disease\"), non\\-atherosclerotic coronary artery abnormalities, structural heart damage, and inherited arrhythmias. Common non\\-cardiac causes include respiratory arrest, diabetes, medications, and trauma.\n\nThe most common mechanism underlying sudden cardiac arrest is an arrhythmia (an irregular rhythm). Without organized [electrical activity](/wiki/Cardiac_conduction_system \"Cardiac conduction system\") in the [heart muscle](/wiki/Heart_muscle \"Heart muscle\"), there is inconsistent contraction of the [ventricles](/wiki/Ventricle_%28heart%29 \"Ventricle (heart)\"), which prevents the heart from generating adequate [cardiac output](/wiki/Cardiac_output \"Cardiac output\") (forward pumping of blood from the heart to the rest of the body). This hemodynamic collapse results in poor blood flow to the brain and other organs, which if prolonged causes persistent damage.\n\nThere are many different types of arrhythmias, but the ones most frequently recorded in sudden cardiac arrest are [ventricular tachycardia](/wiki/Ventricular_tachycardia \"Ventricular tachycardia\") and [ventricular fibrillation](/wiki/Ventricular_fibrillation \"Ventricular fibrillation\"). Both ventricular tachycardia and ventricular fibrillation can prevent the heart from generating coordinated ventricular contractions, thereby failing to sustain adequate blood circulation.\n\nLess common types of arrhythmias occurring in cardiac arrest include [pulseless electrical activity](/wiki/Pulseless_electrical_activity \"Pulseless electrical activity\"), [bradycardia](/wiki/Bradycardia \"Bradycardia\"), and [asystole](/wiki/Asystole \"Asystole\"). These rhythms are seen when there is prolonged cardiac arrest, progression of ventricular fibrillation, or efforts like defibrillation executed to resuscitate the person.\n\n### Cardiac causes\n\n#### Coronary artery disease\n\n[thumb\\|Normal vs blocked coronary artery](/wiki/File:Coronary_Artery_Disease.png \"Coronary Artery Disease.png\")\n[Coronary artery disease](/wiki/Coronary_artery_disease \"Coronary artery disease\") (CAD), also known as atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, involves the deposition of cholesterol and subsequent inflammation\\-driven formation of [atherosclerotic plaques](/wiki/Atherosclerosis \"Atherosclerosis\") in the arteries. CAD involves the accumulation and remodeling of the [coronary vessels](/wiki/Coronary_circulation \"Coronary circulation\") along with other systemic blood vessels. When an atherosclerotic plaque dislodges, it can block the flow of blood and oxygen through small arteries, such as the coronary arteries, resulting in [ischemic](/wiki/Ischemia \"Ischemia\") injury. In the heart, this results in myocardial tissue damage which can lead to structural and functional changes that disrupt normal conduction patterns and alter heart rate and contraction.\n\nCAD underlies 68 percent of sudden cardiac deaths in the United States. Indeed, postmortem examinations have shown that the most common finding in cases of sudden cardiac death is chronic, high\\-grade [stenosis](/wiki/Stenosis \"Stenosis\") of at least one segment of a major [coronary artery](/wiki/Coronary_arteries \"Coronary arteries\").\n\nWhile CAD is a leading contributing factor, this is an age\\-dependent factor, with CAD being a less common cause of sudden cardiac death in people under the age of 40\\.\n\n#### Non\\-atherosclerotic coronary artery abnormalities\n\nAbnormalities of the coronary arteries not related to atherosclerosis include inflammation (known as coronary [arteritis](/wiki/Arteritis \"Arteritis\")), [embolism](/wiki/Embolism \"Embolism\"), [vasospasm](/wiki/Vasospasm \"Vasospasm\"), mechanical abnormalities related to connective tissue diseases or trauma, and congenital [coronary artery anomalies](/wiki/Coronary_artery_anomaly \"Coronary artery anomaly\") (most commonly anomalous origin of the left coronary artery from the pulmonary artery). These conditions account for 10\\-15% of cardiac arrest and sudden cardiac death.\n* Coronary arteritis commonly results from a pediatric febrile inflammatory condition known as [Kawasaki disease](/wiki/Kawasaki_disease \"Kawasaki disease\"). Other types of [vasculitis](/wiki/Vasculitis \"Vasculitis\") can also contribute to an increased risk of sudden cardiac death.\n* Embolism, or clotting, of the coronary arteries most commonly occurs from septic emboli secondary to endocarditis with involvement of the aortic valve, tricuspid valve, or prosthetic valves.\n* [Coronary vasospasm](/wiki/Coronary_vasospasm \"Coronary vasospasm\") may result in cardiac arrhythmias, altering the heart's electrical conduction with a risk of complete cardiac arrest from severe or prolonged rhythm changes.\n* Mechanical abnormalities with an associated risk of cardiac arrest may arise from coronary artery dissection, which can be attributed to [Marfan Syndrome](/wiki/Marfan_syndrome \"Marfan syndrome\") or trauma.\n\n#### Structural heart disease\n\n[thumb\\|Short axis view of the heart demonstrating wall thickening in left ventricular hypertrophy](/wiki/File:Heart_left_ventricular_hypertrophy_sa.jpg \"Heart left ventricular hypertrophy sa.jpg\")\nExamples of structural heart diseases include: [cardiomyopathies](/wiki/Cardiomyopathy \"Cardiomyopathy\") ([hypertrophic](/wiki/Hypertrophic_cardiomyopathy \"Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy\"), [dilated](/wiki/Dilated_cardiomyopathy \"Dilated cardiomyopathy\"), or [arrhythmogenic](/wiki/Arrhythmogenic_cardiomyopathy \"Arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy\")), [cardiac rhythm disturbances](/wiki/Cardiac_arrhythmia \"Cardiac arrhythmia\"), [myocarditis](/wiki/Myocarditis \"Myocarditis\"), and [congestive heart failure](/wiki/Congestive_heart_failure \"Congestive heart failure\").\n[thumb\\|EKG depiction of left ventricular hypertrophy](/wiki/File:Left_Ventricular_Hypertrophy_Unlabeled.jpg \"Left Ventricular Hypertrophy Unlabeled.jpg\")\n[Left ventricular hypertrophy](/wiki/Left_ventricular_hypertrophy \"Left ventricular hypertrophy\") is a leading cause of sudden cardiac deaths in the adult population. This is most commonly the result of longstanding [high blood pressure](/wiki/Hypertension \"Hypertension\"), or hypertension, which has led to maladaptive overgrowth of muscular tissue of the [left ventricle](/wiki/Ventricle_%28heart%29 \"Ventricle (heart)\"), the heart's main pumping chamber. This is because elevated blood pressure over the course of several years requires the heart to adapt to the requirement of pumping harder to adequately circulate blood throughout the body. If the heart does this for a prolonged period of time, the left ventricle can experience hypertrophy (grow larger) in a way that decreases the heart's effectiveness. Left ventricular hypertrophy can be demonstrated on an [echocardiogram](/wiki/Echocardiography \"Echocardiography\") and [electrocardiogram](/wiki/Electrocardiography \"Electrocardiography\") (EKG).\n\nAbnormalities of the cardiac conduction system (notably the [Atrioventricular Node](/wiki/Atrioventricular_node \"Atrioventricular node\") and [His\\-Purkinje](/wiki/Purkinje_fibers \"Purkinje fibers\") system) may predispose an individual to arrhythmias with a risk of progressing to sudden cardiac arrest, albeit this risk remains low. Many of these conduction blocks can be treated with internal cardiac defibrillators for those determined to be at high risk due to severity of fibrosis or severe electrophysiologic disturbances.\n\nStructural heart diseases unrelated to coronary artery disease account for 10% of all sudden cardiac deaths. A 1999 review of sudden cardiac deaths in the United States found that structural heart diseases accounted for over 30% of sudden cardiac arrests for those under 30 years.\n\n#### Inherited arrhythmia syndromes\n\nArrhythmias not due to structural heart disease account for 5 to 10% of sudden cardiac arrests. These are frequently caused by [genetic disorders](/wiki/Genetic_disorder \"Genetic disorder\"). The genetic [mutations](/wiki/Mutation \"Mutation\") often affect specialized proteins known as [ion channels](/wiki/Ion_channel \"Ion channel\") that conduct [electrically charged particles](/wiki/Ion \"Ion\") across the [cell membrane](/wiki/Cell_membrane \"Cell membrane\"), and this group of conditions is therefore often referred to as [channelopathies](/wiki/Channelopathy \"Channelopathy\"). Examples of these inherited arrhythmia syndromes include [Long QT syndrome](/wiki/Long_QT_syndrome \"Long QT syndrome\") (LQTS), [Brugada Syndrome](/wiki/Brugada_Syndrome \"Brugada Syndrome\"), [Catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia](/wiki/Catecholaminergic_polymorphic_ventricular_tachycardia \"Catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia\"), and [Short QT syndrome](/wiki/Short_QT_syndrome \"Short QT syndrome\"). Many are also associated with environmental or neurogenic triggers such as response to loud sounds that can initiate lethal arrhythmias.\n\nLQTS, a condition often mentioned in young people's deaths, occurs in one of every 5000 to 7000 newborns and is estimated to be responsible for 3000 deaths annually compared to the approximately 300,000 cardiac arrests seen by emergency services. These conditions are a fraction of the overall deaths related to cardiac arrest but represent conditions that may be detected prior to arrest and may be treatable. The symptomatic expression of LQTS is quite broad and more often presents with [syncope](/wiki/Syncope_%28medicine%29 \"Syncope (medicine)\") rather than cardiac arrest. The risk of cardiac arrest is still present, and people with family histories of sudden cardiac arrests should be screened for LQTS and other treatable causes of lethal arrhythmia. Higher levels of risk for cardiac arrest are associated with female sex, more significant QT prolongation, history of unexplained syncope (fainting spells), or premature sudden cardiac death. Additionally, individuals with LQTS should avoid certain medications that carry the risk of increasing the severity of this conduction abnormality, such as certain anti\\-arrhythmics, anti\\-depressants, and [quinolone](/wiki/Quinolone_antibiotic \"Quinolone antibiotic\") or [macrolide](/wiki/Macrolide \"Macrolide\") antibiotics.\n\nAnother condition that promotes arrhythmias is [Wolff\\-Parkinson\\-White syndrome](/wiki/Wolff%E2%80%93Parkinson%E2%80%93White_syndrome \"Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome\"), in which an accessory conduction pathway bypassing the atrioventricular node is present and can cause abnormal conduction patterns leading to supraventricular tachycardia and cardiac arrest.\n\n### Non\\-cardiac causes\n\nNon\\-cardiac causes account for 15 to 25% of cardiac arrests. Common non\\-cardiac causes include [respiratory arrest](/wiki/Respiratory_arrest \"Respiratory arrest\"), [diabetes](/wiki/Diabetes \"Diabetes\"), certain [medications](/wiki/Medication \"Medication\"), and [blunt trauma](/wiki/Blunt_trauma \"Blunt trauma\") (especially to the chest).\n\n* Respiratory arrest will be followed by cardiac arrest unless promptly treated. Respiratory arrest can be caused by pulmonary embolus, choking, drowning, trauma, drug overdose, and poisoning. Pulmonary embolus carries a high mortality rate and may be the triggering cause for up to 5% of cardiac arrests, according to a retrospective study from an urban tertiary care emergency department.\n* Diabetes\\-related factors contributing to cardiac arrest include silent myocardial ischemia, nervous system dysfunction, and electrolyte disturbances leading to abnormal cardiac repolarization.\n* Certain medications can worsen an existing arrhythmia. Some examples include antibiotics like macrolides, diuretics, and heart medications such as anti\\-arrhythmic medications.\n\nAdditional non\\-cardiac causes include [hemorrhage](/wiki/Bleeding \"Bleeding\"), [aortic rupture](/wiki/Aortic_rupture \"Aortic rupture\"), [hypovolemic shock](/wiki/Hypovolemic_shock \"Hypovolemic shock\"), [pulmonary embolism](/wiki/Pulmonary_embolism \"Pulmonary embolism\"), poisoning such as from the [stings of certain jellyfish](/wiki/Jellyfish%23Toxicity \"Jellyfish#Toxicity\"), and [electrical injury](/wiki/Electrical_injury \"Electrical injury\").\n\nCircadian patterns are also recognized as triggering factors in cardiac arrest. Per a 2021 systematic review, throughout the day there are two main peak times in which cardiac arrest occurs. The first is in the morning hours and the second is in the afternoon. Moreover, survival rates following cardiac arrest were lowest when occurring between midnight and 6am.\n\nMany of these non\\-cardiac causes of cardiac arrest are reversible. A common mnemonic used to recall the reversible causes of cardiac arrest is referred to as the [Hs and Ts](/wiki/Hs_and_Ts \"Hs and Ts\"). The Hs are [hypovolemia](/wiki/Hypovolemia \"Hypovolemia\"), [hypoxia](/wiki/Hypoxia_%28medicine%29 \"Hypoxia (medicine)\"), hydrogen cation excess ([acidosis](/wiki/Acidosis \"Acidosis\")), [hyperkalemia](/wiki/Hyperkalemia \"Hyperkalemia\"), [hypokalemia](/wiki/Hypokalemia \"Hypokalemia\"), [hypothermia](/wiki/Hypothermia \"Hypothermia\"), and [hypoglycemia](/wiki/Hypoglycemia \"Hypoglycemia\"). The Ts are [toxins](/wiki/Toxin \"Toxin\"), (cardiac) [tamponade](/wiki/Cardiac_tamponade \"Cardiac tamponade\"), [tension pneumothorax](/wiki/Pneumothorax \"Pneumothorax\"), thrombosis ([myocardial infarction](/wiki/Myocardial_infarction \"Myocardial infarction\")), [thromboembolism](/wiki/Thrombosis \"Thrombosis\"), and trauma.\n\n### Mechanism\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.3\\|Ventricular fibrillation](/wiki/File:Ventricular_fibrillation.png \"Ventricular fibrillation.png\")\nThe definitive electrical mechanisms of cardiac arrest, which may arise from any of the functional, structural, or physiologic abnormalities mentioned above, are characterized by arrhythmias. [Ventricular fibrillation](/wiki/Ventricular_fibrillation \"Ventricular fibrillation\") and pulseless or sustained [ventricular tachycardia](/wiki/Ventricular_tachycardia \"Ventricular tachycardia\") are the most commonly recorded arrhythmias preceding cardiac arrest. These are rapid and erratic arrhythmias that alter the circulatory pathway such that adequate blood flow cannot be sustained and is inadequate to meet the body's needs.\n\nThe mechanism responsible for the majority of sudden cardiac deaths is ventricular fibrillation. Ventricular fibrillation is a tachyarrhythmia characterized by turbulent electrical activity in the ventricular myocardium leading to a heart rate too disorganized and rapid to produce any meaningful cardiac output, thus resulting in insufficient perfusion of the brain and essential organs. Some of the electrophysiologic mechanisms underpinning ventricular fibrillations include ectopic automaticity, re\\-entry, and triggered activity. However, structural changes in the diseased heart as a result of inherited factors (mutations in ion\\-channel coding genes, for example) cannot explain the sudden onset of cardiac arrest.\n\nIn ventricular tachycardia, the heart also beats faster than normal, which may prevent the heart chambers from properly filling with blood. Ventricular tachycardia is characterized by an altered QRS complex and a heart rate greater than 100 beats per minute. When V\\-tach is sustained (lasts for at least 30 seconds), inadequate blood flow to heart tissue can lead to cardiac arrest.\n\n[Bradyarrhythmias](/wiki/Bradycardia \"Bradycardia\") occur following dissociation of spontaneous electrical conduction and the mechanical function of the heart resulting in [pulseless electrical activity](/wiki/Pulseless_electrical_activity \"Pulseless electrical activity\") (PEA) or through complete absence of electrical activity of the heart resulting in [asystole](/wiki/Asystole \"Asystole\"). Similar to the result of tachyarrhythmias, these conditions lead to an inability to sustain adequate blood flow as well, though in the case of bradyarrhythmias, the underlying cause is an absence of mechanical activity rather than rapid beats leading to disorganization.\n\n", "### Cardiac causes\n\n#### Coronary artery disease\n\n[thumb\\|Normal vs blocked coronary artery](/wiki/File:Coronary_Artery_Disease.png \"Coronary Artery Disease.png\")\n[Coronary artery disease](/wiki/Coronary_artery_disease \"Coronary artery disease\") (CAD), also known as atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, involves the deposition of cholesterol and subsequent inflammation\\-driven formation of [atherosclerotic plaques](/wiki/Atherosclerosis \"Atherosclerosis\") in the arteries. CAD involves the accumulation and remodeling of the [coronary vessels](/wiki/Coronary_circulation \"Coronary circulation\") along with other systemic blood vessels. When an atherosclerotic plaque dislodges, it can block the flow of blood and oxygen through small arteries, such as the coronary arteries, resulting in [ischemic](/wiki/Ischemia \"Ischemia\") injury. In the heart, this results in myocardial tissue damage which can lead to structural and functional changes that disrupt normal conduction patterns and alter heart rate and contraction.\n\nCAD underlies 68 percent of sudden cardiac deaths in the United States. Indeed, postmortem examinations have shown that the most common finding in cases of sudden cardiac death is chronic, high\\-grade [stenosis](/wiki/Stenosis \"Stenosis\") of at least one segment of a major [coronary artery](/wiki/Coronary_arteries \"Coronary arteries\").\n\nWhile CAD is a leading contributing factor, this is an age\\-dependent factor, with CAD being a less common cause of sudden cardiac death in people under the age of 40\\.\n\n#### Non\\-atherosclerotic coronary artery abnormalities\n\nAbnormalities of the coronary arteries not related to atherosclerosis include inflammation (known as coronary [arteritis](/wiki/Arteritis \"Arteritis\")), [embolism](/wiki/Embolism \"Embolism\"), [vasospasm](/wiki/Vasospasm \"Vasospasm\"), mechanical abnormalities related to connective tissue diseases or trauma, and congenital [coronary artery anomalies](/wiki/Coronary_artery_anomaly \"Coronary artery anomaly\") (most commonly anomalous origin of the left coronary artery from the pulmonary artery). These conditions account for 10\\-15% of cardiac arrest and sudden cardiac death.\n* Coronary arteritis commonly results from a pediatric febrile inflammatory condition known as [Kawasaki disease](/wiki/Kawasaki_disease \"Kawasaki disease\"). Other types of [vasculitis](/wiki/Vasculitis \"Vasculitis\") can also contribute to an increased risk of sudden cardiac death.\n* Embolism, or clotting, of the coronary arteries most commonly occurs from septic emboli secondary to endocarditis with involvement of the aortic valve, tricuspid valve, or prosthetic valves.\n* [Coronary vasospasm](/wiki/Coronary_vasospasm \"Coronary vasospasm\") may result in cardiac arrhythmias, altering the heart's electrical conduction with a risk of complete cardiac arrest from severe or prolonged rhythm changes.\n* Mechanical abnormalities with an associated risk of cardiac arrest may arise from coronary artery dissection, which can be attributed to [Marfan Syndrome](/wiki/Marfan_syndrome \"Marfan syndrome\") or trauma.\n\n#### Structural heart disease\n\n[thumb\\|Short axis view of the heart demonstrating wall thickening in left ventricular hypertrophy](/wiki/File:Heart_left_ventricular_hypertrophy_sa.jpg \"Heart left ventricular hypertrophy sa.jpg\")\nExamples of structural heart diseases include: [cardiomyopathies](/wiki/Cardiomyopathy \"Cardiomyopathy\") ([hypertrophic](/wiki/Hypertrophic_cardiomyopathy \"Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy\"), [dilated](/wiki/Dilated_cardiomyopathy \"Dilated cardiomyopathy\"), or [arrhythmogenic](/wiki/Arrhythmogenic_cardiomyopathy \"Arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy\")), [cardiac rhythm disturbances](/wiki/Cardiac_arrhythmia \"Cardiac arrhythmia\"), [myocarditis](/wiki/Myocarditis \"Myocarditis\"), and [congestive heart failure](/wiki/Congestive_heart_failure \"Congestive heart failure\").\n[thumb\\|EKG depiction of left ventricular hypertrophy](/wiki/File:Left_Ventricular_Hypertrophy_Unlabeled.jpg \"Left Ventricular Hypertrophy Unlabeled.jpg\")\n[Left ventricular hypertrophy](/wiki/Left_ventricular_hypertrophy \"Left ventricular hypertrophy\") is a leading cause of sudden cardiac deaths in the adult population. This is most commonly the result of longstanding [high blood pressure](/wiki/Hypertension \"Hypertension\"), or hypertension, which has led to maladaptive overgrowth of muscular tissue of the [left ventricle](/wiki/Ventricle_%28heart%29 \"Ventricle (heart)\"), the heart's main pumping chamber. This is because elevated blood pressure over the course of several years requires the heart to adapt to the requirement of pumping harder to adequately circulate blood throughout the body. If the heart does this for a prolonged period of time, the left ventricle can experience hypertrophy (grow larger) in a way that decreases the heart's effectiveness. Left ventricular hypertrophy can be demonstrated on an [echocardiogram](/wiki/Echocardiography \"Echocardiography\") and [electrocardiogram](/wiki/Electrocardiography \"Electrocardiography\") (EKG).\n\nAbnormalities of the cardiac conduction system (notably the [Atrioventricular Node](/wiki/Atrioventricular_node \"Atrioventricular node\") and [His\\-Purkinje](/wiki/Purkinje_fibers \"Purkinje fibers\") system) may predispose an individual to arrhythmias with a risk of progressing to sudden cardiac arrest, albeit this risk remains low. Many of these conduction blocks can be treated with internal cardiac defibrillators for those determined to be at high risk due to severity of fibrosis or severe electrophysiologic disturbances.\n\nStructural heart diseases unrelated to coronary artery disease account for 10% of all sudden cardiac deaths. A 1999 review of sudden cardiac deaths in the United States found that structural heart diseases accounted for over 30% of sudden cardiac arrests for those under 30 years.\n\n#### Inherited arrhythmia syndromes\n\nArrhythmias not due to structural heart disease account for 5 to 10% of sudden cardiac arrests. These are frequently caused by [genetic disorders](/wiki/Genetic_disorder \"Genetic disorder\"). The genetic [mutations](/wiki/Mutation \"Mutation\") often affect specialized proteins known as [ion channels](/wiki/Ion_channel \"Ion channel\") that conduct [electrically charged particles](/wiki/Ion \"Ion\") across the [cell membrane](/wiki/Cell_membrane \"Cell membrane\"), and this group of conditions is therefore often referred to as [channelopathies](/wiki/Channelopathy \"Channelopathy\"). Examples of these inherited arrhythmia syndromes include [Long QT syndrome](/wiki/Long_QT_syndrome \"Long QT syndrome\") (LQTS), [Brugada Syndrome](/wiki/Brugada_Syndrome \"Brugada Syndrome\"), [Catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia](/wiki/Catecholaminergic_polymorphic_ventricular_tachycardia \"Catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia\"), and [Short QT syndrome](/wiki/Short_QT_syndrome \"Short QT syndrome\"). Many are also associated with environmental or neurogenic triggers such as response to loud sounds that can initiate lethal arrhythmias.\n\nLQTS, a condition often mentioned in young people's deaths, occurs in one of every 5000 to 7000 newborns and is estimated to be responsible for 3000 deaths annually compared to the approximately 300,000 cardiac arrests seen by emergency services. These conditions are a fraction of the overall deaths related to cardiac arrest but represent conditions that may be detected prior to arrest and may be treatable. The symptomatic expression of LQTS is quite broad and more often presents with [syncope](/wiki/Syncope_%28medicine%29 \"Syncope (medicine)\") rather than cardiac arrest. The risk of cardiac arrest is still present, and people with family histories of sudden cardiac arrests should be screened for LQTS and other treatable causes of lethal arrhythmia. Higher levels of risk for cardiac arrest are associated with female sex, more significant QT prolongation, history of unexplained syncope (fainting spells), or premature sudden cardiac death. Additionally, individuals with LQTS should avoid certain medications that carry the risk of increasing the severity of this conduction abnormality, such as certain anti\\-arrhythmics, anti\\-depressants, and [quinolone](/wiki/Quinolone_antibiotic \"Quinolone antibiotic\") or [macrolide](/wiki/Macrolide \"Macrolide\") antibiotics.\n\nAnother condition that promotes arrhythmias is [Wolff\\-Parkinson\\-White syndrome](/wiki/Wolff%E2%80%93Parkinson%E2%80%93White_syndrome \"Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome\"), in which an accessory conduction pathway bypassing the atrioventricular node is present and can cause abnormal conduction patterns leading to supraventricular tachycardia and cardiac arrest.\n\n", "#### Coronary artery disease\n\n[thumb\\|Normal vs blocked coronary artery](/wiki/File:Coronary_Artery_Disease.png \"Coronary Artery Disease.png\")\n[Coronary artery disease](/wiki/Coronary_artery_disease \"Coronary artery disease\") (CAD), also known as atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, involves the deposition of cholesterol and subsequent inflammation\\-driven formation of [atherosclerotic plaques](/wiki/Atherosclerosis \"Atherosclerosis\") in the arteries. CAD involves the accumulation and remodeling of the [coronary vessels](/wiki/Coronary_circulation \"Coronary circulation\") along with other systemic blood vessels. When an atherosclerotic plaque dislodges, it can block the flow of blood and oxygen through small arteries, such as the coronary arteries, resulting in [ischemic](/wiki/Ischemia \"Ischemia\") injury. In the heart, this results in myocardial tissue damage which can lead to structural and functional changes that disrupt normal conduction patterns and alter heart rate and contraction.\n\nCAD underlies 68 percent of sudden cardiac deaths in the United States. Indeed, postmortem examinations have shown that the most common finding in cases of sudden cardiac death is chronic, high\\-grade [stenosis](/wiki/Stenosis \"Stenosis\") of at least one segment of a major [coronary artery](/wiki/Coronary_arteries \"Coronary arteries\").\n\nWhile CAD is a leading contributing factor, this is an age\\-dependent factor, with CAD being a less common cause of sudden cardiac death in people under the age of 40\\.\n\n", "#### Non\\-atherosclerotic coronary artery abnormalities\n\nAbnormalities of the coronary arteries not related to atherosclerosis include inflammation (known as coronary [arteritis](/wiki/Arteritis \"Arteritis\")), [embolism](/wiki/Embolism \"Embolism\"), [vasospasm](/wiki/Vasospasm \"Vasospasm\"), mechanical abnormalities related to connective tissue diseases or trauma, and congenital [coronary artery anomalies](/wiki/Coronary_artery_anomaly \"Coronary artery anomaly\") (most commonly anomalous origin of the left coronary artery from the pulmonary artery). These conditions account for 10\\-15% of cardiac arrest and sudden cardiac death.\n* Coronary arteritis commonly results from a pediatric febrile inflammatory condition known as [Kawasaki disease](/wiki/Kawasaki_disease \"Kawasaki disease\"). Other types of [vasculitis](/wiki/Vasculitis \"Vasculitis\") can also contribute to an increased risk of sudden cardiac death.\n* Embolism, or clotting, of the coronary arteries most commonly occurs from septic emboli secondary to endocarditis with involvement of the aortic valve, tricuspid valve, or prosthetic valves.\n* [Coronary vasospasm](/wiki/Coronary_vasospasm \"Coronary vasospasm\") may result in cardiac arrhythmias, altering the heart's electrical conduction with a risk of complete cardiac arrest from severe or prolonged rhythm changes.\n* Mechanical abnormalities with an associated risk of cardiac arrest may arise from coronary artery dissection, which can be attributed to [Marfan Syndrome](/wiki/Marfan_syndrome \"Marfan syndrome\") or trauma.\n\n", "#### Structural heart disease\n\n[thumb\\|Short axis view of the heart demonstrating wall thickening in left ventricular hypertrophy](/wiki/File:Heart_left_ventricular_hypertrophy_sa.jpg \"Heart left ventricular hypertrophy sa.jpg\")\nExamples of structural heart diseases include: [cardiomyopathies](/wiki/Cardiomyopathy \"Cardiomyopathy\") ([hypertrophic](/wiki/Hypertrophic_cardiomyopathy \"Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy\"), [dilated](/wiki/Dilated_cardiomyopathy \"Dilated cardiomyopathy\"), or [arrhythmogenic](/wiki/Arrhythmogenic_cardiomyopathy \"Arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy\")), [cardiac rhythm disturbances](/wiki/Cardiac_arrhythmia \"Cardiac arrhythmia\"), [myocarditis](/wiki/Myocarditis \"Myocarditis\"), and [congestive heart failure](/wiki/Congestive_heart_failure \"Congestive heart failure\").\n[thumb\\|EKG depiction of left ventricular hypertrophy](/wiki/File:Left_Ventricular_Hypertrophy_Unlabeled.jpg \"Left Ventricular Hypertrophy Unlabeled.jpg\")\n[Left ventricular hypertrophy](/wiki/Left_ventricular_hypertrophy \"Left ventricular hypertrophy\") is a leading cause of sudden cardiac deaths in the adult population. This is most commonly the result of longstanding [high blood pressure](/wiki/Hypertension \"Hypertension\"), or hypertension, which has led to maladaptive overgrowth of muscular tissue of the [left ventricle](/wiki/Ventricle_%28heart%29 \"Ventricle (heart)\"), the heart's main pumping chamber. This is because elevated blood pressure over the course of several years requires the heart to adapt to the requirement of pumping harder to adequately circulate blood throughout the body. If the heart does this for a prolonged period of time, the left ventricle can experience hypertrophy (grow larger) in a way that decreases the heart's effectiveness. Left ventricular hypertrophy can be demonstrated on an [echocardiogram](/wiki/Echocardiography \"Echocardiography\") and [electrocardiogram](/wiki/Electrocardiography \"Electrocardiography\") (EKG).\n\nAbnormalities of the cardiac conduction system (notably the [Atrioventricular Node](/wiki/Atrioventricular_node \"Atrioventricular node\") and [His\\-Purkinje](/wiki/Purkinje_fibers \"Purkinje fibers\") system) may predispose an individual to arrhythmias with a risk of progressing to sudden cardiac arrest, albeit this risk remains low. Many of these conduction blocks can be treated with internal cardiac defibrillators for those determined to be at high risk due to severity of fibrosis or severe electrophysiologic disturbances.\n\nStructural heart diseases unrelated to coronary artery disease account for 10% of all sudden cardiac deaths. A 1999 review of sudden cardiac deaths in the United States found that structural heart diseases accounted for over 30% of sudden cardiac arrests for those under 30 years.\n\n", "#### Inherited arrhythmia syndromes\n\nArrhythmias not due to structural heart disease account for 5 to 10% of sudden cardiac arrests. These are frequently caused by [genetic disorders](/wiki/Genetic_disorder \"Genetic disorder\"). The genetic [mutations](/wiki/Mutation \"Mutation\") often affect specialized proteins known as [ion channels](/wiki/Ion_channel \"Ion channel\") that conduct [electrically charged particles](/wiki/Ion \"Ion\") across the [cell membrane](/wiki/Cell_membrane \"Cell membrane\"), and this group of conditions is therefore often referred to as [channelopathies](/wiki/Channelopathy \"Channelopathy\"). Examples of these inherited arrhythmia syndromes include [Long QT syndrome](/wiki/Long_QT_syndrome \"Long QT syndrome\") (LQTS), [Brugada Syndrome](/wiki/Brugada_Syndrome \"Brugada Syndrome\"), [Catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia](/wiki/Catecholaminergic_polymorphic_ventricular_tachycardia \"Catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia\"), and [Short QT syndrome](/wiki/Short_QT_syndrome \"Short QT syndrome\"). Many are also associated with environmental or neurogenic triggers such as response to loud sounds that can initiate lethal arrhythmias.\n\nLQTS, a condition often mentioned in young people's deaths, occurs in one of every 5000 to 7000 newborns and is estimated to be responsible for 3000 deaths annually compared to the approximately 300,000 cardiac arrests seen by emergency services. These conditions are a fraction of the overall deaths related to cardiac arrest but represent conditions that may be detected prior to arrest and may be treatable. The symptomatic expression of LQTS is quite broad and more often presents with [syncope](/wiki/Syncope_%28medicine%29 \"Syncope (medicine)\") rather than cardiac arrest. The risk of cardiac arrest is still present, and people with family histories of sudden cardiac arrests should be screened for LQTS and other treatable causes of lethal arrhythmia. Higher levels of risk for cardiac arrest are associated with female sex, more significant QT prolongation, history of unexplained syncope (fainting spells), or premature sudden cardiac death. Additionally, individuals with LQTS should avoid certain medications that carry the risk of increasing the severity of this conduction abnormality, such as certain anti\\-arrhythmics, anti\\-depressants, and [quinolone](/wiki/Quinolone_antibiotic \"Quinolone antibiotic\") or [macrolide](/wiki/Macrolide \"Macrolide\") antibiotics.\n\nAnother condition that promotes arrhythmias is [Wolff\\-Parkinson\\-White syndrome](/wiki/Wolff%E2%80%93Parkinson%E2%80%93White_syndrome \"Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome\"), in which an accessory conduction pathway bypassing the atrioventricular node is present and can cause abnormal conduction patterns leading to supraventricular tachycardia and cardiac arrest.\n\n", "### Non\\-cardiac causes\n\nNon\\-cardiac causes account for 15 to 25% of cardiac arrests. Common non\\-cardiac causes include [respiratory arrest](/wiki/Respiratory_arrest \"Respiratory arrest\"), [diabetes](/wiki/Diabetes \"Diabetes\"), certain [medications](/wiki/Medication \"Medication\"), and [blunt trauma](/wiki/Blunt_trauma \"Blunt trauma\") (especially to the chest).\n\n* Respiratory arrest will be followed by cardiac arrest unless promptly treated. Respiratory arrest can be caused by pulmonary embolus, choking, drowning, trauma, drug overdose, and poisoning. Pulmonary embolus carries a high mortality rate and may be the triggering cause for up to 5% of cardiac arrests, according to a retrospective study from an urban tertiary care emergency department.\n* Diabetes\\-related factors contributing to cardiac arrest include silent myocardial ischemia, nervous system dysfunction, and electrolyte disturbances leading to abnormal cardiac repolarization.\n* Certain medications can worsen an existing arrhythmia. Some examples include antibiotics like macrolides, diuretics, and heart medications such as anti\\-arrhythmic medications.\n\nAdditional non\\-cardiac causes include [hemorrhage](/wiki/Bleeding \"Bleeding\"), [aortic rupture](/wiki/Aortic_rupture \"Aortic rupture\"), [hypovolemic shock](/wiki/Hypovolemic_shock \"Hypovolemic shock\"), [pulmonary embolism](/wiki/Pulmonary_embolism \"Pulmonary embolism\"), poisoning such as from the [stings of certain jellyfish](/wiki/Jellyfish%23Toxicity \"Jellyfish#Toxicity\"), and [electrical injury](/wiki/Electrical_injury \"Electrical injury\").\n\nCircadian patterns are also recognized as triggering factors in cardiac arrest. Per a 2021 systematic review, throughout the day there are two main peak times in which cardiac arrest occurs. The first is in the morning hours and the second is in the afternoon. Moreover, survival rates following cardiac arrest were lowest when occurring between midnight and 6am.\n\nMany of these non\\-cardiac causes of cardiac arrest are reversible. A common mnemonic used to recall the reversible causes of cardiac arrest is referred to as the [Hs and Ts](/wiki/Hs_and_Ts \"Hs and Ts\"). The Hs are [hypovolemia](/wiki/Hypovolemia \"Hypovolemia\"), [hypoxia](/wiki/Hypoxia_%28medicine%29 \"Hypoxia (medicine)\"), hydrogen cation excess ([acidosis](/wiki/Acidosis \"Acidosis\")), [hyperkalemia](/wiki/Hyperkalemia \"Hyperkalemia\"), [hypokalemia](/wiki/Hypokalemia \"Hypokalemia\"), [hypothermia](/wiki/Hypothermia \"Hypothermia\"), and [hypoglycemia](/wiki/Hypoglycemia \"Hypoglycemia\"). The Ts are [toxins](/wiki/Toxin \"Toxin\"), (cardiac) [tamponade](/wiki/Cardiac_tamponade \"Cardiac tamponade\"), [tension pneumothorax](/wiki/Pneumothorax \"Pneumothorax\"), thrombosis ([myocardial infarction](/wiki/Myocardial_infarction \"Myocardial infarction\")), [thromboembolism](/wiki/Thrombosis \"Thrombosis\"), and trauma.\n\n", "### Mechanism\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.3\\|Ventricular fibrillation](/wiki/File:Ventricular_fibrillation.png \"Ventricular fibrillation.png\")\nThe definitive electrical mechanisms of cardiac arrest, which may arise from any of the functional, structural, or physiologic abnormalities mentioned above, are characterized by arrhythmias. [Ventricular fibrillation](/wiki/Ventricular_fibrillation \"Ventricular fibrillation\") and pulseless or sustained [ventricular tachycardia](/wiki/Ventricular_tachycardia \"Ventricular tachycardia\") are the most commonly recorded arrhythmias preceding cardiac arrest. These are rapid and erratic arrhythmias that alter the circulatory pathway such that adequate blood flow cannot be sustained and is inadequate to meet the body's needs.\n\nThe mechanism responsible for the majority of sudden cardiac deaths is ventricular fibrillation. Ventricular fibrillation is a tachyarrhythmia characterized by turbulent electrical activity in the ventricular myocardium leading to a heart rate too disorganized and rapid to produce any meaningful cardiac output, thus resulting in insufficient perfusion of the brain and essential organs. Some of the electrophysiologic mechanisms underpinning ventricular fibrillations include ectopic automaticity, re\\-entry, and triggered activity. However, structural changes in the diseased heart as a result of inherited factors (mutations in ion\\-channel coding genes, for example) cannot explain the sudden onset of cardiac arrest.\n\nIn ventricular tachycardia, the heart also beats faster than normal, which may prevent the heart chambers from properly filling with blood. Ventricular tachycardia is characterized by an altered QRS complex and a heart rate greater than 100 beats per minute. When V\\-tach is sustained (lasts for at least 30 seconds), inadequate blood flow to heart tissue can lead to cardiac arrest.\n\n[Bradyarrhythmias](/wiki/Bradycardia \"Bradycardia\") occur following dissociation of spontaneous electrical conduction and the mechanical function of the heart resulting in [pulseless electrical activity](/wiki/Pulseless_electrical_activity \"Pulseless electrical activity\") (PEA) or through complete absence of electrical activity of the heart resulting in [asystole](/wiki/Asystole \"Asystole\"). Similar to the result of tachyarrhythmias, these conditions lead to an inability to sustain adequate blood flow as well, though in the case of bradyarrhythmias, the underlying cause is an absence of mechanical activity rather than rapid beats leading to disorganization.\n\n", "", "Prevention\n----------\n\n### Primary prevention\n\nWith the lack of positive outcomes following cardiac arrest, efforts have been spent finding effective strategies to prevent cardiac arrest events. The approach to primary prevention promotes a [healthy diet](/wiki/Healthy_diet \"Healthy diet\"), [exercise](/wiki/Exercise \"Exercise\"), limited alcohol consumption, and [smoking cessation](/wiki/Smoking_cessation \"Smoking cessation\").\n\nExercise is an effective preventative measure for cardiac arrest in the general population but may be risky for those with pre\\-existing conditions. The risk of a transient catastrophic cardiac event increases in individuals with heart disease during and immediately after exercise. The lifetime and acute risks of cardiac arrest are decreased in people with heart disease who perform regular exercise, perhaps suggesting the benefits of exercise outweigh the risks.\n\nA 2021 study found that diet may be a modifiable risk factor for a lower incidence of sudden cardiac death. The study found that those who fell under the category of having \"Southern diets\" representing those of \"added fats, fried food, eggs, organ and processed meats, and sugar\\-sweetened beverages\" had a positive association with an increased risk of cardiac arrest, while those deemed following the \"[Mediterranean diets](/wiki/Mediterranean_diet \"Mediterranean diet\")\" had an inverse relationship regarding the risk of cardiac arrest. According to a 2012 review published, omega\\-3 PUFA supplementation is not associated with a lower risk of sudden cardiac death.\n\nA [Cochrane review](/wiki/Cochrane_review \"Cochrane review\") published in 2016 found moderate\\-quality evidence to show that blood pressure\\-lowering drugs do not reduce the risk of sudden cardiac death.\n\n### Secondary prevention\n\n[upright\\=1\\.3\\|thumb\\|Illustration of an [implantable cardioverter\\-defibrillator](/wiki/Implantable_cardioverter-defibrillator \"Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator\") (ICD)](/wiki/File:Blausen_0543_ImplantableCardioverterDefibrillator.svg \"Blausen 0543 ImplantableCardioverterDefibrillator.svg\")\nAn [implantable cardioverter\\-defibrillator](/wiki/Implantable_cardioverter-defibrillator \"Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator\") (ICD) is a battery\\-powered device that monitors electrical activity in the heart, and when an arrhythmia is detected, can deliver an electrical shock to terminate the abnormal rhythm. ICDs are used to prevent sudden cardiac death (SCD) in those who have survived a prior episode of sudden cardiac arrest (SCA) due to ventricular fibrillation or ventricular tachycardia.\n\nNumerous studies have been conducted on the use of ICDs for the secondary prevention of SCD. These studies have shown improved survival with ICDs compared to the use of anti\\-arrhythmic drugs. ICD therapy is associated with a 50% [relative risk reduction](/wiki/Relative_risk_reduction \"Relative risk reduction\") in death caused by an arrhythmia and a 25% relative risk reduction in all\\-cause mortality.\n\nPrevention of SCD with ICD therapy for high\\-risk patient populations has similarly shown improved survival rates in several large studies. The high\\-risk patient populations in these studies were defined as those with severe [ischemic cardiomyopathy](/wiki/Ischemic_cardiomyopathy \"Ischemic cardiomyopathy\") (determined by a reduced [left ventricular ejection fraction](/wiki/Ejection_fraction \"Ejection fraction\") (LVEF)). The LVEF criteria used in these trials ranged from less than or equal to 30% in MADIT\\-II to less than or equal to 40% in MUSTT.\n\nIn certain high\\-risk patient populations (such as patients with LQTS), ICDs are also used to prevent sudden cardiac death ([primary prevention](/wiki/Preventive_healthcare \"Preventive healthcare\")).\n\n### Crash teams\n\nIn hospital, a cardiac arrest is referred to as a \"crash\", or a \"code\". This typically refers to [code blue](/wiki/Code_blue \"Code blue\") on the [hospital emergency codes](/wiki/Hospital_emergency_codes \"Hospital emergency codes\"). A dramatic drop in vital sign measurements is referred to as \"coding\" or \"crashing\", though coding is usually used when it results in cardiac arrest, while crashing might not. Treatment for cardiac arrest is sometimes referred to as \"calling a code\".\n\nPatients in general wards often deteriorate for several hours or even days before a cardiac arrest occurs. This has been attributed to a lack of knowledge and skill amongst ward\\-based staff, in particular, a failure to measure the [respiratory rate](/wiki/Respiratory_rate \"Respiratory rate\"), which is often the major predictor of a deterioration and can often change up to 48 hours prior to a cardiac arrest. In response, many hospitals now have increased training for ward\\-based staff. A number of \"early warning\" systems also exist that aim to quantify the person's risk of deterioration based on their [vital signs](/wiki/Vital_signs \"Vital signs\") and thus provide a guide to staff. In addition, specialist staff are being used more effectively to augment the work already being done at the ward level. These include:\n* Crash teams (or code teams) – These are designated staff members with particular expertise in resuscitation who are called to the scene of all arrests within the hospital. This usually involves a specialized cart of equipment (including a [defibrillator](/wiki/Defibrillation \"Defibrillation\")) and drugs called a \"[crash cart](/wiki/Crash_cart \"Crash cart\")\" or \"crash trolley\".\n* [Medical emergency teams](/wiki/Medical_emergency_team \"Medical emergency team\") – These teams respond to all emergencies with the aim of treating people in the acute phase of their illness in order to prevent a cardiac arrest. These teams have been found to decrease the rates of in\\-hospital cardiac arrest (IHCA) and improve survival.\n* Critical care outreach – In addition to providing the services of the other two types of teams, these teams are responsible for educating non\\-specialist staff. In addition, they help to facilitate transfers between [intensive care/high dependency units](/wiki/Intensive_care_unit \"Intensive care unit\") and the general hospital wards. This is particularly important as many studies have shown that a significant percentage of patients discharged from critical care environments quickly deteriorate and are re\\-admitted; the outreach team offers support to ward staff to prevent this from happening.\n\n", "### Primary prevention\n\nWith the lack of positive outcomes following cardiac arrest, efforts have been spent finding effective strategies to prevent cardiac arrest events. The approach to primary prevention promotes a [healthy diet](/wiki/Healthy_diet \"Healthy diet\"), [exercise](/wiki/Exercise \"Exercise\"), limited alcohol consumption, and [smoking cessation](/wiki/Smoking_cessation \"Smoking cessation\").\n\nExercise is an effective preventative measure for cardiac arrest in the general population but may be risky for those with pre\\-existing conditions. The risk of a transient catastrophic cardiac event increases in individuals with heart disease during and immediately after exercise. The lifetime and acute risks of cardiac arrest are decreased in people with heart disease who perform regular exercise, perhaps suggesting the benefits of exercise outweigh the risks.\n\nA 2021 study found that diet may be a modifiable risk factor for a lower incidence of sudden cardiac death. The study found that those who fell under the category of having \"Southern diets\" representing those of \"added fats, fried food, eggs, organ and processed meats, and sugar\\-sweetened beverages\" had a positive association with an increased risk of cardiac arrest, while those deemed following the \"[Mediterranean diets](/wiki/Mediterranean_diet \"Mediterranean diet\")\" had an inverse relationship regarding the risk of cardiac arrest. According to a 2012 review published, omega\\-3 PUFA supplementation is not associated with a lower risk of sudden cardiac death.\n\nA [Cochrane review](/wiki/Cochrane_review \"Cochrane review\") published in 2016 found moderate\\-quality evidence to show that blood pressure\\-lowering drugs do not reduce the risk of sudden cardiac death.\n\n", "### Secondary prevention\n\n[upright\\=1\\.3\\|thumb\\|Illustration of an [implantable cardioverter\\-defibrillator](/wiki/Implantable_cardioverter-defibrillator \"Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator\") (ICD)](/wiki/File:Blausen_0543_ImplantableCardioverterDefibrillator.svg \"Blausen 0543 ImplantableCardioverterDefibrillator.svg\")\nAn [implantable cardioverter\\-defibrillator](/wiki/Implantable_cardioverter-defibrillator \"Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator\") (ICD) is a battery\\-powered device that monitors electrical activity in the heart, and when an arrhythmia is detected, can deliver an electrical shock to terminate the abnormal rhythm. ICDs are used to prevent sudden cardiac death (SCD) in those who have survived a prior episode of sudden cardiac arrest (SCA) due to ventricular fibrillation or ventricular tachycardia.\n\nNumerous studies have been conducted on the use of ICDs for the secondary prevention of SCD. These studies have shown improved survival with ICDs compared to the use of anti\\-arrhythmic drugs. ICD therapy is associated with a 50% [relative risk reduction](/wiki/Relative_risk_reduction \"Relative risk reduction\") in death caused by an arrhythmia and a 25% relative risk reduction in all\\-cause mortality.\n\nPrevention of SCD with ICD therapy for high\\-risk patient populations has similarly shown improved survival rates in several large studies. The high\\-risk patient populations in these studies were defined as those with severe [ischemic cardiomyopathy](/wiki/Ischemic_cardiomyopathy \"Ischemic cardiomyopathy\") (determined by a reduced [left ventricular ejection fraction](/wiki/Ejection_fraction \"Ejection fraction\") (LVEF)). The LVEF criteria used in these trials ranged from less than or equal to 30% in MADIT\\-II to less than or equal to 40% in MUSTT.\n\nIn certain high\\-risk patient populations (such as patients with LQTS), ICDs are also used to prevent sudden cardiac death ([primary prevention](/wiki/Preventive_healthcare \"Preventive healthcare\")).\n\n", "### Crash teams\n\nIn hospital, a cardiac arrest is referred to as a \"crash\", or a \"code\". This typically refers to [code blue](/wiki/Code_blue \"Code blue\") on the [hospital emergency codes](/wiki/Hospital_emergency_codes \"Hospital emergency codes\"). A dramatic drop in vital sign measurements is referred to as \"coding\" or \"crashing\", though coding is usually used when it results in cardiac arrest, while crashing might not. Treatment for cardiac arrest is sometimes referred to as \"calling a code\".\n\nPatients in general wards often deteriorate for several hours or even days before a cardiac arrest occurs. This has been attributed to a lack of knowledge and skill amongst ward\\-based staff, in particular, a failure to measure the [respiratory rate](/wiki/Respiratory_rate \"Respiratory rate\"), which is often the major predictor of a deterioration and can often change up to 48 hours prior to a cardiac arrest. In response, many hospitals now have increased training for ward\\-based staff. A number of \"early warning\" systems also exist that aim to quantify the person's risk of deterioration based on their [vital signs](/wiki/Vital_signs \"Vital signs\") and thus provide a guide to staff. In addition, specialist staff are being used more effectively to augment the work already being done at the ward level. These include:\n* Crash teams (or code teams) – These are designated staff members with particular expertise in resuscitation who are called to the scene of all arrests within the hospital. This usually involves a specialized cart of equipment (including a [defibrillator](/wiki/Defibrillation \"Defibrillation\")) and drugs called a \"[crash cart](/wiki/Crash_cart \"Crash cart\")\" or \"crash trolley\".\n* [Medical emergency teams](/wiki/Medical_emergency_team \"Medical emergency team\") – These teams respond to all emergencies with the aim of treating people in the acute phase of their illness in order to prevent a cardiac arrest. These teams have been found to decrease the rates of in\\-hospital cardiac arrest (IHCA) and improve survival.\n* Critical care outreach – In addition to providing the services of the other two types of teams, these teams are responsible for educating non\\-specialist staff. In addition, they help to facilitate transfers between [intensive care/high dependency units](/wiki/Intensive_care_unit \"Intensive care unit\") and the general hospital wards. This is particularly important as many studies have shown that a significant percentage of patients discharged from critical care environments quickly deteriorate and are re\\-admitted; the outreach team offers support to ward staff to prevent this from happening.\n\n", "Management\n----------\n\nSudden cardiac arrest may be treated via attempts at [resuscitation](/wiki/Resuscitation \"Resuscitation\"). This is usually carried out based on [basic life support](/wiki/Basic_life_support \"Basic life support\"), [advanced cardiac life support](/wiki/Advanced_cardiac_life_support \"Advanced cardiac life support\") (ACLS), [pediatric advanced life support](/wiki/Pediatric_advanced_life_support \"Pediatric advanced life support\") (PALS), or [neonatal resuscitation program](/wiki/Neonatal_resuscitation_program \"Neonatal resuscitation program\") (NRP) guidelines.\n[thumb\\|CPR training on a mannequin](/wiki/File:CPR_training-04.jpg \"CPR training-04.jpg\")\n\n### Cardiopulmonary resuscitation\n\nEarly [cardiopulmonary resuscitation](/wiki/Cardiopulmonary_resuscitation \"Cardiopulmonary resuscitation\") (CPR) is essential to surviving cardiac arrest with good neurological function. It is recommended that it be started as soon as possible with minimal interruptions once begun. The components of CPR that make the greatest difference in survival are [chest compressions](/wiki/Chest_compressions \"Chest compressions\") and defibrillating shockable rhythms. After defibrillation, chest compressions should be continued for two minutes before another rhythm check. This is based on a compression rate of 100\\-120 compressions per minute, a compression depth of 5–6 centimeters into the chest, full chest recoil, and a ventilation rate of 10 breath ventilations per minute. Mechanical chest compressions (as performed by a machine) are no better than chest compressions performed by hand. It is unclear if a few minutes of CPR before defibrillation results in different outcomes than immediate defibrillation.\n\nCorrectly performed bystander CPR has been shown to increase survival, however it is performed in fewer than 30% of out\\-of\\-hospital cardiac arrests (OHCAs) . A 2019 meta\\-analysis found that use of dispatcher\\-assisted CPR improved outcomes, including survival, when compared with undirected bystander CPR. Likewise, a 2022 systematic review on exercise\\-related cardiac arrests supported early intervention of bystander CPR and AED use (for shockable rhythms) as they improve survival outcomes.\n\nIf high\\-quality CPR has not resulted in return of spontaneous circulation and the person's heart rhythm is in [asystole](/wiki/Asystole \"Asystole\"), stopping CPR and pronouncing the person's death is generally reasonable after 20 minutes. Exceptions to this include certain cases with [hypothermia](/wiki/Hypothermia \"Hypothermia\") or [drowning](/wiki/Drowning \"Drowning\") victims. Some of these cases should have longer and more sustained CPR until they are nearly [normothermic](/wiki/Normothermia \"Normothermia\").\n\nIf cardiac arrest occurs after 20 weeks of pregnancy, the uterus should be pulled or pushed to the left during CPR. If a pulse has not returned by four minutes, an emergency [Cesarean section](/wiki/Cesarean_section \"Cesarean section\") is recommended.\n\n### Airway management\n\nHigh levels of oxygen are generally given during CPR. Either a [bag valve mask](/wiki/Bag_valve_mask \"Bag valve mask\") or an [advanced airway](/wiki/Advanced_airway \"Advanced airway\") may be used to help with breathing particularly since vomiting and regurgitation are common, especially in OHCA.\n If this occurs, then modification to existing oropharyngeal suction may be required, such as using [suction\\-assisted airway management](/wiki/Suction_Assisted_Laryngoscopy_Airway_Decontamination \"Suction Assisted Laryngoscopy Airway Decontamination\").\n\n[Tracheal intubation](/wiki/Tracheal_intubation \"Tracheal intubation\") has not been found to improve survival rates or neurological outcomes in cardiac arrest, and in the prehospital environment, may worsen it. Endotracheal tubes and [supraglottic airways](/wiki/Supraglottic_airway \"Supraglottic airway\") appear equally useful.\n\nMouth\\-to\\-mouth as a means of providing respirations to the person has been phased out due to the risk of contracting infectious diseases from the affected person.\n\nWhen done by emergency medical personnel, 30 compressions followed by two breaths appear to be better than continuous chest compressions and breaths being given while compressions are ongoing. For bystanders, CPR that involves only chest compressions results in better outcomes as compared to standard CPR for those who have gone into cardiac arrest due to heart issues.\n\n### Defibrillation\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.3\\|An automated external defibrillator stored in a visible orange mural support](/wiki/File:Defibrillator-809447_1920.jpg \"Defibrillator-809447 1920.jpg\")\nDefibrillation is indicated if an electric\\-shockable heart rhythm is present. The two shockable rhythms are [ventricular fibrillation](/wiki/Ventricular_fibrillation \"Ventricular fibrillation\") and [pulseless ventricular tachycardia](/wiki/Pulseless_ventricular_tachycardia \"Pulseless ventricular tachycardia\"). These shockable rhythms have a 25\\-40% likelihood of survival, compared with a significantly lower rate (less than 5%) in non\\-shockable rhythms. The non\\-shockable rhythms include [asystole](/wiki/Asystole \"Asystole\") and pulseless electrical activity.\n\nVentricular fibrillation involves the ventricles of the heart (lower chambers responsible for pumping blood) rapidly contracting in an disorganized pattern, and thereby limiting blood flow from the heart. This can be due to uncoordinated electrical activity. The electrocardiogram (ECG) generally shows irregular QRS complexes without P\\-waves. By contrast, the ECG for ventricular tachycardia will generally show a wide complex QRS with more than 100 beats occurring per minute. If sustained, ventricular tachycardia can also lead hemodynamic instability and compromise, resulting in pulselessness and poor perfusion to vital organs.\n[thumb\\|Demonstration of electrode pad placement for defibrillation.](/wiki/File:Defibrillation_Electrode_Position.jpg \"Defibrillation Electrode Position.jpg\")\nA defibrillator will deliver an electrical current through a pair of electrodes placed on the person's chest. This is thought to depolarize myocardial tissue thereby stopping the arrhythmia. Defibrillators can deliver energy as monophasic or biphasic waveforms, although biphasic defibrillators are the most common.\n\nFor ventricular fibrillation, defibrillation techniques may utilized either monophasic or biphasic waveforms. Prior studies suggest that biphasic shock is more likely to produce successful defibrillation after a single shock, however rate of survival is comparable between the methods.\n\nIn out\\-of\\-hospital arrests, the defibrillation is made by an [automated external defibrillator](/wiki/Automated_external_defibrillator \"Automated external defibrillator\") (AED), a portable machine that can be used by any user. The AED provides voice instructions that guide the process, automatically checks the person's condition, and applies the appropriate electric shocks. Some defibrillators even provide feedback on the quality of [CPR](/wiki/Cardiopulmonary_resuscitation \"Cardiopulmonary resuscitation\") compressions, encouraging the lay rescuer to press the person's chest hard enough to circulate blood.\n\nIn addition, there is increasing use of public access defibrillation. This involves placing AEDs in public places and training staff in these areas on how to use them. This allows defibrillation to occur prior to the arrival of emergency services, which has been shown to increase chances of survival. People who have cardiac arrests in remote locations have worse outcomes following cardiac arrest.\n\nDefibrillation is applied to certain arrhythmias such as ventricular fibrillation and pulseless ventricular tachycardia. Defibrillation cannot be applied to asystole, and CPR must be initiated first in this case. Moreover, defibrillation is different than [synchronized cardioversion](/wiki/Cardioversion \"Cardioversion\"). In synchronized cardioversion, a similar approach is utilized in that electrical current is applied to correct an arrhythmia, however this is used in cases where a pulse is present but the patient is hemodynamically unstable, such as [supraventricular tachycardia](/wiki/Supraventricular_tachycardia \"Supraventricular tachycardia\").\n\nDefibrillators may also be used as part of post\\-cardiac arrest management. These defibrillators include [wearable defibrillator](/wiki/Wearable_cardioverter_defibrillator \"Wearable cardioverter defibrillator\") (such as LifeVest), subcutaneous cardiac defibrillator, and [implantable cardiac defibrillator](/wiki/Implantable_cardioverter-defibrillator \"Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator\").\n\n### Medications\n\nMedications recommended in the ACLS protocol include epinephrine, amiodarone, and lidocaine. The timing and administration of these medications depends on the underlying arrhythmia of the arrest.\n\nEpinephrine acts on the alpha\\-1 receptor, which in turn increases the blood flow that supplies the heart. Epinephrine in adults improves survival but does not appear to improve neurologically normal survival. In ventricular fibrillation and pulseless ventricular tachycardia, 1 mg of epinephrine is given every 3–5 minutes, following an initial round of CPR and defibrillation. Doses higher than 1 mg of epinephrine are not recommended for routine use in cardiac arrest. If the person has a non\\-shockable rhythm, such as asystole, following an initial round of CPR, 1 mg of epinephrine should be given every 3–5 minutes, with the goal of obtaining a shockable rhythm.\n\n[Amiodarone](/wiki/Amiodarone \"Amiodarone\") and [lidocaine](/wiki/Lidocaine \"Lidocaine\") are anti\\-arrhythmic medications. Amiodarone is a [class III anti\\-arrhythmic](/wiki/Class_III_antiarrhythmic \"Class III antiarrhythmic\"). Amiodarone may be used in cases of [ventricular fibrillation](/wiki/Ventricular_fibrillation \"Ventricular fibrillation\"), [pulseless ventricular tachycardia](/wiki/Pulseless_ventricular_tachycardia \"Pulseless ventricular tachycardia\"), and [wide complex tachycardia](/wiki/Wide_complex_tachycardia \"Wide complex tachycardia\"). Lidocaine is a [class Ib anti\\-arrhythmic](/wiki/Class_IB_anti-arrhythmic \"Class IB anti-arrhythmic\"), also used to manage acute arrhythmias. Anti\\-arrhythmic medications may be used after an unsuccessful defibrillation attempt. However, neither lidocaine nor amiodarone, in those who continue in [ventricular tachycardia](/wiki/Ventricular_tachycardia \"Ventricular tachycardia\") or [ventricular fibrillation](/wiki/Ventricular_fibrillation \"Ventricular fibrillation\") despite defibrillation, improves survival to hospital discharge, despite both equally improving survival to hospital admission. Following an additional round of CPR and defibrillation, amiodarone can also be administered. The first dose is given as a 300 mg bolus. The second dose is given as a 600 mg bolus.\n\n### Additional medications\n\n[Bicarbonate](/wiki/Sodium_bicarbonate \"Sodium bicarbonate\"), given as sodium bicarbonate, works to stabilize [acidosis](/wiki/Metabolic_acidosis \"Metabolic acidosis\") and [hyperkalemia](/wiki/Hyperkalemia \"Hyperkalemia\"), both of which can contribute to and exacerbate cardiac arrest. If acid\\-base or electrolyte disturbance is evident, bicarbonate may be used. However, if there is little suspicion that these imbalances are occurring and contributing to the arrest, routine use of bicarbonate is not recommended as it does not provide additional benefit.\n\n[Calcium](/wiki/Calcium_chloride \"Calcium chloride\"), given as calcium chloride, works as an [inotrope](/wiki/Inotrope \"Inotrope\") and [vasopressor](/wiki/Vasopressor \"Vasopressor\"). Calcium is used in specific circumstances such as electrolyte disturbances (hyperkalemia) and [calcium\\-channel blocker toxicity](/wiki/Calcium_channel_blocker_toxicity \"Calcium channel blocker toxicity\"). Overall, calcium is not routinely used during cardiac arrest as it does not provide additional benefit (compared to non\\-use) and may even cause harm (poor neurologic outcomes).\n\n[Vasopressin](/wiki/Vasopressin \"Vasopressin\") overall does not improve or worsen outcomes compared to epinephrine. The combination of epinephrine, vasopressin, and [methylprednisolone](/wiki/Methylprednisolone \"Methylprednisolone\") appears to improve outcomes.\n\nThe use of atropine, lidocaine, and amiodarone have not been shown to improve survival from cardiac arrest.\n\nAtropine is used for symptomatic [bradycardia](/wiki/Bradycardia \"Bradycardia\"). It is given at a does of 1 mg (iv), and additional 1 mg (iv) doses can be given every 3–5 minutes for a total of 3 mg. However, the 2010 guidelines from the American Heart Association removed the recommendation for atropine use in pulseless electrical activity and asystole for lack of evidence supporting its use.\n\n### Special considerations\n\nHemodialysis patients carry a greater risk of cardiac arrest events. Multiple factors contribute including increased cardiovascular risk factors, electrolyte disturbances (calcium and potassium, caused by accumulation and aggressive removal), and acid\\-base disturbances. Calcium levels are considered a key factor contributing to cardiac arrests in this population.\n\n[Tricyclic antidepressant (TCA) overdose](/wiki/Tricyclic_antidepressant_overdose \"Tricyclic antidepressant overdose\") can lead to cardiac arrest with typical ECG findings including wide QRS and prolonged QTc. Treatment for this condition includes [activated charcoal](/wiki/Activated_carbon \"Activated carbon\") and sodium bicarbonate.\n\nMagnesium can be given at a does of 2 g (iv or oral bolus) to manage [torsades de points](/wiki/Torsades_de_pointes \"Torsades de pointes\"). However, without specific indication, magnesium is not generally given in cardiac arrest. In people with a confirmed [pulmonary embolism](/wiki/Pulmonary_embolism \"Pulmonary embolism\") as the cause of arrest, [thrombolytics](/wiki/Thrombolytics \"Thrombolytics\") may be of benefit. Evidence for use of [naloxone](/wiki/Naloxone \"Naloxone\") in those with cardiac arrest due to [opioids](/wiki/Opioid \"Opioid\") is unclear, but it may still be used. In people with cardiac arrest due to a local anesthetic, [lipid emulsion](/wiki/Lipid_emulsion \"Lipid emulsion\") may be used.\n\n### Targeted temperature management\n\nCurrent international guidelines suggest cooling adults after cardiac arrest using [targeted temperature management](/wiki/Targeted_temperature_management \"Targeted temperature management\") (TTM) with the goal of improving neurological outcomes. The process involves cooling for a 24\\-hour period, with a target temperature of , followed by gradual rewarming over the next 12 to 24 hrs. There are several methods used to lower the body temperature, such as applying ice packs or cold\\-water circulating pads directly to the body or infusing cold saline.\n\nThe effectiveness of TTM after OHCA is an area of ongoing study. Several recent reviews have found that patients treated with TTM have more favorable neurological outcomes. However, pre\\-hospital TTM after OHCA has been shown to increase the risk of adverse outcomes. The rates of re\\-arrest may be higher in people who were treated with pre\\-hospital TTM. Moreover, TTM may have adverse neurological effects in people who survive post\\-cardiac arrest*.* [Osborn waves](/wiki/Osborn_wave \"Osborn wave\") on [ECG](/wiki/ECG \"ECG\") are frequent during TTM, particularly in patients treated with 33 °C. [Osborn waves](/wiki/J_wave \"J wave\") are not associated with increased risk of ventricular arrhythmia, and may be considered a benign physiological phenomenon, associated with lower mortality in univariable analyses.\n\n### Do not resuscitate\n\nSome people choose to avoid aggressive measures at the end of life. A [do not resuscitate](/wiki/Do_not_resuscitate \"Do not resuscitate\") order (DNR) in the form of an [advance health care directive](/wiki/Advance_health_care_directive \"Advance health care directive\") makes it clear that in the event of cardiac arrest, the person does not wish to receive [cardiopulmonary resuscitation](/wiki/Cardiopulmonary_resuscitation \"Cardiopulmonary resuscitation\"). Other directives may be made to stipulate the desire for [intubation](/wiki/Intubation \"Intubation\") in the event of [respiratory failure](/wiki/Respiratory_failure \"Respiratory failure\") or, if comfort measures are all that are desired, by stipulating that healthcare providers should \"allow natural death\".\n\n### Chain of survival\n\nSeveral organizations promote the idea of a [chain of survival](/wiki/Chain_of_survival \"Chain of survival\"). The chain consists of the following \"links\":\n* Early recognition. If possible, recognition of illness before the person develops a cardiac arrest will allow the rescuer to prevent its occurrence. Early recognition that a cardiac arrest has occurred is key to survival, for every minute a patient stays in cardiac arrest, their chances of survival drop by roughly 10%.\n* Early CPR improves the flow of blood and of oxygen to vital organs, an essential component of treating a cardiac arrest. In particular, by keeping the brain supplied with oxygenated blood, the chances of neurological damage are decreased.\n* Early defibrillation is effective for the management of [ventricular fibrillation](/wiki/Ventricular_fibrillation \"Ventricular fibrillation\") and pulseless [ventricular tachycardia](/wiki/Ventricular_tachycardia \"Ventricular tachycardia\").\n* Early advanced care.\n* Early post\\-resuscitation care, which may include [percutaneous coronary intervention](/wiki/Percutaneous_coronary_intervention \"Percutaneous coronary intervention\").\n\nIf one or more links in the chain are missing or delayed, then the chances of survival drop significantly.\n\nThese protocols are often initiated by a [code blue](/wiki/Code_Blue_%28emergency_code%29 \"Code Blue (emergency code)\"), which usually denotes impending or acute onset of cardiac arrest or [respiratory failure](/wiki/Respiratory_failure \"Respiratory failure\").\n\n### Other\n\nResuscitation with [extracorporeal membrane oxygenation](/wiki/Extracorporeal_membrane_oxygenation \"Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation\") devices has been attempted with better results for in\\-hospital cardiac arrest (29% survival) than OHCA (4% survival) in populations selected to benefit most.\n\n[Cardiac catheterization](/wiki/Cardiac_catheterization \"Cardiac catheterization\") in those who have survived an OHCA appears to improve outcomes, although high\\-quality evidence is lacking. It is recommended to be done as soon as possible in those who have had a cardiac arrest with [ST elevation](/wiki/ST_elevation \"ST elevation\") due to underlying heart problems.\n\nThe [precordial thump](/wiki/Precordial_thump \"Precordial thump\") may be considered in those with witnessed, monitored, unstable ventricular tachycardia (including pulseless VT) if a defibrillator is not immediately ready for use, but it should not delay CPR and shock delivery or be used in those with unwitnessed OHCA.\n\n", "### Cardiopulmonary resuscitation\n\nEarly [cardiopulmonary resuscitation](/wiki/Cardiopulmonary_resuscitation \"Cardiopulmonary resuscitation\") (CPR) is essential to surviving cardiac arrest with good neurological function. It is recommended that it be started as soon as possible with minimal interruptions once begun. The components of CPR that make the greatest difference in survival are [chest compressions](/wiki/Chest_compressions \"Chest compressions\") and defibrillating shockable rhythms. After defibrillation, chest compressions should be continued for two minutes before another rhythm check. This is based on a compression rate of 100\\-120 compressions per minute, a compression depth of 5–6 centimeters into the chest, full chest recoil, and a ventilation rate of 10 breath ventilations per minute. Mechanical chest compressions (as performed by a machine) are no better than chest compressions performed by hand. It is unclear if a few minutes of CPR before defibrillation results in different outcomes than immediate defibrillation.\n\nCorrectly performed bystander CPR has been shown to increase survival, however it is performed in fewer than 30% of out\\-of\\-hospital cardiac arrests (OHCAs) . A 2019 meta\\-analysis found that use of dispatcher\\-assisted CPR improved outcomes, including survival, when compared with undirected bystander CPR. Likewise, a 2022 systematic review on exercise\\-related cardiac arrests supported early intervention of bystander CPR and AED use (for shockable rhythms) as they improve survival outcomes.\n\nIf high\\-quality CPR has not resulted in return of spontaneous circulation and the person's heart rhythm is in [asystole](/wiki/Asystole \"Asystole\"), stopping CPR and pronouncing the person's death is generally reasonable after 20 minutes. Exceptions to this include certain cases with [hypothermia](/wiki/Hypothermia \"Hypothermia\") or [drowning](/wiki/Drowning \"Drowning\") victims. Some of these cases should have longer and more sustained CPR until they are nearly [normothermic](/wiki/Normothermia \"Normothermia\").\n\nIf cardiac arrest occurs after 20 weeks of pregnancy, the uterus should be pulled or pushed to the left during CPR. If a pulse has not returned by four minutes, an emergency [Cesarean section](/wiki/Cesarean_section \"Cesarean section\") is recommended.\n\n", "### Airway management\n\nHigh levels of oxygen are generally given during CPR. Either a [bag valve mask](/wiki/Bag_valve_mask \"Bag valve mask\") or an [advanced airway](/wiki/Advanced_airway \"Advanced airway\") may be used to help with breathing particularly since vomiting and regurgitation are common, especially in OHCA.\n If this occurs, then modification to existing oropharyngeal suction may be required, such as using [suction\\-assisted airway management](/wiki/Suction_Assisted_Laryngoscopy_Airway_Decontamination \"Suction Assisted Laryngoscopy Airway Decontamination\").\n\n[Tracheal intubation](/wiki/Tracheal_intubation \"Tracheal intubation\") has not been found to improve survival rates or neurological outcomes in cardiac arrest, and in the prehospital environment, may worsen it. Endotracheal tubes and [supraglottic airways](/wiki/Supraglottic_airway \"Supraglottic airway\") appear equally useful.\n\nMouth\\-to\\-mouth as a means of providing respirations to the person has been phased out due to the risk of contracting infectious diseases from the affected person.\n\nWhen done by emergency medical personnel, 30 compressions followed by two breaths appear to be better than continuous chest compressions and breaths being given while compressions are ongoing. For bystanders, CPR that involves only chest compressions results in better outcomes as compared to standard CPR for those who have gone into cardiac arrest due to heart issues.\n\n", "### Defibrillation\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.3\\|An automated external defibrillator stored in a visible orange mural support](/wiki/File:Defibrillator-809447_1920.jpg \"Defibrillator-809447 1920.jpg\")\nDefibrillation is indicated if an electric\\-shockable heart rhythm is present. The two shockable rhythms are [ventricular fibrillation](/wiki/Ventricular_fibrillation \"Ventricular fibrillation\") and [pulseless ventricular tachycardia](/wiki/Pulseless_ventricular_tachycardia \"Pulseless ventricular tachycardia\"). These shockable rhythms have a 25\\-40% likelihood of survival, compared with a significantly lower rate (less than 5%) in non\\-shockable rhythms. The non\\-shockable rhythms include [asystole](/wiki/Asystole \"Asystole\") and pulseless electrical activity.\n\nVentricular fibrillation involves the ventricles of the heart (lower chambers responsible for pumping blood) rapidly contracting in an disorganized pattern, and thereby limiting blood flow from the heart. This can be due to uncoordinated electrical activity. The electrocardiogram (ECG) generally shows irregular QRS complexes without P\\-waves. By contrast, the ECG for ventricular tachycardia will generally show a wide complex QRS with more than 100 beats occurring per minute. If sustained, ventricular tachycardia can also lead hemodynamic instability and compromise, resulting in pulselessness and poor perfusion to vital organs.\n[thumb\\|Demonstration of electrode pad placement for defibrillation.](/wiki/File:Defibrillation_Electrode_Position.jpg \"Defibrillation Electrode Position.jpg\")\nA defibrillator will deliver an electrical current through a pair of electrodes placed on the person's chest. This is thought to depolarize myocardial tissue thereby stopping the arrhythmia. Defibrillators can deliver energy as monophasic or biphasic waveforms, although biphasic defibrillators are the most common.\n\nFor ventricular fibrillation, defibrillation techniques may utilized either monophasic or biphasic waveforms. Prior studies suggest that biphasic shock is more likely to produce successful defibrillation after a single shock, however rate of survival is comparable between the methods.\n\nIn out\\-of\\-hospital arrests, the defibrillation is made by an [automated external defibrillator](/wiki/Automated_external_defibrillator \"Automated external defibrillator\") (AED), a portable machine that can be used by any user. The AED provides voice instructions that guide the process, automatically checks the person's condition, and applies the appropriate electric shocks. Some defibrillators even provide feedback on the quality of [CPR](/wiki/Cardiopulmonary_resuscitation \"Cardiopulmonary resuscitation\") compressions, encouraging the lay rescuer to press the person's chest hard enough to circulate blood.\n\nIn addition, there is increasing use of public access defibrillation. This involves placing AEDs in public places and training staff in these areas on how to use them. This allows defibrillation to occur prior to the arrival of emergency services, which has been shown to increase chances of survival. People who have cardiac arrests in remote locations have worse outcomes following cardiac arrest.\n\nDefibrillation is applied to certain arrhythmias such as ventricular fibrillation and pulseless ventricular tachycardia. Defibrillation cannot be applied to asystole, and CPR must be initiated first in this case. Moreover, defibrillation is different than [synchronized cardioversion](/wiki/Cardioversion \"Cardioversion\"). In synchronized cardioversion, a similar approach is utilized in that electrical current is applied to correct an arrhythmia, however this is used in cases where a pulse is present but the patient is hemodynamically unstable, such as [supraventricular tachycardia](/wiki/Supraventricular_tachycardia \"Supraventricular tachycardia\").\n\nDefibrillators may also be used as part of post\\-cardiac arrest management. These defibrillators include [wearable defibrillator](/wiki/Wearable_cardioverter_defibrillator \"Wearable cardioverter defibrillator\") (such as LifeVest), subcutaneous cardiac defibrillator, and [implantable cardiac defibrillator](/wiki/Implantable_cardioverter-defibrillator \"Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator\").\n\n", "### Medications\n\nMedications recommended in the ACLS protocol include epinephrine, amiodarone, and lidocaine. The timing and administration of these medications depends on the underlying arrhythmia of the arrest.\n\nEpinephrine acts on the alpha\\-1 receptor, which in turn increases the blood flow that supplies the heart. Epinephrine in adults improves survival but does not appear to improve neurologically normal survival. In ventricular fibrillation and pulseless ventricular tachycardia, 1 mg of epinephrine is given every 3–5 minutes, following an initial round of CPR and defibrillation. Doses higher than 1 mg of epinephrine are not recommended for routine use in cardiac arrest. If the person has a non\\-shockable rhythm, such as asystole, following an initial round of CPR, 1 mg of epinephrine should be given every 3–5 minutes, with the goal of obtaining a shockable rhythm.\n\n[Amiodarone](/wiki/Amiodarone \"Amiodarone\") and [lidocaine](/wiki/Lidocaine \"Lidocaine\") are anti\\-arrhythmic medications. Amiodarone is a [class III anti\\-arrhythmic](/wiki/Class_III_antiarrhythmic \"Class III antiarrhythmic\"). Amiodarone may be used in cases of [ventricular fibrillation](/wiki/Ventricular_fibrillation \"Ventricular fibrillation\"), [pulseless ventricular tachycardia](/wiki/Pulseless_ventricular_tachycardia \"Pulseless ventricular tachycardia\"), and [wide complex tachycardia](/wiki/Wide_complex_tachycardia \"Wide complex tachycardia\"). Lidocaine is a [class Ib anti\\-arrhythmic](/wiki/Class_IB_anti-arrhythmic \"Class IB anti-arrhythmic\"), also used to manage acute arrhythmias. Anti\\-arrhythmic medications may be used after an unsuccessful defibrillation attempt. However, neither lidocaine nor amiodarone, in those who continue in [ventricular tachycardia](/wiki/Ventricular_tachycardia \"Ventricular tachycardia\") or [ventricular fibrillation](/wiki/Ventricular_fibrillation \"Ventricular fibrillation\") despite defibrillation, improves survival to hospital discharge, despite both equally improving survival to hospital admission. Following an additional round of CPR and defibrillation, amiodarone can also be administered. The first dose is given as a 300 mg bolus. The second dose is given as a 600 mg bolus.\n\n", "### Additional medications\n\n[Bicarbonate](/wiki/Sodium_bicarbonate \"Sodium bicarbonate\"), given as sodium bicarbonate, works to stabilize [acidosis](/wiki/Metabolic_acidosis \"Metabolic acidosis\") and [hyperkalemia](/wiki/Hyperkalemia \"Hyperkalemia\"), both of which can contribute to and exacerbate cardiac arrest. If acid\\-base or electrolyte disturbance is evident, bicarbonate may be used. However, if there is little suspicion that these imbalances are occurring and contributing to the arrest, routine use of bicarbonate is not recommended as it does not provide additional benefit.\n\n[Calcium](/wiki/Calcium_chloride \"Calcium chloride\"), given as calcium chloride, works as an [inotrope](/wiki/Inotrope \"Inotrope\") and [vasopressor](/wiki/Vasopressor \"Vasopressor\"). Calcium is used in specific circumstances such as electrolyte disturbances (hyperkalemia) and [calcium\\-channel blocker toxicity](/wiki/Calcium_channel_blocker_toxicity \"Calcium channel blocker toxicity\"). Overall, calcium is not routinely used during cardiac arrest as it does not provide additional benefit (compared to non\\-use) and may even cause harm (poor neurologic outcomes).\n\n[Vasopressin](/wiki/Vasopressin \"Vasopressin\") overall does not improve or worsen outcomes compared to epinephrine. The combination of epinephrine, vasopressin, and [methylprednisolone](/wiki/Methylprednisolone \"Methylprednisolone\") appears to improve outcomes.\n\nThe use of atropine, lidocaine, and amiodarone have not been shown to improve survival from cardiac arrest.\n\nAtropine is used for symptomatic [bradycardia](/wiki/Bradycardia \"Bradycardia\"). It is given at a does of 1 mg (iv), and additional 1 mg (iv) doses can be given every 3–5 minutes for a total of 3 mg. However, the 2010 guidelines from the American Heart Association removed the recommendation for atropine use in pulseless electrical activity and asystole for lack of evidence supporting its use.\n\n", "### Special considerations\n\nHemodialysis patients carry a greater risk of cardiac arrest events. Multiple factors contribute including increased cardiovascular risk factors, electrolyte disturbances (calcium and potassium, caused by accumulation and aggressive removal), and acid\\-base disturbances. Calcium levels are considered a key factor contributing to cardiac arrests in this population.\n\n[Tricyclic antidepressant (TCA) overdose](/wiki/Tricyclic_antidepressant_overdose \"Tricyclic antidepressant overdose\") can lead to cardiac arrest with typical ECG findings including wide QRS and prolonged QTc. Treatment for this condition includes [activated charcoal](/wiki/Activated_carbon \"Activated carbon\") and sodium bicarbonate.\n\nMagnesium can be given at a does of 2 g (iv or oral bolus) to manage [torsades de points](/wiki/Torsades_de_pointes \"Torsades de pointes\"). However, without specific indication, magnesium is not generally given in cardiac arrest. In people with a confirmed [pulmonary embolism](/wiki/Pulmonary_embolism \"Pulmonary embolism\") as the cause of arrest, [thrombolytics](/wiki/Thrombolytics \"Thrombolytics\") may be of benefit. Evidence for use of [naloxone](/wiki/Naloxone \"Naloxone\") in those with cardiac arrest due to [opioids](/wiki/Opioid \"Opioid\") is unclear, but it may still be used. In people with cardiac arrest due to a local anesthetic, [lipid emulsion](/wiki/Lipid_emulsion \"Lipid emulsion\") may be used.\n\n", "### Targeted temperature management\n\nCurrent international guidelines suggest cooling adults after cardiac arrest using [targeted temperature management](/wiki/Targeted_temperature_management \"Targeted temperature management\") (TTM) with the goal of improving neurological outcomes. The process involves cooling for a 24\\-hour period, with a target temperature of , followed by gradual rewarming over the next 12 to 24 hrs. There are several methods used to lower the body temperature, such as applying ice packs or cold\\-water circulating pads directly to the body or infusing cold saline.\n\nThe effectiveness of TTM after OHCA is an area of ongoing study. Several recent reviews have found that patients treated with TTM have more favorable neurological outcomes. However, pre\\-hospital TTM after OHCA has been shown to increase the risk of adverse outcomes. The rates of re\\-arrest may be higher in people who were treated with pre\\-hospital TTM. Moreover, TTM may have adverse neurological effects in people who survive post\\-cardiac arrest*.* [Osborn waves](/wiki/Osborn_wave \"Osborn wave\") on [ECG](/wiki/ECG \"ECG\") are frequent during TTM, particularly in patients treated with 33 °C. [Osborn waves](/wiki/J_wave \"J wave\") are not associated with increased risk of ventricular arrhythmia, and may be considered a benign physiological phenomenon, associated with lower mortality in univariable analyses.\n\n", "### Do not resuscitate\n\nSome people choose to avoid aggressive measures at the end of life. A [do not resuscitate](/wiki/Do_not_resuscitate \"Do not resuscitate\") order (DNR) in the form of an [advance health care directive](/wiki/Advance_health_care_directive \"Advance health care directive\") makes it clear that in the event of cardiac arrest, the person does not wish to receive [cardiopulmonary resuscitation](/wiki/Cardiopulmonary_resuscitation \"Cardiopulmonary resuscitation\"). Other directives may be made to stipulate the desire for [intubation](/wiki/Intubation \"Intubation\") in the event of [respiratory failure](/wiki/Respiratory_failure \"Respiratory failure\") or, if comfort measures are all that are desired, by stipulating that healthcare providers should \"allow natural death\".\n\n", "### Chain of survival\n\nSeveral organizations promote the idea of a [chain of survival](/wiki/Chain_of_survival \"Chain of survival\"). The chain consists of the following \"links\":\n* Early recognition. If possible, recognition of illness before the person develops a cardiac arrest will allow the rescuer to prevent its occurrence. Early recognition that a cardiac arrest has occurred is key to survival, for every minute a patient stays in cardiac arrest, their chances of survival drop by roughly 10%.\n* Early CPR improves the flow of blood and of oxygen to vital organs, an essential component of treating a cardiac arrest. In particular, by keeping the brain supplied with oxygenated blood, the chances of neurological damage are decreased.\n* Early defibrillation is effective for the management of [ventricular fibrillation](/wiki/Ventricular_fibrillation \"Ventricular fibrillation\") and pulseless [ventricular tachycardia](/wiki/Ventricular_tachycardia \"Ventricular tachycardia\").\n* Early advanced care.\n* Early post\\-resuscitation care, which may include [percutaneous coronary intervention](/wiki/Percutaneous_coronary_intervention \"Percutaneous coronary intervention\").\n\nIf one or more links in the chain are missing or delayed, then the chances of survival drop significantly.\n\nThese protocols are often initiated by a [code blue](/wiki/Code_Blue_%28emergency_code%29 \"Code Blue (emergency code)\"), which usually denotes impending or acute onset of cardiac arrest or [respiratory failure](/wiki/Respiratory_failure \"Respiratory failure\").\n\n", "### Other\n\nResuscitation with [extracorporeal membrane oxygenation](/wiki/Extracorporeal_membrane_oxygenation \"Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation\") devices has been attempted with better results for in\\-hospital cardiac arrest (29% survival) than OHCA (4% survival) in populations selected to benefit most.\n\n[Cardiac catheterization](/wiki/Cardiac_catheterization \"Cardiac catheterization\") in those who have survived an OHCA appears to improve outcomes, although high\\-quality evidence is lacking. It is recommended to be done as soon as possible in those who have had a cardiac arrest with [ST elevation](/wiki/ST_elevation \"ST elevation\") due to underlying heart problems.\n\nThe [precordial thump](/wiki/Precordial_thump \"Precordial thump\") may be considered in those with witnessed, monitored, unstable ventricular tachycardia (including pulseless VT) if a defibrillator is not immediately ready for use, but it should not delay CPR and shock delivery or be used in those with unwitnessed OHCA.\n\n", "Prognosis\n---------\n\nThe overall rate of survival among those who have OHCA is 10%. Among those who have an OHCA, 70% occur at home, and their survival rate is 6%. For those who have an in\\-hospital cardiac arrest (IHCA), the survival rate one year from at least the occurrence of cardiac arrest is estimated to be 13%. For IHCA, survival to discharge is around 22%. Those who survive to return of spontaneous circulation and hospital admission frequently present with [post\\-cardiac arrest syndrome](/wiki/Post-cardiac_arrest_syndrome \"Post-cardiac arrest syndrome\"), which usually presents with [neurological injury](/wiki/Neurological_injury \"Neurological injury\") that can range from [mild memory problems](/wiki/Amnesia \"Amnesia\") to [coma](/wiki/Coma \"Coma\"). One\\-year survival is estimated to be higher in people with cardiac admission diagnoses (39%) when compared to those with non\\-cardiac admission diagnoses (11%).\n\nA 1997 review found rates of survival to discharge of 14%, although different studies varied from 0 to 28%. In those over the age of 70 who have a cardiac arrest while in hospital, survival to hospital discharge is less than 20%. How well these individuals manage after leaving the hospital is not clear.\n\nThe global rate of people who were able to recover from OHCA after receiving CPR has been found to be approximately 30%, and the rate of survival to discharge from the hospital has been estimated at 9%. Survival to discharge from the hospital is more likely among people whose cardiac arrest was witnessed by a bystander or emergency medical services, who received bystander CPR, and who live in Europe and North America. Relatively lower survival to hospital discharge rates have been observed in Asian countries.\n\nPrognosis is typically assessed 72 hours or more after cardiac arrest. Rates of survival are better in those who had someone witness their collapse, received bystander CPR, and/or had either [V\\-fib](/wiki/Ventricular_fibrillation \"Ventricular fibrillation\") or [V\\-tach](/wiki/Ventricular_tachycardia \"Ventricular tachycardia\") when assessed. Survival among those with V\\-fib or V\\-tach is 15 to 23%. Women are more likely to survive cardiac arrest and leave the hospital than men. [Hypoxic ischemic brain injury](/wiki/Cerebral_hypoxia \"Cerebral hypoxia\") is a concerning outcome for people suffering a cardiac arrest. Most improvements in cognition occur during the first three months following cardiac arrest, with some individuals reporting improvement up to one year post\\-cardiac arrest. 50 – 70% of cardiac arrest survivors report fatigue as a symptom.\n\n", "Epidemiology\n------------\n\n### United States\n\nThe risk of cardiac arrest varies with geographical region, age, and gender. The lifetime risk is three times greater in men (12\\.3%) than women (4\\.2%) based on analysis of the [Framingham Heart Study](/wiki/Framingham_Heart_Study \"Framingham Heart Study\"). This gender difference disappeared beyond 85 years of age. Around half of these individuals are younger than 65 years of age.\n\nBased on death certificates, sudden cardiac death accounts for about 20% of all deaths in the United States. In the United States, approximately 326,000 cases of out\\-of\\-hospital and 209,000 cases of IHCA occur among adults annually, which works out to be an incidence of approximately 110\\.8 per 100,000 adults per year.\n\nIn the United States, during\\-pregnancy cardiac arrest occurs in about one in twelve\\-thousand deliveries or 1\\.8 per 10,000 live births. Rates are lower in Canada.\n\n### Other regions\n\nNon\\-Western regions of the world have differing incidences. The incidence of sudden cardiac death in China is 41\\.8 per 100,000 and in South India is 39\\.7 per 100,000\\.\n\n", "### United States\n\nThe risk of cardiac arrest varies with geographical region, age, and gender. The lifetime risk is three times greater in men (12\\.3%) than women (4\\.2%) based on analysis of the [Framingham Heart Study](/wiki/Framingham_Heart_Study \"Framingham Heart Study\"). This gender difference disappeared beyond 85 years of age. Around half of these individuals are younger than 65 years of age.\n\nBased on death certificates, sudden cardiac death accounts for about 20% of all deaths in the United States. In the United States, approximately 326,000 cases of out\\-of\\-hospital and 209,000 cases of IHCA occur among adults annually, which works out to be an incidence of approximately 110\\.8 per 100,000 adults per year.\n\nIn the United States, during\\-pregnancy cardiac arrest occurs in about one in twelve\\-thousand deliveries or 1\\.8 per 10,000 live births. Rates are lower in Canada.\n\n", "### Other regions\n\nNon\\-Western regions of the world have differing incidences. The incidence of sudden cardiac death in China is 41\\.8 per 100,000 and in South India is 39\\.7 per 100,000\\.\n\n", "Society and culture\n-------------------\n\n### Names\n\nIn many publications, the stated or implicit meaning of \"sudden cardiac death\" is sudden [death](/wiki/Death \"Death\") from cardiac causes. Some physicians call cardiac arrest \"sudden cardiac death\" even if the person survives. Thus one can hear mentions of \"prior episodes of sudden cardiac death\" in a living person.\n\nIn 2021, the American Heart Association clarified that \"heart attack\" is often mistakenly used to describe cardiac arrest. While a heart attack refers to death of heart muscle tissue as a result of blood supply loss, cardiac arrest is caused when the [heart's electrical system](/wiki/Electrical_conduction_system_of_the_heart \"Electrical conduction system of the heart\") malfunctions. Furthermore, the American Heart Association explains that \"if corrective measures are not taken rapidly, this condition progresses to sudden death. Cardiac arrest should be used to signify an event as described above, that is reversed, usually by CPR and/or [defibrillation](/wiki/Defibrillation \"Defibrillation\") or [cardioversion](/wiki/Cardioversion \"Cardioversion\"), or [cardiac pacing](/wiki/Artificial_cardiac_pacemaker \"Artificial cardiac pacemaker\"). Sudden cardiac death should not be used to describe events that are not fatal\".\n\n### Slow code\n\nA \"[slow code](/wiki/Slow_code \"Slow code\")\" is a slang term for the practice of deceptively delivering sub\\-optimal [CPR](/wiki/Cardiopulmonary_resuscitation \"Cardiopulmonary resuscitation\") to a person in cardiac arrest, when CPR is considered to have no medical benefit. A \"show code\" is the practice of faking the response altogether for the sake of the person's family.\n\nSuch practices are ethically controversial and are banned in some jurisdictions. The European Resuscitation Council Guidelines released a statement in 2021 that clinicians are not suggested to participate/take part in \"slow codes\". According to the American College of Physicians, half\\-hearted resuscitation efforts are deceptive and should not be performed by physicians or nurses.\n\n", "### Names\n\nIn many publications, the stated or implicit meaning of \"sudden cardiac death\" is sudden [death](/wiki/Death \"Death\") from cardiac causes. Some physicians call cardiac arrest \"sudden cardiac death\" even if the person survives. Thus one can hear mentions of \"prior episodes of sudden cardiac death\" in a living person.\n\nIn 2021, the American Heart Association clarified that \"heart attack\" is often mistakenly used to describe cardiac arrest. While a heart attack refers to death of heart muscle tissue as a result of blood supply loss, cardiac arrest is caused when the [heart's electrical system](/wiki/Electrical_conduction_system_of_the_heart \"Electrical conduction system of the heart\") malfunctions. Furthermore, the American Heart Association explains that \"if corrective measures are not taken rapidly, this condition progresses to sudden death. Cardiac arrest should be used to signify an event as described above, that is reversed, usually by CPR and/or [defibrillation](/wiki/Defibrillation \"Defibrillation\") or [cardioversion](/wiki/Cardioversion \"Cardioversion\"), or [cardiac pacing](/wiki/Artificial_cardiac_pacemaker \"Artificial cardiac pacemaker\"). Sudden cardiac death should not be used to describe events that are not fatal\".\n\n", "### Slow code\n\nA \"[slow code](/wiki/Slow_code \"Slow code\")\" is a slang term for the practice of deceptively delivering sub\\-optimal [CPR](/wiki/Cardiopulmonary_resuscitation \"Cardiopulmonary resuscitation\") to a person in cardiac arrest, when CPR is considered to have no medical benefit. A \"show code\" is the practice of faking the response altogether for the sake of the person's family.\n\nSuch practices are ethically controversial and are banned in some jurisdictions. The European Resuscitation Council Guidelines released a statement in 2021 that clinicians are not suggested to participate/take part in \"slow codes\". According to the American College of Physicians, half\\-hearted resuscitation efforts are deceptive and should not be performed by physicians or nurses.\n\n", "Children\n--------\n\nIn children, the most common cause of cardiac arrest is [shock](/wiki/Shock_%28circulatory%29 \"Shock (circulatory)\") or [respiratory failure](/wiki/Respiratory_failure \"Respiratory failure\") that has not been treated. Cardiac arrhythmias are another possible cause. Arrhythmias such as asystole or bradycardia are more likely in children, in contrast to ventricular fibrillation or tachycardia as seen in adults.\n\nAdditional causes of sudden unexplained cardiac arrest in children include [hypertrophic cardiomyopathy](/wiki/Hypertrophic_cardiomyopathy \"Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy\") and coronary artery abnormalities. In childhood hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, previous adverse cardiac events, non\\-sustained ventricular tachycardia, syncope, and left ventricular hypertrophy have been shown to predict sudden cardiac death. Other causes can include drugs, such as [cocaine](/wiki/Cocaine_intoxication \"Cocaine intoxication\") and [methamphetamine](/wiki/Methamphetamine \"Methamphetamine\"), or overdose of medications, such as antidepressants.\n\nFor management of pediatric cardiac arrest, CPR should be initiated if suspected. Guidelines provide algorithms for pediatric cardiac arrest management. Recommended medications during pediatric resuscitation include epinephrine, lidocaine, and amiodarone. However, the use of sodium bicarbonate or calcium is not recommended. The use of calcium in children has been associated with poor neurological function as well as decreased survival. Correct dosing of medications in children is dependent on weight, and to minimize time spent calculating medication doses, the use of a [Broselow tape](/wiki/Broselow_tape \"Broselow tape\") is recommended.\n\nRates of survival in children with cardiac arrest are 3 to 16% in North America.\n\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [Heart block](/wiki/Heart_block \"Heart block\")\n* [Arrhythmia](/wiki/Arrhythmia \"Arrhythmia\")\n* [Angina](/wiki/Angina \"Angina\")\n* [Chain of survival](/wiki/Chain_of_survival \"Chain of survival\")\n* [Post\\-cardiac arrest syndrome](/wiki/Post-cardiac_arrest_syndrome \"Post-cardiac arrest syndrome\")\n* [Rearrest](/wiki/Rearrest \"Rearrest\")\n* [Sam Parnia](/wiki/Sam_Parnia \"Sam Parnia\")\n* [Sudden cardiac death of athletes](/wiki/Sudden_cardiac_death_of_athletes \"Sudden cardiac death of athletes\")\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [The Center for Resuscitation Science at the Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania](http://www.med.upenn.edu/resuscitation/)\n\n[Category:Cardiac arrhythmia](/wiki/Category:Cardiac_arrhythmia \"Cardiac arrhythmia\")\n[Category:Medical emergencies](/wiki/Category:Medical_emergencies \"Medical emergencies\")\n[Category:Causes of death](/wiki/Category:Causes_of_death \"Causes of death\")\n[Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate](/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_medicine_articles_ready_to_translate \"Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate\")\n[Category:Wikipedia emergency medicine articles ready to translate](/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_emergency_medicine_articles_ready_to_translate \"Wikipedia emergency medicine articles ready to translate\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 30292728 ], "name": [ "Frost" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Common processes", "Black and white negative processing", "Black and white reversal processing", "Colour processing", "Further processing", "Processing apparatus", "Small scale processing", "Commercial processing", "Environmental and safety issues", "See also", "Notes", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, 2, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**Photographic processing** or **photographic development** is the chemical means by which [photographic film](/wiki/Photographic_film \"Photographic film\") or [paper](/wiki/Photographic_paper \"Photographic paper\") is treated after [photographic exposure](/wiki/Photographic_exposure \"Photographic exposure\") to produce a [negative](/wiki/Negative_%28photography%29 \"Negative (photography)\") or [positive](/wiki/Positive_%28photography%29 \"Positive (photography)\") [image](/wiki/Image \"Image\"). Photographic processing transforms the [latent image](/wiki/Latent_image \"Latent image\") into a visible image, makes this permanent and renders it insensitive to light.Karlheinz Keller et al. \"Photography\" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2005, Wiley\\-VCH, Weinheim. \n\nAll processes based upon the [gelatin silver process](/wiki/Gelatin_silver_process \"Gelatin silver process\") are similar, regardless of the film or paper's manufacturer. Exceptional variations include [instant films](/wiki/Instant_film \"Instant film\") such as those made by [Polaroid](/wiki/Polaroid_Corporation \"Polaroid Corporation\") and thermally developed films. [Kodachrome](/wiki/Kodachrome \"Kodachrome\") required [Kodak](/wiki/Kodak \"Kodak\")'s proprietary [K\\-14 process](/wiki/K-14_process \"K-14 process\"). Kodachrome film production ceased in 2009, and K\\-14 processing is no longer available as of December 30, 2010\\. [Ilfochrome](/wiki/Ilfochrome \"Ilfochrome\") materials use the [dye destruction](/wiki/Dye_destruction \"Dye destruction\") process. Deliberately using the wrong process for a film is known as [cross processing](/wiki/Cross_processing \"Cross processing\").\n\n", "Common processes\n----------------\n\n[thumb\\|Key stages in production of \\-based photographs. Two silver halide particles, one of which is impinged with light (*h*ν) resulting in the formation of a latent image (step 1\\). The latent image is amplified using photographic developers, converting the silver halide crystal to an opaque particle of silver metal (step 2\\). Finally, the remaining silver halide is removed by fixing (step 3\\).](/wiki/File:PhotoDeveloptKeySteps.png \"PhotoDeveloptKeySteps.png\")\nAll photographic processing use a series of chemical baths. Processing, especially the development stages, requires very close control of temperature, agitation and time.\n\n### Black and white negative processing\n\n[thumb\\|center\\|upright\\=3\\.0\\|Black and white negative processing is the chemical means by which photographic film and paper is treated after photographic exposure to produce a negative or positive image. Photographic processing transforms the latent image into a visible image, makes this permanent and renders it insensitive to light.](/wiki/File:Photographic_processing.jpg \"Photographic processing.jpg\")\n\n1. The film may be soaked in water to swell the [gelatin](/wiki/Gelatin \"Gelatin\") layer, facilitating the action of the subsequent chemical treatments.\n2. The [developer](/wiki/Photographic_developer \"Photographic developer\") converts the latent image to macroscopic particles of metallic [silver](/wiki/Silver \"Silver\").Wall, 1890, p. 30–63\n3. A [stop bath](/wiki/Stop_bath \"Stop bath\"), typically a dilute solution of [acetic acid](/wiki/Acetic_acid \"Acetic acid\") or [citric acid](/wiki/Citric_acid \"Citric acid\"), halts the action of the developer. A rinse with clean [water](/wiki/Water \"Water\") may be substituted.\n4. The [fixer](/wiki/Photographic_fixer \"Photographic fixer\") makes the image permanent and light\\-resistant by dissolving remaining [silver halide](/wiki/Silver_halide \"Silver halide\"). A common fixer is *hypo*, specifically [ammonium thiosulfate](/wiki/Ammonium_thiosulfate \"Ammonium thiosulfate\").Wall, 1890, p. 88–89\n5. Washing in clean water removes any remaining fixer. Residual fixer can corrode the silver image, leading to discolouration, staining and fading.<http://sites.tech.uh.edu/digitalmedia/materials/3351/PHOTCHEM.pdf> \nThe washing time can be reduced and the fixer more completely removed if a [hypo clearing agent](/wiki/Hypo_clear \"Hypo clear\") is used after the fixer.\n6. Film may be rinsed in a dilute solution of a [non\\-ionic](/wiki/Non-ionic \"Non-ionic\") [wetting agent](/wiki/Wetting_agent \"Wetting agent\") to assist uniform drying, which eliminates drying marks caused by [hard water](/wiki/Hard_water \"Hard water\"). (In very hard water areas, a pre\\-rinse in [distilled water](/wiki/Distilled_water \"Distilled water\") may be required – otherwise the final rinse wetting agent can cause residual ionic [calcium](/wiki/Calcium \"Calcium\") on the film to drop out of solution, causing spotting on the negative.)\n7. Film is then dried in a dust\\-free environment, cut and placed into protective sleeves.\nOnce the film is processed, it is then referred to as a *negative*.\n\nThe negative may now be [printed](/wiki/Photographic_printing \"Photographic printing\"); the negative is placed in an [enlarger](/wiki/Enlarger \"Enlarger\") and projected onto a sheet of photographic paper. Many different techniques can be used during the enlargement process. Two examples of enlargement techniques are [dodging and burning](/wiki/Dodging_and_burning \"Dodging and burning\").\n\nAlternatively (or as well), the negative may be [scanned](/wiki/Film_scanner \"Film scanner\") for [digital printing](/wiki/Digital_printing \"Digital printing\") or web viewing after adjustment, retouching, and/or [manipulation](/wiki/Photograph_manipulation \"Photograph manipulation\").\n\nFrom a chemical standpoint, conventional black and white negative film is processed by a developer that reduces silver halide to silver metal, exposed silver halide is reduced faster than unexposed silver halide, which leaves a silver metal image. It is then fixed by converting all remaining silver halide into a soluble silver complex, which is then washed away with water. An example of a black and white developer is Kodak D\\-76 which has bis(4\\-hydroxy\\-N\\-methylanilinium) sulfate with hydroquinone and sodium sulfite.\n\nIn graphic art film, also called lithographic film which is a special type of black and white film used for converting images into [halftone](/wiki/Halftone \"Halftone\") images for offset printing, a developer containing methol\\-hydroquinone and sulfite stabilizers may be used. Exposed silver halide oxidizes the hydroquinone, which then oxidizes a nucleating agent in the film, which is attacked by a hydroxide ion and converts it via hydrolysis into a nucleating agent for silver metal, which it then forms on unexposed silver halide, creating a silver image. The film is then fixed by converting all remaining silver halide into soluble silver complexes.\n\n### Black and white reversal processing\n\nThis process has three additional stages:\n1. Following the first developer and rinse, the film is [bleached](/wiki/Bleach \"Bleach\") to remove the developed negative image. This negative image is composed of metallic silver formed in the first developer step. The bleach used here only affects the negative, metallic silver grains, it does not affect the unexposed and therefore undeveloped silver halide. The film then contains a latent positive image formed from unexposed and undeveloped silver halide salts.\n2. The film is [fogged](/wiki/Fogging_%28photography%29 \"Fogging (photography)\"), either chemically or by exposure to light.\n3. The remaining silver halide salts are developed in the second developer, converting them into a positive image composed of metallic silver.\n4. Finally, the film is fixed, washed, dried and cut.Photographic Almanac, 1956, p. 149–155\n\n### Colour processing\n\n[Chromogenic](/wiki/Chromogenic \"Chromogenic\") materials use [dye couplers](/wiki/Dye_couplers \"Dye couplers\") to form colour images.\nModern colour negative film is developed with the [C\\-41 process](/wiki/C-41_process \"C-41 process\") and colour negative print materials with the [RA\\-4 process](/wiki/RA-4_process \"RA-4 process\"). These processes are very similar, with differences in the first chemical developer.\n\nThe C\\-41 and RA\\-4 processes consist of the following steps:\n1. The colour developer develops the silver negative image by reducing the silver halide crystals that have been exposed to light to metallic silver, this consists of the developer donating electrons to the silver halide, turning it into metallic silver; the donation oxidizes the developer which then activates the dye couplers to form the colour dyes in each emulsion layer, but only does so in the dye couplers that are around unexposed silver halide.\n2. A rehalogenising bleach converts the developed metallic silver into silver [halide](/wiki/Halide \"Halide\").\n3. A fixer removes all silver halide by converting it into soluble silver complexes that are then washed away, leaving only the dyes.\n4. The film is washed, stabilised, dried and cut.\n\nIn the RA\\-4 process, the bleach and fix are combined. This is optional, and reduces the number of processing steps.Photographic Almanac, 1956, p. 429–423\n\nTransparency films, except [Kodachrome](/wiki/Kodachrome \"Kodachrome\"), are developed using the [E\\-6 process](/wiki/E-6_process \"E-6 process\"), which has the following stages:\n1. A black and white developer develops the silver in each image layer.\n2. Development is stopped with a rinse or a stop bath.\n3. The film is fogged in the reversal step.\n4. The fogged silver halides are developed and [oxidized](/wiki/Oxidation_state \"Oxidation state\") developing agents couple with the [dye couplers](/wiki/Dye_couplers \"Dye couplers\") in each layer.\n5. The film is bleached, fixed, washed/rinsed, stabilised and dried as described above.\n\nThe Kodachrome process is called [K\\-14](/wiki/K-14_process \"K-14 process\"). It is very involved, requiring 4 separate developers, one for black and white and 3 for color, reexposing the film in between development stages, 8 or more tanks of processing chemicals, each with precise concentration, temperature and agitation, resulting in very complex processing equipment with precise chemical control.\n\nIn some old processes, the film emulsion was hardened during the process, typically before the bleach. Such a hardening bath often used aldehydes, such as [formaldehyde](/wiki/Formaldehyde \"Formaldehyde\") and [glutaraldehyde](/wiki/Glutaraldehyde \"Glutaraldehyde\"). In modern processing, these hardening steps are unnecessary because the film emulsion is sufficiently hardened to withstand the processing chemicals.\n\nA typical chromogenic color film development process can be described from a chemical standpoint as follows: Exposed silver halide oxidizes the developer.Organic Chemistry of Photography. Shinsaku Fujita. doi: \n[https://doi.org/10\\.1007/978\\-3\\-662\\-09130\\-2](https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-09130-2). \nSpringer\\-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2004\\.\nISBN 978\\-3\\-540\\-20988\\-1\\. The oxidized developer then reacts with color couplers, which are molecules near the exposed silver halide crystals, to create color dyes which ultimately create a negative image, after this the film is bleached, fixed, washed, stabilized and dried. The dye is only created where the couplers are. Thus the development chemical must travel a short distance from the exposed silver halide to the coupler and create a dye there. The amount of dye created is small and the reaction only occurs near the exposed silver halide and thus doesn't spread throughout the entire layer. The developer diffuses into the film emulsion to react with its layers. This process happens simultaneously for all three colors of couplers in the film: cyan (in the red\\-sensitive layer in the film), magenta(for the green\\-sensitive layer), and yellow (for the blue\\-sensitive layer). Color film has these three layers, to be able to perform subtractive color mixing and be able to replicate colors in images.\n\n", "### Black and white negative processing\n\n[thumb\\|center\\|upright\\=3\\.0\\|Black and white negative processing is the chemical means by which photographic film and paper is treated after photographic exposure to produce a negative or positive image. Photographic processing transforms the latent image into a visible image, makes this permanent and renders it insensitive to light.](/wiki/File:Photographic_processing.jpg \"Photographic processing.jpg\")\n\n1. The film may be soaked in water to swell the [gelatin](/wiki/Gelatin \"Gelatin\") layer, facilitating the action of the subsequent chemical treatments.\n2. The [developer](/wiki/Photographic_developer \"Photographic developer\") converts the latent image to macroscopic particles of metallic [silver](/wiki/Silver \"Silver\").Wall, 1890, p. 30–63\n3. A [stop bath](/wiki/Stop_bath \"Stop bath\"), typically a dilute solution of [acetic acid](/wiki/Acetic_acid \"Acetic acid\") or [citric acid](/wiki/Citric_acid \"Citric acid\"), halts the action of the developer. A rinse with clean [water](/wiki/Water \"Water\") may be substituted.\n4. The [fixer](/wiki/Photographic_fixer \"Photographic fixer\") makes the image permanent and light\\-resistant by dissolving remaining [silver halide](/wiki/Silver_halide \"Silver halide\"). A common fixer is *hypo*, specifically [ammonium thiosulfate](/wiki/Ammonium_thiosulfate \"Ammonium thiosulfate\").Wall, 1890, p. 88–89\n5. Washing in clean water removes any remaining fixer. Residual fixer can corrode the silver image, leading to discolouration, staining and fading.<http://sites.tech.uh.edu/digitalmedia/materials/3351/PHOTCHEM.pdf> \nThe washing time can be reduced and the fixer more completely removed if a [hypo clearing agent](/wiki/Hypo_clear \"Hypo clear\") is used after the fixer.\n6. Film may be rinsed in a dilute solution of a [non\\-ionic](/wiki/Non-ionic \"Non-ionic\") [wetting agent](/wiki/Wetting_agent \"Wetting agent\") to assist uniform drying, which eliminates drying marks caused by [hard water](/wiki/Hard_water \"Hard water\"). (In very hard water areas, a pre\\-rinse in [distilled water](/wiki/Distilled_water \"Distilled water\") may be required – otherwise the final rinse wetting agent can cause residual ionic [calcium](/wiki/Calcium \"Calcium\") on the film to drop out of solution, causing spotting on the negative.)\n7. Film is then dried in a dust\\-free environment, cut and placed into protective sleeves.\nOnce the film is processed, it is then referred to as a *negative*.\n\nThe negative may now be [printed](/wiki/Photographic_printing \"Photographic printing\"); the negative is placed in an [enlarger](/wiki/Enlarger \"Enlarger\") and projected onto a sheet of photographic paper. Many different techniques can be used during the enlargement process. Two examples of enlargement techniques are [dodging and burning](/wiki/Dodging_and_burning \"Dodging and burning\").\n\nAlternatively (or as well), the negative may be [scanned](/wiki/Film_scanner \"Film scanner\") for [digital printing](/wiki/Digital_printing \"Digital printing\") or web viewing after adjustment, retouching, and/or [manipulation](/wiki/Photograph_manipulation \"Photograph manipulation\").\n\nFrom a chemical standpoint, conventional black and white negative film is processed by a developer that reduces silver halide to silver metal, exposed silver halide is reduced faster than unexposed silver halide, which leaves a silver metal image. It is then fixed by converting all remaining silver halide into a soluble silver complex, which is then washed away with water. An example of a black and white developer is Kodak D\\-76 which has bis(4\\-hydroxy\\-N\\-methylanilinium) sulfate with hydroquinone and sodium sulfite.\n\nIn graphic art film, also called lithographic film which is a special type of black and white film used for converting images into [halftone](/wiki/Halftone \"Halftone\") images for offset printing, a developer containing methol\\-hydroquinone and sulfite stabilizers may be used. Exposed silver halide oxidizes the hydroquinone, which then oxidizes a nucleating agent in the film, which is attacked by a hydroxide ion and converts it via hydrolysis into a nucleating agent for silver metal, which it then forms on unexposed silver halide, creating a silver image. The film is then fixed by converting all remaining silver halide into soluble silver complexes.\n\n", "### Black and white reversal processing\n\nThis process has three additional stages:\n1. Following the first developer and rinse, the film is [bleached](/wiki/Bleach \"Bleach\") to remove the developed negative image. This negative image is composed of metallic silver formed in the first developer step. The bleach used here only affects the negative, metallic silver grains, it does not affect the unexposed and therefore undeveloped silver halide. The film then contains a latent positive image formed from unexposed and undeveloped silver halide salts.\n2. The film is [fogged](/wiki/Fogging_%28photography%29 \"Fogging (photography)\"), either chemically or by exposure to light.\n3. The remaining silver halide salts are developed in the second developer, converting them into a positive image composed of metallic silver.\n4. Finally, the film is fixed, washed, dried and cut.Photographic Almanac, 1956, p. 149–155\n\n", "### Colour processing\n\n[Chromogenic](/wiki/Chromogenic \"Chromogenic\") materials use [dye couplers](/wiki/Dye_couplers \"Dye couplers\") to form colour images.\nModern colour negative film is developed with the [C\\-41 process](/wiki/C-41_process \"C-41 process\") and colour negative print materials with the [RA\\-4 process](/wiki/RA-4_process \"RA-4 process\"). These processes are very similar, with differences in the first chemical developer.\n\nThe C\\-41 and RA\\-4 processes consist of the following steps:\n1. The colour developer develops the silver negative image by reducing the silver halide crystals that have been exposed to light to metallic silver, this consists of the developer donating electrons to the silver halide, turning it into metallic silver; the donation oxidizes the developer which then activates the dye couplers to form the colour dyes in each emulsion layer, but only does so in the dye couplers that are around unexposed silver halide.\n2. A rehalogenising bleach converts the developed metallic silver into silver [halide](/wiki/Halide \"Halide\").\n3. A fixer removes all silver halide by converting it into soluble silver complexes that are then washed away, leaving only the dyes.\n4. The film is washed, stabilised, dried and cut.\n\nIn the RA\\-4 process, the bleach and fix are combined. This is optional, and reduces the number of processing steps.Photographic Almanac, 1956, p. 429–423\n\nTransparency films, except [Kodachrome](/wiki/Kodachrome \"Kodachrome\"), are developed using the [E\\-6 process](/wiki/E-6_process \"E-6 process\"), which has the following stages:\n1. A black and white developer develops the silver in each image layer.\n2. Development is stopped with a rinse or a stop bath.\n3. The film is fogged in the reversal step.\n4. The fogged silver halides are developed and [oxidized](/wiki/Oxidation_state \"Oxidation state\") developing agents couple with the [dye couplers](/wiki/Dye_couplers \"Dye couplers\") in each layer.\n5. The film is bleached, fixed, washed/rinsed, stabilised and dried as described above.\n\nThe Kodachrome process is called [K\\-14](/wiki/K-14_process \"K-14 process\"). It is very involved, requiring 4 separate developers, one for black and white and 3 for color, reexposing the film in between development stages, 8 or more tanks of processing chemicals, each with precise concentration, temperature and agitation, resulting in very complex processing equipment with precise chemical control.\n\nIn some old processes, the film emulsion was hardened during the process, typically before the bleach. Such a hardening bath often used aldehydes, such as [formaldehyde](/wiki/Formaldehyde \"Formaldehyde\") and [glutaraldehyde](/wiki/Glutaraldehyde \"Glutaraldehyde\"). In modern processing, these hardening steps are unnecessary because the film emulsion is sufficiently hardened to withstand the processing chemicals.\n\nA typical chromogenic color film development process can be described from a chemical standpoint as follows: Exposed silver halide oxidizes the developer.Organic Chemistry of Photography. Shinsaku Fujita. doi: \n[https://doi.org/10\\.1007/978\\-3\\-662\\-09130\\-2](https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-09130-2). \nSpringer\\-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2004\\.\nISBN 978\\-3\\-540\\-20988\\-1\\. The oxidized developer then reacts with color couplers, which are molecules near the exposed silver halide crystals, to create color dyes which ultimately create a negative image, after this the film is bleached, fixed, washed, stabilized and dried. The dye is only created where the couplers are. Thus the development chemical must travel a short distance from the exposed silver halide to the coupler and create a dye there. The amount of dye created is small and the reaction only occurs near the exposed silver halide and thus doesn't spread throughout the entire layer. The developer diffuses into the film emulsion to react with its layers. This process happens simultaneously for all three colors of couplers in the film: cyan (in the red\\-sensitive layer in the film), magenta(for the green\\-sensitive layer), and yellow (for the blue\\-sensitive layer). Color film has these three layers, to be able to perform subtractive color mixing and be able to replicate colors in images.\n\n", "Further processing\n------------------\n\nBlack and white emulsions both negative and positive, may be further processed. The image silver may be reacted with elements such as [selenium](/wiki/Selenium \"Selenium\") or [sulphur](/wiki/Sulfur \"Sulfur\") to increase image permanence and for [aesthetic](/wiki/Aesthetics \"Aesthetics\") reasons. This process is known as [toning](/wiki/Photographic_print_toning \"Photographic print toning\").\n\nIn selenium toning, the image silver is changed to [silver selenide](/wiki/Silver_selenide \"Silver selenide\"); in [sepia toning](/wiki/Sepia_tone \"Sepia tone\"), the image is converted to [silver sulphide](/wiki/Silver_sulphide \"Silver sulphide\"). These chemicals are more resistant to atmospheric [oxidising agents](/wiki/Oxidizing_agent \"Oxidizing agent\") than silver.\n\nIf colour negative film is processed in conventional black and white developer, and fixed and then bleached with a bath containing [hydrochloric acid](/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid \"Hydrochloric acid\") and [potassium dichromate](/wiki/Potassium_dichromate \"Potassium dichromate\") solution, the resultant film, once exposed to light, can be redeveloped in colour developer to produce an unusual [pastel](/wiki/Pastel \"Pastel\") colour effect.\n\n", "Processing apparatus\n--------------------\n\nBefore processing, the film must be removed from the [camera](/wiki/Camera \"Camera\") and from its [cassette](/wiki/Film_cassette \"Film cassette\"), spool or holder in a light\\-proof room or container.\n\n### Small scale processing\n\n[right\\|thumb\\|200px\\|A cut\\-away illustration of a typical light\\-trap tank used in small scale developing](/wiki/Image:Light_trap_tank.jpg \"Light trap tank.jpg\")\nIn amateur processing, the film is removed from the camera and wound onto a [reel](/wiki/Developing_tank \"Developing tank\") in complete darkness (usually inside a [darkroom](/wiki/Darkroom \"Darkroom\") with the [safelight](/wiki/Safelight \"Safelight\") turned off or a lightproof bag with arm holes). The reel holds the film in a spiral shape, with space between each successive loop so the chemicals may flow freely across the film's surfaces. The reel is placed in a specially designed light\\-proof tank (called a daylight processing tank or a light\\-trap tank) where it is retained until final washing is complete.\n\nSheet films can be processed in trays, in hangers (which are used in deep tanks), or rotary processing drums. Each sheet can be developed individually for special requirements. [Stand development](/wiki/Stand_development \"Stand development\"), long development in dilute developer without agitation, is occasionally used.\n\n### Commercial processing\n\nIn commercial, central processing, the film is removed automatically or by an operator handling the film in a light proof bag from which it is fed into the processing machine. The processing machinery is generally run on a continuous basis with films spliced together in a continuous line. All the processing steps are carried out within a single processing machine with automatically controlled time, temperature and solution replenishment rate. The film or prints emerge washed and dry and ready to be cut by hand. Some modern machines also cut films and prints automatically, sometimes resulting in negatives cut across the middle of the frame where the space between frames is very thin or the frame edge is indistinct, as in an image taken in low light. Alternatively stores may use [minilabs](/wiki/Minilab \"Minilab\") to develop films and make prints on the spot automatically without needing to send film to a remote, central facility for processing and printing.\n\nSome processing chemistries used in minilabs require a minimum amount of processing per given amount of time to remain stable and usable. Once rendered unstable due to low use, the chemistry needs to be completely replaced, or replenishers can be added to restore the chemistry to a usable state. Some chemistries have been designed with this in mind given the declining demand for film processing in minilabs, often requiring specific handling. Often chemistries become damaged by oxidation. Also, development chemicals need to be thoroughly agitated constantly to ensure consistent results. The effectiveness (activity) of the chemistry is determined through pre\\-exposed film control strips.[https://imaging.kodakalaris.com/sites/uat/files/wysiwyg/retailers/chemistry/techpub/cis246\\.pdf](https://imaging.kodakalaris.com/sites/uat/files/wysiwyg/retailers/chemistry/techpub/cis246.pdf) \n\n", "### Small scale processing\n\n[right\\|thumb\\|200px\\|A cut\\-away illustration of a typical light\\-trap tank used in small scale developing](/wiki/Image:Light_trap_tank.jpg \"Light trap tank.jpg\")\nIn amateur processing, the film is removed from the camera and wound onto a [reel](/wiki/Developing_tank \"Developing tank\") in complete darkness (usually inside a [darkroom](/wiki/Darkroom \"Darkroom\") with the [safelight](/wiki/Safelight \"Safelight\") turned off or a lightproof bag with arm holes). The reel holds the film in a spiral shape, with space between each successive loop so the chemicals may flow freely across the film's surfaces. The reel is placed in a specially designed light\\-proof tank (called a daylight processing tank or a light\\-trap tank) where it is retained until final washing is complete.\n\nSheet films can be processed in trays, in hangers (which are used in deep tanks), or rotary processing drums. Each sheet can be developed individually for special requirements. [Stand development](/wiki/Stand_development \"Stand development\"), long development in dilute developer without agitation, is occasionally used.\n\n", "### Commercial processing\n\nIn commercial, central processing, the film is removed automatically or by an operator handling the film in a light proof bag from which it is fed into the processing machine. The processing machinery is generally run on a continuous basis with films spliced together in a continuous line. All the processing steps are carried out within a single processing machine with automatically controlled time, temperature and solution replenishment rate. The film or prints emerge washed and dry and ready to be cut by hand. Some modern machines also cut films and prints automatically, sometimes resulting in negatives cut across the middle of the frame where the space between frames is very thin or the frame edge is indistinct, as in an image taken in low light. Alternatively stores may use [minilabs](/wiki/Minilab \"Minilab\") to develop films and make prints on the spot automatically without needing to send film to a remote, central facility for processing and printing.\n\nSome processing chemistries used in minilabs require a minimum amount of processing per given amount of time to remain stable and usable. Once rendered unstable due to low use, the chemistry needs to be completely replaced, or replenishers can be added to restore the chemistry to a usable state. Some chemistries have been designed with this in mind given the declining demand for film processing in minilabs, often requiring specific handling. Often chemistries become damaged by oxidation. Also, development chemicals need to be thoroughly agitated constantly to ensure consistent results. The effectiveness (activity) of the chemistry is determined through pre\\-exposed film control strips.[https://imaging.kodakalaris.com/sites/uat/files/wysiwyg/retailers/chemistry/techpub/cis246\\.pdf](https://imaging.kodakalaris.com/sites/uat/files/wysiwyg/retailers/chemistry/techpub/cis246.pdf) \n\n", "Environmental and safety issues\n-------------------------------\n\nMany photographic solutions have high [chemical](/wiki/Chemical_oxygen_demand \"Chemical oxygen demand\") and [biological](/wiki/Biochemical_oxygen_demand \"Biochemical oxygen demand\") oxygen demand (COD and BOD). These chemical wastes are often treated with [ozone](/wiki/Ozone \"Ozone\"), [peroxide](/wiki/Peroxide \"Peroxide\") or [aeration](/wiki/Aeration \"Aeration\") to reduce the COD in commercial laboratories.\n\nExhausted fixer and to some extent rinse water contain silver [thiosulfate](/wiki/Thiosulfate \"Thiosulfate\") complex ions. They are far less toxic than free silver ion, and they become [silver sulfide](/wiki/Silver_sulfide \"Silver sulfide\") sludge in the sewer pipes or treatment plant. However, the maximum silver concentration in discharge is very often tightly regulated. Silver is also a somewhat precious resource. Therefore, in most large scale processing establishments, exhausted fixer is collected for silver recovery and disposal.\n\nMany photographic chemicals use non\\-biodegradable compounds, such as [EDTA](/wiki/EDTA \"EDTA\"), [DTPA](/wiki/DTPA \"DTPA\"), [NTA](/wiki/Nitrilotriacetic_acid \"Nitrilotriacetic acid\") and [borate](/wiki/Borate \"Borate\"). EDTA, DTPA, and NTA are very often used as [chelating agents](/wiki/Chelation \"Chelation\") in all processing solutions, particularly in developers and washing aid solutions. EDTA and other [polyamine](/wiki/Polyamine \"Polyamine\") polycarboxylic acids are used as iron ligands in colour bleach solutions. These are relatively nontoxic, and in particular EDTA is approved as a food additive. However, due to poor [biodegradability](/wiki/Biodegradability \"Biodegradability\"), these chelating agents are found in alarmingly high concentrations in some water sources from which municipal tap water is taken. Water containing these chelating agents can leach metal from water treatment equipment as well as pipes. This is becoming an issue in Europe and some parts of the world.\n\nAnother non\\-biodegradable compound in common use is [surfactant](/wiki/Surfactant \"Surfactant\"). A common wetting agent for even drying of processed film uses Union Carbide/Dow Triton X\\-100 or octylphenol ethoxylate. This surfactant is also found to have estrogenic effect and possibly other harms to organisms including mammals.\n\nDevelopment of more biodegradable alternatives to the EDTA and other bleaching agent constituents were sought by major manufacturers, until the industry became less profitable when the digital era began.\n\nIn most amateur darkrooms, a popular bleach is [potassium ferricyanide](/wiki/Potassium_ferricyanide \"Potassium ferricyanide\"). This compound decomposes in the waste water stream to liberate [cyanide](/wiki/Cyanide \"Cyanide\") gas. Other popular bleach solutions use [potassium dichromate](/wiki/Potassium_dichromate \"Potassium dichromate\") (a [hexavalent chromium](/wiki/Hexavalent_chromium \"Hexavalent chromium\")) or [permanganate](/wiki/Permanganate \"Permanganate\"). Both ferricyanide and dichromate are tightly regulated for sewer disposal from commercial premises in some areas.\n\n[Borates](/wiki/Borate \"Borate\"), such as [borax](/wiki/Borax \"Borax\") (sodium tetraborate), [boric acid](/wiki/Boric_acid \"Boric acid\") and sodium metaborate, are toxic to plants, even at a concentration of 100 ppm. Many film developers and fixers contain 1 to 20 g/L of these compounds at working strength. Most non\\-hardening fixers from major manufacturers are now borate\\-free, but many film developers still use borate as the buffering agent. Also, some, but not all, alkaline fixer formulae and products contain a large amount of borate. New products should phase out borates, because for most photographic purposes, except in acid hardening fixers, borates can be substituted with a suitable biodegradable compound.\n\nDeveloping agents are commonly [hydroxylated](/wiki/Hydroxylation \"Hydroxylation\") [benzene](/wiki/Benzene \"Benzene\") compounds or aminated benzene compounds, and they are harmful to humans and experimental animals. Some are [mutagens](/wiki/Mutagen \"Mutagen\"). They also have a large chemical oxygen demand (COD). [Ascorbic acid](/wiki/Ascorbic_acid \"Ascorbic acid\") and its isomers, and other similar sugar derived reductone reducing agents are a viable substitute for many developing agents. Developers using these compounds were actively patented in the US, Europe and Japan, until the 1990s but the number of such patents is very low since the late\\-1990s, when the digital era began.\n\nDevelopment chemicals may be recycled by up to 70% using an absorber resin, only requiring periodic chemical analysis on pH, density and bromide levels. Other developers need ion\\-exchange columns and chemical analysis, allowing for up to 80% of the developer to be reused. Some bleaches are claimed to be fully bio\\-degradable while others can be regenerated by adding bleach concentrate to overflow (waste). Used fixers can have 60 to 90% of their silver content removed through electrolysis, in a closed loop where the fixer is continually recycled (regenerated). Stabilizers may or may not contain [formaldehyde](/wiki/Formaldehyde \"Formaldehyde\").[https://www.fujifilm.eu/fileadmin/countries/europe/United\\_Kingdom/Photofinishing\\_data\\_files/Technical\\_bulletins/TB\\_C41\\_E13\\_09\\-10\\.pdf](https://www.fujifilm.eu/fileadmin/countries/europe/United_Kingdom/Photofinishing_data_files/Technical_bulletins/TB_C41_E13_09-10.pdf) \n\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [List of photographic processes](/wiki/List_of_photographic_processes \"List of photographic processes\")\n* [Fogging (photography)](/wiki/Fogging_%28photography%29 \"Fogging (photography)\")\n* [Darkroom](/wiki/Darkroom \"Darkroom\")\n* [Cross processing](/wiki/Cross_processing \"Cross processing\")\n* [Caffenol](/wiki/Caffenol \"Caffenol\")\n", "Notes\n-----\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "Further reading\n---------------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [Kodak Processing manuals](http://www.kodak.com/global/en/business/retailPhoto/techInfo/zManuals/)\n* [The Massive Dev Chart \\- film development times](http://www.digitaltruth.com/devchart.php)\n* [The Comprehensive Development Times Chart \\- Manufacturer's film development times database](http://www.darkroom-solutions.com/#cdtc)\n* [Ilford guide to processing black \\& white film](https://web.archive.org/web/20120128032442/http://www.ilfordphoto.com/applications/page.asp?n=31)\n\n[Category:Science of photography](/wiki/Category:Science_of_photography \"Science of photography\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 46808506 ], "name": [ "Grey Clownfish" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Systematics and evolution", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n* + - * + - * + - \n\nThe **Pelecaniformes** are an [order](/wiki/Order_%28biology%29 \"Order (biology)\") of medium\\-sized and large waterbirds found worldwide. As traditionally—but erroneously—defined, they encompass all [birds](/wiki/Bird \"Bird\") that have feet with all four toes webbed. Hence, they were formerly also known by such names as **totipalmates** or **steganopodes**. Most have a bare throat patch (gular patch), and the [nostrils](/wiki/Nostril \"Nostril\") have evolved into dysfunctional slits, forcing them to breathe through their mouths. They also have a pectinate nail on their longest toe. This is shaped like a comb and is used to brush out and separate their feathers. They feed on fish, squid, or similar [marine life](/wiki/Marine_life \"Marine life\"). Nesting is colonial, but individual birds are [monogamous](/wiki/Monogamy_in_animals \"Monogamy in animals\"). The young are [altricial](/wiki/Altricial \"Altricial\"), hatching from the egg helpless and naked in most. They lack a [brood patch](/wiki/Brood_patch \"Brood patch\").\n\nThe pelicans, shoebill and hamerkop form a clade within the order (suborder [Pelecani](/wiki/Pelecani \"Pelecani\")). The relationships between Pelecani, herons ([Ardeidae](/wiki/Ardeidae \"Ardeidae\")) and ibises and spoonbills ([Threskiornithidae](/wiki/Threskiornithidae \"Threskiornithidae\")) are unclear. The [Fregatidae](/wiki/Fregatidae \"Fregatidae\") (frigatebirds), [Sulidae](/wiki/Sulidae \"Sulidae\") (gannets and boobies), [Phalacrocoracidae](/wiki/Phalacrocoracidae \"Phalacrocoracidae\") (cormorants and shags), [Anhingidae](/wiki/Anhingidae \"Anhingidae\") (darters), and [Phaethontidae](/wiki/Phaethontidae \"Phaethontidae\") (tropicbirds) were traditionally placed in the Pelecaniformes, but molecular and morphological studies indicate they are not such close relatives. They have been placed in their own orders, [Suliformes](/wiki/Suliformes \"Suliformes\") and [Phaethontiformes](/wiki/Phaethontiformes \"Phaethontiformes\"), respectively.\n\n", "Systematics and evolution\n-------------------------\n\nClassically, bird relationships were based solely on morphological characteristics. The Pelecaniformes were traditionally, but erroneously, defined as birds that have feet with all four toes webbed (totipalmate), as opposed to all other birds with webbed feet where only three of four were webbed. Hence, they were formerly also known by such names as **totipalmates** or **steganopodes**. The group included [frigatebirds](/wiki/Frigatebird \"Frigatebird\"), [gannets](/wiki/Gannet \"Gannet\"), [cormorants](/wiki/Cormorant \"Cormorant\"), [anhingas](/wiki/Anhinga \"Anhinga\"), and tropicbirds.\n\n[Sibley](/wiki/Charles_Sibley \"Charles Sibley\") and Ahlquist's landmark [DNA\\-DNA hybridisation](/wiki/DNA-DNA_hybridisation \"DNA-DNA hybridisation\") studies (see [Sibley\\-Ahlquist taxonomy](/wiki/Sibley-Ahlquist_taxonomy \"Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy\")) led to them placing the families traditionally contained within the Pelecaniformes together with the [grebes](/wiki/Grebe \"Grebe\"), [cormorants](/wiki/Cormorant \"Cormorant\"), [ibises and spoonbills](/wiki/Threskiornithidae \"Threskiornithidae\"), [New World vultures](/wiki/New_World_vulture \"New World vulture\"), [storks](/wiki/Stork \"Stork\"), [penguins](/wiki/Penguin \"Penguin\"), [albatrosses](/wiki/Albatross \"Albatross\"), [petrels](/wiki/Petrel \"Petrel\"), and [loons](/wiki/Loon \"Loon\") together as a subgroup within a greatly expanded order [Ciconiiformes](/wiki/Ciconiiformes \"Ciconiiformes\"), a radical move which by now has been all but rejected: their \"Ciconiiformes\" merely assembled all early advanced land\\- and seabirds for which their research technique delivered insufficient phylogenetic resolution.\n\nMorphological study has suggested pelicans are sister to a gannet\\-cormorant clade, yet genetic analysis groups them with the hamerkop and shoebill, though the exact relationship between the three is unclear. Mounting evidence pointed to the [shoebill](/wiki/Shoebill \"Shoebill\") as a close relative of pelicans. This also included microscopic analysis of eggshell structure by Konstantin Mikhailov in 1995, who found that the shells of pelecaniform eggs (including those of the shoebill but not the tropicbirds) were covered in a thick microglobular material. Reviewing genetic evidence to date, Cracraft and colleagues surmised that pelicans were sister to the shoebill with the hamerkop as the next earlier offshoot. (2004\\): Phylogenetic Relationships Among Modern Birds (Neornithes): Toward an Avian Tree of Life. *In:* : *Assembling the Tree of Life*: 468–489\\. Oxford University Press, New York. [PDF fulltext](http://si-pddr.si.edu/dspace/bitstream/10088/6267/1/2004_Cracraft_et_al.pdf) Ericson and colleagues sampled five nuclear genes in a 2006 study spanning the breadth of bird lineages, and came up with pelicans, shoebill and hamerkop in a clade. Hackett and colleagues sampled 32 kilobases of nuclear DNA and recovered shoebill and hamerkop as sister taxa, pelicans sister to them, and herons and ibises as sister groups to each other, with the heron and ibis group a sister to the pelican/shoebill/hamerkop clade.\n\nThe current [International Ornithological Committee](/wiki/International_Ornithological_Committee \"International Ornithological Committee\") classification has pelicans grouped with the shoebill (Balaenicipitidae), [hamerkop](/wiki/Hamerkop \"Hamerkop\") (Scopidae), ibises and spoonbills ([Threskiornithidae](/wiki/Threskiornithidae \"Threskiornithidae\")), and herons, egrets and bitterns ([Ardeidae](/wiki/Ardeidae \"Ardeidae\")). The IOC considers Threskiornithidae and Ardeidae to from a clade, citing Hackett et al. 2008 (). \n\nAnother hypothesis is that Threskiornithidae is sister to the rest of Pelecaniformes, and Ardeidae and Pelecani form a clade. \n\nRecent research strongly suggests that the similarities between the Pelecaniformes as traditionally defined are the result of [convergent evolution](/wiki/Convergent_evolution \"Convergent evolution\") rather than common descent, and that the group is [polyphyletic](/wiki/Polyphyletic \"Polyphyletic\"). All families in the traditional or revised Pelecaniformes except the Phalacrocoracidae have only a few handfuls of species at most, but many were more numerous in the Early [Neogene](/wiki/Neogene \"Neogene\"). Fossil genera and species are discussed in the respective family or genus accounts; one little\\-known prehistoric Pelecaniforms, however, cannot be classified accurately enough to assign them to a family. This is *\"Sula\" ronzoni* from Early [Oligocene](/wiki/Oligocene \"Oligocene\") rocks at [Ronzon, France](/wiki/Ronzon%2C_France \"Ronzon, France\"), which was initially believed to be a [sea\\-duck](/wiki/Mergus \"Mergus\") and possibly is an ancestral Pelecaniform.\n\nThe pelecaniform lineages appear to have originated around the end of the [Cretaceous](/wiki/Cretaceous \"Cretaceous\"). Monophyletic or not, they appear to belong to a close\\-knit group of \"higher waterbirds\" which also includes groups such as [penguins](/wiki/Penguin \"Penguin\") and [Procellariiformes](/wiki/Procellariiformes \"Procellariiformes\"). Quite a lot of fossil bones from around the [Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary](/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_boundary \"Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary\") cannot be firmly placed with any of these orders and rather combine traits of several of them. This is, of course, only to be expected, if the theory that most if not all of these \"higher waterbird\" lineages originated around that time is correct. Of those apparently [basal](/wiki/Basal_%28evolution%29 \"Basal (evolution)\") [taxa](/wiki/Taxa \"Taxa\"), the following show some similarities to the traditional Pelecaniformes:\n\n* *[Lonchodytes](/wiki/Lonchodytes \"Lonchodytes\")* (Lance Creek Late Cretaceous of Wyoming, US)\n* *[Torotix](/wiki/Torotix \"Torotix\")* (Late Cretaceous)\n* *[Tytthostonyx](/wiki/Tytthostonyx \"Tytthostonyx\")* (Late Cretaceous/Early Palaeocene)\n* *[Cladornis](/wiki/Cladornis \"Cladornis\")* (Deseado Early Oligocene of Patagonia, Argentina)\n* *\"[Liptornis](/wiki/Liptornis \"Liptornis\")\"*—a *[nomen dubium](/wiki/Nomen_dubium \"Nomen dubium\")*\n\nThe proposed [Elopterygidae](/wiki/Elopterygidae \"Elopterygidae\")—supposedly a family of Cretaceous Pelecaniformes—are neither [monophyletic](/wiki/Monophyletic \"Monophyletic\") nor does *Elopteryx* appear to be a modern bird. \n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "Further reading\n---------------\n\n* Bourdon, Estelle; Bouya, Baâdi \\& Iarochene, Mohamed (2005\\): Earliest African neornithine bird: A new species of Prophaethontidae (Aves) from the Paleocene of Morocco. *[J. Vertebr. Paleontol.](/wiki/Society_of_Vertebrate_Paleontology \"Society of Vertebrate Paleontology\")* **25**(1\\): 157–170\\. [DOI](/wiki/Digital_Object_Identifier \"Digital Object Identifier\"): 10\\.1671/0272\\-4634(2005\\)025\\[0157:EANBAN]2\\.0\\.CO;2 [HTML abstract](http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1671%2F0272-4634(2005)025%5B0157%3AEANBAN%5D2.0.CO%3B2)\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [Tree of Life: Pelecaniformes](http://tolweb.org/Pelecaniformes/57152)\n\n[Category:Seabirds](/wiki/Category:Seabirds \"Seabirds\")\n[Category:Bird orders](/wiki/Category:Bird_orders \"Bird orders\")\n[Category:Extant Paleogene first appearances](/wiki/Category:Extant_Paleogene_first_appearances \"Extant Paleogene first appearances\")\n[Category:Taxa named by Richard Bowdler Sharpe](/wiki/Category:Taxa_named_by_Richard_Bowdler_Sharpe \"Taxa named by Richard Bowdler Sharpe\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 7903804 ], "name": [ "Citation bot" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Functions", "History", "See also", "References", "Further reading" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\nThe **X Display Manager (XDM)** is the default [display manager](/wiki/X_display_manager \"X display manager\") for the [X Window System](/wiki/X_Window_System \"X Window System\"). It is a bare\\-bones X display manager. It was introduced with X11 Release 3 in October 1988, to support the standalone [X terminals](/wiki/X_terminal \"X terminal\") that were just coming onto the market. It was written by [Keith Packard](/wiki/Keith_Packard \"Keith Packard\").\n\n", "Functions\n---------\n\nXDM is used to boot an X.org based [desktop environment](/wiki/Desktop_environment \"Desktop environment\"). It can control a display directly or indirectly in order to start an X session and supports remote login. XDM is initialized on system startup.\n\nIt can be editing through the use of a configuration file, modules, or scripts. The configratuion file is usually found in /usr/lib/X11/xdm/xdm\\-config.\n\n", "History\n-------\n\nXDM is one of the earliest display managers for Linux. It was developed by Keith Packard after he joined the X Consortium due to his frustration using a text\\-based environment to try and configure X.\n\nXDM is available but unused on most systems because of its rudimentary nature. Desktop environments released afterwards tended to include their own display manager, such as dtlogin on [CDE](/wiki/Common_Desktop_Environment \"Common Desktop Environment\").\n\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [X display manager](/wiki/X_display_manager \"X display manager\")\n* [GDM](/wiki/GNOME_Display_Manager \"GNOME Display Manager\")\n* [KDM](/wiki/KDE_Display_Manager \"KDE Display Manager\")\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "Further reading\n---------------\n\n[Category:Free system software](/wiki/Category:Free_system_software \"Free system software\")\n[Category:Software using the MIT license](/wiki/Category:Software_using_the_MIT_license \"Software using the MIT license\")\n[Category:X display managers](/wiki/Category:X_display_managers \"X display managers\")\n[Category:Free software programmed in C](/wiki/Category:Free_software_programmed_in_C \"Free software programmed in C\")\n[Category:Free software programmed in C\\+\\+](/wiki/Category:Free_software_programmed_in_C%2B%2B \"Free software programmed in C++\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 7903804 ], "name": [ "Citation bot" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Nature, definition and sources", "As an indefinite repertoire of norms", "Law as necessarily rule-governed", "Codification", "International law", "Within contemporary legal systems", "Custom in torts", "Customary legal systems", "References", "Citations", "Sources", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\nA **legal custom** is the established pattern of behavior within a particular social setting. A claim can be carried out in defense of \"what has always been done and accepted by law\".\n\n**Customary law** (also, **consuetudinary** or **unofficial law**) exists where: \n1. a certain legal practice is observed and\n2. the relevant actors consider it to be an opinion of law or necessity (*[opinio juris](/wiki/Opinio_juris_sive_necessitatis \"Opinio juris sive necessitatis\")*).\n\nMost customary laws deal with *standards of the community* that have been long\\-established in a given locale. However, the term can also apply to areas of [international law](/wiki/International_law \"International law\") where certain standards have been nearly [universal](/wiki/Universal_jurisdiction \"Universal jurisdiction\") in their acceptance as correct bases of action – for example, laws against [piracy](/wiki/Piracy \"Piracy\") or [slavery](/wiki/Slavery \"Slavery\") (see *[hostis humani generis](/wiki/Hostis_humani_generis \"Hostis humani generis\")*). In many, though not all instances, customary laws will have supportive court rulings and case law that have evolved over time to give additional weight to their rule as law and also to demonstrate the trajectory of evolution (if any) in the interpretation of such law by relevant [courts](/wiki/Courts \"Courts\").\n\n", "Nature, definition and sources\n------------------------------\n\nA central issue regarding the recognition of custom is determining the appropriate methodology to know what practices and norms actually constitute customary law. It is not immediately clear that classic Western theories of jurisprudence can be reconciled in any useful way with conceptual analyses of customary law, and thus some scholars (like John Comaroff and Simon Roberts)Comaroff \\& Roberts. have characterized customary law norms in their own terms. Yet, there clearly remains some disagreement, which is seen in John Hund's critique of Comaroff and Roberts' theory, and preference for the contributions of [H. L. A. Hart](/wiki/H._L._A._Hart \"H. L. A. Hart\"). Hund argues that Hart's [*The Concept of Law*](/wiki/H._L._A._Hart%23The_Concept_of_Law \"H. L. A. Hart#The Concept of Law\") solves the conceptual problem with which scholars who have attempted to articulate how customary law principles may be identified, defined, and how they operate in regulating social behavior and resolving disputes.Hund.\n\nCustomary law is the set of customs, practices and beliefs that are accepted as obligatory rules of conduct by a community.\n\n### As an indefinite repertoire of norms\n\n[thumb\\|A court presided over by a customary chief in the [Belgian Congo](/wiki/Belgian_Congo \"Belgian Congo\"), 1942](/wiki/File:Tribe_chief_administering_justice%2C_Belgian_Congo.jpg \"Tribe chief administering justice, Belgian Congo.jpg\")\nComaroff and Roberts' famous work, \"Rules and Processes\", attempted to detail the body of norms that constitute [Tswana](/wiki/Tswana_people \"Tswana people\") law in a way that was less legalistic (or rule\\-oriented) than had Isaac Schapera. They defined \"mekgwa le melao ya Setswana\" in terms of Casalis and Ellenberger's definition: *melao* therefore being rules pronounced by a chief and *mekgwa* as norms that become customary law through traditional usage.Comaroff \\& Roberts, 70 Importantly, however, they noted that the Tswana seldom attempt to classify the vast array of existing norms into categories and they thus termed this the 'undifferentiated nature of the normative repertoire'. Moreover, they observe the co\\-existence of overtly incompatible norms that may breed conflict, either due to circumstances in a particular situation or inherently due to their incongruous content.Comaroff \\& Roberts, 73 This lack of rule classification and failure to eradicate internal inconsistencies between potentially conflicting norms allows for much flexibility in dispute settlement and is also viewed as a 'strategic resource' for disputants who seek to advance their own success in a case. The latter incongruities (especially inconsistencies of norm content) are typically solved by elevating one of the norms (tacitly) from 'the literal to the symbolic.Comaroff \\& Roberts, 75 This allows for the accommodation of both as they now theoretically exist in different realms of reality. This is highly contextual, which further illustrates that norms cannot be viewed in isolation and are open to negotiation. Thus, although there are a small number of so\\-called non\\-negotiable norms, the vast majority are viewed and given substance contextually, which is seen as fundamental to the Tswana.\n\nComaroff and Roberts describe how outcomes of specific cases have the ability to change the normative repertoire, as the repertoire of norms is seen to be both in a state of formation and transformation at all times.Comaroff \\& Roberts, 79 These changes are justified on the grounds that they are merely giving recognition to de facto observations of transformation \\[219]. Furthermore, the legitimacy of a chief is a direct determinant of the legitimacy of his decisions.Comaroff \\& Roberts, 81 In the formulation of legislative pronouncements, as opposed to decisions made in dispute resolution,Comaroff \\& Roberts, 82 the chief first speaks of the proposed norm with his advisors, then council of headmen, then the public assembly debate the proposed law and may accept or reject it. A chief can proclaim the law even if the public assembly rejects it, but this is not often done; and, if the chief proclaims the legislation against the will of the public assembly, the legislation will become melao, however, it is unlikely that it will be executed because its effectiveness depends on the chief's legitimacy and the norm's consistency with the practices (and changes in social relations) and will of the people under that chief.\n\nRegarding the invocation of norms in disputes, Comaroff and Roberts used the term, \"paradigm of argument\", to refer to the linguistic and conceptual frame used by a disputant, whereby 'a coherent picture of relevant events and actions in terms of one or more implicit or explicit normative referents' is created.Comaroff \\& Roberts, 85 In their explanation, the complainant (who always speaks first) thus establishes a paradigm the defendant can either accept and therefore argue within that specific paradigm or reject and therefore introduce his or her own paradigm (usually, the facts are not contested here). If the defendant means to change the paradigm, they will refer to norms as such, where actually norms are not ordinarily explicitly referenced in Tswana dispute resolution as the audience would typically already know them and just the way one presents one's case and constructs the facts will establish one's paradigm. The headman or chief adjudicating may also do same: accept the normative basis implied by the parties (or one of them), and thus not refer to norms using explicit language but rather isolate a factual issue in the dispute and then make a decision on it without expressly referring to any norms, or impose a new or different paradigm onto the parties.\n\n### Law as necessarily rule\\-governed\n\nHund finds Comaroff and Roberts' flexibility thesis of a 'repertoire of norms' from which litigants and adjudicator choose in the process of negotiating solutions between them uncompelling. He is therefore concerned with disproving what he calls [\"rule scepticism\"](/wiki/Scepticism_in_law \"Scepticism in law\") on their part. He notes that the concept of custom generally denotes convergent behaviour, but not all customs have the force of law. Hund therefore draws from Hart's analysis distinguishing social rules, which have internal and external aspects, from habits, which have only external aspects. Internal aspects are the reflective attitude on the part of adherents toward certain behaviours perceived to be obligatory, according to a common standard. External aspects manifest in regular, observable behaviour, but is not obligatory. In Hart's analysis, then, social rules amount to custom that has legal force.\n\nHart identifies three further differences between habits and binding social rules. First, a social rule exists where society frowns on deviation from the habit and attempts to prevent departures by criticising such behaviour. Second, when this criticism is seen socially as a good reason for adhering to the habit, and it is welcomed. And, third, when members of a group behave in a common way not only out of habit or because everyone else is doing it, but because it is seen to be a common standard that should be followed, at least by some members. Hund, however, acknowledges the difficulty of an outsider knowing the dimensions of these criteria that depend on an internal point of view.\n\nFor Hund, the first form of rule scepticism concerns the widely held opinion that, because the content of customary law derives from practice, there are actually no objective rules, since it is only behaviour that informs their construction. On this view, it is impossible to distinguish between behaviour that is rule bound and behaviour that is not—i.e., which behaviour is motivated by adherence to law (or at least done in recognition of the law) and is merely a response to other factors. Hund sees this as problematic because it makes quantifying the law almost impossible, since behaviour is obviously inconsistent. Hund argues that this is a misconception based on a failure to acknowledge the importance of the *internal element*. In his view, by using the criteria described above, there is not this problem in deciphering what constitutes \"law\" in a particular community.\n\nAccording to Hund, the second form of rule scepticism says that, though a community may have rules, those rules are not arrived at ['deductively'](/wiki/Deductive_reasoning \"Deductive reasoning\"), i.e. they are not created through legal/moral reasoning only but are instead driven by the personal/political motives of those who create them. The scope for such influence is created by the loose and undefined nature of customary law, which, Hund argues, grants customary\\-lawmakers (often through traditional 'judicial processes') a wide discretion in its application. Yet, Hund contends that the fact that rules might sometimes be arrived at in the more ad hoc way, does not mean that this defines the system. If one requires a perfect system, where laws are created only deductively, then one is left with a system with no rules. For Hund, this cannot be so and an explanation for these kinds of law\\-making processes is found in Hart's conception of \"secondary rules\" (rules in terms of which the main body of norms are recognised). Hund therefore says that for some cultures, for instance in some sections of [Tswana](/wiki/Tswana_people \"Tswana people\") society, the secondary rules have developed only to the point where laws are determined with reference to politics and personal preference. This does not mean that they are not \"rules\". Hund argues that if we acknowledge a developmental pattern in societies' constructions of these secondary rules then we can understand how this society constructs its laws and how it differs from societies that have come to rely on an objective, stand\\-alone body of rules.\n\n", "### As an indefinite repertoire of norms\n\n[thumb\\|A court presided over by a customary chief in the [Belgian Congo](/wiki/Belgian_Congo \"Belgian Congo\"), 1942](/wiki/File:Tribe_chief_administering_justice%2C_Belgian_Congo.jpg \"Tribe chief administering justice, Belgian Congo.jpg\")\nComaroff and Roberts' famous work, \"Rules and Processes\", attempted to detail the body of norms that constitute [Tswana](/wiki/Tswana_people \"Tswana people\") law in a way that was less legalistic (or rule\\-oriented) than had Isaac Schapera. They defined \"mekgwa le melao ya Setswana\" in terms of Casalis and Ellenberger's definition: *melao* therefore being rules pronounced by a chief and *mekgwa* as norms that become customary law through traditional usage.Comaroff \\& Roberts, 70 Importantly, however, they noted that the Tswana seldom attempt to classify the vast array of existing norms into categories and they thus termed this the 'undifferentiated nature of the normative repertoire'. Moreover, they observe the co\\-existence of overtly incompatible norms that may breed conflict, either due to circumstances in a particular situation or inherently due to their incongruous content.Comaroff \\& Roberts, 73 This lack of rule classification and failure to eradicate internal inconsistencies between potentially conflicting norms allows for much flexibility in dispute settlement and is also viewed as a 'strategic resource' for disputants who seek to advance their own success in a case. The latter incongruities (especially inconsistencies of norm content) are typically solved by elevating one of the norms (tacitly) from 'the literal to the symbolic.Comaroff \\& Roberts, 75 This allows for the accommodation of both as they now theoretically exist in different realms of reality. This is highly contextual, which further illustrates that norms cannot be viewed in isolation and are open to negotiation. Thus, although there are a small number of so\\-called non\\-negotiable norms, the vast majority are viewed and given substance contextually, which is seen as fundamental to the Tswana.\n\nComaroff and Roberts describe how outcomes of specific cases have the ability to change the normative repertoire, as the repertoire of norms is seen to be both in a state of formation and transformation at all times.Comaroff \\& Roberts, 79 These changes are justified on the grounds that they are merely giving recognition to de facto observations of transformation \\[219]. Furthermore, the legitimacy of a chief is a direct determinant of the legitimacy of his decisions.Comaroff \\& Roberts, 81 In the formulation of legislative pronouncements, as opposed to decisions made in dispute resolution,Comaroff \\& Roberts, 82 the chief first speaks of the proposed norm with his advisors, then council of headmen, then the public assembly debate the proposed law and may accept or reject it. A chief can proclaim the law even if the public assembly rejects it, but this is not often done; and, if the chief proclaims the legislation against the will of the public assembly, the legislation will become melao, however, it is unlikely that it will be executed because its effectiveness depends on the chief's legitimacy and the norm's consistency with the practices (and changes in social relations) and will of the people under that chief.\n\nRegarding the invocation of norms in disputes, Comaroff and Roberts used the term, \"paradigm of argument\", to refer to the linguistic and conceptual frame used by a disputant, whereby 'a coherent picture of relevant events and actions in terms of one or more implicit or explicit normative referents' is created.Comaroff \\& Roberts, 85 In their explanation, the complainant (who always speaks first) thus establishes a paradigm the defendant can either accept and therefore argue within that specific paradigm or reject and therefore introduce his or her own paradigm (usually, the facts are not contested here). If the defendant means to change the paradigm, they will refer to norms as such, where actually norms are not ordinarily explicitly referenced in Tswana dispute resolution as the audience would typically already know them and just the way one presents one's case and constructs the facts will establish one's paradigm. The headman or chief adjudicating may also do same: accept the normative basis implied by the parties (or one of them), and thus not refer to norms using explicit language but rather isolate a factual issue in the dispute and then make a decision on it without expressly referring to any norms, or impose a new or different paradigm onto the parties.\n\n", "### Law as necessarily rule\\-governed\n\nHund finds Comaroff and Roberts' flexibility thesis of a 'repertoire of norms' from which litigants and adjudicator choose in the process of negotiating solutions between them uncompelling. He is therefore concerned with disproving what he calls [\"rule scepticism\"](/wiki/Scepticism_in_law \"Scepticism in law\") on their part. He notes that the concept of custom generally denotes convergent behaviour, but not all customs have the force of law. Hund therefore draws from Hart's analysis distinguishing social rules, which have internal and external aspects, from habits, which have only external aspects. Internal aspects are the reflective attitude on the part of adherents toward certain behaviours perceived to be obligatory, according to a common standard. External aspects manifest in regular, observable behaviour, but is not obligatory. In Hart's analysis, then, social rules amount to custom that has legal force.\n\nHart identifies three further differences between habits and binding social rules. First, a social rule exists where society frowns on deviation from the habit and attempts to prevent departures by criticising such behaviour. Second, when this criticism is seen socially as a good reason for adhering to the habit, and it is welcomed. And, third, when members of a group behave in a common way not only out of habit or because everyone else is doing it, but because it is seen to be a common standard that should be followed, at least by some members. Hund, however, acknowledges the difficulty of an outsider knowing the dimensions of these criteria that depend on an internal point of view.\n\nFor Hund, the first form of rule scepticism concerns the widely held opinion that, because the content of customary law derives from practice, there are actually no objective rules, since it is only behaviour that informs their construction. On this view, it is impossible to distinguish between behaviour that is rule bound and behaviour that is not—i.e., which behaviour is motivated by adherence to law (or at least done in recognition of the law) and is merely a response to other factors. Hund sees this as problematic because it makes quantifying the law almost impossible, since behaviour is obviously inconsistent. Hund argues that this is a misconception based on a failure to acknowledge the importance of the *internal element*. In his view, by using the criteria described above, there is not this problem in deciphering what constitutes \"law\" in a particular community.\n\nAccording to Hund, the second form of rule scepticism says that, though a community may have rules, those rules are not arrived at ['deductively'](/wiki/Deductive_reasoning \"Deductive reasoning\"), i.e. they are not created through legal/moral reasoning only but are instead driven by the personal/political motives of those who create them. The scope for such influence is created by the loose and undefined nature of customary law, which, Hund argues, grants customary\\-lawmakers (often through traditional 'judicial processes') a wide discretion in its application. Yet, Hund contends that the fact that rules might sometimes be arrived at in the more ad hoc way, does not mean that this defines the system. If one requires a perfect system, where laws are created only deductively, then one is left with a system with no rules. For Hund, this cannot be so and an explanation for these kinds of law\\-making processes is found in Hart's conception of \"secondary rules\" (rules in terms of which the main body of norms are recognised). Hund therefore says that for some cultures, for instance in some sections of [Tswana](/wiki/Tswana_people \"Tswana people\") society, the secondary rules have developed only to the point where laws are determined with reference to politics and personal preference. This does not mean that they are not \"rules\". Hund argues that if we acknowledge a developmental pattern in societies' constructions of these secondary rules then we can understand how this society constructs its laws and how it differs from societies that have come to rely on an objective, stand\\-alone body of rules.\n\n", "Codification\n------------\n\nThe modern [codification](/wiki/Codification_%28law%29 \"Codification (law)\") of [civil law](/wiki/Civil_law_%28legal_system%29 \"Civil law (legal system)\") developed from the tradition of [medieval](/wiki/Middle_Ages \"Middle Ages\") [custumals](/wiki/Custumal \"Custumal\"), collections of local customary law that developed in a specific manorial or borough jurisdiction, and which were slowly pieced together mainly from [case law](/wiki/Case_law \"Case law\") and later written down by local [jurists](/wiki/Jurist \"Jurist\"). Custumals acquired the force of law when they became the undisputed rule by which certain [rights](/wiki/Rights \"Rights\"), entitlements, and [obligations](/wiki/Obligation \"Obligation\") were regulated between members of a community.In *R. v Secretary of State For Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs*, \\[1982] 2 All E.R. 118, [Lord Denning](/wiki/Lord_Denning \"Lord Denning\") said \"These customary laws are not written down. They are handed down by tradition from one generation to another. Yet beyond doubt they are well established and have the force of law within the community.\" Some examples include [Bracton](/wiki/Henry_de_Bracton \"Henry de Bracton\")'s *De Legibus et Consuetudinibus Angliae* for England, the *[Coutume de Paris](/wiki/Coutume_de_Paris \"Coutume de Paris\")* for the city of Paris, the *[Sachsenspiegel](/wiki/Sachsenspiegel \"Sachsenspiegel\")* for northern Germany, and the many *[fueros](/wiki/Fuero \"Fuero\")* of Spain.\n\n", "International law\n-----------------\n\nIn [international law](/wiki/International_law \"International law\"), *customary law* refers to the *Law of Nations* or the legal norms that have developed through the customary exchanges between [states](/wiki/Sovereign_state \"Sovereign state\") over time, whether based on [diplomacy](/wiki/Diplomacy \"Diplomacy\") or aggression. Essentially, legal obligations are believed to arise between states to carry out their affairs consistently with past accepted conduct. These customs can also change based on the acceptance or rejection by states of particular acts. Some principles of customary law have achieved the force of [peremptory norms](/wiki/Peremptory_norm \"Peremptory norm\"), which cannot be violated or altered except by a norm of comparable strength. These norms are said to gain their strength from universal acceptance, such as the prohibitions against [genocide](/wiki/Genocide \"Genocide\") and [slavery](/wiki/Slavery \"Slavery\"). Customary international law can be distinguished from [treaty](/wiki/Treaty \"Treaty\") law, which consists of explicit agreements between nations to assume obligations. However, many treaties are attempts to codify pre\\-existing customary law.\n\n", "Within contemporary legal systems\n---------------------------------\n\nCustomary law is a recognized source of law within jurisdictions of the [civil law](/wiki/Civil_law_%28legal_system%29 \"Civil law (legal system)\") tradition, where it may be subordinate to both [statutes](/wiki/Statutes \"Statutes\") and [regulations](/wiki/Regulations \"Regulations\"). In addressing custom as a source of law within the civil law tradition, notes that, though the attention it is given in scholarly works is great, its importance is \"slight and decreasing\". On the other hand, in many countries around the world, one or more types of customary law continue to exist side by side with official law, a condition referred to as [legal pluralism](/wiki/Legal_pluralism \"Legal pluralism\") (see also [List of national legal systems](/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems \"List of national legal systems\")).\n\nIn the [canon law](/wiki/Canon_law_%28Catholic_Church%29 \"Canon law (Catholic Church)\") of the [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\"), [custom](/wiki/Custom_%28Catholic_canon_law%29 \"Custom (Catholic canon law)\") is a source of law. [Canonical jurisprudence](/wiki/Jurisprudence_of_Catholic_canon_law \"Jurisprudence of Catholic canon law\"), however, differs from civil law jurisprudence in requiring the express or implied consent of the legislator for a custom to obtain the force of law.\n\nIn the [English](/wiki/English_law \"English law\") [common law](/wiki/Common_law \"Common law\"), \"long usage\" must be established.\n\nIt is a broad principle of property law that, if something has gone on for a long time without objection, whether it be using a right of way or occupying land to which one has no title, the law will eventually recognise the fact and give the person doing it the legal right to continue.\n\nIt is known in case law as \"customary rights\". Something which has been practised since time immemorial by reference to a particular locality may acquire the legal status of a custom, which is a form of local law. The legal criteria defining a custom are precise. The most common claim in recent times, is for customary rights to moor a vessel.\n\nThe mooring must have been in continuous use for \"time immemorial\" which is defined by legal precedent as 12 years (or 20 years for Crown land) for the same purpose by people using them for that purpose. To give two examples: a custom of mooring which might have been established in past times for over two hundred years by the fishing fleet of local inhabitants of a coastal community will not simply transfer so as to benefit present day recreational boat owners who may hail from much further afield. Whereas a group of houseboats on a mooring that has been in continuous use for the last 25 years \nwith a mixture of owner occupiers and rented houseboats, may clearly continue to be used by houseboats, where the owners live in the same town or city. Both the purpose of the moorings and the class of persons benefited by the custom must have been clear and consistent.\n\nIn Canada, customary aboriginal law has a constitutional foundation and for this reason has increasing influence. and \n\nIn the [Scandinavian](/wiki/Scandinavia \"Scandinavia\") countries customary law continues to exist and has great influence.\n\nCustomary law is also used in some [developing countries](/wiki/Developing_countries \"Developing countries\"), usually used alongside common or civil law. For example, in [Ethiopia](/wiki/Ethiopia \"Ethiopia\"), despite the adoption of legal codes based on [civil law](/wiki/Civil_law_%28legal_system%29 \"Civil law (legal system)\") in the 1950s according to Dolores Donovan and [Getachew Assefa](/wiki/Getachew_Assefa \"Getachew Assefa\") there are more than 60 systems of customary law currently in force, \"some of them operating quite independently of the formal state legal system\". They offer two reasons for the relative autonomy of these customary law systems: one is that the Ethiopian government lacks sufficient resources to enforce its legal system to every corner of Ethiopia; the other is that the Ethiopian government has made a commitment to preserve these customary systems within its boundaries.Dolores A. Donovan and [Getachew Assefa](/wiki/Getachew_Assefa \"Getachew Assefa\"), [\"Homicide in Ethiopia: Human Rights, Federalism, and Legal Pluralism,\" *American Journal of Comparative Law*](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3649118), 51 (2003\\), p. 505\n\nIn 1995, [President of Kyrgyzstan](/wiki/President_of_Kyrgyzstan \"President of Kyrgyzstan\") [Askar Akaev](/wiki/Askar_Akaev \"Askar Akaev\") announced a decree to revitalize the *[aqsaqal](/wiki/Aqsaqal \"Aqsaqal\")* courts of village elders. The courts would have jurisdiction over property, torts and family law.Judith Beyer, Kyrgyz Aksakal Courts: Pluralistic Accounts of History, 53 J. OF L. PLURALISM 144 (2006\\) The *aqsaqal* courts were eventually included under Article 92 of the Kyrgyz constitution. As of 2006, there were approximately 1,000 *aqsaqal* courts throughout [Kyrgyzstan](/wiki/Kyrgyzstan \"Kyrgyzstan\"), including in the capital of [Bishkek](/wiki/Bishkek \"Bishkek\"). Akaev linked the development of these courts to the rekindling of Kyrgyz national identity. In a 2005 speech, he connected the courts back to the country's nomadic past and extolled how the courts expressed the Kyrgyz ability of self\\-governance.Former President Akaev, quoted in Beyer, *Kyrgyz Aksakal Courts* Similar *aqsaqal* courts exist, with varying levels of legal formality, in other countries of [Central Asia](/wiki/Central_Asia \"Central Asia\").\n\nThe [Somali people](/wiki/Somali_people \"Somali people\") in the [Horn of Africa](/wiki/Horn_of_Africa \"Horn of Africa\") follow a customary law system referred to as *[xeer](/wiki/Xeer \"Xeer\")*. It survives to a significant degree everywhere in Somalia and in the Somali communities in the [Ogaden](/wiki/Ogaden \"Ogaden\"). Economist Peter Leeson attributes the increase in economic activity since the fall of the [Siad Barre](/wiki/Siad_Barre \"Siad Barre\") administration to the security in life, liberty and property provided by Xeer in large parts of [Somalia](/wiki/Somalia \"Somalia\"). The Dutch attorney Michael van Notten also draws upon his experience as a legal expert in his comprehensive study on Xeer, *The Law of the Somalis: A Stable Foundation for Economic Development in the Horn of Africa* (2005\\).Van Notten, Michael. 2005\\. *The Law of the Somalis: A Stable Foundation for Economic and Social Development in the Horn of Africa*, Trenton NJ: Red Sea Press.\n\nIn India many customs are accepted by law. For example, [Hindu](/wiki/Hinduism \"Hinduism\") marriage ceremonies are recognized by the [Hindu Marriage Act](/wiki/Hindu_Marriage_Act \"Hindu Marriage Act\").\n\nIn Indonesia, customary [adat](/wiki/Adat \"Adat\") laws of the country's various indigenous ethnicities are recognized, and customary dispute resolution is recognized in [Papua](/wiki/Papua_%28province%29 \"Papua (province)\"). Indonesian adat law are mainly divided into 19 circles, namely [Aceh](/wiki/Aceh \"Aceh\"), [Gayo](/wiki/Gayo_Lues_Regency \"Gayo Lues Regency\"), [Alas](/wiki/Alas_people \"Alas people\"), and [Batak](/wiki/Batak \"Batak\"), [Minangkabau](/wiki/Minangkabau_Highlands \"Minangkabau Highlands\"), [South Sumatra](/wiki/South_Sumatra \"South Sumatra\"), the [Malay](/wiki/Malay_Indonesian \"Malay Indonesian\") regions, [Bangka](/wiki/Bangka_Island \"Bangka Island\") and [Belitung](/wiki/Belitung \"Belitung\"), [Kalimantan](/wiki/Kalimantan \"Kalimantan\"), [Minahasa](/wiki/Minahasa \"Minahasa\"), [Gorontalo](/wiki/Gorontalo \"Gorontalo\"), [Toraja](/wiki/Toraja \"Toraja\"), [South Sulawesi](/wiki/South_Sulawesi \"South Sulawesi\"), [Ternate](/wiki/Ternate \"Ternate\"), the [Molluccas](/wiki/Molluccas \"Molluccas\"), [Papua](/wiki/Papua_%28province%29 \"Papua (province)\"), [Timor](/wiki/Timor \"Timor\"), [Bali](/wiki/Bali \"Bali\") and [Lombok](/wiki/Lombok \"Lombok\"), Central and East [Java](/wiki/Java \"Java\") including the island of [Madura](/wiki/Madura \"Madura\"), [Sunda](/wiki/Sunda_Islands \"Sunda Islands\"), and the [Javanese](/wiki/Javanese_people \"Javanese people\") monarchies, including the [Yogyakarta Sultanate](/wiki/Yogyakarta_Sultanate \"Yogyakarta Sultanate\"), [Surakarta Sunanate](/wiki/Surakarta_Sunanate \"Surakarta Sunanate\"), and the [Pakualaman](/wiki/Pakualaman \"Pakualaman\") and [Mangkunegaran](/wiki/Mangkunegaran \"Mangkunegaran\") princely states.\n\nIn the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\"), the [Indigenous Peoples' Rights Act of 1997](/wiki/Indigenous_Peoples%27_Rights_Act_of_1997 \"Indigenous Peoples' Rights Act of 1997\") recognizes customary laws of indigenous peoples within their domain.\n\n", "Custom in torts\n---------------\n\nCustom is used in [tort](/wiki/Tort \"Tort\") law to help determine [negligence](/wiki/Negligence \"Negligence\"). Following or disregarding a custom is not determinative of negligence, but instead is an indication of possible best practices or alternatives to a particular action.\n\n", "Customary legal systems\n-----------------------\n\n* *[Adat](/wiki/Adat \"Adat\")* ([Malays](/wiki/Malays_%28ethnic_group%29 \"Malays (ethnic group)\") of [Nusantara](/wiki/Nusantara_%28archipelago%29 \"Nusantara (archipelago)\"))\n* [Anglo\\-Saxon law](/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_law \"Anglo-Saxon law\") (England)\n* *[Aqsaqal](/wiki/Aqsaqal \"Aqsaqal\")* ([Central Asia](/wiki/Central_Asia \"Central Asia\"))\n* [Australian Aboriginal customary law](/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_customary_law \"Australian Aboriginal customary law\")\n* [Basque and Pyrenean law](/wiki/Fuero%23Basque_and_Pyrenean_fueros \"Fuero#Basque and Pyrenean fueros\")\n* *[Coutume](/wiki/Coutume \"Coutume\")* (France)\n* [Custom (Catholic canon law)](/wiki/Custom_%28Catholic_canon_law%29 \"Custom (Catholic canon law)\")\n* [Early Germanic law](/wiki/Early_Germanic_law \"Early Germanic law\")\n* [Early Irish law](/wiki/Early_Irish_law \"Early Irish law\") (Ireland)\n* [Inuit Qaujimajatuqangit](/wiki/Inuit_Qaujimajatuqangit \"Inuit Qaujimajatuqangit\")\n* [Kanun of Leke Dukagjini](/wiki/Kanun_of_Leke_Dukagjini \"Kanun of Leke Dukagjini\") ([Albania](/wiki/Albania \"Albania\"))\n* [Laws of the Brets and Scots](/wiki/Leges_inter_Brettos_et_Scottos \"Leges inter Brettos et Scottos\") (Scotland)\n* [Medieval Scandinavian laws](/wiki/Medieval_Scandinavian_laws \"Medieval Scandinavian laws\")\n* *[Pashtunwali](/wiki/Pashtunwali \"Pashtunwali\")* and *[Jirga](/wiki/Jirga \"Jirga\")* ([Pashtuns](/wiki/Pashtun_people \"Pashtun people\") of Pakistan and Afghanistan)\n* *[Smriti](/wiki/Smriti \"Smriti\")* and *[Ācāra](/wiki/%C4%80c%C4%81ra \"Ācāra\")* (India)\n* [Customary law](/wiki/Customary_law_in_South_Africa \"Customary law in South Africa\") (South Africa)\n* *[Urf](/wiki/Urf \"Urf\")* ([Arab world](/wiki/Arab_world \"Arab world\")/[Islamic law](/wiki/Sharia \"Sharia\"))\n* *[Cyfraith Hywel](/wiki/Cyfraith_Hywel \"Cyfraith Hywel\")* ([Wales](/wiki/Wales \"Wales\"))\n* *[Xeer](/wiki/Xeer \"Xeer\")* ([Somalia](/wiki/Somalia \"Somalia\"))\n* *[Usos y costumbres](/wiki/Usos_y_costumbres \"Usos y costumbres\")* (various regions of [Latin America](/wiki/Latin_America \"Latin America\"))\n* [Wahkohtowin](/wiki/Wahkohtowin \"Wahkohtowin\") ([Cree](/wiki/Cree \"Cree\") Territories, Canada)\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n### Citations\n\n### Sources\n\n* Hund, John. 'Customary law is what people say it is', ARSP Vol 84 1998, 420–433\\.\n* J Comaroff and S Roberts Rules and Processes: The Cultural Logic of Dispute in an African Context (1981\\).\n\n", "### Citations\n\n", "### Sources\n\n* Hund, John. 'Customary law is what people say it is', ARSP Vol 84 1998, 420–433\\.\n* J Comaroff and S Roberts Rules and Processes: The Cultural Logic of Dispute in an African Context (1981\\).\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [Customary IHL Database](http://www.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/home)\n* [Druzin, Bryan H. (2014, April). \"Planting Seeds of Order: How the State Can Create, Shape, and Use Customary Law\"](http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1017&context=bryan_druzin), *[BYU Journal of Public Law](/wiki/BYU_Journal_of_Public_Law \"BYU Journal of Public Law\")* **28**: 373–412\\.\n\n[Category:International law](/wiki/Category:International_law \"International law\")\n[Category:Sources of law](/wiki/Category:Sources_of_law \"Sources of law\")\n[Category:Tort law](/wiki/Category:Tort_law \"Tort law\")\n[Category:Social agreement](/wiki/Category:Social_agreement \"Social agreement\")\n[Category:Custom](/wiki/Category:Custom \"Custom\")\n[Category:Political anthropology](/wiki/Category:Political_anthropology \"Political anthropology\")\n[Category:Management cybernetics](/wiki/Category:Management_cybernetics \"Management cybernetics\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 3632083 ], "name": [ "Meters" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "History", "Campus", "Athletics", "Bullying and sex crimes", "Notable faculty", "Notable alumni", "Academia", "Athletes", "NHL players", "NFL players", "CFL players", "NBA players", "Other athletes", "Business", "Media", "Politics", "Law enforcement", "See also", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**St. Michael's College School** (also known as **St. Michael's**, **St. Mike's**, and **SMCS**), is an independent, Catholic school for young men in [Toronto](/wiki/Toronto \"Toronto\"), [Ontario](/wiki/Ontario \"Ontario\"), Canada. Administered by the [Basilian Fathers](/wiki/Congregation_of_St._Basil \"Congregation of St. Basil\"), it is the largest school of its kind in Canada, with an enrolment of approximately 750 students from grades 7 to 12\\. It is known for its high standard of academics and athletics, notably its [ice hockey](/wiki/Ice_hockey \"Ice hockey\"), [football](/wiki/Canadian_football \"Canadian football\") and [basketball](/wiki/Basketball \"Basketball\") programs. The hockey program has graduated numerous future [National Hockey League](/wiki/National_Hockey_League \"National Hockey League\") ice hockey players. The basketball and football programs have graduated multiple [NBA](/wiki/NBA \"NBA\"), [NFL](/wiki/NFL \"NFL\"), and [CFL](/wiki/CFL \"CFL\") players. St. Michael's College School is the affiliate school of [Holy Name of Mary College School](/wiki/Holy_Name_of_Mary_College_School \"Holy Name of Mary College School\"), an independent, Catholic all\\-girls school in Mississauga. St. Michael's was part of the [Metropolitan Separate School Board](/wiki/Toronto_Catholic_District_School_Board \"Toronto Catholic District School Board\") from 1967 to 1985, but has subsequently operated within the [Conference of Independent Schools of Ontario Athletic Association](/wiki/Conference_of_Independent_Schools_of_Ontario_Athletic_Association \"Conference of Independent Schools of Ontario Athletic Association\").\n\n", "History\n-------\n\nThe Congregation of St. Basil (Basilian Fathers) was established as a religious congregation in France in 1822\\. As a result of the closing of seminaries in France during the [French Revolution](/wiki/French_Revolution \"French Revolution\"), two diocesan priests opened a secret school in the mountains of central France.\n\nAfter several years of operation and a change in the French laws, ten priests serving there openly bound themselves into a religious community. They reasoned that the school, by then located in the nearby city of [Annonay](/wiki/Annonay \"Annonay\"), would have a better chance of continuing if it were conducted by a [religious congregation](/wiki/Religious_congregation \"Religious congregation\") that could accept and train new members to continue its operation after the founding fathers’ retirement.\n[thumb\\|left\\|The Archway](/wiki/File:SMCS_arch.jpg \"SMCS arch.jpg\")\nThe original members chose [St. Basil the Great](/wiki/St._Basil_the_Great \"St. Basil the Great\"), a fourth\\-century teacher, bishop, and [doctor of the Church](/wiki/Doctor_of_the_Church \"Doctor of the Church\"), to be the namesake of the new community.\n\nIn the middle of the nineteenth century, the French Basilians came to Canada on an invitation from Bishop de Charbonnel of Toronto. The Bishop saw the need for Catholic schools for the young people of his parishes, especially at the high school level. In his plans to bring Catholic education to more of his people, the Bishop immediately thought of his own education in France. He had been educated at the College of Annonay near [Lyon](/wiki/Lyon \"Lyon\"), a school established by the Basilian Fathers.\n[thumb\\|St. Michael's College School](/wiki/File:St._Michael%27s_College_School.JPG \"St. Michael's College School.JPG\")\nIn September 1852, St. Michael's College School opened. It quickly outgrew its original facilities in the basement of the Bishop's Palace on [Church Street](/wiki/Church_Street_%28Toronto%29 \"Church Street (Toronto)\"). In 1856, it moved to Clover Hill, a property donated to the Basilian Fathers by John Elmsley. Clover Hill was outside the city at that time, in an area now bounded by Bay, St. Joseph, and St. Mary's streets. In 1881, St. Michael's was affiliated with [St. Michael's College](/wiki/St._Michael%27s_College%2C_Toronto \"St. Michael's College, Toronto\") at the [University of Toronto](/wiki/University_of_Toronto \"University of Toronto\") for post secondary education.\n\nThe school specifically targeted Irish immigrants. The high school section expanded much more rapidly than the college section. In 1902, a new wing was added to the original building and the high school remained here until 1950\\.\n\nIn the years after [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), it became apparent that the Bay Street buildings were not equal to the challenge of serving a growing student body. At this point the high school section was separated from the University College. In September 1950, St. Michael's College School opened its doors at [Bathurst Street](/wiki/Bathurst_Street_%28Toronto%29 \"Bathurst Street (Toronto)\") and [St. Clair Avenue](/wiki/St._Clair_Avenue \"St. Clair Avenue\"), where it is situated today.\n[thumb\\|St. Michael's College School\\|left](/wiki/File:St._Michael%27s_College_School_-_24071340502.jpg \"St. Michael's College School - 24071340502.jpg\")\nIn 1967, St. Michael's College School entered into partnership with the [Metropolitan Separate School Board](/wiki/Toronto_Catholic_District_School_Board \"Toronto Catholic District School Board\") (known today as the Toronto Catholic District School Board) educating the Board's students in Grades 9 and 10\\. This decision made St. Michael's College School both a public and private school, which lasted for approximately 20 years. In September 1985, the Basilian Fathers decided to refuse provincial aid beyond and return St. Michael's to its roots as an independent, Catholic high school.\n[thumb\\|SMCS Tower](/wiki/File:Tower-front_lawn.jpg \"Tower-front lawn.jpg\")\nIn 1995, a major capital expansion program upgraded the school to include an east wing complete with science classrooms, a library (Odette Library), music and visual arts facilities, a design and technology facility, a 250\\-seat lecture hall, and an expanded gymnasium. In September 1998, St. Michael's College School expanded its academic program to include a Grade 7 and 8 program. The Preparatory school was previously active during the early 1900s.\n\nThe school's athletic stadium was retrofitted in September 2004 to include a state\\-of\\-the\\-art athletic field complete with artificial turf, an electronic scoreboard, stadium lighting, and an air supported dome that covers a third of the field for use during the winter months. The St. Michael's College School Centre for the Arts was the fourth and final phase of this revitalization project. The St. Michael's College School Centre for the Arts opened in April 2010, and hosts annual school stage productions of musicals and dramas in addition to concerts and other events.\n\n", "Campus\n------\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|St. Michael's College School](/wiki/File:St._Michael%27s_College_School_-_23811577759.jpg \"St. Michael's College School - 23811577759.jpg\")\nThe school's campus is located at [Bathurst Street](/wiki/Bathurst_Street%2C_Toronto \"Bathurst Street, Toronto\") and [St. Clair Avenue](/wiki/St._Clair_Avenue \"St. Clair Avenue\") at the edge of Toronto's [Forest Hill](/wiki/Forest_Hill%2C_Toronto \"Forest Hill, Toronto\") neighbourhood. The main school building was designed by Canadian architect [Ernest Cormier](/wiki/Ernest_Cormier \"Ernest Cormier\") and completed in 1950\\. Its most recognizable features are the distinctive chapel tower and yellow brickwork, similar to Cormier's earlier work at the [Université de Montréal](/wiki/Universit%C3%A9_de_Montr%C3%A9al \"Université de Montréal\").\n\nIn the late 1990s, a major expansion programme was undertaken, with two major academic wings and a gymnasium extension added to the original building. The additions contain classrooms tailored to the science, art and music programmes, a substantial lecture hall, several computer laboratories, and a large library. An outdoor courtyard adjacent to the cafeteria overlooked by classrooms is popular for major school events. The school's residence wing, originally built to accommodate boarding students, functioned as a Basilian house until 2008 when it was removed to make room for the school's \"state\\-of\\-the\\-art\" Centre for the Arts. The $10 million facility was completed in the April 2010\\.\n[thumb\\|220x220px\\|The outside of [St. Michael's College School Arena](/wiki/St._Michael%27s_College_School_Arena \"St. Michael's College School Arena\").](/wiki/File:St._Michael%27s_College_School_%28SMCS%29_Arena.jpg \"St. Michael's College School (SMCS) Arena.jpg\")\nThere are a number of sports facilities located on campus, including the [St. Michael's College School Arena](/wiki/St._Michael%27s_College_School_Arena \"St. Michael's College School Arena\"). The school's basketball court is named after former vice\\-principal, teacher, coach, and alumnus Paul Dignan. In 2005, a major overhaul of the stadium was undertaken. Renamed in honour of its benefactor, [billionaire](/wiki/Billionaire \"Billionaire\") alumnus [Eugene Melnyk](/wiki/Eugene_Melnyk \"Eugene Melnyk\"), it features an artificial turf field, a rubberized running track, and lighting for evening events. During the winter, an air supported dome covers part of the field to allow for use year\\-round.\n\n", "Athletics\n---------\n\n[thumb\\|St. Michael's Majors Sr. Hockey Team in action.](/wiki/File:Majorshockey2023.jpg \"Majorshockey2023.jpg\")\nOver 90 St. Michael's Majors alumni have played in the [National Hockey League](/wiki/National_Hockey_League \"National Hockey League\"). From the Majors, there are twelve [Hockey Hall of Fame](/wiki/Hockey_Hall_of_Fame \"Hockey Hall of Fame\") inductees: [Bobby Bauer](/wiki/Bobby_Bauer \"Bobby Bauer\"), [Turk Broda](/wiki/Turk_Broda \"Turk Broda\"), [Gerry Cheevers](/wiki/Gerry_Cheevers \"Gerry Cheevers\"), [Dick Duff](/wiki/Dick_Duff \"Dick Duff\"), [Tim Horton](/wiki/Tim_Horton \"Tim Horton\"), [Red Kelly](/wiki/Red_Kelly \"Red Kelly\"), [Dave Keon](/wiki/Dave_Keon \"Dave Keon\"), [Ted Lindsay](/wiki/Ted_Lindsay \"Ted Lindsay\"), [Frank Mahovlich](/wiki/Frank_Mahovlich \"Frank Mahovlich\"), [Joe Primeau](/wiki/Joe_Primeau \"Joe Primeau\"), [Murray Costello](/wiki/Murray_Costello \"Murray Costello\"), and [Jim Gregory](/wiki/Jim_Gregory_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Jim Gregory (ice hockey)\"). Additionally, Hall of Famer [Reg Noble](/wiki/Reg_Noble \"Reg Noble\") played for St. Michael's before the team adopted the Majors name.\n\nThe school's flagship hockey team, the [Toronto St. Michael's Majors](/wiki/Toronto_St._Michael%27s_Majors \"Toronto St. Michael's Majors\"), won the [Memorial Cup](/wiki/Memorial_Cup \"Memorial Cup\") four times before ceasing operation in 1961\\. The Majors name was revived as an expansion franchise in the [Ontario Hockey League](/wiki/Ontario_Hockey_League \"Ontario Hockey League\") from 1996 to 2012, then sold off to become the [Mississauga Steelheads](/wiki/Mississauga_Steelheads \"Mississauga Steelheads\"). The school also operates the [St. Michael's Buzzers](/wiki/St._Michael%27s_Buzzers \"St. Michael's Buzzers\"), at the [Tier II Junior \"A\"](/wiki/Ontario_Provincial_Junior_A_Hockey_League \"Ontario Provincial Junior A Hockey League\") level. The school was featured on CBC's annual Hockey Day in Canada on January 13, 2007, as the College School was celebrating 100 years of hockey.\nThe junior and senior football teams are called the Kerry Blues. The Jr. Kerry Blues won their third Ontario Regional Invitational in 2008 (having previously won in 2002 and 2004\\) In 2008, the Senior Kerry Blues won their seventh [Metro Bowl](/wiki/Metro_Bowl \"Metro Bowl\"), making the St. Michael's Kerry Blues the most bowl\\-winning team in Ontario. They have won the Metro Bowl three years in a row. There have been many Kerry Blues Football alumni that have gone on to win the CIAU National Football Championship with their respective universities. The 1993 Vanier Cup Champion [University of Toronto](/wiki/University_of_Toronto \"University of Toronto\") Varsity Blues had several SMCS Alumni: Christopher Tyndorf, Lou Tiro and Peter Woo. [National Football League](/wiki/National_Football_League \"National Football League\") players [Glen Young](/wiki/Glen_Young_%28gridiron_football%29 \"Glen Young (gridiron football)\"), [O.J. Santiago](/wiki/O.J._Santiago \"O.J. Santiago\") and [Mike Labinjo](/wiki/Mike_Labinjo \"Mike Labinjo\"), each of whom have competed in the [Super Bowl](/wiki/Super_Bowl \"Super Bowl\"), played football while attending St. Michael's.\n\nThe school competes in the Basil Bowl against other Basilian high schools.\n\n", "Bullying and sex crimes\n-----------------------\n\nIn November 2018, police began an investigation after learning of two separate sexual assaults at the school, The school suspended and expelled a number of students. arresting 6 students and with principal Greg Reeves and school president Father Jefferson Thompson resigning the same month. An August 2019 review found that bullying was a “systemic issue” at the school, albeit similar to other comparable schools across Canada. On October 3, 2019, three of the seven students charged pleaded guilty to charges of sexual assault with a weapon and assault with a weapon; one of the three also pleading guilty to making child pornography for filming one of the sexual assaults. In December 2019, Ontario Court Justice Brian Weagant sentenced the three students to 2 years' [probation](/wiki/Probation \"Probation\"), saying that \"the teens had been affected by a normalized bullying culture at the school\" and that the school culture normalized bullying and sexual bullying, which Weagant described as being supported by the sweeping culture review conducted by the school in the wake of the criminal charges. One of the two victims of the October 2018 incidents went on to file a C$1\\.65 million lawsuit against the school, its board, 3 former students, the [Basilian Fathers](/wiki/Basilian_Fathers \"Basilian Fathers\"), some coaches and some administrators. One student charged in relation to the attacks filed a C$1m case against Toronto Police stating that he had been a victim and was wrongfully charged.\n\nIn 2020, it was revealed that former principal Father Leo Campbell had been known to have \"psycho\\-sexual tendencies\" by the Basilian Fathers before his time at St. Michael's. Campbell was diagnosed with [ephebophilia](/wiki/Ephebophilia \"Ephebophilia\") at [Southdown Treatment Centre](/wiki/Southdown_Treatment_Centre \"Southdown Treatment Centre\"), an Ontario centre for Catholic clergy, including those accused of [sexual abuse](/wiki/Catholic_Church_sexual_abuse_cases_in_Canada \"Catholic Church sexual abuse cases in Canada\"), and it was concluded that he should have no unsupervised contact with early teenage boys.\n\n", "Notable faculty\n---------------\n\n* [Greg Wojt](/wiki/Greg_Wojt \"Greg Wojt\"), former [CFL](/wiki/Canadian_Football_League \"Canadian Football League\") player; St. Michael's coach\n* [David Bauer](/wiki/David_Bauer_%28ice_hockey%29 \"David Bauer (ice hockey)\"), founder of the [Canada men's national ice hockey team](/wiki/Canada_men%27s_national_ice_hockey_team \"Canada men's national ice hockey team\"), inductee into the [Hockey Hall of Fame](/wiki/Hockey_Hall_of_Fame \"Hockey Hall of Fame\")\n* [Michael Colle](/wiki/Michael_Colle \"Michael Colle\"), [Ontario Minister of Citizenship and Immigration](/wiki/Ontario_Minister_of_Citizenship_and_Immigration \"Ontario Minister of Citizenship and Immigration\")\n* [Michael W. Higgins](/wiki/Michael_W._Higgins \"Michael W. Higgins\"), president of [St. Thomas University](/wiki/St._Thomas_University_%28New_Brunswick%29 \"St. Thomas University (New Brunswick)\"); former president of [St. Jerome's University](/wiki/St._Jerome%27s_University \"St. Jerome's University\")\n* [Michael McGowan](/wiki/Michael_McGowan_%28director%29 \"Michael McGowan (director)\"), English teacher; director of the film *[Saint Ralph](/wiki/Saint_Ralph \"Saint Ralph\")*\n* [Robert Kasun](/wiki/Robert_Kasun \"Robert Kasun\"), Catholic auxiliary bishop of the Archdiocese of Toronto\n", "Notable alumni\n--------------\n\n### Academia\n\n* [Robert J. Birgeneau](/wiki/Robert_J._Birgeneau \"Robert J. Birgeneau\"), physicist and administrator\n* [Gregory Kealey](/wiki/Gregory_Kealey \"Gregory Kealey\"), historian\n* [Joseph Pivato](/wiki/Joseph_Pivato \"Joseph Pivato\"), literary scholar\n* [David Staines](/wiki/David_Staines \"David Staines\"), English professor\n\n### Athletes\n\n#### NHL players\n\n* [Bobby Bauer](/wiki/Bobby_Bauer \"Bobby Bauer\") (HHOF)\n* [Turk Broda](/wiki/Turk_Broda \"Turk Broda\") (HHOF)\n* [Gerry Cheevers](/wiki/Gerry_Cheevers \"Gerry Cheevers\") (HHOF)\n* [Andrew Cogliano](/wiki/Andrew_Cogliano \"Andrew Cogliano\")\n* [Les Costello](/wiki/Les_Costello \"Les Costello\")\n* [Murray Costello](/wiki/Murray_Costello \"Murray Costello\") (HHOF)\n* [Bill Dineen](/wiki/Bill_Dineen \"Bill Dineen\"), coach\n* [Dick Duff](/wiki/Dick_Duff \"Dick Duff\") (HHOF)\n* [Paul Gardner](/wiki/Paul_Gardner_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Paul Gardner (ice hockey)\"), coach\n* [Luke Gazdic](/wiki/Luke_Gazdic \"Luke Gazdic\")\n* [Tim Horton](/wiki/Tim_Horton \"Tim Horton\"), [Tim Hortons](/wiki/Tim_Hortons \"Tim Hortons\") co\\-founder (HHOF)\n* [Red Kelly](/wiki/Red_Kelly \"Red Kelly\"), coach; later also a politician (HHOF)\n* [Dave Keon](/wiki/Dave_Keon \"Dave Keon\") (HHOF)\n* [Michael Liambas](/wiki/Michael_Liambas \"Michael Liambas\")\n* [Brett Lindros](/wiki/Brett_Lindros \"Brett Lindros\")\n* [Eric Lindros](/wiki/Eric_Lindros \"Eric Lindros\") (HHOF)\n* [Ted Lindsay](/wiki/Ted_Lindsay \"Ted Lindsay\") (HHOF)\n* [Frank Mahovlich](/wiki/Frank_Mahovlich \"Frank Mahovlich\"), Canadian senator (HHOF)\n* [Peter Mahovlich](/wiki/Peter_Mahovlich \"Peter Mahovlich\")\n* [Cesare Maniago](/wiki/Cesare_Maniago \"Cesare Maniago\")\n* [Craig Mills](/wiki/Craig_Mills \"Craig Mills\")\n* [Dominic Moore](/wiki/Dominic_Moore \"Dominic Moore\")\n* [Steve Moore](/wiki/Steve_Moore_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Steve Moore (ice hockey)\")\n* [Reg Noble](/wiki/Reg_Noble \"Reg Noble\") (HHOF)\n* [Joe Primeau](/wiki/Joe_Primeau \"Joe Primeau\") (HHOF)\n* [Jason Spezza](/wiki/Jason_Spezza \"Jason Spezza\")\n* [Tyler Seguin](/wiki/Tyler_Seguin \"Tyler Seguin\")\n* [Chris Tanev](/wiki/Chris_Tanev \"Chris Tanev\")\n* [John Jakopin](/wiki/John_Jakopin \"John Jakopin\")\n* [Matthew Halischuk](/wiki/Matthew_Halischuk \"Matthew Halischuk\")\n* [Jake Evans](/wiki/Jake_Evans_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Jake Evans (ice hockey)\")\n* [Quinn Hughes](/wiki/Quinn_Hughes \"Quinn Hughes\")\n* [Akil Thomas](/wiki/Akil_Thomas \"Akil Thomas\")\n* [Jamie Drysdale](/wiki/Jamie_Drysdale \"Jamie Drysdale\")\n\n**(HHOF)** denotes [Hockey Hall of Fame Inductee](/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_Hockey_Hall_of_Fame \"List of members of the Hockey Hall of Fame\")\n\n#### NFL players\n\n* [Mike Labinjo](/wiki/Mike_Labinjo \"Mike Labinjo\")\n* [O.J. Santiago](/wiki/O.J._Santiago \"O.J. Santiago\")\n* [Glen Young](/wiki/Glen_Young_%28gridiron_football%29 \"Glen Young (gridiron football)\")\n\n#### CFL players\n\n* [Nolan MacMillan](/wiki/Nolan_MacMillan \"Nolan MacMillan\")\n* [Chris Smith](/wiki/Christopher_Smith_%28linebacker%29 \"Christopher Smith (linebacker)\")\n* [Derek Wiggan](/wiki/Derek_Wiggan \"Derek Wiggan\")\n* [Glen Young](/wiki/Glen_Young_%28gridiron_football%29 \"Glen Young (gridiron football)\")\n* [Kaion Julien\\-Grant](/wiki/Kaion_Julien-Grant \"Kaion Julien-Grant\")\n* [Gordon Whyte](/wiki/Gordon_Whyte_%28Canadian_football%29 \"Gordon Whyte (Canadian football)\")\n\n#### NBA players\n\n* [Leo Rautins](/wiki/Leo_Rautins \"Leo Rautins\"), player, coach, broadcaster\n\n#### Other athletes\n\n* [Danilo Djuricic](/wiki/Danilo_Djuricic \"Danilo Djuricic\"), college basketball player\n* [Marcus Carr](/wiki/Marcus_Carr \"Marcus Carr\"), basketball player in the [Israeli Basketball Premier League](/wiki/Israeli_Basketball_Premier_League \"Israeli Basketball Premier League\")\n* [Duane Notice](/wiki/Duane_Notice \"Duane Notice\"), professional basketball player\n* [Justyn Knight](/wiki/Justyn_Knight \"Justyn Knight\"), cross country runner\n\n### Business\n\n* [Robert Deluce](/wiki/Robert_Deluce \"Robert Deluce\"), founder, [Porter Airlines](/wiki/Porter_Airlines \"Porter Airlines\")\n* [Sergio Marchionne](/wiki/Sergio_Marchionne \"Sergio Marchionne\"), chairman of [CNH Industrial](/wiki/CNH_Industrial \"CNH Industrial\"), CEO of [Fiat Chrysler Automobiles](/wiki/Fiat_Chrysler_Automobiles \"Fiat Chrysler Automobiles\"), chairman and CEO of [FCA US LLC](/wiki/FCA_US_LLC \"FCA US LLC\"), chairman and CEO of [Ferrari](/wiki/Ferrari \"Ferrari\"), and the chairman of [Maserati](/wiki/Maserati \"Maserati\")\n* [Eugene Melnyk](/wiki/Eugene_Melnyk \"Eugene Melnyk\"), billionaire, owner of the [Ottawa Senators](/wiki/Ottawa_Senators \"Ottawa Senators\")\n* [Frank Buckley](/wiki/Frank_Buckley_%28businessman%29 \"Frank Buckley (businessman)\"), President of [Buckley's](/wiki/Buckley%27s \"Buckley's\") cough syrup\n* [Anthony Di Iorio](/wiki/Anthony_Di_Iorio \"Anthony Di Iorio\"), billionaire, co\\-founder of [Ethereum](/wiki/Ethereum \"Ethereum\")\n* [Tim Horton](/wiki/Tim_Horton \"Tim Horton\"), founder of [Tim Horton's](/wiki/Tim_Horton%27s \"Tim Horton's\")\n* [Patrick Dovigi](/wiki/Patrick_Dovigi \"Patrick Dovigi\"), billionaire, founder and CEO of [GFL Environmental](/wiki/GFL_Environmental \"GFL Environmental\")\n\n### Media\n\n* [Mikey Bustos](/wiki/Mikey_Bustos \"Mikey Bustos\"), entertainer; finalist, [Canadian Idol](/wiki/Canadian_Idol \"Canadian Idol\")\n* [Jesse Carere](/wiki/Jesse_Carere \"Jesse Carere\"), actor\n* [Sergio Di Zio](/wiki/Sergio_Di_Zio \"Sergio Di Zio\"), actor\n* [Michael Enright](/wiki/Michael_Enright_%28broadcaster%29 \"Michael Enright (broadcaster)\") (honorary diploma recipient), host, [CBC Radio](/wiki/CBC_Radio \"CBC Radio\")\n* [Anthony Oliveira](/wiki/Anthony_Oliveira \"Anthony Oliveira\"), writer\n* [Michael Ontkean](/wiki/Michael_Ontkean \"Michael Ontkean\"), actor\n* [Estanislao Oziewicz](/wiki/Estanislao_Oziewicz \"Estanislao Oziewicz\"), journalist, *[The Globe and Mail](/wiki/The_Globe_and_Mail \"The Globe and Mail\")*\n\n### Politics\n\n* [Patrick Brown](/wiki/Patrick_Brown_%28Canadian_politician%29 \"Patrick Brown (Canadian politician)\"), [Mayor of Brampton](/wiki/Mayor_of_Brampton \"Mayor of Brampton\"); former [MPP](/wiki/Member_of_Provincial_Parliament_%28Canada%29 \"Member of Provincial Parliament (Canada)\"); former [Ontario Leader of the Official Opposition](/wiki/Leader_of_the_Official_Opposition_%28Ontario%29 \"Leader of the Official Opposition (Ontario)\") ([PCC](/wiki/Progressive_Conservative_Party_of_Ontario \"Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario\"))\n* [Josh Colle](/wiki/Josh_Colle \"Josh Colle\"), [Toronto City Councillor](/wiki/Toronto_City_Councillor \"Toronto City Councillor\"); [Toronto Transit Commission](/wiki/Toronto_Transit_Commission \"Toronto Transit Commission\")\n* [Michael Colle](/wiki/Michael_Colle \"Michael Colle\"), Toronto City Councillor; former [Minister of Citizenship and Immigration](/wiki/Minister_of_Citizenship_and_Immigration \"Minister of Citizenship and Immigration\")\n* [Stephen Lecce](/wiki/Stephen_Lecce \"Stephen Lecce\"), King—Vaughan [MPP](/wiki/Member_of_Provincial_Parliament_%28Ontario%29 \"Member of Provincial Parliament (Ontario)\"), [Ontario](/wiki/Ontario \"Ontario\") Minister of Education\n* [Joe Mihevc](/wiki/Joe_Mihevc \"Joe Mihevc\"), Toronto City Councillor\n* [Jaggi Singh](/wiki/Jaggi_Singh_%28activist%29 \"Jaggi Singh (activist)\"), [anarchist](/wiki/Anarchist \"Anarchist\"); [activist](/wiki/Activist \"Activist\")\n* [Michael Tibollo](/wiki/Michael_Tibollo \"Michael Tibollo\"), Vaughan—Woodbridge [MPP](/wiki/Member_of_Provincial_Parliament_%28Ontario%29 \"Member of Provincial Parliament (Ontario)\")\n\n### Law enforcement\n\n* [Myron Demkiw](/wiki/Myron_Demkiw \"Myron Demkiw\"), Chief of Police of the Toronto Police Service\n", "### Academia\n\n* [Robert J. Birgeneau](/wiki/Robert_J._Birgeneau \"Robert J. Birgeneau\"), physicist and administrator\n* [Gregory Kealey](/wiki/Gregory_Kealey \"Gregory Kealey\"), historian\n* [Joseph Pivato](/wiki/Joseph_Pivato \"Joseph Pivato\"), literary scholar\n* [David Staines](/wiki/David_Staines \"David Staines\"), English professor\n", "### Athletes\n\n#### NHL players\n\n* [Bobby Bauer](/wiki/Bobby_Bauer \"Bobby Bauer\") (HHOF)\n* [Turk Broda](/wiki/Turk_Broda \"Turk Broda\") (HHOF)\n* [Gerry Cheevers](/wiki/Gerry_Cheevers \"Gerry Cheevers\") (HHOF)\n* [Andrew Cogliano](/wiki/Andrew_Cogliano \"Andrew Cogliano\")\n* [Les Costello](/wiki/Les_Costello \"Les Costello\")\n* [Murray Costello](/wiki/Murray_Costello \"Murray Costello\") (HHOF)\n* [Bill Dineen](/wiki/Bill_Dineen \"Bill Dineen\"), coach\n* [Dick Duff](/wiki/Dick_Duff \"Dick Duff\") (HHOF)\n* [Paul Gardner](/wiki/Paul_Gardner_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Paul Gardner (ice hockey)\"), coach\n* [Luke Gazdic](/wiki/Luke_Gazdic \"Luke Gazdic\")\n* [Tim Horton](/wiki/Tim_Horton \"Tim Horton\"), [Tim Hortons](/wiki/Tim_Hortons \"Tim Hortons\") co\\-founder (HHOF)\n* [Red Kelly](/wiki/Red_Kelly \"Red Kelly\"), coach; later also a politician (HHOF)\n* [Dave Keon](/wiki/Dave_Keon \"Dave Keon\") (HHOF)\n* [Michael Liambas](/wiki/Michael_Liambas \"Michael Liambas\")\n* [Brett Lindros](/wiki/Brett_Lindros \"Brett Lindros\")\n* [Eric Lindros](/wiki/Eric_Lindros \"Eric Lindros\") (HHOF)\n* [Ted Lindsay](/wiki/Ted_Lindsay \"Ted Lindsay\") (HHOF)\n* [Frank Mahovlich](/wiki/Frank_Mahovlich \"Frank Mahovlich\"), Canadian senator (HHOF)\n* [Peter Mahovlich](/wiki/Peter_Mahovlich \"Peter Mahovlich\")\n* [Cesare Maniago](/wiki/Cesare_Maniago \"Cesare Maniago\")\n* [Craig Mills](/wiki/Craig_Mills \"Craig Mills\")\n* [Dominic Moore](/wiki/Dominic_Moore \"Dominic Moore\")\n* [Steve Moore](/wiki/Steve_Moore_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Steve Moore (ice hockey)\")\n* [Reg Noble](/wiki/Reg_Noble \"Reg Noble\") (HHOF)\n* [Joe Primeau](/wiki/Joe_Primeau \"Joe Primeau\") (HHOF)\n* [Jason Spezza](/wiki/Jason_Spezza \"Jason Spezza\")\n* [Tyler Seguin](/wiki/Tyler_Seguin \"Tyler Seguin\")\n* [Chris Tanev](/wiki/Chris_Tanev \"Chris Tanev\")\n* [John Jakopin](/wiki/John_Jakopin \"John Jakopin\")\n* [Matthew Halischuk](/wiki/Matthew_Halischuk \"Matthew Halischuk\")\n* [Jake Evans](/wiki/Jake_Evans_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Jake Evans (ice hockey)\")\n* [Quinn Hughes](/wiki/Quinn_Hughes \"Quinn Hughes\")\n* [Akil Thomas](/wiki/Akil_Thomas \"Akil Thomas\")\n* [Jamie Drysdale](/wiki/Jamie_Drysdale \"Jamie Drysdale\")\n\n**(HHOF)** denotes [Hockey Hall of Fame Inductee](/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_Hockey_Hall_of_Fame \"List of members of the Hockey Hall of Fame\")\n\n#### NFL players\n\n* [Mike Labinjo](/wiki/Mike_Labinjo \"Mike Labinjo\")\n* [O.J. Santiago](/wiki/O.J._Santiago \"O.J. Santiago\")\n* [Glen Young](/wiki/Glen_Young_%28gridiron_football%29 \"Glen Young (gridiron football)\")\n\n#### CFL players\n\n* [Nolan MacMillan](/wiki/Nolan_MacMillan \"Nolan MacMillan\")\n* [Chris Smith](/wiki/Christopher_Smith_%28linebacker%29 \"Christopher Smith (linebacker)\")\n* [Derek Wiggan](/wiki/Derek_Wiggan \"Derek Wiggan\")\n* [Glen Young](/wiki/Glen_Young_%28gridiron_football%29 \"Glen Young (gridiron football)\")\n* [Kaion Julien\\-Grant](/wiki/Kaion_Julien-Grant \"Kaion Julien-Grant\")\n* [Gordon Whyte](/wiki/Gordon_Whyte_%28Canadian_football%29 \"Gordon Whyte (Canadian football)\")\n\n#### NBA players\n\n* [Leo Rautins](/wiki/Leo_Rautins \"Leo Rautins\"), player, coach, broadcaster\n\n#### Other athletes\n\n* [Danilo Djuricic](/wiki/Danilo_Djuricic \"Danilo Djuricic\"), college basketball player\n* [Marcus Carr](/wiki/Marcus_Carr \"Marcus Carr\"), basketball player in the [Israeli Basketball Premier League](/wiki/Israeli_Basketball_Premier_League \"Israeli Basketball Premier League\")\n* [Duane Notice](/wiki/Duane_Notice \"Duane Notice\"), professional basketball player\n* [Justyn Knight](/wiki/Justyn_Knight \"Justyn Knight\"), cross country runner\n", "#### NHL players\n\n* [Bobby Bauer](/wiki/Bobby_Bauer \"Bobby Bauer\") (HHOF)\n* [Turk Broda](/wiki/Turk_Broda \"Turk Broda\") (HHOF)\n* [Gerry Cheevers](/wiki/Gerry_Cheevers \"Gerry Cheevers\") (HHOF)\n* [Andrew Cogliano](/wiki/Andrew_Cogliano \"Andrew Cogliano\")\n* [Les Costello](/wiki/Les_Costello \"Les Costello\")\n* [Murray Costello](/wiki/Murray_Costello \"Murray Costello\") (HHOF)\n* [Bill Dineen](/wiki/Bill_Dineen \"Bill Dineen\"), coach\n* [Dick Duff](/wiki/Dick_Duff \"Dick Duff\") (HHOF)\n* [Paul Gardner](/wiki/Paul_Gardner_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Paul Gardner (ice hockey)\"), coach\n* [Luke Gazdic](/wiki/Luke_Gazdic \"Luke Gazdic\")\n* [Tim Horton](/wiki/Tim_Horton \"Tim Horton\"), [Tim Hortons](/wiki/Tim_Hortons \"Tim Hortons\") co\\-founder (HHOF)\n* [Red Kelly](/wiki/Red_Kelly \"Red Kelly\"), coach; later also a politician (HHOF)\n* [Dave Keon](/wiki/Dave_Keon \"Dave Keon\") (HHOF)\n* [Michael Liambas](/wiki/Michael_Liambas \"Michael Liambas\")\n* [Brett Lindros](/wiki/Brett_Lindros \"Brett Lindros\")\n* [Eric Lindros](/wiki/Eric_Lindros \"Eric Lindros\") (HHOF)\n* [Ted Lindsay](/wiki/Ted_Lindsay \"Ted Lindsay\") (HHOF)\n* [Frank Mahovlich](/wiki/Frank_Mahovlich \"Frank Mahovlich\"), Canadian senator (HHOF)\n* [Peter Mahovlich](/wiki/Peter_Mahovlich \"Peter Mahovlich\")\n* [Cesare Maniago](/wiki/Cesare_Maniago \"Cesare Maniago\")\n* [Craig Mills](/wiki/Craig_Mills \"Craig Mills\")\n* [Dominic Moore](/wiki/Dominic_Moore \"Dominic Moore\")\n* [Steve Moore](/wiki/Steve_Moore_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Steve Moore (ice hockey)\")\n* [Reg Noble](/wiki/Reg_Noble \"Reg Noble\") (HHOF)\n* [Joe Primeau](/wiki/Joe_Primeau \"Joe Primeau\") (HHOF)\n* [Jason Spezza](/wiki/Jason_Spezza \"Jason Spezza\")\n* [Tyler Seguin](/wiki/Tyler_Seguin \"Tyler Seguin\")\n* [Chris Tanev](/wiki/Chris_Tanev \"Chris Tanev\")\n* [John Jakopin](/wiki/John_Jakopin \"John Jakopin\")\n* [Matthew Halischuk](/wiki/Matthew_Halischuk \"Matthew Halischuk\")\n* [Jake Evans](/wiki/Jake_Evans_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Jake Evans (ice hockey)\")\n* [Quinn Hughes](/wiki/Quinn_Hughes \"Quinn Hughes\")\n* [Akil Thomas](/wiki/Akil_Thomas \"Akil Thomas\")\n* [Jamie Drysdale](/wiki/Jamie_Drysdale \"Jamie Drysdale\")\n\n**(HHOF)** denotes [Hockey Hall of Fame Inductee](/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_Hockey_Hall_of_Fame \"List of members of the Hockey Hall of Fame\")\n\n", "#### NFL players\n\n* [Mike Labinjo](/wiki/Mike_Labinjo \"Mike Labinjo\")\n* [O.J. Santiago](/wiki/O.J._Santiago \"O.J. Santiago\")\n* [Glen Young](/wiki/Glen_Young_%28gridiron_football%29 \"Glen Young (gridiron football)\")\n", "#### CFL players\n\n* [Nolan MacMillan](/wiki/Nolan_MacMillan \"Nolan MacMillan\")\n* [Chris Smith](/wiki/Christopher_Smith_%28linebacker%29 \"Christopher Smith (linebacker)\")\n* [Derek Wiggan](/wiki/Derek_Wiggan \"Derek Wiggan\")\n* [Glen Young](/wiki/Glen_Young_%28gridiron_football%29 \"Glen Young (gridiron football)\")\n* [Kaion Julien\\-Grant](/wiki/Kaion_Julien-Grant \"Kaion Julien-Grant\")\n* [Gordon Whyte](/wiki/Gordon_Whyte_%28Canadian_football%29 \"Gordon Whyte (Canadian football)\")\n", "#### NBA players\n\n* [Leo Rautins](/wiki/Leo_Rautins \"Leo Rautins\"), player, coach, broadcaster\n", "#### Other athletes\n\n* [Danilo Djuricic](/wiki/Danilo_Djuricic \"Danilo Djuricic\"), college basketball player\n* [Marcus Carr](/wiki/Marcus_Carr \"Marcus Carr\"), basketball player in the [Israeli Basketball Premier League](/wiki/Israeli_Basketball_Premier_League \"Israeli Basketball Premier League\")\n* [Duane Notice](/wiki/Duane_Notice \"Duane Notice\"), professional basketball player\n* [Justyn Knight](/wiki/Justyn_Knight \"Justyn Knight\"), cross country runner\n", "### Business\n\n* [Robert Deluce](/wiki/Robert_Deluce \"Robert Deluce\"), founder, [Porter Airlines](/wiki/Porter_Airlines \"Porter Airlines\")\n* [Sergio Marchionne](/wiki/Sergio_Marchionne \"Sergio Marchionne\"), chairman of [CNH Industrial](/wiki/CNH_Industrial \"CNH Industrial\"), CEO of [Fiat Chrysler Automobiles](/wiki/Fiat_Chrysler_Automobiles \"Fiat Chrysler Automobiles\"), chairman and CEO of [FCA US LLC](/wiki/FCA_US_LLC \"FCA US LLC\"), chairman and CEO of [Ferrari](/wiki/Ferrari \"Ferrari\"), and the chairman of [Maserati](/wiki/Maserati \"Maserati\")\n* [Eugene Melnyk](/wiki/Eugene_Melnyk \"Eugene Melnyk\"), billionaire, owner of the [Ottawa Senators](/wiki/Ottawa_Senators \"Ottawa Senators\")\n* [Frank Buckley](/wiki/Frank_Buckley_%28businessman%29 \"Frank Buckley (businessman)\"), President of [Buckley's](/wiki/Buckley%27s \"Buckley's\") cough syrup\n* [Anthony Di Iorio](/wiki/Anthony_Di_Iorio \"Anthony Di Iorio\"), billionaire, co\\-founder of [Ethereum](/wiki/Ethereum \"Ethereum\")\n* [Tim Horton](/wiki/Tim_Horton \"Tim Horton\"), founder of [Tim Horton's](/wiki/Tim_Horton%27s \"Tim Horton's\")\n* [Patrick Dovigi](/wiki/Patrick_Dovigi \"Patrick Dovigi\"), billionaire, founder and CEO of [GFL Environmental](/wiki/GFL_Environmental \"GFL Environmental\")\n", "### Media\n\n* [Mikey Bustos](/wiki/Mikey_Bustos \"Mikey Bustos\"), entertainer; finalist, [Canadian Idol](/wiki/Canadian_Idol \"Canadian Idol\")\n* [Jesse Carere](/wiki/Jesse_Carere \"Jesse Carere\"), actor\n* [Sergio Di Zio](/wiki/Sergio_Di_Zio \"Sergio Di Zio\"), actor\n* [Michael Enright](/wiki/Michael_Enright_%28broadcaster%29 \"Michael Enright (broadcaster)\") (honorary diploma recipient), host, [CBC Radio](/wiki/CBC_Radio \"CBC Radio\")\n* [Anthony Oliveira](/wiki/Anthony_Oliveira \"Anthony Oliveira\"), writer\n* [Michael Ontkean](/wiki/Michael_Ontkean \"Michael Ontkean\"), actor\n* [Estanislao Oziewicz](/wiki/Estanislao_Oziewicz \"Estanislao Oziewicz\"), journalist, *[The Globe and Mail](/wiki/The_Globe_and_Mail \"The Globe and Mail\")*\n", "### Politics\n\n* [Patrick Brown](/wiki/Patrick_Brown_%28Canadian_politician%29 \"Patrick Brown (Canadian politician)\"), [Mayor of Brampton](/wiki/Mayor_of_Brampton \"Mayor of Brampton\"); former [MPP](/wiki/Member_of_Provincial_Parliament_%28Canada%29 \"Member of Provincial Parliament (Canada)\"); former [Ontario Leader of the Official Opposition](/wiki/Leader_of_the_Official_Opposition_%28Ontario%29 \"Leader of the Official Opposition (Ontario)\") ([PCC](/wiki/Progressive_Conservative_Party_of_Ontario \"Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario\"))\n* [Josh Colle](/wiki/Josh_Colle \"Josh Colle\"), [Toronto City Councillor](/wiki/Toronto_City_Councillor \"Toronto City Councillor\"); [Toronto Transit Commission](/wiki/Toronto_Transit_Commission \"Toronto Transit Commission\")\n* [Michael Colle](/wiki/Michael_Colle \"Michael Colle\"), Toronto City Councillor; former [Minister of Citizenship and Immigration](/wiki/Minister_of_Citizenship_and_Immigration \"Minister of Citizenship and Immigration\")\n* [Stephen Lecce](/wiki/Stephen_Lecce \"Stephen Lecce\"), King—Vaughan [MPP](/wiki/Member_of_Provincial_Parliament_%28Ontario%29 \"Member of Provincial Parliament (Ontario)\"), [Ontario](/wiki/Ontario \"Ontario\") Minister of Education\n* [Joe Mihevc](/wiki/Joe_Mihevc \"Joe Mihevc\"), Toronto City Councillor\n* [Jaggi Singh](/wiki/Jaggi_Singh_%28activist%29 \"Jaggi Singh (activist)\"), [anarchist](/wiki/Anarchist \"Anarchist\"); [activist](/wiki/Activist \"Activist\")\n* [Michael Tibollo](/wiki/Michael_Tibollo \"Michael Tibollo\"), Vaughan—Woodbridge [MPP](/wiki/Member_of_Provincial_Parliament_%28Ontario%29 \"Member of Provincial Parliament (Ontario)\")\n", "### Law enforcement\n\n* [Myron Demkiw](/wiki/Myron_Demkiw \"Myron Demkiw\"), Chief of Police of the Toronto Police Service\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [Education in Ontario](/wiki/Education_in_Ontario \"Education in Ontario\")\n* [Conference of Independent Schools of Ontario Athletic Association](/wiki/Conference_of_Independent_Schools_of_Ontario_Athletic_Association \"Conference of Independent Schools of Ontario Athletic Association\")\n* [List of secondary schools in Ontario](/wiki/List_of_secondary_schools_in_Ontario \"List of secondary schools in Ontario\")\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n[Category:Boys' schools in Canada](/wiki/Category:Boys%27_schools_in_Canada \"Boys' schools in Canada\")\n[Category:Catholic secondary schools in Ontario](/wiki/Category:Catholic_secondary_schools_in_Ontario \"Catholic secondary schools in Ontario\")\n[Category:Catholic elementary schools in Ontario](/wiki/Category:Catholic_elementary_schools_in_Ontario \"Catholic elementary schools in Ontario\")\n[Category:High schools in Toronto](/wiki/Category:High_schools_in_Toronto \"High schools in Toronto\")\n[Category:Private schools in Toronto](/wiki/Category:Private_schools_in_Toronto \"Private schools in Toronto\")\n[Category:Toronto Catholic District School Board](/wiki/Category:Toronto_Catholic_District_School_Board \"Toronto Catholic District School Board\")\n[Category:Educational institutions established in 1852](/wiki/Category:Educational_institutions_established_in_1852 \"Educational institutions established in 1852\")\n[Category:Basilian schools](/wiki/Category:Basilian_schools \"Basilian schools\")\n[Category:1852 establishments in Canada](/wiki/Category:1852_establishments_in_Canada \"1852 establishments in Canada\")\n[Category:1852 establishments in Canada West](/wiki/Category:1852_establishments_in_Canada_West \"1852 establishments in Canada West\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 38759 ], "name": [ "MPF" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Taxonomy and systematics", "Species of Aegithinidae", "Description", "Habitat and distribution", "Behaviour and ecology", "Relationship with humans", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\nThe **ioras** are a small family, **Aegithinidae**, of four [passerine](/wiki/Passerine \"Passerine\") [bird](/wiki/Bird \"Bird\") [species](/wiki/Species \"Species\") found in south and southeast [Asia](/wiki/Asia \"Asia\"). The family is composed of a single genus, ***Aegithina***. They were formerly grouped with the [leafbirds](/wiki/Leafbird \"Leafbird\") and [fairy\\-bluebirds](/wiki/Fairy-bluebird \"Fairy-bluebird\"), in the family Irenidae.\n\n", "Taxonomy and systematics\n------------------------\n\nThe genus *Aegithina* was introduced in 1816 by the French ornithologist [Louis Pierre Vieillot](/wiki/Louis_Pierre_Vieillot \"Louis Pierre Vieillot\") to accommodate the [common iora](/wiki/Common_iora \"Common iora\"). The genus name is from [Ancient Greek](/wiki/Ancient_Greek \"Ancient Greek\") *aigithos* or *aiginthos*, a mythical bird mentioned by [Aristotle](/wiki/Aristotle \"Aristotle\") and other classical authors.\nThe common iora was described in 1758 and given the [binomial name](/wiki/Binomial_name \"Binomial name\") *Motacilla tiphia* by [Carl Linnaeus](/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus \"Carl Linnaeus\"), but there was a some confusion about the nature of bird Linnaeus was referring to. Early taxonomists considered it to variously be a warbler, flycatcher, finch or babbler. When [G. R. Gray](/wiki/G._R._Gray \"G. R. Gray\") erected the family Aegithinidae in 1869 he included a number of babbler genera in it with the ioras. [Edward Blyth](/wiki/Edward_Blyth \"Edward Blyth\"), working in the 1850s, was the first to connect the ioras with the leafbirds and fairy\\-bluebirds, and included all these with the bulbuls.\n\n### Species of Aegithinidae\n\n| Image | Common Name | Scientific name | Distribution |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [120px](/wiki/File:Common_Iora.jpg \"Common Iora.jpg\") | [Common iora](/wiki/Common_iora \"Common iora\") | *Aegithina tiphia* | Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia |\n| [120px](/wiki/File:Marshall%27s_Iora_nbr_MG_1386_GarimaBhatia.jpg \"Marshall's Iora nbr MG 1386 GarimaBhatia.jpg\") | [Marshall's iora](/wiki/Marshall%27s_iora \"Marshall's iora\") | *Aegithina nigrolutea* | India and Sri Lanka. |\n| [120px](/wiki/File:Green_Iora_%28Aegithina_viridissima%29.jpg \"Green Iora (Aegithina viridissima).jpg\") | [Green iora](/wiki/Green_iora \"Green iora\") | *Aegithina viridissima* | Thai\\-Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Borneo |\n| [120px](/wiki/File:Great_Iora_0A2A3463.jpg \"Great Iora 0A2A3463.jpg\") | [Great iora](/wiki/Great_iora \"Great iora\") | *Aegithina lafresnayei* | Cambodia, China, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam. |\n|\n\n", "### Species of Aegithinidae\n\n| Image | Common Name | Scientific name | Distribution |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [120px](/wiki/File:Common_Iora.jpg \"Common Iora.jpg\") | [Common iora](/wiki/Common_iora \"Common iora\") | *Aegithina tiphia* | Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia |\n| [120px](/wiki/File:Marshall%27s_Iora_nbr_MG_1386_GarimaBhatia.jpg \"Marshall's Iora nbr MG 1386 GarimaBhatia.jpg\") | [Marshall's iora](/wiki/Marshall%27s_iora \"Marshall's iora\") | *Aegithina nigrolutea* | India and Sri Lanka. |\n| [120px](/wiki/File:Green_Iora_%28Aegithina_viridissima%29.jpg \"Green Iora (Aegithina viridissima).jpg\") | [Green iora](/wiki/Green_iora \"Green iora\") | *Aegithina viridissima* | Thai\\-Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Borneo |\n| [120px](/wiki/File:Great_Iora_0A2A3463.jpg \"Great Iora 0A2A3463.jpg\") | [Great iora](/wiki/Great_iora \"Great iora\") | *Aegithina lafresnayei* | Cambodia, China, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam. |\n|\n\n", "Description\n-----------\n\nThe ioras are small to medium small sized passerines, ranging from in length. Overall the males are larger than the females. These are reminiscent of the [bulbuls](/wiki/Bulbul \"Bulbul\"), but whereas that group tends to be drab in colouration, the ioras are more brightly coloured. The group exhibits [sexual dimorphism](/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism \"Sexual dimorphism\") in its plumage, with the males being brightly plumaged in yellows and greens. Unlike the leafbirds, ioras have thin legs, and their bills are proportionately longer. Calls are strident whistles; songs are musical to human ears.\n\n", "Habitat and distribution\n------------------------\n\n[thumb\\|There is some evidence that Marshall's ioras may be migratory in some of their range](/wiki/File:Aegithina_nigrolutea.jpg \"Aegithina nigrolutea.jpg\")\nTheir habitats include [acacia](/wiki/Acacia \"Acacia\") scrub, forest edge, and closed forests, as well as agricultural land and (in the [common iora](/wiki/Common_iora \"Common iora\")) gardens. They are generally lowland birds, with most reaching only as high as the submontane forests. They are generally highly arboreal and usually occur in the tree canopy, with only very rare records of this family coming down to the ground. The family is overwhelmingly [non\\-migratory](/wiki/Bird_migration \"Bird migration\"), although in West India there is some evidence that [Marshall's ioras](/wiki/Marshall%27s_iora \"Marshall's iora\") and [common ioras](/wiki/Common_iora \"Common iora\") are partly migratory in the seasonal semi\\-desert fringe.\n\n", "Behaviour and ecology\n---------------------\n\nIoras eat insects and spiders, which they find by nimbly [gleaning](/wiki/Gleaning_%28birds%29 \"Gleaning (birds)\") the leaves of the slenderest outer twigs.\n\nIn the two species whose male courtship displays are known, they are elaborate, culminating in the males' parachute\\-style descent looking like \"green balls of fluff\". The nests are compact open cups felted to branches with spiderweb. Females lay 2 or 3 eggs, which have pinkish speckles and red and purple lines. They incubate at night; the males, by day. Incubation lasts about 14 days. Both parents are responsible for brooding and feeding the chicks.\n\n", "Relationship with humans\n------------------------\n\nIoras will commonly live close to humans and even lives in the suburbs of cites like [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore \"Singapore\"). They are mostly not threatened by human activities, although the [green iora](/wiki/Green_iora \"Green iora\") is listed as [near threatened](/wiki/Near_threatened \"Near threatened\") by the [IUCN](/wiki/IUCN \"IUCN\"), [habitat loss](/wiki/Habitat_loss \"Habitat loss\") being responsible for its decline. Unlike many other passerines they are not common species in the cage bird trade.\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [Iora videos, photos \\& sounds](http://ibc.lynxeds.com/family/ioras-aegithinidae) on the Internet Bird Collection\n\n[\\*](/wiki/Category:Aegithina \"Aegithina\")\n[\\*](/wiki/Category:Aegithinidae \"Aegithinidae\")\n\n[Category:Taxa named by Louis Pierre Vieillot](/wiki/Category:Taxa_named_by_Louis_Pierre_Vieillot \"Taxa named by Louis Pierre Vieillot\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 48087131 ], "name": [ "TheRevisionary" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Tristan", "Name", "In ''Le Morte d'Arthur''", "Differences between versions", "Historical roots", "The Tristan Stone", "Modern works", "See also", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n[thumb\\|*[Tristan and Isolde (Life)](/wiki/Tristan_and_Isolde_%28Life%29 \"Tristan and Isolde (Life)\")* by [Rogelio de Egusquiza](/wiki/Rogelio_de_Egusquiza \"Rogelio de Egusquiza\") (1912\\)](/wiki/File:Rogelio_de_Egusquiza_-_Trist%C3%A1n_e_Iseo_%28La_vida%29.jpg \"Rogelio de Egusquiza - Tristán e Iseo (La vida).jpg\")\n**Tristan** ([Latin](/wiki/Latin \"Latin\")/[Brythonic](/wiki/British_language_%28Celtic%29 \"British language (Celtic)\"): *Drustanus*; ), also known as **Tristram**, **Tristyn** or **Tristain** and similar names, is the [folk hero](/wiki/Folk_hero \"Folk hero\") of the legend of [Tristan and Iseult](/wiki/Tristan_and_Iseult \"Tristan and Iseult\"). In the legend, his objective is escorting the Irish princess [Iseult](/wiki/Iseult \"Iseult\") to wed Tristan's uncle, King [Mark of Cornwall](/wiki/Mark_of_Cornwall \"Mark of Cornwall\"). Tristan and Iseult accidentally drink a [love potion](/wiki/Love_potion \"Love potion\") during the journey and fall in love, beginning an adulterous relationship that eventually leads to Tristan's banishment and death. The character's first recorded appearance is in retellings of British mythology from the 12th century by [Thomas of Britain](/wiki/Thomas_of_Britain \"Thomas of Britain\") and [Gottfried von Strassburg](/wiki/Gottfried_von_Strassburg \"Gottfried von Strassburg\"), and later in the [Prose *Tristan*](/wiki/Prose_Tristan \"Prose Tristan\"). He is featured in [Arthurian legends](/wiki/Arthurian_legends \"Arthurian legends\"), including the seminal text *[Le Morte d'Arthur](/wiki/Le_Morte_d%27Arthur \"Le Morte d'Arthur\")*, as a skilled knight and a friend of [Lancelot](/wiki/Lancelot \"Lancelot\"). He is also a [Knight of the Round Table](/wiki/Knight_of_the_Round_Table \"Knight of the Round Table\").\n\nThe historical roots of Tristan are unclear; his association with Cornwall may originate from the Tristan Stone, a 6th\\-century granite pillar in Cornwall inscribed with the name *Drustanus* (a variant of *Tristan*). He has been depicted in numerous historical and modern works of literature, music, and cinema.\n\n", "Tristan\n-------\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\|left\\|\"Tristain's\" [attributed arms](/wiki/Attributed_arms \"Attributed arms\")](/wiki/File:Hb-tristain.jpg \"Hb-tristain.jpg\")\n\nIn the story of [Tristan and Iseult](/wiki/Tristan_and_Iseult \"Tristan and Iseult\"), Tristan is the nephew of King [Mark of Cornwall](/wiki/Mark_of_Cornwall \"Mark of Cornwall\"), sent to fetch [Iseult](/wiki/Iseult \"Iseult\") from [Ireland](/wiki/Celtic_Ireland \"Celtic Ireland\") to wed the king. He and Iseult accidentally consume a love potion while en route and fall helplessly in love with each other. The pair then undergoes numerous trials that test their secret affair, before the tragic end.[Heckel, N.M., \"Tristan and Isolt\", The Camelot Project, University of Rochester](https://d.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/theme/tristanisolt)\n\nTristan made his first recorded appearance in the 12th century in British mythology circulating in the north of [France](/wiki/France \"France\") and the [Kingdom of Brittany](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Brittany \"Kingdom of Brittany\"), which had close ancestral and cultural links with [Wales](/wiki/Wales \"Wales\"), [Cornwall](/wiki/Cornwall \"Cornwall\") and [Devon](/wiki/Devon \"Devon\") by way of the ancient British kingdom of [Dumnonia](/wiki/Dumnonia \"Dumnonia\"), as made clear in the story itself, and the closely related [Cornish](/wiki/Cornish_language \"Cornish language\") and [Breton](/wiki/Breton_language \"Breton language\") languages, both of which are [P\\-Celtic](/wiki/P-Celtic \"P-Celtic\") like [Welsh](/wiki/Welsh_language \"Welsh language\"). Although the oldest stories concerning Tristan are lost, some of the derivatives still exist. \n\nMost early versions fall into one of two branches: the \"courtly\" branch represented in the retellings in [Thomas of Britain](/wiki/Thomas_of_Britain \"Thomas of Britain\")'s *Tristan* and his [German](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\") successor [Gottfried von Strassburg](/wiki/Gottfried_von_Strassburg \"Gottfried von Strassburg\"), and in the *[Folie Tristan d'Oxford](/wiki/Folie_Tristan_d%27Oxford \"Folie Tristan d'Oxford\")*; and the \"common\" branch, including the works of [medieval French literature](/wiki/Medieval_French_literature \"Medieval French literature\"). \n\n[Arthurian](/wiki/Arthurian \"Arthurian\") romancer [Chrétien de Troyes](/wiki/Chr%C3%A9tien_de_Troyes \"Chrétien de Troyes\") mentioned in his poem *[Cligès](/wiki/Clig%C3%A8s \"Cligès\")* that he composed his own account of the story; however, there are no surviving copies or records of any such text. In the 13th century, during the great period of prose [romances](/wiki/Romance_%28heroic_literature%29 \"Romance (heroic literature)\"), *Tristan en prose* or [Prose *Tristan*](/wiki/Prose_Tristan \"Prose Tristan\") became one of the most popular romances of its time. This long, sprawling, and often [lyrical](/wiki/Lyrical_abstraction \"Lyrical abstraction\") work (the modern edition takes up thirteen volumes) follows Tristan from the traditional legend into the realm of [King Arthur](/wiki/King_Arthur \"King Arthur\") where Tristan participates in the [Quest](/wiki/Quest \"Quest\") for the [Holy Grail](/wiki/Holy_Grail \"Holy Grail\"). Its great success spawned many [Italian](/wiki/Italians \"Italians\") (such as the *[Tavola Ritonda](/wiki/Tavola_Ritonda \"Tavola Ritonda\")*) and other rewrites. Among these was the French [Post\\-Vulgate Cycle](/wiki/Post-Vulgate_Cycle \"Post-Vulgate Cycle\") that combined it with a shortened version of the [Vulgate Cycle](/wiki/Vulgate_Cycle \"Vulgate Cycle\"), elements of which itself had been earlier used in the Prose *Tristan*.\n\n", "Name\n----\n\nThe ancient [Brittonic](/wiki/Brittonic_languages \"Brittonic languages\") name *Tristan* appears to mean \"clanking swords of iron\". The more recent [Romance languages](/wiki/Romance_languages \"Romance languages\") version, including [French](/wiki/French_language \"French language\"), has been [paretymologically](/wiki/Paretymology \"Paretymology\") associated with \"sadness\" (compare [Latin](/wiki/Latin \"Latin\") *tristis* \"sad\", Old [French](/wiki/French_language \"French language\") *triste* \"sad\"). In [Gottfried von Strassburg](/wiki/Gottfried_von_Strassburg \"Gottfried von Strassburg\")'s *Tristan*, when his mother, Blanschfleur, learns that her husband has been killed in battle, she dies in childbirth. The orphaned baby is named \"Tristan\" because of the sorrowful circumstances of his birth. \n\nThe quasi\\-historical, semi\\-legendary *[Pictish Chronicle](/wiki/Pictish_Chronicle \"Pictish Chronicle\")* (probably late 10th century) presents several ancient [Pictish](/wiki/Pictish \"Pictish\") kings by the name of *Drest* or *[Drust](/wiki/Drest_%28disambiguation%29 \"Drest (disambiguation)\")*. The [Picts](/wiki/Picts \"Picts\") are believed to have lived in present\\-day [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland \"Scotland\") far to the northwest of [Cornwall](/wiki/Cornwall \"Cornwall\"). The form *Drustanus* is merely *Drust* or hypocoristic *Drustan* rendered into [Latin](/wiki/Latin \"Latin\"). The name may have originated with an ancient legend regarding a [Pictish king](/wiki/Pictish_king \"Pictish king\") who slew a giant in the distant past, which had spread throughout the [Isles](/wiki/British_Isles \"British Isles\"), it may come from a 6th\\-century Pictish saint [Drostan](/wiki/Drostan \"Drostan\") who bore another form of the name, or it may have migrated northwards from the southwest due to the fame of the legends of [Arthur](/wiki/Arthur \"Arthur\"). There was a Tristan who bore witness to a legal document at the [Swabian](/wiki/Swabia \"Swabia\") [Abbey of Saint Gall](/wiki/Abbey_of_Saint_Gall \"Abbey of Saint Gall\") in 807\\.\n\nThe philologist [Sigmund Eisner](/wiki/Sigmund_Eisner_%28academic%29 \"Sigmund Eisner (academic)\") came to the conclusion that the name *Tristan* comes from Drust, son of [Talorc](/wiki/Talorg_%28disambiguation%29 \"Talorg (disambiguation)\"). This Drust is probably otherwise unknown to us, because the sons of Pictish kings never became kings themselves. According to Eisner, the legend of Tristan as we know it was gathered together by an author living in [North Britain](/wiki/North_Britain \"North Britain\") around the early 8th century and associated with early Celtic [monasticism](/wiki/Monasticism \"Monasticism\"). Eisner explains that Irish monks of this time would have been familiar with the Greek and Roman narratives that the legend borrows from, such as [Pyramus and Thisbe](/wiki/Pyramus_and_Thisbe \"Pyramus and Thisbe\"). They would also have been familiar with the [Celtic](/wiki/Celtic_mythology \"Celtic mythology\") elements of the story such as in *[The Pursuit of Diarmuid and Gráinne](/wiki/The_Pursuit_of_Diarmuid_and_Gr%C3%A1inne \"The Pursuit of Diarmuid and Gráinne\")*. Eisner concludes that \"the author of the Tristan story used the names and some of the local traditions of his own recent past. To these figures he attached adventures which had been handed down from [Roman](/wiki/Roman_mythology \"Roman mythology\") and [Greek mythology](/wiki/Greek_mythology \"Greek mythology\"). He lived in the north of Britain, was associated with a monastery, and started the first rendition of the Tristan story on its travels to wherever it has been found.\"\n\n", "In *Le Morte d'Arthur*\n----------------------\n\n[Thomas Malory](/wiki/Thomas_Malory \"Thomas Malory\") later shortened and incorporated the Prose *Tristan* into his own English\\-language *The Book of Sir Tristram de Lyones* (*The Fyrste and the Secunde Boke of Syr Trystrams de Lyones*), a part of *[Le Morte d'Arthur](/wiki/Le_Morte_d%27Arthur \"Le Morte d'Arthur\")* in which Tristan (Tristram) plays the role of a counter\\-hero to [Lancelot](/wiki/Lancelot \"Lancelot\"). Of all the knights, Tristram most resembles Lancelot as he too loves a queen, the wife of another. Tristan is even considered to be as strong and able a knight as Lancelot, including the fulfillment of [Merlin](/wiki/Merlin \"Merlin\")'s prophecy for the two of them to engage in the greatest duel between any knights before or after, although neither kills the other and they become beloved friends. \"\\[T]he depiction of their chivalric prowess eclipses, for large sections of the narratives, their love for their respective queens.\"[Hasty, Will. *A Companion to Gottfried Von Strassburg's \"Tristan\"*, Camden House, 2003, p.11](https://books.google.com/books?id=P0xHJws5adUC&dq=Tristan&pg=PA87) His other friends and companions include [Dinadan](/wiki/Dinadan \"Dinadan\") and [Lamorak](/wiki/Lamorak \"Lamorak\").\n\nIn Malory's telling, following the Prose *Tristan*, the mother of Tristan, Queen Elizabeth, dies during childbirth while desperately searching for his father King [Meliodas](/wiki/Meliodas \"Meliodas\") after he was kidnapped by an enchantress (of a fairy kind in the original, unspecified by Malory) to be her lover. The young Tristan meets and falls in love with Isolde (Iseult) early on. His uncle, King Mark, jealous of Tristan and seeking to undermine him, seeks marriage to Isolde for just such a hateful purpose, going so far as to ask Tristram to go and seek her hand on his behalf (which Tristran, understanding that to be his knightly duty, does). Because of Mark's treacherous behaviour, Tristran takes Isolde from him and lives with her for some time in Lancelot's castle [Joyous Gard](/wiki/Joyous_Gard \"Joyous Gard\"), but he then returns Isolde to Mark. Nonetheless, Mark ends up ambushing and mortally injuring Tristram while he is harping (Tristan is noted in the book as one of the greatest of musicians and falconers), using a lance that had been given to him by the vengeful enchantress [Morgan](/wiki/Morgan_le_Fay \"Morgan le Fay\"), whose lover had been slain by Tristan.\n\n", "Differences between versions\n----------------------------\n\n[Thomas of Britain](/wiki/Thomas_of_Britain \"Thomas of Britain\") draws on the *[Roman de Brut](/wiki/Roman_de_Brut \"Roman de Brut\")* for historical details, and follows its example in matters of style.Foulon, Charles (1959]. \"Wace\", *Arthurian Literature in the Middle Ages*. (Loomis, Roger Sherman, ed.) Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 102–103\\. Gottfried draws more on the learned tradition of medieval humanism than on the chivalric ethos shared by his literary contemporaries. \n\nTristan was originally the son of Queen [Blancheflor](/wiki/Blancheflor \"Blancheflor\") and King Rivalen. In later versions since the Prose *Tristan*, his parents are Queen Isabelle (Malory's Elizabeth, known as Eliabel or Eliabella in Italy) and King Meliodas of [Lyonesse](/wiki/Lyonesse \"Lyonesse\").\n\nAt the end of Joseph Bedier's *The Romance of Tristan and Iseult,* a pair of flowers grow over the graves of Tristan and Iseult.\n\n", "Historical roots\n----------------\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\|Scenes from the story of Tristan on 13th\\-century tiles from [Chertsey Abbey](/wiki/Chertsey_Abbey \"Chertsey Abbey\")](/wiki/File:Tristram_tiles_British_Museum.jpg \"Tristram tiles British Museum.jpg\")\n[Béroul](/wiki/B%C3%A9roul \"Béroul\")'s Norman French *Romance of Tristan and Iseult*, possibly the earliest extant version,\n\n is notable for its very specific geographical locations in Cornwall. Another strange aspect is Tristan's home\\-kingdom, [Lyonesse](/wiki/Lyonesse \"Lyonesse\"), for whose existence there is no evidence. However, there were two places called *[Leonais](/wiki/Leonais \"Leonais\")*: one in [Brittany](/wiki/Brittany \"Brittany\"), the other the [Old French](/wiki/Old_French \"Old French\") transcription of [Lothian](/wiki/Lothian \"Lothian\"). Regardless, Tristan being a prince of Lothian would make his name more sensible, Lothian being on the borderlands of the Pictish High\\-Kingship (and once a part of Pictish territory; Tristan may in fact have been a Pictish prince under a British king). There are also records of a Turstan Crectune, whose name gave the Lothian village of [Crichton](/wiki/Crichton%2C_Midlothian \"Crichton, Midlothian\") its name. King [David I of Scotland](/wiki/David_I_of_Scotland \"David I of Scotland\") granted lands to Turstan Crectune in 1128\\. One other suggestion sees Tristan as adopted into the family of Mark of Cornwall – a historical practice attested in Roman law.\n\n", "The Tristan Stone\n-----------------\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|The Tristan Stone in 2008\\|alt\\=\\|270x270px](/wiki/File:The_Tristan_Stone_by_A3082_Fowey_-_geograph.org.uk_-_800074.jpg \"The Tristan Stone by A3082 Fowey - geograph.org.uk - 800074.jpg\")\n\nPossible evidence for his roots in [South West England](/wiki/South_West_England \"South West England\") is the 6th\\-century inscribed granite pillar known as *The Tristan Stone*, or *The Longstone* (, meaning *long stone*), set beside the road leading to [Fowey](/wiki/Fowey \"Fowey\") in Cornwall. It measures some 2\\.13 m (7 feet) in height and has been set in a modern concrete base. Until the 1980s it was in its original position some yards from the coastal road in a field near the turn down to the small harbour of [Polkerris](/wiki/Polkerris \"Polkerris\"). It was then closer to [Castle Dore](/wiki/Castle_Dore \"Castle Dore\") and may have been the origin of the association of this site with the story of the tragic love of Tristan and Iseult. There is a [Tau cross](/wiki/Tau_cross \"Tau cross\") on one side and a Latin inscription on the other side, now much worn, reading:[Megalithic Portal](http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=8342)\n\n> *DRVSTANVS HIC IACIT* \n> *CVNOMORI FILIVS* \n> \n> \\[*Drustanus lies here, son of Cunomorus*]\n\n[thumb\\|The stone's history plaque\\|alt\\=\\|180x180px](/wiki/File:Plaque_detailing_the_history_of_the_Tristan_Stone_-_geograph.org.uk_-_800076.jpg \"Plaque detailing the history of the Tristan Stone - geograph.org.uk - 800076.jpg\")\n\nIt has been suggested, and is confidently asserted on the plaque by the stone, that the characters referred to are Tristan, of which Drustan is a variant and Cynvawr Latinized to Cunomorus. Cynvawr, in turn, is said by the 9th\\-century author [Nennius](/wiki/Nennius \"Nennius\"), who compiled an early pseudo\\-historical account of King Arthur, to be identified with King Mark known in alias 'QVONOMORVS'. Around 1540, [John Leland](/wiki/John_Leland_%28antiquary%29 \"John Leland (antiquary)\") recorded a third line now missing: CVM DOMINA OUSILLA ('with the lady Ousilla': Ousilla is conceivably a latinisation of the Cornish *Eselt*), but missed the badly weathered first line ('DRUSTANVS HIC IACIT') which has led [Craig Weatherhill](/wiki/Craig_Weatherhill \"Craig Weatherhill\") to speculate that this third line could have been lost by stone fracture,[Craig Weatherhill](/wiki/Craig_Weatherhill \"Craig Weatherhill\"), *Cornovia, Ancient sites of Cornwall \\& Scilly 4000 BC – 1000 AD* Halsgrove, Wellington, 2009 p. 88\\. but which has also led Goulven Peron to propose to see 'OUSILLA' as a particular reading of 'DRUSTANVS'.Goulven Peron, *Tristan et Yseut ont\\-ils existé ?* Publication de l'Observatoire Zetetique 77, 2013 [http://www.zetetique.fr/index.php/nl/454\\-poz\\-nd77\\#DossierTristan](http://www.zetetique.fr/index.php/nl/454-poz-nd77#DossierTristan) (fr) ; see also, by the same author and on the same subject (the names DRUSTANUS and OUSILLA on the Long Stone of Fowey) : *L'origine du roman de Tristan*, Bulletin de la Société Archéologique du Finistère, CXLIII, 2015, pp. 351–370 <https://www.academia.edu/32869336/Lorigine_du_roman_de_Tristan> (fr). \n\n", "Modern works\n------------\n\n* From 1857 to 1859, [Richard Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner \"Richard Wagner\") composed the opera *[Tristan und Isolde](/wiki/Tristan_und_Isolde \"Tristan und Isolde\")*, now considered one of the most influential pieces of music of the 19th century. In his work, Tristan is portrayed as a doomed romantic figure.\n* *[I due Tristani](/wiki/I_due_Tristani \"I due Tristani\")* (\"The Two Tristans\") was a 1555 adaptation of the Spanish *Don Tristan de Leonis*, featured Tristram's son (\"[Tristram the Younger](/wiki/Tristan_the_Younger \"Tristan the Younger\")\"), and emphasized romantic themes \\- following a trend of interest in more sentimental novels.\n* [Algernon Charles Swinburne](/wiki/Algernon_Charles_Swinburne \"Algernon Charles Swinburne\") published the epic poem *[Tristram of Lyonesse](/wiki/Tristram_of_Lyonesse \"Tristram of Lyonesse\")* in 1882\\.\n* The legend of Tristan has been represented through the song of the same name by English singer\\-songwriter [Patrick Wolf](/wiki/Patrick_Wolf \"Patrick Wolf\"), and was the lead single from his 2005 album, *Wind in the Wires*.\n* Tristan plays a prominent role in the comic book series *[Camelot 3000](/wiki/Camelot_3000 \"Camelot 3000\")*, in which he is [reincarnated](/wiki/Reincarnation \"Reincarnation\") in the year 3000, as a woman and subsequently struggles to come to terms with his new body, sexuality, and identity, reconciling them in turn with his previous notions of gender roles.\n* In 1983, Russian composer [Nikita Koshkin](/wiki/Nikita_Koshkin \"Nikita Koshkin\") wrote a classical guitar solo entitled \"Tristan Playing the Lute\", evoking the spirit of Tristan from the legend of \"Tristan and Isolde\", initially set in a playful adaptation of traditional English [lute](/wiki/Lute \"Lute\") music.\n* In *[The Warlord Chronicles](/wiki/The_Warlord_Chronicles \"The Warlord Chronicles\")* novel series by [Bernard Cornwell](/wiki/Bernard_Cornwell \"Bernard Cornwell\"), Tristan is the young heir to Kernow and the son of King Mark. He is the best friend of the protagonist [Derfel Cadarn](/wiki/Derfel_Cadarn \"Derfel Cadarn\") and a loyal ally of Arthur. Eventually, however, in an agonising decision for the sake of peace and out of his deep belief in royal legitimacy, Arthur betrays Tristan and Iseault when they seek refuge and leaves them to be killed by King Mark.\n* In the 2004 film, *[King Arthur](/wiki/King_Arthur_%282004_film%29 \"King Arthur (2004 film)\")*, based on the [Sarmatian connection](/wiki/Historical_basis_for_King_Arthur%23Lucius_Artorius_Castus_and_the_Sarmatian_connection \"Historical basis for King Arthur#Lucius Artorius Castus and the Sarmatian connection\") theory of origin for the Arthurian legends, Tristan ([Mads Mikkelsen](/wiki/Mads_Mikkelsen \"Mads Mikkelsen\")) is a prominent member of the knights, who are [Sarmatians](/wiki/Sarmatians \"Sarmatians\") serving under a half\\-Roman Arthur in the 5th century. Tristan is a cavalry archer, able to make amazing shots with his [Parthian](/wiki/Parthia \"Parthia\")/[Eurasian](/wiki/Eurasian_nomads \"Eurasian nomads\")\\-style reflex composite bow. He uses a [Chinese sword](/wiki/Chinese_sword \"Chinese sword\") and holds true to the style, armour, and weapons, of a Sarmatian mounted archer. After many injuries, he dies a heroic death at the hand of the Saxon king [Cerdic](/wiki/Cerdic_of_Wessex \"Cerdic of Wessex\") in single combat at the [Battle of Badon Hill](/wiki/Battle_of_Mons_Badonicus \"Battle of Mons Badonicus\").\n* The 2006 film *[Tristan \\& Isolde](/wiki/Tristan_%26_Isolde_%28film%29 \"Tristan & Isolde (film)\")* starred [James Franco](/wiki/James_Franco \"James Franco\") as Tristan, [Thomas Sangster](/wiki/Thomas_Sangster \"Thomas Sangster\") as the child Tristan and [Sophia Myles](/wiki/Sophia_Myles \"Sophia Myles\") as Isolde, written by Dean Georgaris and directed by [Kevin Reynolds](/wiki/Kevin_Reynolds_%28director%29 \"Kevin Reynolds (director)\").\n* The 2008 TV show *[Merlin](/wiki/Merlin_%28TV_series%29 \"Merlin (TV series)\")* depicts Tristan and his partner Isolde as smugglers in the Season 4 finale \"The Sword in the Stone\" parts 1 \\& 2\\. They help Arthur, Merlin, and the Knights regain Camelot after Morgana takes over. In the end, Isolde is killed by Helios, Morgana's henchman, but nothing is said of what happens with Tristan.\n* In the manga series *[Four Knights of the Apocalypse](/wiki/Four_Knights_of_the_Apocalypse \"Four Knights of the Apocalypse\")*, Tristan is one of the titular knights, son of Meliodas and Elizabeth of Liones.\n* Tristan is also a playable character in the mobile game *[Fate/Grand Order](/wiki/Fate/Grand_Order \"Fate/Grand Order\")* as an Archer class Servant who uses a harp as his bow.\n* In [Guy Ritchie](/wiki/Guy_Ritchie \"Guy Ritchie\")'s 2017 film *[King Arthur: Legend of the Sword](/wiki/King_Arthur:Legend_of_the_Sword \"Legend of the Sword\")*, [Kingsley Ben\\-Adir](/wiki/Kingsley_Ben-Adir \"Kingsley Ben-Adir\") plays Wet Stick, Arthur and Back Lack's childhood friend; who is later knighted by Bedivere under his real name as Sir Tristan.\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [Auchinleck manuscript](/wiki/Auchinleck_manuscript \"Auchinleck manuscript\")\n* [Palamedes](/wiki/Palamedes_%28Arthurian_legend%29 \"Palamedes (Arthurian legend)\")\n* [Medieval hunting](/wiki/Medieval_hunting%23Terminology \"Medieval hunting#Terminology\") (terminology)\n* [Tristram the Younger](/wiki/Tristram_the_Younger \"Tristram the Younger\")\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [Transcription and page images of the Auchinleck manuscript](https://web.archive.org/web/20070927004148/http://www.nls.uk/auchinleck/index.html)\n* [Bibliography of Modern Tristaniana in English](http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/trisbib.htm)\n* [Béroul's *Le Roman de Tristan*](http://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Tristan_(B%C3%A9roul))\n* [Thomas d'Angleterre's *Tristan*](http://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Tristan_(Thomas_d'Angleterre))\n* [Modern English verse translation of Gottfried von Strassburg's *Tristan*](http://stavenhagen.net)\n* [*Sir Tristrem*](https://reflection.eleusinianm.co.uk/medieval-literature/white-book-of-mottistone/sir-tristrem) translated and retold in modern English prose, the story from Edinburgh, National Library of Scotland MS Advocates 19\\.2\\.1 (the Auchinleck MS) (translated and retold from University of Rochester, Middle English Text Series – Texts Online: Middle English from Alan Lupack (Ed), 1994, *Lancelot of the Laik and Sir Tristrem*, Medieval Institute Publications for TEAMS).\n\n[Category:Arthurian characters](/wiki/Category:Arthurian_characters \"Arthurian characters\")\n[Category:Knights of the Round Table](/wiki/Category:Knights_of_the_Round_Table \"Knights of the Round Table\")\n[Category:Medieval French romances](/wiki/Category:Medieval_French_romances \"Medieval French romances\")\n[\\*Tristan](/wiki/Category:Tristan_and_Iseult \"Tristan and Iseult\")\n[Category:People from fictional European countries](/wiki/Category:People_from_fictional_European_countries \"People from fictional European countries\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 44857 ], "name": [ "Aoi" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Science", "Ships", "Other uses" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n**Akebono** is a Japanese word meaning *dawn* or the color of the sky at dawn. It may refer to:\n\n", "Science\n-------\n\n* [*Akebono* (fly)](/wiki/Akebono_%28fly%29 \"Akebono (fly)\"), a fly genus in the family [Sciomyzidae](/wiki/Sciomyzidae \"Sciomyzidae\") or Phaeomyiidae\n* [Akebono (satellite)](/wiki/Akebono_%28satellite%29 \"Akebono (satellite)\"), a magnetosphere observation satellite\n", "Ships\n-----\n\n* *[Akebono Maru](/wiki/Akebono_Maru \"Akebono Maru\")*, several ships\n* [Japanese destroyer *Akebono*](/wiki/Japanese_destroyer_Akebono \"Japanese destroyer Akebono\"), several ships of the Imperial Japanese Navy and the Japanese Maritime Self\\-Defense Force\n", "Other uses\n----------\n\n* [*Akebono* (train)](/wiki/Akebono_%28train%29 \"Akebono (train)\"), a sleeping\\-car train in Japan\n* [Akebono Brake Industry](/wiki/Akebono_Brake_Industry \"Akebono Brake Industry\"), a Japanese manufacturer\n* [Akebono scale](/wiki/Akebono_scale \"Akebono scale\"), a common scale used in Japanese music\n* [Akebono Tarō](/wiki/Akebono_Tar%C5%8D \"Akebono Tarō\") (1969\\-2024\\), sumo wrestler and professional wrestler\n* [Kimura Akebono](/wiki/Kimura_Akebono \"Kimura Akebono\") (1872–1890\\), Japanese novelist\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 10951369 ], "name": [ "Onel5969" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Design", "Modifications", "Service history", "Atlantic operations", "Pacific operations", "Guadalcanal campaign", "Naval Battle of Guadalcanal", "Later operations", "Gilberts and Marshall Islands campaign", "Mariana and Palau Islands campaign", "Philippines campaign", "Battle of Leyte Gulf", "Later operations", "Iwo Jima and Okinawa campaigns", "Post-war", "Footnotes", "Notes", "Citations", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 3, 2, 3, 3, 4, 5, 5, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 4, 3, 2, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n* + - * + - * + - * + - * + **USS *Washington* (BB\\-56\\)** was the second and final member of the of [fast battleships](/wiki/Fast_battleship \"Fast battleship\"), the first vessel of the type built for the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\"). Built under the [Washington Treaty system](/wiki/Washington_Naval_Treaty \"Washington Naval Treaty\"), *North Carolina*s design was [limited in displacement and armament](/wiki/Treaty_battleship \"Treaty battleship\"), though the United States used a clause in the [Second London Naval Treaty](/wiki/Second_London_Naval_Treaty \"Second London Naval Treaty\") to increase the main battery from the original armament of nine guns to nine guns. The ship was [laid down](/wiki/Keel_laying \"Keel laying\") in 1938 and completed in May 1941, while the United States was still neutral during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). Her initial career was spent training along the [East Coast of the United States](/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States \"East Coast of the United States\") until Japan [attacked Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor \"Attack on Pearl Harbor\") on 7 December 1941, bringing the United States into the war.\n\n*Washington* was initially deployed to Britain to reinforce the [Home Fleet](/wiki/Home_Fleet \"Home Fleet\"), which was tasked with protecting [convoys](/wiki/Convoy \"Convoy\") carrying supplies to the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\"). She saw no action during this period, as the German fleet remained in port, and *Washington* was recalled to the US in July 1942 to be refitted and transferred to the Pacific. Immediately sent to the south Pacific to reinforce Allied units fighting the [Guadalcanal campaign](/wiki/Guadalcanal_campaign \"Guadalcanal campaign\"), the ship became the [flagship](/wiki/Flagship \"Flagship\") of Rear Admiral [Willis Lee](/wiki/Willis_Lee \"Willis Lee\"). She saw action at the [Naval Battle of Guadalcanal](/wiki/Naval_Battle_of_Guadalcanal \"Naval Battle of Guadalcanal\") on the night of 14–15 November in company with the battleship and four destroyers. After *South Dakota* inadvertently drew heavy Japanese fire by sailing too closely to Admiral [Nobutake Kondō](/wiki/Nobutake_Kond%C5%8D \"Nobutake Kondō\")'s squadron, *Washington* took advantage of the Japanese preoccupation with *South Dakota* to inflict fatal damage on the Japanese battleship and the destroyer , while avoiding damage herself. *Washington*s attack disrupted Kondō's planned bombardment of [U.S. Marine](/wiki/USMC \"USMC\") positions on [Guadalcanal](/wiki/Guadalcanal \"Guadalcanal\") and forced the remaining Japanese ships to withdraw.\n\nFrom 1943 onward, she was primarily occupied with screening the [fast carrier task force](/wiki/Fast_carrier_task_force \"Fast carrier task force\"), though she also occasionally shelled Japanese positions in support of the various [amphibious assaults](/wiki/Amphibious_assault \"Amphibious assault\"). During this period, *Washington* participated in the [Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign](/wiki/Gilbert_and_Marshall_Islands_campaign \"Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign\") in late 1943 and early 1944, the [Mariana and Palau Islands campaign](/wiki/Mariana_and_Palau_Islands_campaign \"Mariana and Palau Islands campaign\") in mid\\-1944, and the [Philippines campaign](/wiki/Philippines_campaign_%281944%E2%80%931945%29 \"Philippines campaign (1944–1945)\") in late 1944 and early 1945\\. Operations to capture [Iwo Jima](/wiki/Iwo_Jima \"Iwo Jima\") and [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island \"Okinawa Island\") followed in 1945, and during the later stages of the [Battle of Okinawa](/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa \"Battle of Okinawa\"), *Washington* was detached to undergo an overhaul, though by the time it was completed, [Japan had surrendered](/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan \"Surrender of Japan\"), ending the war. *Washington* then moved to the east coast of the US, where she was refitted to serve as a troop transport as part of [Operation Magic Carpet](/wiki/Operation_Magic_Carpet \"Operation Magic Carpet\"), carrying a group of over 1,600 soldiers home from Britain. She was thereafter [decommissioned](/wiki/Ship_commissioning \"Ship commissioning\") in 1947 and assigned to the [Atlantic Reserve Fleet](/wiki/Atlantic_Reserve_Fleet \"Atlantic Reserve Fleet\"), where she remained until 1960 when she was stricken from the [naval register](/wiki/Naval_register \"Naval register\") and sold for [scrap](/wiki/Scrap \"Scrap\") the next year.\n\n", "Design\n------\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|Recognition drawing of the *North Carolina* class](/wiki/File:North_Carolina_class_battleship_recognition_drawings.jpg \"North Carolina class battleship recognition drawings.jpg\")\n\nThe *North Carolina* class was the first new battleship design built under the [Washington Naval Treaty](/wiki/Washington_Naval_Treaty \"Washington Naval Treaty\") system; her design was bound by the terms of the [Second London Naval Treaty](/wiki/Second_London_Naval_Treaty \"Second London Naval Treaty\") of 1936, which added a restriction on her [main battery](/wiki/Main_battery \"Main battery\") of guns no larger than . The [General Board](/wiki/General_Board_of_the_United_States_Navy \"General Board of the United States Navy\") evaluated a number of designs ranging from traditional battleships akin to the [\"standard\" series](/wiki/Standard-type_battleship \"Standard-type battleship\") or [fast battleships](/wiki/Fast_battleship \"Fast battleship\"), and ultimately a fast battleship armed with twelve 14\\-inch guns was selected. After the ships were authorized, however, the United States invoked the escalator clause in the treaty that allowed an increase to guns in the event that any member nation refused to sign the treaty, which Japan refused to do.\n\n*Washington* was [long overall](/wiki/Length_overall \"Length overall\") and had a [beam](/wiki/Beam_%28nautical%29 \"Beam (nautical)\") of and a [draft](/wiki/Draft_%28nautical%29 \"Draft (nautical)\") of . Her [standard displacement](/wiki/Standard_displacement \"Standard displacement\") amounted to and increased to at [full combat load](/wiki/Full-load_displacement \"Full-load displacement\"). The ship was powered by four [General Electric](/wiki/General_Electric \"General Electric\") [steam turbines](/wiki/Steam_turbines \"Steam turbines\"), each driving one propeller shaft, using steam provided by eight oil\\-fired [Babcock \\& Wilcox boilers](/wiki/Babcock_%26_Wilcox_boiler \"Babcock & Wilcox boiler\"). Rated at , the turbines were intended to give a top speed of . The ship had a cruising range of at a speed of . She carried three [Vought OS2U Kingfisher](/wiki/Vought_OS2U_Kingfisher \"Vought OS2U Kingfisher\") [floatplanes](/wiki/Floatplane \"Floatplane\") for aerial reconnaissance, which were launched by a pair of [aircraft catapults](/wiki/Aircraft_catapult \"Aircraft catapult\") on her [fantail](/wiki/Fantail_%28ship%29 \"Fantail (ship)\"). Her peace\\-time crew numbered 1,800 officers and enlisted men, but the crew swelled to 99 officers and 2,035 enlisted during the war.\n\n[thumb\\|Illustration of *North Carolina*s main battery turret and barbette structure](/wiki/File:16in_Gun_Turret.jpg \"16in Gun Turret.jpg\")\nThe ship was armed with a main battery of nine [16 in /45 caliber Mark 6 guns](/wiki/16%22/45_caliber_Mark_6_gun \"16\") guns in three triple\\-[gun turrets](/wiki/Gun_turret \"Gun turret\") on the centerline, two of which were placed in a [superfiring pair](/wiki/Superfire \"Superfire\") forward, with the third aft. The [secondary battery](/wiki/Secondary_armament \"Secondary armament\") consisted of twenty [ /38 caliber](/wiki/5%22/38_caliber_gun \"5\") [dual purpose guns](/wiki/Dual_purpose_gun \"Dual purpose gun\") mounted in twin turrets clustered [amidships](/wiki/Amidships \"Amidships\"), five turrets on either side. As designed, the ship was equipped with an anti\\-aircraft battery of sixteen guns and eighteen .50\\-caliber (12\\.7 mm) [M2 Browning](/wiki/M2_Browning \"M2 Browning\") machine guns, but her anti\\-aircraft battery was expanded greatly during her career.\n\nThe main [armored belt](/wiki/Armored_belt \"Armored belt\") was thick, while the main armored deck was up to thick. The main battery gun turrets had thick faces, and they were mounted atop [barbettes](/wiki/Barbette \"Barbette\") that were protected with the same thickness of steel. The [conning tower](/wiki/Conning_tower \"Conning tower\") had thick sides. The ship's armor layout had been designed with opponents equipped with 14\\-inch guns in mind, but since the treaty system broke down just before construction began, her design could not be revised to improve the scale of protection to defend against heavier guns. Despite this shortcoming, the *North Carolina* class proved to be more successful battleships than the better\\-armored but very cramped .\n\n### Modifications\n\n*Washington* received a number of upgrades over the course of her career, primarily consisting of radar and a new light anti\\-aircraft battery. The ship received three Mark 3 [fire\\-control radar](/wiki/Fire-control_radar \"Fire-control radar\") sets for the main battery, four Mark 4 radars for the secondary guns, a [CXAM air\\-search radar](/wiki/CXAM_radar \"CXAM radar\"), and an SG [surface\\-search radar](/wiki/Early-warning_radar \"Early-warning radar\"). During her early 1944 refit, she received an SK air\\-search radar in place of the CXAM and a second SG radar; her Mark 3 radars were replaced with more advanced Mark 8 sets, though she retained one of the Mark 3s as a backup. Her Mark 4 radars were later replaced with a combination of Mark 12 and Mark 22 sets. In her final refit in August and September 1945, she had an SK radar forward, an SR air\\-search set aft, and an SG radar in both positions. A TDY [jammer](/wiki/Radar_jamming_and_deception \"Radar jamming and deception\") was installed on her forward fire control tower.\n\n*Washington*s 1\\.1 in battery was replaced with forty [ Bofors guns](/wiki/Bofors_40_mm_Automatic_Gun_L/60 \"Bofors 40 mm Automatic Gun L/60\") in ten quadruple mounts in April 1943, and in August, the number of guns had increased to sixty in fifteen quadruple mounts. Her original light battery of eighteen .50\\-cal machine guns was decreased to twelve and twenty [ Oerlikon autocannon](/wiki/Oerlikon_20_mm_cannon%23World_War_II \"Oerlikon 20 mm cannon#World War II\") in single mounts were installed in early 1942\\. In June, she had her .50\\-cal battery increased to twenty\\-eight barrels, but by September, all were replaced in favor of a uniform battery of forty 20 mm cannon. During the April 1943 refit, her anti\\-aircraft armament was increased to a total of sixty\\-four 20 mm cannon. A year later, in April 1944, she lost one of the single mounts in favor of an experimental quadruple 20 mm mount. In November 1944, the ship was slated to have the battery reduced to 48 barrels, but this never happened and instead, in early 1945, she had eight single mounts replaced with eight twin mounts, bringing her final 20 mm battery to seventy\\-five guns.\n\n", "### Modifications\n\n*Washington* received a number of upgrades over the course of her career, primarily consisting of radar and a new light anti\\-aircraft battery. The ship received three Mark 3 [fire\\-control radar](/wiki/Fire-control_radar \"Fire-control radar\") sets for the main battery, four Mark 4 radars for the secondary guns, a [CXAM air\\-search radar](/wiki/CXAM_radar \"CXAM radar\"), and an SG [surface\\-search radar](/wiki/Early-warning_radar \"Early-warning radar\"). During her early 1944 refit, she received an SK air\\-search radar in place of the CXAM and a second SG radar; her Mark 3 radars were replaced with more advanced Mark 8 sets, though she retained one of the Mark 3s as a backup. Her Mark 4 radars were later replaced with a combination of Mark 12 and Mark 22 sets. In her final refit in August and September 1945, she had an SK radar forward, an SR air\\-search set aft, and an SG radar in both positions. A TDY [jammer](/wiki/Radar_jamming_and_deception \"Radar jamming and deception\") was installed on her forward fire control tower.\n\n*Washington*s 1\\.1 in battery was replaced with forty [ Bofors guns](/wiki/Bofors_40_mm_Automatic_Gun_L/60 \"Bofors 40 mm Automatic Gun L/60\") in ten quadruple mounts in April 1943, and in August, the number of guns had increased to sixty in fifteen quadruple mounts. Her original light battery of eighteen .50\\-cal machine guns was decreased to twelve and twenty [ Oerlikon autocannon](/wiki/Oerlikon_20_mm_cannon%23World_War_II \"Oerlikon 20 mm cannon#World War II\") in single mounts were installed in early 1942\\. In June, she had her .50\\-cal battery increased to twenty\\-eight barrels, but by September, all were replaced in favor of a uniform battery of forty 20 mm cannon. During the April 1943 refit, her anti\\-aircraft armament was increased to a total of sixty\\-four 20 mm cannon. A year later, in April 1944, she lost one of the single mounts in favor of an experimental quadruple 20 mm mount. In November 1944, the ship was slated to have the battery reduced to 48 barrels, but this never happened and instead, in early 1945, she had eight single mounts replaced with eight twin mounts, bringing her final 20 mm battery to seventy\\-five guns.\n\n", "Service history\n---------------\n\n[thumb\\|[Launching](/wiki/Ship_naming_and_launching \"Ship naming and launching\") on 1 June 1940\\|alt\\=A large warship, still missing most of its superstructure, sits in a dry dock, awaiting its launch. The ship is draped in a large banner and surrounded by crowds of spectators; a huge gantry towers over the ship.](/wiki/File:USS_Washington_%28BB-56%29_launching_ceremony%2C_1_June_1940.jpg \"USS Washington (BB-56) launching ceremony, 1 June 1940.jpg\")\n\nThe [keel](/wiki/Keel \"Keel\") for *Washington* was [laid down](/wiki/Keel_laying \"Keel laying\") on 14 June 1938 at the [Philadelphia Naval Shipyard](/wiki/Philadelphia_Naval_Shipyard \"Philadelphia Naval Shipyard\"). Her completed [hull](/wiki/Hull_%28watercraft%29 \"Hull (watercraft)\") was [launched](/wiki/Ship_launching \"Ship launching\") on 1 June 1940, and after completing [fitting\\-out](/wiki/Fitting-out \"Fitting-out\") work, she was [commissioned](/wiki/Ship_commissioning \"Ship commissioning\") into the fleet on 15 May 1941\\. She began builder's [sea trials](/wiki/Sea_trials \"Sea trials\") on 3 August, but like her [sister ship](/wiki/Sister_ship \"Sister ship\") , she suffered from excessive vibration while running at high speed from her original three\\-bladed screws. Tests with *North Carolina* produced a workable solution (though the problem was never fully corrected): two four\\-bladed screws on the outer shafts and two five\\-bladed propellers on the inboard shafts. Tests continued during her [shakedown cruise](/wiki/Shakedown_cruise \"Shakedown cruise\") and subsequent initial training, which were conducted along the [East Coast of the United States](/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States \"East Coast of the United States\"), as far south as the [Gulf of Mexico](/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico \"Gulf of Mexico\"). She conducted high speed tests in December, during which she failed to reach her designed speed due to the vibration problems.\n\nDuring this period, the United States was still neutral during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). *Washington* frequently trained with *North Carolina* and the [aircraft carrier](/wiki/Aircraft_carrier \"Aircraft carrier\") , with *Washington* serving as the [flagship](/wiki/Flagship \"Flagship\") of [Rear Admiral](/wiki/Rear_Admiral \"Rear Admiral\") [John W. Wilcox Jr.](/wiki/John_W._Wilcox_Jr. \"John W. Wilcox Jr.\"), the commander of Battleship Division (BatDiv) 6, part of the [Atlantic Fleet](/wiki/United_States_Fleet_Forces_Command \"United States Fleet Forces Command\"). Her initial working up training continued into 1942, by which time the country had entered the war as a result of the Japanese [attack on Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor \"Attack on Pearl Harbor\") and Germany's subsequent declaration of war. Modifications to the ship's screws continued as late as February 1942, but these also proved unsuccessful.\n\n### Atlantic operations\n\nWith the country now at war, *Washington* was assigned as the flagship of Task Force (TF) 39, still under Wilcox's command, which departed for Britain on 26 March. The unit, which included *Wasp* and the [heavy cruisers](/wiki/Heavy_cruiser \"Heavy cruiser\") and , were to reinforce the British [Home Fleet](/wiki/Home_Fleet \"Home Fleet\") based in [Scapa Flow](/wiki/Scapa_Flow \"Scapa Flow\"). The Home Fleet had been weakened by the need to detach units, particularly [Force H](/wiki/Force_H \"Force H\"), to take part in the [invasion of Madagascar](/wiki/Battle_of_Madagascar \"Battle of Madagascar\"), and the American battle group was needed to help counter the German battleship and other heavy surface units based in occupied Norway. The next day, while crossing the Atlantic, Wilcox was swept overboard. *Tuscaloosa* and a pair of [destroyers](/wiki/Destroyer \"Destroyer\") searched for the admiral, and *Wasp* sent aircraft aloft to assist the effort, but lookouts on the destroyer spotted him, face down in the water, having already drowned. The search was called off and the task force continued on to its destination. Rear Admiral [Robert C. Giffen](/wiki/Robert_C._Giffen \"Robert C. Giffen\"), aboard *Wichita*, took command of the unit, which was met at sea by the British cruiser on 3 April. The ships arrived in Scapa Flow two days later, where it came under the command of Admiral [John Tovey](/wiki/John_Tovey%2C_1st_Baron_Tovey \"John Tovey, 1st Baron Tovey\"), the commander of the Home Fleet.\n\n[thumb\\|*Washington* on 29 May 1941 shortly after commissioning on 15 May](/wiki/File:Washington_%28BB56%29._Port_bow%2C_05-29-1941_-_NARA_-_513042.jpg \"Washington (BB56). Port bow, 05-29-1941 - NARA - 513042.jpg\")\n\nFor the rest of the month, *Washington* and the other American ships were occupied with battle practice and familiarization training with the Home Fleet to prepare the different countries' ships for joint operations. TF 39 was redesignated TF 99 in late April, *Washington* still serving as the flagship. The ships embarked on their first operation on 28 April to conduct a sweep for German warships ahead of the supply [convoy PQ 15](/wiki/Convoy_PQ_15 \"Convoy PQ 15\") to the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\"). The ships of TF 99 operated with elements of the Home Fleet, including the battleship and the carrier . During the operation, *King George V* accidentally rammed and sank the destroyer ; *Washington* was following too closely to avoid the wreckage, and as she passed over the sinking destroyer, *Punjabi*s [depth charges](/wiki/Depth_charge \"Depth charge\") exploded. The shock from the blast damaged some of *Washington*s radars and fire\\-control equipment and caused a small leak in one of her fuel tanks. *King George V* had to return to port for repairs, but *Washington* and the rest of TF 99 remained at sea until 5 May. The ships stopped at [Hvalfjörður](/wiki/Hvalfj%C3%B6r%C3%B0ur \"Hvalfjörður\"), Iceland, where they took on supplies from the supply ship .\n\nThe ships remained in Iceland until 15 May, when they got underway to return to Scapa Flow, arriving there on 3 June. The next day, Admiral [Harold Rainsford Stark](/wiki/Harold_Rainsford_Stark \"Harold Rainsford Stark\"), the [Commander of Naval Forces Europe](/wiki/United_States_Naval_Forces_Europe_%E2%80%93_Naval_Forces_Africa \"United States Naval Forces Europe – Naval Forces Africa\"), visited the ship and made her his temporary headquarters. On 7 June, King [George VI](/wiki/George_VI \"George VI\") came aboard to inspect *Washington*, and after Stark left she resumed escorting convoys in the Arctic; these included convoys QP 12, [PQ 16](/wiki/Convoy_PQ_16 \"Convoy PQ 16\"), and [PQ 17](/wiki/Convoy_PQ_17 \"Convoy PQ 17\"). The first two occurred at the same time, with QP 12 returning from the Soviet Union while PQ 16 carrying another load of supplies and weapons. *Washington*, *Victorious*, and the battleship provided distant support but was not directly engaged by the German [U\\-boats](/wiki/U-boat \"U-boat\") and aircraft that raided PQ 16; QP 12 largely evaded German attention and passed without significant incident.\n\nThe PQ 17 operation resulted in disaster when reconnaissance incorrectly reported *Tirpitz*, the heavy cruisers , , and *[Lützow](/wiki/German_cruiser_Deutschland \"German cruiser Deutschland\")*, and nine destroyers to be approaching to attack the convoy, when in reality the Germans were still off the coast of Norway, their progress having been hampered by several of the vessels [running aground](/wiki/Ship_grounding \"Ship grounding\"). The reports of German heavy units at sea prompted the convoy commander to order his ships to scatter, which left them vulnerable to U\\-boats and *[Luftwaffe](/wiki/Luftwaffe \"Luftwaffe\")* attacks that sank twenty\\-four of the thirty\\-five transport ships. While in Hvalfjörður on 14 July, Giffen moved his flag back to *Wichita* and *Washington*, escorted by four destroyers, got underway to return to the United States. She arrived in [Gravesend Bay](/wiki/Gravesend%2C_Brooklyn \"Gravesend, Brooklyn\") on 21 July and moved to the [Brooklyn Navy Yard](/wiki/Brooklyn_Navy_Yard \"Brooklyn Navy Yard\") two days later for an [overhaul](/wiki/Overhaul \"Overhaul\").\n\n### Pacific operations\n\n#### Guadalcanal campaign\n\n[left\\|thumb\\|*Washington* refitting off New York in August 1942, en route to the Pacific](/wiki/File:USS_Washington_%28BB-56%29_off_New_York_City%2C_August_1942.jpg \"USS Washington (BB-56) off New York City, August 1942.jpg\")\n\nAfter completing the refit, *Washington* got underway on 23 August, bound for the Pacific with an escort of three destroyers. She passed through the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal \"Panama Canal\") on 28 August and arrived in [Nukuʻalofa](/wiki/Nuku%CA%BBalofa \"Nukuʻalofa\") in [Tonga](/wiki/Tonga \"Tonga\") on 14 September. There, she became the flagship of Rear Admiral [Willis Lee](/wiki/Willis_Lee \"Willis Lee\"), then the commander of BatDiv 6 and Task Group (TG) 12\\.2\\. On 15 September, *Washington* sailed to meet the ships of TF 17, centered on the carrier ; the ships thereafter operated together and went to [Nouméa](/wiki/Noum%C3%A9a \"Nouméa\") in [New Caledonia](/wiki/New_Caledonia \"New Caledonia\") to begin operations in support of the campaign in the [Solomon Islands](/wiki/Solomon_Islands \"Solomon Islands\"). The ships, based out of Nouméa and [Espiritu Santo](/wiki/Espiritu_Santo \"Espiritu Santo\") in the [New Hebrides](/wiki/New_Hebrides \"New Hebrides\"), covered convoys bringing supplies and reinforcements to the [marines](/wiki/USMC \"USMC\") fighting on [Guadalcanal](/wiki/Guadalcanal \"Guadalcanal\") into early November.\n\nDuring one of these convoy operations in mid\\-October, *Washington*, a pair of cruisers, and five destroyers provided distant support but were too far away to take part in the [Battle of Cape Esperance](/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Esperance \"Battle of Cape Esperance\") on the night of 11–12 October. Shortly thereafter, *Washington* was transferred to TF 64, the surface combatant force assigned to the Guadalcanal area, still under Lee's command. At this time, the unit also included one heavy and two light cruisers and six destroyers. Over the course of 21–24 October, Japanese land\\-based reconnaissance aircraft made repeated contacts with TF 64 as a Japanese fleet approached the area, but in the [Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Santa_Cruz_Islands \"Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands\") that began on the 25th, the Japanese concentrated their air attacks on the American carriers of TF 17 and 61\\. On 27 October, the Japanese [submarine](/wiki/Submarine \"Submarine\") attempted to torpedo *Washington* but missed.\n\nBy early November, the US fleet had been reduced considerably in offensive power; the carriers *Wasp* and *Hornet* had been sunk, leaving just the carrier , *Washington*, and the new battleship as the only [capital ships](/wiki/Capital_ship \"Capital ship\") available to Allied forces fighting in the campaign. *Washington* joined the other two ships in TF 16, which also included the heavy cruiser , and nine destroyers. The ships sortied on 11 November to return to the fighting off Guadalcanal. The cruiser and two more destroyers joined them the following day. On 13 November, after learning that a major Japanese attack was approaching, Halsey detached *South Dakota*, *Washington*, and four of the destroyers as Task Group 16\\.3, again under Lee's command. *Enterprise*, her forward elevator damaged from the action at Santa Cruz, was kept to the south as a [reserve](/wiki/Military_reserve_force \"Military reserve force\") and to prevent the sole operational American carrier in the Pacific from being lost. The ships of TG 16\\.3 were to block an anticipated Japanese bombardment group in the waters off Guadalcanal.\n\n##### Naval Battle of Guadalcanal\n\n[thumb\\|The Japanese battleship , *Washington*s opponent off Guadalcanal](/wiki/File:Kirishima_Tsukumowan_1937.jpg \"Kirishima Tsukumowan 1937.jpg\")\n\nAs Lee's task group approached Guadalcanal, his Japanese counterpart, Admiral [Nobutake Kondō](/wiki/Nobutake_Kond%C5%8D \"Nobutake Kondō\") steamed to meet him with his main bombardment force, consisting of the fast battleship , the heavy cruisers and , and a destroyer screen. While en route, TG 16\\.3 was re\\-designated as TF 64 on 14 November; the ships passed to the south of Guadalcanal and then rounded the western end of the island to block Kondō's expected route. Japanese aircraft reported sighting Lee's formation, but identification of the ships ranged from a group of cruisers and destroyers to aircraft carriers, causing confusion among the Japanese commanders. That evening, American reconnaissance aircraft spotted Japanese warships off [Savo Island](/wiki/Savo_Island \"Savo Island\"), prompting Lee to order his ships to [general quarters](/wiki/General_quarters \"General quarters\"). The four destroyers were arrayed ahead of the two battleships. The American task force, having been thrown together a day before, had not operated together as a unit, and both of the battleships had very limited experience shooting their main battery, particularly at night.\n\nAt around 23:00 on 14 November, the leading Japanese destroyers in a screening force commanded by [Shintarō Hashimoto](/wiki/Shintar%C5%8D_Hashimoto \"Shintarō Hashimoto\") sent ahead of Kondō's main force spotted Lee's ships and turned about to warn Kondō, while *Washington*s search radar picked up a Japanese cruiser and a destroyer at about the same time. The ships' fire control radars then began tracking the Japanese vessels and Lee ordered both of his battleships to open fire when ready. *Washington* fired first with her main battery at 23:17 at a range of while her secondary guns fired [star shells](/wiki/Star_shell \"Star shell\") to illuminate the targets, followed shortly by *South Dakota*. One of the Japanese destroyers, , revealed her position by opening fire on the American destroyer screen, allowing *Washington* to target her, inflicting serious damage that disabled her propulsion machinery and started a major fire.\n\nShortly thereafter, at about 23:30, an error in the [electrical switchboard](/wiki/Electric_switchboard \"Electric switchboard\") room knocked out power aboard *South Dakota*, disabling her radar systems and leaving the ship all but blind to the Japanese vessels approaching the force. By this time, Hashimoto's ships had inflicted serious damage on the American destroyer screen; two of the destroyers were torpedoed (one of which, , survived until the following morning) and a third was destroyed by gunfire. *Washington* was now left essentially alone to engage the Japanese squadron, though they had yet to actually detect her presence. While *Washington*s captain, [Glenn B. Davis](/wiki/Glenn_B._Davis \"Glenn B. Davis\"), kept his ship on the disengaged side of the flaming wrecks of the destroyer screen, *South Dakota* was forced to turn in front of one of the burning destroyers to avoid a collision, which backlit her to the Japanese ships, drawing their fire and allowing *Washington* to engage them undisturbed.\n\n[thumb\\|*Washington* engaged in night firing; note the low elevation of the gun barrels\\|alt\\=Two large gun turrets are trained to starboard, with the superstructure in the background. Flames are shooting out of one or more of the guns in both the nearer of the two turrets and an unseen gun astern.](/wiki/File:NavalGuadalcanalWashington.jpg \"NavalGuadalcanalWashington.jpg\")\n\nAt 23:35, *Washington*s SG radar detected Kondō's main force and tracked them for the next twenty minutes. At 23:58, *South Dakota*s power was restored and her radar picked up the Japanese ships less than ahead. Two minutes later, the leading Japanese ship, *Atago*, illuminated *South Dakota* with her search lights and the Japanese line promptly opened fire, scoring twenty\\-seven hits. *Washington*, still undetected, opened fire, allocating two of her 5\\-inch guns to engage *Atago* and two to fire star shells, while the rest joined her main battery in battering *Kirishima* at a range of . *Washington* scored probably nine 16\\-inch hits and as many as forty 5\\-inch hits, inflicting grievous damage. *Kirishima* was badly holed below the waterline, her forward two turrets were knocked out, and her [rudder](/wiki/Rudder \"Rudder\") was jammed, forcing her to steer in a circle to [port](/wiki/Port_and_starboard \"Port and starboard\") with an increasing starboard [list](/wiki/Angle_of_list \"Angle of list\").\n\n*Washington* then shifted fire to *Atago* and *Takao*, and though straddled the former, failed to score any significant hits; the barrage nevertheless convinced both cruisers to turn off their search lights and reverse course in an attempt to launch torpedoes. At 00:13, the two cruisers fired a spread of sixteen [Long Lance](/wiki/Long_Lance \"Long Lance\") torpedoes at *Washington*, then about away, though they all missed. At 00:20, Lee turned his sole surviving combatant (he had ordered the surviving destroyers to disengage earlier in the engagement, and *South Dakota*s captain, having determined that his ship had been damaged sufficiently to prevent her from taking further action, decided to break off as well) to close with Kondō's cruisers. *Atago* and *Takao* briefly engaged with their main batteries and the former launched three more torpedoes, all of which missed. Kondō then ordered the light forces of his reconnaissance screen to make a torpedo attack, but Hashimoto's ships were far out of position and were unable to comply. Rear Admiral [Raizō Tanaka](/wiki/Raiz%C5%8D_Tanaka \"Raizō Tanaka\"), who was escorting a supply convoy to Guadalcanal and had thus far not participated in the action, detached two destroyers to aid Kondō. When these ships arrived on the scene, Lee ordered *Washington* to turn to reverse course at 00:33 to avoid a possible torpedo attack from the destroyers.\n\nTanaka's two destroyers closed to launch their torpedoes while *Washington* was disengaging, prompting her to take evasive maneuvers. While withdrawing to the south, Lee kept *Washington* far west of the damaged American warships so that any Japanese vessels pursuing him would not be drawn onto the damaged vessels. An hour later, Kondō cancelled the bombardment and attempted to contact *Kirishima*, but after failing to receive a response, sent destroyers to investigate the crippled battleship. She was found burning furiously, still turning slowly to port as progressively worsening flooding disabled her boilers. At 03:25, she [capsized](/wiki/Capsize \"Capsize\") and sank; by this time, *Ayanami* had also been abandoned and sank as a result of the damage inflicted by *Washington*. By 09:00, *Washington* had formed back up with *South Dakota* and the destroyers *Benham* and to withdraw from the area. In addition to blocking Kondō's planned bombardment, Lee had delayed Tanaka's convoy late enough that the transports could not unload under cover of darkness, and so they were forced to beach themselves on the island, where they were repeatedly attacked and badly damaged by aircraft from *Enterprise* and Henderson Field, field artillery, and the destroyer later that morning.\n\n##### Later operations\n\n[thumb\\|*Washington* off Hawaii in mid\\-1943](/wiki/File:80-G-K-15103_%2824842873691%29.jpg \"80-G-K-15103 (24842873691).jpg\")\n\n*Washington* returned to screening the carriers of TF 11——and TF 16—*Enterprise*—while *South Dakota* departed for repairs. By late November, Lee's command was reinforced by *North Carolina*, followed later by the battleship . These battleships were grouped together as TF 64, still under Lee's command, and they covered convoys to support the fighting in the Solomons into the next year. These operations included covering a group of seven transports carrying elements of the [25th Infantry Division](/wiki/25th_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 \"25th Infantry Division (United States)\") to Guadalcanal from 1 to 4 January 1943\\. During another of these convoy operations later that month, Lee's battleships were too far south to be able to reach the American cruiser force during the [Battle of Rennell Island](/wiki/Battle_of_Rennell_Island \"Battle of Rennell Island\"). *Washington* remained in the south Pacific until 30 April, when she departed Nouméa for [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor \"Pearl Harbor\"). On the way, she joined the ships of TF 16\\. The ships arrived on 8 May.\n\nFor the next twenty days, *Washington* operated as the flagship of TF 60, which conducted combat training off the coast of Hawaii. On 28 May, she went into dry dock at the [Pearl Harbor Navy Yard](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor_Navy_Yard \"Pearl Harbor Navy Yard\") for repairs and installation of new equipment. This included a new set of screws that again failed to remediate the vibration problems. Once this work was completed, she resumed training exercises in the area until 27 July, when she got underway with a convoy bound for the south Pacific. For the voyage, she was attached to TG 56\\.14, and on arriving in the area was detached on 5 August to proceed independently to [Havannah Harbor](/wiki/Havannah_Harbor \"Havannah Harbor\") at [Efate](/wiki/Efate \"Efate\") in the New Hebrides, which she reached two days later. *Washington* spent the next two months conducting tactical training with the carrier task forces in the Efate area in preparation for upcoming campaigns in the central Pacific.\n\nNow part of TG 53\\.2, which included three other battleships and six destroyers, *Washington* got underway on 31 October. The ships met TG 53\\.3, centered on the carriers *Enterprise*, , and , the next day, for extensive training exercises that lasted until 5 November. The groups then dispersed and *Washington* left with escorting destroyers for [Viti Levu](/wiki/Viti_Levu \"Viti Levu\") in the [Fiji Islands](/wiki/Fiji \"Fiji\"), which she reached on 7 November.\n\n#### Gilberts and Marshall Islands campaign\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|A [Douglas SBD Dauntless](/wiki/Douglas_SBD_Dauntless \"Douglas SBD Dauntless\") flying over *Washington* off the Gilberts](/wiki/File:SBD_VB-16_over_USS_Washington_1943.jpg \"SBD VB-16 over USS Washington 1943.jpg\")\n\n*Washington*, still Lee's flagship, sortied on 11 November in company with the ships of BatDivs 8 and 9, and four days later they joined TG 50\\.1, centered on the carrier . The fleet proceeded on to the [Gilbert Islands](/wiki/Gilbert_Islands \"Gilbert Islands\"), where marines were preparing to [land on Tarawa](/wiki/Battle_of_Tarawa \"Battle of Tarawa\"). The carriers of TF 50 launched their strikes on 19 November, continuing into the next day as the marines went ashore on [Tarawa](/wiki/Tarawa \"Tarawa\") and [Makin](/wiki/Makin_%28islands%29 \"Makin (islands)\"). The attacks continued through 22 November, when the fleet steamed to the north of Makin to patrol the area. On 25 November, the groups of TF 50 were reorganized and *Washington* was transferred to TG 50\\.4, along with the carriers and and the battleships *South Dakota* and .\n\nFrom 26 to 28 November, the carrier groups operated off Makin to cover the landing of troops and supplies on the island. Japanese aircraft attacked the groups on 27 and 28 November, but they inflicted little damage on the American ships. On 6 December, with the fighting in the Gilberts over, *Washington* was detached to create TG 50\\.8 along with *North Carolina*, *South Dakota*, *Alabama*, *Indiana*, and , covered by *Bunker Hill*, *Monterey*, and eleven destroyers. The battleships were sent to bombard the island of [Nauru](/wiki/Nauru \"Nauru\") two days later, thereafter returning to Efate on 12 December. The ships remained there only briefly before departing on 25 December for gunnery training with *North Carolina* and four destroyers. The ships returned to port on 7 January 1944, at which time *Washington* was assigned to TG 37\\.2, along with *Bunker Hill* and *Monterey*. The ships got underway on 18 January, bound for the next target in the campaign: the [Marshall Islands](/wiki/Marshall_Islands \"Marshall Islands\").\n\nThe ships stopped briefly in [Funafuti](/wiki/Funafuti \"Funafuti\") in the [Ellice Islands](/wiki/Ellice_Islands \"Ellice Islands\") on 20 January before departing three days later to meet the rest of what was now TF 58; the unit, which comprised the [fast carrier task force](/wiki/Fast_carrier_task_force \"Fast carrier task force\"), had been created under the command of Rear Admiral [Marc Mitscher](/wiki/Marc_Mitscher \"Marc Mitscher\") on 6 January. *Washington*s unit was accordingly re\\-numbered as TG 58\\.1\\. Having arrived off the main target at [Kwajalein](/wiki/Kwajalein \"Kwajalein\") by late January, *Washington* screened the carriers while they conducted extensive strikes on the island and neighboring [Taroa](/wiki/Taroa \"Taroa\"). On 30 January, *Washington*, *Massachusetts*, and *Indiana* were detached from the carriers to bombard Kwajalein with an escort of four destroyers. After returning to the carriers the next day, the battleships resumed guard duty while the carriers resumed their air strikes.\n\n[thumb\\|Bow of *Washington* heavily damaged after colliding with *Indiana*](/wiki/File:USS_Washington_damage_after_collision_NARA_BS_109965.jpg \"USS Washington damage after collision NARA BS 109965.jpg\")\nWhile patrolling off the island in the early hours of 1 February, *Indiana* cut in front of *Washington* to go refuel a group of destroyers, causing the latter to ram the former and significantly damaging both ships. *Indiana* had some of plating torn from her hull, and *Washington*s bow collapsed. The two vessels withdrew to [Majuro](/wiki/Majuro \"Majuro\") for temporary repairs; *Washington*s crumpled bow was reinforced to allow her to steam to Pearl Harbor on 11 February for further temporary repairs. After arriving there, she was fitted with a temporary bow before continuing on to the [Puget Sound Navy Yard](/wiki/Puget_Sound_Navy_Yard \"Puget Sound Navy Yard\") in [Bremerton, Washington](/wiki/Bremerton%2C_Washington \"Bremerton, Washington\"), for permanent repairs. Another new set of screws was installed and in April, *Washington* conducted vibration tests that revealed a partial solution: the ship could now steam at high speed without significant issues, but vibration was still excessive at speeds between . Once the work was completed, the ship joined BatDiv 4 and took on a group of 500 passengers before departing for Pearl Harbor. She arrived there on 13 May and disembarked the passengers and proceeding back to the fleet at Majuro. On arrival on 7 June, she resumed her service as now\\-Vice Admiral Lee's flagship.\n\n#### Mariana and Palau Islands campaign\n\n[thumb\\|*Washington* off the coast of its namesake state in April 1944](/wiki/File:USS_Washington_off_Port_Angeles_NARA_STL-10735.jpg \"USS Washington off Port Angeles NARA STL-10735.jpg\")\n\nShortly after *Washington* arrived, the fleet got underway to begin the assault on the [Mariana Islands](/wiki/Mariana_Islands \"Mariana Islands\"); the carriers struck targets on [Saipan](/wiki/Saipan \"Saipan\"), [Tinian](/wiki/Tinian \"Tinian\"), [Guam](/wiki/Guam \"Guam\"), [Rota](/wiki/Rota_%28island%29 \"Rota (island)\"), and [Pagan](/wiki/Pagan_Island \"Pagan Island\") to weaken Japanese defenses before ground forces went ashore. At the time, she was assigned to TG 58\\.7, which consisted of seven fast battleships, was distributed between the four carrier task groups. On 13 June, *Washington* and several other battleships were detached to bombard Saipan and Tinian before being relieved by the amphibious force's bombardment group the next day. On 15 June, the fast carrier task force steamed north to hit targets in the [Volcano](/wiki/Volcano_Islands \"Volcano Islands\") and [Bonin Islands](/wiki/Bonin_Islands \"Bonin Islands\"), including [Iwo Jima](/wiki/Iwo_Jima \"Iwo Jima\"), [Chichi Jima](/wiki/Chichi_Jima \"Chichi Jima\"), and [Haha Jima](/wiki/Haha_Jima \"Haha Jima\"). At the same time, marines stormed the beaches on Saipan; landing was a breach of Japan's inner defensive perimeter that triggered the Japanese fleet to launch a major counter\\-thrust with the [1st Mobile Fleet](/wiki/1st_Mobile_Fleet_%28Imperial_Japanese_Navy%29 \"1st Mobile Fleet (Imperial Japanese Navy)\"), the main carrier strike force.\n\nOzawa's departure was observed by the American submarine ; other submarines, including and , tracked the Japanese fleet as it approached, keeping Admiral [Raymond Spruance](/wiki/Raymond_Spruance \"Raymond Spruance\"), the [Fifth Fleet](/wiki/United_States_Fifth_Fleet \"United States Fifth Fleet\") commander, informed of their movements. As the Japanese fleet approached, *Washington* and the rest of TF 58 steamed to meet it on 18 June, leading to the [Battle of the Philippine Sea](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Philippine_Sea \"Battle of the Philippine Sea\") on 19–20 June. *Washington* and the other battleships, with four cruisers and thirteen destroyers, were deployed some west of the carrier groups to screen the likely path of approach. The Japanese launched their aircraft first, and as they probed the American fleet's defenses, *Washington* and *North Carolina* were the first battleships to open fire on the attacking Japanese aircraft. During the action, which was fought primarily by the carriers, the US fleet inflicted serious losses on the Japanese, destroying hundreds of their aircraft and sinking three carriers.\n\nWith the 1st Mobile Fleet defeated and withdrawing, *Washington* and the rest of TF 58 returned to the Marianas. She continued to screen the carriers during the [Battle of Guam](/wiki/Battle_of_Guam_%281944%29 \"Battle of Guam (1944)\") until 25 July, when *Washington* steamed with the carriers of TG 58\\.4 to raid the [Palau Islands](/wiki/Palau_Islands \"Palau Islands\"). The attacks lasted until 6 August, when *Washington*, *Indiana*, *Alabama*, the light cruiser , and escorting destroyers were detached as TG 58\\.7 to proceed to Eniwetok. After arriving there on 11 August, the ships refueled and replenished ammunition and other supplies, remaining there for most of the month. On 30 August, the task group got underway with the rest of the fast carrier strike force, which by now had been transferred to [Third Fleet](/wiki/United_States_Third_Fleet \"United States Third Fleet\") command and renumbered TF 38\\. At this time, *Washington* was assigned to TG 38\\.3\\. The ships sailed first south to the [Admiralty Islands](/wiki/Admiralty_Islands \"Admiralty Islands\") and then west, back to the Palaus. There, the carriers began a series of strikes from 6 to 8 September on various targets in the Palaus; *Washington* contributed her heavy guns to the bombardment of [Peleliu](/wiki/Peleliu \"Peleliu\") and [Anguar](/wiki/Anguar \"Anguar\") before the marines assaulted both islands later that month.\n\nOn 9 and 10 September, task groups 38\\.1, 38\\.2, and 38\\.3 left the Palaus to raid Japanese airfields on [Mindanao](/wiki/Mindanao \"Mindanao\") in the southern Philippines, part of the standard practice to neutralize nearby positions that could interfere with the upcoming assault on the Palaus. Finding few Japanese forces on the island, the carriers shifted north to the [Visayas](/wiki/Visayas \"Visayas\") in the central Philippines from 12 to 14 September. The carrier groups then withdrew to refuel at sea before returning to the Philippines to attack airfields on [Luzon](/wiki/Luzon \"Luzon\") from 21 and 22 September before making further attacks on installations in the Visayas on 24 September. The carrier groups then proceeded north to make a series of strikes on airfields in [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island \"Okinawa Island\"), [Formosa](/wiki/Formosa \"Formosa\"), and Luzon in preparation for the upcoming invasion of the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\").\n\n#### Philippines campaign\n\n[thumb\\|Movements of American forces (in black) and Japanese forces (in red) during the Battle of Leyte Gulf](/wiki/File:Map_of_Battle_of_Leyte_Gulf.jpg \"Map of Battle of Leyte Gulf.jpg\")\n\nTF 38 embarked on the raids to isolate the Philippines and suppress the units of the [1st Air Fleet](/wiki/1st_Air_Fleet_%28Imperial_Japanese_Navy%29%23As_a_Land-Based_Air_Fleet \"1st Air Fleet (Imperial Japanese Navy)#As a Land-Based Air Fleet\") on 6 October; *Washington* remained Lee's flagship, attached to TG 38\\.3\\. The first operation was a major strike on Japanese air bases on the island of Okinawa on 10 October. The next day, the ships of TG 38\\.3 refueled at sea before joining the other three task groups for [major raids on Formosa](/wiki/Formosa_Air_Battle \"Formosa Air Battle\") that took place from 12 to 14 October. As the fleet withdrew the next day, it defended itself against heavy Japanese air attacks, though the ships of TG 38\\.3 were not directly engaged as the Japanese attacks concentrated on task groups 38\\.1 and 38\\.4\\. On the 16th, a submarine reported observing a Japanese squadron consisting of three cruisers and eight destroyers searching for damaged Allied warships, and TG 38\\.3 and TG 38\\.2 steamed north to catch them, but the aircraft were only able to locate and sink a [torpedo boat](/wiki/Torpedo_boat \"Torpedo boat\").\n\nOn 17 October, the two task groups withdrew to the south to cover the [invasion of Leyte](/wiki/Battle_of_Leyte \"Battle of Leyte\") with the rest of TF 38, the same day that elements of [Sixth Army](/wiki/Sixth_United_States_Army \"Sixth United States Army\") went ashore; the raids on Luzon continued into 19 October. By this time, *Washington* had been reassigned to TG 38\\.4, screening *Enterprise*, the [fleet carrier](/wiki/Fleet_carrier \"Fleet carrier\") , and the [light carriers](/wiki/Light_carrier \"Light carrier\") and . On 21 October, TG 38\\.4 withdrew to refuel, during which time they also covered the withdrawal of ships that had been damaged during the Formosa raid, which were still on their way to [Ulithi](/wiki/Ulithi \"Ulithi\"). TG 38\\.4 was recalled to Leyte the next day.\n\n##### Battle of Leyte Gulf\n\nThe landing on Leyte led to the activation of [Operation Shō\\-Gō 1](/wiki/Operation_Sh%C5%8D-G%C5%8D_1 \"Operation Shō-Gō 1\"), the Japanese navy's planned riposte to an Allied landing in the Philippines. The plan was a complicated operation with three separate fleets: The 1st Mobile Fleet, now labeled the Northern Force under [Jisaburō Ozawa](/wiki/Jisabur%C5%8D_Ozawa \"Jisaburō Ozawa\"), the Center Force under [Takeo Kurita](/wiki/Takeo_Kurita \"Takeo Kurita\"), and the Southern Force under [Shōji Nishimura](/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dji_Nishimura \"Shōji Nishimura\"). Ozawa's carriers, by now depleted of most of their aircraft, were to serve as a decoy for Kurita's and Nishimura's battleships, which were to use the distraction to attack the invasion fleet directly. Kurita's ships were detected in the [San Bernardino Strait](/wiki/San_Bernardino_Strait \"San Bernardino Strait\") on 24 October, and in the ensuing [Battle of the Sibuyan Sea](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Sibuyan_Sea \"Battle of the Sibuyan Sea\"), American carrier aircraft sank the powerful battleship , causing Kurita to temporarily reverse course. This convinced Admiral [William F. Halsey](/wiki/William_F._Halsey \"William F. Halsey\"), the commander of Third Fleet, to send the fast carrier task force to destroy the 1st Mobile Fleet, which had by then been detected. *Washington* steamed north with the carriers, and on the way Halsey established TF 34, under Lee's command, consisting of *Washington* and five other fast battleships, seven cruisers, and eighteen destroyers.\n\nOn the morning of 25 October, Mitscher began his first attack on the Northern Force, initiating the [Battle off Cape Engaño](/wiki/Battle_off_Cape_Enga%C3%B1o \"Battle off Cape Engaño\"); over the course of six strikes on the Japanese fleet, the Americans sank all four carriers and damaged two old battleships that had been converted into hybrid carriers. Unknown to Halsey and Mitscher, Kurita had resumed his approach through the San Bernardino Strait late on 24 October and passed into [Leyte Gulf](/wiki/Leyte_Gulf \"Leyte Gulf\") the next morning. While Mitscher was occupied with the decoy Northern Force, Kurita moved in to attack the invasion fleet; in the [Battle off Samar](/wiki/Battle_off_Samar \"Battle off Samar\"), he was held off by a group of [escort carriers](/wiki/Escort_carrier \"Escort carrier\"), destroyers, and [destroyer escorts](/wiki/Destroyer_escort \"Destroyer escort\"), TU 77\\.4\\.3, known as Taffy 3\\. Frantic calls for help later that morning led Halsey to detach Lee's battleships to head south and intervene.\n\nHowever, Halsey waited more than an hour after receiving orders from Admiral [Chester W. Nimitz](/wiki/Chester_W._Nimitz \"Chester W. Nimitz\"), the [Commander, U.S. Pacific Fleet](/wiki/Commander%2C_U.S._Pacific_Fleet \"Commander, U.S. Pacific Fleet\"), to detach TF 34; still steaming north during this interval, the delay added two hours to the battleships' voyage south. A need to refuel destroyers further slowed TF 34's progress south. Heavy resistance from Taffy 3 threw Kurita's battleships and cruisers into disarray and led him to break off the attack before *Washington* and the rest of TF 34 could arrive. Halsey detached the battleships and as TG 34\\.5 to pursue Kurita through the San Bernardino Strait while Lee took the rest of his ships further southwest to try to cut off his escape, but both groups arrived too late. The historian H. P. Wilmott speculated that had Halsey detached TF 34 promptly and not delayed the battleships by refueling the destroyers, the ships could have easily arrived in the strait ahead of Center Force and, owing to the marked superiority of their radar\\-directed main guns, destroyed Kurita's ships.\n\n##### Later operations\n\n[left\\|thumb\\|*Washington* anchored at the [Puget Sound Navy Yard](/wiki/Puget_Sound_Navy_Yard \"Puget Sound Navy Yard\") in April 1944](/wiki/File:USS_Washington_collision_damage_repaired_NARA_BS_63999.jpg \"USS Washington collision damage repaired NARA BS 63999.jpg\")\n\nAfter the battle, the units of TF 38 withdrew to Ulithi to replenish fuel and ammunition for further operations in the Philippines. The carrier task forces got underway again on 2 November for more strikes on the airfields on Luzon and the Visayas that continued until 14 November, when they withdrew again to Ulithi, arriving there three days later. On 18 November, Lee exchanged flagships with Rear Admiral [Edward Hanson](/wiki/Edward_Hanson \"Edward Hanson\"), the commander of BatDiv 9, who had used *South Dakota* as his flagship. At the same time, *Washington* was transferred to TG 38\\.3, in company with *South Dakota* and *North Carolina*. The ships sortied on 22 November for gunnery training while the carriers conducted strikes independently against targets in the Philippines over the next three days. She arrived back in Ulithi on 2 December, where the crew made repairs and loaded ammunition and stores for future operations.\n\nThe units of TF 38 got underway again on 11 December for more attacks on Luzon to suppress Japanese aircraft as the amphibious force prepared for its next landing on the island of [Mindoro](/wiki/Mindoro \"Mindoro\") in the western Philippines. The raid lasted from 14 to 16 December, and while the fleet withdrew to refuel on 17 December, [Typhoon Cobra](/wiki/Typhoon_Cobra \"Typhoon Cobra\") swept through the area, battering the fleet and sinking three destroyers. The damage inflicted on the fleet delayed further support of ground troops for two days and the continuing bad weather led Halsey to break off operations; the ships arrived back in Ulithi on 24 December.\n\nOn 30 December, the fleet got underway to make preparatory strikes for the landing on Luzon; *Washington* remained with TG 38\\.3 for the operation. The carriers struck Formosa again on 3 and 4 January 1945; after refueling at sea on 5 January, the carriers struck [kamikazes](/wiki/Kamikaze \"Kamikaze\") massed at airfields on Luzon on 6 and 7 January to neutralize them before the [invasion of Lingayen Gulf](/wiki/Invasion_of_Lingayen_Gulf \"Invasion of Lingayen Gulf\"). Further attacks on Formosa and Okinawa followed on 9 January. The next day, the carrier groups entered the [South China Sea](/wiki/South_China_Sea \"South China Sea\"), where it refueled and then struck targets in French Indochina on the assumption that significant Japanese naval forces were present, but only merchant ships and a number of minor warships were caught and sunk there. During these raids, other elements of the Allied fleet invaded Lingayen Gulf on Luzon.\n\n#### Iwo Jima and Okinawa campaigns\n\n[thumb\\|*Washington* with other ships of Task Group 38\\.3 operating off Okinawa in May 1945](/wiki/File:USS_Essex_%28CV-9%29_with_TG_38_3_off_Okinawa_1945.jpeg \"USS Essex (CV-9) with TG 38 3 off Okinawa 1945.jpeg\")\n\nIn February, she escorted carriers during attacks on the Japanese island of [Honshu](/wiki/Honshu \"Honshu\") to disrupt Japanese air forces that might interfere with the planned [invasion of Iwo Jima](/wiki/Battle_of_Iwo_Jima \"Battle of Iwo Jima\") in the Volcano Islands. Fifth Fleet had re\\-assumed command of the fast carrier task force by this point, and *Washington* was now part of TG 58\\.4\\. The fleet sortied from Ulithi on 10 February, and after conducting training exercises off Tinian on the 12th, refueled at sea on 14 February and continued on north to launch strikes on the [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo \"Tokyo\") area two days later. The raids continued through 17 February and the next day, the fleet withdrew to refuel and TG 58\\.4 was sent to hit other islands in the Bonin chain to further isolate Iwo Jima. During the preparatory bombardment for that attack, *Washington*, *North Carolina*, and the heavy cruiser were detached from the task group to reinforce TF 54, the assault force for the invasion; she remained on station during the marine assault and provided fire support as they fought their way across the island through 22 February. The next day, the carrier groups reassembled and refueled on 24 February for further operations against the Japanese mainland.\n\nAfter leaving Iwo Jima, the fleet resumed air attacks on the [Home Islands](/wiki/Japanese_Archipelago \"Japanese Archipelago\") to prepare for the next [amphibious assault](/wiki/Amphibious_assault \"Amphibious assault\") on Okinawa in the Ryukus. The first of these, on 25 and 26 February, hit targets in the Tokyo area, followed by another attack on Iwo Jima the next day. The fleet refueled on 28 February and on 1 March raided Okinawa, thereafter returning to Ulithi on 4 March. While in Ulithi, the fleet was reorganized and *Washington* was transferred to TG 58\\.3\\. The fleet sortied on 14 March for additional attacks on Japan; the ships refueled on 16 March on the way and they launched their aircraft two days later to hit targets in [Kyushu](/wiki/Kyushu \"Kyushu\"). The attacks continued into the next day, causing significant damage to Japanese facilities on the island and sinking or damaging numerous warships. The task groups withdrew to refuel and reorganize on 22 March, as several carriers had been damaged by kamikaze and air attacks.\n\nOn 24 March, *Washington* bombarded Japanese positions on Okinawa as the fleet continued to pummel defenses before the invasion. By this time, *Washington* had been transferred to TG 58\\.2\\. Carrier raids on the Home Islands and the Ryukus continued after [landing on Okinawa](/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa \"Battle of Okinawa\") on 1 April. While operating off the island, the fleet came under heavy and repeated kamikaze attacks, one of the largest of which took place on 7 April in concert with the sortie of the battleship . *Washington* was not damaged in these attacks, however, which were largely defeated by the carriers' [combat air patrols](/wiki/Combat_air_patrol \"Combat air patrol\"). On 19 April, the battleship again closed with Okinawa to bombard Japanese positions as the Marines fought their way south. *Washington* remained off the island until late May, when she was detached for an overhaul. She proceeded first to [San Pedro Bay](/wiki/San_Pedro_Bay_%28Philippines%29 \"San Pedro Bay (Philippines)\"), Leyte, arriving there on 1 June, before departing for Puget Sound on 6 June. While crossing the Pacific, she stopped in Guam and Pearl Harbor before finally arriving in Bremerton on 23 June. Her refit continued into September, by which time Japan had surrendered on 15 August and formally ended the war on 2 September.\n\n### Post\\-war\n\n[thumb\\|*Washington* passing through the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal \"Panama Canal\") with in October 1945](/wiki/File:USS_Washington_%28BB-56%29_and_USS_Enterprise_%28CV-6%29_in_the_Panama_Canal%2C_October_1945.jpg \"USS Washington (BB-56) and USS Enterprise (CV-6) in the Panama Canal, October 1945.jpg\")\nAfter completing her refit in September, *Washington* conducted sea trials, followed by a short period of training while based in [San Pedro, Los Angeles](/wiki/San_Pedro%2C_Los_Angeles \"San Pedro, Los Angeles\"). She then got underway for the Panama Canal and on 6 October joined TG 11\\.6 on the way, thereafter passing through the canal and steaming north to the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard. She arrived there on 17 October and took part in [Navy Day](/wiki/Navy_Day%23United_States \"Navy Day#United States\") celebrations on 27 October. Slated to take part in [Operation Magic Carpet](/wiki/Operation_Magic_Carpet \"Operation Magic Carpet\"), the sea\\-lift operation to bring American service members home, *Washington* went into the shipyard in Philadelphia to be modified to carry additional personnel. Additional space was provided by substantially reducing the crew, to 84 officers and 835 enlisted men; with the war over, the ship's weapons needed no gun crews. The work was completed by 15 November, when she got underway for Britain. She arrived in [Southampton](/wiki/Southampton \"Southampton\") on 22 November. *Washington* embarked a contingent of Army personnel totaling 185 officers and 1,479 enlisted men and then re\\-crossed the Atlantic to New York, where she was decommissioned on 27 June 1947\\.\n\nShe was assigned to the [Atlantic Reserve Fleet](/wiki/Atlantic_Reserve_Fleet \"Atlantic Reserve Fleet\"), based in New York, where she remained through the 1950s. Beginning already in 1946, the Ships Characteristics Board authorized the removal a number of the 40 mm guns from the *North Carolina* and *South Dakota* class battleships that had been decommissioned. These guns were then installed on the s when they were reactivated for the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War \"Korean War\"). *Washington* and the other battleships had their 20 mm batteries removed entirely by October 1951\\. The Navy considered modernizing *Washington* and *North Carolina* in May 1954, which would have provided an anti\\-aircraft battery of twelve guns in twin turrets. The ships' slow speed prevented them from effectively serving with the carrier task forces and the Navy determined that a speed of would be necessary. To achieve this, the power plant would have to provide at the current displacement; even removing the aft turret and using that magazine space for additional boilers would not have produced the necessary power. By removing all of the belt armor, the ship would have only required to reach the desired speed, but the aft hull would have had to have been significantly rebuilt to accommodate the larger screws that would have been required. The Navy considered the possibility of removing the ships' current propulsion system altogether and replacing it with the same type as used in the *Iowa*s, which were capable of , but there was not enough room to fit the larger system. To reach the same speed, *Washington* would have needed to have all side armor and all three turrets removed in addition to a power plant capable of .\n\nThe cost of the project, estimated at around $40 million per ship, was deemed to be prohibitively expensive and so the project was abandoned. The ship remained in the inventory until 1 June 1960, when the ship was stricken from the [Naval Vessel Register](/wiki/Naval_Vessel_Register \"Naval Vessel Register\"). She was sold for [scrap](/wiki/Scrap \"Scrap\") on 24 May 1961\\. *Washington* was towed to the Lipsett Division of Luria Brothers and [broken up](/wiki/Ship_breaking \"Ship breaking\") thereafter.\n\n", "### Atlantic operations\n\nWith the country now at war, *Washington* was assigned as the flagship of Task Force (TF) 39, still under Wilcox's command, which departed for Britain on 26 March. The unit, which included *Wasp* and the [heavy cruisers](/wiki/Heavy_cruiser \"Heavy cruiser\") and , were to reinforce the British [Home Fleet](/wiki/Home_Fleet \"Home Fleet\") based in [Scapa Flow](/wiki/Scapa_Flow \"Scapa Flow\"). The Home Fleet had been weakened by the need to detach units, particularly [Force H](/wiki/Force_H \"Force H\"), to take part in the [invasion of Madagascar](/wiki/Battle_of_Madagascar \"Battle of Madagascar\"), and the American battle group was needed to help counter the German battleship and other heavy surface units based in occupied Norway. The next day, while crossing the Atlantic, Wilcox was swept overboard. *Tuscaloosa* and a pair of [destroyers](/wiki/Destroyer \"Destroyer\") searched for the admiral, and *Wasp* sent aircraft aloft to assist the effort, but lookouts on the destroyer spotted him, face down in the water, having already drowned. The search was called off and the task force continued on to its destination. Rear Admiral [Robert C. Giffen](/wiki/Robert_C._Giffen \"Robert C. Giffen\"), aboard *Wichita*, took command of the unit, which was met at sea by the British cruiser on 3 April. The ships arrived in Scapa Flow two days later, where it came under the command of Admiral [John Tovey](/wiki/John_Tovey%2C_1st_Baron_Tovey \"John Tovey, 1st Baron Tovey\"), the commander of the Home Fleet.\n\n[thumb\\|*Washington* on 29 May 1941 shortly after commissioning on 15 May](/wiki/File:Washington_%28BB56%29._Port_bow%2C_05-29-1941_-_NARA_-_513042.jpg \"Washington (BB56). Port bow, 05-29-1941 - NARA - 513042.jpg\")\n\nFor the rest of the month, *Washington* and the other American ships were occupied with battle practice and familiarization training with the Home Fleet to prepare the different countries' ships for joint operations. TF 39 was redesignated TF 99 in late April, *Washington* still serving as the flagship. The ships embarked on their first operation on 28 April to conduct a sweep for German warships ahead of the supply [convoy PQ 15](/wiki/Convoy_PQ_15 \"Convoy PQ 15\") to the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\"). The ships of TF 99 operated with elements of the Home Fleet, including the battleship and the carrier . During the operation, *King George V* accidentally rammed and sank the destroyer ; *Washington* was following too closely to avoid the wreckage, and as she passed over the sinking destroyer, *Punjabi*s [depth charges](/wiki/Depth_charge \"Depth charge\") exploded. The shock from the blast damaged some of *Washington*s radars and fire\\-control equipment and caused a small leak in one of her fuel tanks. *King George V* had to return to port for repairs, but *Washington* and the rest of TF 99 remained at sea until 5 May. The ships stopped at [Hvalfjörður](/wiki/Hvalfj%C3%B6r%C3%B0ur \"Hvalfjörður\"), Iceland, where they took on supplies from the supply ship .\n\nThe ships remained in Iceland until 15 May, when they got underway to return to Scapa Flow, arriving there on 3 June. The next day, Admiral [Harold Rainsford Stark](/wiki/Harold_Rainsford_Stark \"Harold Rainsford Stark\"), the [Commander of Naval Forces Europe](/wiki/United_States_Naval_Forces_Europe_%E2%80%93_Naval_Forces_Africa \"United States Naval Forces Europe – Naval Forces Africa\"), visited the ship and made her his temporary headquarters. On 7 June, King [George VI](/wiki/George_VI \"George VI\") came aboard to inspect *Washington*, and after Stark left she resumed escorting convoys in the Arctic; these included convoys QP 12, [PQ 16](/wiki/Convoy_PQ_16 \"Convoy PQ 16\"), and [PQ 17](/wiki/Convoy_PQ_17 \"Convoy PQ 17\"). The first two occurred at the same time, with QP 12 returning from the Soviet Union while PQ 16 carrying another load of supplies and weapons. *Washington*, *Victorious*, and the battleship provided distant support but was not directly engaged by the German [U\\-boats](/wiki/U-boat \"U-boat\") and aircraft that raided PQ 16; QP 12 largely evaded German attention and passed without significant incident.\n\nThe PQ 17 operation resulted in disaster when reconnaissance incorrectly reported *Tirpitz*, the heavy cruisers , , and *[Lützow](/wiki/German_cruiser_Deutschland \"German cruiser Deutschland\")*, and nine destroyers to be approaching to attack the convoy, when in reality the Germans were still off the coast of Norway, their progress having been hampered by several of the vessels [running aground](/wiki/Ship_grounding \"Ship grounding\"). The reports of German heavy units at sea prompted the convoy commander to order his ships to scatter, which left them vulnerable to U\\-boats and *[Luftwaffe](/wiki/Luftwaffe \"Luftwaffe\")* attacks that sank twenty\\-four of the thirty\\-five transport ships. While in Hvalfjörður on 14 July, Giffen moved his flag back to *Wichita* and *Washington*, escorted by four destroyers, got underway to return to the United States. She arrived in [Gravesend Bay](/wiki/Gravesend%2C_Brooklyn \"Gravesend, Brooklyn\") on 21 July and moved to the [Brooklyn Navy Yard](/wiki/Brooklyn_Navy_Yard \"Brooklyn Navy Yard\") two days later for an [overhaul](/wiki/Overhaul \"Overhaul\").\n\n", "### Pacific operations\n\n#### Guadalcanal campaign\n\n[left\\|thumb\\|*Washington* refitting off New York in August 1942, en route to the Pacific](/wiki/File:USS_Washington_%28BB-56%29_off_New_York_City%2C_August_1942.jpg \"USS Washington (BB-56) off New York City, August 1942.jpg\")\n\nAfter completing the refit, *Washington* got underway on 23 August, bound for the Pacific with an escort of three destroyers. She passed through the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal \"Panama Canal\") on 28 August and arrived in [Nukuʻalofa](/wiki/Nuku%CA%BBalofa \"Nukuʻalofa\") in [Tonga](/wiki/Tonga \"Tonga\") on 14 September. There, she became the flagship of Rear Admiral [Willis Lee](/wiki/Willis_Lee \"Willis Lee\"), then the commander of BatDiv 6 and Task Group (TG) 12\\.2\\. On 15 September, *Washington* sailed to meet the ships of TF 17, centered on the carrier ; the ships thereafter operated together and went to [Nouméa](/wiki/Noum%C3%A9a \"Nouméa\") in [New Caledonia](/wiki/New_Caledonia \"New Caledonia\") to begin operations in support of the campaign in the [Solomon Islands](/wiki/Solomon_Islands \"Solomon Islands\"). The ships, based out of Nouméa and [Espiritu Santo](/wiki/Espiritu_Santo \"Espiritu Santo\") in the [New Hebrides](/wiki/New_Hebrides \"New Hebrides\"), covered convoys bringing supplies and reinforcements to the [marines](/wiki/USMC \"USMC\") fighting on [Guadalcanal](/wiki/Guadalcanal \"Guadalcanal\") into early November.\n\nDuring one of these convoy operations in mid\\-October, *Washington*, a pair of cruisers, and five destroyers provided distant support but were too far away to take part in the [Battle of Cape Esperance](/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Esperance \"Battle of Cape Esperance\") on the night of 11–12 October. Shortly thereafter, *Washington* was transferred to TF 64, the surface combatant force assigned to the Guadalcanal area, still under Lee's command. At this time, the unit also included one heavy and two light cruisers and six destroyers. Over the course of 21–24 October, Japanese land\\-based reconnaissance aircraft made repeated contacts with TF 64 as a Japanese fleet approached the area, but in the [Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Santa_Cruz_Islands \"Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands\") that began on the 25th, the Japanese concentrated their air attacks on the American carriers of TF 17 and 61\\. On 27 October, the Japanese [submarine](/wiki/Submarine \"Submarine\") attempted to torpedo *Washington* but missed.\n\nBy early November, the US fleet had been reduced considerably in offensive power; the carriers *Wasp* and *Hornet* had been sunk, leaving just the carrier , *Washington*, and the new battleship as the only [capital ships](/wiki/Capital_ship \"Capital ship\") available to Allied forces fighting in the campaign. *Washington* joined the other two ships in TF 16, which also included the heavy cruiser , and nine destroyers. The ships sortied on 11 November to return to the fighting off Guadalcanal. The cruiser and two more destroyers joined them the following day. On 13 November, after learning that a major Japanese attack was approaching, Halsey detached *South Dakota*, *Washington*, and four of the destroyers as Task Group 16\\.3, again under Lee's command. *Enterprise*, her forward elevator damaged from the action at Santa Cruz, was kept to the south as a [reserve](/wiki/Military_reserve_force \"Military reserve force\") and to prevent the sole operational American carrier in the Pacific from being lost. The ships of TG 16\\.3 were to block an anticipated Japanese bombardment group in the waters off Guadalcanal.\n\n##### Naval Battle of Guadalcanal\n\n[thumb\\|The Japanese battleship , *Washington*s opponent off Guadalcanal](/wiki/File:Kirishima_Tsukumowan_1937.jpg \"Kirishima Tsukumowan 1937.jpg\")\n\nAs Lee's task group approached Guadalcanal, his Japanese counterpart, Admiral [Nobutake Kondō](/wiki/Nobutake_Kond%C5%8D \"Nobutake Kondō\") steamed to meet him with his main bombardment force, consisting of the fast battleship , the heavy cruisers and , and a destroyer screen. While en route, TG 16\\.3 was re\\-designated as TF 64 on 14 November; the ships passed to the south of Guadalcanal and then rounded the western end of the island to block Kondō's expected route. Japanese aircraft reported sighting Lee's formation, but identification of the ships ranged from a group of cruisers and destroyers to aircraft carriers, causing confusion among the Japanese commanders. That evening, American reconnaissance aircraft spotted Japanese warships off [Savo Island](/wiki/Savo_Island \"Savo Island\"), prompting Lee to order his ships to [general quarters](/wiki/General_quarters \"General quarters\"). The four destroyers were arrayed ahead of the two battleships. The American task force, having been thrown together a day before, had not operated together as a unit, and both of the battleships had very limited experience shooting their main battery, particularly at night.\n\nAt around 23:00 on 14 November, the leading Japanese destroyers in a screening force commanded by [Shintarō Hashimoto](/wiki/Shintar%C5%8D_Hashimoto \"Shintarō Hashimoto\") sent ahead of Kondō's main force spotted Lee's ships and turned about to warn Kondō, while *Washington*s search radar picked up a Japanese cruiser and a destroyer at about the same time. The ships' fire control radars then began tracking the Japanese vessels and Lee ordered both of his battleships to open fire when ready. *Washington* fired first with her main battery at 23:17 at a range of while her secondary guns fired [star shells](/wiki/Star_shell \"Star shell\") to illuminate the targets, followed shortly by *South Dakota*. One of the Japanese destroyers, , revealed her position by opening fire on the American destroyer screen, allowing *Washington* to target her, inflicting serious damage that disabled her propulsion machinery and started a major fire.\n\nShortly thereafter, at about 23:30, an error in the [electrical switchboard](/wiki/Electric_switchboard \"Electric switchboard\") room knocked out power aboard *South Dakota*, disabling her radar systems and leaving the ship all but blind to the Japanese vessels approaching the force. By this time, Hashimoto's ships had inflicted serious damage on the American destroyer screen; two of the destroyers were torpedoed (one of which, , survived until the following morning) and a third was destroyed by gunfire. *Washington* was now left essentially alone to engage the Japanese squadron, though they had yet to actually detect her presence. While *Washington*s captain, [Glenn B. Davis](/wiki/Glenn_B._Davis \"Glenn B. Davis\"), kept his ship on the disengaged side of the flaming wrecks of the destroyer screen, *South Dakota* was forced to turn in front of one of the burning destroyers to avoid a collision, which backlit her to the Japanese ships, drawing their fire and allowing *Washington* to engage them undisturbed.\n\n[thumb\\|*Washington* engaged in night firing; note the low elevation of the gun barrels\\|alt\\=Two large gun turrets are trained to starboard, with the superstructure in the background. Flames are shooting out of one or more of the guns in both the nearer of the two turrets and an unseen gun astern.](/wiki/File:NavalGuadalcanalWashington.jpg \"NavalGuadalcanalWashington.jpg\")\n\nAt 23:35, *Washington*s SG radar detected Kondō's main force and tracked them for the next twenty minutes. At 23:58, *South Dakota*s power was restored and her radar picked up the Japanese ships less than ahead. Two minutes later, the leading Japanese ship, *Atago*, illuminated *South Dakota* with her search lights and the Japanese line promptly opened fire, scoring twenty\\-seven hits. *Washington*, still undetected, opened fire, allocating two of her 5\\-inch guns to engage *Atago* and two to fire star shells, while the rest joined her main battery in battering *Kirishima* at a range of . *Washington* scored probably nine 16\\-inch hits and as many as forty 5\\-inch hits, inflicting grievous damage. *Kirishima* was badly holed below the waterline, her forward two turrets were knocked out, and her [rudder](/wiki/Rudder \"Rudder\") was jammed, forcing her to steer in a circle to [port](/wiki/Port_and_starboard \"Port and starboard\") with an increasing starboard [list](/wiki/Angle_of_list \"Angle of list\").\n\n*Washington* then shifted fire to *Atago* and *Takao*, and though straddled the former, failed to score any significant hits; the barrage nevertheless convinced both cruisers to turn off their search lights and reverse course in an attempt to launch torpedoes. At 00:13, the two cruisers fired a spread of sixteen [Long Lance](/wiki/Long_Lance \"Long Lance\") torpedoes at *Washington*, then about away, though they all missed. At 00:20, Lee turned his sole surviving combatant (he had ordered the surviving destroyers to disengage earlier in the engagement, and *South Dakota*s captain, having determined that his ship had been damaged sufficiently to prevent her from taking further action, decided to break off as well) to close with Kondō's cruisers. *Atago* and *Takao* briefly engaged with their main batteries and the former launched three more torpedoes, all of which missed. Kondō then ordered the light forces of his reconnaissance screen to make a torpedo attack, but Hashimoto's ships were far out of position and were unable to comply. Rear Admiral [Raizō Tanaka](/wiki/Raiz%C5%8D_Tanaka \"Raizō Tanaka\"), who was escorting a supply convoy to Guadalcanal and had thus far not participated in the action, detached two destroyers to aid Kondō. When these ships arrived on the scene, Lee ordered *Washington* to turn to reverse course at 00:33 to avoid a possible torpedo attack from the destroyers.\n\nTanaka's two destroyers closed to launch their torpedoes while *Washington* was disengaging, prompting her to take evasive maneuvers. While withdrawing to the south, Lee kept *Washington* far west of the damaged American warships so that any Japanese vessels pursuing him would not be drawn onto the damaged vessels. An hour later, Kondō cancelled the bombardment and attempted to contact *Kirishima*, but after failing to receive a response, sent destroyers to investigate the crippled battleship. She was found burning furiously, still turning slowly to port as progressively worsening flooding disabled her boilers. At 03:25, she [capsized](/wiki/Capsize \"Capsize\") and sank; by this time, *Ayanami* had also been abandoned and sank as a result of the damage inflicted by *Washington*. By 09:00, *Washington* had formed back up with *South Dakota* and the destroyers *Benham* and to withdraw from the area. In addition to blocking Kondō's planned bombardment, Lee had delayed Tanaka's convoy late enough that the transports could not unload under cover of darkness, and so they were forced to beach themselves on the island, where they were repeatedly attacked and badly damaged by aircraft from *Enterprise* and Henderson Field, field artillery, and the destroyer later that morning.\n\n##### Later operations\n\n[thumb\\|*Washington* off Hawaii in mid\\-1943](/wiki/File:80-G-K-15103_%2824842873691%29.jpg \"80-G-K-15103 (24842873691).jpg\")\n\n*Washington* returned to screening the carriers of TF 11——and TF 16—*Enterprise*—while *South Dakota* departed for repairs. By late November, Lee's command was reinforced by *North Carolina*, followed later by the battleship . These battleships were grouped together as TF 64, still under Lee's command, and they covered convoys to support the fighting in the Solomons into the next year. These operations included covering a group of seven transports carrying elements of the [25th Infantry Division](/wiki/25th_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 \"25th Infantry Division (United States)\") to Guadalcanal from 1 to 4 January 1943\\. During another of these convoy operations later that month, Lee's battleships were too far south to be able to reach the American cruiser force during the [Battle of Rennell Island](/wiki/Battle_of_Rennell_Island \"Battle of Rennell Island\"). *Washington* remained in the south Pacific until 30 April, when she departed Nouméa for [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor \"Pearl Harbor\"). On the way, she joined the ships of TF 16\\. The ships arrived on 8 May.\n\nFor the next twenty days, *Washington* operated as the flagship of TF 60, which conducted combat training off the coast of Hawaii. On 28 May, she went into dry dock at the [Pearl Harbor Navy Yard](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor_Navy_Yard \"Pearl Harbor Navy Yard\") for repairs and installation of new equipment. This included a new set of screws that again failed to remediate the vibration problems. Once this work was completed, she resumed training exercises in the area until 27 July, when she got underway with a convoy bound for the south Pacific. For the voyage, she was attached to TG 56\\.14, and on arriving in the area was detached on 5 August to proceed independently to [Havannah Harbor](/wiki/Havannah_Harbor \"Havannah Harbor\") at [Efate](/wiki/Efate \"Efate\") in the New Hebrides, which she reached two days later. *Washington* spent the next two months conducting tactical training with the carrier task forces in the Efate area in preparation for upcoming campaigns in the central Pacific.\n\nNow part of TG 53\\.2, which included three other battleships and six destroyers, *Washington* got underway on 31 October. The ships met TG 53\\.3, centered on the carriers *Enterprise*, , and , the next day, for extensive training exercises that lasted until 5 November. The groups then dispersed and *Washington* left with escorting destroyers for [Viti Levu](/wiki/Viti_Levu \"Viti Levu\") in the [Fiji Islands](/wiki/Fiji \"Fiji\"), which she reached on 7 November.\n\n#### Gilberts and Marshall Islands campaign\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|A [Douglas SBD Dauntless](/wiki/Douglas_SBD_Dauntless \"Douglas SBD Dauntless\") flying over *Washington* off the Gilberts](/wiki/File:SBD_VB-16_over_USS_Washington_1943.jpg \"SBD VB-16 over USS Washington 1943.jpg\")\n\n*Washington*, still Lee's flagship, sortied on 11 November in company with the ships of BatDivs 8 and 9, and four days later they joined TG 50\\.1, centered on the carrier . The fleet proceeded on to the [Gilbert Islands](/wiki/Gilbert_Islands \"Gilbert Islands\"), where marines were preparing to [land on Tarawa](/wiki/Battle_of_Tarawa \"Battle of Tarawa\"). The carriers of TF 50 launched their strikes on 19 November, continuing into the next day as the marines went ashore on [Tarawa](/wiki/Tarawa \"Tarawa\") and [Makin](/wiki/Makin_%28islands%29 \"Makin (islands)\"). The attacks continued through 22 November, when the fleet steamed to the north of Makin to patrol the area. On 25 November, the groups of TF 50 were reorganized and *Washington* was transferred to TG 50\\.4, along with the carriers and and the battleships *South Dakota* and .\n\nFrom 26 to 28 November, the carrier groups operated off Makin to cover the landing of troops and supplies on the island. Japanese aircraft attacked the groups on 27 and 28 November, but they inflicted little damage on the American ships. On 6 December, with the fighting in the Gilberts over, *Washington* was detached to create TG 50\\.8 along with *North Carolina*, *South Dakota*, *Alabama*, *Indiana*, and , covered by *Bunker Hill*, *Monterey*, and eleven destroyers. The battleships were sent to bombard the island of [Nauru](/wiki/Nauru \"Nauru\") two days later, thereafter returning to Efate on 12 December. The ships remained there only briefly before departing on 25 December for gunnery training with *North Carolina* and four destroyers. The ships returned to port on 7 January 1944, at which time *Washington* was assigned to TG 37\\.2, along with *Bunker Hill* and *Monterey*. The ships got underway on 18 January, bound for the next target in the campaign: the [Marshall Islands](/wiki/Marshall_Islands \"Marshall Islands\").\n\nThe ships stopped briefly in [Funafuti](/wiki/Funafuti \"Funafuti\") in the [Ellice Islands](/wiki/Ellice_Islands \"Ellice Islands\") on 20 January before departing three days later to meet the rest of what was now TF 58; the unit, which comprised the [fast carrier task force](/wiki/Fast_carrier_task_force \"Fast carrier task force\"), had been created under the command of Rear Admiral [Marc Mitscher](/wiki/Marc_Mitscher \"Marc Mitscher\") on 6 January. *Washington*s unit was accordingly re\\-numbered as TG 58\\.1\\. Having arrived off the main target at [Kwajalein](/wiki/Kwajalein \"Kwajalein\") by late January, *Washington* screened the carriers while they conducted extensive strikes on the island and neighboring [Taroa](/wiki/Taroa \"Taroa\"). On 30 January, *Washington*, *Massachusetts*, and *Indiana* were detached from the carriers to bombard Kwajalein with an escort of four destroyers. After returning to the carriers the next day, the battleships resumed guard duty while the carriers resumed their air strikes.\n\n[thumb\\|Bow of *Washington* heavily damaged after colliding with *Indiana*](/wiki/File:USS_Washington_damage_after_collision_NARA_BS_109965.jpg \"USS Washington damage after collision NARA BS 109965.jpg\")\nWhile patrolling off the island in the early hours of 1 February, *Indiana* cut in front of *Washington* to go refuel a group of destroyers, causing the latter to ram the former and significantly damaging both ships. *Indiana* had some of plating torn from her hull, and *Washington*s bow collapsed. The two vessels withdrew to [Majuro](/wiki/Majuro \"Majuro\") for temporary repairs; *Washington*s crumpled bow was reinforced to allow her to steam to Pearl Harbor on 11 February for further temporary repairs. After arriving there, she was fitted with a temporary bow before continuing on to the [Puget Sound Navy Yard](/wiki/Puget_Sound_Navy_Yard \"Puget Sound Navy Yard\") in [Bremerton, Washington](/wiki/Bremerton%2C_Washington \"Bremerton, Washington\"), for permanent repairs. Another new set of screws was installed and in April, *Washington* conducted vibration tests that revealed a partial solution: the ship could now steam at high speed without significant issues, but vibration was still excessive at speeds between . Once the work was completed, the ship joined BatDiv 4 and took on a group of 500 passengers before departing for Pearl Harbor. She arrived there on 13 May and disembarked the passengers and proceeding back to the fleet at Majuro. On arrival on 7 June, she resumed her service as now\\-Vice Admiral Lee's flagship.\n\n#### Mariana and Palau Islands campaign\n\n[thumb\\|*Washington* off the coast of its namesake state in April 1944](/wiki/File:USS_Washington_off_Port_Angeles_NARA_STL-10735.jpg \"USS Washington off Port Angeles NARA STL-10735.jpg\")\n\nShortly after *Washington* arrived, the fleet got underway to begin the assault on the [Mariana Islands](/wiki/Mariana_Islands \"Mariana Islands\"); the carriers struck targets on [Saipan](/wiki/Saipan \"Saipan\"), [Tinian](/wiki/Tinian \"Tinian\"), [Guam](/wiki/Guam \"Guam\"), [Rota](/wiki/Rota_%28island%29 \"Rota (island)\"), and [Pagan](/wiki/Pagan_Island \"Pagan Island\") to weaken Japanese defenses before ground forces went ashore. At the time, she was assigned to TG 58\\.7, which consisted of seven fast battleships, was distributed between the four carrier task groups. On 13 June, *Washington* and several other battleships were detached to bombard Saipan and Tinian before being relieved by the amphibious force's bombardment group the next day. On 15 June, the fast carrier task force steamed north to hit targets in the [Volcano](/wiki/Volcano_Islands \"Volcano Islands\") and [Bonin Islands](/wiki/Bonin_Islands \"Bonin Islands\"), including [Iwo Jima](/wiki/Iwo_Jima \"Iwo Jima\"), [Chichi Jima](/wiki/Chichi_Jima \"Chichi Jima\"), and [Haha Jima](/wiki/Haha_Jima \"Haha Jima\"). At the same time, marines stormed the beaches on Saipan; landing was a breach of Japan's inner defensive perimeter that triggered the Japanese fleet to launch a major counter\\-thrust with the [1st Mobile Fleet](/wiki/1st_Mobile_Fleet_%28Imperial_Japanese_Navy%29 \"1st Mobile Fleet (Imperial Japanese Navy)\"), the main carrier strike force.\n\nOzawa's departure was observed by the American submarine ; other submarines, including and , tracked the Japanese fleet as it approached, keeping Admiral [Raymond Spruance](/wiki/Raymond_Spruance \"Raymond Spruance\"), the [Fifth Fleet](/wiki/United_States_Fifth_Fleet \"United States Fifth Fleet\") commander, informed of their movements. As the Japanese fleet approached, *Washington* and the rest of TF 58 steamed to meet it on 18 June, leading to the [Battle of the Philippine Sea](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Philippine_Sea \"Battle of the Philippine Sea\") on 19–20 June. *Washington* and the other battleships, with four cruisers and thirteen destroyers, were deployed some west of the carrier groups to screen the likely path of approach. The Japanese launched their aircraft first, and as they probed the American fleet's defenses, *Washington* and *North Carolina* were the first battleships to open fire on the attacking Japanese aircraft. During the action, which was fought primarily by the carriers, the US fleet inflicted serious losses on the Japanese, destroying hundreds of their aircraft and sinking three carriers.\n\nWith the 1st Mobile Fleet defeated and withdrawing, *Washington* and the rest of TF 58 returned to the Marianas. She continued to screen the carriers during the [Battle of Guam](/wiki/Battle_of_Guam_%281944%29 \"Battle of Guam (1944)\") until 25 July, when *Washington* steamed with the carriers of TG 58\\.4 to raid the [Palau Islands](/wiki/Palau_Islands \"Palau Islands\"). The attacks lasted until 6 August, when *Washington*, *Indiana*, *Alabama*, the light cruiser , and escorting destroyers were detached as TG 58\\.7 to proceed to Eniwetok. After arriving there on 11 August, the ships refueled and replenished ammunition and other supplies, remaining there for most of the month. On 30 August, the task group got underway with the rest of the fast carrier strike force, which by now had been transferred to [Third Fleet](/wiki/United_States_Third_Fleet \"United States Third Fleet\") command and renumbered TF 38\\. At this time, *Washington* was assigned to TG 38\\.3\\. The ships sailed first south to the [Admiralty Islands](/wiki/Admiralty_Islands \"Admiralty Islands\") and then west, back to the Palaus. There, the carriers began a series of strikes from 6 to 8 September on various targets in the Palaus; *Washington* contributed her heavy guns to the bombardment of [Peleliu](/wiki/Peleliu \"Peleliu\") and [Anguar](/wiki/Anguar \"Anguar\") before the marines assaulted both islands later that month.\n\nOn 9 and 10 September, task groups 38\\.1, 38\\.2, and 38\\.3 left the Palaus to raid Japanese airfields on [Mindanao](/wiki/Mindanao \"Mindanao\") in the southern Philippines, part of the standard practice to neutralize nearby positions that could interfere with the upcoming assault on the Palaus. Finding few Japanese forces on the island, the carriers shifted north to the [Visayas](/wiki/Visayas \"Visayas\") in the central Philippines from 12 to 14 September. The carrier groups then withdrew to refuel at sea before returning to the Philippines to attack airfields on [Luzon](/wiki/Luzon \"Luzon\") from 21 and 22 September before making further attacks on installations in the Visayas on 24 September. The carrier groups then proceeded north to make a series of strikes on airfields in [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island \"Okinawa Island\"), [Formosa](/wiki/Formosa \"Formosa\"), and Luzon in preparation for the upcoming invasion of the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\").\n\n#### Philippines campaign\n\n[thumb\\|Movements of American forces (in black) and Japanese forces (in red) during the Battle of Leyte Gulf](/wiki/File:Map_of_Battle_of_Leyte_Gulf.jpg \"Map of Battle of Leyte Gulf.jpg\")\n\nTF 38 embarked on the raids to isolate the Philippines and suppress the units of the [1st Air Fleet](/wiki/1st_Air_Fleet_%28Imperial_Japanese_Navy%29%23As_a_Land-Based_Air_Fleet \"1st Air Fleet (Imperial Japanese Navy)#As a Land-Based Air Fleet\") on 6 October; *Washington* remained Lee's flagship, attached to TG 38\\.3\\. The first operation was a major strike on Japanese air bases on the island of Okinawa on 10 October. The next day, the ships of TG 38\\.3 refueled at sea before joining the other three task groups for [major raids on Formosa](/wiki/Formosa_Air_Battle \"Formosa Air Battle\") that took place from 12 to 14 October. As the fleet withdrew the next day, it defended itself against heavy Japanese air attacks, though the ships of TG 38\\.3 were not directly engaged as the Japanese attacks concentrated on task groups 38\\.1 and 38\\.4\\. On the 16th, a submarine reported observing a Japanese squadron consisting of three cruisers and eight destroyers searching for damaged Allied warships, and TG 38\\.3 and TG 38\\.2 steamed north to catch them, but the aircraft were only able to locate and sink a [torpedo boat](/wiki/Torpedo_boat \"Torpedo boat\").\n\nOn 17 October, the two task groups withdrew to the south to cover the [invasion of Leyte](/wiki/Battle_of_Leyte \"Battle of Leyte\") with the rest of TF 38, the same day that elements of [Sixth Army](/wiki/Sixth_United_States_Army \"Sixth United States Army\") went ashore; the raids on Luzon continued into 19 October. By this time, *Washington* had been reassigned to TG 38\\.4, screening *Enterprise*, the [fleet carrier](/wiki/Fleet_carrier \"Fleet carrier\") , and the [light carriers](/wiki/Light_carrier \"Light carrier\") and . On 21 October, TG 38\\.4 withdrew to refuel, during which time they also covered the withdrawal of ships that had been damaged during the Formosa raid, which were still on their way to [Ulithi](/wiki/Ulithi \"Ulithi\"). TG 38\\.4 was recalled to Leyte the next day.\n\n##### Battle of Leyte Gulf\n\nThe landing on Leyte led to the activation of [Operation Shō\\-Gō 1](/wiki/Operation_Sh%C5%8D-G%C5%8D_1 \"Operation Shō-Gō 1\"), the Japanese navy's planned riposte to an Allied landing in the Philippines. The plan was a complicated operation with three separate fleets: The 1st Mobile Fleet, now labeled the Northern Force under [Jisaburō Ozawa](/wiki/Jisabur%C5%8D_Ozawa \"Jisaburō Ozawa\"), the Center Force under [Takeo Kurita](/wiki/Takeo_Kurita \"Takeo Kurita\"), and the Southern Force under [Shōji Nishimura](/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dji_Nishimura \"Shōji Nishimura\"). Ozawa's carriers, by now depleted of most of their aircraft, were to serve as a decoy for Kurita's and Nishimura's battleships, which were to use the distraction to attack the invasion fleet directly. Kurita's ships were detected in the [San Bernardino Strait](/wiki/San_Bernardino_Strait \"San Bernardino Strait\") on 24 October, and in the ensuing [Battle of the Sibuyan Sea](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Sibuyan_Sea \"Battle of the Sibuyan Sea\"), American carrier aircraft sank the powerful battleship , causing Kurita to temporarily reverse course. This convinced Admiral [William F. Halsey](/wiki/William_F._Halsey \"William F. Halsey\"), the commander of Third Fleet, to send the fast carrier task force to destroy the 1st Mobile Fleet, which had by then been detected. *Washington* steamed north with the carriers, and on the way Halsey established TF 34, under Lee's command, consisting of *Washington* and five other fast battleships, seven cruisers, and eighteen destroyers.\n\nOn the morning of 25 October, Mitscher began his first attack on the Northern Force, initiating the [Battle off Cape Engaño](/wiki/Battle_off_Cape_Enga%C3%B1o \"Battle off Cape Engaño\"); over the course of six strikes on the Japanese fleet, the Americans sank all four carriers and damaged two old battleships that had been converted into hybrid carriers. Unknown to Halsey and Mitscher, Kurita had resumed his approach through the San Bernardino Strait late on 24 October and passed into [Leyte Gulf](/wiki/Leyte_Gulf \"Leyte Gulf\") the next morning. While Mitscher was occupied with the decoy Northern Force, Kurita moved in to attack the invasion fleet; in the [Battle off Samar](/wiki/Battle_off_Samar \"Battle off Samar\"), he was held off by a group of [escort carriers](/wiki/Escort_carrier \"Escort carrier\"), destroyers, and [destroyer escorts](/wiki/Destroyer_escort \"Destroyer escort\"), TU 77\\.4\\.3, known as Taffy 3\\. Frantic calls for help later that morning led Halsey to detach Lee's battleships to head south and intervene.\n\nHowever, Halsey waited more than an hour after receiving orders from Admiral [Chester W. Nimitz](/wiki/Chester_W._Nimitz \"Chester W. Nimitz\"), the [Commander, U.S. Pacific Fleet](/wiki/Commander%2C_U.S._Pacific_Fleet \"Commander, U.S. Pacific Fleet\"), to detach TF 34; still steaming north during this interval, the delay added two hours to the battleships' voyage south. A need to refuel destroyers further slowed TF 34's progress south. Heavy resistance from Taffy 3 threw Kurita's battleships and cruisers into disarray and led him to break off the attack before *Washington* and the rest of TF 34 could arrive. Halsey detached the battleships and as TG 34\\.5 to pursue Kurita through the San Bernardino Strait while Lee took the rest of his ships further southwest to try to cut off his escape, but both groups arrived too late. The historian H. P. Wilmott speculated that had Halsey detached TF 34 promptly and not delayed the battleships by refueling the destroyers, the ships could have easily arrived in the strait ahead of Center Force and, owing to the marked superiority of their radar\\-directed main guns, destroyed Kurita's ships.\n\n##### Later operations\n\n[left\\|thumb\\|*Washington* anchored at the [Puget Sound Navy Yard](/wiki/Puget_Sound_Navy_Yard \"Puget Sound Navy Yard\") in April 1944](/wiki/File:USS_Washington_collision_damage_repaired_NARA_BS_63999.jpg \"USS Washington collision damage repaired NARA BS 63999.jpg\")\n\nAfter the battle, the units of TF 38 withdrew to Ulithi to replenish fuel and ammunition for further operations in the Philippines. The carrier task forces got underway again on 2 November for more strikes on the airfields on Luzon and the Visayas that continued until 14 November, when they withdrew again to Ulithi, arriving there three days later. On 18 November, Lee exchanged flagships with Rear Admiral [Edward Hanson](/wiki/Edward_Hanson \"Edward Hanson\"), the commander of BatDiv 9, who had used *South Dakota* as his flagship. At the same time, *Washington* was transferred to TG 38\\.3, in company with *South Dakota* and *North Carolina*. The ships sortied on 22 November for gunnery training while the carriers conducted strikes independently against targets in the Philippines over the next three days. She arrived back in Ulithi on 2 December, where the crew made repairs and loaded ammunition and stores for future operations.\n\nThe units of TF 38 got underway again on 11 December for more attacks on Luzon to suppress Japanese aircraft as the amphibious force prepared for its next landing on the island of [Mindoro](/wiki/Mindoro \"Mindoro\") in the western Philippines. The raid lasted from 14 to 16 December, and while the fleet withdrew to refuel on 17 December, [Typhoon Cobra](/wiki/Typhoon_Cobra \"Typhoon Cobra\") swept through the area, battering the fleet and sinking three destroyers. The damage inflicted on the fleet delayed further support of ground troops for two days and the continuing bad weather led Halsey to break off operations; the ships arrived back in Ulithi on 24 December.\n\nOn 30 December, the fleet got underway to make preparatory strikes for the landing on Luzon; *Washington* remained with TG 38\\.3 for the operation. The carriers struck Formosa again on 3 and 4 January 1945; after refueling at sea on 5 January, the carriers struck [kamikazes](/wiki/Kamikaze \"Kamikaze\") massed at airfields on Luzon on 6 and 7 January to neutralize them before the [invasion of Lingayen Gulf](/wiki/Invasion_of_Lingayen_Gulf \"Invasion of Lingayen Gulf\"). Further attacks on Formosa and Okinawa followed on 9 January. The next day, the carrier groups entered the [South China Sea](/wiki/South_China_Sea \"South China Sea\"), where it refueled and then struck targets in French Indochina on the assumption that significant Japanese naval forces were present, but only merchant ships and a number of minor warships were caught and sunk there. During these raids, other elements of the Allied fleet invaded Lingayen Gulf on Luzon.\n\n#### Iwo Jima and Okinawa campaigns\n\n[thumb\\|*Washington* with other ships of Task Group 38\\.3 operating off Okinawa in May 1945](/wiki/File:USS_Essex_%28CV-9%29_with_TG_38_3_off_Okinawa_1945.jpeg \"USS Essex (CV-9) with TG 38 3 off Okinawa 1945.jpeg\")\n\nIn February, she escorted carriers during attacks on the Japanese island of [Honshu](/wiki/Honshu \"Honshu\") to disrupt Japanese air forces that might interfere with the planned [invasion of Iwo Jima](/wiki/Battle_of_Iwo_Jima \"Battle of Iwo Jima\") in the Volcano Islands. Fifth Fleet had re\\-assumed command of the fast carrier task force by this point, and *Washington* was now part of TG 58\\.4\\. The fleet sortied from Ulithi on 10 February, and after conducting training exercises off Tinian on the 12th, refueled at sea on 14 February and continued on north to launch strikes on the [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo \"Tokyo\") area two days later. The raids continued through 17 February and the next day, the fleet withdrew to refuel and TG 58\\.4 was sent to hit other islands in the Bonin chain to further isolate Iwo Jima. During the preparatory bombardment for that attack, *Washington*, *North Carolina*, and the heavy cruiser were detached from the task group to reinforce TF 54, the assault force for the invasion; she remained on station during the marine assault and provided fire support as they fought their way across the island through 22 February. The next day, the carrier groups reassembled and refueled on 24 February for further operations against the Japanese mainland.\n\nAfter leaving Iwo Jima, the fleet resumed air attacks on the [Home Islands](/wiki/Japanese_Archipelago \"Japanese Archipelago\") to prepare for the next [amphibious assault](/wiki/Amphibious_assault \"Amphibious assault\") on Okinawa in the Ryukus. The first of these, on 25 and 26 February, hit targets in the Tokyo area, followed by another attack on Iwo Jima the next day. The fleet refueled on 28 February and on 1 March raided Okinawa, thereafter returning to Ulithi on 4 March. While in Ulithi, the fleet was reorganized and *Washington* was transferred to TG 58\\.3\\. The fleet sortied on 14 March for additional attacks on Japan; the ships refueled on 16 March on the way and they launched their aircraft two days later to hit targets in [Kyushu](/wiki/Kyushu \"Kyushu\"). The attacks continued into the next day, causing significant damage to Japanese facilities on the island and sinking or damaging numerous warships. The task groups withdrew to refuel and reorganize on 22 March, as several carriers had been damaged by kamikaze and air attacks.\n\nOn 24 March, *Washington* bombarded Japanese positions on Okinawa as the fleet continued to pummel defenses before the invasion. By this time, *Washington* had been transferred to TG 58\\.2\\. Carrier raids on the Home Islands and the Ryukus continued after [landing on Okinawa](/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa \"Battle of Okinawa\") on 1 April. While operating off the island, the fleet came under heavy and repeated kamikaze attacks, one of the largest of which took place on 7 April in concert with the sortie of the battleship . *Washington* was not damaged in these attacks, however, which were largely defeated by the carriers' [combat air patrols](/wiki/Combat_air_patrol \"Combat air patrol\"). On 19 April, the battleship again closed with Okinawa to bombard Japanese positions as the Marines fought their way south. *Washington* remained off the island until late May, when she was detached for an overhaul. She proceeded first to [San Pedro Bay](/wiki/San_Pedro_Bay_%28Philippines%29 \"San Pedro Bay (Philippines)\"), Leyte, arriving there on 1 June, before departing for Puget Sound on 6 June. While crossing the Pacific, she stopped in Guam and Pearl Harbor before finally arriving in Bremerton on 23 June. Her refit continued into September, by which time Japan had surrendered on 15 August and formally ended the war on 2 September.\n\n", "#### Guadalcanal campaign\n\n[left\\|thumb\\|*Washington* refitting off New York in August 1942, en route to the Pacific](/wiki/File:USS_Washington_%28BB-56%29_off_New_York_City%2C_August_1942.jpg \"USS Washington (BB-56) off New York City, August 1942.jpg\")\n\nAfter completing the refit, *Washington* got underway on 23 August, bound for the Pacific with an escort of three destroyers. She passed through the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal \"Panama Canal\") on 28 August and arrived in [Nukuʻalofa](/wiki/Nuku%CA%BBalofa \"Nukuʻalofa\") in [Tonga](/wiki/Tonga \"Tonga\") on 14 September. There, she became the flagship of Rear Admiral [Willis Lee](/wiki/Willis_Lee \"Willis Lee\"), then the commander of BatDiv 6 and Task Group (TG) 12\\.2\\. On 15 September, *Washington* sailed to meet the ships of TF 17, centered on the carrier ; the ships thereafter operated together and went to [Nouméa](/wiki/Noum%C3%A9a \"Nouméa\") in [New Caledonia](/wiki/New_Caledonia \"New Caledonia\") to begin operations in support of the campaign in the [Solomon Islands](/wiki/Solomon_Islands \"Solomon Islands\"). The ships, based out of Nouméa and [Espiritu Santo](/wiki/Espiritu_Santo \"Espiritu Santo\") in the [New Hebrides](/wiki/New_Hebrides \"New Hebrides\"), covered convoys bringing supplies and reinforcements to the [marines](/wiki/USMC \"USMC\") fighting on [Guadalcanal](/wiki/Guadalcanal \"Guadalcanal\") into early November.\n\nDuring one of these convoy operations in mid\\-October, *Washington*, a pair of cruisers, and five destroyers provided distant support but were too far away to take part in the [Battle of Cape Esperance](/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Esperance \"Battle of Cape Esperance\") on the night of 11–12 October. Shortly thereafter, *Washington* was transferred to TF 64, the surface combatant force assigned to the Guadalcanal area, still under Lee's command. At this time, the unit also included one heavy and two light cruisers and six destroyers. Over the course of 21–24 October, Japanese land\\-based reconnaissance aircraft made repeated contacts with TF 64 as a Japanese fleet approached the area, but in the [Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Santa_Cruz_Islands \"Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands\") that began on the 25th, the Japanese concentrated their air attacks on the American carriers of TF 17 and 61\\. On 27 October, the Japanese [submarine](/wiki/Submarine \"Submarine\") attempted to torpedo *Washington* but missed.\n\nBy early November, the US fleet had been reduced considerably in offensive power; the carriers *Wasp* and *Hornet* had been sunk, leaving just the carrier , *Washington*, and the new battleship as the only [capital ships](/wiki/Capital_ship \"Capital ship\") available to Allied forces fighting in the campaign. *Washington* joined the other two ships in TF 16, which also included the heavy cruiser , and nine destroyers. The ships sortied on 11 November to return to the fighting off Guadalcanal. The cruiser and two more destroyers joined them the following day. On 13 November, after learning that a major Japanese attack was approaching, Halsey detached *South Dakota*, *Washington*, and four of the destroyers as Task Group 16\\.3, again under Lee's command. *Enterprise*, her forward elevator damaged from the action at Santa Cruz, was kept to the south as a [reserve](/wiki/Military_reserve_force \"Military reserve force\") and to prevent the sole operational American carrier in the Pacific from being lost. The ships of TG 16\\.3 were to block an anticipated Japanese bombardment group in the waters off Guadalcanal.\n\n##### Naval Battle of Guadalcanal\n\n[thumb\\|The Japanese battleship , *Washington*s opponent off Guadalcanal](/wiki/File:Kirishima_Tsukumowan_1937.jpg \"Kirishima Tsukumowan 1937.jpg\")\n\nAs Lee's task group approached Guadalcanal, his Japanese counterpart, Admiral [Nobutake Kondō](/wiki/Nobutake_Kond%C5%8D \"Nobutake Kondō\") steamed to meet him with his main bombardment force, consisting of the fast battleship , the heavy cruisers and , and a destroyer screen. While en route, TG 16\\.3 was re\\-designated as TF 64 on 14 November; the ships passed to the south of Guadalcanal and then rounded the western end of the island to block Kondō's expected route. Japanese aircraft reported sighting Lee's formation, but identification of the ships ranged from a group of cruisers and destroyers to aircraft carriers, causing confusion among the Japanese commanders. That evening, American reconnaissance aircraft spotted Japanese warships off [Savo Island](/wiki/Savo_Island \"Savo Island\"), prompting Lee to order his ships to [general quarters](/wiki/General_quarters \"General quarters\"). The four destroyers were arrayed ahead of the two battleships. The American task force, having been thrown together a day before, had not operated together as a unit, and both of the battleships had very limited experience shooting their main battery, particularly at night.\n\nAt around 23:00 on 14 November, the leading Japanese destroyers in a screening force commanded by [Shintarō Hashimoto](/wiki/Shintar%C5%8D_Hashimoto \"Shintarō Hashimoto\") sent ahead of Kondō's main force spotted Lee's ships and turned about to warn Kondō, while *Washington*s search radar picked up a Japanese cruiser and a destroyer at about the same time. The ships' fire control radars then began tracking the Japanese vessels and Lee ordered both of his battleships to open fire when ready. *Washington* fired first with her main battery at 23:17 at a range of while her secondary guns fired [star shells](/wiki/Star_shell \"Star shell\") to illuminate the targets, followed shortly by *South Dakota*. One of the Japanese destroyers, , revealed her position by opening fire on the American destroyer screen, allowing *Washington* to target her, inflicting serious damage that disabled her propulsion machinery and started a major fire.\n\nShortly thereafter, at about 23:30, an error in the [electrical switchboard](/wiki/Electric_switchboard \"Electric switchboard\") room knocked out power aboard *South Dakota*, disabling her radar systems and leaving the ship all but blind to the Japanese vessels approaching the force. By this time, Hashimoto's ships had inflicted serious damage on the American destroyer screen; two of the destroyers were torpedoed (one of which, , survived until the following morning) and a third was destroyed by gunfire. *Washington* was now left essentially alone to engage the Japanese squadron, though they had yet to actually detect her presence. While *Washington*s captain, [Glenn B. Davis](/wiki/Glenn_B._Davis \"Glenn B. Davis\"), kept his ship on the disengaged side of the flaming wrecks of the destroyer screen, *South Dakota* was forced to turn in front of one of the burning destroyers to avoid a collision, which backlit her to the Japanese ships, drawing their fire and allowing *Washington* to engage them undisturbed.\n\n[thumb\\|*Washington* engaged in night firing; note the low elevation of the gun barrels\\|alt\\=Two large gun turrets are trained to starboard, with the superstructure in the background. Flames are shooting out of one or more of the guns in both the nearer of the two turrets and an unseen gun astern.](/wiki/File:NavalGuadalcanalWashington.jpg \"NavalGuadalcanalWashington.jpg\")\n\nAt 23:35, *Washington*s SG radar detected Kondō's main force and tracked them for the next twenty minutes. At 23:58, *South Dakota*s power was restored and her radar picked up the Japanese ships less than ahead. Two minutes later, the leading Japanese ship, *Atago*, illuminated *South Dakota* with her search lights and the Japanese line promptly opened fire, scoring twenty\\-seven hits. *Washington*, still undetected, opened fire, allocating two of her 5\\-inch guns to engage *Atago* and two to fire star shells, while the rest joined her main battery in battering *Kirishima* at a range of . *Washington* scored probably nine 16\\-inch hits and as many as forty 5\\-inch hits, inflicting grievous damage. *Kirishima* was badly holed below the waterline, her forward two turrets were knocked out, and her [rudder](/wiki/Rudder \"Rudder\") was jammed, forcing her to steer in a circle to [port](/wiki/Port_and_starboard \"Port and starboard\") with an increasing starboard [list](/wiki/Angle_of_list \"Angle of list\").\n\n*Washington* then shifted fire to *Atago* and *Takao*, and though straddled the former, failed to score any significant hits; the barrage nevertheless convinced both cruisers to turn off their search lights and reverse course in an attempt to launch torpedoes. At 00:13, the two cruisers fired a spread of sixteen [Long Lance](/wiki/Long_Lance \"Long Lance\") torpedoes at *Washington*, then about away, though they all missed. At 00:20, Lee turned his sole surviving combatant (he had ordered the surviving destroyers to disengage earlier in the engagement, and *South Dakota*s captain, having determined that his ship had been damaged sufficiently to prevent her from taking further action, decided to break off as well) to close with Kondō's cruisers. *Atago* and *Takao* briefly engaged with their main batteries and the former launched three more torpedoes, all of which missed. Kondō then ordered the light forces of his reconnaissance screen to make a torpedo attack, but Hashimoto's ships were far out of position and were unable to comply. Rear Admiral [Raizō Tanaka](/wiki/Raiz%C5%8D_Tanaka \"Raizō Tanaka\"), who was escorting a supply convoy to Guadalcanal and had thus far not participated in the action, detached two destroyers to aid Kondō. When these ships arrived on the scene, Lee ordered *Washington* to turn to reverse course at 00:33 to avoid a possible torpedo attack from the destroyers.\n\nTanaka's two destroyers closed to launch their torpedoes while *Washington* was disengaging, prompting her to take evasive maneuvers. While withdrawing to the south, Lee kept *Washington* far west of the damaged American warships so that any Japanese vessels pursuing him would not be drawn onto the damaged vessels. An hour later, Kondō cancelled the bombardment and attempted to contact *Kirishima*, but after failing to receive a response, sent destroyers to investigate the crippled battleship. She was found burning furiously, still turning slowly to port as progressively worsening flooding disabled her boilers. At 03:25, she [capsized](/wiki/Capsize \"Capsize\") and sank; by this time, *Ayanami* had also been abandoned and sank as a result of the damage inflicted by *Washington*. By 09:00, *Washington* had formed back up with *South Dakota* and the destroyers *Benham* and to withdraw from the area. In addition to blocking Kondō's planned bombardment, Lee had delayed Tanaka's convoy late enough that the transports could not unload under cover of darkness, and so they were forced to beach themselves on the island, where they were repeatedly attacked and badly damaged by aircraft from *Enterprise* and Henderson Field, field artillery, and the destroyer later that morning.\n\n##### Later operations\n\n[thumb\\|*Washington* off Hawaii in mid\\-1943](/wiki/File:80-G-K-15103_%2824842873691%29.jpg \"80-G-K-15103 (24842873691).jpg\")\n\n*Washington* returned to screening the carriers of TF 11——and TF 16—*Enterprise*—while *South Dakota* departed for repairs. By late November, Lee's command was reinforced by *North Carolina*, followed later by the battleship . These battleships were grouped together as TF 64, still under Lee's command, and they covered convoys to support the fighting in the Solomons into the next year. These operations included covering a group of seven transports carrying elements of the [25th Infantry Division](/wiki/25th_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 \"25th Infantry Division (United States)\") to Guadalcanal from 1 to 4 January 1943\\. During another of these convoy operations later that month, Lee's battleships were too far south to be able to reach the American cruiser force during the [Battle of Rennell Island](/wiki/Battle_of_Rennell_Island \"Battle of Rennell Island\"). *Washington* remained in the south Pacific until 30 April, when she departed Nouméa for [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor \"Pearl Harbor\"). On the way, she joined the ships of TF 16\\. The ships arrived on 8 May.\n\nFor the next twenty days, *Washington* operated as the flagship of TF 60, which conducted combat training off the coast of Hawaii. On 28 May, she went into dry dock at the [Pearl Harbor Navy Yard](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor_Navy_Yard \"Pearl Harbor Navy Yard\") for repairs and installation of new equipment. This included a new set of screws that again failed to remediate the vibration problems. Once this work was completed, she resumed training exercises in the area until 27 July, when she got underway with a convoy bound for the south Pacific. For the voyage, she was attached to TG 56\\.14, and on arriving in the area was detached on 5 August to proceed independently to [Havannah Harbor](/wiki/Havannah_Harbor \"Havannah Harbor\") at [Efate](/wiki/Efate \"Efate\") in the New Hebrides, which she reached two days later. *Washington* spent the next two months conducting tactical training with the carrier task forces in the Efate area in preparation for upcoming campaigns in the central Pacific.\n\nNow part of TG 53\\.2, which included three other battleships and six destroyers, *Washington* got underway on 31 October. The ships met TG 53\\.3, centered on the carriers *Enterprise*, , and , the next day, for extensive training exercises that lasted until 5 November. The groups then dispersed and *Washington* left with escorting destroyers for [Viti Levu](/wiki/Viti_Levu \"Viti Levu\") in the [Fiji Islands](/wiki/Fiji \"Fiji\"), which she reached on 7 November.\n\n", "##### Naval Battle of Guadalcanal\n\n[thumb\\|The Japanese battleship , *Washington*s opponent off Guadalcanal](/wiki/File:Kirishima_Tsukumowan_1937.jpg \"Kirishima Tsukumowan 1937.jpg\")\n\nAs Lee's task group approached Guadalcanal, his Japanese counterpart, Admiral [Nobutake Kondō](/wiki/Nobutake_Kond%C5%8D \"Nobutake Kondō\") steamed to meet him with his main bombardment force, consisting of the fast battleship , the heavy cruisers and , and a destroyer screen. While en route, TG 16\\.3 was re\\-designated as TF 64 on 14 November; the ships passed to the south of Guadalcanal and then rounded the western end of the island to block Kondō's expected route. Japanese aircraft reported sighting Lee's formation, but identification of the ships ranged from a group of cruisers and destroyers to aircraft carriers, causing confusion among the Japanese commanders. That evening, American reconnaissance aircraft spotted Japanese warships off [Savo Island](/wiki/Savo_Island \"Savo Island\"), prompting Lee to order his ships to [general quarters](/wiki/General_quarters \"General quarters\"). The four destroyers were arrayed ahead of the two battleships. The American task force, having been thrown together a day before, had not operated together as a unit, and both of the battleships had very limited experience shooting their main battery, particularly at night.\n\nAt around 23:00 on 14 November, the leading Japanese destroyers in a screening force commanded by [Shintarō Hashimoto](/wiki/Shintar%C5%8D_Hashimoto \"Shintarō Hashimoto\") sent ahead of Kondō's main force spotted Lee's ships and turned about to warn Kondō, while *Washington*s search radar picked up a Japanese cruiser and a destroyer at about the same time. The ships' fire control radars then began tracking the Japanese vessels and Lee ordered both of his battleships to open fire when ready. *Washington* fired first with her main battery at 23:17 at a range of while her secondary guns fired [star shells](/wiki/Star_shell \"Star shell\") to illuminate the targets, followed shortly by *South Dakota*. One of the Japanese destroyers, , revealed her position by opening fire on the American destroyer screen, allowing *Washington* to target her, inflicting serious damage that disabled her propulsion machinery and started a major fire.\n\nShortly thereafter, at about 23:30, an error in the [electrical switchboard](/wiki/Electric_switchboard \"Electric switchboard\") room knocked out power aboard *South Dakota*, disabling her radar systems and leaving the ship all but blind to the Japanese vessels approaching the force. By this time, Hashimoto's ships had inflicted serious damage on the American destroyer screen; two of the destroyers were torpedoed (one of which, , survived until the following morning) and a third was destroyed by gunfire. *Washington* was now left essentially alone to engage the Japanese squadron, though they had yet to actually detect her presence. While *Washington*s captain, [Glenn B. Davis](/wiki/Glenn_B._Davis \"Glenn B. Davis\"), kept his ship on the disengaged side of the flaming wrecks of the destroyer screen, *South Dakota* was forced to turn in front of one of the burning destroyers to avoid a collision, which backlit her to the Japanese ships, drawing their fire and allowing *Washington* to engage them undisturbed.\n\n[thumb\\|*Washington* engaged in night firing; note the low elevation of the gun barrels\\|alt\\=Two large gun turrets are trained to starboard, with the superstructure in the background. Flames are shooting out of one or more of the guns in both the nearer of the two turrets and an unseen gun astern.](/wiki/File:NavalGuadalcanalWashington.jpg \"NavalGuadalcanalWashington.jpg\")\n\nAt 23:35, *Washington*s SG radar detected Kondō's main force and tracked them for the next twenty minutes. At 23:58, *South Dakota*s power was restored and her radar picked up the Japanese ships less than ahead. Two minutes later, the leading Japanese ship, *Atago*, illuminated *South Dakota* with her search lights and the Japanese line promptly opened fire, scoring twenty\\-seven hits. *Washington*, still undetected, opened fire, allocating two of her 5\\-inch guns to engage *Atago* and two to fire star shells, while the rest joined her main battery in battering *Kirishima* at a range of . *Washington* scored probably nine 16\\-inch hits and as many as forty 5\\-inch hits, inflicting grievous damage. *Kirishima* was badly holed below the waterline, her forward two turrets were knocked out, and her [rudder](/wiki/Rudder \"Rudder\") was jammed, forcing her to steer in a circle to [port](/wiki/Port_and_starboard \"Port and starboard\") with an increasing starboard [list](/wiki/Angle_of_list \"Angle of list\").\n\n*Washington* then shifted fire to *Atago* and *Takao*, and though straddled the former, failed to score any significant hits; the barrage nevertheless convinced both cruisers to turn off their search lights and reverse course in an attempt to launch torpedoes. At 00:13, the two cruisers fired a spread of sixteen [Long Lance](/wiki/Long_Lance \"Long Lance\") torpedoes at *Washington*, then about away, though they all missed. At 00:20, Lee turned his sole surviving combatant (he had ordered the surviving destroyers to disengage earlier in the engagement, and *South Dakota*s captain, having determined that his ship had been damaged sufficiently to prevent her from taking further action, decided to break off as well) to close with Kondō's cruisers. *Atago* and *Takao* briefly engaged with their main batteries and the former launched three more torpedoes, all of which missed. Kondō then ordered the light forces of his reconnaissance screen to make a torpedo attack, but Hashimoto's ships were far out of position and were unable to comply. Rear Admiral [Raizō Tanaka](/wiki/Raiz%C5%8D_Tanaka \"Raizō Tanaka\"), who was escorting a supply convoy to Guadalcanal and had thus far not participated in the action, detached two destroyers to aid Kondō. When these ships arrived on the scene, Lee ordered *Washington* to turn to reverse course at 00:33 to avoid a possible torpedo attack from the destroyers.\n\nTanaka's two destroyers closed to launch their torpedoes while *Washington* was disengaging, prompting her to take evasive maneuvers. While withdrawing to the south, Lee kept *Washington* far west of the damaged American warships so that any Japanese vessels pursuing him would not be drawn onto the damaged vessels. An hour later, Kondō cancelled the bombardment and attempted to contact *Kirishima*, but after failing to receive a response, sent destroyers to investigate the crippled battleship. She was found burning furiously, still turning slowly to port as progressively worsening flooding disabled her boilers. At 03:25, she [capsized](/wiki/Capsize \"Capsize\") and sank; by this time, *Ayanami* had also been abandoned and sank as a result of the damage inflicted by *Washington*. By 09:00, *Washington* had formed back up with *South Dakota* and the destroyers *Benham* and to withdraw from the area. In addition to blocking Kondō's planned bombardment, Lee had delayed Tanaka's convoy late enough that the transports could not unload under cover of darkness, and so they were forced to beach themselves on the island, where they were repeatedly attacked and badly damaged by aircraft from *Enterprise* and Henderson Field, field artillery, and the destroyer later that morning.\n\n", "##### Later operations\n\n[thumb\\|*Washington* off Hawaii in mid\\-1943](/wiki/File:80-G-K-15103_%2824842873691%29.jpg \"80-G-K-15103 (24842873691).jpg\")\n\n*Washington* returned to screening the carriers of TF 11——and TF 16—*Enterprise*—while *South Dakota* departed for repairs. By late November, Lee's command was reinforced by *North Carolina*, followed later by the battleship . These battleships were grouped together as TF 64, still under Lee's command, and they covered convoys to support the fighting in the Solomons into the next year. These operations included covering a group of seven transports carrying elements of the [25th Infantry Division](/wiki/25th_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 \"25th Infantry Division (United States)\") to Guadalcanal from 1 to 4 January 1943\\. During another of these convoy operations later that month, Lee's battleships were too far south to be able to reach the American cruiser force during the [Battle of Rennell Island](/wiki/Battle_of_Rennell_Island \"Battle of Rennell Island\"). *Washington* remained in the south Pacific until 30 April, when she departed Nouméa for [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor \"Pearl Harbor\"). On the way, she joined the ships of TF 16\\. The ships arrived on 8 May.\n\nFor the next twenty days, *Washington* operated as the flagship of TF 60, which conducted combat training off the coast of Hawaii. On 28 May, she went into dry dock at the [Pearl Harbor Navy Yard](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor_Navy_Yard \"Pearl Harbor Navy Yard\") for repairs and installation of new equipment. This included a new set of screws that again failed to remediate the vibration problems. Once this work was completed, she resumed training exercises in the area until 27 July, when she got underway with a convoy bound for the south Pacific. For the voyage, she was attached to TG 56\\.14, and on arriving in the area was detached on 5 August to proceed independently to [Havannah Harbor](/wiki/Havannah_Harbor \"Havannah Harbor\") at [Efate](/wiki/Efate \"Efate\") in the New Hebrides, which she reached two days later. *Washington* spent the next two months conducting tactical training with the carrier task forces in the Efate area in preparation for upcoming campaigns in the central Pacific.\n\nNow part of TG 53\\.2, which included three other battleships and six destroyers, *Washington* got underway on 31 October. The ships met TG 53\\.3, centered on the carriers *Enterprise*, , and , the next day, for extensive training exercises that lasted until 5 November. The groups then dispersed and *Washington* left with escorting destroyers for [Viti Levu](/wiki/Viti_Levu \"Viti Levu\") in the [Fiji Islands](/wiki/Fiji \"Fiji\"), which she reached on 7 November.\n\n", "#### Gilberts and Marshall Islands campaign\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|A [Douglas SBD Dauntless](/wiki/Douglas_SBD_Dauntless \"Douglas SBD Dauntless\") flying over *Washington* off the Gilberts](/wiki/File:SBD_VB-16_over_USS_Washington_1943.jpg \"SBD VB-16 over USS Washington 1943.jpg\")\n\n*Washington*, still Lee's flagship, sortied on 11 November in company with the ships of BatDivs 8 and 9, and four days later they joined TG 50\\.1, centered on the carrier . The fleet proceeded on to the [Gilbert Islands](/wiki/Gilbert_Islands \"Gilbert Islands\"), where marines were preparing to [land on Tarawa](/wiki/Battle_of_Tarawa \"Battle of Tarawa\"). The carriers of TF 50 launched their strikes on 19 November, continuing into the next day as the marines went ashore on [Tarawa](/wiki/Tarawa \"Tarawa\") and [Makin](/wiki/Makin_%28islands%29 \"Makin (islands)\"). The attacks continued through 22 November, when the fleet steamed to the north of Makin to patrol the area. On 25 November, the groups of TF 50 were reorganized and *Washington* was transferred to TG 50\\.4, along with the carriers and and the battleships *South Dakota* and .\n\nFrom 26 to 28 November, the carrier groups operated off Makin to cover the landing of troops and supplies on the island. Japanese aircraft attacked the groups on 27 and 28 November, but they inflicted little damage on the American ships. On 6 December, with the fighting in the Gilberts over, *Washington* was detached to create TG 50\\.8 along with *North Carolina*, *South Dakota*, *Alabama*, *Indiana*, and , covered by *Bunker Hill*, *Monterey*, and eleven destroyers. The battleships were sent to bombard the island of [Nauru](/wiki/Nauru \"Nauru\") two days later, thereafter returning to Efate on 12 December. The ships remained there only briefly before departing on 25 December for gunnery training with *North Carolina* and four destroyers. The ships returned to port on 7 January 1944, at which time *Washington* was assigned to TG 37\\.2, along with *Bunker Hill* and *Monterey*. The ships got underway on 18 January, bound for the next target in the campaign: the [Marshall Islands](/wiki/Marshall_Islands \"Marshall Islands\").\n\nThe ships stopped briefly in [Funafuti](/wiki/Funafuti \"Funafuti\") in the [Ellice Islands](/wiki/Ellice_Islands \"Ellice Islands\") on 20 January before departing three days later to meet the rest of what was now TF 58; the unit, which comprised the [fast carrier task force](/wiki/Fast_carrier_task_force \"Fast carrier task force\"), had been created under the command of Rear Admiral [Marc Mitscher](/wiki/Marc_Mitscher \"Marc Mitscher\") on 6 January. *Washington*s unit was accordingly re\\-numbered as TG 58\\.1\\. Having arrived off the main target at [Kwajalein](/wiki/Kwajalein \"Kwajalein\") by late January, *Washington* screened the carriers while they conducted extensive strikes on the island and neighboring [Taroa](/wiki/Taroa \"Taroa\"). On 30 January, *Washington*, *Massachusetts*, and *Indiana* were detached from the carriers to bombard Kwajalein with an escort of four destroyers. After returning to the carriers the next day, the battleships resumed guard duty while the carriers resumed their air strikes.\n\n[thumb\\|Bow of *Washington* heavily damaged after colliding with *Indiana*](/wiki/File:USS_Washington_damage_after_collision_NARA_BS_109965.jpg \"USS Washington damage after collision NARA BS 109965.jpg\")\nWhile patrolling off the island in the early hours of 1 February, *Indiana* cut in front of *Washington* to go refuel a group of destroyers, causing the latter to ram the former and significantly damaging both ships. *Indiana* had some of plating torn from her hull, and *Washington*s bow collapsed. The two vessels withdrew to [Majuro](/wiki/Majuro \"Majuro\") for temporary repairs; *Washington*s crumpled bow was reinforced to allow her to steam to Pearl Harbor on 11 February for further temporary repairs. After arriving there, she was fitted with a temporary bow before continuing on to the [Puget Sound Navy Yard](/wiki/Puget_Sound_Navy_Yard \"Puget Sound Navy Yard\") in [Bremerton, Washington](/wiki/Bremerton%2C_Washington \"Bremerton, Washington\"), for permanent repairs. Another new set of screws was installed and in April, *Washington* conducted vibration tests that revealed a partial solution: the ship could now steam at high speed without significant issues, but vibration was still excessive at speeds between . Once the work was completed, the ship joined BatDiv 4 and took on a group of 500 passengers before departing for Pearl Harbor. She arrived there on 13 May and disembarked the passengers and proceeding back to the fleet at Majuro. On arrival on 7 June, she resumed her service as now\\-Vice Admiral Lee's flagship.\n\n", "#### Mariana and Palau Islands campaign\n\n[thumb\\|*Washington* off the coast of its namesake state in April 1944](/wiki/File:USS_Washington_off_Port_Angeles_NARA_STL-10735.jpg \"USS Washington off Port Angeles NARA STL-10735.jpg\")\n\nShortly after *Washington* arrived, the fleet got underway to begin the assault on the [Mariana Islands](/wiki/Mariana_Islands \"Mariana Islands\"); the carriers struck targets on [Saipan](/wiki/Saipan \"Saipan\"), [Tinian](/wiki/Tinian \"Tinian\"), [Guam](/wiki/Guam \"Guam\"), [Rota](/wiki/Rota_%28island%29 \"Rota (island)\"), and [Pagan](/wiki/Pagan_Island \"Pagan Island\") to weaken Japanese defenses before ground forces went ashore. At the time, she was assigned to TG 58\\.7, which consisted of seven fast battleships, was distributed between the four carrier task groups. On 13 June, *Washington* and several other battleships were detached to bombard Saipan and Tinian before being relieved by the amphibious force's bombardment group the next day. On 15 June, the fast carrier task force steamed north to hit targets in the [Volcano](/wiki/Volcano_Islands \"Volcano Islands\") and [Bonin Islands](/wiki/Bonin_Islands \"Bonin Islands\"), including [Iwo Jima](/wiki/Iwo_Jima \"Iwo Jima\"), [Chichi Jima](/wiki/Chichi_Jima \"Chichi Jima\"), and [Haha Jima](/wiki/Haha_Jima \"Haha Jima\"). At the same time, marines stormed the beaches on Saipan; landing was a breach of Japan's inner defensive perimeter that triggered the Japanese fleet to launch a major counter\\-thrust with the [1st Mobile Fleet](/wiki/1st_Mobile_Fleet_%28Imperial_Japanese_Navy%29 \"1st Mobile Fleet (Imperial Japanese Navy)\"), the main carrier strike force.\n\nOzawa's departure was observed by the American submarine ; other submarines, including and , tracked the Japanese fleet as it approached, keeping Admiral [Raymond Spruance](/wiki/Raymond_Spruance \"Raymond Spruance\"), the [Fifth Fleet](/wiki/United_States_Fifth_Fleet \"United States Fifth Fleet\") commander, informed of their movements. As the Japanese fleet approached, *Washington* and the rest of TF 58 steamed to meet it on 18 June, leading to the [Battle of the Philippine Sea](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Philippine_Sea \"Battle of the Philippine Sea\") on 19–20 June. *Washington* and the other battleships, with four cruisers and thirteen destroyers, were deployed some west of the carrier groups to screen the likely path of approach. The Japanese launched their aircraft first, and as they probed the American fleet's defenses, *Washington* and *North Carolina* were the first battleships to open fire on the attacking Japanese aircraft. During the action, which was fought primarily by the carriers, the US fleet inflicted serious losses on the Japanese, destroying hundreds of their aircraft and sinking three carriers.\n\nWith the 1st Mobile Fleet defeated and withdrawing, *Washington* and the rest of TF 58 returned to the Marianas. She continued to screen the carriers during the [Battle of Guam](/wiki/Battle_of_Guam_%281944%29 \"Battle of Guam (1944)\") until 25 July, when *Washington* steamed with the carriers of TG 58\\.4 to raid the [Palau Islands](/wiki/Palau_Islands \"Palau Islands\"). The attacks lasted until 6 August, when *Washington*, *Indiana*, *Alabama*, the light cruiser , and escorting destroyers were detached as TG 58\\.7 to proceed to Eniwetok. After arriving there on 11 August, the ships refueled and replenished ammunition and other supplies, remaining there for most of the month. On 30 August, the task group got underway with the rest of the fast carrier strike force, which by now had been transferred to [Third Fleet](/wiki/United_States_Third_Fleet \"United States Third Fleet\") command and renumbered TF 38\\. At this time, *Washington* was assigned to TG 38\\.3\\. The ships sailed first south to the [Admiralty Islands](/wiki/Admiralty_Islands \"Admiralty Islands\") and then west, back to the Palaus. There, the carriers began a series of strikes from 6 to 8 September on various targets in the Palaus; *Washington* contributed her heavy guns to the bombardment of [Peleliu](/wiki/Peleliu \"Peleliu\") and [Anguar](/wiki/Anguar \"Anguar\") before the marines assaulted both islands later that month.\n\nOn 9 and 10 September, task groups 38\\.1, 38\\.2, and 38\\.3 left the Palaus to raid Japanese airfields on [Mindanao](/wiki/Mindanao \"Mindanao\") in the southern Philippines, part of the standard practice to neutralize nearby positions that could interfere with the upcoming assault on the Palaus. Finding few Japanese forces on the island, the carriers shifted north to the [Visayas](/wiki/Visayas \"Visayas\") in the central Philippines from 12 to 14 September. The carrier groups then withdrew to refuel at sea before returning to the Philippines to attack airfields on [Luzon](/wiki/Luzon \"Luzon\") from 21 and 22 September before making further attacks on installations in the Visayas on 24 September. The carrier groups then proceeded north to make a series of strikes on airfields in [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island \"Okinawa Island\"), [Formosa](/wiki/Formosa \"Formosa\"), and Luzon in preparation for the upcoming invasion of the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\").\n\n", "#### Philippines campaign\n\n[thumb\\|Movements of American forces (in black) and Japanese forces (in red) during the Battle of Leyte Gulf](/wiki/File:Map_of_Battle_of_Leyte_Gulf.jpg \"Map of Battle of Leyte Gulf.jpg\")\n\nTF 38 embarked on the raids to isolate the Philippines and suppress the units of the [1st Air Fleet](/wiki/1st_Air_Fleet_%28Imperial_Japanese_Navy%29%23As_a_Land-Based_Air_Fleet \"1st Air Fleet (Imperial Japanese Navy)#As a Land-Based Air Fleet\") on 6 October; *Washington* remained Lee's flagship, attached to TG 38\\.3\\. The first operation was a major strike on Japanese air bases on the island of Okinawa on 10 October. The next day, the ships of TG 38\\.3 refueled at sea before joining the other three task groups for [major raids on Formosa](/wiki/Formosa_Air_Battle \"Formosa Air Battle\") that took place from 12 to 14 October. As the fleet withdrew the next day, it defended itself against heavy Japanese air attacks, though the ships of TG 38\\.3 were not directly engaged as the Japanese attacks concentrated on task groups 38\\.1 and 38\\.4\\. On the 16th, a submarine reported observing a Japanese squadron consisting of three cruisers and eight destroyers searching for damaged Allied warships, and TG 38\\.3 and TG 38\\.2 steamed north to catch them, but the aircraft were only able to locate and sink a [torpedo boat](/wiki/Torpedo_boat \"Torpedo boat\").\n\nOn 17 October, the two task groups withdrew to the south to cover the [invasion of Leyte](/wiki/Battle_of_Leyte \"Battle of Leyte\") with the rest of TF 38, the same day that elements of [Sixth Army](/wiki/Sixth_United_States_Army \"Sixth United States Army\") went ashore; the raids on Luzon continued into 19 October. By this time, *Washington* had been reassigned to TG 38\\.4, screening *Enterprise*, the [fleet carrier](/wiki/Fleet_carrier \"Fleet carrier\") , and the [light carriers](/wiki/Light_carrier \"Light carrier\") and . On 21 October, TG 38\\.4 withdrew to refuel, during which time they also covered the withdrawal of ships that had been damaged during the Formosa raid, which were still on their way to [Ulithi](/wiki/Ulithi \"Ulithi\"). TG 38\\.4 was recalled to Leyte the next day.\n\n##### Battle of Leyte Gulf\n\nThe landing on Leyte led to the activation of [Operation Shō\\-Gō 1](/wiki/Operation_Sh%C5%8D-G%C5%8D_1 \"Operation Shō-Gō 1\"), the Japanese navy's planned riposte to an Allied landing in the Philippines. The plan was a complicated operation with three separate fleets: The 1st Mobile Fleet, now labeled the Northern Force under [Jisaburō Ozawa](/wiki/Jisabur%C5%8D_Ozawa \"Jisaburō Ozawa\"), the Center Force under [Takeo Kurita](/wiki/Takeo_Kurita \"Takeo Kurita\"), and the Southern Force under [Shōji Nishimura](/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dji_Nishimura \"Shōji Nishimura\"). Ozawa's carriers, by now depleted of most of their aircraft, were to serve as a decoy for Kurita's and Nishimura's battleships, which were to use the distraction to attack the invasion fleet directly. Kurita's ships were detected in the [San Bernardino Strait](/wiki/San_Bernardino_Strait \"San Bernardino Strait\") on 24 October, and in the ensuing [Battle of the Sibuyan Sea](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Sibuyan_Sea \"Battle of the Sibuyan Sea\"), American carrier aircraft sank the powerful battleship , causing Kurita to temporarily reverse course. This convinced Admiral [William F. Halsey](/wiki/William_F._Halsey \"William F. Halsey\"), the commander of Third Fleet, to send the fast carrier task force to destroy the 1st Mobile Fleet, which had by then been detected. *Washington* steamed north with the carriers, and on the way Halsey established TF 34, under Lee's command, consisting of *Washington* and five other fast battleships, seven cruisers, and eighteen destroyers.\n\nOn the morning of 25 October, Mitscher began his first attack on the Northern Force, initiating the [Battle off Cape Engaño](/wiki/Battle_off_Cape_Enga%C3%B1o \"Battle off Cape Engaño\"); over the course of six strikes on the Japanese fleet, the Americans sank all four carriers and damaged two old battleships that had been converted into hybrid carriers. Unknown to Halsey and Mitscher, Kurita had resumed his approach through the San Bernardino Strait late on 24 October and passed into [Leyte Gulf](/wiki/Leyte_Gulf \"Leyte Gulf\") the next morning. While Mitscher was occupied with the decoy Northern Force, Kurita moved in to attack the invasion fleet; in the [Battle off Samar](/wiki/Battle_off_Samar \"Battle off Samar\"), he was held off by a group of [escort carriers](/wiki/Escort_carrier \"Escort carrier\"), destroyers, and [destroyer escorts](/wiki/Destroyer_escort \"Destroyer escort\"), TU 77\\.4\\.3, known as Taffy 3\\. Frantic calls for help later that morning led Halsey to detach Lee's battleships to head south and intervene.\n\nHowever, Halsey waited more than an hour after receiving orders from Admiral [Chester W. Nimitz](/wiki/Chester_W._Nimitz \"Chester W. Nimitz\"), the [Commander, U.S. Pacific Fleet](/wiki/Commander%2C_U.S._Pacific_Fleet \"Commander, U.S. Pacific Fleet\"), to detach TF 34; still steaming north during this interval, the delay added two hours to the battleships' voyage south. A need to refuel destroyers further slowed TF 34's progress south. Heavy resistance from Taffy 3 threw Kurita's battleships and cruisers into disarray and led him to break off the attack before *Washington* and the rest of TF 34 could arrive. Halsey detached the battleships and as TG 34\\.5 to pursue Kurita through the San Bernardino Strait while Lee took the rest of his ships further southwest to try to cut off his escape, but both groups arrived too late. The historian H. P. Wilmott speculated that had Halsey detached TF 34 promptly and not delayed the battleships by refueling the destroyers, the ships could have easily arrived in the strait ahead of Center Force and, owing to the marked superiority of their radar\\-directed main guns, destroyed Kurita's ships.\n\n##### Later operations\n\n[left\\|thumb\\|*Washington* anchored at the [Puget Sound Navy Yard](/wiki/Puget_Sound_Navy_Yard \"Puget Sound Navy Yard\") in April 1944](/wiki/File:USS_Washington_collision_damage_repaired_NARA_BS_63999.jpg \"USS Washington collision damage repaired NARA BS 63999.jpg\")\n\nAfter the battle, the units of TF 38 withdrew to Ulithi to replenish fuel and ammunition for further operations in the Philippines. The carrier task forces got underway again on 2 November for more strikes on the airfields on Luzon and the Visayas that continued until 14 November, when they withdrew again to Ulithi, arriving there three days later. On 18 November, Lee exchanged flagships with Rear Admiral [Edward Hanson](/wiki/Edward_Hanson \"Edward Hanson\"), the commander of BatDiv 9, who had used *South Dakota* as his flagship. At the same time, *Washington* was transferred to TG 38\\.3, in company with *South Dakota* and *North Carolina*. The ships sortied on 22 November for gunnery training while the carriers conducted strikes independently against targets in the Philippines over the next three days. She arrived back in Ulithi on 2 December, where the crew made repairs and loaded ammunition and stores for future operations.\n\nThe units of TF 38 got underway again on 11 December for more attacks on Luzon to suppress Japanese aircraft as the amphibious force prepared for its next landing on the island of [Mindoro](/wiki/Mindoro \"Mindoro\") in the western Philippines. The raid lasted from 14 to 16 December, and while the fleet withdrew to refuel on 17 December, [Typhoon Cobra](/wiki/Typhoon_Cobra \"Typhoon Cobra\") swept through the area, battering the fleet and sinking three destroyers. The damage inflicted on the fleet delayed further support of ground troops for two days and the continuing bad weather led Halsey to break off operations; the ships arrived back in Ulithi on 24 December.\n\nOn 30 December, the fleet got underway to make preparatory strikes for the landing on Luzon; *Washington* remained with TG 38\\.3 for the operation. The carriers struck Formosa again on 3 and 4 January 1945; after refueling at sea on 5 January, the carriers struck [kamikazes](/wiki/Kamikaze \"Kamikaze\") massed at airfields on Luzon on 6 and 7 January to neutralize them before the [invasion of Lingayen Gulf](/wiki/Invasion_of_Lingayen_Gulf \"Invasion of Lingayen Gulf\"). Further attacks on Formosa and Okinawa followed on 9 January. The next day, the carrier groups entered the [South China Sea](/wiki/South_China_Sea \"South China Sea\"), where it refueled and then struck targets in French Indochina on the assumption that significant Japanese naval forces were present, but only merchant ships and a number of minor warships were caught and sunk there. During these raids, other elements of the Allied fleet invaded Lingayen Gulf on Luzon.\n\n", "##### Battle of Leyte Gulf\n\nThe landing on Leyte led to the activation of [Operation Shō\\-Gō 1](/wiki/Operation_Sh%C5%8D-G%C5%8D_1 \"Operation Shō-Gō 1\"), the Japanese navy's planned riposte to an Allied landing in the Philippines. The plan was a complicated operation with three separate fleets: The 1st Mobile Fleet, now labeled the Northern Force under [Jisaburō Ozawa](/wiki/Jisabur%C5%8D_Ozawa \"Jisaburō Ozawa\"), the Center Force under [Takeo Kurita](/wiki/Takeo_Kurita \"Takeo Kurita\"), and the Southern Force under [Shōji Nishimura](/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dji_Nishimura \"Shōji Nishimura\"). Ozawa's carriers, by now depleted of most of their aircraft, were to serve as a decoy for Kurita's and Nishimura's battleships, which were to use the distraction to attack the invasion fleet directly. Kurita's ships were detected in the [San Bernardino Strait](/wiki/San_Bernardino_Strait \"San Bernardino Strait\") on 24 October, and in the ensuing [Battle of the Sibuyan Sea](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Sibuyan_Sea \"Battle of the Sibuyan Sea\"), American carrier aircraft sank the powerful battleship , causing Kurita to temporarily reverse course. This convinced Admiral [William F. Halsey](/wiki/William_F._Halsey \"William F. Halsey\"), the commander of Third Fleet, to send the fast carrier task force to destroy the 1st Mobile Fleet, which had by then been detected. *Washington* steamed north with the carriers, and on the way Halsey established TF 34, under Lee's command, consisting of *Washington* and five other fast battleships, seven cruisers, and eighteen destroyers.\n\nOn the morning of 25 October, Mitscher began his first attack on the Northern Force, initiating the [Battle off Cape Engaño](/wiki/Battle_off_Cape_Enga%C3%B1o \"Battle off Cape Engaño\"); over the course of six strikes on the Japanese fleet, the Americans sank all four carriers and damaged two old battleships that had been converted into hybrid carriers. Unknown to Halsey and Mitscher, Kurita had resumed his approach through the San Bernardino Strait late on 24 October and passed into [Leyte Gulf](/wiki/Leyte_Gulf \"Leyte Gulf\") the next morning. While Mitscher was occupied with the decoy Northern Force, Kurita moved in to attack the invasion fleet; in the [Battle off Samar](/wiki/Battle_off_Samar \"Battle off Samar\"), he was held off by a group of [escort carriers](/wiki/Escort_carrier \"Escort carrier\"), destroyers, and [destroyer escorts](/wiki/Destroyer_escort \"Destroyer escort\"), TU 77\\.4\\.3, known as Taffy 3\\. Frantic calls for help later that morning led Halsey to detach Lee's battleships to head south and intervene.\n\nHowever, Halsey waited more than an hour after receiving orders from Admiral [Chester W. Nimitz](/wiki/Chester_W._Nimitz \"Chester W. Nimitz\"), the [Commander, U.S. Pacific Fleet](/wiki/Commander%2C_U.S._Pacific_Fleet \"Commander, U.S. Pacific Fleet\"), to detach TF 34; still steaming north during this interval, the delay added two hours to the battleships' voyage south. A need to refuel destroyers further slowed TF 34's progress south. Heavy resistance from Taffy 3 threw Kurita's battleships and cruisers into disarray and led him to break off the attack before *Washington* and the rest of TF 34 could arrive. Halsey detached the battleships and as TG 34\\.5 to pursue Kurita through the San Bernardino Strait while Lee took the rest of his ships further southwest to try to cut off his escape, but both groups arrived too late. The historian H. P. Wilmott speculated that had Halsey detached TF 34 promptly and not delayed the battleships by refueling the destroyers, the ships could have easily arrived in the strait ahead of Center Force and, owing to the marked superiority of their radar\\-directed main guns, destroyed Kurita's ships.\n\n", "##### Later operations\n\n[left\\|thumb\\|*Washington* anchored at the [Puget Sound Navy Yard](/wiki/Puget_Sound_Navy_Yard \"Puget Sound Navy Yard\") in April 1944](/wiki/File:USS_Washington_collision_damage_repaired_NARA_BS_63999.jpg \"USS Washington collision damage repaired NARA BS 63999.jpg\")\n\nAfter the battle, the units of TF 38 withdrew to Ulithi to replenish fuel and ammunition for further operations in the Philippines. The carrier task forces got underway again on 2 November for more strikes on the airfields on Luzon and the Visayas that continued until 14 November, when they withdrew again to Ulithi, arriving there three days later. On 18 November, Lee exchanged flagships with Rear Admiral [Edward Hanson](/wiki/Edward_Hanson \"Edward Hanson\"), the commander of BatDiv 9, who had used *South Dakota* as his flagship. At the same time, *Washington* was transferred to TG 38\\.3, in company with *South Dakota* and *North Carolina*. The ships sortied on 22 November for gunnery training while the carriers conducted strikes independently against targets in the Philippines over the next three days. She arrived back in Ulithi on 2 December, where the crew made repairs and loaded ammunition and stores for future operations.\n\nThe units of TF 38 got underway again on 11 December for more attacks on Luzon to suppress Japanese aircraft as the amphibious force prepared for its next landing on the island of [Mindoro](/wiki/Mindoro \"Mindoro\") in the western Philippines. The raid lasted from 14 to 16 December, and while the fleet withdrew to refuel on 17 December, [Typhoon Cobra](/wiki/Typhoon_Cobra \"Typhoon Cobra\") swept through the area, battering the fleet and sinking three destroyers. The damage inflicted on the fleet delayed further support of ground troops for two days and the continuing bad weather led Halsey to break off operations; the ships arrived back in Ulithi on 24 December.\n\nOn 30 December, the fleet got underway to make preparatory strikes for the landing on Luzon; *Washington* remained with TG 38\\.3 for the operation. The carriers struck Formosa again on 3 and 4 January 1945; after refueling at sea on 5 January, the carriers struck [kamikazes](/wiki/Kamikaze \"Kamikaze\") massed at airfields on Luzon on 6 and 7 January to neutralize them before the [invasion of Lingayen Gulf](/wiki/Invasion_of_Lingayen_Gulf \"Invasion of Lingayen Gulf\"). Further attacks on Formosa and Okinawa followed on 9 January. The next day, the carrier groups entered the [South China Sea](/wiki/South_China_Sea \"South China Sea\"), where it refueled and then struck targets in French Indochina on the assumption that significant Japanese naval forces were present, but only merchant ships and a number of minor warships were caught and sunk there. During these raids, other elements of the Allied fleet invaded Lingayen Gulf on Luzon.\n\n", "#### Iwo Jima and Okinawa campaigns\n\n[thumb\\|*Washington* with other ships of Task Group 38\\.3 operating off Okinawa in May 1945](/wiki/File:USS_Essex_%28CV-9%29_with_TG_38_3_off_Okinawa_1945.jpeg \"USS Essex (CV-9) with TG 38 3 off Okinawa 1945.jpeg\")\n\nIn February, she escorted carriers during attacks on the Japanese island of [Honshu](/wiki/Honshu \"Honshu\") to disrupt Japanese air forces that might interfere with the planned [invasion of Iwo Jima](/wiki/Battle_of_Iwo_Jima \"Battle of Iwo Jima\") in the Volcano Islands. Fifth Fleet had re\\-assumed command of the fast carrier task force by this point, and *Washington* was now part of TG 58\\.4\\. The fleet sortied from Ulithi on 10 February, and after conducting training exercises off Tinian on the 12th, refueled at sea on 14 February and continued on north to launch strikes on the [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo \"Tokyo\") area two days later. The raids continued through 17 February and the next day, the fleet withdrew to refuel and TG 58\\.4 was sent to hit other islands in the Bonin chain to further isolate Iwo Jima. During the preparatory bombardment for that attack, *Washington*, *North Carolina*, and the heavy cruiser were detached from the task group to reinforce TF 54, the assault force for the invasion; she remained on station during the marine assault and provided fire support as they fought their way across the island through 22 February. The next day, the carrier groups reassembled and refueled on 24 February for further operations against the Japanese mainland.\n\nAfter leaving Iwo Jima, the fleet resumed air attacks on the [Home Islands](/wiki/Japanese_Archipelago \"Japanese Archipelago\") to prepare for the next [amphibious assault](/wiki/Amphibious_assault \"Amphibious assault\") on Okinawa in the Ryukus. The first of these, on 25 and 26 February, hit targets in the Tokyo area, followed by another attack on Iwo Jima the next day. The fleet refueled on 28 February and on 1 March raided Okinawa, thereafter returning to Ulithi on 4 March. While in Ulithi, the fleet was reorganized and *Washington* was transferred to TG 58\\.3\\. The fleet sortied on 14 March for additional attacks on Japan; the ships refueled on 16 March on the way and they launched their aircraft two days later to hit targets in [Kyushu](/wiki/Kyushu \"Kyushu\"). The attacks continued into the next day, causing significant damage to Japanese facilities on the island and sinking or damaging numerous warships. The task groups withdrew to refuel and reorganize on 22 March, as several carriers had been damaged by kamikaze and air attacks.\n\nOn 24 March, *Washington* bombarded Japanese positions on Okinawa as the fleet continued to pummel defenses before the invasion. By this time, *Washington* had been transferred to TG 58\\.2\\. Carrier raids on the Home Islands and the Ryukus continued after [landing on Okinawa](/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa \"Battle of Okinawa\") on 1 April. While operating off the island, the fleet came under heavy and repeated kamikaze attacks, one of the largest of which took place on 7 April in concert with the sortie of the battleship . *Washington* was not damaged in these attacks, however, which were largely defeated by the carriers' [combat air patrols](/wiki/Combat_air_patrol \"Combat air patrol\"). On 19 April, the battleship again closed with Okinawa to bombard Japanese positions as the Marines fought their way south. *Washington* remained off the island until late May, when she was detached for an overhaul. She proceeded first to [San Pedro Bay](/wiki/San_Pedro_Bay_%28Philippines%29 \"San Pedro Bay (Philippines)\"), Leyte, arriving there on 1 June, before departing for Puget Sound on 6 June. While crossing the Pacific, she stopped in Guam and Pearl Harbor before finally arriving in Bremerton on 23 June. Her refit continued into September, by which time Japan had surrendered on 15 August and formally ended the war on 2 September.\n\n", "### Post\\-war\n\n[thumb\\|*Washington* passing through the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal \"Panama Canal\") with in October 1945](/wiki/File:USS_Washington_%28BB-56%29_and_USS_Enterprise_%28CV-6%29_in_the_Panama_Canal%2C_October_1945.jpg \"USS Washington (BB-56) and USS Enterprise (CV-6) in the Panama Canal, October 1945.jpg\")\nAfter completing her refit in September, *Washington* conducted sea trials, followed by a short period of training while based in [San Pedro, Los Angeles](/wiki/San_Pedro%2C_Los_Angeles \"San Pedro, Los Angeles\"). She then got underway for the Panama Canal and on 6 October joined TG 11\\.6 on the way, thereafter passing through the canal and steaming north to the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard. She arrived there on 17 October and took part in [Navy Day](/wiki/Navy_Day%23United_States \"Navy Day#United States\") celebrations on 27 October. Slated to take part in [Operation Magic Carpet](/wiki/Operation_Magic_Carpet \"Operation Magic Carpet\"), the sea\\-lift operation to bring American service members home, *Washington* went into the shipyard in Philadelphia to be modified to carry additional personnel. Additional space was provided by substantially reducing the crew, to 84 officers and 835 enlisted men; with the war over, the ship's weapons needed no gun crews. The work was completed by 15 November, when she got underway for Britain. She arrived in [Southampton](/wiki/Southampton \"Southampton\") on 22 November. *Washington* embarked a contingent of Army personnel totaling 185 officers and 1,479 enlisted men and then re\\-crossed the Atlantic to New York, where she was decommissioned on 27 June 1947\\.\n\nShe was assigned to the [Atlantic Reserve Fleet](/wiki/Atlantic_Reserve_Fleet \"Atlantic Reserve Fleet\"), based in New York, where she remained through the 1950s. Beginning already in 1946, the Ships Characteristics Board authorized the removal a number of the 40 mm guns from the *North Carolina* and *South Dakota* class battleships that had been decommissioned. These guns were then installed on the s when they were reactivated for the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War \"Korean War\"). *Washington* and the other battleships had their 20 mm batteries removed entirely by October 1951\\. The Navy considered modernizing *Washington* and *North Carolina* in May 1954, which would have provided an anti\\-aircraft battery of twelve guns in twin turrets. The ships' slow speed prevented them from effectively serving with the carrier task forces and the Navy determined that a speed of would be necessary. To achieve this, the power plant would have to provide at the current displacement; even removing the aft turret and using that magazine space for additional boilers would not have produced the necessary power. By removing all of the belt armor, the ship would have only required to reach the desired speed, but the aft hull would have had to have been significantly rebuilt to accommodate the larger screws that would have been required. The Navy considered the possibility of removing the ships' current propulsion system altogether and replacing it with the same type as used in the *Iowa*s, which were capable of , but there was not enough room to fit the larger system. To reach the same speed, *Washington* would have needed to have all side armor and all three turrets removed in addition to a power plant capable of .\n\nThe cost of the project, estimated at around $40 million per ship, was deemed to be prohibitively expensive and so the project was abandoned. The ship remained in the inventory until 1 June 1960, when the ship was stricken from the [Naval Vessel Register](/wiki/Naval_Vessel_Register \"Naval Vessel Register\"). She was sold for [scrap](/wiki/Scrap \"Scrap\") on 24 May 1961\\. *Washington* was towed to the Lipsett Division of Luria Brothers and [broken up](/wiki/Ship_breaking \"Ship breaking\") thereafter.\n\n", "Footnotes\n---------\n\n### Notes\n\n### Citations\n\n", "### Notes\n\n", "### Citations\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "Further reading\n---------------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [navsource.org: USS *Washington*](http://www.navsource.org/archives/01/56a.htm)\n\n[Category:1940 ships](/wiki/Category:1940_ships \"1940 ships\")\n[Category:North Carolina\\-class battleships](/wiki/Category:North_Carolina-class_battleships \"North Carolina-class battleships\")\n[Category:Ships built in Philadelphia](/wiki/Category:Ships_built_in_Philadelphia \"Ships built in Philadelphia\")\n[Category:World War II battleships of the United States](/wiki/Category:World_War_II_battleships_of_the_United_States \"World War II battleships of the United States\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 35297956 ], "name": [ "Ted52" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "History", "Demographic history", "Administrative divisions", "See also", "References" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n[thumb\\|Map of Bulgaria and Romania with Southern Dobrudja or Cadrilater highlighted in yellow. [Northern Dobruja](/wiki/Northern_Dobruja \"Northern Dobruja\") is highlighted in orange.](/wiki/Image:Dobrogea-cadrilater.png \"Dobrogea-cadrilater.png\")\n\n**Southern Dobruja**, **South Dobruja**, or **Quadrilateral** ( or simply , ; , or ) is an area of north\\-eastern [Bulgaria](/wiki/Bulgaria \"Bulgaria\") comprising [Dobrich](/wiki/Dobrich_Province \"Dobrich Province\") and [Silistra](/wiki/Silistra_Province \"Silistra Province\") [provinces](/wiki/Provinces_of_Bulgaria \"Provinces of Bulgaria\"), part of the [historical region](/wiki/Historical_region \"Historical region\") of [Dobruja](/wiki/Dobruja \"Dobruja\"). It has an area of 7,412 square km[Keith Hitchins, Clarendon Press, 1994, *Rumania, 1866\\-1947*, p. 448](https://books.google.com/books?id=eKkegAiLtzMC&pg=PA448) and a population of 358,000\\.\n\nIt is historically noteworthy as a point of contention in [Bulgarian\\-Romanian relations](/wiki/Bulgaria%E2%80%93Romania_relations \"Bulgaria–Romania relations\"). Part of Bulgaria between 1878 and 1913, the region was annexed by [Romania](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania \"Kingdom of Romania\") in the [Treaty of Bucharest](/wiki/Treaty_of_Bucharest_%281913%29 \"Treaty of Bucharest (1913)\") (1913\\), targeted by [Bulgaria during World War I](/wiki/Bulgaria_during_World_War_I \"Bulgaria during World War I\") (1914–18\\), and subsequently remained Romanian until 1940, when Bulgaria regained control in the [Treaty of Craiova](/wiki/Treaty_of_Craiova \"Treaty of Craiova\"), which went along with a [compulsory population exchange](/wiki/Population_exchange_between_Bulgaria_and_Romania \"Population exchange between Bulgaria and Romania\"). Southern Dobruja has been part of Bulgaria since 1940\\.\n\n", "History\n-------\n\nAt the beginning of the modern era, Southern Dobruja had a mixed population of [Bulgarians](/wiki/Bulgarians \"Bulgarians\") and [Turks](/wiki/Bulgarian_Turks \"Bulgarian Turks\") with several smaller minorities, including [Gagauz](/wiki/Gagauz_people \"Gagauz people\"), [Crimean Tatars](/wiki/Crimean_Tatars_in_Bulgaria \"Crimean Tatars in Bulgaria\") and [Romanians](/wiki/Romanians \"Romanians\"). In 1910, of the 282,007 inhabitants of Southern Dobruja, 134,355 (47\\.6%) were Bulgarians, 106,568 (37\\.8%) Turks, 12,192 (4\\.3%) [Roma](/wiki/Romani_people \"Romani people\"), 11,718 (4\\.1%) [Tatars](/wiki/Tatars \"Tatars\"), and 6,484 (2\\.4%) Romanians.\n\nSouthern Dobruja was part of the autonomous [Bulgarian principality](/wiki/Principality_of_Bulgaria \"Principality of Bulgaria\") from 1878 and part of the independent Bulgarian state from 1908 until Bulgaria's defeat in the [Second Balkan War](/wiki/Second_Balkan_War \"Second Balkan War\"), when the region was ceded to [Romania](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania \"Kingdom of Romania\") under the [Treaty of Bucharest](/wiki/Treaty_of_Bucharest%2C_1913 \"Treaty of Bucharest, 1913\") (1913\\). \n\nIn 1914, Romania demanded all landowners prove their property and surrender to the Romanian state one third of the land they claimed or pay an equivalent of its value. This was similar to the [agrarian reforms](/wiki/Agrarian_reform \"Agrarian reform\") in Romania which occurred the previous century, in which the landlords had to give up two\\-thirds of their land, which was then handed over to the peasants. In Southern Dobruja, many of the peasants who received the land were settlers, including tens of thousands of [Aromanians](/wiki/Aromanians \"Aromanians\") from [Macedonia](/wiki/Macedonia_%28region%29 \"Macedonia (region)\"), as well as [Megleno\\-Romanians](/wiki/Megleno-Romanians \"Megleno-Romanians\") from the same place and Romanians from [Wallachia](/wiki/Wallachia \"Wallachia\"), which led to claims that the reforms had a nationalist purpose.Theodore I. Geshkoff. *Balkan Union: A Road to Peace in Southeastern Europe*, [Columbia University Press](/wiki/Columbia_University_Press \"Columbia University Press\"), 1940, p. 57\n\nOn 7 September 1940, Southern Dobruja was restored to Bulgaria under the [Treaty of Craiova](/wiki/Treaty_of_Craiova \"Treaty of Craiova\"). The treaty was followed by a mandatory [population exchange](/wiki/Population_exchange_between_Bulgaria_and_Romania \"Population exchange between Bulgaria and Romania\"): about 110,000 Romanians (almost 95% of whom settled there after 1913\\), [Aromanians](/wiki/Aromanians \"Aromanians\") and [Megleno\\-Romanians](/wiki/Megleno-Romanians \"Megleno-Romanians\") were forced to leave Southern Dobruja, whereas 77,000 Bulgarians had to leave [Northern Dobruja](/wiki/Northern_Dobruja \"Northern Dobruja\"). Only a few hundred Romanians and Aromanians are now left in the region.[„Problema Cadrilaterului \\- diferendum teritorial şi repere imagologice (1913\\-1940\\)”](http://www.centrul-cultural-pitesti.ro/wp/file-de-istorie-9/), George Ungureanu\n\n", "Demographic history\n-------------------\n\n| Ethnicity | 1910 | 19301Calculated from results of the 1930 census per county, taken from | 2001Calculated from the results of the 2001 Bulgarian census for the administrative regions of Dobrich and Silistra, from | 2011Calculated from the results of the 2011 Bulgarian census for the administrative regions of Dobrich and Silistra, from |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| All | 282,007 | 378,344 | 357,217 | 283,3953 |\n| Bulgarian | 134,355 (47\\.6%) | 143,209 (37\\.9%) | 248,382 (69\\.5%) | 192,698 (68%) |\n| Turkish | 106,568 (37\\.8%) | 129,025 (34\\.1%) | 76,992 (21\\.6%) | 72,963 (25\\.75%) |\n| Roma | 12,192 (4\\.3%) | 7,615 (2%) | 25,127 (7%) | 12,163 (4\\.29%) |\n| Tatar | 11,718 (4\\.2%) | 6,546 (1\\.7%) | 4,515 (1\\.3%) | 808 (0\\.29%) |\n| Romanian | 6,348 (2\\.3%)2 | 77,728 (20\\.5%) | 591 (0\\.2%)2 | 947 (0\\.33%) |\n\n1According to the 1926–1938 Romanian administrative division (counties of [Durostor](/wiki/Durostor_County \"Durostor County\") and [Caliacra](/wiki/Caliacra_County \"Caliacra County\")), which included a part of today's Romania (chiefly the communes of [Ostrov](/wiki/Ostrov%2C_Constan%C8%9Ba \"Ostrov, Constanța\") and [Lipnița](/wiki/Lipni%C8%9Ba \"Lipnița\"), now part of [Constanța County](/wiki/Constan%C8%9Ba_County \"Constanța County\")) and excluded a part of today's Bulgaria (parts of [General Toshevo](/wiki/General_Toshevo_Municipality \"General Toshevo Municipality\") and [Krushari](/wiki/Krushari_Municipality \"Krushari Municipality\") municipalities)\n2Including persons counted as [Vlachs](/wiki/Vlachs \"Vlachs\") in Bulgarian Census\n3Only includes persons who answered the optional question on ethnic identity. The total population was 309,151\\.\n", "Administrative divisions\n------------------------\n\nBetween 1913 and 1940, during the Romanian rule, the region covered two counties: [Durostor](/wiki/Durostor_County \"Durostor County\") and [Caliacra](/wiki/Caliacra_County \"Caliacra County\"). Nowadays, the territory of Southern Dobruja forms the provinces of [Silistra](/wiki/Silistra_Province \"Silistra Province\") and [Dobrich](/wiki/Dobrich_Province \"Dobrich Province\").\n\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [Northern Dobruja](/wiki/Northern_Dobruja \"Northern Dobruja\")\n* [Balchik Palace](/wiki/Balchik_Palace \"Balchik Palace\"), summer palace residence of Queen [Marie of Romania](/wiki/Marie_of_Romania \"Marie of Romania\")\n", "References\n----------\n\n[\\*](/wiki/Category:Dobruja \"Dobruja\")\n[Category:Geographical regions of Bulgaria](/wiki/Category:Geographical_regions_of_Bulgaria \"Geographical regions of Bulgaria\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 38675202 ], "name": [ "Rogermccart" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Etymology", "Description", "Geographic range", "Habitat", "Diet", "Behaviour", "Reproduction", "Care and maintenance in captivity", "References", "Further reading" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**Barbour's day gecko** (***Phelsuma barbouri***) is a [species](/wiki/Species \"Species\") of [lizard](/wiki/Lizard \"Lizard\") in the [family](/wiki/Family_%28biology%29 \"Family (biology)\") [Gekkonidae](/wiki/Gekkonidae \"Gekkonidae\"). The species is [endemic](/wiki/Endemism \"Endemism\") to central [Madagascar](/wiki/Madagascar \"Madagascar\"). It is [diurnal](/wiki/Diurnal_animal \"Diurnal animal\") and typically dwells on rocks. Barbour's day gecko feeds on [insects](/wiki/Insect \"Insect\") and [nectar](/wiki/Nectar \"Nectar\").\n\n", "Etymology\n---------\n\nThe [specific name](/wiki/Specific_name_%28zoology%29 \"Specific name (zoology)\"), *barbouri*, as well as the common name, Barbour's day gecko, are in honor of [American](/wiki/American_people \"American people\") [herpetologist](/wiki/Herpetology \"Herpetology\") [Thomas Barbour](/wiki/Thomas_Barbour \"Thomas Barbour\").Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael; Grayson, Michael (2011\\). *The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles*. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. xiii \\+ 296 pp. . (*Phelsuma barbouri*, p. 16\\).\n\n", "Description\n-----------\n\n*P. barbouri* is a middle\\-sized day gecko. It can reach a total length (including tail) of about . The body colour is brownish green or dark green. Both a dark brown dorso\\-lateral stripe and a dark brown lateral stripe extend from head to tail. The extremities are normally brown. The tail is unicoloured green and slightly flattened.\n\n", "Geographic range\n----------------\n\n*P. barbouri* inhabits the [highlands](/wiki/Highland \"Highland\") of central Madagascar in the [Ankaratra](/wiki/Ankaratra \"Ankaratra\") Mountains, at altitudes of . www.reptile\\-database.org.\n\n", "Habitat\n-------\n\nIn contrast to other lizards of the [genus](/wiki/Genus \"Genus\") *Phelsuma*, *P. barbouri* is terrestrial and typically lives on stones on the ground or on rocks in [savanna](/wiki/Savanna \"Savanna\") [habitat](/wiki/Habitat \"Habitat\"). The [climate](/wiki/Climate \"Climate\") of its [habitat](/wiki/Habitat \"Habitat\") is extremely harsh. There is a huge difference in temperature between night and day, and between different seasons. The maximum day temperature is . At night, it is cool and foggy.\n\n", "Diet\n----\n\n*P. barbouri* feeds on various [insects](/wiki/Insect \"Insect\") and other [invertebrates](/wiki/Invertebrate \"Invertebrate\").\n\n", "Behaviour\n---------\n\n*P. barbouri* often lives in small groups. During the day, it flattens its body to catch as much sun as possible. This way it can reach its preferred body temperature. During the night and in the early morning, *P. barbouri* has a dark colour. However, when it is basking, the body colour becomes brighter.\n\n", "Reproduction\n------------\n\nAdult females of *P. barbouri* glue their eggs under stones. Since additional females may deposit their eggs at the same location, as many as 50 eggs may be found together. At a temperature of , the young will hatch after approximately 55 days. The neonates measure .\n\n", "Care and maintenance in captivity\n---------------------------------\n\n*P. barbouri* should be housed in pairs and needs a large terrarium which should provide many places to hide. Group breeding, however, is possible. The terrarium should be earth\\-based with a number of flat rocks present. It is important that there be some spot lights for basking. The daytime temperature should be around , while at night the temperature should drop to . In captivity, it can be fed [crickets](/wiki/Cricket_%28insect%29 \"Cricket (insect)\"), [wax moths](/wiki/Waxworm \"Waxworm\"), [fruit flies](/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster \"Drosophila melanogaster\"), [mealworms](/wiki/Mealworm \"Mealworm\"), and [houseflies](/wiki/Housefly \"Housefly\").\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "Further reading\n---------------\n\n* 194 pp. (*Phelsuma barbouri*, p. 115\\).\n* [Glaw F](/wiki/Frank_Glaw \"Frank Glaw\"), [Vences M](/wiki/Miguel_Vences \"Miguel Vences\") (2006\\). *A Field Guide to the Amphibians and Reptiles of Madagascar, Third Edition*. Cologne, Germany: Vences \\& Glaw Verlag. 496 pp. .\n* [Henkel F\\-W](/wiki/Friedrich-Wilhelm_Henkel \"Friedrich-Wilhelm Henkel\"), [Schmidt W](/wiki/Wolfgang_Schmidt_%28herpetologist%29 \"Wolfgang Schmidt (herpetologist)\") (1995\\). *Amphibien und Reptilien Madagaskars, der Maskarenen, Seychellen und Komoren*. Stuttgart: Ulmer. . (in German).\n* [Loveridge A](/wiki/Arthur_Loveridge \"Arthur Loveridge\") (1942\\). \"Revision of the Afro\\-Oriental Geckos of the Genus *Phelsuma* \". *Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard* **89** (10\\): 438\\-481\\. (*\"Phelsuma barbouri*, new species, pp. 439, 458\\-459\\).\n* McKeown, Sean (1993\\). *The General Care and Maintenance of Day Geckos*. Lakeside, California: Advanced Vivarium Systems.\n\n \n\n[barbouri](/wiki/Category:Phelsuma \"Phelsuma\")\n[Category:Reptiles of Madagascar](/wiki/Category:Reptiles_of_Madagascar \"Reptiles of Madagascar\")\n[Category:Endemic fauna of Madagascar](/wiki/Category:Endemic_fauna_of_Madagascar \"Endemic fauna of Madagascar\")\n[Category:Reptiles described in 1942](/wiki/Category:Reptiles_described_in_1942 \"Reptiles described in 1942\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 18403228 ], "name": [ "Rlweston" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "History", "21st century", "Canadian Islamic Congress complaint", "\"Too Asian?\" article", "Editors-in-chief", "''Guide to Canadian Universities''", "Criticism", "See also", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n***Maclean's***, founded in 1905, is a Canadian [news magazine](/wiki/News_magazine \"News magazine\") reporting on Canadian issues such as politics, pop culture, and current events. Its founder, publisher [John Bayne Maclean](/wiki/John_Bayne_Maclean \"John Bayne Maclean\"), established the magazine to provide a uniquely Canadian perspective on current affairs and to \"entertain but also inspire its readers\". [Rogers Media](/wiki/Rogers_Media \"Rogers Media\"), the magazine's publisher since 1994 (after the company acquired Maclean\\-Hunter Publishing), announced in September 2016 that *Maclean's* would become a monthly beginning January 2017, while continuing to produce a weekly issue on the Texture app. In 2019, the magazine was bought by its current publisher, [St. Joseph Communications](/wiki/St._Joseph_Communications \"St. Joseph Communications\").[\"Toronto Life owner St. Joseph Communications to buy Rogers magazines\"](https://www.theglobeandmail.com/business/article-toronto-life-owner-st-joseph-communications-to-buy-rogers-magazines/). *[The Globe and Mail](/wiki/The_Globe_and_Mail \"The Globe and Mail\")*, March 20, 2019\\.\n\n", "History\n-------\n\n*The Business Magazine* was founded in October 1905 by then 43\\-year\\-old publisher and entrepreneur [Lt.\\-Col.](/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel \"Lieutenant colonel\") [John Bayne Maclean](/wiki/John_Bayne_Maclean \"John Bayne Maclean\"), who wrote the magazine's aim was not \"merely to entertain but also to inspire its readers\". It was renamed *The Busy Man's Magazine* in December 1905, and began providing \"uniquely Canadian perspective\" on varied topics such as immigration, national defence, home life, [women's suffrage](/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage \"Women's suffrage\"), and fiction. Maclean renamed the magazine after himself in 1911, dropping the previous title as too evocative of a business magazine for what had become a general interest publication.[Maclean's: The First 100 Years](http://www.macleans.ca/about-macleans/macleans-the-first-100-years/) Aston, S. and Ferguson, S. *Maclean's*\n\nMaclean hired [Thomas B. Costain](/wiki/Thomas_B._Costain \"Thomas B. Costain\") as editor in 1914\\. Costain invigorated the magazine's coverage of the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War \"First World War\"), running first\\-person accounts of life on the [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28World_War_I%29 \"Western Front (World War I)\") as well as Maclean's own critiques of Canada's war effort. Maclean's articles came into conflict with wartime censorship regulations, and Costain was ordered to remove one such article from the May 1918 issue as it was too critical of war policy.\n\nCostain encouraged literary pieces and artistic expressions and ran fiction by [Robert W. Service](/wiki/Robert_W._Service \"Robert W. Service\"), [Lucy Maud Montgomery](/wiki/Lucy_Maud_Montgomery \"Lucy Maud Montgomery\"), [Herbert Joseph (Hopkins) Moorhouse](/wiki/Herbert_Joseph_%28Hopkins%29_Moorhouse \"Herbert Joseph (Hopkins) Moorhouse\"), [O. Henry](/wiki/O._Henry \"O. Henry\"), and [Ray Bradbury](/wiki/Ray_Bradbury \"Ray Bradbury\"); commentary by [Stephen Leacock](/wiki/Stephen_Leacock \"Stephen Leacock\") and illustrations by [C. W. Jefferys](/wiki/C._W._Jefferys \"C. W. Jefferys\"), F. S. Coburn, and several [Group of Seven](/wiki/Group_of_Seven_%28artists%29 \"Group of Seven (artists)\") members, including [A. J. Casson](/wiki/A._J._Casson \"A. J. Casson\"), [Arthur Lismer](/wiki/Arthur_Lismer \"Arthur Lismer\"), and [J. E. H. MacDonald](/wiki/J._E._H._MacDonald \"J. E. H. MacDonald\").\n\nIn 1919, the magazine moved from monthly to fortnightly publication and ran an [exposé](/wiki/Investigative_journalism \"Investigative journalism\") of the drug trade by [Emily Murphy](/wiki/Emily_Murphy \"Emily Murphy\"). In 1925 the circulation of the magazine was 82,013 copies. Costain left the magazine to become a novelist and was replaced by J. Vernon Mackenzie who remained at the helm until 1926\\. During his tenure, *Maclean's* achieved national stature.\n\nAfter Mackenzie, H. Napier Moore became the new editor. An Englishman, he saw the magazine as an expression of Canada's role in the [British Empire](/wiki/British_Empire \"British Empire\"). Moore ultimately became a figurehead with the day\\-to\\-day running of the magazine falling to managing editor [W. Arthur Irwin](/wiki/W._Arthur_Irwin \"W. Arthur Irwin\"), a Canadian nationalist, who saw the magazine as an exercise in nation\\-building, giving it a mandate to promote national pride. Under Irwin's influence, the magazine's covers promoted Canadian scenery and imagery. The magazine also sponsored an annual short story contest on Canadian themes and acquired a sports department. Irwin was also responsible for orienting the magazine towards both small and big \"L\" [Liberalism](/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Canada \"Liberal Party of Canada\").\n\nDuring the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\"), *Maclean's* ran an overseas edition for Canadian troops serving abroad. By the time of its final run in 1946, the \"bantam\" edition had a circulation of 800,000\\. *Maclean's* war coverage featured war photography by [Yousuf Karsh](/wiki/Yousuf_Karsh \"Yousuf Karsh\"), later an internationally acclaimed portrait photographer, and articles by war correspondents John Clare and [Lionel Shapiro](/wiki/Lionel_Shapiro \"Lionel Shapiro\").\n\nIrwin officially replaced Moore as editor in 1945, and reoriented the magazine by building it around news features written by a new cadre of writers that included [Pierre Berton](/wiki/Pierre_Berton \"Pierre Berton\"), [W. O. Mitchell](/wiki/W._O._Mitchell \"W. O. Mitchell\"), [Scott Young](/wiki/Scott_Young_%28writer%29 \"Scott Young (writer)\"), [Ralph Allen](/wiki/Ralph_Allen_%28journalist%29 \"Ralph Allen (journalist)\"), and Blair Fraser.\n\nAllen became editor upon Irwin's acceptance of a diplomatic posting in 1950\\. This era of the magazine was noted for its articles on the Canadian landscape and profiles of town and city life. The feature article, \"Canada's North\", by [Pierre Berton](/wiki/Pierre_Berton \"Pierre Berton\"), promoted a new national interest in the Arctic. Prominent writers during this period included [Robert Fulford](/wiki/Robert_Fulford_%28journalist%29 \"Robert Fulford (journalist)\"), [Peter Gzowski](/wiki/Peter_Gzowski \"Peter Gzowski\"), [Peter C. Newman](/wiki/Peter_C._Newman \"Peter C. Newman\"), [Trent Frayne](/wiki/Trent_Frayne \"Trent Frayne\"), [June Callwood](/wiki/June_Callwood \"June Callwood\"), McKenzie Porter, [Robert Thomas Allen](/wiki/Robert_Thomas_Allen \"Robert Thomas Allen\") and [Christina McCall](/wiki/Christina_McCall \"Christina McCall\"). Exposés in the 1950s challenged the criminal justice system, explored [LSD](/wiki/LSD \"LSD\"), and discussed [artificial insemination](/wiki/Artificial_insemination \"Artificial insemination\").\n\n*Maclean's* published an editorial the day after the [1957 federal election](/wiki/1957_Canadian_federal_election \"1957 Canadian federal election\") announcing the predictable re\\-election of the [St. Laurent](/wiki/Louis_St._Laurent \"Louis St. Laurent\") [Liberal Party](/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Canada \"Liberal Party of Canada\"). Written before the election results were known, Allen failed to anticipate the upset election of the [Progressive Conservative Party](/wiki/Progressive_Conservative_Party_of_Canada \"Progressive Conservative Party of Canada\") under [John Diefenbaker](/wiki/John_Diefenbaker \"John Diefenbaker\").\n\nThe magazine struggled to compete with television in the 1960s, increasing its international coverage and attempting to keep up with the [sexual revolution](/wiki/Sexual_revolution \"Sexual revolution\") through a succession of editors including Gzowski and [Charles Templeton](/wiki/Charles_Templeton \"Charles Templeton\"). Templeton quit after a short time at the helm due to his frustration with interference by the publishing company, [Maclean\\-Hunter](/wiki/Maclean-Hunter \"Maclean-Hunter\").\n\nIn 1961, *Maclean's* began publishing a [French\\-language](/wiki/French-language \"French-language\") edition, *Le Magazine Maclean*, which survived until 1976, when the edition was absorbed by *[L'actualité](/wiki/L%27actualit%C3%A9 \"L'actualité\")*.\n\nPeter C. Newman became editor in 1971, and attempted to revive the magazine by publishing feature articles by writers such as [Barbara Frum](/wiki/Barbara_Frum \"Barbara Frum\") and [Michael Enright](/wiki/Michael_Enright_%28broadcaster%29 \"Michael Enright (broadcaster)\"), and poetry by [Irving Layton](/wiki/Irving_Layton \"Irving Layton\"). [Walter Stewart](/wiki/Walter_Stewart_%28journalist%29 \"Walter Stewart (journalist)\"), correspondent and eventually [managing editor](/wiki/Managing_editor \"Managing editor\") during this period, often clashed with Newman. In 1975 Newman brought in columnist [Allan Fotheringham](/wiki/Allan_Fotheringham \"Allan Fotheringham\"). Fotheringham made famous *The Back Page*, where he wrote for 27 years. Readers would go to read *The Back Page* first and then proceed to read the magazine from back to front.\n\nUnder Newman, the magazine switched from being a monthly general interest publication to a bi\\-weekly news magazine in 1975, and to a weekly newsmagazine three years later. The magazine opened news bureaus across the country and international bureaus in [London, England](/wiki/London%2C_England \"London, England\"), and [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\")\n\nIn 1982, when Newman retired, his managing editor, Kevin Doyle, became editor\\-in\\-chief. Doyle, a former reporter for *The Canadian Press* in [Ottawa](/wiki/Ottawa \"Ottawa\") and a New York\\-based writer for *[Newsweek](/wiki/Newsweek \"Newsweek\")*, expanded coverage of news and opened a [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\") bureau. On his watch the magazine published the first of yearly annual polls by Allan Gregg on the Canadian condition and the controversial university ranking issue, which became an annual mini\\-franchise for the magazine. At its peak, the magazine had 2\\.3 million weekly readers.\n\nWhen Doyle left *Maclean's* in 1993, publisher Brian Segal appointed [Robert Lewis](/wiki/Robert_Lewis_%28journalist%29 \"Robert Lewis (journalist)\") as editor\\-in\\-chief. The managing editor under Doyle, Lewis had opened the magazine's Ottawa bureau in 1975 when it became a newsmagazine. Under Doyle, Lewis was responsible for the launch of the first university ranking issue. While he was editor, writer Ann Dowsett Johnston won several National Magazine Awards (NMA) for the annual university issue and the magazine received an honourable mention in the 1998 Michener Awards for investigative reporting on sexual harassment and rape in the Canadian military. The article by Jane O'Hara also won two medals at the National Magazine Awards in 1999, including the President's Medal, and \"remains one of the most significant and studied feature stories in the history of Canadian magazines,\" according to an official NMA history.\n\n### 21st century\n\nIn 2001, [Anthony Wilson\\-Smith](/wiki/Anthony_Wilson-Smith \"Anthony Wilson-Smith\") became the 15th editor in the magazine's history. He left the post at the end of February 2005 and was replaced by [Kenneth Whyte](/wiki/Kenneth_Whyte \"Kenneth Whyte\"), who also served as the magazine's publisher.\n\nWhyte, who previously edited *[Saturday Night](/wiki/Saturday_Night_%28magazine%29 \"Saturday Night (magazine)\")* and the *[National Post](/wiki/National_Post \"National Post\")*, brought a [right\\-wing](/wiki/Right-wing_politics \"Right-wing politics\") focus to the magazine, bringing in conservative columnist [Mark Steyn](/wiki/Mark_Steyn \"Mark Steyn\"), hiring [Andrew Coyne](/wiki/Andrew_Coyne \"Andrew Coyne\") away from the *Post*, and rehiring [Barbara Amiel](/wiki/Barbara_Amiel \"Barbara Amiel\"). He also added a comedy feature by former [Liberal Party](/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Canada \"Liberal Party of Canada\") strategist Scott Feschuk, and a column by [Andrew Potter](/wiki/Andrew_Potter \"Andrew Potter\"), who previously wrote for left\\-leaning periodicals.\n\nThe October 4, 2010, edition of the magazine — published online September 24, 2010 — had a cover article with the headline: \"Quebec: The Most Corrupt Province\", with the subheading, \"Why does Quebec claim so many of the nation's political scandals?\" The cover illustration featured the [Quebec Winter Carnival](/wiki/Quebec_Winter_Carnival \"Quebec Winter Carnival\") mascot, Bonhomme, carrying a suitcase overflowing with cash.Patriquin, Martin, \"[Quebec: The most corrupt province](http://www.macleans.ca/2010/09/24/the-most-corrupt-province/),\" *Maclean's*. September 24, 2010\\. Retrieved January 3, 2011Hamilton, Graeme. [Charest making lemonade from Maclean's magazine lemons.](https://nationalpost.com/Charest+making+lemonade+from+Maclean+magazine+lemons/3599648/story.html) *National Post*. September 29, 2010\\. Retrieved December 22, 2010\n\nThis depiction angered some [Quebec](/wiki/Quebec \"Quebec\") politicians and organizers of the Carnival.Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. [Maclean's: Is the Oct. 4 cover with Bonhomme Carnaval offensive?](https://www.cbc.ca/news2/pointofview/2010/09/macleans-is-the-oct-4-cover-offensive.html) September 24, 2010\\. Retrieved December 20, 2021 Quebec [Premier](/wiki/Premier \"Premier\") [Jean Charest](/wiki/Jean_Charest \"Jean Charest\"), wrote a letter to the editor of *Maclean's* condemning the magazine's \"twisted form of journalism and ignorance\", calling it \"[sensationalist](/wiki/Sensationalist \"Sensationalist\")\", \"far from serious\", \"simplistic\", and \"offensive\", saying the editor \"discredited\" the magazine.Raw Document: [Read Jean Charest's letter to Maclean's magazine.](https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/read-jean-charests-letter-to-macleans-magazine/article1369825/) *The Globe and Mail*. September 30, 2010\\. Retrieved December 20, 2021Séguin, Rhéal. [As Charest bristles, Maclean's stands by scathing report on Quebec corruption.](https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/as-charest-bristles-macleans-stands-by-scathing-report-on-quebec-corruption/article1214191/) *The Globe and Mail*. September 29, 2010\\. Retrieved December 20, 2021\n\nThe magazine refused to back away from its position vis\\-à\\-vis corruption in Quebec. A bilingual editorial said that Charest's response to the *Maclean's* article was an attempt to \"implicate ordinary citizens in a scandal created by \\[its] politicians\".\"[We believe Quebecers deserve better, and they seem to agree](http://www.macleans.ca/2010/09/29/we-believe-quebecers-deserve-better-and-they-seem-to-agree/)\", Editorial. *Maclean's*. September 29, 2010\\. Retrieved January 4, 2011 *Maclean's* acknowledged \"that neither its cover story nor an accompanying column provided empirical evidence that Quebec is more corrupt than other provinces\". Yet, \"that does not mean we are required to suspend all judgment in the face of a preponderance of evidence—scandal after scandal at every level of government in the province, all of them involving not just one or two bad actors but [systemic corruption](/wiki/Systemic_corruption \"Systemic corruption\").\n\nNot all opinion in Quebec ran contrary to *Maclean's* position. The French\\-language *[La Presse](/wiki/La_Presse_%28Canadian_newspaper%29 \"La Presse (Canadian newspaper)\")*, the province's leading broadsheet, wrote that \"\\[*Maclean's*] claim that Quebec has a higher number of scandals is 'undeniable'.\"\n\nDespite the steadfast position of *Maclean's* editorial board, the magazine's publisher issued a qualified apology. On September 30, 2010, referring to the controversy, [Brian Segal](/wiki/Brian_Segal \"Brian Segal\"), the president of [Rogers Publishing](/wiki/Rogers_Communications%23Publishing \"Rogers Communications#Publishing\"), apologized for \"any offence that the cover may have caused\", saying the province \"is an important market for the company and we look forward to participating in the dynamic growth of the province and its citizens\".\"[Rogers Publishing comments on the recent issue of Maclean's Magazine](http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/September2010/30/c6718.html)\", *[Canada Newswire](/wiki/Canada_Newswire \"Canada Newswire\")*. September 30, 2010\\. Retrieved December 22, 2010\n\nThe organizers of [Carnaval de Québec](/wiki/Carnaval_de_Qu%C3%A9bec \"Carnaval de Québec\") sued *Maclean's* over the cover showing the iconic figure, settling out of court in November 2010\\.Postmedia News. [\"Quebec carnival settles with Maclean's\".](https://nationalpost.com/todays-paper/Quebec+carnival+settles+with+Maclean/3787204/story.html) *National Post*. November 6, 2010\\. Retrieved December 22, 2010\n\nRogers Communications announced in September 2016 that, due to falling print ad revenue, the magazine would change its printing schedule from weekly to monthly beginning in January 2017 although it would continue to offer weekly digital editions via Rogers' *Texture* digital bundle.\n\nOn March 20, 2019, Rogers announced a deal to sell the magazine to [St. Joseph Communications](/wiki/St._Joseph_Communications \"St. Joseph Communications\"). *Maclean's* continues to publish 12 editions annually.\n\n", "### 21st century\n\nIn 2001, [Anthony Wilson\\-Smith](/wiki/Anthony_Wilson-Smith \"Anthony Wilson-Smith\") became the 15th editor in the magazine's history. He left the post at the end of February 2005 and was replaced by [Kenneth Whyte](/wiki/Kenneth_Whyte \"Kenneth Whyte\"), who also served as the magazine's publisher.\n\nWhyte, who previously edited *[Saturday Night](/wiki/Saturday_Night_%28magazine%29 \"Saturday Night (magazine)\")* and the *[National Post](/wiki/National_Post \"National Post\")*, brought a [right\\-wing](/wiki/Right-wing_politics \"Right-wing politics\") focus to the magazine, bringing in conservative columnist [Mark Steyn](/wiki/Mark_Steyn \"Mark Steyn\"), hiring [Andrew Coyne](/wiki/Andrew_Coyne \"Andrew Coyne\") away from the *Post*, and rehiring [Barbara Amiel](/wiki/Barbara_Amiel \"Barbara Amiel\"). He also added a comedy feature by former [Liberal Party](/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Canada \"Liberal Party of Canada\") strategist Scott Feschuk, and a column by [Andrew Potter](/wiki/Andrew_Potter \"Andrew Potter\"), who previously wrote for left\\-leaning periodicals.\n\nThe October 4, 2010, edition of the magazine — published online September 24, 2010 — had a cover article with the headline: \"Quebec: The Most Corrupt Province\", with the subheading, \"Why does Quebec claim so many of the nation's political scandals?\" The cover illustration featured the [Quebec Winter Carnival](/wiki/Quebec_Winter_Carnival \"Quebec Winter Carnival\") mascot, Bonhomme, carrying a suitcase overflowing with cash.Patriquin, Martin, \"[Quebec: The most corrupt province](http://www.macleans.ca/2010/09/24/the-most-corrupt-province/),\" *Maclean's*. September 24, 2010\\. Retrieved January 3, 2011Hamilton, Graeme. [Charest making lemonade from Maclean's magazine lemons.](https://nationalpost.com/Charest+making+lemonade+from+Maclean+magazine+lemons/3599648/story.html) *National Post*. September 29, 2010\\. Retrieved December 22, 2010\n\nThis depiction angered some [Quebec](/wiki/Quebec \"Quebec\") politicians and organizers of the Carnival.Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. [Maclean's: Is the Oct. 4 cover with Bonhomme Carnaval offensive?](https://www.cbc.ca/news2/pointofview/2010/09/macleans-is-the-oct-4-cover-offensive.html) September 24, 2010\\. Retrieved December 20, 2021 Quebec [Premier](/wiki/Premier \"Premier\") [Jean Charest](/wiki/Jean_Charest \"Jean Charest\"), wrote a letter to the editor of *Maclean's* condemning the magazine's \"twisted form of journalism and ignorance\", calling it \"[sensationalist](/wiki/Sensationalist \"Sensationalist\")\", \"far from serious\", \"simplistic\", and \"offensive\", saying the editor \"discredited\" the magazine.Raw Document: [Read Jean Charest's letter to Maclean's magazine.](https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/read-jean-charests-letter-to-macleans-magazine/article1369825/) *The Globe and Mail*. September 30, 2010\\. Retrieved December 20, 2021Séguin, Rhéal. [As Charest bristles, Maclean's stands by scathing report on Quebec corruption.](https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/as-charest-bristles-macleans-stands-by-scathing-report-on-quebec-corruption/article1214191/) *The Globe and Mail*. September 29, 2010\\. Retrieved December 20, 2021\n\nThe magazine refused to back away from its position vis\\-à\\-vis corruption in Quebec. A bilingual editorial said that Charest's response to the *Maclean's* article was an attempt to \"implicate ordinary citizens in a scandal created by \\[its] politicians\".\"[We believe Quebecers deserve better, and they seem to agree](http://www.macleans.ca/2010/09/29/we-believe-quebecers-deserve-better-and-they-seem-to-agree/)\", Editorial. *Maclean's*. September 29, 2010\\. Retrieved January 4, 2011 *Maclean's* acknowledged \"that neither its cover story nor an accompanying column provided empirical evidence that Quebec is more corrupt than other provinces\". Yet, \"that does not mean we are required to suspend all judgment in the face of a preponderance of evidence—scandal after scandal at every level of government in the province, all of them involving not just one or two bad actors but [systemic corruption](/wiki/Systemic_corruption \"Systemic corruption\").\n\nNot all opinion in Quebec ran contrary to *Maclean's* position. The French\\-language *[La Presse](/wiki/La_Presse_%28Canadian_newspaper%29 \"La Presse (Canadian newspaper)\")*, the province's leading broadsheet, wrote that \"\\[*Maclean's*] claim that Quebec has a higher number of scandals is 'undeniable'.\"\n\nDespite the steadfast position of *Maclean's* editorial board, the magazine's publisher issued a qualified apology. On September 30, 2010, referring to the controversy, [Brian Segal](/wiki/Brian_Segal \"Brian Segal\"), the president of [Rogers Publishing](/wiki/Rogers_Communications%23Publishing \"Rogers Communications#Publishing\"), apologized for \"any offence that the cover may have caused\", saying the province \"is an important market for the company and we look forward to participating in the dynamic growth of the province and its citizens\".\"[Rogers Publishing comments on the recent issue of Maclean's Magazine](http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/September2010/30/c6718.html)\", *[Canada Newswire](/wiki/Canada_Newswire \"Canada Newswire\")*. September 30, 2010\\. Retrieved December 22, 2010\n\nThe organizers of [Carnaval de Québec](/wiki/Carnaval_de_Qu%C3%A9bec \"Carnaval de Québec\") sued *Maclean's* over the cover showing the iconic figure, settling out of court in November 2010\\.Postmedia News. [\"Quebec carnival settles with Maclean's\".](https://nationalpost.com/todays-paper/Quebec+carnival+settles+with+Maclean/3787204/story.html) *National Post*. November 6, 2010\\. Retrieved December 22, 2010\n\nRogers Communications announced in September 2016 that, due to falling print ad revenue, the magazine would change its printing schedule from weekly to monthly beginning in January 2017 although it would continue to offer weekly digital editions via Rogers' *Texture* digital bundle.\n\nOn March 20, 2019, Rogers announced a deal to sell the magazine to [St. Joseph Communications](/wiki/St._Joseph_Communications \"St. Joseph Communications\"). *Maclean's* continues to publish 12 editions annually.\n\n", "Canadian Islamic Congress complaint\n-----------------------------------\n\nIn December 2007, the [Canadian Islamic Congress](/wiki/Canadian_Islamic_Congress \"Canadian Islamic Congress\") (CIC) launched complaints with the [Canadian Human Rights Commission](/wiki/Canadian_Human_Rights_Commission \"Canadian Human Rights Commission\"), [British Columbia Human Rights Commission](/wiki/British_Columbia_Human_Rights_Commission \"British Columbia Human Rights Commission\"), and the [Ontario Human Rights Commission](/wiki/Ontario_Human_Rights_Commission \"Ontario Human Rights Commission\") against *Maclean's,* accusing it of publishing 18 articles between January 2005 and July 2007 the group considered [Islamophobic](/wiki/Islamophobia \"Islamophobia\") in nature, including a column by [Mark Steyn](/wiki/Mark_Steyn \"Mark Steyn\") titled \"The future belongs to Islam\".Canadian Islamic Congress, \"[Human Rights Complaints Launched Against Maclean's Magazine](http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/December2007/04/c7400.html)\", *[Canada Newswire](/wiki/Canada_Newswire \"Canada Newswire\")*. December 4, 2007\\. Retrieved May 6, 2009Awan, Khurrum, et al. *[Maclean's Magazine: A Case Study of Media\\-Propagated Islamophobia](http://www.canadianislamiccongress.com/ar/Report_on_Macleans_Journalism.pdf) *. Canadian Islamic Congress. 2007\\. Retrieved May 6, 2009Steyn, Mark. \"[The future belongs to Islam](https://www.macleans.ca/culture/the-future-belongs-to-islam/) ,\" *Maclean's*. October 20, 2006\\. Retrieved May 6, 2009 According to the CIC complaint (as discussed in a *[National Post](/wiki/National_Post \"National Post\")* article by [Ezra Levant](/wiki/Ezra_Levant \"Ezra Levant\")), Maclean's is \"flagrantly Islamophobic\" and \"subjects Canadian Muslims to hatred and contempt\".Levant, Ezra. \"[Censorship In The Name of 'Human Rights'](https://nationalpost.com/most_popular/story.html?id=175234) \", *National Post*. December 18, 2007\\. Retrieved May 6, 2009 In contrast, Levant said the complainants were \"illiberal censors who have found a quirk in our legal system, and are using it to undermine our Western traditions of freedom\". On October 10, 2008, the B.C. Human Rights Tribunal dismissed the allegations of \"hate speech\" made by the Canadian Islamic Congress. Maclean's consistently took the position that Steyn's article, an excerpt from his best\\-selling book, *[America Alone](/wiki/America_Alone \"America Alone\")*, is a worthy contribution to an important debate on geopolitical and demographic issues, and that plaintiff's demands for equal space for a rebuttal was unreasonable and untenable.\n\nAccusations that Maclean's supported Islamophobic articles and writers continued after the Oct. 26, 2013 issue featured an interview with singer [Celine Dion](/wiki/Celine_Dion \"Celine Dion\") wherein the singer was reported as making racist and insensitive comments about Muslim women's right to wear religious clothing under the proposed Quebec Charter of Values. During a press conference in [Montreal](/wiki/Montreal \"Montreal\") on November 9, 2013, Dion's husband and manager [Rene Angelil](/wiki/Rene_Angelil \"Rene Angelil\") refuted claims that the singer made such comments, touching on both his and Celine's shared ancestry: \"… both Céline and I share family coming from the Middle\\-East — me from Lebanon and Syria and her fathers family from Lebanon also… to say she'd make these comments is hurtful to both Céline and her Muslim fans and we have made contact with Maclean's through our legal team.\"\n\nOn January 19, 2014, it was reported by Québécois media that Maclean's and Dion's team had reached an agreement outside of court with Maclean's making a (now redacted) apology to Dion within the original article.\n\n", "\"Too Asian?\" article\n--------------------\n\nIn the November 2010 university ranking issue under the editorship of [Kenneth Whyte](/wiki/Kenneth_Whyte \"Kenneth Whyte\") and Mark Stevenson, reporter Stephanie Findlay and senior writer Nicholas Köhler wrote an article about the perceived over\\-representation of Asian students at Canadian universities, entitled \"Too Asian?\"Findlay, Stephanie and Köhler, Nicholas. [\"Too Asian?\"](http://www.macleans.ca/2010/11/10/too-asian/) *Maclean's*. November 10, 2010\\. Retrieved December 22, 2010 This led to allegations that *Maclean's* intentionally perpetuated racial stereotypes to court controversy for the sake of publicity.[Open letter: A call to eliminate anti\\-Asian racism.](https://www.straight.com/blogra/open-letter-call-eliminate-anti-asian-racism) November 23, 2010\\. Retrieved December 20, 2021Friesen, Joe. [Maclean's no longer worthy of public funding, senator says.](https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/macleans-no-longer-worthy-of-public-funding-senator-says/article1320410/) *The Globe and Mail*. December 17, 2010\\. Retrieved December 20, 2021Poy, Vivienne. [Letter to Heritage Minister.](http://www.viviennepoy.ca/english/speeches/2010Speeches/Moore,J_161210%282%29.pdf) December 16, 2010\\. Retrieved December 22, 2010Chinese Canadian National Council. [CCNC Rejects Letter from Rogers Publishing.](http://www.ccnc.ca/content/pr.php?entry=230) December 22, 2010\\. Retrieved December 22, 2010Poy, Vivienne. [Debates of the Senate: Racial Stereotyping by the Media.](http://www.viviennepoy.ca/english/speeches/2010Speeches/racial%20stereotyping-e.pdf) November 24, 2010\\. Amidst criticism from a number of student unions and politicians, on December 16, 2010, Toronto's city council voted to request an apology from *Maclean's* magazine as the third Canadian city to do so after Victoria and Vancouver.Dale, Daniel. [Council asks Maclean's for 'Too Asian?' apology.](https://www.thestar.com/news/article/908934--council-asks-maclean-s-for-too-asian-apology) *Toronto Star*. December 20, 2010\\. Retrieved December 22, 2010Toronto City Council. [Request for Apology for the media article \"Too Asian?\"](http://app.toronto.ca/tmmis/viewAgendaItemHistory.do?item=2011.MM2.7) December 16, 2010\\. In a letter to the [Minister of Canadian Heritage](/wiki/Minister_of_Canadian_Heritage \"Minister of Canadian Heritage\"), Senator [Vivienne Poy](/wiki/Vivienne_Poy \"Vivienne Poy\") suggested that public outrage over the *Maclean's* article, \"defined as material that is denigrating to an identifiable group\", should deem it ineligible for government funding.\n\n", "Editors\\-in\\-chief\n------------------\n\n* W. Arnot Craick (1905—1910\\)\n* Roy Fry (1911—1913\\)\n* [Thomas B. Costain](/wiki/Thomas_B._Costain \"Thomas B. Costain\") (1914—1921\\)\n* J. Vernon Mackenzie(1921—1926\\)\n* H. Napier Moore (1926—1945\\)\n* [W. Arthur Irwin](/wiki/W._Arthur_Irwin \"W. Arthur Irwin\") (1945—1950\\)\n* [Ralph Allen](/wiki/Ralph_Allen_%28journalist%29 \"Ralph Allen (journalist)\") (1950—1960\\)\n* Blair Fraser (1960—1962\\)\n* Ken Lefolii (1962—1964\\)\n* Borden Spears (1964—1969\\)\n* [Charles Templeton](/wiki/Charles_Templeton \"Charles Templeton\") (1969\\)\n* [Peter Gzowski](/wiki/Peter_Gzowski \"Peter Gzowski\") (1970\\)\n* [Peter C. Newman](/wiki/Peter_C._Newman \"Peter C. Newman\") (1971—1982\\)\n* Kevin Doyle (1982—1993\\)\n* [Robert\\_Lewis\\_(journalist)](/wiki/Robert_Lewis_%28journalist%29 \"Robert Lewis (journalist)\") (1993—2000\\)\n* Anthony Wilson\\-Smith (2000—2005\\)\n* [Kenneth Whyte](/wiki/Kenneth_Whyte \"Kenneth Whyte\") (2005—2011\\)\n* Mark Stevenson (2011—2016\\)\n* Alison Uncles (2016—2022\\)\n* Sarah Fulford (2022—present)\n", "*Guide to Canadian Universities*\n--------------------------------\n\n[thumb\\|Cover of 2008 *Guide to Canadian Universities*](/wiki/Image:Maclean%27s_2008_university_guide.gif \"Maclean's 2008 university guide.gif\")\n\nThe *Maclean's Guide to Canadian Universities* is published annually in March. It is also known as *Maclean's University Guide*. It includes information from the Maclean's University Rankings, an issue of the magazine proper that is published annually in November, primarily for students in their last year of high school and entering their first year in Canadian universities. Both the *Guide* and the rankings issue feature articles discussing [Canadian universities](/wiki/Canadian_universities \"Canadian universities\") and ranking them by order of quality. The rankings focus on taking a measure of the \"undergraduate experience\", comparing universities in three peer groupings: Primarily Undergraduate, Comprehensive, and Medical Doctoral. \n\nSchools in the Primarily Undergraduate category are largely focused on undergraduate education, with relatively few graduate programs. Comprehensives have a significant amount of research activity and a wide range of graduate and undergraduate programs, including professional degrees. Medical Doctoral institutions have a broad range of PhD programs and research, as well as medical schools.\n\nIn early 2006, *Maclean's* announced that in June 2006, it would be introducing a new annual issue called the University Student Issue. The issue would feature the results of a survey of recent university graduates from each Canadian university. However, many universities, such as the [University of Calgary](/wiki/University_of_Calgary \"University of Calgary\"), [McMaster University](/wiki/McMaster_University \"McMaster University\"), and the [University of Toronto](/wiki/University_of_Toronto \"University of Toronto\"), refused to take part in this exercise. The three institutions stated that they questioned the \"magazine's ability to conduct a survey that would be rigorous and provide accurate and useful information to students and their parents\".\"[Universities opt out of Maclean's graduate survey](http://dailynews.mcmaster.ca/story.cfm?id=3960)\", *McMaster Daily News*. April 19, 2006\\. Retrieved May 6, 2009 In response, *Maclean's* sought the results of two university\\-commissioned student surveys: the Canadian Undergraduate Survey Consortium (CUSC) and the National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE).Farran, Sandy. \"[How we got these survey results: At some schools, all we had to do was ask. Others were less forthcoming](http://www.macleans.ca/education/universities/article.jsp?content=20060626_129371_129371) ,\" *Maclean's*. June 26, 2006\\. Retrieved May 6, 2009 Results from these surveys, along with *Maclean's* own graduate survey, were published in the June 26, 2006, edition of *Maclean's*.\n\nFor the November 2006 University Rankings issue, 22 Canadian universities refused to provide information directly to *Maclean's*. To rank those universities, the magazine relied on data it collected itself, as well as data drawn from third party sources such as [Statistics Canada](/wiki/Statistics_Canada \"Statistics Canada\"). Among the universities that refused to provide information directly to *Maclean's* in the fall of 2006 were: [University of British Columbia](/wiki/University_of_British_Columbia \"University of British Columbia\"), [University of Toronto](/wiki/University_of_Toronto \"University of Toronto\"), [Dalhousie University](/wiki/Dalhousie_University \"Dalhousie University\"), [McMaster University](/wiki/McMaster_University \"McMaster University\"), [University of New Brunswick](/wiki/University_of_New_Brunswick \"University of New Brunswick\"), [University of Manitoba](/wiki/University_of_Manitoba \"University of Manitoba\"), [Université du Québec network](/wiki/Universit%C3%A9_du_Qu%C3%A9bec \"Université du Québec\"), [Simon Fraser University](/wiki/Simon_Fraser_University \"Simon Fraser University\"), [University of Alberta](/wiki/University_of_Alberta \"University of Alberta\"), [University of Calgary](/wiki/University_of_Calgary \"University of Calgary\"), [University of Lethbridge](/wiki/University_of_Lethbridge \"University of Lethbridge\"), [Ryerson University](/wiki/Toronto_Metropolitan_University \"Toronto Metropolitan University\"), [Université de Montréal](/wiki/Universit%C3%A9_de_Montr%C3%A9al \"Université de Montréal\"), [University of Ottawa](/wiki/University_of_Ottawa \"University of Ottawa\"), [York University](/wiki/York_University \"York University\"), [Concordia University](/wiki/Concordia_University_%28Montreal%29 \"Concordia University (Montreal)\"), [University of Western Ontario](/wiki/University_of_Western_Ontario \"University of Western Ontario\"), [Lakehead University](/wiki/Lakehead_University \"Lakehead University\"), [Queen's University](/wiki/Queen%27s_University_at_Kingston \"Queen's University at Kingston\"), [Carleton University](/wiki/Carleton_University \"Carleton University\"), and [University of Windsor](/wiki/University_of_Windsor \"University of Windsor\"). The withholding of data served as a means of voicing the universities' displeasure with the methodology used to determine the *Maclean's* ranking.[11 universities bail out of Maclean's survey](https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/11-universities-bail-out-of-maclean-s-survey-1.570771). [CBC News](/wiki/CBC_News \"CBC News\"). August 14, 2006\\. Retrieved May 6, 2009 [Indira Samarasekera](/wiki/Indira_Samarasekera \"Indira Samarasekera\"), president of [The University of Alberta](/wiki/University_of_Alberta \"University of Alberta\"), further discussed this in the article, \"Rising Up Against Rankings\", published in the April 2, 2007, issue of *[Inside Higher Ed](/wiki/Inside_Higher_Ed \"Inside Higher Ed\").*Samarasekera, Indira. \"[Rising Up Against Rankings](https://www.insidehighered.com/views/2007/04/02/rising-against-rankings),\" *Inside Higher Ed*. April 2, 2007\\. Retrieved December 20, 2021\n\nThe University Rankings Issue contains a compilation of different charts and lists judging the different aspects of universities in different categories. The three main areas listed in chart form in the University Rankings Issue as at November 3, 2006, are: the overall rankings themselves, the university student surveys, and the magazine's \"national reputational rankings\" of the schools.\n\nThe National Reputational Rankings, like the main university rankings, are broken into three subcategories: medical doctoral, comprehensive, and primarily undergraduate and are based on opinions of the quality of the universities. The quality opinions gathered were contributed by secondary school principals, guidance counsellors, organization and company heads, and recruiters. The results of the reputational rankings are included in the main university rankings, and account for 16% of a university's total ranking score.\n\n### Criticism\n\nA University of Windsor team, led by professors Stewart Page and Ken Cramer, conducted an annual analysis of the *Maclean's Guide to Canadian Universities* since its inception, publishing compiled findings as *The Marketing of Canadian University Rankings: A Misadventure Now 24 Years Old*, in 2016, summarized by its authors as:\n\nCo\\-author Stewart Page had observed, in 2012, that numerous Canadian schools had withdrawn active cooperation from *Maclean’s* annual surveys.Page, Stewart [\"Final Observations of Canadian University Rankings: A Misadventure Now Over Two Decades Long\"](https://academicmatters.ca/final-observations-of-canadian-university-rankings-a-misadventure-now-over-two-decades-long/) *Academics Matter*, Ontario Confederation of University Faculty Associations, November 20, 2012\\. Retrieved February 15, 20234\\.\n\n", "### Criticism\n\nA University of Windsor team, led by professors Stewart Page and Ken Cramer, conducted an annual analysis of the *Maclean's Guide to Canadian Universities* since its inception, publishing compiled findings as *The Marketing of Canadian University Rankings: A Misadventure Now 24 Years Old*, in 2016, summarized by its authors as:\n\nCo\\-author Stewart Page had observed, in 2012, that numerous Canadian schools had withdrawn active cooperation from *Maclean’s* annual surveys.Page, Stewart [\"Final Observations of Canadian University Rankings: A Misadventure Now Over Two Decades Long\"](https://academicmatters.ca/final-observations-of-canadian-university-rankings-a-misadventure-now-over-two-decades-long/) *Academics Matter*, Ontario Confederation of University Faculty Associations, November 20, 2012\\. Retrieved February 15, 20234\\.\n\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [Media in Canada](/wiki/Media_in_Canada \"Media in Canada\")\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* 100,000 stories from 1905 to 2008 are free to read.\n[Category:1905 establishments in Ontario](/wiki/Category:1905_establishments_in_Ontario \"1905 establishments in Ontario\")\n[Category:Monthly magazines published in Canada](/wiki/Category:Monthly_magazines_published_in_Canada \"Monthly magazines published in Canada\")\n[Category:News magazines published in Canada](/wiki/Category:News_magazines_published_in_Canada \"News magazines published in Canada\")\n[Category:Canadian news websites](/wiki/Category:Canadian_news_websites \"Canadian news websites\")\n[Category:Online magazines published in Canada](/wiki/Category:Online_magazines_published_in_Canada \"Online magazines published in Canada\")\n[Category:Weekly magazines published in Canada](/wiki/Category:Weekly_magazines_published_in_Canada \"Weekly magazines published in Canada\")\n[Category:Magazines established in 1905](/wiki/Category:Magazines_established_in_1905 \"Magazines established in 1905\")\n[Category:Magazines published in Toronto](/wiki/Category:Magazines_published_in_Toronto \"Magazines published in Toronto\")\n[Category:Weekly news magazines](/wiki/Category:Weekly_news_magazines \"Weekly news magazines\")\n[Category:St. Joseph Media magazines](/wiki/Category:St._Joseph_Media_magazines \"St. Joseph Media magazines\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 990294 ], "name": [ "Regiomontanus" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Description", "Diet", "Reproduction", "Habitat", "Geographic range", "Introduced species", "Species", "References", "Further reading" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n***Gonatodes*** is a [genus](/wiki/Genus \"Genus\") of [New World](/wiki/New_World \"New World\") **dwarf geckos** of the [family](/wiki/Family_%28biology%29 \"Family (biology)\") [Sphaerodactylidae](/wiki/Sphaerodactylidae \"Sphaerodactylidae\").[Gamble T](/wiki/species:Tony_Gamble \"Tony Gamble\"), [Simons AM](/wiki/species:Andrew_M._Simons \"Andrew M. Simons\"), [Colli GR](/wiki/species:Guarino_Rinaldi_Colli \"Guarino Rinaldi Colli\"), [Vitt LJ](/wiki/species:Laurie_J._Vitt \"Laurie J. Vitt\") (2008\\). \"Tertiary climate change and the diversification of the Amazonian gecko genus *Gonatodes* (Sphaerodactylidae, Squamata)\". *Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution* **46**: 269–277\\.Gamble T, [Bauer AM](/wiki/Aaron_Matthew_Bauer \"Aaron Matthew Bauer\"), [Greenbaum E](/wiki/species:Eli_Greenbaum \"Eli Greenbaum\"), [Jackman TR](/wiki/species:Todd_R._Jackman \"Todd R. Jackman\") (2008\\). \"Evidence for Gondwanan vicariance in an ancient clade of gecko lizards\". *Journal of Biogeography* **35**: 88–104\\.\n\n", "Description\n-----------\n\nThe majority of the [species](/wiki/Species \"Species\") in the genus *Gonatodes* are diurnally active, [scansorial](/wiki/Scansorial \"Scansorial\"), and [sexually dichromatic](/wiki/Sexually_dichromatic \"Sexually dichromatic\"), with adult body size ([snout–vent length](/wiki/Snout%E2%80%93vent_length \"Snout–vent length\")) ranging from for known species. \n\nGonatodes humeralis03\\.jpg\\|''Gonatodes humeralis''\nGonatodes albogularis01a.jpeg\\|''\\[\\[Gonatodes albogularis]]''\nGonatodes\\_concinnatus.JPG\\|''\\[\\[Gonatodes concinnatus]]'', \\[\\[Colombia]]\nOcellated gecko (Gonatodes ocellatus) male LTo.JPG\\|Male ocellated gecko ''Gonatodes ocellatus'', \\[\\[Little Tobago]]\nOcellated gecko (Gonatodes ocellatus) male LTo 2\\.JPG\\|Male ocellated gecko ''Gonatodes ocellatus'', \\[\\[Little Tobago]]\nOcellated gecko (Gonatodes ocellatus) female.JPG\\|Female ocellated gecko ''Gonatodes ocellatus'', \\[\\[Little Tobago]]\n\n", "Diet\n----\n\nThe diets of the various species of *Gonatodes* are composed mainly of very small arthropods.\n\n", "Reproduction\n------------\n\n[Clutch](/wiki/Clutch_%28eggs%29 \"Clutch (eggs)\") size is one, with most species producing several clutches per year, and some utilizing communal egg\\-laying sites.\n\n", "Habitat\n-------\n\nMost species are humid tropical [forest](/wiki/Forest \"Forest\") dwelling (some in warm lowlands, and others in somewhat cooler montane regions), with relatively fewer species utilizing more open, drier habitats at forest edge, tropical dry seasonal forest and scrub forest. Some species (usually those that use drier natural habitats) are able to utilize even more open human modified environments; in some cases including highly urbanized areas. *Gonatodes* usually spend most of their active hours perched anywhere from ground level to about 0\\.6 metres (2 feet) above ground, sometimes up to 2 or 3 metres (6\\.6 or 9\\.8 feet), on vertical or near vertical surfaces of tree trunks, tree stumps, logs and sometimes rocks (as well as on walls and house\\-posts for those that are able to use human altered environments). They seldom sit exposed to direct strong sunlight (they do not appear to bask), and most seem to prefer shade / filtered light with less exposure to direct sun light.\n\n", "Geographic range\n----------------\n\nSpecies of *Gonatodes* are found in [Central America](/wiki/Central_America \"Central America\") including southern [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico \"Mexico\"), a few Caribbean Islands (including [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba \"Cuba\"), [Hispaniola](/wiki/Hispaniola \"Hispaniola\"), [Jamaica](/wiki/Jamaica \"Jamaica\") and Union Island in St. Vincent and the Grenadines) and the northern part of [South America](/wiki/South_America \"South America\"), including [Peru](/wiki/Peru \"Peru\"), [Colombia](/wiki/Colombia \"Colombia\"), [Ecuador](/wiki/Ecuador \"Ecuador\"), [Bolivia](/wiki/Bolivia \"Bolivia\"), [Guyana](/wiki/Guyana \"Guyana\"), [French Guiana](/wiki/French_Guiana \"French Guiana\"), [Suriname](/wiki/Suriname \"Suriname\"), parts of [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil \"Brazil\"), [Venezuela](/wiki/Venezuela \"Venezuela\"), the islands of [Trinidad](/wiki/Trinidad \"Trinidad\") and [Tobago](/wiki/Tobago \"Tobago\"), and some of the small islands just off the coast of northern South America.\n\n", "Introduced species\n------------------\n\nHuman mediated introductions have occurred with *Gonatodes caudiscutatus* in the [Galapagos Islands](/wiki/Galapagos_Islands \"Galapagos Islands\") and *G. albogularis* in [Florida](/wiki/Florida \"Florida\"). In addition, some species have been transplanted by human activity to various regions within the general range of the genus where the particular species did not previously exist.\n\n", "Species\n-------\n\nThe following 34 species are recognized as being valid. Some [subspecies](/wiki/Subspecies \"Subspecies\") are also listed.\n* *[Gonatodes albogularis](/wiki/Gonatodes_albogularis \"Gonatodes albogularis\")* ([A.M.C. Duméril](/wiki/A.M.C._Dum%C3%A9ril \"A.M.C. Duméril\") \\& [Bibron](/wiki/Bibron \"Bibron\"), 1836\\) – white\\-throated clawed gecko, white\\-throated gecko, yellow\\-headed gecko\n\t+ *Gonatodes albogularis albogularis* (A.M.C. Duméril \\& Bibron, 1836\\)\n\t+ *Gonatodes albogularis bodinii* [Rivero\\-Blanco](/wiki/species:Carlos_Rivero-Blanco \"Carlos Rivero-Blanco\"), 1968\n\t+ *Gonatodes albogularis notatus* ([J.T. Reinhardt](/wiki/Johannes_Theodor_Reinhardt \"Johannes Theodor Reinhardt\") \\& [Lütken](/wiki/Christian_Frederik_L%C3%BCtken \"Christian Frederik Lütken\"), 1862\\)\n* *[Gonatodes alexandermendesi](/wiki/Gonatodes_alexandermendesi \"Gonatodes alexandermendesi\")* [Cole](/wiki/species:Charles_J._Cole \"Charles J. Cole\") \\& [Kok](/wiki/Philippe_J._R._Kok \"Philippe J. R. Kok\"), 2006\n* *[Gonatodes annularis](/wiki/Gonatodes_annularis \"Gonatodes annularis\")* [Boulenger](/wiki/George_Albert_Boulenger \"George Albert Boulenger\"), 1887 – annulated gecko\n* *[Gonatodes antillensis](/wiki/Gonatodes_antillensis \"Gonatodes antillensis\")* ([Lidth de Jeude](/wiki/Lidth_de_Jeude \"Lidth de Jeude\"), 1887\\) – [Antilles](/wiki/Antilles \"Antilles\") gecko, Venezuelan coastal clawed gecko\n* *[Gonatodes astralis](/wiki/Gonatodes_astralis \"Gonatodes astralis\")* [Schargel](/wiki/species:Walter_E._Schargel \"Walter E. Schargel\") et al., 2010\n* *[Gonatodes atricucullaris](/wiki/Gonatodes_atricucullaris \"Gonatodes atricucullaris\")* [Noble](/wiki/Gladwyn_Kingsley_Noble \"Gladwyn Kingsley Noble\"), 1921 – [Cajamarca](/wiki/Cajamarca_Region \"Cajamarca Region\") gecko\n* *[Gonatodes castanae](/wiki/Gonatodes_castanae \"Gonatodes castanae\")* [Carvajal\\-Cogollo](/wiki/species:Juan_E._Carvajal-Cogollo \"Juan E. Carvajal-Cogollo\"), [Eguis\\-Avendaño](/wiki/species:Jorge_E._Eguis-Avenda%C3%B1o \"Jorge E. Eguis-Avendaño\") \\& [Meza\\-Joya](/wiki/species:Fabio_Leonardo_Meza-Joya \"Fabio Leonardo Meza-Joya\"), 2020 – Castaño's Gecko\n* *[Gonatodes caudiscutatus](/wiki/Gonatodes_caudiscutatus \"Gonatodes caudiscutatus\")* ([Günther](/wiki/Albert_G%C3%BCnther \"Albert Günther\"), 1859\\) – shieldhead gecko\n* *[Gonatodes ceciliae](/wiki/Gonatodes_ceciliae \"Gonatodes ceciliae\")* [Donoso\\-Barros](/wiki/Roberto_Donoso-Barros \"Roberto Donoso-Barros\"), 1966 – brilliant clawed gecko, brilliant South American gecko\n* *[Gonatodes chucuri](/wiki/Gonatodes_chucuri \"Gonatodes chucuri\")* [Meneses\\-Pelayo](/wiki/species:Elson_Meneses-Pelayo \"Elson Meneses-Pelayo\") \\& [Ramírez](/wiki/species:Juan_Pablo_Ram%C3%ADrez \"Juan Pablo Ramírez\"), 2020 – Chucuri gecko\n* *[Gonatodes concinnatus](/wiki/Gonatodes_concinnatus \"Gonatodes concinnatus\")* ([O'Shaughnessy](/wiki/Arthur_O%27Shaughnessy \"Arthur O'Shaughnessy\"), 1881\\) – [O'Shaughnessy's](/wiki/Arthur_O%27Shaughnessy \"Arthur O'Shaughnessy\") gecko\n* *[Gonatodes daudini](/wiki/Gonatodes_daudini \"Gonatodes daudini\")* [Powell](/wiki/Robert_Powell_%28herpetologist%29 \"Robert Powell (herpetologist)\") \\& [Henderson](/wiki/species:Robert_W._Henderson \"Robert W. Henderson\"), 2005 – [Grenadines](/wiki/Grenadines \"Grenadines\") clawed gecko, [Union Island](/wiki/Union_Island \"Union Island\") clawed gecko, Union Island gecko[Beolens, Bo](/wiki/species:Bo_Beolens \"Bo Beolens\"); [Watkin, Michael](/wiki/species:Michael_Watkins \"Michael Watkins\"); Grayson, Michael (2011\\). *The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles*. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. xiii \\+ 296 pp. . (\"Daudin, J.\", p. 66; \"Haseman\", p. 117; \"Peters, J.A.\", p. 204\\).\n* *[Gonatodes eladioi](/wiki/Gonatodes_eladioi \"Gonatodes eladioi\")* [Nascimento](/wiki/species:Francisco_Paiva_do_Nascimento \"Francisco Paiva do Nascimento\"), [Ávila\\-Pires](/wiki/species:Teresa_Cristina_Sauer_de_%C3%81vila-Pires \"Teresa Cristina Sauer de Ávila-Pires\") \\& [Cunha](/wiki/Osvaldo_Rodrigues_da_Cunha \"Osvaldo Rodrigues da Cunha\"), 1987 – South American gecko\n* *[Gonatodes falconensis](/wiki/Gonatodes_falconensis \"Gonatodes falconensis\")* [Shreve](/wiki/Benjamin_Shreve \"Benjamin Shreve\"), 1947 – [Estado Falcón](/wiki/Estado_Falc%C3%B3n \"Estado Falcón\") gecko\n* *[Gonatodes hasemani](/wiki/Gonatodes_hasemani \"Gonatodes hasemani\")* [Griffin](/wiki/species:Lawrence_Edmonds_Griffin \"Lawrence Edmonds Griffin\"), 1917 – [Haseman's](/wiki/species:John_Diederich_Haseman \"John Diederich Haseman\") gecko\n* *[Gonatodes humeralis](/wiki/Gonatodes_humeralis \"Gonatodes humeralis\")* ([Guichenot](/wiki/Alphone_Guichenot \"Alphone Guichenot\"), 1855\\) – South American clawed gecko, [Trinidad](/wiki/Trinidad \"Trinidad\") gecko\n* *[Gonatodes infernalis](/wiki/Gonatodes_infernalis \"Gonatodes infernalis\")* [Rivas](/wiki/species:Gilson_A._Rivas \"Gilson A. Rivas\") \\& Schargel, 2008\n* *[Gonatodes lichenosus](/wiki/Gonatodes_lichenosus \"Gonatodes lichenosus\")* [Rojas\\-Runjaic](/wiki/species:Fernando_J.M._Rojas-Runjaic \"Fernando J.M. Rojas-Runjaic\") et al., 2010 \\- [Perijá](/wiki/Serran%C3%ADa_del_Perij%C3%A1 \"Serranía del Perijá\") lichen gecko\n* *[Gonatodes ligiae](/wiki/Gonatodes_ligiae \"Gonatodes ligiae\")* Donoso\\-Barros, 1967\n* *[Gonatodes machelae](/wiki/Gonatodes_machelae \"Gonatodes machelae\")* Rivero\\-Blanco \\& Schargel, 2020\n* *[Gonatodes nascimentoi](/wiki/Gonatodes_nascimentoi \"Gonatodes nascimentoi\")* [Sturaro](/wiki/species:Marcelo_Jos%C3%A9_Sturaro \"Marcelo José Sturaro\") \\& Ávila\\-Pires, 2011\n* *[Gonatodes naufragus](/wiki/Gonatodes_naufragus \"Gonatodes naufragus\")* Rivas et al., 2013 – [La Blanquilla](/wiki/Blanquilla_Island \"Blanquilla Island\") clawed gecko\n* *[Gonatodes ocellatus](/wiki/Gonatodes_ocellatus \"Gonatodes ocellatus\")* ([Gray](/wiki/John_Edward_Gray \"John Edward Gray\"), 1831\\) – eyespot clawed gecko, eyespot gecko, ocellated gecko\n* *[Gonatodes petersi](/wiki/Gonatodes_petersi \"Gonatodes petersi\")* Donoso\\-Barros, 1967 – [Peters'](/wiki/James_A._Peters \"James A. Peters\") gecko\n* *[Gonatodes purpurogularis](/wiki/Gonatodes_purpurogularis \"Gonatodes purpurogularis\")* [Esqueda](/wiki/species:Luis_Felipe_Esqueda \"Luis Felipe Esqueda\"), 2004\n* *[Gonatodes rayito](/wiki/Gonatodes_rayito \"Gonatodes rayito\")* Schargel, Rivas, [García\\-Pérez](/wiki/species:Juan_El%C3%ADas_Garc%C3%ADa-P%C3%A9rez \"Juan Elías García-Pérez\"), Rivero\\-Blanco, [Chippindale](/wiki/species:Paul_T._Chippindale \"Paul T. Chippindale\") \\& [Fujita](/wiki/species:Matthew_K._Fujita \"Matthew K. Fujita\"), 2017\n* *[Gonatodes riveroi](/wiki/Gonatodes_riveroi \"Gonatodes riveroi\")* Sturaro \\& Ávila\\-Pires, 2011\n* *[Gonatodes rozei](/wiki/Gonatodes_rozei \"Gonatodes rozei\")* Rivero\\-Blanco \\& Schargel, 2012 \\- Roze's gecko\n* *[Gonatodes seigliei](/wiki/Gonatodes_seigliei \"Gonatodes seigliei\")* Donoso\\-Barros, 1966 – [Estado Sucre](/wiki/Estado_Sucre \"Estado Sucre\") gecko\n* *[Gonatodes superciliaris](/wiki/Gonatodes_superciliaris \"Gonatodes superciliaris\")* [Barrio\\-Amorós](/wiki/species:C%C3%A9sar_L._Barrio_Amor%C3%B3s \"César L. Barrio Amorós\") \\& [Brewer\\-Carías](/wiki/Charles_Brewer-Car%C3%ADas \"Charles Brewer-Carías\"), 2008 \\- Sarisariñama forest gecko\n* *[Gonatodes taniae](/wiki/Gonatodes_taniae \"Gonatodes taniae\")* [Roze](/wiki/Janis_Roze \"Janis Roze\"), 1963 – [Estado Aragua](/wiki/Aragua \"Aragua\") gecko, ring\\-necked clawed gecko\n* *[Gonatodes tapajonicus](/wiki/Gonatodes_tapajonicus \"Gonatodes tapajonicus\")* [Rodrigues](/wiki/Miguel_Trefaut_Rodrigues \"Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues\"), 1980 – [Pará](/wiki/Par%C3%A1 \"Pará\") gecko\n* *[Gonatodes timidus](/wiki/Gonatodes_timidus \"Gonatodes timidus\")* [Kok](/wiki/Philippe_J._R._Kok \"Philippe J. R. Kok\"), 2011[Kok PJR](/wiki/Philippe_J._R._Kok \"Philippe J. R. Kok\") (2011\\). \"A new species of the genus *Gonatodes* Fitzinger, 1843 (Reptilia: Sphaerodactylidae) from central Guyana, northern South America\". *Zootaxa* **3018**: 1\\-12\\. (*Gonatodes timidus*, new species).\n* *[Gonatodes vittatus](/wiki/Gonatodes_vittatus \"Gonatodes vittatus\")* ([Lichtenstein](/wiki/Martin_Lichtenstein \"Martin Lichtenstein\"), 1856\\) – striped clawed gecko, [Wiegmann's](/wiki/Arend_Friedrich_August_Wiegmann \"Arend Friedrich August Wiegmann\") striped gecko\n\n*[Nota bene](/wiki/Nota_bene \"Nota bene\")*: A [binomial authority](/wiki/Binomial_nomenclature \"Binomial nomenclature\") or trinomial authority in parentheses indicates that the species or subspecies was originally described in a genus other than *Gonatodes*.\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "Further reading\n---------------\n\n* [Fitzinger L](/wiki/Leopold_Fitzinger \"Leopold Fitzinger\") (1843\\). *Systema Reptilium, Fasciculus Primus, Amblyglossae.* Vienna: Braumüller \\& Seidel. 106 pp. \\+ indices. (*Gonatodes*, new genus, pp. 18, 90–91\\). (in [Latin](/wiki/Latin \"Latin\")).\n\n[Category:Reptiles of Guyana](/wiki/Category:Reptiles_of_Guyana \"Reptiles of Guyana\")\n[Category:Lizard genera](/wiki/Category:Lizard_genera \"Lizard genera\")\n[Category:Taxa named by Leopold Fitzinger](/wiki/Category:Taxa_named_by_Leopold_Fitzinger \"Taxa named by Leopold Fitzinger\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 86816 ], "name": [ "Alistair1978" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Standards", "Circular connectors", "Applications", "Analog audio", "Other uses", "Other designs", "See also", "Notes", "References" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n[thumb\\|250px\\|Five\\-pin male 180° DIN connector from a 1988 [Schneider](/wiki/Schneider_Computer_Division \"Schneider Computer Division\") MF2 keyboard by [Cherry](/wiki/Cherry_%28keyboards%29 \"Cherry (keyboards)\")](/wiki/Image:Cherry-Schneider-MF2-5-Pin-DIN-Connector.jpg \"Cherry-Schneider-MF2-5-Pin-DIN-Connector.jpg\")\n\nThe **DIN connector** is an electrical connector that was standardized by the (DIN), the German Institute for Standards, in the mid 1950s, initially with 3 pins for mono, but when stereo connections and gear appeared in late 1950s (1959 or so), versions with 5 pins or more were launched. The male DIN connectors (plugs) feature a 13\\.2 mm diameter metal shield with a notch that limits the orientation in which plug and socket can mate. The range of DIN connectors, different only in the configuration of the pins, have been standardized as DIN 41524 / IEC/DIN EN 60130\\-9 (3\\-pin at 90° and 5\\-pin at 45°); DIN 45322 (5\\-pin and 6\\-pin at 60°); DIN 45329 / IEC/DIN EN 60130–9 (7\\-pin at 45°); and DIN 45326 / IEC/DIN EN 60130\\-9 (8\\-pin at 45°).\n\nIn [consumer electronics](/wiki/Consumer_electronics \"Consumer electronics\"), the term \"DIN connector\" identifies types of cylindrical connectors that the German Institute for Standards (DIN) had initially standardised for analog audio signals. Some DIN connectors have been used in analog video applications, for power connections, and for digital interfaces, such as the [MIDI](/wiki/MIDI \"MIDI\") (DIN 41524\\), the [IBM PC keyboard](/wiki/IBM_PC_keyboard \"IBM PC keyboard\") and the [IBM AT keyboard](/wiki/IBM_AT_keyboard \"IBM AT keyboard\") connectors (DIN 41524\\). The original, technical standards for these models of DIN connector are unavailable, and were replaced with equivalent connectors, such as the international standard IEC 60130\\-9\\.IEC 60130\\-9: \"Connectors for frequencies below 3 MHz — Part 9: Circular connectors for radio and associated sound equipment.\" [International Electrotechnical Commission](/wiki/International_Electrotechnical_Commission \"International Electrotechnical Commission\"), Geneva, 2011\\.\n\n", "Standards\n---------\n\nThe term \"DIN connector\" alone does not unambiguously identify any particular type of connector unless the document number of the relevant DIN standard is added (e.g., \"*DIN 45322* connector\"). Some DIN connector standards are:\n\n* DIN 41524, for circular connectors often used for audio signals or some digital signals like [MIDI](/wiki/MIDI \"MIDI\")\n* [DIN 41612](/wiki/DIN_41612 \"DIN 41612\"), rectangular connectors used to connect plug\\-in cards to a back plane or motherboard\n* DIN 41652 [D\\-subminiature](/wiki/D-subminiature \"D-subminiature\") connectors used for computer data and video\n* [DIN 41585](/wiki/DIN_41585 \"DIN 41585\") automotive coaxial connectors\n", "Circular connectors\n-------------------\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|Circular connectors](/wiki/File:%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%9E%D0%9D%D0%A6-%D0%92%D0%93-4-5.jpg \"Розетка ОНЦ-ВГ-4-5.jpg\")\n\nThe plugs consist of a circular shielding metal skirt protecting a number of straight round pins. The pins are 1\\.45 mm in diameter and equally spaced (at 90°, 72°, 60° or 45° angles) in a 7\\.0 mm diameter circle. The skirt is keyed to ensure that the plug is inserted with the correct orientation, and to prevent damage to the pins. The basic design also ensures that the shielding is connected between socket and plug prior to any signal path connection being made.\n\nThere are seven common patterns, with any number of pins from three to eight. Three different five\\-pin connectors exist, known as 180°, 240°, and domino/360°/270° after the angle of the arc swept between the first and last pin. There are also two variations of the six\\-pin, seven\\-pin (one where the outer pins form 300° or 360° and one where they form 270°), and eight\\-pin (one where the outer pins form 270° and one where they form 262°) connectors.\n\nThere is some limited compatibility; for example, a three\\-pin connector will fit any 180° five\\-pin socket, engaging three of the pins and leaving the other two unconnected; and a three\\-pin or 180° five\\-pin connector will also fit a 270° seven\\-pin or either eight\\-pin socket.\n\nIn addition to these connectors, there are also connectors with 10, 12, and 14 pins. Some high\\-range equipment used seven\\-pin connectors where the outer two carried digital system data: if the connected equipment was incompatible, the outer two pins could be unscrewed from plugs so that they fitted into standard five\\-pin 180° sockets without data connections.\n\nAs the keying is consistent across all connectors, it does not completely prevent incompatible connectors from mating, which can lead to damage; this is changed in [Mini\\-DIN](/wiki/Mini-DIN \"Mini-DIN\"), which keys different connectors.\n\nSome \"domino\" five\\-pin connectors had a keyway on opposing sides of the socket, allowing it to be reversed. If used as a headphone connector, the plug sometimes had a cut\\-out in the body that, depending on which way the plug was inserted, would either allow (e.g.) external speakers to be switched off or not as required: inserting the plug one way would activate a switch on the periphery of the socket (thus switching off the speakers), whereas inserting the plug in the opposite orientation would not activate the switch (due to the cut\\-out in the plug body)—the left and right channels would not be transposed, as the plug was wired such that each headphone speaker was connected \"top left–bottom right\" and \"top right–bottom left\".I have a Philips tape recorder which has a \"domino\" headphone socket; the headphone plug has a cut\\-out in the body thus allowing the external speakers to remain active or not as required. Note that when rotating a DIN headphone connector 180 degress the polarity will be reversed. This generally doesn't affect the audio but if an adapter with a DIN headphone male connector and most other types of female headphone connector is used, the negative connection for both channels will be joined resulting in the audio being stereo with the DIN connector inserted one way and mono when inserted the other way. To avoid this and still be able to use a pair of headphones both with equipment that has a DIN headphone connector and also use it with other equipment it is suggested to permanently mount a DIN connector on the headphones and make an adapter to use other devices with headphones that has a DIN connector. If used as a serial data connection, the transmit and receive lines could be crossed (although the pinout adopted by Acorn did not allow for this).\n\nScrew\\-locking versions of this connector have also been used in instrumentation, process control, and professional audio.IEC 60268\\-11 In North America, this variant is often called a \"small Tuchel\" connector after one of the major manufacturers, now a division of [Amphenol](/wiki/Amphenol \"Amphenol\"). Additional configurations up to 24 pins are also offered in the same shell size. A version with a bayonet locking ring was used on portable tape recorders, dictation machines, and lighting dimmers and controls through from the 1960s to the 1980s, an example being the microphone input connector and some others on the \"Report\" family of [Uher](/wiki/Uher_%28brand%29 \"Uher (brand)\") tape recorders. The bayonet locking version is sometimes referred to by the trade name Preh. Belling Lee offered a version with a sprung\\-loaded collar which latched on insertion but required the collar to be pulled back to release the connector, similar to the [LEMO](/wiki/LEMO \"LEMO\") B series connector. This connector was commonly referred to as the \"Bleecon\", an example of its use being the Strand Tempus range of theatrical lighting dimmers and control desks. A version with a pushbutton latch similar to that on an XLR cable mounted socket was also available. Female connectors with screw\\-locking, Bleecon, or bayonet latching features are compatible with standard DIN plugs.\n\n[thumb\\|DIN Connectors with correct pin\\-out](/wiki/File:DIN_connector_pinout.svg \"DIN connector pinout.svg\")\n\n", "Applications\n------------\n\n### Analog audio\n\n| Application | | Connector | Pin function | | | | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | 4 | 2 | 5 | 3 |\n| Amplifier | Monophonic | [60px](/wiki/Image:DIN-5_Diagram.svg \"DIN-5 Diagram.svg\") 5/180° | Audio out | | Screen/return | Audio in | |\n| Stereophonic | Left out | Right out | Right in | Left in |\n| Tape recorder | Monophonic | Audio in | | Audio out | |\n| Stereophonic | Left in | Right in | Right out | Left out |\n| Common colors on DIN\\-4\\*RCA adapters | | | white | red | yellow | black |\n| Common colors on DIN\\-2\\*RCA adapters | | | (sometimes joined with pin 5\\) | | red | white |\n\nThe 3/180° and 5/180° connectors were originally standardized and widely used in European countries for interconnecting analog audio equipment. For example, a [stereo](/wiki/Stereophonic_sound \"Stereophonic sound\") tape recorder could connect to a stereo amplifier using the five pins for the four signal connections plus ground. The connectors on the cord are connected pin for pin, (pin 1 to pin 1, etc.). Pins on male connectors are numbered (from right to left, viewed from outside of the connector, with the five pins upwards, and facing them): 1–4–2–5–3\\. Holes on female connectors are also numbered 1\\-4\\-2\\-5\\-3, but from left to right (facing the holes). The three pins that make contact with a 3 pin DIN connector will have the same pin numbering both in the three\\-pin and the five\\-pin connector. A four\\-conductor cord wired in this way is sometimes called a *DIN cord*, a *DIN lead* or a *DIN cable*. For [mono](/wiki/Monaural \"Monaural\") interconnections, the 3/180° plugs are sufficient. When a mono plug is inserted into a stereo socket, it mates with the left channel. For playback only interconnections, the 3/180° plugs are sufficient, with pin 1 and 3 used for the stereo channels and pin 2 as signal ground. Five\\-pin DIN inputs for record players and auxiliary signal sources commonly join pin 1 and 5 in order to be compatible both with the 3/180° and 5/180° pinouts. This generally works fine. However the join of pin 1 and 5 on adapters between DIN and RCA connectors can cause problems if used with a five\\-pin DIN connector tape connector on an amplifier or receiver, as it will join the left record with right playback signal. The other way around is usually not a problem as sending the right playback out of a tape recorder back in to the left record input usually imposes no problem in playback mode.\n\nThe signal levels are generally in the low range of line levels for playback/reproduction signals. The levels for recording can be considerably lower, more like microphone levels in some cases.\n\nSome manufacturers, like Philips, Uher and others, did use the connector slightly differently for tape recorders. Pin 2 (signal ground) was the same as others, and in playback mode pin 3 and 5 were used for left and right line level output as others. However in record mode all pins were active inputs, with pin 1 and 4 for low\\-level signals like microphone levels, while pin 3 and 5 were used for line\\-level signals. On all these recorders the output signals were only active in play mode, not in stop, record, rewind, fast forward or any other mode. The main benefits with this usage is that tape copying can be done with the regular pin\\-to\\-pin connected cables commonly used to connect tape recorders to amplifiers/receivers. An additional benefit is that several tape recorders can be connected in parallel, and can also be connected to an amplifier/receiver. Copying is done simply by pressing play on the playback recorder, rec on any recorders used for recording, and the amplifier/receiver is either switched off or set to the tape position. Recording of radio broadcasts or records is equally simple, just press record on any recorder and do not set any other recorder to playback mode. This eliminates the need for any switch boxes otherwise commonly used to connect more than one tape recorder to a single tape recorder connector on an amplifier/receiver. The drawbacks were that connecting any mono recorder with pin 1 joined to 4 and pin 5 joined to 3 (a common practice to make mono recorders record both channels in parallel and reproduce in both channels) would make all tape sounds mono. Also any tape recorder with three heads, used for monitoring while recording, needs an extra lead between the recorder and the amplifier to be able to monitor the recording through the amplifier and speakers. On Philips amplifiers/receivers and three head recorders that extra socket is labeled Monitor while the regular socket is labeled Tape. Another drawback is the possible confusion when interconnecting with other equipment, where a person sometimes would use a straight pin\\-to\\-pin cable and sometimes use a special \"copying\" cable with pin 1 swapped with pin 3 and pin 4 swapped with pin 5\\. Sometimes a person would also need to lower the signal to make a line output fit a microphone level input. In other cases it was also used for sending power to a device. For example some tuners, usually only pins 1, 4 and 2 are required for audio signal, other ( 3 and 5 were used to send power supply to the tuner U usually DC, as AC may cause hum, tuners usually having low power requirements). The input, is still compatible with other standard input connectors, but misusing the use of pins 3 and 5 may cause damages. Other manufacturers were using more than 5 pins, for example the cassette decks, two other pins being for power supply). Usually these were proprietary connections, making them compatible only with decks of the same manufacturers. Some other manufacturers, were using more than 5 pins connections (7 or even 9 pins) for devices with remote control, beside the audio signals there was also the remote control link ( usually the main unit with remote receiver being the amplifier/receiver). Other uses, some amplifiers and receivers with ceramic phono input, were using 1,4,2 pins for conventional line audio signal input and pins 3 and 5 for powering an optional external magnetic phono preamplifier. In this case, these manufacturers were also supplying the preamplifier. The input without preamplifier can be used as standard input on pins 1, 2 and 4, but care should be taken to avoid shorting pins 3 and 5 in this case, which are power supply, which may cause damages to equipment. In other cases, pins 1 2 and 4 are used for magnetic cartridge, and 3, 5 ( with ground on 2 ) for ceramic. This depends on manufacturer. Other uses for example in case of cassette decks were: Input and output, power supply, remote control and record sync. But this will be usually usable solely with the same decks of the manufacturer. Usually will be compatible with the conventional deck, but care must be taken not to short the other pins.\n\nThis interface was rare outside products for the European market, and has progressively disappeared on new equipment, both in Europe and worldwide, since the 1980s, in favour of [RCA connectors](/wiki/RCA_connectors \"RCA connectors\"). Non\\-European products intended for the European market commonly combined both DIN and RCA connectors, with cassette decks having both and amplifiers/receivers commonly having RCA connectors for everything and an additional 5\\-pin DIN connector for at least one tape connection, usually in parallel with a set of RCA connector for the same input/output.\n\n### Other uses\n\n[thumb\\|250px\\|Five\\-pin male 180° DIN connector from the keyboard of an original [IBM PC](/wiki/IBM_PC \"IBM PC\"). Note the unusually thick shielding skirt.](/wiki/File:5pin180dinplug.jpg \"5pin180dinplug.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|250px\\|Eight\\-pin DIN connector for a [Tandy 1000](/wiki/Tandy_1000 \"Tandy 1000\") keyboard](/wiki/File:Eight-pin_DIN_connector.jpg \"Eight-pin DIN connector.jpg\")\n\nThe 5/180° connectors are commonly used for:\n\n* [SYNC](/wiki/DIN_sync \"DIN sync\") or [MIDI](/wiki/MIDI \"MIDI\") interface for [electronic musical instrument](/wiki/Electronic_musical_instrument \"Electronic musical instrument\")\n* Peripherals or power connectors for personal computers from the 1980s\n* Audio in the original HME wireless communicators (It is the headset connector for inbound and outbound audio for drive\\-through restaurants.)\n* Controlling tilt of [UMTS](/wiki/Universal_Mobile_Telecommunications_System \"Universal Mobile Telecommunications System\") antennas (Antenna Interface Standards Group)\n* Connecting two controllers for [radio controlled model aircraft](/wiki/Radio-controlled_aircraft \"Radio-controlled aircraft\") together for training purposes\n\nThe DIN connector saw several other uses apart from audio. It was particularly popular as a connector for various home computers and video game consoles.\n\nAnalogue theatrical lighting control (pre\\-dating the more recent digital control protocols such as DMX) commonly used the 8\\-pin (45°) DIN connector, six of the pins being 0–10 V control signals for six separate dimmer circuits, and the other two a 0 V reference and a DC source for powering simple circuitry in rudimentary lighting desks. Pinouts vary between manufacturers: Zero 88, Anytronics, Lightprocessor and Strand have the control signals on pins 1–6, 0 V on pin 8 and power on pin 7 and Pulsar and Clay Paky have power on pin 1, 0 V on pin 2 and channel outputs on pins 3 to 8\\. The polarity of the power supply and control signals relative to ground also varies, with Strand having negative voltages, but most other brands having positive voltages.\n\n", "### Analog audio\n\n| Application | | Connector | Pin function | | | | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | 4 | 2 | 5 | 3 |\n| Amplifier | Monophonic | [60px](/wiki/Image:DIN-5_Diagram.svg \"DIN-5 Diagram.svg\") 5/180° | Audio out | | Screen/return | Audio in | |\n| Stereophonic | Left out | Right out | Right in | Left in |\n| Tape recorder | Monophonic | Audio in | | Audio out | |\n| Stereophonic | Left in | Right in | Right out | Left out |\n| Common colors on DIN\\-4\\*RCA adapters | | | white | red | yellow | black |\n| Common colors on DIN\\-2\\*RCA adapters | | | (sometimes joined with pin 5\\) | | red | white |\n\nThe 3/180° and 5/180° connectors were originally standardized and widely used in European countries for interconnecting analog audio equipment. For example, a [stereo](/wiki/Stereophonic_sound \"Stereophonic sound\") tape recorder could connect to a stereo amplifier using the five pins for the four signal connections plus ground. The connectors on the cord are connected pin for pin, (pin 1 to pin 1, etc.). Pins on male connectors are numbered (from right to left, viewed from outside of the connector, with the five pins upwards, and facing them): 1–4–2–5–3\\. Holes on female connectors are also numbered 1\\-4\\-2\\-5\\-3, but from left to right (facing the holes). The three pins that make contact with a 3 pin DIN connector will have the same pin numbering both in the three\\-pin and the five\\-pin connector. A four\\-conductor cord wired in this way is sometimes called a *DIN cord*, a *DIN lead* or a *DIN cable*. For [mono](/wiki/Monaural \"Monaural\") interconnections, the 3/180° plugs are sufficient. When a mono plug is inserted into a stereo socket, it mates with the left channel. For playback only interconnections, the 3/180° plugs are sufficient, with pin 1 and 3 used for the stereo channels and pin 2 as signal ground. Five\\-pin DIN inputs for record players and auxiliary signal sources commonly join pin 1 and 5 in order to be compatible both with the 3/180° and 5/180° pinouts. This generally works fine. However the join of pin 1 and 5 on adapters between DIN and RCA connectors can cause problems if used with a five\\-pin DIN connector tape connector on an amplifier or receiver, as it will join the left record with right playback signal. The other way around is usually not a problem as sending the right playback out of a tape recorder back in to the left record input usually imposes no problem in playback mode.\n\nThe signal levels are generally in the low range of line levels for playback/reproduction signals. The levels for recording can be considerably lower, more like microphone levels in some cases.\n\nSome manufacturers, like Philips, Uher and others, did use the connector slightly differently for tape recorders. Pin 2 (signal ground) was the same as others, and in playback mode pin 3 and 5 were used for left and right line level output as others. However in record mode all pins were active inputs, with pin 1 and 4 for low\\-level signals like microphone levels, while pin 3 and 5 were used for line\\-level signals. On all these recorders the output signals were only active in play mode, not in stop, record, rewind, fast forward or any other mode. The main benefits with this usage is that tape copying can be done with the regular pin\\-to\\-pin connected cables commonly used to connect tape recorders to amplifiers/receivers. An additional benefit is that several tape recorders can be connected in parallel, and can also be connected to an amplifier/receiver. Copying is done simply by pressing play on the playback recorder, rec on any recorders used for recording, and the amplifier/receiver is either switched off or set to the tape position. Recording of radio broadcasts or records is equally simple, just press record on any recorder and do not set any other recorder to playback mode. This eliminates the need for any switch boxes otherwise commonly used to connect more than one tape recorder to a single tape recorder connector on an amplifier/receiver. The drawbacks were that connecting any mono recorder with pin 1 joined to 4 and pin 5 joined to 3 (a common practice to make mono recorders record both channels in parallel and reproduce in both channels) would make all tape sounds mono. Also any tape recorder with three heads, used for monitoring while recording, needs an extra lead between the recorder and the amplifier to be able to monitor the recording through the amplifier and speakers. On Philips amplifiers/receivers and three head recorders that extra socket is labeled Monitor while the regular socket is labeled Tape. Another drawback is the possible confusion when interconnecting with other equipment, where a person sometimes would use a straight pin\\-to\\-pin cable and sometimes use a special \"copying\" cable with pin 1 swapped with pin 3 and pin 4 swapped with pin 5\\. Sometimes a person would also need to lower the signal to make a line output fit a microphone level input. In other cases it was also used for sending power to a device. For example some tuners, usually only pins 1, 4 and 2 are required for audio signal, other ( 3 and 5 were used to send power supply to the tuner U usually DC, as AC may cause hum, tuners usually having low power requirements). The input, is still compatible with other standard input connectors, but misusing the use of pins 3 and 5 may cause damages. Other manufacturers were using more than 5 pins, for example the cassette decks, two other pins being for power supply). Usually these were proprietary connections, making them compatible only with decks of the same manufacturers. Some other manufacturers, were using more than 5 pins connections (7 or even 9 pins) for devices with remote control, beside the audio signals there was also the remote control link ( usually the main unit with remote receiver being the amplifier/receiver). Other uses, some amplifiers and receivers with ceramic phono input, were using 1,4,2 pins for conventional line audio signal input and pins 3 and 5 for powering an optional external magnetic phono preamplifier. In this case, these manufacturers were also supplying the preamplifier. The input without preamplifier can be used as standard input on pins 1, 2 and 4, but care should be taken to avoid shorting pins 3 and 5 in this case, which are power supply, which may cause damages to equipment. In other cases, pins 1 2 and 4 are used for magnetic cartridge, and 3, 5 ( with ground on 2 ) for ceramic. This depends on manufacturer. Other uses for example in case of cassette decks were: Input and output, power supply, remote control and record sync. But this will be usually usable solely with the same decks of the manufacturer. Usually will be compatible with the conventional deck, but care must be taken not to short the other pins.\n\nThis interface was rare outside products for the European market, and has progressively disappeared on new equipment, both in Europe and worldwide, since the 1980s, in favour of [RCA connectors](/wiki/RCA_connectors \"RCA connectors\"). Non\\-European products intended for the European market commonly combined both DIN and RCA connectors, with cassette decks having both and amplifiers/receivers commonly having RCA connectors for everything and an additional 5\\-pin DIN connector for at least one tape connection, usually in parallel with a set of RCA connector for the same input/output.\n\n", "### Other uses\n\n[thumb\\|250px\\|Five\\-pin male 180° DIN connector from the keyboard of an original [IBM PC](/wiki/IBM_PC \"IBM PC\"). Note the unusually thick shielding skirt.](/wiki/File:5pin180dinplug.jpg \"5pin180dinplug.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|250px\\|Eight\\-pin DIN connector for a [Tandy 1000](/wiki/Tandy_1000 \"Tandy 1000\") keyboard](/wiki/File:Eight-pin_DIN_connector.jpg \"Eight-pin DIN connector.jpg\")\n\nThe 5/180° connectors are commonly used for:\n\n* [SYNC](/wiki/DIN_sync \"DIN sync\") or [MIDI](/wiki/MIDI \"MIDI\") interface for [electronic musical instrument](/wiki/Electronic_musical_instrument \"Electronic musical instrument\")\n* Peripherals or power connectors for personal computers from the 1980s\n* Audio in the original HME wireless communicators (It is the headset connector for inbound and outbound audio for drive\\-through restaurants.)\n* Controlling tilt of [UMTS](/wiki/Universal_Mobile_Telecommunications_System \"Universal Mobile Telecommunications System\") antennas (Antenna Interface Standards Group)\n* Connecting two controllers for [radio controlled model aircraft](/wiki/Radio-controlled_aircraft \"Radio-controlled aircraft\") together for training purposes\n\nThe DIN connector saw several other uses apart from audio. It was particularly popular as a connector for various home computers and video game consoles.\n\nAnalogue theatrical lighting control (pre\\-dating the more recent digital control protocols such as DMX) commonly used the 8\\-pin (45°) DIN connector, six of the pins being 0–10 V control signals for six separate dimmer circuits, and the other two a 0 V reference and a DC source for powering simple circuitry in rudimentary lighting desks. Pinouts vary between manufacturers: Zero 88, Anytronics, Lightprocessor and Strand have the control signals on pins 1–6, 0 V on pin 8 and power on pin 7 and Pulsar and Clay Paky have power on pin 1, 0 V on pin 2 and channel outputs on pins 3 to 8\\. The polarity of the power supply and control signals relative to ground also varies, with Strand having negative voltages, but most other brands having positive voltages.\n\n", "Other designs\n-------------\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|Speaker DIN line socket (left) and plug (right)](/wiki/file:Speaker_din_male_and_female.jpg \"Speaker din male and female.jpg\")\n\nA polarised two\\-pin unshielded connector, designed for connecting a [loudspeaker](/wiki/Loudspeaker \"Loudspeaker\") to a [power amplifier](/wiki/Power_amplifier \"Power amplifier\") (or other device; many of the earlier shoebox style tape recorders used them), is known as the DIN 41529 loudspeaker connector. It commonly exists as a panel\\-mounting female version, and line\\-mounted male and female versions, although there were rare panel mounted male connectors, for example fitted on the external speaker boxes on certain early 1980s Luxor TV sets. The male version has a central flat pin, and circular pin mounted off\\-centre. The circular pin is connected to the positive line (red) while the spade is connected to the negative line (black). The panel\\-mounting female version is available with or without an auxiliary contact that disconnects the internal speaker of the device if an external speaker connector is inserted. Most common is a three\\-hole female connector with one circular hole on either side of the spade hole, one of them with an aux contact and one without, which provides the option to leave the internal speaker connected by inserting the plug twisted by 180°.\n\nMany European car radio/stereo brands used this connector, commonly spaced so close apart that you need smaller male cable connectors. This was commonly used in conjunction with a connector block with two larger and four smaller flat blade connectors with a standardized pinout for power in (main power, memory for radios with electronic settings memory, dashboard light power) and out (for an automatic electric antenna). This setup was commonly combined with an 8\\-pin DIN connector where pin 1\\-5 were used for line output for connecting power amplifier (using the same pinout as for home audio equipment, except \"tape record\" would be front audio out and \"tape play\" would be rear audio out). The middle pin was used for remote start of an amplifier. If standard 5\\-pin home audio cables were used the automatic antenna connector could also be used for remote starting an amplifier. Eventually this connector setup was replaced with the later ISO car stereo connector standard.\n\nIt is now mainly found on older equipment, such as 16 mm movie projectors.. The connector is used on some [LED lamps](/wiki/LED_lamp \"LED lamp\") and [halogen lamps](/wiki/Halogen_lamp \"Halogen lamp\") to connect the bulb to the power supply. The two\\-pin DIN plug lacks the outer metal shell, so far less force is required to disconnect the plug accidentally. There are also three\\- and four\\-pin versions of this loudspeaker connector, used for example by [Bang \\& Olufsen](/wiki/Bang_%26_Olufsen \"Bang & Olufsen\").\n\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [DIN sync](/wiki/DIN_sync \"DIN sync\")\n* [Hosiden](/wiki/Hosiden \"Hosiden\")\n* [Mini\\-DIN connector](/wiki/Mini-DIN_connector \"Mini-DIN connector\")\n* [IBM PC keyboard\\#Connection](/wiki/IBM_PC_keyboard%23Connection \"IBM PC keyboard#Connection\")\n* [PS/2 connector](/wiki/PS/2_connector \"PS/2 connector\")\n* [XLR connector](/wiki/XLR_connector \"XLR connector\")\n", "Notes\n-----\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n* [DIN Connectors](http://www.electronics2000.co.uk/pin-out/dincon.php)\n* IEC 60574\\-3: Audiovisual, video and television equipment and systems — Part 3: Specification for connectors for the interconnection of equipment in audiovisual systems.\n\n[Category:Audiovisual connectors](/wiki/Category:Audiovisual_connectors \"Audiovisual connectors\")\n[Category:Surveillance](/wiki/Category:Surveillance \"Surveillance\")\n[Category:Deutsches Institut für Normung](/wiki/Category:Deutsches_Institut_f%C3%BCr_Normung \"Deutsches Institut für Normung\")\n[Category:DC power connectors](/wiki/Category:DC_power_connectors \"DC power connectors\")\n[Category:Computer connectors](/wiki/Category:Computer_connectors \"Computer connectors\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 35936988 ], "name": [ "JJMC89 bot III" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**August Paul von Wassermann** (21 February 1866 – 16 March 1925\\) was a [German](/wiki/Germans \"Germans\") [bacteriologist](/wiki/Bacteriologist \"Bacteriologist\") and [hygienist](/wiki/Hygienist \"Hygienist\").\n\nBorn in [Bamberg](/wiki/Bamberg \"Bamberg\"), with Jewish origins, he studied at several universities throughout Germany, receiving his medical doctorate in 1888 from the [University of Strassburg](/wiki/University_of_Strassburg \"University of Strassburg\"). In 1890 he began work under [Robert Koch](/wiki/Robert_Koch \"Robert Koch\") at the Institute for Infectious Diseases in [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin \"Berlin\"). In 1906 he became director of the division for experimental therapy and serum research at the institute, followed by a directorship of the department of experimental therapy at the Kaiser\\-Wilhelm\\-Gesellschaft for the Advancement of Science in [Berlin\\-Dahlem](/wiki/Berlin-Dahlem \"Berlin-Dahlem\") (1913\\).[August Paul von Wassermann](http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/2511.html) @ [Who Named It](/wiki/Who_Named_It \"Who Named It\")\n\nWassermann developed a [complement fixation](/wiki/Complement_fixation \"Complement fixation\") test for the diagnosis of [syphilis](/wiki/Syphilis \"Syphilis\") in 1906, just one year after the causative organism, *[Spirochaeta pallida](/wiki/Treponema_pallidum \"Treponema pallidum\")*, had been identified by [Fritz Schaudinn](/wiki/Fritz_Schaudinn \"Fritz Schaudinn\") and [Erich Hoffmann](/wiki/Erich_Hoffmann \"Erich Hoffmann\").[Wassermann's reaction](http://www.whonamedit.com/synd.cfm/2962.html) @ [Who Named It](/wiki/Who_Named_It \"Who Named It\") The so\\-called \"[Wassermann test](/wiki/Wassermann_test \"Wassermann test\")\" allowed for early detection of the disease (despite its [nonspecific symptoms](/wiki/Nonspecific_symptom \"Nonspecific symptom\")), and thus prevention of transmission. He attributed the development of the test to earlier findings of [Jules Bordet](/wiki/Jules_Bordet \"Jules Bordet\") and [Octave Gengou](/wiki/Octave_Gengou \"Octave Gengou\") (complement fixation reaction) and to a hypothesis introduced by [Paul Ehrlich](/wiki/Paul_Ehrlich \"Paul Ehrlich\") in his interpretation of [antibody](/wiki/Antibody \"Antibody\") formation.\n\nThe Wassermann test remains a staple of syphilis detection and prevention in some areas, although it has often been replaced by more modern alternatives. With [Wilhelm Kolle](/wiki/Wilhelm_Kolle \"Wilhelm Kolle\"), he published the six\\-volume *Handbuch der Pathogenen Mikroorganismen* (Handbook of Pathogenic Microorganisms).\n\nHe was the first recipient of the [Aronson Prize](/wiki/Aronson_Prize \"Aronson Prize\") in 1921\\.\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [Bibliography Of Wasserman](http://www.whonamedit.com/person_bibliography/2511/) @ [Who Named It](/wiki/Who_Named_It \"Who Named It\")\n[Category:1866 births](/wiki/Category:1866_births \"1866 births\")\n[Category:1925 deaths](/wiki/Category:1925_deaths \"1925 deaths\")\n[Category:People from Bamberg](/wiki/Category:People_from_Bamberg \"People from Bamberg\")\n[Category:19th\\-century German Jews](/wiki/Category:19th-century_German_Jews \"19th-century German Jews\")\n[Category:20th\\-century German biologists](/wiki/Category:20th-century_German_biologists \"20th-century German biologists\")\n[Category:German microbiologists](/wiki/Category:German_microbiologists \"German microbiologists\")\n[Category:German venereologists](/wiki/Category:German_venereologists \"German venereologists\")\n[Category:Jewish biologists](/wiki/Category:Jewish_biologists \"Jewish biologists\")\n[Category:German bacteriologists](/wiki/Category:German_bacteriologists \"German bacteriologists\")\n[Category:Physicians of the Charité](/wiki/Category:Physicians_of_the_Charit%C3%A9 \"Physicians of the Charité\")\n[Category:Max Planck Institute directors](/wiki/Category:Max_Planck_Institute_directors \"Max Planck Institute directors\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 16490385 ], "name": [ "Egeymi" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "References" ], "level": [ 1, 2 ], "content": [ "\n \n**Khujut Rabu'** () is a local area to the South\\-East of [Baghdad](/wiki/Baghdad \"Baghdad\"), [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq \"Iraq\"), near the town of the present\\-day [Salman Pak](/wiki/Salman_Pak \"Salman Pak\"). Also Khujut Rabua. Until 637 AD, this was the location of [Ctesiphon](/wiki/Ctesiphon \"Ctesiphon\") and [Seleucia](/wiki/Seleucia \"Seleucia\") on the [Tigris](/wiki/Tigris \"Tigris\"). This area was the capital city of [Iran](/wiki/Iran \"Iran\"), also known as [Persia](/wiki/Persia \"Persia\"), and by the [Romans](/wiki/Ancient_Rome \"Ancient Rome\") as [Ariana](/wiki/Ariana \"Ariana\"); during the [Selucid](/wiki/Selucid \"Selucid\"), [Parthian](/wiki/Parthian_Empire \"Parthian Empire\") and [Sasanian](/wiki/Sasanian \"Sasanian\") dynasties. Modern excavations of these two ancient cities have provided many artifacts from ancient times, including the alleged [Baghdad Battery](/wiki/Baghdad_Battery \"Baghdad Battery\"). Modern tourists can still visit [Taq Kasra](/wiki/Taq_Kasra \"Taq Kasra\") (the Arch of Ctesiphon).\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n[Category:Geography of Iraq](/wiki/Category:Geography_of_Iraq \"Geography of Iraq\")\n[Category:Regions of Iraq](/wiki/Category:Regions_of_Iraq \"Regions of Iraq\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ null ], "name": [ "2.57.103.246" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Geography", "Villages within Gósol", "Climate", "Culture", "Notable dates", "Local dishes", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**Gósol** is a village and [municipality](/wiki/Municipalities_of_Catalonia \"Municipalities of Catalonia\") located in the northwest of the [comarca](/wiki/Comarques_of_Catalonia \"Comarques of Catalonia\") of [Berguedà](/wiki/Bergued%C3%A0 \"Berguedà\") in [Catalonia](/wiki/Catalonia \"Catalonia\"), [Spain](/wiki/Spain \"Spain\"). It is within the confines of [Cadí\\-Moixeró Natural Park](/wiki/Cad%C3%AD-Moixer%C3%B3_Natural_Park \"Cadí-Moixeró Natural Park\") in the [Pyrenees](/wiki/Pyrenees \"Pyrenees\"), to the west of [Pedraforca](/wiki/Pedraforca \"Pedraforca\").\n\nGósol is the only municipality in Berguedà which is in the [province of Lleida](/wiki/Province_of_Lleida \"Province of Lleida\") rather than that of [Barcelona](/wiki/Province_of_Barcelona \"Province of Barcelona\"). It is also a party to the [Judicial district](/wiki/Judicial_districts_of_Spain \"Judicial districts of Spain\") of [La Seu d'Urgell](/wiki/La_Seu_d%27Urgell \"La Seu d'Urgell\").\n\n", "Geography\n---------\n\nThe present town is centered in the eponymous valley of Gósol, which is enclosed by the [Serra del Cadí](/wiki/Serra_del_Cad%C3%AD \"Serra del Cadí\") and Pedraforca, in the Pyrenees. The ruins of the former town and castle, dating from the 11th century, overlook the Gósol from an adjacent hill.\n\n", "Villages within Gósol\n---------------------\n\nThe municipal limits of Gósol includes, most notably, the village of Sorribes. Other settlements include Bonner, la Collada, Molí d'en Güell, Moripol, Castell de Termes, Font Terrers, and Torrent Senta.\n\n", "Climate\n-------\n\nGósol has a cool [subalpine climate](/wiki/Subalpine_climate \"Subalpine climate\"). Compared to less mountainous areas of Catalonia it is rather wet. It receives over 900 mm (35\\.43 in.) of precipitation each year, concentrated in the spring months.\n\n", "Culture\n-------\n\nGosol's emblematic cultural institution is the [Picasso Museum](/wiki/Picasso_Museum_%28G%C3%B3sol%29 \"Picasso Museum (Gósol)\"), which owes its existence to the visit of [Pablo Picasso](/wiki/Pablo_Picasso \"Pablo Picasso\") to the village from the spring of 1906 to mid\\-August of that same year. The artist installed himself at the only [inn](/wiki/Inn \"Inn\") then in existence, Cal Tampanada. While in Gósol, Picasso underwent a transformation of palette, sketching style, and rhythm of composition. Picasso found his subjects in local livestock and people of Gósol, as well as [Fernande Olivier](/wiki/Fernande_Olivier \"Fernande Olivier\"), his partner.\n\n### Notable dates\n\n* The town's *festa major*, or town festival, takes place on August 15 each year. It is most notable for its unique folk dance, the \"*Ball de les cosses*.\"\n* On [New Year's Eve](/wiki/New_Year%27s_Eve \"New Year's Eve\") ([Saint Sylvester](/wiki/Sylvester_I \"Sylvester I\")), legend says that [witches](/wiki/Witch \"Witch\") hold gatherings on [Pedraforca](/wiki/Pedraforca \"Pedraforca\") mountain.\n\n### Local dishes\n\n* *Pèsol negre*, a local variety of 'black pea'\n* *Blat de moro escairat*, or 'peeled corn', often cooked in a pork broth\n* *Patates emmascarades*, or \"Masked Potatoes\", mashed potatoes cooked with blood or black pudding\n* [All i oli](/wiki/A%C3%AFoli \"Aïoli\") with pork, eaten during the swine\\-harvest in fall\n* Veal with wild mushrooms\n* Wild boar\n", "### Notable dates\n\n* The town's *festa major*, or town festival, takes place on August 15 each year. It is most notable for its unique folk dance, the \"*Ball de les cosses*.\"\n* On [New Year's Eve](/wiki/New_Year%27s_Eve \"New Year's Eve\") ([Saint Sylvester](/wiki/Sylvester_I \"Sylvester I\")), legend says that [witches](/wiki/Witch \"Witch\") hold gatherings on [Pedraforca](/wiki/Pedraforca \"Pedraforca\") mountain.\n", "### Local dishes\n\n* *Pèsol negre*, a local variety of 'black pea'\n* *Blat de moro escairat*, or 'peeled corn', often cooked in a pork broth\n* *Patates emmascarades*, or \"Masked Potatoes\", mashed potatoes cooked with blood or black pudding\n* [All i oli](/wiki/A%C3%AFoli \"Aïoli\") with pork, eaten during the swine\\-harvest in fall\n* Veal with wild mushrooms\n* Wild boar\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [Official website](http://gosol.ddl.net/) \n* [Government data pages](http://aplicacions.municat.gencat.cat/index.php?page=consulta&mostraEns=2510010007) \n\n[Category:Municipalities in the Province of Lleida](/wiki/Category:Municipalities_in_the_Province_of_Lleida \"Municipalities in the Province of Lleida\")\n[Category:Populated places in the Province of Lleida](/wiki/Category:Populated_places_in_the_Province_of_Lleida \"Populated places in the Province of Lleida\")\n[Category:Municipalities in Berguedà](/wiki/Category:Municipalities_in_Bergued%C3%A0 \"Municipalities in Berguedà\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ null ], "name": [ "2A02:C7C:3784:2000:4C43:E855:4FD1:E3CF" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "References" ], "level": [ 1, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n[thumb\\|[Shenzhen–Zhongshan Bridge](/wiki/Shenzhen%E2%80%93Zhongshan_Bridge \"Shenzhen–Zhongshan Bridge\") construction, from May 2018 till June 2021](/wiki/File:S2L2A-timelapse_%2810%29.gif \"S2L2A-timelapse (10).gif\")\nThe **Lingdingyang Bridge** () is one of the bridges in the Shenzhen\\-Zhongshan link. The bridge was proposed by former [Zhuhai](/wiki/Zhuhai \"Zhuhai\") [prefecture](/wiki/Prefecture-level_city \"Prefecture-level city\") mayor in the late 1980s to link [Zhuhai](/wiki/Zhuhai \"Zhuhai\") and [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\") at [Qi'ao](/wiki/Qi%27ao \"Qi'ao\") and [Tuen Mun](/wiki/Tuen_Mun \"Tuen Mun\"), across the [Lingdingyang](/wiki/Lingdingyang \"Lingdingyang\"), [Pearl River](/wiki/Pearl_River_%28China%29 \"Pearl River (China)\") estuary.\n\nPreliminary works had been finished to link mainland Zhuhai with Qi'ao island. Nonetheless the proposal was dropped to give way to a later proposal of [Hong Kong\\-Zhuhai\\-Macau Bridge](/wiki/Hong_Kong-Zhuhai-Macau_Bridge \"Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macau Bridge\"), which links Hong Kong at [Lantau](/wiki/Lantau \"Lantau\"), and connects [Macau](/wiki/Macau \"Macau\") as well.\n\nIn November 2019, Zhuhai government announced plans for a Shenzhen\\-Zhuhai bridge, officially named the Lingdingyang Bridge, as the bridge cross the Lingding Channel will be built to connect the two cities. The bridge will start in [Qianhai](/wiki/Qianhai \"Qianhai\"), Shenzhen and go towards [Qi'ao Island](/wiki/Qi%27ao_Island \"Qi'ao Island\"), Zhuhai, and will be long. The cross\\-sea section of the bridge is planned to be both an expressway and a railway. A two\\-way eight\\-lane expressway and a four\\-lane railway with a designed speed of have been planned.\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n[Category:Bridges in Hong Kong](/wiki/Category:Bridges_in_Hong_Kong \"Bridges in Hong Kong\")\n[Category:Transport in Guangdong](/wiki/Category:Transport_in_Guangdong \"Transport in Guangdong\")\n[Category:Pearl River Delta](/wiki/Category:Pearl_River_Delta \"Pearl River Delta\")\n[Category:Proposed bridges in China](/wiki/Category:Proposed_bridges_in_China \"Proposed bridges in China\")\n\n \n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 2842084 ], "name": [ "Jevansen" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Career", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**Linda Perham** (born 29 June 1947\\) is a [Labour](/wiki/Labour_Party_%28UK%29 \"Labour Party (UK)\") politician in the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\").\n\n", "Career\n------\n\nPerham was a councillor in the [London Borough of Redbridge](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Redbridge \"London Borough of Redbridge\"), representing the ward of [Hainault](/wiki/Hainault%2C_London \"Hainault, London\") and Mayor of the Borough in 1994–95\\. She was elected the [Member of Parliament](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)\") for [Ilford North](/wiki/Ilford_North_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Ilford North (UK Parliament constituency)\") in 1997, when she defeated her [Conservative](/wiki/Conservative_Party_%28UK%29 \"Conservative Party (UK)\") predecessor [Vivian Bendall](/wiki/Vivian_Bendall \"Vivian Bendall\"). During her time in Parliament, she sat on various committees including the Trade and Industry and International Development select committees from 1998\\. She lost her seat in the [2005 general election](/wiki/2005_United_Kingdom_general_election \"2005 United Kingdom general election\") to Conservative [Lee Scott](/wiki/Lee_Scott_%28politician%29 \"Lee Scott (politician)\"). By profession, she was a librarian, working latterly at Epping Forest College in [Loughton](/wiki/Loughton \"Loughton\"). She was elected an honorary fellow of the [Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals](/wiki/Chartered_Institute_of_Library_and_Information_Professionals \"Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals\") in 2003 and is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce (FRSA).\n\nAfter leaving Parliament, she held a number of non\\-executive director and trustee positions, including with the [Consumer Council for Water](/wiki/Consumer_Council_for_Water \"Consumer Council for Water\"), East Thames Group, TrustMark, the London Voluntary Service Council, Headway West London, the Friends of the [Women's Library](/wiki/Women%27s_Library \"Women's Library\"), and the European Care Group.\n\nShe is now Chair of the Thames Water Trust Fund, Director/Trustee, Vision Redbridge Culture and Leisure, Member of the Court, [University of Leicester](/wiki/University_of_Leicester \"University of Leicester\"), President, [Hainault Forest](/wiki/Hainault_Forest \"Hainault Forest\") Community Association and a Justice of the Peace.\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [BBC News MP profile](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/mpdb/html/228.stm)\n* [They Work For You](https://www.theyworkforyou.com/mp/10476/linda_perham/ilford_north)\n[Category:1947 births](/wiki/Category:1947_births \"1947 births\")\n[Category:Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies](/wiki/Category:Labour_Party_%28UK%29_MPs_for_English_constituencies \"Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies\")\n[Category:Councillors in the London Borough of Redbridge](/wiki/Category:Councillors_in_the_London_Borough_of_Redbridge \"Councillors in the London Borough of Redbridge\")\n[Category:Female members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for English constituencies](/wiki/Category:Female_members_of_the_Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom_for_English_constituencies \"Female members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for English constituencies\")\n[Category:UK MPs 1997–2001](/wiki/Category:UK_MPs_1997%E2%80%932001 \"UK MPs 1997–2001\")\n[Category:UK MPs 2001–2005](/wiki/Category:UK_MPs_2001%E2%80%932005 \"UK MPs 2001–2005\")\n[Category:Alumni of the University of Leicester](/wiki/Category:Alumni_of_the_University_of_Leicester \"Alumni of the University of Leicester\")\n[Category:Living people](/wiki/Category:Living_people \"Living people\")\n[Category:20th\\-century British women politicians](/wiki/Category:20th-century_British_women_politicians \"20th-century British women politicians\")\n[Category:21st\\-century British women politicians](/wiki/Category:21st-century_British_women_politicians \"21st-century British women politicians\")\n[Category:20th\\-century English women](/wiki/Category:20th-century_English_women \"20th-century English women\")\n[Category:20th\\-century English politicians](/wiki/Category:20th-century_English_politicians \"20th-century English politicians\")\n[Category:21st\\-century English women](/wiki/Category:21st-century_English_women \"21st-century English women\")\n[Category:21st\\-century English politicians](/wiki/Category:21st-century_English_politicians \"21st-century English politicians\")\n[Category:Women councillors in England](/wiki/Category:Women_councillors_in_England \"Women councillors in England\")\n[Category:Labour Party (UK) councillors](/wiki/Category:Labour_Party_%28UK%29_councillors \"Labour Party (UK) councillors\")\n[Category:Labour Party (UK) mayors](/wiki/Category:Labour_Party_%28UK%29_mayors \"Labour Party (UK) mayors\")\n[Category:Mayors of places in Greater London](/wiki/Category:Mayors_of_places_in_Greater_London \"Mayors of places in Greater London\")\n\n \n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 29596807 ], "name": [ "Justinkunimune" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Generic terms", "Terms by species or taxon", "Usage of collective nouns", "See also", "Notes", "References", "Further reading" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n[thumb\\|Mother [sea otter](/wiki/Sea_otter \"Sea otter\") with sleeping pup, [Morro Bay](/wiki/Morro_Bay \"Morro Bay\"), California](/wiki/File:Mother_sea_otter_with_sleeping_pup.jpeg \"Mother sea otter with sleeping pup.jpeg\")\nIn the English language, many animals have different names depending on whether they are [male](/wiki/Male \"Male\"), [female](/wiki/Female \"Female\"), young, domesticated, or in groups.\n\nThe best\\-known source of many English words used for collective groupings of animals is *[The Book of Saint Albans](/wiki/Book_of_St._Albans \"Book of St. Albans\")*, an essay on hunting published in 1486 and attributed to [Juliana Berners](/wiki/Juliana_Berners \"Juliana Berners\"). Most terms used here may be found in common dictionaries and general information web sites.\n\n", "Generic terms\n-------------\n\nThe terms in this table apply to many or all [taxons](/wiki/Taxon \"Taxon\") in a particular biological [family](/wiki/Family_%28biology%29 \"Family (biology)\"), [class](/wiki/Class_%28biology%29 \"Class (biology)\"), or [clade](/wiki/Clade \"Clade\").\n\n| Scientific term | [Trivial name](/wiki/Binomial_nomenclature%23History \"Binomial nomenclature#History\") | Young | [Female](/wiki/Female \"Female\") | [Male](/wiki/Male \"Male\") | [Collective noun](/wiki/Collective_noun \"Collective noun\") | [Collateral adjective](/wiki/Collateral_adjective \"Collateral adjective\") |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [Aves](/wiki/Aves \"Aves\") | [bird](/wiki/Bird \"Bird\") | chick | [hen](/wiki/Chicken \"Chicken\") | cock, rooster | flock | avian |\n| [Bovinae](/wiki/Bovinae \"Bovinae\") | [cattle](/wiki/Cattle \"Cattle\"); ox, cow | calf | cow (bred), heifer (not bred) | bull (intact), bullock or steer (castrated) | [herd](/wiki/Herd \"Herd\") | bovine |\n| [Canidae](/wiki/Canidae \"Canidae\") | dog | [puppy, pup](/wiki/Puppy \"Puppy\"), cub, whelp | bitch | [dog](/wiki/Dog \"Dog\") | [pack](/wiki/Pack_%28canine%29 \"Pack (canine)\") | canine |\n| [Cetacea](/wiki/Cetacea \"Cetacea\") | whale, dolphin, porpoise | calf | cow | bull | pod | cetacean |\n| [Equidae](/wiki/Equidae \"Equidae\") | horse | [colt](/wiki/Colt_%28horse%29 \"Colt (horse)\") (male), [filly](/wiki/Filly \"Filly\") (female), foal | jenny ([asses](/wiki/Donkey \"Donkey\")), mare (other equids) | jack ([asses](/wiki/Donkey \"Donkey\")), stallion (other equids), gelding (castrated horse) | herd | equine |\n| [Felidae](/wiki/Felidae \"Felidae\") | cat | kitten (non\\-big cats, such as *[Felis](/wiki/Felis \"Felis\")*, *[Lynx](/wiki/Lynx \"Lynx\")*, *[Puma](/wiki/Puma_%28genus%29 \"Puma (genus)\")*, etc.), cub (big cats, *[Panthera](/wiki/Panthera \"Panthera\")*, and also *Puma*) | queen | tom, king | clowder (small cats), pride (big cats) | feline |\n| [Suidae](/wiki/Suidae \"Suidae\") | pig | piglet | sow | boar | drift or drove | porcine |\n| [Procyonidae](/wiki/Procyonidae \"Procyonidae\") | [Raccoon](/wiki/Raccoon \"Raccoon\") family of Carnivorans | cub, kit | sow | boar | gaze, smack, committee | procyonine, nasuine, others |\n| [Viverridae](/wiki/Viverridae \"Viverridae\") | [Civet](/wiki/Civet \"Civet\") family of Carnivorans | cub, kit | sow | boar | viverrine |\n| [Mustelidae](/wiki/Mustelidae \"Mustelidae\") | [Ferret](/wiki/Ferret \"Ferret\") family of Carnivorans (large: badgers \\& wolverines; small: weasels \\& ferrets) | kit | sow (large) or jill (small) | boar (large) or hob, jack (small) | colony (large) or business (small) | musteline |\n| [Leporidae](/wiki/Leporidae \"Leporidae\") | rabbits \\& hares | nestling | jill | jack | nest or band | leporine |\n| [Osteichthyes](/wiki/Osteichthyes \"Osteichthyes\") | [bony fish](/wiki/Bony_fish \"Bony fish\") | hatchling, fry, fingerling | | | [school, shoal](/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling \"Shoaling and schooling\") | piscine, ichthyic |\n\n", "", "Usage of collective nouns\n-------------------------\n\n*[Merriam\\-Webster](/wiki/Merriam-Webster \"Merriam-Webster\")* writes that most terms of venery fell out of use in the 16th century, including a \"murder\" for crows. It goes on to say that some of the terms in *[The Book of Saint Albans](/wiki/The_Book_of_Saint_Albans \"The Book of Saint Albans\")* were \"rather fanciful\", explaining that the book extended collective nouns to people of specific professions, such as a \"poverty\" of pipers. It concludes that for [lexicographers](/wiki/Lexicographer \"Lexicographer\"), many of these do not satisfy criteria for entry by being \"used consistently in running prose\" without meriting explanation. Some terms that were listed as commonly used were \"herd\", \"flock\", \"school\", and \"swarm\".\n\nWriting for [Audubon](/wiki/National_Audubon_Society \"National Audubon Society\"), Nicholas Lund says that many such terms are not used in actuality. When he interviewed scientists who specialize in studying specific animals, they had not heard of these terms, such as a \"bask\" of crocodiles or \"wisdom\" of wombats, being applied in their fields. Lund noted that the common plural nouns for animals were \"flock\" for birds and \"herd\" for cows, conceding that for certain animals in small groups, there was currency in usage such as a \"pod\" of whales or \"gaggle\" of geese.\n\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [Animal epithet](/wiki/Animal_epithet \"Animal epithet\")\n* [Lists of animals](/wiki/Lists_of_animals \"Lists of animals\")\n* [List of animal sounds](/wiki/List_of_animal_sounds \"List of animal sounds\")\n* [wikt:Appendix:Animals](/wiki/wikt:Appendix:Animals \"Appendix:Animals\"), a similar list on English Wiktionary\n", "Notes\n-----\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "Further reading\n---------------\n\n* Gray, Peter (1970\\). *[The encyclopedia of the biological sciences](https://books.google.com/books?id=B7BqAAAAMAAJ)*. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. .\n[Names](/wiki/Category:Lists_of_animals \"Lists of animals\")\n[Animals](/wiki/Category:Lists_of_English_words \"Lists of English words\")\n[Category:English nouns](/wiki/Category:English_nouns \"English nouns\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 27199084 ], "name": [ "Entranced98" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "History", "Early history", "Early Modern history", "Modern history", "The town", "Transport", "Education", "Sport and leisure", "Notable people", "Archaeology", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**Mildenhall** is a [market town](/wiki/Market_town \"Market town\") in the [civil parish](/wiki/Civil_parishes_in_England \"Civil parishes in England\") of [Mildenhall High](/wiki/Mildenhall_High \"Mildenhall High\"), in the [West Suffolk](/wiki/West_Suffolk_District \"West Suffolk District\") district, in the county of [Suffolk](/wiki/Suffolk \"Suffolk\"), England. The town is near the [A11](/wiki/A11_road_%28Great_Britain%29 \"A11 road (Great Britain)\"), and is north\\-west of [Ipswich](/wiki/Ipswich \"Ipswich\").Ordnance Survey (2006\\). *OS Explorer Map 226 \\- Ely \\& Newmarket*. . The large [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force \"Royal Air Force\") station, [RAF Mildenhall](/wiki/RAF_Mildenhall \"RAF Mildenhall\"), as well as [RAF Lakenheath](/wiki/RAF_Lakenheath \"RAF Lakenheath\"), are located north of the town. Both are used by the [United States Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force \"United States Air Force\") and Mildenhall is the headquarters of its [100th Air Refueling Wing](/wiki/100th_Air_Refueling_Wing \"100th Air Refueling Wing\") and [352nd Special Operations Group](/wiki/352nd_Special_Operations_Group \"352nd Special Operations Group\"). Mildenhall is often seen as the start of [The Fens](/wiki/The_Fens \"The Fens\") on the south/east.\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\|Signpost in Mildenhall](/wiki/File:UK_Mildenhall_%28Suffolk%29.jpg \"UK Mildenhall (Suffolk).jpg\")\n\n \n\n", "History\n-------\n\n### Early history\n\nThe area around Mildenhall has been settled by humans since at least the Bronze Age. Following the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\") invasion of Britain, Mildenhall was the site of a Roman settlement, which at some point contained the [Mildenhall Treasure](/wiki/Mildenhall_Treasure \"Mildenhall Treasure\").\n\nThe name of the town was first recorded in 1050 as *Mildenhale*, believed to mean a nook of land belonging to a woman called \"Milde\" or a man called \"Milda\". In 1086, the [Domesday Book](/wiki/Domesday_Book \"Domesday Book\") recorded that the town was the property of the [Abbot of St Edmunds](/wiki/Abbot_of_St_Edmunds \"Abbot of St Edmunds\") and had a population of some 64 families.\n\n### Early Modern history\n\nWith the [Dissolution of the Monasteries](/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Monasteries \"Dissolution of the Monasteries\") in 1536, ownership of the town was transferred to [Edward North, 1st Baron North](/wiki/Edward_North%2C_1st_Baron_North \"Edward North, 1st Baron North\"), whose son, [Roger North](/wiki/Roger_North%2C_2nd_Baron_North \"Roger North, 2nd Baron North\"), lived in Mildenhall for a time. Ownership of the Mildenhall estate remained with the North family for many decades. It was [Henry North](/wiki/Henry_North_%28died_1620%29 \"Henry North (died 1620)\") who, upon retirement, built the Manor house at Mildenhall.\n\n[Sir Henry North](/wiki/Sir_Henry_North%2C_2nd_Baronet \"Sir Henry North, 2nd Baronet\") was elected MP for Suffolk in 1685, but he died a bachelor and so ownership of the estate passed to [Sir Thomas Hanmer](/wiki/Sir_Thomas_Hanmer%2C_4th_Baronet \"Sir Thomas Hanmer, 4th Baronet\"). Hanmer was elected [Speaker of the House of Commons](/wiki/Speaker_of_the_House_of_Commons_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Speaker of the House of Commons (United Kingdom)\") in 1714 and spent little time in his estate. He also died without an heir, and ownership then passed to [Thomas Bunbury](/wiki/Sir_Charles_Bunbury%2C_6th_Baronet \"Sir Charles Bunbury, 6th Baronet\"), who also became MP for Suffolk.\nIn 1810 Joseph Smedley was able to hire a building as a temporary theatre for £2\\.\n\n### Modern history\n\nThe Bunbury family held the manor of Mildenhall until the estate was broken up in 1933\\. RAF Mildenhall was officially opened in 1934 and served as a base for [RAF Bomber Command](/wiki/RAF_Bomber_Command \"RAF Bomber Command\") during the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\"). In 1950, the [US Air Force](/wiki/US_Air_Force \"US Air Force\") took over its operation.\n\nOn 1 April 2019 the parish of [West Row](/wiki/West_Row \"West Row\") was split from Mildenhall, on 10 October 2023 the parish was renamed from \"Mildenhall\" to \"Mildenhall High\".\n\n", "### Early history\n\nThe area around Mildenhall has been settled by humans since at least the Bronze Age. Following the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\") invasion of Britain, Mildenhall was the site of a Roman settlement, which at some point contained the [Mildenhall Treasure](/wiki/Mildenhall_Treasure \"Mildenhall Treasure\").\n\nThe name of the town was first recorded in 1050 as *Mildenhale*, believed to mean a nook of land belonging to a woman called \"Milde\" or a man called \"Milda\". In 1086, the [Domesday Book](/wiki/Domesday_Book \"Domesday Book\") recorded that the town was the property of the [Abbot of St Edmunds](/wiki/Abbot_of_St_Edmunds \"Abbot of St Edmunds\") and had a population of some 64 families.\n\n", "### Early Modern history\n\nWith the [Dissolution of the Monasteries](/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Monasteries \"Dissolution of the Monasteries\") in 1536, ownership of the town was transferred to [Edward North, 1st Baron North](/wiki/Edward_North%2C_1st_Baron_North \"Edward North, 1st Baron North\"), whose son, [Roger North](/wiki/Roger_North%2C_2nd_Baron_North \"Roger North, 2nd Baron North\"), lived in Mildenhall for a time. Ownership of the Mildenhall estate remained with the North family for many decades. It was [Henry North](/wiki/Henry_North_%28died_1620%29 \"Henry North (died 1620)\") who, upon retirement, built the Manor house at Mildenhall.\n\n[Sir Henry North](/wiki/Sir_Henry_North%2C_2nd_Baronet \"Sir Henry North, 2nd Baronet\") was elected MP for Suffolk in 1685, but he died a bachelor and so ownership of the estate passed to [Sir Thomas Hanmer](/wiki/Sir_Thomas_Hanmer%2C_4th_Baronet \"Sir Thomas Hanmer, 4th Baronet\"). Hanmer was elected [Speaker of the House of Commons](/wiki/Speaker_of_the_House_of_Commons_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Speaker of the House of Commons (United Kingdom)\") in 1714 and spent little time in his estate. He also died without an heir, and ownership then passed to [Thomas Bunbury](/wiki/Sir_Charles_Bunbury%2C_6th_Baronet \"Sir Charles Bunbury, 6th Baronet\"), who also became MP for Suffolk.\nIn 1810 Joseph Smedley was able to hire a building as a temporary theatre for £2\\.\n\n", "### Modern history\n\nThe Bunbury family held the manor of Mildenhall until the estate was broken up in 1933\\. RAF Mildenhall was officially opened in 1934 and served as a base for [RAF Bomber Command](/wiki/RAF_Bomber_Command \"RAF Bomber Command\") during the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\"). In 1950, the [US Air Force](/wiki/US_Air_Force \"US Air Force\") took over its operation.\n\nOn 1 April 2019 the parish of [West Row](/wiki/West_Row \"West Row\") was split from Mildenhall, on 10 October 2023 the parish was renamed from \"Mildenhall\" to \"Mildenhall High\".\n\n", "The town\n--------\n\nMildenhall is centred on a market place with a 16th\\-century hexagonal [market cross](/wiki/Market_cross \"Market cross\") and town pump. The town's market is held here every Friday; it originated as a weekly chartered market in (it is believed) the 15th century. In 1934 Mildenhall was the start point of the [MacRobertson Air Race](/wiki/MacRobertson_Air_Race \"MacRobertson Air Race\") to [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne \"Melbourne\"), Australia.\n\nThe town is the subject and namesake of a song by [The Shins](/wiki/The_Shins \"The Shins\"), as well as being mentioned in passing in the [Pink Floyd](/wiki/Pink_Floyd \"Pink Floyd\") song \"[Let There Be More Light](/wiki/Let_There_Be_More_Light \"Let There Be More Light\")\" on the 1968 album *[A Saucerful of Secrets](/wiki/A_Saucerful_of_Secrets \"A Saucerful of Secrets\")* as a speculated location for first contact between humanity and extraterrestrial life:\n\n*Then at last, the mighty ship*\n*Descending on a point of flame*\n*Made contact with the human race at Mildenhall*\nDue to the airfield, Mildenhall currently has the highest concentration of U.S. citizens in the country. In 2005, as many as 30% of residents were born in the U.S.\n\n", "Transport\n---------\n\nThe town has a bus station, which was completed in 2005\\. Regular bus services run to the neighbouring towns of [Brandon](/wiki/Brandon%2C_Suffolk \"Brandon, Suffolk\"), [Bury St. Edmunds](/wiki/Bury_St_Edmunds \"Bury St Edmunds\"), [Newmarket](/wiki/Newmarket%2C_Suffolk \"Newmarket, Suffolk\") and [Thetford](/wiki/Thetford \"Thetford\"). [National Express](/wiki/National_Express_Coaches \"National Express Coaches\") operate daily coach services to [Norwich](/wiki/Norwich \"Norwich\"), [London](/wiki/London \"London\") ([Victoria Coach Station](/wiki/Victoria_Coach_Station \"Victoria Coach Station\")), [Heathrow](/wiki/Heathrow_Central_bus_station \"Heathrow Central bus station\"), [Gatwick](/wiki/Gatwick_Airport \"Gatwick Airport\") and [Stansted](/wiki/Stansted_Airport \"Stansted Airport\") Airports. [Mildenhall railway station](/wiki/Mildenhall_railway_station \"Mildenhall railway station\") was the terminus of the [Cambridge to Mildenhall railway](/wiki/Cambridge_to_Mildenhall_railway \"Cambridge to Mildenhall railway\") until its closure in 1962\\.\n\n", "Education\n---------\n\nMildenhall has two [primary schools](/wiki/Primary_school \"Primary school\"): St. Mary's and Great Heath\nand one [secondary school](/wiki/Secondary_school \"Secondary school\"): [Mildenhall College Academy](/wiki/Mildenhall_College_Academy \"Mildenhall College Academy\"). The secondary school also contains a [sixth form](/wiki/Sixth_form \"Sixth form\").\n\n", "Sport and leisure\n-----------------\n\nMildenhall has a [non\\-League football](/wiki/Non-League_football \"Non-League football\") club, [Mildenhall Town F.C.](/wiki/Mildenhall_Town_F.C. \"Mildenhall Town F.C.\"), who play at Recreation Way.\n\nIt also has one of the East of England's leading cricket clubs, [Mildenhall Cricket Club](/wiki/Mildenhall_Cricket_Club \"Mildenhall Cricket Club\"), playing at [Wamil Way](/wiki/Wamil_Way \"Wamil Way\"). In 2016 the 1st XI won the Two Counties Championship and was promoted to the [East Anglian Premier Cricket League](/wiki/East_Anglian_Premier_Cricket_League \"East Anglian Premier Cricket League\"). Notable former players include England internationals [Tymal Mills](/wiki/Tymal_Mills \"Tymal Mills\") and [Tom Westley](/wiki/Tom_Westley \"Tom Westley\") and Essex Women's Lilly Reynolds.\n\nThe Mildenhall Cycling Club is located next to the cricket ground, and has famous previous members such as [Victoria Pendleton](/wiki/Victoria_Pendleton \"Victoria Pendleton\").\n\nThere is a leisure centre on Bury Road which is about 5–10 minutes away from the town square.\n\nThe River Lark runs through the town, and there is a 19\\-acre open space adjoining it, called the Jubilee Fields.\n\n", "Notable people\n--------------\n\n* [Henry Bunbury (caricaturist)](/wiki/Henry_Bunbury_%28caricaturist%29 \"Henry Bunbury (caricaturist)\"), 1750–1811, British caricaturist.\n* [Elonka Dunin](/wiki/Elonka_Dunin \"Elonka Dunin\") \\- resident at [RAF Mildenhall](/wiki/RAF_Mildenhall \"RAF Mildenhall\") during her time in the USAF.\n* [Lindsey Graham](/wiki/Lindsey_Graham \"Lindsey Graham\") \\- U.S. senator, resident at [RAF Lakenheath](/wiki/RAF_Lakenheath \"RAF Lakenheath\") during the 1980s when he served in the USAF as a [JAG](/wiki/Judge_Advocate_General%27s_Corps \"Judge Advocate General's Corps\").\n* [Sir Thomas Hanmer, 4th Baronet](/wiki/Sir_Thomas_Hanmer%2C_4th_Baronet \"Sir Thomas Hanmer, 4th Baronet\") \\- owner of the Mildenhall estate; later MP for [Suffolk](/wiki/Suffolk_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Suffolk (UK Parliament constituency)\") and [Speaker of the House of Commons.](/wiki/Speaker_of_the_House_of_Commons_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Speaker of the House of Commons (United Kingdom)\")\n* [Nicole Malachowski](/wiki/Nicole_Malachowski \"Nicole Malachowski\") \\- resident at [RAF Lakenheath](/wiki/RAF_Lakenheath \"RAF Lakenheath\") during her time as a pilot with the [48th Fighter Wing](/wiki/48th_Fighter_Wing \"48th Fighter Wing\").\n* [James Mercer](/wiki/James_Mercer_%28musician%29 \"James Mercer (musician)\") \\- musician. Lived in Mildenhall from 1985 to 1990 after his father was based at [RAF Mildenhall](/wiki/RAF_Mildenhall \"RAF Mildenhall\"). He wrote a song about his time in Mildenhall which appears on the 2017 album *[Heartworms](/wiki/Heartworms_%28album%29 \"Heartworms (album)\")*.\n* [Tymal Mills](/wiki/Tymal_Mills \"Tymal Mills\") \\- educated at [Mildenhall College Academy](/wiki/Mildenhall_College_Academy \"Mildenhall College Academy\") and played for [Mildenhall Cricket Club](/wiki/Mildenhall_Cricket_Club \"Mildenhall Cricket Club\").\n* [Sir Henry North](/wiki/Sir_Henry_North%2C_1st_Baronet \"Sir Henry North, 1st Baronet\") \\- Member of Parliament for [Suffolk](/wiki/Suffolk_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Suffolk (UK Parliament constituency)\").\n* [Rick Perry](/wiki/Rick_Perry \"Rick Perry\") \\- based at [RAF Mildenhall](/wiki/RAF_Mildenhall \"RAF Mildenhall\") when he was a pilot in the USAF.\n* [Dick Rutan](/wiki/Dick_Rutan \"Dick Rutan\") \\- based at [RAF Lakenheath](/wiki/RAF_Lakenheath \"RAF Lakenheath\") when a pilot in the USAF.\n* [Edmund Selous](/wiki/Edmund_Selous \"Edmund Selous\") \\- ornithologist and writer, resident in Mildenhall from 1889 to 1920\\.\n* [Chesley Sullenberger](/wiki/Chesley_Sullenberger \"Chesley Sullenberger\") \\- based at [RAF Lakenheath](/wiki/RAF_Lakenheath \"RAF Lakenheath\") when he was a pilot in the USAF.\n* [Phil Thornalley](/wiki/Phil_Thornalley \"Phil Thornalley\") \\- songwriter and musician, grew up in [Worlington.](/wiki/Worlington%2C_Suffolk \"Worlington, Suffolk\")\n* [Heather Wilson](/wiki/Heather_Wilson \"Heather Wilson\") \\- resident at [RAF Mildenhall](/wiki/RAF_Mildenhall \"RAF Mildenhall\") during her time in the USAF.\n", "Archaeology\n-----------\n\nThe [Mildenhall Treasure](/wiki/Mildenhall_Treasure \"Mildenhall Treasure\") was discovered within the town in 1942\\. The treasure is a hoard of [Roman](/wiki/Ancient_Rome \"Ancient Rome\") silver objects buried in the 4th century. In 1946, the discovery was made public and the treasure acquired by the [British Museum](/wiki/British_Museum \"British Museum\"), where it resides today. \n\n[Roald Dahl](/wiki/Roald_Dahl \"Roald Dahl\") wrote an article about the find which was published first in the *[Saturday Evening Post](/wiki/Saturday_Evening_Post \"Saturday Evening Post\")*, and later as \"[The Mildenhall Treasure](/wiki/The_Mildenhall_Treasure_%28story%29 \"The Mildenhall Treasure (story)\")\" (a short story) in his short story collection *[The Wonderful Story of Henry Sugar and Six More](/wiki/The_Wonderful_Story_of_Henry_Sugar_and_Six_More \"The Wonderful Story of Henry Sugar and Six More\")*. The Mildenhall Museum in the centre of the town contains displays of local history and wildlife, the history of the RAF base, and information on the [Mildenhall Treasure](/wiki/Mildenhall_Treasure \"Mildenhall Treasure\"). Entrance is free, opening times vary throughout the year.\nThe region between [Devil's Dyke](/wiki/Devil%27s_Dyke%2C_Cambridgeshire \"Devil's Dyke, Cambridgeshire\") and the line between [Littleport](/wiki/Littleport%2C_England \"Littleport, England\") and [Shippea Hill](/wiki/Shippea_Hill \"Shippea Hill\") shows a remarkable amount of [archaeological](/wiki/Archaeological \"Archaeological\") findings of the [Stone Age](/wiki/Stone_Age \"Stone Age\"), the [Bronze Age](/wiki/Bronze_Age \"Bronze Age\") and the [Iron Age](/wiki/Iron_Age \"Iron Age\")., pp. 81\\-88\\.\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [Mildenhall parish council website](https://www.mildenhall-tc.gov.uk/the-council.html)\n* [Mildenhall and area community and information website](http://www.offbase.uk/)\n* [Poor parishioners in 16th century Mildenhall](https://suffolklocalhistoryforum.blogspot.com/)\n\n[Category:American diaspora in Europe](/wiki/Category:American_diaspora_in_Europe \"American diaspora in Europe\")\n\n[Category:Towns in Suffolk](/wiki/Category:Towns_in_Suffolk \"Towns in Suffolk\")\n[Category:Market towns in Suffolk](/wiki/Category:Market_towns_in_Suffolk \"Market towns in Suffolk\")\n[Category:West Suffolk District](/wiki/Category:West_Suffolk_District \"West Suffolk District\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ null ], "name": [ "2601:602:87E:E20:B08B:1760:370C:886B" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Early life", "Career", "Early years (1955-1961)", "Leading man", "Michael Winner and Ken Russell", "''Oliver!'' and stardom", "1980s", "Later years", "Music", "Personal life", "Activities", "Alcoholism", "Death", "Aftermath", "Filmography, awards and nominations", "Books", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n* + \n\t**Robert Oliver Reed** (13 February 1938 – 2 May 1999\\) was an English actor, known for his upper\\-middle class, macho image and his heavy\\-drinking, \"hellraiser\" lifestyle. His screen career spanned over 40 years, between 1955 and 1999\\. At the peak of his career, in 1971, British exhibitors voted Reed fifth\\-most\\-popular star at the box office.Waymark, Peter (30 December 1971\\). \"Richard Burton top draw in British cinemas,\" *The Times*, London, p. 2\\.\n\nAfter making his first significant screen appearances in [Hammer Horror](/wiki/Hammer_Film_Productions \"Hammer Film Productions\") films in the early 1960s, his notable film roles included La Bete in *[The Trap](/wiki/The_Trap_%281966_film%29 \"The Trap (1966 film)\")* (1966\\), [Bill Sikes](/wiki/Bill_Sikes \"Bill Sikes\") in *[Oliver!](/wiki/Oliver%21_%28film%29 \"Oliver! (film)\")* (a film directed by his uncle [Carol Reed](/wiki/Carol_Reed \"Carol Reed\") that won the 1968 [Academy Award for Best Picture](/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Picture \"Academy Award for Best Picture\")), Gerald in *[Women in Love](/wiki/Women_in_Love_%28film%29 \"Women in Love (film)\")* (1969\\), the title role in *[Hannibal Brooks](/wiki/Hannibal_Brooks \"Hannibal Brooks\")* (1969\\), [Urbain Grandier](/wiki/Urbain_Grandier \"Urbain Grandier\") in *[The Devils](/wiki/The_Devils_%28film%29 \"The Devils (film)\")* (1971\\), [Athos](/wiki/Athos_%28character%29 \"Athos (character)\") in *[The Three Musketeers](/wiki/The_Three_Musketeers_%281973_live-action_film%29 \"The Three Musketeers (1973 live-action film)\")* (1973\\) and *[The Four Musketeers](/wiki/The_Four_Musketeers_%281974_film%29 \"The Four Musketeers (1974 film)\")* (1974\\), Uncle Frank in *[Tommy](/wiki/Tommy_%281975_film%29 \"Tommy (1975 film)\")* (1975\\), Dr. Hal Raglan in *[The Brood](/wiki/The_Brood \"The Brood\")* (1979\\), Dolly Hopkins in *[Funny Bones](/wiki/Funny_Bones \"Funny Bones\")* (1995\\) and Antonius Proximo in *[Gladiator](/wiki/Gladiator_%282000_film%29 \"Gladiator (2000 film)\")* (2000\\).\n\nFor playing the old, gruff gladiator trainer in [Ridley Scott](/wiki/Ridley_Scott \"Ridley Scott\")'s *Gladiator*, in what was his final film, Reed was posthumously nominated for the [BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role](/wiki/BAFTA_Award_for_Best_Actor_in_a_Supporting_Role \"BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role\") and a [Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture](/wiki/Screen_Actors_Guild_Award_for_Outstanding_Performance_by_a_Cast_in_a_Motion_Picture \"Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture\") in 2000\\.\n\nThe [British Film Institute](/wiki/British_Film_Institute \"British Film Institute\") (BFI) stated that \"partnerships with [Michael Winner](/wiki/Michael_Winner \"Michael Winner\") and [Ken Russell](/wiki/Ken_Russell \"Ken Russell\") in the mid\\-\\[19]60s saw Reed become an emblematic Brit\\-flick icon\", but from the mid\\-1970s his alcoholism began affecting his career, with the [BFI](/wiki/British_Film_Institute \"British Film Institute\") adding: \"Reed had assumed [Robert Newton](/wiki/Robert_Newton \"Robert Newton\")'s mantle as Britain's thirstiest thespian\".\n\n", "Early life\n----------\n\nRobert Oliver Reed was born on 13 February 1938 at 9 Durrington Park Road, [Wimbledon](/wiki/Wimbledon%2C_London \"Wimbledon, London\"), southwest London, to Peter Reed, a sports journalist, and Marcia (née Napier\\-Andrews). He was the nephew of film director [Sir Carol Reed](/wiki/Carol_Reed \"Carol Reed\"), and grandson of the actor\\-[manager](/wiki/Theatre_director \"Theatre director\") [Sir Herbert Beerbohm Tree](/wiki/Herbert_Beerbohm_Tree \"Herbert Beerbohm Tree\") and his mistress, Beatrice May Pinney (who later assumed the name 'Reed'),[“Mummer and daddy”](http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/12th-may-1979/19/mummer-and-daddy). *The Spectator*. Retrieved 10 August 2020 she being \"the only person who understood, listened to, encouraged and kissed Oliver\". Reed claimed to have been a descendant (through an illegitimate step) of [Peter the Great](/wiki/Peter_the_Great \"Peter the Great\"), Tsar of Russia. Reed attended 14 schools, including [Ewell Castle School](/wiki/Ewell_Castle_School \"Ewell Castle School\") in Surrey. \"My father thought I was just lazy,\" Reed later said. \"He thought I was a [dunce](/wiki/Dunce \"Dunce\").\"\n\nReed claimed he had worked as a boxer, a bouncer, a taxi driver and a hospital porter. He then did his compulsory army service in the [Royal Army Medical Corps](/wiki/Royal_Army_Medical_Corps \"Royal Army Medical Corps\"). \"The army helped,\" he said later. \"I recognized that most other people were actors as well. I was in the peacetime army and they were all telling us youngsters about the war.\"\n\n", "Career\n------\n\n### Early years (1955\\-1961\\)\n\nReed began his acting career as an extra in films. He appeared uncredited in [Ken Annakin](/wiki/Ken_Annakin \"Ken Annakin\")'s film *[Value for Money](/wiki/Value_for_Money \"Value for Money\")* (1955\\) and [Norman Wisdom](/wiki/Norman_Wisdom \"Norman Wisdom\")'s film *[The Square Peg](/wiki/The_Square_Peg \"The Square Peg\")* (1958\\). Uncredited television appearances included episodes of *[The Invisible Man](/wiki/The_Invisible_Man_%281958_TV_series%29 \"The Invisible Man (1958 TV series)\")* (1958\\), *[The Four Just Men](/wiki/The_Four_Just_Men_%28TV_series%29 \"The Four Just Men (TV series)\")* (1959\\) and *[The Third Man](/wiki/The_Third_Man_%28TV_series%29 \"The Third Man (TV series)\")*. He appeared in the documentary *[Hello London](/wiki/Hello_London \"Hello London\")* (1958\\).\n\nReed's first break was playing [Richard of Gloucester](/wiki/Richard_of_Gloucester \"Richard of Gloucester\") in a six\\-part [BBC](/wiki/BBC \"BBC\") TV series *The Golden Spur* (1959\\). It did not seem to help his career immediately: He was not credited in the films *[The Captain's Table](/wiki/The_Captain%27s_Table \"The Captain's Table\")* (1959\\), *[Upstairs and Downstairs](/wiki/Upstairs_and_Downstairs \"Upstairs and Downstairs\")* (1959\\), directed by [Ralph Thomas](/wiki/Ralph_Thomas \"Ralph Thomas\"), *[Life Is a Circus](/wiki/Life_Is_a_Circus_%281960_film%29 \"Life Is a Circus (1960 film)\")* (1960\\), *[The Angry Silence](/wiki/The_Angry_Silence \"The Angry Silence\")* (1960\\), *[The League of Gentlemen](/wiki/The_League_of_Gentlemen_%28film%29 \"The League of Gentlemen (film)\")* (1960\\) and *[Beat Girl](/wiki/Beat_Girl \"Beat Girl\")* (1960\\). He played a bouncer in *[The Two Faces of Dr. Jekyll](/wiki/The_Two_Faces_of_Dr._Jekyll \"The Two Faces of Dr. Jekyll\")* (1960\\) for [Hammer Films](/wiki/Hammer_Film_Productions \"Hammer Film Productions\") with whom he would become associated; the director was [Terence Fisher](/wiki/Terence_Fisher \"Terence Fisher\"). Reed was then in *[The Bulldog Breed](/wiki/The_Bulldog_Breed \"The Bulldog Breed\")* (1960\\), another Wisdom film, playing the leader of a gang of [Teddy Boys](/wiki/Teddy_Boy \"Teddy Boy\") roughing up Wisdom in a cinema.\n\nReed got his first significant role in Hammer Films' *[Sword of Sherwood Forest](/wiki/Sword_of_Sherwood_Forest \"Sword of Sherwood Forest\")* (1960\\), again directed by Fisher. He went back to small roles for *[His and Hers](/wiki/His_and_Hers_%28film%29 \"His and Hers (film)\")* (1961\\), a [Terry\\-Thomas](/wiki/Terry-Thomas \"Terry-Thomas\") comedy; *[No Love for Johnnie](/wiki/No_Love_for_Johnnie \"No Love for Johnnie\")* (1961\\) for Ralph Thomas; and *[The Rebel](/wiki/The_Rebel_%281961_film%29 \"The Rebel (1961 film)\")* (1961\\) with [Tony Hancock](/wiki/Tony_Hancock \"Tony Hancock\"). He played the role of Sebastian in the ITV series It's Cold Outside, which was popular with teenagers, making him an idol for the first time.\n\n### Leading man\n\nReed's first starring role came when Hammer cast him as the central character in [Terence Fisher](/wiki/Terence_Fisher \"Terence Fisher\")'s *[The Curse of the Werewolf](/wiki/The_Curse_of_the_Werewolf \"The Curse of the Werewolf\")* (1961\\). Hammer liked Reed and gave him good supporting roles in the swashbuckler *[The Pirates of Blood River](/wiki/The_Pirates_of_Blood_River \"The Pirates of Blood River\")* (1962\\), directed by [John Gilling](/wiki/John_Gilling \"John Gilling\"); *[Captain Clegg](/wiki/Captain_Clegg_%28film%29 \"Captain Clegg (film)\")* (1962\\), a smugglers tale with [Peter Cushing](/wiki/Peter_Cushing \"Peter Cushing\"); *[The Damned](/wiki/The_Damned_%281963_film%29 \"The Damned (1963 film)\")* (1963\\), a science fiction film directed by [Joseph Losey](/wiki/Joseph_Losey \"Joseph Losey\"); *[Paranoiac](/wiki/Paranoiac_%28film%29 \"Paranoiac (film)\")* (1963\\), a psycho thriller for director [Freddie Francis](/wiki/Freddie_Francis \"Freddie Francis\"); and *[The Scarlet Blade](/wiki/The_Scarlet_Blade \"The Scarlet Blade\")* (1963\\); a swashbuckler set during the [English Civil War](/wiki/English_Civil_War \"English Civil War\"), directed by Gilling, with Reed as a [Roundhead](/wiki/Roundhead \"Roundhead\").\n\nDuring this time, he appeared in some [ITV](/wiki/ITV_%28TV_network%29 \"ITV (TV network)\") *[Playhouse](/wiki/Playhouse_%28British_TV_series%29 \"Playhouse (British TV series)\")* productions, \"Murder in Shorthand\" (1962\\) and \"The Second Chef\" (1962\\), and guest\\-starred in episodes of *[The Saint](/wiki/The_Saint_%28TV_series%29 \"The Saint (TV series)\")*. He also had the lead in a non\\-Hammer horror, *[The Party's Over](/wiki/The_Party%27s_Over_%281965_film%29 \"The Party's Over (1965 film)\")* (made 1963, released 1965\\), directed by [Guy Hamilton](/wiki/Guy_Hamilton \"Guy Hamilton\").\n\n### Michael Winner and Ken Russell\n\nIn 1964, he starred in the first of six films directed by [Michael Winner](/wiki/Michael_Winner \"Michael Winner\"), *[The System](/wiki/The_System_%281964_film%29 \"The System (1964 film)\")* (known as *The Girl\\-Getters* in the US). The film was seen by [Ken Russell](/wiki/Ken_Russell \"Ken Russell\") who then cast Reed in the title role of *[The Debussy Film](/wiki/The_Debussy_Film \"The Debussy Film\")* (1965\\), a TV biopic of French composer [Claude Debussy](/wiki/Claude_Debussy \"Claude Debussy\").Oliver Burns\\-\\-at the Stake and at Film Critics\nKramer, Carol. Chicago Tribune 22 August 1971: e3\\. Reed said this was crucial to his career because \"That was the first time I met Ken Russell and it was the first part I had after I'd had my face cut in a fight and no one would employ me. Everybody thought I was a cripple.\"OLIVER REED: ONE AMONG MANY PRETENDERS Luaine Lee, Knight. Chicago Tribune 23 October 1987: R. It was also the first time he broke away from villainous roles. \"Until that time they thought I was a neolithic dustbin,\" said Reed.'The Jokers' Wild With Oliver Reed\nMarks, Sally K. Los Angeles Times 4 August 1967: d11\\. Reed later said \"Hammer films had given me my start and Michael Winner my bread then Ken Russell came on the screen and gave me my art.\"Reed p 124\n\nHe narrated Russell's TV movie *[Always on Sunday](/wiki/Always_on_Sunday \"Always on Sunday\")* (1965\\). Reed returned to Hammer for *[The Brigand of Kandahar](/wiki/The_Brigand_of_Kandahar \"The Brigand of Kandahar\")* (1965\\), playing a villainous Indian in an imperial action film for Gilling. He later called it the worst film he ever made for Hammer.Reed p 127 He guest\\-starred in episodes of *It's Cold Outside* and *[Court Martial](/wiki/Court_Martial_%28TV_series%29 \"Court Martial (TV series)\")*, the latter directed by [Seth Holt](/wiki/Seth_Holt \"Seth Holt\"). He had a regular role in the TV series *[R3](/wiki/R3_%28TV_series%29 \"R3 (TV series)\")* (1965\\). Reed was the lead in a Canadian\\-British co\\-production, *[The Trap](/wiki/The_Trap_%281966_film%29 \"The Trap (1966 film)\")* (1966\\), co\\-starring with [Rita Tushingham](/wiki/Rita_Tushingham \"Rita Tushingham\").\n\nReed's career stepped up another level when he starred in the popular comedy film *[The Jokers](/wiki/The_Jokers \"The Jokers\")* (1966\\), his second film with Winner, alongside [Michael Crawford](/wiki/Michael_Crawford \"Michael Crawford\"). After playing a villain in a horror movie, *[The Shuttered Room](/wiki/The_Shuttered_Room \"The Shuttered Room\")* (1967\\), he did a third with Winner, *[I'll Never Forget What's'isname](/wiki/I%27ll_Never_Forget_What%27s%27isname \"I'll Never Forget What's'isname\")* (1967\\), co\\-starring with [Orson Welles](/wiki/Orson_Welles \"Orson Welles\"). Reed was reunited with Russell for another TV movie, *[Dante's Inferno](/wiki/Dante%27s_Inferno_%281967_film%29 \"Dante's Inferno (1967 film)\")* (1967\\), playing [Dante Gabriel Rossetti](/wiki/Dante_Gabriel_Rossetti \"Dante Gabriel Rossetti\").\n\n### *Oliver!* and stardom\n\nReed's star rose further as a result of playing [Bill Sikes](/wiki/Bill_Sikes \"Bill Sikes\") in *[Oliver!](/wiki/Oliver%21_%28film%29 \"Oliver! (film)\")* (1968\\), alongside [Ron Moody](/wiki/Ron_Moody \"Ron Moody\"), [Shani Wallis](/wiki/Shani_Wallis \"Shani Wallis\"), [Mark Lester](/wiki/Mark_Lester \"Mark Lester\"), [Jack Wild](/wiki/Jack_Wild \"Jack Wild\") and [Harry Secombe](/wiki/Harry_Secombe \"Harry Secombe\"), in his uncle [Carol Reed](/wiki/Carol_Reed \"Carol Reed\")'s screen version of the successful stage musical. It was a huge hit, winning the [Academy Award for Best Picture](/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Picture \"Academy Award for Best Picture\"), with Reed receiving praise for his villainous performance.\n\nHe was in the [black comedy](/wiki/Black_comedy \"Black comedy\") *[The Assassination Bureau](/wiki/The_Assassination_Bureau \"The Assassination Bureau\")* (1969\\) with [Diana Rigg](/wiki/Diana_Rigg \"Diana Rigg\") and [Telly Savalas](/wiki/Telly_Savalas \"Telly Savalas\"), directed by [Basil Dearden](/wiki/Basil_Dearden \"Basil Dearden\"); and a war film for Winner, *[Hannibal Brooks](/wiki/Hannibal_Brooks \"Hannibal Brooks\")* (1969\\).\n\nMore successful than either was his fourth film with Russell, a film version of *[Women in Love](/wiki/Women_in_Love_%28film%29 \"Women in Love (film)\")* (1969\\), in which he wrestled naked with [Alan Bates](/wiki/Alan_Bates \"Alan Bates\") in front of a log fire. In 1969, Interstate Theatres awarded him their International Star of the Year Award.Oliver Reed Honored by Interstate Theaters\nLos Angeles Times27 June 1969: d15\\.\n\n*[Take a Girl Like You](/wiki/Take_a_Girl_Like_You_%28film%29 \"Take a Girl Like You (film)\")* (1970\\) was a sex comedy with [Hayley Mills](/wiki/Hayley_Mills \"Hayley Mills\") based on a novel by [Kingsley Amis](/wiki/Kingsley_Amis \"Kingsley Amis\"); *[The Lady in the Car with Glasses and a Gun](/wiki/The_Lady_in_the_Car_with_Glasses_and_a_Gun_%281970_film%29 \"The Lady in the Car with Glasses and a Gun (1970 film)\")* (1970\\) was a thriller directed by [Anatole Litvak](/wiki/Anatole_Litvak \"Anatole Litvak\"). The following year, Reed appeared in the controversial film *[The Devils](/wiki/The_Devils_%28film%29 \"The Devils (film)\")* (1971\\), directed by Russell with [Vanessa Redgrave](/wiki/Vanessa_Redgrave \"Vanessa Redgrave\").\n\nAn anecdote holds that Reed could have been chosen to play [James Bond](/wiki/James_Bond \"James Bond\"). In 1969, Bond franchise producers [Albert R. Broccoli](/wiki/Albert_R._Broccoli \"Albert R. Broccoli\") and [Harry Saltzman](/wiki/Harry_Saltzman \"Harry Saltzman\") were looking for a replacement for [Sean Connery](/wiki/Sean_Connery \"Sean Connery\") and Reed (who had recently played a resourceful killer in *[The Assassination Bureau](/wiki/The_Assassination_Bureau \"The Assassination Bureau\")*) was mentioned as a possible choice for the role, with [Timothy Dalton](/wiki/Timothy_Dalton \"Timothy Dalton\") and [Roger Moore](/wiki/Roger_Moore \"Roger Moore\") as the other choices. Whatever the reason, Reed was never to play Bond. After Reed's death, the *[Guardian Unlimited](/wiki/Guardian_Unlimited \"Guardian Unlimited\")* called the casting decision, \"One of the great missed opportunities of post\\-war British movie history.\"\n\n[thumb\\|Reed (left) with [Carole André](/wiki/Carole_Andr%C3%A9 \"Carole André\") and [Marcello Mastroianni](/wiki/Marcello_Mastroianni \"Marcello Mastroianni\") in *[Dirty Weekend](/wiki/Dirty_Weekend_%281973_film%29 \"Dirty Weekend (1973 film)\")* (1973\\)](/wiki/File:Mordi_e_fuggi_%281973%29_-_Oliver_Reed%2C_Carole_Andr%C3%A9%2C_Marcello_Mastroianni.jpg \"Mordi e fuggi (1973) - Oliver Reed, Carole André, Marcello Mastroianni.jpg\")\nHe made a series of action\\-oriented projects: *[The Hunting Party](/wiki/The_Hunting_Party_%281971_film%29 \"The Hunting Party (1971 film)\")* (1971\\), a Western shot in Spain with [Gene Hackman](/wiki/Gene_Hackman \"Gene Hackman\"); *[Sitting Target](/wiki/Sitting_Target \"Sitting Target\")* (1972\\), a tough gangster film; and *[Z.P.G.](/wiki/Z.P.G. \"Z.P.G.\")* (1972\\), a science fiction film with [Geraldine Chaplin](/wiki/Geraldine_Chaplin \"Geraldine Chaplin\"). In March 1971, he said he would make a film, *The Offering*, which he would co\\-write and produce, but it was not made.Reed's Formula for Success\nMurphy, Mary B. Los Angeles Times 27 March 1971: a9\\. He did *[The Triple Echo](/wiki/The_Triple_Echo \"The Triple Echo\")* (1972\\) directed by [Michael Apted](/wiki/Michael_Apted \"Michael Apted\"), and featured Reed alongside [Glenda Jackson](/wiki/Glenda_Jackson \"Glenda Jackson\"). Reed also appeared in a number of Italian films: *[Dirty Weekend](/wiki/Dirty_Weekend_%281973_film%29 \"Dirty Weekend (1973 film)\")* (1973\\), with [Marcello Mastroianni](/wiki/Marcello_Mastroianni \"Marcello Mastroianni\"); *[One Russian Summer](/wiki/One_Russian_Summer \"One Russian Summer\")* (1973\\) with [Claudia Cardinale](/wiki/Claudia_Cardinale \"Claudia Cardinale\"); and *[Revolver](/wiki/Revolver_%281973_film%29 \"Revolver (1973 film)\")* (1973\\) with [Fabio Testi](/wiki/Fabio_Testi \"Fabio Testi\").\n\nHe had great success playing [Athos](/wiki/Athos_%28character%29 \"Athos (character)\") in *[The Three Musketeers](/wiki/The_Three_Musketeers_%281973_live-action_film%29 \"The Three Musketeers (1973 live-action film)\")* (1973\\) and *[The Four Musketeers](/wiki/The_Four_Musketeers_%281974_film%29 \"The Four Musketeers (1974 film)\")* (1974\\) for director Richard Lester from a script by [George MacDonald Fraser](/wiki/George_MacDonald_Fraser \"George MacDonald Fraser\"). Reed had an uncredited bit\\-part in Russell's *[Mahler](/wiki/Mahler_%28film%29 \"Mahler (film)\")* (1974\\), was the lead in *[Blue Blood](/wiki/Blue_Blood_%281973_film%29 \"Blue Blood (1973 film)\")* (1973\\) and *[And Then There Were None](/wiki/And_Then_There_Were_None_%281974_film%29 \"And Then There Were None (1974 film)\")* (1974\\), produced by [Harry Alan Towers](/wiki/Harry_Alan_Towers \"Harry Alan Towers\"). His next project with Ken Russell was *[Tommy](/wiki/Tommy_%281975_film%29 \"Tommy (1975 film)\")*, where he plays Tommy's stepfather, based on [The Who](/wiki/The_Who \"The Who\")'s 1969 concept album, *Tommy*, and starring its lead singer [Roger Daltrey](/wiki/Roger_Daltrey \"Roger Daltrey\"). *[Royal Flash](/wiki/Royal_Flash_%28film%29 \"Royal Flash (film)\")* (1975\\) reunited him with Richard Lester and [George MacDonald Fraser](/wiki/George_MacDonald_Fraser \"George MacDonald Fraser\"), playing [Otto von Bismarck](/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck \"Otto von Bismarck\"). He had a cameo in Russell's *[Lisztomania](/wiki/Lisztomania_%28film%29 \"Lisztomania (film)\")* (1975\\).\n\nReed appeared in *The New Spartans* (1975\\), then acted alongside [Karen Black](/wiki/Karen_Black \"Karen Black\"), [Bette Davis](/wiki/Bette_Davis \"Bette Davis\"), and [Burgess Meredith](/wiki/Burgess_Meredith \"Burgess Meredith\") in the [Dan Curtis](/wiki/Dan_Curtis \"Dan Curtis\") horror film, *[Burnt Offerings](/wiki/Burnt_Offerings_%28film%29 \"Burnt Offerings (film)\")* (1976\\). He was in *[The Sell Out](/wiki/The_Sell_Out_%28film%29 \"The Sell Out (film)\")* (1976\\) and *[The Great Scout \\& Cathouse Thursday](/wiki/The_Great_Scout_%26_Cathouse_Thursday \"The Great Scout & Cathouse Thursday\")* (1976\\) with [Lee Marvin](/wiki/Lee_Marvin \"Lee Marvin\"). After *Assault in Paradise* (1977\\), he returned to swashbuckling in *[Crossed Swords](/wiki/Crossed_Swords_%281977_film%29 \"Crossed Swords (1977 film)\")* (UK title *The Prince and the Pauper*) (1977\\), as Miles Hendon alongside [Raquel Welch](/wiki/Raquel_Welch \"Raquel Welch\") and a grown\\-up Mark Lester, who had worked with Reed in *Oliver!*, from a script co\\-written by Fraser.\n\nReed did *[Tomorrow Never Comes](/wiki/Tomorrow_Never_Comes \"Tomorrow Never Comes\")* (1978\\) for Peter Colinson and *[The Big Sleep](/wiki/The_Big_Sleep_%281978_film%29 \"The Big Sleep (1978 film)\")* (1978\\) with Winner. He and Jackson were reunited in *[The Class of Miss MacMichael](/wiki/The_Class_of_Miss_MacMichael \"The Class of Miss MacMichael\")* (1978\\), then he made a film in Canada, *The Mad Trapper*, that was unfinished. Reed returned to the horror genre as Dr. Hal Raglan in [David Cronenberg](/wiki/David_Cronenberg \"David Cronenberg\")'s 1979 film *[The Brood](/wiki/The_Brood \"The Brood\")* and ended the decade with *[A Touch of the Sun](/wiki/A_Touch_of_the_Sun_%281979_film%29 \"A Touch of the Sun (1979 film)\")* (1979\\), a comedy with Peter Cushing.\n\n### 1980s\n\nAfter the 1970s, Reed's films had less success. He did a comedy for [Charles B. Griffith](/wiki/Charles_B._Griffith \"Charles B. Griffith\"), *[Dr. Heckyl and Mr. Hype](/wiki/Dr._Heckyl_and_Mr._Hype \"Dr. Heckyl and Mr. Hype\")* (1980\\) and played Gen. [Rodolfo Graziani](/wiki/Rodolfo_Graziani \"Rodolfo Graziani\") in *[Lion of the Desert](/wiki/Lion_of_the_Desert \"Lion of the Desert\")* (1981\\), which co\\-starred [Anthony Quinn](/wiki/Anthony_Quinn \"Anthony Quinn\") and chronicled the [Senussids](/wiki/Senussi \"Senussi\") resistance to Italian occupation of [Libya](/wiki/Libya \"Libya\"). On 20 January 2016, [ISIS](/wiki/Islamic_State \"Islamic State\") used a clip of *Lion of the Desert* as part of a propaganda video threatening Italy with terrorist attacks.\n\nReed was a villain in Disney's *[Condorman](/wiki/Condorman \"Condorman\")* (1981\\) and did the horror film *[Venom](/wiki/Venom_%281981_film%29 \"Venom (1981 film)\")* (1981\\). He was a villain in *[The Sting II](/wiki/The_Sting_II \"The Sting II\")* (1983\\) and appeared in *Sex, Lies and Renaissance* (1983\\). He also starred as Lt\\-Col [Gerard Leachman](/wiki/Gerard_Leachman \"Gerard Leachman\") in the Iraqi historical film *[Clash of Loyalties](/wiki/Clash_of_Loyalties \"Clash of Loyalties\")* (1983\\), which dealt with Leachman's exploits during the 1920 revolution in [Mesopotamia](/wiki/Mesopotamia \"Mesopotamia\") (modern\\-day Iraq). Reed was in *[Spasms](/wiki/Spasms_%28film%29 \"Spasms (film)\")* (1983\\), *[Two of a Kind](/wiki/Two_of_a_Kind_%281983_film%29 \"Two of a Kind (1983 film)\")* (1983\\), *[Masquerade](/wiki/Masquerade_%28TV_series%29 \"Masquerade (TV series)\")* (1984\\), *[Christopher Columbus](/wiki/Christopher_Columbus_%28miniseries%29 \"Christopher Columbus (miniseries)\")* (1985\\), *[Black Arrow](/wiki/Black_Arrow_%281985_film%29 \"Black Arrow (1985 film)\")* (1985\\) and *[Captive](/wiki/Captive_%281986_film%29 \"Captive (1986 film)\")* (1986\\). He says he was contemplating quitting acting when [Nicolas Roeg](/wiki/Nicolas_Roeg \"Nicolas Roeg\") cast him in *[Castaway](/wiki/Castaway_%28film%29 \"Castaway (film)\")* (1986\\) as the middle\\-aged [Gerald Kingsland](/wiki/Gerald_Kingsland \"Gerald Kingsland\"), who advertises for a \"wife\" (played by [Amanda Donohoe](/wiki/Amanda_Donohoe \"Amanda Donohoe\")) to live on a desert island with him for a year.\n\nReed was the subject of *[This Is Your Life](/wiki/This_Is_Your_Life_%28British_TV_series%29 \"This Is Your Life (British TV series)\")* in 1986 when he was surprised by [Eamonn Andrews](/wiki/Eamonn_Andrews \"Eamonn Andrews\") at Rosslyn Park rugby club in west London. Reed was in *[The Misfit Brigade](/wiki/The_Misfit_Brigade \"The Misfit Brigade\")* (1987\\), *[Gor](/wiki/Gor_%28film%29 \"Gor (film)\")* (1987\\), *Master of Dragonard Hill* (1987\\), *Dragonard* (1987\\), *[Skeleton Coast](/wiki/Skeleton_Coast_%28film%29 \"Skeleton Coast (film)\")* (1988\\), *[Blind Justice](/wiki/Blind_Justice_%281988_film%29 \"Blind Justice (1988 film)\")* (1988\\), *Captive Rage* (1988\\), and *Rage to Kill* (1988\\). Most of these were [exploitation films](/wiki/Exploitation_film \"Exploitation film\") produced by the impresario [Harry Alan Towers](/wiki/Harry_Alan_Towers \"Harry Alan Towers\") filmed in South Africa and released straight to video.\n\nHe was in [Terry Gilliam](/wiki/Terry_Gilliam \"Terry Gilliam\")'s *[The Adventures of Baron Munchausen](/wiki/The_Adventures_of_Baron_Munchausen \"The Adventures of Baron Munchausen\")* (1988\\) (as the god [Vulcan](/wiki/Vulcan_%28mythology%29 \"Vulcan (mythology)\")); *[The Lady and the Highwayman](/wiki/The_Lady_and_the_Highwayman \"The Lady and the Highwayman\")* (1989\\) with [Hugh Grant](/wiki/Hugh_Grant \"Hugh Grant\"); *The House of Usher* (1989\\); *[The Return of the Musketeers](/wiki/The_Return_of_the_Musketeers \"The Return of the Musketeers\")* (1990\\) with Lester and Fraser; *[Treasure Island](/wiki/Treasure_Island_%281990_film%29 \"Treasure Island (1990 film)\")* (1990\\) with [Charlton Heston](/wiki/Charlton_Heston \"Charlton Heston\"); *[A Ghost in Monte Carlo](/wiki/A_Ghost_in_Monte_Carlo \"A Ghost in Monte Carlo\")* (1990\\); *[Hired to Kill](/wiki/Hired_to_Kill_%281990_film%29 \"Hired to Kill (1990 film)\")* (1990\\); *[Panama Sugar](/wiki/Panama_Sugar \"Panama Sugar\")* (1990\\); *The Revenger* (1990\\); *[The Pit and the Pendulum](/wiki/The_Pit_and_the_Pendulum_%281991_film%29 \"The Pit and the Pendulum (1991 film)\")* (1991\\); *[Prisoner of Honor](/wiki/Prisoner_of_Honor \"Prisoner of Honor\")* (1991\\) for Russell; and *[Severed Ties](/wiki/Severed_Ties \"Severed Ties\")* (1993\\).\n\n### Later years\n\nFilms Reed appeared in include *[Return to Lonesome Dove](/wiki/Return_to_Lonesome_Dove \"Return to Lonesome Dove\")* (1993\\); *[Funny Bones](/wiki/Funny_Bones \"Funny Bones\")* (1995\\); *[The Bruce](/wiki/The_Bruce \"The Bruce\")* (1996\\); *[Jeremiah](/wiki/Jeremiah_%28film%29 \"Jeremiah (film)\")* (1998\\); and *[Parting Shots](/wiki/Parting_Shots \"Parting Shots\")* (1998\\). His final role was the elderly slave dealer Proximo in [Ridley Scott](/wiki/Ridley_Scott \"Ridley Scott\")'s *[Gladiator](/wiki/Gladiator_%282000_film%29 \"Gladiator (2000 film)\")* (2000\\), in which he played alongside [Richard Harris](/wiki/Richard_Harris \"Richard Harris\"), an actor whom Reed admired greatly both on and off the screen. The film was released after his death with some footage filmed with a double, digitally mixed with outtake footage. The film was dedicated to him. In addition to his posthumous [BAFTA](/wiki/BAFTA_Award_for_Best_Actor_in_a_Supporting_Role \"BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role\") recognition, he shared the film's nomination for the [Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture](/wiki/7th_Screen_Actors_Guild_Awards%23Outstanding_Performance_by_a_Cast \"7th Screen Actors Guild Awards#Outstanding Performance by a Cast\") with the rest of the principal players.\n\n### Music\n\nIn addition to acting, Reed released several singles in the popular music vein, though with limited success. These included \"Wild One\"/\"Lonely for a Girl\" (1961\\), \"Sometimes\"/\"Ecstasy\" (1962\\), \"Baby It's Cold Outside\" (duet with [Joyce Blair](/wiki/Joyce_Blair \"Joyce Blair\")) and \"Wild Thing\" (1992\\) (duet with snooker player [Alex Higgins](/wiki/Alex_Higgins \"Alex Higgins\")). Reed also later narrated a track called \"Walpurgis Nacht\" by the Italian [heavy metal](/wiki/Heavy_metal_music \"Heavy metal music\") band [Death SS](/wiki/Death_SS \"Death SS\").\n\n", "### Early years (1955\\-1961\\)\n\nReed began his acting career as an extra in films. He appeared uncredited in [Ken Annakin](/wiki/Ken_Annakin \"Ken Annakin\")'s film *[Value for Money](/wiki/Value_for_Money \"Value for Money\")* (1955\\) and [Norman Wisdom](/wiki/Norman_Wisdom \"Norman Wisdom\")'s film *[The Square Peg](/wiki/The_Square_Peg \"The Square Peg\")* (1958\\). Uncredited television appearances included episodes of *[The Invisible Man](/wiki/The_Invisible_Man_%281958_TV_series%29 \"The Invisible Man (1958 TV series)\")* (1958\\), *[The Four Just Men](/wiki/The_Four_Just_Men_%28TV_series%29 \"The Four Just Men (TV series)\")* (1959\\) and *[The Third Man](/wiki/The_Third_Man_%28TV_series%29 \"The Third Man (TV series)\")*. He appeared in the documentary *[Hello London](/wiki/Hello_London \"Hello London\")* (1958\\).\n\nReed's first break was playing [Richard of Gloucester](/wiki/Richard_of_Gloucester \"Richard of Gloucester\") in a six\\-part [BBC](/wiki/BBC \"BBC\") TV series *The Golden Spur* (1959\\). It did not seem to help his career immediately: He was not credited in the films *[The Captain's Table](/wiki/The_Captain%27s_Table \"The Captain's Table\")* (1959\\), *[Upstairs and Downstairs](/wiki/Upstairs_and_Downstairs \"Upstairs and Downstairs\")* (1959\\), directed by [Ralph Thomas](/wiki/Ralph_Thomas \"Ralph Thomas\"), *[Life Is a Circus](/wiki/Life_Is_a_Circus_%281960_film%29 \"Life Is a Circus (1960 film)\")* (1960\\), *[The Angry Silence](/wiki/The_Angry_Silence \"The Angry Silence\")* (1960\\), *[The League of Gentlemen](/wiki/The_League_of_Gentlemen_%28film%29 \"The League of Gentlemen (film)\")* (1960\\) and *[Beat Girl](/wiki/Beat_Girl \"Beat Girl\")* (1960\\). He played a bouncer in *[The Two Faces of Dr. Jekyll](/wiki/The_Two_Faces_of_Dr._Jekyll \"The Two Faces of Dr. Jekyll\")* (1960\\) for [Hammer Films](/wiki/Hammer_Film_Productions \"Hammer Film Productions\") with whom he would become associated; the director was [Terence Fisher](/wiki/Terence_Fisher \"Terence Fisher\"). Reed was then in *[The Bulldog Breed](/wiki/The_Bulldog_Breed \"The Bulldog Breed\")* (1960\\), another Wisdom film, playing the leader of a gang of [Teddy Boys](/wiki/Teddy_Boy \"Teddy Boy\") roughing up Wisdom in a cinema.\n\nReed got his first significant role in Hammer Films' *[Sword of Sherwood Forest](/wiki/Sword_of_Sherwood_Forest \"Sword of Sherwood Forest\")* (1960\\), again directed by Fisher. He went back to small roles for *[His and Hers](/wiki/His_and_Hers_%28film%29 \"His and Hers (film)\")* (1961\\), a [Terry\\-Thomas](/wiki/Terry-Thomas \"Terry-Thomas\") comedy; *[No Love for Johnnie](/wiki/No_Love_for_Johnnie \"No Love for Johnnie\")* (1961\\) for Ralph Thomas; and *[The Rebel](/wiki/The_Rebel_%281961_film%29 \"The Rebel (1961 film)\")* (1961\\) with [Tony Hancock](/wiki/Tony_Hancock \"Tony Hancock\"). He played the role of Sebastian in the ITV series It's Cold Outside, which was popular with teenagers, making him an idol for the first time.\n\n", "### Leading man\n\nReed's first starring role came when Hammer cast him as the central character in [Terence Fisher](/wiki/Terence_Fisher \"Terence Fisher\")'s *[The Curse of the Werewolf](/wiki/The_Curse_of_the_Werewolf \"The Curse of the Werewolf\")* (1961\\). Hammer liked Reed and gave him good supporting roles in the swashbuckler *[The Pirates of Blood River](/wiki/The_Pirates_of_Blood_River \"The Pirates of Blood River\")* (1962\\), directed by [John Gilling](/wiki/John_Gilling \"John Gilling\"); *[Captain Clegg](/wiki/Captain_Clegg_%28film%29 \"Captain Clegg (film)\")* (1962\\), a smugglers tale with [Peter Cushing](/wiki/Peter_Cushing \"Peter Cushing\"); *[The Damned](/wiki/The_Damned_%281963_film%29 \"The Damned (1963 film)\")* (1963\\), a science fiction film directed by [Joseph Losey](/wiki/Joseph_Losey \"Joseph Losey\"); *[Paranoiac](/wiki/Paranoiac_%28film%29 \"Paranoiac (film)\")* (1963\\), a psycho thriller for director [Freddie Francis](/wiki/Freddie_Francis \"Freddie Francis\"); and *[The Scarlet Blade](/wiki/The_Scarlet_Blade \"The Scarlet Blade\")* (1963\\); a swashbuckler set during the [English Civil War](/wiki/English_Civil_War \"English Civil War\"), directed by Gilling, with Reed as a [Roundhead](/wiki/Roundhead \"Roundhead\").\n\nDuring this time, he appeared in some [ITV](/wiki/ITV_%28TV_network%29 \"ITV (TV network)\") *[Playhouse](/wiki/Playhouse_%28British_TV_series%29 \"Playhouse (British TV series)\")* productions, \"Murder in Shorthand\" (1962\\) and \"The Second Chef\" (1962\\), and guest\\-starred in episodes of *[The Saint](/wiki/The_Saint_%28TV_series%29 \"The Saint (TV series)\")*. He also had the lead in a non\\-Hammer horror, *[The Party's Over](/wiki/The_Party%27s_Over_%281965_film%29 \"The Party's Over (1965 film)\")* (made 1963, released 1965\\), directed by [Guy Hamilton](/wiki/Guy_Hamilton \"Guy Hamilton\").\n\n", "### Michael Winner and Ken Russell\n\nIn 1964, he starred in the first of six films directed by [Michael Winner](/wiki/Michael_Winner \"Michael Winner\"), *[The System](/wiki/The_System_%281964_film%29 \"The System (1964 film)\")* (known as *The Girl\\-Getters* in the US). The film was seen by [Ken Russell](/wiki/Ken_Russell \"Ken Russell\") who then cast Reed in the title role of *[The Debussy Film](/wiki/The_Debussy_Film \"The Debussy Film\")* (1965\\), a TV biopic of French composer [Claude Debussy](/wiki/Claude_Debussy \"Claude Debussy\").Oliver Burns\\-\\-at the Stake and at Film Critics\nKramer, Carol. Chicago Tribune 22 August 1971: e3\\. Reed said this was crucial to his career because \"That was the first time I met Ken Russell and it was the first part I had after I'd had my face cut in a fight and no one would employ me. Everybody thought I was a cripple.\"OLIVER REED: ONE AMONG MANY PRETENDERS Luaine Lee, Knight. Chicago Tribune 23 October 1987: R. It was also the first time he broke away from villainous roles. \"Until that time they thought I was a neolithic dustbin,\" said Reed.'The Jokers' Wild With Oliver Reed\nMarks, Sally K. Los Angeles Times 4 August 1967: d11\\. Reed later said \"Hammer films had given me my start and Michael Winner my bread then Ken Russell came on the screen and gave me my art.\"Reed p 124\n\nHe narrated Russell's TV movie *[Always on Sunday](/wiki/Always_on_Sunday \"Always on Sunday\")* (1965\\). Reed returned to Hammer for *[The Brigand of Kandahar](/wiki/The_Brigand_of_Kandahar \"The Brigand of Kandahar\")* (1965\\), playing a villainous Indian in an imperial action film for Gilling. He later called it the worst film he ever made for Hammer.Reed p 127 He guest\\-starred in episodes of *It's Cold Outside* and *[Court Martial](/wiki/Court_Martial_%28TV_series%29 \"Court Martial (TV series)\")*, the latter directed by [Seth Holt](/wiki/Seth_Holt \"Seth Holt\"). He had a regular role in the TV series *[R3](/wiki/R3_%28TV_series%29 \"R3 (TV series)\")* (1965\\). Reed was the lead in a Canadian\\-British co\\-production, *[The Trap](/wiki/The_Trap_%281966_film%29 \"The Trap (1966 film)\")* (1966\\), co\\-starring with [Rita Tushingham](/wiki/Rita_Tushingham \"Rita Tushingham\").\n\nReed's career stepped up another level when he starred in the popular comedy film *[The Jokers](/wiki/The_Jokers \"The Jokers\")* (1966\\), his second film with Winner, alongside [Michael Crawford](/wiki/Michael_Crawford \"Michael Crawford\"). After playing a villain in a horror movie, *[The Shuttered Room](/wiki/The_Shuttered_Room \"The Shuttered Room\")* (1967\\), he did a third with Winner, *[I'll Never Forget What's'isname](/wiki/I%27ll_Never_Forget_What%27s%27isname \"I'll Never Forget What's'isname\")* (1967\\), co\\-starring with [Orson Welles](/wiki/Orson_Welles \"Orson Welles\"). Reed was reunited with Russell for another TV movie, *[Dante's Inferno](/wiki/Dante%27s_Inferno_%281967_film%29 \"Dante's Inferno (1967 film)\")* (1967\\), playing [Dante Gabriel Rossetti](/wiki/Dante_Gabriel_Rossetti \"Dante Gabriel Rossetti\").\n\n", "### *Oliver!* and stardom\n\nReed's star rose further as a result of playing [Bill Sikes](/wiki/Bill_Sikes \"Bill Sikes\") in *[Oliver!](/wiki/Oliver%21_%28film%29 \"Oliver! (film)\")* (1968\\), alongside [Ron Moody](/wiki/Ron_Moody \"Ron Moody\"), [Shani Wallis](/wiki/Shani_Wallis \"Shani Wallis\"), [Mark Lester](/wiki/Mark_Lester \"Mark Lester\"), [Jack Wild](/wiki/Jack_Wild \"Jack Wild\") and [Harry Secombe](/wiki/Harry_Secombe \"Harry Secombe\"), in his uncle [Carol Reed](/wiki/Carol_Reed \"Carol Reed\")'s screen version of the successful stage musical. It was a huge hit, winning the [Academy Award for Best Picture](/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Picture \"Academy Award for Best Picture\"), with Reed receiving praise for his villainous performance.\n\nHe was in the [black comedy](/wiki/Black_comedy \"Black comedy\") *[The Assassination Bureau](/wiki/The_Assassination_Bureau \"The Assassination Bureau\")* (1969\\) with [Diana Rigg](/wiki/Diana_Rigg \"Diana Rigg\") and [Telly Savalas](/wiki/Telly_Savalas \"Telly Savalas\"), directed by [Basil Dearden](/wiki/Basil_Dearden \"Basil Dearden\"); and a war film for Winner, *[Hannibal Brooks](/wiki/Hannibal_Brooks \"Hannibal Brooks\")* (1969\\).\n\nMore successful than either was his fourth film with Russell, a film version of *[Women in Love](/wiki/Women_in_Love_%28film%29 \"Women in Love (film)\")* (1969\\), in which he wrestled naked with [Alan Bates](/wiki/Alan_Bates \"Alan Bates\") in front of a log fire. In 1969, Interstate Theatres awarded him their International Star of the Year Award.Oliver Reed Honored by Interstate Theaters\nLos Angeles Times27 June 1969: d15\\.\n\n*[Take a Girl Like You](/wiki/Take_a_Girl_Like_You_%28film%29 \"Take a Girl Like You (film)\")* (1970\\) was a sex comedy with [Hayley Mills](/wiki/Hayley_Mills \"Hayley Mills\") based on a novel by [Kingsley Amis](/wiki/Kingsley_Amis \"Kingsley Amis\"); *[The Lady in the Car with Glasses and a Gun](/wiki/The_Lady_in_the_Car_with_Glasses_and_a_Gun_%281970_film%29 \"The Lady in the Car with Glasses and a Gun (1970 film)\")* (1970\\) was a thriller directed by [Anatole Litvak](/wiki/Anatole_Litvak \"Anatole Litvak\"). The following year, Reed appeared in the controversial film *[The Devils](/wiki/The_Devils_%28film%29 \"The Devils (film)\")* (1971\\), directed by Russell with [Vanessa Redgrave](/wiki/Vanessa_Redgrave \"Vanessa Redgrave\").\n\nAn anecdote holds that Reed could have been chosen to play [James Bond](/wiki/James_Bond \"James Bond\"). In 1969, Bond franchise producers [Albert R. Broccoli](/wiki/Albert_R._Broccoli \"Albert R. Broccoli\") and [Harry Saltzman](/wiki/Harry_Saltzman \"Harry Saltzman\") were looking for a replacement for [Sean Connery](/wiki/Sean_Connery \"Sean Connery\") and Reed (who had recently played a resourceful killer in *[The Assassination Bureau](/wiki/The_Assassination_Bureau \"The Assassination Bureau\")*) was mentioned as a possible choice for the role, with [Timothy Dalton](/wiki/Timothy_Dalton \"Timothy Dalton\") and [Roger Moore](/wiki/Roger_Moore \"Roger Moore\") as the other choices. Whatever the reason, Reed was never to play Bond. After Reed's death, the *[Guardian Unlimited](/wiki/Guardian_Unlimited \"Guardian Unlimited\")* called the casting decision, \"One of the great missed opportunities of post\\-war British movie history.\"\n\n[thumb\\|Reed (left) with [Carole André](/wiki/Carole_Andr%C3%A9 \"Carole André\") and [Marcello Mastroianni](/wiki/Marcello_Mastroianni \"Marcello Mastroianni\") in *[Dirty Weekend](/wiki/Dirty_Weekend_%281973_film%29 \"Dirty Weekend (1973 film)\")* (1973\\)](/wiki/File:Mordi_e_fuggi_%281973%29_-_Oliver_Reed%2C_Carole_Andr%C3%A9%2C_Marcello_Mastroianni.jpg \"Mordi e fuggi (1973) - Oliver Reed, Carole André, Marcello Mastroianni.jpg\")\nHe made a series of action\\-oriented projects: *[The Hunting Party](/wiki/The_Hunting_Party_%281971_film%29 \"The Hunting Party (1971 film)\")* (1971\\), a Western shot in Spain with [Gene Hackman](/wiki/Gene_Hackman \"Gene Hackman\"); *[Sitting Target](/wiki/Sitting_Target \"Sitting Target\")* (1972\\), a tough gangster film; and *[Z.P.G.](/wiki/Z.P.G. \"Z.P.G.\")* (1972\\), a science fiction film with [Geraldine Chaplin](/wiki/Geraldine_Chaplin \"Geraldine Chaplin\"). In March 1971, he said he would make a film, *The Offering*, which he would co\\-write and produce, but it was not made.Reed's Formula for Success\nMurphy, Mary B. Los Angeles Times 27 March 1971: a9\\. He did *[The Triple Echo](/wiki/The_Triple_Echo \"The Triple Echo\")* (1972\\) directed by [Michael Apted](/wiki/Michael_Apted \"Michael Apted\"), and featured Reed alongside [Glenda Jackson](/wiki/Glenda_Jackson \"Glenda Jackson\"). Reed also appeared in a number of Italian films: *[Dirty Weekend](/wiki/Dirty_Weekend_%281973_film%29 \"Dirty Weekend (1973 film)\")* (1973\\), with [Marcello Mastroianni](/wiki/Marcello_Mastroianni \"Marcello Mastroianni\"); *[One Russian Summer](/wiki/One_Russian_Summer \"One Russian Summer\")* (1973\\) with [Claudia Cardinale](/wiki/Claudia_Cardinale \"Claudia Cardinale\"); and *[Revolver](/wiki/Revolver_%281973_film%29 \"Revolver (1973 film)\")* (1973\\) with [Fabio Testi](/wiki/Fabio_Testi \"Fabio Testi\").\n\nHe had great success playing [Athos](/wiki/Athos_%28character%29 \"Athos (character)\") in *[The Three Musketeers](/wiki/The_Three_Musketeers_%281973_live-action_film%29 \"The Three Musketeers (1973 live-action film)\")* (1973\\) and *[The Four Musketeers](/wiki/The_Four_Musketeers_%281974_film%29 \"The Four Musketeers (1974 film)\")* (1974\\) for director Richard Lester from a script by [George MacDonald Fraser](/wiki/George_MacDonald_Fraser \"George MacDonald Fraser\"). Reed had an uncredited bit\\-part in Russell's *[Mahler](/wiki/Mahler_%28film%29 \"Mahler (film)\")* (1974\\), was the lead in *[Blue Blood](/wiki/Blue_Blood_%281973_film%29 \"Blue Blood (1973 film)\")* (1973\\) and *[And Then There Were None](/wiki/And_Then_There_Were_None_%281974_film%29 \"And Then There Were None (1974 film)\")* (1974\\), produced by [Harry Alan Towers](/wiki/Harry_Alan_Towers \"Harry Alan Towers\"). His next project with Ken Russell was *[Tommy](/wiki/Tommy_%281975_film%29 \"Tommy (1975 film)\")*, where he plays Tommy's stepfather, based on [The Who](/wiki/The_Who \"The Who\")'s 1969 concept album, *Tommy*, and starring its lead singer [Roger Daltrey](/wiki/Roger_Daltrey \"Roger Daltrey\"). *[Royal Flash](/wiki/Royal_Flash_%28film%29 \"Royal Flash (film)\")* (1975\\) reunited him with Richard Lester and [George MacDonald Fraser](/wiki/George_MacDonald_Fraser \"George MacDonald Fraser\"), playing [Otto von Bismarck](/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck \"Otto von Bismarck\"). He had a cameo in Russell's *[Lisztomania](/wiki/Lisztomania_%28film%29 \"Lisztomania (film)\")* (1975\\).\n\nReed appeared in *The New Spartans* (1975\\), then acted alongside [Karen Black](/wiki/Karen_Black \"Karen Black\"), [Bette Davis](/wiki/Bette_Davis \"Bette Davis\"), and [Burgess Meredith](/wiki/Burgess_Meredith \"Burgess Meredith\") in the [Dan Curtis](/wiki/Dan_Curtis \"Dan Curtis\") horror film, *[Burnt Offerings](/wiki/Burnt_Offerings_%28film%29 \"Burnt Offerings (film)\")* (1976\\). He was in *[The Sell Out](/wiki/The_Sell_Out_%28film%29 \"The Sell Out (film)\")* (1976\\) and *[The Great Scout \\& Cathouse Thursday](/wiki/The_Great_Scout_%26_Cathouse_Thursday \"The Great Scout & Cathouse Thursday\")* (1976\\) with [Lee Marvin](/wiki/Lee_Marvin \"Lee Marvin\"). After *Assault in Paradise* (1977\\), he returned to swashbuckling in *[Crossed Swords](/wiki/Crossed_Swords_%281977_film%29 \"Crossed Swords (1977 film)\")* (UK title *The Prince and the Pauper*) (1977\\), as Miles Hendon alongside [Raquel Welch](/wiki/Raquel_Welch \"Raquel Welch\") and a grown\\-up Mark Lester, who had worked with Reed in *Oliver!*, from a script co\\-written by Fraser.\n\nReed did *[Tomorrow Never Comes](/wiki/Tomorrow_Never_Comes \"Tomorrow Never Comes\")* (1978\\) for Peter Colinson and *[The Big Sleep](/wiki/The_Big_Sleep_%281978_film%29 \"The Big Sleep (1978 film)\")* (1978\\) with Winner. He and Jackson were reunited in *[The Class of Miss MacMichael](/wiki/The_Class_of_Miss_MacMichael \"The Class of Miss MacMichael\")* (1978\\), then he made a film in Canada, *The Mad Trapper*, that was unfinished. Reed returned to the horror genre as Dr. Hal Raglan in [David Cronenberg](/wiki/David_Cronenberg \"David Cronenberg\")'s 1979 film *[The Brood](/wiki/The_Brood \"The Brood\")* and ended the decade with *[A Touch of the Sun](/wiki/A_Touch_of_the_Sun_%281979_film%29 \"A Touch of the Sun (1979 film)\")* (1979\\), a comedy with Peter Cushing.\n\n", "### 1980s\n\nAfter the 1970s, Reed's films had less success. He did a comedy for [Charles B. Griffith](/wiki/Charles_B._Griffith \"Charles B. Griffith\"), *[Dr. Heckyl and Mr. Hype](/wiki/Dr._Heckyl_and_Mr._Hype \"Dr. Heckyl and Mr. Hype\")* (1980\\) and played Gen. [Rodolfo Graziani](/wiki/Rodolfo_Graziani \"Rodolfo Graziani\") in *[Lion of the Desert](/wiki/Lion_of_the_Desert \"Lion of the Desert\")* (1981\\), which co\\-starred [Anthony Quinn](/wiki/Anthony_Quinn \"Anthony Quinn\") and chronicled the [Senussids](/wiki/Senussi \"Senussi\") resistance to Italian occupation of [Libya](/wiki/Libya \"Libya\"). On 20 January 2016, [ISIS](/wiki/Islamic_State \"Islamic State\") used a clip of *Lion of the Desert* as part of a propaganda video threatening Italy with terrorist attacks.\n\nReed was a villain in Disney's *[Condorman](/wiki/Condorman \"Condorman\")* (1981\\) and did the horror film *[Venom](/wiki/Venom_%281981_film%29 \"Venom (1981 film)\")* (1981\\). He was a villain in *[The Sting II](/wiki/The_Sting_II \"The Sting II\")* (1983\\) and appeared in *Sex, Lies and Renaissance* (1983\\). He also starred as Lt\\-Col [Gerard Leachman](/wiki/Gerard_Leachman \"Gerard Leachman\") in the Iraqi historical film *[Clash of Loyalties](/wiki/Clash_of_Loyalties \"Clash of Loyalties\")* (1983\\), which dealt with Leachman's exploits during the 1920 revolution in [Mesopotamia](/wiki/Mesopotamia \"Mesopotamia\") (modern\\-day Iraq). Reed was in *[Spasms](/wiki/Spasms_%28film%29 \"Spasms (film)\")* (1983\\), *[Two of a Kind](/wiki/Two_of_a_Kind_%281983_film%29 \"Two of a Kind (1983 film)\")* (1983\\), *[Masquerade](/wiki/Masquerade_%28TV_series%29 \"Masquerade (TV series)\")* (1984\\), *[Christopher Columbus](/wiki/Christopher_Columbus_%28miniseries%29 \"Christopher Columbus (miniseries)\")* (1985\\), *[Black Arrow](/wiki/Black_Arrow_%281985_film%29 \"Black Arrow (1985 film)\")* (1985\\) and *[Captive](/wiki/Captive_%281986_film%29 \"Captive (1986 film)\")* (1986\\). He says he was contemplating quitting acting when [Nicolas Roeg](/wiki/Nicolas_Roeg \"Nicolas Roeg\") cast him in *[Castaway](/wiki/Castaway_%28film%29 \"Castaway (film)\")* (1986\\) as the middle\\-aged [Gerald Kingsland](/wiki/Gerald_Kingsland \"Gerald Kingsland\"), who advertises for a \"wife\" (played by [Amanda Donohoe](/wiki/Amanda_Donohoe \"Amanda Donohoe\")) to live on a desert island with him for a year.\n\nReed was the subject of *[This Is Your Life](/wiki/This_Is_Your_Life_%28British_TV_series%29 \"This Is Your Life (British TV series)\")* in 1986 when he was surprised by [Eamonn Andrews](/wiki/Eamonn_Andrews \"Eamonn Andrews\") at Rosslyn Park rugby club in west London. Reed was in *[The Misfit Brigade](/wiki/The_Misfit_Brigade \"The Misfit Brigade\")* (1987\\), *[Gor](/wiki/Gor_%28film%29 \"Gor (film)\")* (1987\\), *Master of Dragonard Hill* (1987\\), *Dragonard* (1987\\), *[Skeleton Coast](/wiki/Skeleton_Coast_%28film%29 \"Skeleton Coast (film)\")* (1988\\), *[Blind Justice](/wiki/Blind_Justice_%281988_film%29 \"Blind Justice (1988 film)\")* (1988\\), *Captive Rage* (1988\\), and *Rage to Kill* (1988\\). Most of these were [exploitation films](/wiki/Exploitation_film \"Exploitation film\") produced by the impresario [Harry Alan Towers](/wiki/Harry_Alan_Towers \"Harry Alan Towers\") filmed in South Africa and released straight to video.\n\nHe was in [Terry Gilliam](/wiki/Terry_Gilliam \"Terry Gilliam\")'s *[The Adventures of Baron Munchausen](/wiki/The_Adventures_of_Baron_Munchausen \"The Adventures of Baron Munchausen\")* (1988\\) (as the god [Vulcan](/wiki/Vulcan_%28mythology%29 \"Vulcan (mythology)\")); *[The Lady and the Highwayman](/wiki/The_Lady_and_the_Highwayman \"The Lady and the Highwayman\")* (1989\\) with [Hugh Grant](/wiki/Hugh_Grant \"Hugh Grant\"); *The House of Usher* (1989\\); *[The Return of the Musketeers](/wiki/The_Return_of_the_Musketeers \"The Return of the Musketeers\")* (1990\\) with Lester and Fraser; *[Treasure Island](/wiki/Treasure_Island_%281990_film%29 \"Treasure Island (1990 film)\")* (1990\\) with [Charlton Heston](/wiki/Charlton_Heston \"Charlton Heston\"); *[A Ghost in Monte Carlo](/wiki/A_Ghost_in_Monte_Carlo \"A Ghost in Monte Carlo\")* (1990\\); *[Hired to Kill](/wiki/Hired_to_Kill_%281990_film%29 \"Hired to Kill (1990 film)\")* (1990\\); *[Panama Sugar](/wiki/Panama_Sugar \"Panama Sugar\")* (1990\\); *The Revenger* (1990\\); *[The Pit and the Pendulum](/wiki/The_Pit_and_the_Pendulum_%281991_film%29 \"The Pit and the Pendulum (1991 film)\")* (1991\\); *[Prisoner of Honor](/wiki/Prisoner_of_Honor \"Prisoner of Honor\")* (1991\\) for Russell; and *[Severed Ties](/wiki/Severed_Ties \"Severed Ties\")* (1993\\).\n\n", "### Later years\n\nFilms Reed appeared in include *[Return to Lonesome Dove](/wiki/Return_to_Lonesome_Dove \"Return to Lonesome Dove\")* (1993\\); *[Funny Bones](/wiki/Funny_Bones \"Funny Bones\")* (1995\\); *[The Bruce](/wiki/The_Bruce \"The Bruce\")* (1996\\); *[Jeremiah](/wiki/Jeremiah_%28film%29 \"Jeremiah (film)\")* (1998\\); and *[Parting Shots](/wiki/Parting_Shots \"Parting Shots\")* (1998\\). His final role was the elderly slave dealer Proximo in [Ridley Scott](/wiki/Ridley_Scott \"Ridley Scott\")'s *[Gladiator](/wiki/Gladiator_%282000_film%29 \"Gladiator (2000 film)\")* (2000\\), in which he played alongside [Richard Harris](/wiki/Richard_Harris \"Richard Harris\"), an actor whom Reed admired greatly both on and off the screen. The film was released after his death with some footage filmed with a double, digitally mixed with outtake footage. The film was dedicated to him. In addition to his posthumous [BAFTA](/wiki/BAFTA_Award_for_Best_Actor_in_a_Supporting_Role \"BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role\") recognition, he shared the film's nomination for the [Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture](/wiki/7th_Screen_Actors_Guild_Awards%23Outstanding_Performance_by_a_Cast \"7th Screen Actors Guild Awards#Outstanding Performance by a Cast\") with the rest of the principal players.\n\n", "### Music\n\nIn addition to acting, Reed released several singles in the popular music vein, though with limited success. These included \"Wild One\"/\"Lonely for a Girl\" (1961\\), \"Sometimes\"/\"Ecstasy\" (1962\\), \"Baby It's Cold Outside\" (duet with [Joyce Blair](/wiki/Joyce_Blair \"Joyce Blair\")) and \"Wild Thing\" (1992\\) (duet with snooker player [Alex Higgins](/wiki/Alex_Higgins \"Alex Higgins\")). Reed also later narrated a track called \"Walpurgis Nacht\" by the Italian [heavy metal](/wiki/Heavy_metal_music \"Heavy metal music\") band [Death SS](/wiki/Death_SS \"Death SS\").\n\n", "Personal life\n-------------\n\nIn 1959, Reed married Kate Byrne. The couple had one son, Mark, before their divorce in 1969\\. While filming his part of [Bill Sikes](/wiki/Bill_Sikes \"Bill Sikes\") in *[Oliver!](/wiki/Oliver%21_%28film%29 \"Oliver! (film)\")* (1968\\), he met Jacquie Daryl, a classically trained dancer who was also in the film. They became lovers and subsequently had a daughter, Sarah. In 1985, he married Josephine Burge, to whom he remained married until his death. When they met in 1980, she was 16 years old and he was 42\\. In his final years, Reed and Burge lived in [Churchtown, County Cork](/wiki/Churchtown%2C_County_Cork \"Churchtown, County Cork\"), Ireland.\n\nIn December 1974, Reed appeared on [BBC Radio 4](/wiki/BBC_Radio_4 \"BBC Radio 4\")'s *[Desert Island Discs](/wiki/Desert_Island_Discs \"Desert Island Discs\")*, a show where the guest, a \"castaway\", talks about their life and chooses eight favourite songs and the reasons for their choices. He named \"[Jardins sous la pluie](/wiki/Estampes \"Estampes\")\" by French composer [Claude Debussy](/wiki/Claude_Debussy \"Claude Debussy\") as his favourite piece of music, and when asked what book and inanimate luxury item he would take with him on a desert island Reed chose *[Winnie\\-the\\-Pooh](/wiki/Winnie-the-Pooh \"Winnie-the-Pooh\")* by [A. A. Milne](/wiki/A._A._Milne \"A. A. Milne\") and an inflatable rubber woman.\n\n### Activities\n\n[thumb\\|[Broome Hall](/wiki/Broome_Hall \"Broome Hall\"), Surrey, Reed's home for eight years from 1971](/wiki/File:Broome_Hall_-_geograph.org.uk_-_156000.jpg \"Broome Hall - geograph.org.uk - 156000.jpg\")\nIn 1964, Reed was in the Crazy Elephant nightclub in [Leicester Square](/wiki/Leicester_Square \"Leicester Square\") and got into a dispute at the bar with a couple of men that ended with Reed walking away with a dismissive remark. They waited until he went to the toilet, followed him in and attacked him with broken bottles.[“Once In A Lifetime – Autobiographies and Biographies – Evil spirits – The life of Oliver Reed – Chapter Seven”](https://martynjamesmoore.wordpress.com/2018/04/13/once-in-a-lifetime-autobiographies-and-biographies-evil-spirits-the-life-of-oliver-reed-chapter-seven/). Retrieved. 13 October 2020 He received 63 stitches in one side of his face, was left with permanent scarring, and initially thought his film career was over. According to his brother, subsequent to the attack, when arguing, the burly Reed would bring his hands up in a gesture that was defensive but many men found very intimidating. \n\nIn 1993, Reed was unsuccessfully sued by his former stuntman, stand\\-in and friend Reg Prince, for an alleged spinal injury incurred by the latter while on location for the filming of *Castaway*.Sad' Oliver Reed cleared of blame for stand\\-in's broken back. Weale, Sally. *The Guardian* 17 December 1993\\.\n\nHe claimed to have turned down a major role in the Hollywood movie *[The Sting](/wiki/The_Sting \"The Sting\")* (although he did appear in the 1983 sequel *[The Sting II](/wiki/The_Sting_II \"The Sting II\"))*. When the 1970s UK government raised taxes on personal income, Reed initially declined to join the exodus of major British film stars to [Hollywood](/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_States \"Cinema of the United States\") and other more tax\\-friendly locales. In the late 1970s, Reed relocated to [Guernsey](/wiki/Guernsey \"Guernsey\") as a [tax exile](/wiki/Tax_exile \"Tax exile\"). He had sold his large house, [Broome Hall](/wiki/Broome_Hall \"Broome Hall\"), between the Surrey villages of [Coldharbour](/wiki/Coldharbour%2C_Surrey \"Coldharbour, Surrey\") and [Ockley](/wiki/Ockley \"Ockley\"), and initially lodged at the Duke of Normandie Hotel in [Saint Peter Port](/wiki/Saint_Peter_Port \"Saint Peter Port\").\n\nReed often described himself as a British patriot and preferred to live in the United Kingdom over relocating to [Hollywood](/wiki/Hollywood%2C_Los_Angeles \"Hollywood, Los Angeles\"). He supported British military efforts during the [Falklands War](/wiki/Falklands_War \"Falklands War\"). According to [Robert Sellers](/wiki/Robert_Sellers \"Robert Sellers\"), Reed tried reenlisting, at age 44, in the British army following the outbreak of the conflict but was turned down.\n\nIn 2013, the writer [Robert Sellers](/wiki/Robert_Sellers \"Robert Sellers\") published *What Fresh Lunacy Is This? – The Authorised Biography of Oliver Reed*.\n\n### Alcoholism\n\n[300px\\|right\\|thumb\\|Appearing with [Kate Millett](/wiki/Kate_Millett \"Kate Millett\") on the *[After Dark](/wiki/After_Dark_%28TV_programme%29 \"After Dark (TV programme)\")* programme [\"Do Men Have to Be Violent?](/wiki/After_Dark_%28TV_programme%29%23Oliver_Reed_and_Kate_Millett:%22Do_Men_Have_to_Be_Violent%3F%22)\"](/wiki/File:Kate_Millett_and_Oliver_Reed_appearing_on_%22After_Dark%22%2C_26_January_1991.jpg \"Kate Millett and Oliver Reed appearing on \")\nReed was known for his alcoholism and [binge drinking](/wiki/Binge_drinking \"Binge drinking\"). Numerous anecdotes exist, such as Reed and 36 friends drinking, in one evening: 60 gallons of beer, 32 bottles of scotch, 17 bottles of gin, four crates of wine, and a bottle of [Babycham](/wiki/Babycham \"Babycham\"). Reed subsequently revised the story, claiming he drank 106 pints of beer on a two\\-day binge before marrying Josephine Burge: 'The event that was reported actually took place during an arm\\-wrestling competition in [Guernsey](/wiki/Guernsey \"Guernsey\"), about 15 years ago; it was highly exaggerated.' In the late 1970s, [Steve McQueen](/wiki/Steve_McQueen \"Steve McQueen\") told the story that, in 1973, he flew to the UK to discuss a film project with Reed, who suggested that the two of them visit a London nightclub. They ended up on a marathon [pub crawl](/wiki/Pub_crawl \"Pub crawl\") throughout the night, during which Reed got so drunk that he vomited on McQueen.Cliff Goodwin (2011\\). \"Evil Spirits: The Life of Oliver Reed\". p. 141\\. Random House\n\nReed became a close friend and drinking partner of [the Who](/wiki/The_Who \"The Who\")'s drummer [Keith Moon](/wiki/Keith_Moon \"Keith Moon\") in 1974, while working together on [the film version of *Tommy*](/wiki/Tommy_%281975_film%29 \"Tommy (1975 film)\"). With their reckless lifestyles, Reed and Moon had much in common, and both cited the hard\\-drinking actor [Robert Newton](/wiki/Robert_Newton \"Robert Newton\") as a role model.Angus Konstam (2008\\) [Piracy: The Complete History](https://books.google.com/books?id=USiyy1ZA-BsC&dq=WEST+COUNTRY+PIRATE+ACCENT&pg=PA313) p.313\\. Osprey Publishing, Retrieved 11 October 2011 [Sir Christopher Lee](/wiki/Christopher_Lee \"Christopher Lee\"), a friend and colleague of Reed, commented on his alcoholism in 2014: 'when he started, after \\[drink] number eight, he became a complete monster. It was awful to see.'\n\nReed was often irritated that his appearances on television chat shows concentrated on his drinking feats rather than his acting career and latest films. On 26 September 1975, while Reed was interviewed by [Johnny Carson](/wiki/Johnny_Carson \"Johnny Carson\") on *[The Tonight Show](/wiki/The_Tonight_Show \"The Tonight Show\")*, [Shelley Winters](/wiki/Shelley_Winters \"Shelley Winters\"), angered by derogatory comments Reed had made about [feminists and women's liberation](/wiki/Women%27s_liberation_movement \"Women's liberation movement\"), poured a cup of whiskey over his head on\\-camera.Sellers, Robert (2008\\). *Hellraisers*, Preface Publishing, p. 128; .\n\nReed was held partly responsible for the demise of [BBC1](/wiki/BBC_One \"BBC One\")'s *[Sin on Saturday](/wiki/Sin_on_Saturday \"Sin on Saturday\")* after some typically forthright comments on the subject of lust, the sin featured on the first programme. The series had many other issues, and a fellow guest revealed that Reed recognised this when he arrived, and virtually had to be dragged in front of the cameras. Near the end of his life, he was brought onto some television series specifically for his drinking; for example, *[The Word](/wiki/The_Word_%28TV_series%29 \"The Word (TV series)\")* put bottles of vodka in his dressing room so he could be secretly filmed getting drunk. According to Reed the whole thing was a stunt (\"I knew all about the \"secret\" camera, and the vodka was water\"), and that he was paid to \"act drunk\". Reed left the set of the [Channel 4](/wiki/Channel_4 \"Channel 4\") television discussion programme *[After Dark](/wiki/After_Dark_%28TV_programme%29 \"After Dark (TV programme)\")* after [arriving drunk and attempting to kiss](/wiki/After_Dark_%28TV_series%29%23Oliver_Reed_and_Kate_Millett:%22Do_Men_Have_to_Be_Violent%3F%22) feminist writer [Kate Millett](/wiki/Kate_Millett \"Kate Millett\"), uttering the phrase, 'Give us a kiss, big tits.'\n\nHowever, *Evil Spirits*, a biography of Reed that was written by Cliff Goodwin, offered the theory that Reed was not always as drunk on chat shows as he appeared to be, but rather was acting the part of an uncontrollably sodden former star to liven things up, at the producers' behests. In October 1981, Reed was arrested in [Vermont](/wiki/Vermont \"Vermont\"), where he was tried and acquitted of [disturbing the peace](/wiki/Breach_of_the_peace \"Breach of the peace\") while drunk. However, he pleaded no contest to two assault charges and was fined $1,200\\. In December 1987, Reed, who was overweight and already suffered from [gout](/wiki/Gout \"Gout\"),Goodwin, Cliff. *Evil Spirits: The Life of Oliver Reed* (2001\\) p. 246 became seriously ill with kidney problems as a result of his alcoholism, and had to abstain from drinking for over a year, on the advice of his doctor.\n\nDuring the filming of [Renny Harlin](/wiki/Renny_Harlin \"Renny Harlin\")'s *[Cutthroat Island](/wiki/Cutthroat_Island \"Cutthroat Island\")* (1995\\), he was cast in a cameo role as Mordechai Fingers. Due to his arriving extremely intoxicated, having already been in trouble for a bar fight, before attempting to \"expose himself\" to lead actress [Geena Davis](/wiki/Geena_Davis \"Geena Davis\"), he was fired and replaced with British character actor [George Murcell](/wiki/George_Murcell \"George Murcell\").\n\nIn his final years, when he lived in Ireland, Reed was a regular in the one\\-roomed O'Brien's Bar in [Churchtown, County Cork](/wiki/Churchtown%2C_County_Cork \"Churchtown, County Cork\"), close to the 13th\\-century cemetery in the heart of the village where he would be buried.[“Oliver Reed 1938 \\- 1999”](http://www.churchtown.net/Webpages/AA_general_pages/oliverreed.htm)\n\n", "### Activities\n\n[thumb\\|[Broome Hall](/wiki/Broome_Hall \"Broome Hall\"), Surrey, Reed's home for eight years from 1971](/wiki/File:Broome_Hall_-_geograph.org.uk_-_156000.jpg \"Broome Hall - geograph.org.uk - 156000.jpg\")\nIn 1964, Reed was in the Crazy Elephant nightclub in [Leicester Square](/wiki/Leicester_Square \"Leicester Square\") and got into a dispute at the bar with a couple of men that ended with Reed walking away with a dismissive remark. They waited until he went to the toilet, followed him in and attacked him with broken bottles.[“Once In A Lifetime – Autobiographies and Biographies – Evil spirits – The life of Oliver Reed – Chapter Seven”](https://martynjamesmoore.wordpress.com/2018/04/13/once-in-a-lifetime-autobiographies-and-biographies-evil-spirits-the-life-of-oliver-reed-chapter-seven/). Retrieved. 13 October 2020 He received 63 stitches in one side of his face, was left with permanent scarring, and initially thought his film career was over. According to his brother, subsequent to the attack, when arguing, the burly Reed would bring his hands up in a gesture that was defensive but many men found very intimidating. \n\nIn 1993, Reed was unsuccessfully sued by his former stuntman, stand\\-in and friend Reg Prince, for an alleged spinal injury incurred by the latter while on location for the filming of *Castaway*.Sad' Oliver Reed cleared of blame for stand\\-in's broken back. Weale, Sally. *The Guardian* 17 December 1993\\.\n\nHe claimed to have turned down a major role in the Hollywood movie *[The Sting](/wiki/The_Sting \"The Sting\")* (although he did appear in the 1983 sequel *[The Sting II](/wiki/The_Sting_II \"The Sting II\"))*. When the 1970s UK government raised taxes on personal income, Reed initially declined to join the exodus of major British film stars to [Hollywood](/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_States \"Cinema of the United States\") and other more tax\\-friendly locales. In the late 1970s, Reed relocated to [Guernsey](/wiki/Guernsey \"Guernsey\") as a [tax exile](/wiki/Tax_exile \"Tax exile\"). He had sold his large house, [Broome Hall](/wiki/Broome_Hall \"Broome Hall\"), between the Surrey villages of [Coldharbour](/wiki/Coldharbour%2C_Surrey \"Coldharbour, Surrey\") and [Ockley](/wiki/Ockley \"Ockley\"), and initially lodged at the Duke of Normandie Hotel in [Saint Peter Port](/wiki/Saint_Peter_Port \"Saint Peter Port\").\n\nReed often described himself as a British patriot and preferred to live in the United Kingdom over relocating to [Hollywood](/wiki/Hollywood%2C_Los_Angeles \"Hollywood, Los Angeles\"). He supported British military efforts during the [Falklands War](/wiki/Falklands_War \"Falklands War\"). According to [Robert Sellers](/wiki/Robert_Sellers \"Robert Sellers\"), Reed tried reenlisting, at age 44, in the British army following the outbreak of the conflict but was turned down.\n\nIn 2013, the writer [Robert Sellers](/wiki/Robert_Sellers \"Robert Sellers\") published *What Fresh Lunacy Is This? – The Authorised Biography of Oliver Reed*.\n\n", "### Alcoholism\n\n[300px\\|right\\|thumb\\|Appearing with [Kate Millett](/wiki/Kate_Millett \"Kate Millett\") on the *[After Dark](/wiki/After_Dark_%28TV_programme%29 \"After Dark (TV programme)\")* programme [\"Do Men Have to Be Violent?](/wiki/After_Dark_%28TV_programme%29%23Oliver_Reed_and_Kate_Millett:%22Do_Men_Have_to_Be_Violent%3F%22)\"](/wiki/File:Kate_Millett_and_Oliver_Reed_appearing_on_%22After_Dark%22%2C_26_January_1991.jpg \"Kate Millett and Oliver Reed appearing on \")\nReed was known for his alcoholism and [binge drinking](/wiki/Binge_drinking \"Binge drinking\"). Numerous anecdotes exist, such as Reed and 36 friends drinking, in one evening: 60 gallons of beer, 32 bottles of scotch, 17 bottles of gin, four crates of wine, and a bottle of [Babycham](/wiki/Babycham \"Babycham\"). Reed subsequently revised the story, claiming he drank 106 pints of beer on a two\\-day binge before marrying Josephine Burge: 'The event that was reported actually took place during an arm\\-wrestling competition in [Guernsey](/wiki/Guernsey \"Guernsey\"), about 15 years ago; it was highly exaggerated.' In the late 1970s, [Steve McQueen](/wiki/Steve_McQueen \"Steve McQueen\") told the story that, in 1973, he flew to the UK to discuss a film project with Reed, who suggested that the two of them visit a London nightclub. They ended up on a marathon [pub crawl](/wiki/Pub_crawl \"Pub crawl\") throughout the night, during which Reed got so drunk that he vomited on McQueen.Cliff Goodwin (2011\\). \"Evil Spirits: The Life of Oliver Reed\". p. 141\\. Random House\n\nReed became a close friend and drinking partner of [the Who](/wiki/The_Who \"The Who\")'s drummer [Keith Moon](/wiki/Keith_Moon \"Keith Moon\") in 1974, while working together on [the film version of *Tommy*](/wiki/Tommy_%281975_film%29 \"Tommy (1975 film)\"). With their reckless lifestyles, Reed and Moon had much in common, and both cited the hard\\-drinking actor [Robert Newton](/wiki/Robert_Newton \"Robert Newton\") as a role model.Angus Konstam (2008\\) [Piracy: The Complete History](https://books.google.com/books?id=USiyy1ZA-BsC&dq=WEST+COUNTRY+PIRATE+ACCENT&pg=PA313) p.313\\. Osprey Publishing, Retrieved 11 October 2011 [Sir Christopher Lee](/wiki/Christopher_Lee \"Christopher Lee\"), a friend and colleague of Reed, commented on his alcoholism in 2014: 'when he started, after \\[drink] number eight, he became a complete monster. It was awful to see.'\n\nReed was often irritated that his appearances on television chat shows concentrated on his drinking feats rather than his acting career and latest films. On 26 September 1975, while Reed was interviewed by [Johnny Carson](/wiki/Johnny_Carson \"Johnny Carson\") on *[The Tonight Show](/wiki/The_Tonight_Show \"The Tonight Show\")*, [Shelley Winters](/wiki/Shelley_Winters \"Shelley Winters\"), angered by derogatory comments Reed had made about [feminists and women's liberation](/wiki/Women%27s_liberation_movement \"Women's liberation movement\"), poured a cup of whiskey over his head on\\-camera.Sellers, Robert (2008\\). *Hellraisers*, Preface Publishing, p. 128; .\n\nReed was held partly responsible for the demise of [BBC1](/wiki/BBC_One \"BBC One\")'s *[Sin on Saturday](/wiki/Sin_on_Saturday \"Sin on Saturday\")* after some typically forthright comments on the subject of lust, the sin featured on the first programme. The series had many other issues, and a fellow guest revealed that Reed recognised this when he arrived, and virtually had to be dragged in front of the cameras. Near the end of his life, he was brought onto some television series specifically for his drinking; for example, *[The Word](/wiki/The_Word_%28TV_series%29 \"The Word (TV series)\")* put bottles of vodka in his dressing room so he could be secretly filmed getting drunk. According to Reed the whole thing was a stunt (\"I knew all about the \"secret\" camera, and the vodka was water\"), and that he was paid to \"act drunk\". Reed left the set of the [Channel 4](/wiki/Channel_4 \"Channel 4\") television discussion programme *[After Dark](/wiki/After_Dark_%28TV_programme%29 \"After Dark (TV programme)\")* after [arriving drunk and attempting to kiss](/wiki/After_Dark_%28TV_series%29%23Oliver_Reed_and_Kate_Millett:%22Do_Men_Have_to_Be_Violent%3F%22) feminist writer [Kate Millett](/wiki/Kate_Millett \"Kate Millett\"), uttering the phrase, 'Give us a kiss, big tits.'\n\nHowever, *Evil Spirits*, a biography of Reed that was written by Cliff Goodwin, offered the theory that Reed was not always as drunk on chat shows as he appeared to be, but rather was acting the part of an uncontrollably sodden former star to liven things up, at the producers' behests. In October 1981, Reed was arrested in [Vermont](/wiki/Vermont \"Vermont\"), where he was tried and acquitted of [disturbing the peace](/wiki/Breach_of_the_peace \"Breach of the peace\") while drunk. However, he pleaded no contest to two assault charges and was fined $1,200\\. In December 1987, Reed, who was overweight and already suffered from [gout](/wiki/Gout \"Gout\"),Goodwin, Cliff. *Evil Spirits: The Life of Oliver Reed* (2001\\) p. 246 became seriously ill with kidney problems as a result of his alcoholism, and had to abstain from drinking for over a year, on the advice of his doctor.\n\nDuring the filming of [Renny Harlin](/wiki/Renny_Harlin \"Renny Harlin\")'s *[Cutthroat Island](/wiki/Cutthroat_Island \"Cutthroat Island\")* (1995\\), he was cast in a cameo role as Mordechai Fingers. Due to his arriving extremely intoxicated, having already been in trouble for a bar fight, before attempting to \"expose himself\" to lead actress [Geena Davis](/wiki/Geena_Davis \"Geena Davis\"), he was fired and replaced with British character actor [George Murcell](/wiki/George_Murcell \"George Murcell\").\n\nIn his final years, when he lived in Ireland, Reed was a regular in the one\\-roomed O'Brien's Bar in [Churchtown, County Cork](/wiki/Churchtown%2C_County_Cork \"Churchtown, County Cork\"), close to the 13th\\-century cemetery in the heart of the village where he would be buried.[“Oliver Reed 1938 \\- 1999”](http://www.churchtown.net/Webpages/AA_general_pages/oliverreed.htm)\n\n", "Death\n-----\n\nReed died from a heart attack during a break from filming *[Gladiator](/wiki/Gladiator_%282000_film%29 \"Gladiator (2000 film)\")* in [Valletta](/wiki/Valletta \"Valletta\"), [Malta](/wiki/Malta \"Malta\"), on the afternoon of 2 May 1999\\. According to *Gladiator* screenwriter [David Franzoni](/wiki/David_Franzoni \"David Franzoni\"), Reed had encountered a group of sailors from the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\") frigate [HMS *Cumberland*](/wiki/HMS_Cumberland_%28F85%29 \"HMS Cumberland (F85)\") on [shore leave](/wiki/Shore_leave \"Shore leave\") in a bar (pub), and challenged them to a drinking match. Reed fell ill during the match and collapsed; despite efforts at resuscitation by his friends, he died in an ambulance while en route to the hospital. He was 61 years old.\n\nThe actor [Omid Djalili](/wiki/Omid_Djalili \"Omid Djalili\"), who was also in Malta at the time of Reed's death filming *Gladiator*, said during an interview in 2016: \"He hadn't had a drink for months before filming started... Everyone said he went the way he wanted, but that's not true. It was very tragic. He was in an Irish bar and was pressured into a drinking competition. He should have just left, but he didn't.\"[\"The day Oliver Reed grabbed me by the balls\"](https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2016/jan/24/oliver-reed-grabbed-me-by-the-balls-omid-djalili) by [Omid Djalili](/wiki/Omid_Djalili \"Omid Djalili\"), *[The Guardian](/wiki/The_Guardian \"The Guardian\")*, 24 January 2016 Having made a number of promises to [Ridley Scott](/wiki/Ridley_Scott \"Ridley Scott\") prior to filming, including that he would not drink during production, Reed worked around this by only drinking on weekends. Co\\-star [David Hemmings](/wiki/David_Hemmings \"David Hemmings\") was a longtime friend of Reed's (they appeared together in the 1964 film *[The System](/wiki/The_System_%281964_film%29 \"The System (1964 film)\")*), and in 2020 Scott stated, \"David Hemmings (Cassius) promised to look after him and said to me \\[upon his death], I'm really sorry, old boy\".\n\nA funeral for Reed was held in Ireland in Churchtown, where he had resided during the last years of his life. His body was interred in the Bruhenny Graveyard there. The [epitaph](/wiki/Epitaph \"Epitaph\") on his gravestone reads, \"He made the air move.\"\n\n", "Aftermath\n---------\n\nAs a result of his death, Reed's remaining scenes in *Gladiator* had to be completed [using a body double](/wiki/Fake_Shemp \"Fake Shemp\") and [computer\\-generated imagery](/wiki/Computer-generated_imagery \"Computer-generated imagery\") (CGI) techniques. Despite this, he was posthumously nominated for a [BAFTA Award for Best Supporting Actor](/wiki/54th_British_Academy_Film_Awards%23Best_Supporting_Actor \"54th British Academy Film Awards#Best Supporting Actor\").\n\n", "Filmography, awards and nominations\n-----------------------------------\n\n", "Books\n-----\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n[Category:1938 births](/wiki/Category:1938_births \"1938 births\")\n[Category:1999 deaths](/wiki/Category:1999_deaths \"1999 deaths\")\n[Category:English male film actors](/wiki/Category:English_male_film_actors \"English male film actors\")\n[Category:English male television actors](/wiki/Category:English_male_television_actors \"English male television actors\")\n[Category:Beerbohm family](/wiki/Category:Beerbohm_family \"Beerbohm family\")\n[Category:Male actors from London](/wiki/Category:Male_actors_from_London \"Male actors from London\")\n[Category:Actors from the London Borough of Merton](/wiki/Category:Actors_from_the_London_Borough_of_Merton \"Actors from the London Borough of Merton\")\n[Category:Royal Army Medical Corps soldiers](/wiki/Category:Royal_Army_Medical_Corps_soldiers \"Royal Army Medical Corps soldiers\")\n[Category:English expatriates in Ireland](/wiki/Category:English_expatriates_in_Ireland \"English expatriates in Ireland\")\n[Category:People educated at Ewell Castle School](/wiki/Category:People_educated_at_Ewell_Castle_School \"People educated at Ewell Castle School\")\n[Category:20th\\-century English male actors](/wiki/Category:20th-century_English_male_actors \"20th-century English male actors\")\n[Category:Male critics of feminism](/wiki/Category:Male_critics_of_feminism \"Male critics of feminism\")\n[Category:Military personnel from the London Borough of Merton](/wiki/Category:Military_personnel_from_the_London_Borough_of_Merton \"Military personnel from the London Borough of Merton\")\n[Category:20th\\-century British Army personnel](/wiki/Category:20th-century_British_Army_personnel \"20th-century British Army personnel\")\n[Category:Piccadilly Records artists](/wiki/Category:Piccadilly_Records_artists \"Piccadilly Records artists\")\n[Category:People from Wimbledon, London](/wiki/Category:People_from_Wimbledon%2C_London \"People from Wimbledon, London\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 46848574 ], "name": [ "WikiEd303" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Algorithm", "Key generation", "Encryption", "Decryption", "Homomorphic properties", "Background", "Semantic security", "Applications", "Electronic voting", "Electronic cash", "Electronic auction", "Threshold cryptosystem", "See also", "References", "Notes", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 2, 2, 3, 2 ], "content": [ "\nThe **Paillier cryptosystem**, invented by and named after Pascal Paillier in 1999, is a probabilistic [asymmetric algorithm](/wiki/Asymmetric_algorithm \"Asymmetric algorithm\") for [public key cryptography](/wiki/Public_key_cryptography \"Public key cryptography\"). The problem of computing *n*\\-th residue classes is believed to be computationally difficult. The [decisional composite residuosity assumption](/wiki/Decisional_composite_residuosity_assumption \"Decisional composite residuosity assumption\") is the [intractability](/wiki/Intractability_%28complexity%29 \"Intractability (complexity)\") hypothesis upon which this cryptosystem is based.\n\nThe scheme is an additive [homomorphic cryptosystem](/wiki/Homomorphic_encryption \"Homomorphic encryption\"); this means that, given only the public key and the\nencryption of m\\_1 and m\\_2, one can compute the encryption of m\\_1\\+m\\_2.\n\n", "Algorithm\n---------\n\nThe scheme works as follows:\n\n### Key generation\n\n1. Choose two large prime numbers p and q randomly and independently of each other such that \\\\gcd(pq, (p\\-1\\)(q\\-1\\))\\=1. This property is assured if both primes are of equal length.Jonathan Katz, Yehuda Lindell, \"Introduction to Modern Cryptography: Principles and Protocols,\" Chapman \\& Hall/CRC, 2007\n2. Compute n\\=pq and \\\\lambda\\=\\\\operatorname{lcm}(p\\-1,q\\-1\\). lcm means [Least Common Multiple](/wiki/Least_common_multiple \"Least common multiple\").\n3. Select random integer g where g\\\\in \\\\mathbb Z^{\\*}\\_{n^{2\n4. Ensure n divides the order of g by checking the existence of the following [modular multiplicative inverse](/wiki/Modular_multiplicative_inverse \"Modular multiplicative inverse\"): \\\\mu \\= (L(g^\\\\lambda \\\\bmod n^2\\))^{\\-1} \\\\bmod n,\n\nwhere function L is defined as L(x) \\= \\\\frac{x\\-1}{n} .\nNote that the notation \\\\frac{a}{b} does not denote the modular multiplication of a times the [modular multiplicative inverse](/wiki/Modular_multiplicative_inverse \"Modular multiplicative inverse\") of b but rather the [quotient](/wiki/Quotient \"Quotient\") of a divided by b, i.e., the largest integer value v \\\\ge 0 to satisfy the relation a \\\\ge vb.\n* **The public (encryption) key is (n, g).**\n* **The private (decryption) key is (\\\\lambda, \\\\mu).**\nIf using p,q of equivalent length, a simpler variant of the above key generation steps would be to set g \\= n\\+1, \\\\lambda \\= \\\\varphi(n), and \\\\mu \\= \\\\varphi(n)^{\\-1} \\\\bmod n, where \\\\varphi(n) \\= (p\\-1\\)(q\\-1\\) .\nThe simpler variant is **recommended** for implementational purposes, because in the general form the calculation time of \\\\mu can be very high with sufficiently large primes p,q.\n\n### Encryption\n\n1. Let m be a message to be encrypted where 0 \\\\leq m \\< n\n2. Select random r where 0 \\< r \\< n and \\\\gcd(r,n)\\=1. \n (Note: if you find a value that has \\\\gcd(r,n) \\\\ne 1, you can use this to calculate the private key: this is unlikely enough to ignore.)\n3. Compute ciphertext as: c\\=g^m \\\\cdot r^n \\\\bmod n^2\n\n### Decryption\n\n1. Let c be the ciphertext to decrypt, where c\\\\in \\\\mathbb Z^{\\*}\\_{n^{2\n2. Compute the plaintext message as: m \\= L(c^\\\\lambda \\\\bmod n^2\\) \\\\cdot \\\\mu \\\\bmod n\n\nAs the original paper points out, decryption is \"essentially one exponentiation modulo n^2.\"\n\n### Homomorphic properties\n\nA notable feature of the Paillier cryptosystem is its [homomorphic](/wiki/Homomorphic_encryption \"Homomorphic encryption\") properties along with its non\\-deterministic encryption (see Electronic voting in Applications for usage). As the encryption function is additively homomorphic, the following identities can be described:\n\n* **Homomorphic addition of plaintexts**\n\n The product of two ciphertexts will decrypt to the sum of their corresponding plaintexts,\n D(E(m\\_1, r\\_1\\)\\\\cdot E(m\\_2, r\\_2\\)\\\\bmod n^2\\) \\= m\\_1 \\+ m\\_2 \\\\bmod n. \\\\, \n The product of a ciphertext with a plaintext raising g will decrypt to the sum of the corresponding plaintexts,\n D(E(m\\_1, r\\_1\\)\\\\cdot g^{m\\_2} \\\\bmod n^2\\) \\= m\\_1 \\+ m\\_2 \\\\bmod n. \\\\, \n* **Homomorphic multiplication of plaintexts**\n\n A ciphertext raised to the power of a plaintext will decrypt to the product of the two plaintexts,\n D(E(m\\_1, r\\_1\\)^{m\\_2}\\\\bmod n^2\\) \\= m\\_1 m\\_2 \\\\bmod n, \\\\, \n D(E(m\\_2, r\\_2\\)^{m\\_1}\\\\bmod n^2\\) \\= m\\_1 m\\_2 \\\\bmod n. \\\\, \n More generally, a ciphertext raised to a constant *k* will decrypt to the product of the plaintext and the constant,\n D(E(m\\_1, r\\_1\\)^k\\\\bmod n^2\\) \\= k m\\_1 \\\\bmod n. \\\\, \nHowever, given the Paillier encryptions of two messages there is no known way to compute an encryption of the product of these messages without knowing the private key.\n\n### Background\n\nPaillier cryptosystem exploits the fact that certain [discrete logarithms](/wiki/Discrete_logarithms \"Discrete logarithms\") can be computed easily.\n\nFor example, by [binomial theorem](/wiki/Binomial_theorem \"Binomial theorem\"),\n (1\\+n)^x\\=\\\\sum\\_{k\\=0}^x {x \\\\choose k}n^k \\= 1\\+nx\\+{x \\\\choose 2}n^2 \\+ \\\\text{higher powers of }n\n\nThis indicates that:\n (1\\+n)^x \\\\equiv 1\\+nx\\\\pmod{n^2}\nTherefore, if:\n y \\= (1\\+n)^x \\\\bmod n^2\nthen\n x \\\\equiv \\\\frac{y\\-1}{n} \\\\pmod{n}.\nThus:\n L((1\\+n)^x \\\\bmod n^2\\) \\\\equiv x \\\\pmod{n},\nwhere function L is defined as L(u) \\= \\\\frac{u\\-1}{n} (quotient of integer division) and x \\\\in \\\\mathbb Z\\_{n}.\n\n### Semantic security\n\nThe original cryptosystem as shown above does provide [semantic security](/wiki/Semantic_security \"Semantic security\") against chosen\\-plaintext attacks ([IND\\-CPA](/wiki/IND-CPA \"IND-CPA\")). The ability to successfully distinguish the challenge ciphertext essentially amounts to the ability to decide composite residuosity. The so\\-called [decisional composite residuosity assumption](/wiki/Decisional_composite_residuosity_assumption \"Decisional composite residuosity assumption\") (DCRA) is believed to be intractable.\n\nBecause of the aforementioned homomorphic properties however, the system is [malleable](/wiki/Malleability_%28cryptography%29 \"Malleability (cryptography)\"), and therefore does not enjoy the highest level of semantic security, protection against adaptive chosen\\-ciphertext attacks ([IND\\-CCA2](/wiki/IND-CCA2%23Indistinguishability_under_chosen_ciphertext_attack.2Fadaptive_chosen_ciphertext_attack_.28IND-CCA1.2C_IND-CCA2.29 \"IND-CCA2#Indistinguishability under chosen ciphertext attack.2Fadaptive chosen ciphertext attack .28IND-CCA1.2C IND-CCA2.29\")). \nUsually in cryptography the notion of malleability is not seen as an \"advantage,\" but under certain applications such as secure electronic voting and [threshold cryptosystems](/wiki/Threshold_cryptosystem \"Threshold cryptosystem\"), this property may indeed be necessary.\n\nPaillier and Pointcheval however went on to propose an improved cryptosystem that incorporates the combined hashing of message *m* with random *r*. Similar in intent to the [Cramer–Shoup cryptosystem](/wiki/Cramer%E2%80%93Shoup_cryptosystem \"Cramer–Shoup cryptosystem\"), the hashing prevents an attacker, given only *c,* from being able to change *m* in a meaningful way. Through this adaptation the improved scheme can be shown to be [IND\\-CCA2](/wiki/IND-CCA2%23Indistinguishability_under_chosen_ciphertext_attack.2Fadaptive_chosen_ciphertext_attack_.28IND-CCA1.2C_IND-CCA2.29 \"IND-CCA2#Indistinguishability under chosen ciphertext attack.2Fadaptive chosen ciphertext attack .28IND-CCA1.2C IND-CCA2.29\") secure in the [random oracle model](/wiki/Random_oracle_model \"Random oracle model\").\n\n### Applications\n\n#### Electronic voting\n\nSemantic security is not the only consideration. There are situations under which malleability may be desirable. Secure [electronic voting](/wiki/Electronic_voting \"Electronic voting\") systems can utilize the above homomorphic properties. Consider a simple binary (\"for\" or \"against\") vote. Let *m* voters cast a vote of either *1* (for) or *0* (against). Each voter encrypts their choice before casting their vote. The election official takes the product of the *m* encrypted votes and then decrypts the result and obtains the value *n*, which is the sum of all the votes. The election official then knows that *n* people voted *for* and *m\\-n* people voted *against*. The role of the random *r* ensures that two equivalent votes will encrypt to the same value only with negligible likelihood, hence ensuring voter privacy.\n\n#### Electronic cash\n\nAnother feature named in paper is the notion of self\\-[blinding](/wiki/Blinding_%28cryptography%29 \"Blinding (cryptography)\"). This is the ability to change one ciphertext into another without changing the content of its decryption. This has application to the development of [ecash](/wiki/Ecash \"Ecash\"), an effort originally spearheaded by [David Chaum](/wiki/David_Chaum \"David Chaum\"). Imagine paying for an item online without the vendor needing to know your credit card number, and hence your identity. The goal in both electronic cash and electronic voting, is to ensure the e\\-coin (likewise e\\-vote) is valid, while at the same time not disclosing the identity of the person with whom it is currently associated.\n\n#### Electronic auction\n\nThe Paillier cryptosystem plays a crucial role in enhancing the security of [electronic auctions](/wiki/Electronic_auction \"Electronic auction\"). It prevents fraudulent activities such as dishonest auctioneers and collusion between bidders and auctioneers who manipulate bids. By ensuring the confidentiality of actual bidding values while revealing auction results, the Pailler cryptosystem successfully promotes fair practices. Pan, M., Sun, J., \\& Fang, Y. (2011\\). Purging the Back\\-Room Dealing: Secure Spectrum Auction Leveraging Paillier Cryptosystem. IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, 29(4\\), 866–876\\. [https://doi.org/10\\.1109/JSAC.2011\\.110417](https://doi.org/10.1109/JSAC.2011.110417)\n\n#### Threshold cryptosystem\n\nThe homomorphic property of Paillier cryptosystem is sometimes used to build [Threshold](/wiki/Threshold_cryptosystem \"Threshold cryptosystem\") ECDSA signature.\n\n", "### Key generation\n\n1. Choose two large prime numbers p and q randomly and independently of each other such that \\\\gcd(pq, (p\\-1\\)(q\\-1\\))\\=1. This property is assured if both primes are of equal length.Jonathan Katz, Yehuda Lindell, \"Introduction to Modern Cryptography: Principles and Protocols,\" Chapman \\& Hall/CRC, 2007\n2. Compute n\\=pq and \\\\lambda\\=\\\\operatorname{lcm}(p\\-1,q\\-1\\). lcm means [Least Common Multiple](/wiki/Least_common_multiple \"Least common multiple\").\n3. Select random integer g where g\\\\in \\\\mathbb Z^{\\*}\\_{n^{2\n4. Ensure n divides the order of g by checking the existence of the following [modular multiplicative inverse](/wiki/Modular_multiplicative_inverse \"Modular multiplicative inverse\"): \\\\mu \\= (L(g^\\\\lambda \\\\bmod n^2\\))^{\\-1} \\\\bmod n,\n\nwhere function L is defined as L(x) \\= \\\\frac{x\\-1}{n} .\nNote that the notation \\\\frac{a}{b} does not denote the modular multiplication of a times the [modular multiplicative inverse](/wiki/Modular_multiplicative_inverse \"Modular multiplicative inverse\") of b but rather the [quotient](/wiki/Quotient \"Quotient\") of a divided by b, i.e., the largest integer value v \\\\ge 0 to satisfy the relation a \\\\ge vb.\n* **The public (encryption) key is (n, g).**\n* **The private (decryption) key is (\\\\lambda, \\\\mu).**\nIf using p,q of equivalent length, a simpler variant of the above key generation steps would be to set g \\= n\\+1, \\\\lambda \\= \\\\varphi(n), and \\\\mu \\= \\\\varphi(n)^{\\-1} \\\\bmod n, where \\\\varphi(n) \\= (p\\-1\\)(q\\-1\\) .\nThe simpler variant is **recommended** for implementational purposes, because in the general form the calculation time of \\\\mu can be very high with sufficiently large primes p,q.\n", "### Encryption\n\n1. Let m be a message to be encrypted where 0 \\\\leq m \\< n\n2. Select random r where 0 \\< r \\< n and \\\\gcd(r,n)\\=1. \n (Note: if you find a value that has \\\\gcd(r,n) \\\\ne 1, you can use this to calculate the private key: this is unlikely enough to ignore.)\n3. Compute ciphertext as: c\\=g^m \\\\cdot r^n \\\\bmod n^2\n", "### Decryption\n\n1. Let c be the ciphertext to decrypt, where c\\\\in \\\\mathbb Z^{\\*}\\_{n^{2\n2. Compute the plaintext message as: m \\= L(c^\\\\lambda \\\\bmod n^2\\) \\\\cdot \\\\mu \\\\bmod n\n\nAs the original paper points out, decryption is \"essentially one exponentiation modulo n^2.\"\n\n", "### Homomorphic properties\n\nA notable feature of the Paillier cryptosystem is its [homomorphic](/wiki/Homomorphic_encryption \"Homomorphic encryption\") properties along with its non\\-deterministic encryption (see Electronic voting in Applications for usage). As the encryption function is additively homomorphic, the following identities can be described:\n\n* **Homomorphic addition of plaintexts**\n\n The product of two ciphertexts will decrypt to the sum of their corresponding plaintexts,\n D(E(m\\_1, r\\_1\\)\\\\cdot E(m\\_2, r\\_2\\)\\\\bmod n^2\\) \\= m\\_1 \\+ m\\_2 \\\\bmod n. \\\\, \n The product of a ciphertext with a plaintext raising g will decrypt to the sum of the corresponding plaintexts,\n D(E(m\\_1, r\\_1\\)\\\\cdot g^{m\\_2} \\\\bmod n^2\\) \\= m\\_1 \\+ m\\_2 \\\\bmod n. \\\\, \n* **Homomorphic multiplication of plaintexts**\n\n A ciphertext raised to the power of a plaintext will decrypt to the product of the two plaintexts,\n D(E(m\\_1, r\\_1\\)^{m\\_2}\\\\bmod n^2\\) \\= m\\_1 m\\_2 \\\\bmod n, \\\\, \n D(E(m\\_2, r\\_2\\)^{m\\_1}\\\\bmod n^2\\) \\= m\\_1 m\\_2 \\\\bmod n. \\\\, \n More generally, a ciphertext raised to a constant *k* will decrypt to the product of the plaintext and the constant,\n D(E(m\\_1, r\\_1\\)^k\\\\bmod n^2\\) \\= k m\\_1 \\\\bmod n. \\\\, \nHowever, given the Paillier encryptions of two messages there is no known way to compute an encryption of the product of these messages without knowing the private key.\n\n", "### Background\n\nPaillier cryptosystem exploits the fact that certain [discrete logarithms](/wiki/Discrete_logarithms \"Discrete logarithms\") can be computed easily.\n\nFor example, by [binomial theorem](/wiki/Binomial_theorem \"Binomial theorem\"),\n (1\\+n)^x\\=\\\\sum\\_{k\\=0}^x {x \\\\choose k}n^k \\= 1\\+nx\\+{x \\\\choose 2}n^2 \\+ \\\\text{higher powers of }n\n\nThis indicates that:\n (1\\+n)^x \\\\equiv 1\\+nx\\\\pmod{n^2}\nTherefore, if:\n y \\= (1\\+n)^x \\\\bmod n^2\nthen\n x \\\\equiv \\\\frac{y\\-1}{n} \\\\pmod{n}.\nThus:\n L((1\\+n)^x \\\\bmod n^2\\) \\\\equiv x \\\\pmod{n},\nwhere function L is defined as L(u) \\= \\\\frac{u\\-1}{n} (quotient of integer division) and x \\\\in \\\\mathbb Z\\_{n}.\n\n", "### Semantic security\n\nThe original cryptosystem as shown above does provide [semantic security](/wiki/Semantic_security \"Semantic security\") against chosen\\-plaintext attacks ([IND\\-CPA](/wiki/IND-CPA \"IND-CPA\")). The ability to successfully distinguish the challenge ciphertext essentially amounts to the ability to decide composite residuosity. The so\\-called [decisional composite residuosity assumption](/wiki/Decisional_composite_residuosity_assumption \"Decisional composite residuosity assumption\") (DCRA) is believed to be intractable.\n\nBecause of the aforementioned homomorphic properties however, the system is [malleable](/wiki/Malleability_%28cryptography%29 \"Malleability (cryptography)\"), and therefore does not enjoy the highest level of semantic security, protection against adaptive chosen\\-ciphertext attacks ([IND\\-CCA2](/wiki/IND-CCA2%23Indistinguishability_under_chosen_ciphertext_attack.2Fadaptive_chosen_ciphertext_attack_.28IND-CCA1.2C_IND-CCA2.29 \"IND-CCA2#Indistinguishability under chosen ciphertext attack.2Fadaptive chosen ciphertext attack .28IND-CCA1.2C IND-CCA2.29\")). \nUsually in cryptography the notion of malleability is not seen as an \"advantage,\" but under certain applications such as secure electronic voting and [threshold cryptosystems](/wiki/Threshold_cryptosystem \"Threshold cryptosystem\"), this property may indeed be necessary.\n\nPaillier and Pointcheval however went on to propose an improved cryptosystem that incorporates the combined hashing of message *m* with random *r*. Similar in intent to the [Cramer–Shoup cryptosystem](/wiki/Cramer%E2%80%93Shoup_cryptosystem \"Cramer–Shoup cryptosystem\"), the hashing prevents an attacker, given only *c,* from being able to change *m* in a meaningful way. Through this adaptation the improved scheme can be shown to be [IND\\-CCA2](/wiki/IND-CCA2%23Indistinguishability_under_chosen_ciphertext_attack.2Fadaptive_chosen_ciphertext_attack_.28IND-CCA1.2C_IND-CCA2.29 \"IND-CCA2#Indistinguishability under chosen ciphertext attack.2Fadaptive chosen ciphertext attack .28IND-CCA1.2C IND-CCA2.29\") secure in the [random oracle model](/wiki/Random_oracle_model \"Random oracle model\").\n\n", "### Applications\n\n#### Electronic voting\n\nSemantic security is not the only consideration. There are situations under which malleability may be desirable. Secure [electronic voting](/wiki/Electronic_voting \"Electronic voting\") systems can utilize the above homomorphic properties. Consider a simple binary (\"for\" or \"against\") vote. Let *m* voters cast a vote of either *1* (for) or *0* (against). Each voter encrypts their choice before casting their vote. The election official takes the product of the *m* encrypted votes and then decrypts the result and obtains the value *n*, which is the sum of all the votes. The election official then knows that *n* people voted *for* and *m\\-n* people voted *against*. The role of the random *r* ensures that two equivalent votes will encrypt to the same value only with negligible likelihood, hence ensuring voter privacy.\n\n#### Electronic cash\n\nAnother feature named in paper is the notion of self\\-[blinding](/wiki/Blinding_%28cryptography%29 \"Blinding (cryptography)\"). This is the ability to change one ciphertext into another without changing the content of its decryption. This has application to the development of [ecash](/wiki/Ecash \"Ecash\"), an effort originally spearheaded by [David Chaum](/wiki/David_Chaum \"David Chaum\"). Imagine paying for an item online without the vendor needing to know your credit card number, and hence your identity. The goal in both electronic cash and electronic voting, is to ensure the e\\-coin (likewise e\\-vote) is valid, while at the same time not disclosing the identity of the person with whom it is currently associated.\n\n#### Electronic auction\n\nThe Paillier cryptosystem plays a crucial role in enhancing the security of [electronic auctions](/wiki/Electronic_auction \"Electronic auction\"). It prevents fraudulent activities such as dishonest auctioneers and collusion between bidders and auctioneers who manipulate bids. By ensuring the confidentiality of actual bidding values while revealing auction results, the Pailler cryptosystem successfully promotes fair practices. Pan, M., Sun, J., \\& Fang, Y. (2011\\). Purging the Back\\-Room Dealing: Secure Spectrum Auction Leveraging Paillier Cryptosystem. IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, 29(4\\), 866–876\\. [https://doi.org/10\\.1109/JSAC.2011\\.110417](https://doi.org/10.1109/JSAC.2011.110417)\n\n#### Threshold cryptosystem\n\nThe homomorphic property of Paillier cryptosystem is sometimes used to build [Threshold](/wiki/Threshold_cryptosystem \"Threshold cryptosystem\") ECDSA signature.\n\n", "#### Electronic voting\n\nSemantic security is not the only consideration. There are situations under which malleability may be desirable. Secure [electronic voting](/wiki/Electronic_voting \"Electronic voting\") systems can utilize the above homomorphic properties. Consider a simple binary (\"for\" or \"against\") vote. Let *m* voters cast a vote of either *1* (for) or *0* (against). Each voter encrypts their choice before casting their vote. The election official takes the product of the *m* encrypted votes and then decrypts the result and obtains the value *n*, which is the sum of all the votes. The election official then knows that *n* people voted *for* and *m\\-n* people voted *against*. The role of the random *r* ensures that two equivalent votes will encrypt to the same value only with negligible likelihood, hence ensuring voter privacy.\n\n", "#### Electronic cash\n\nAnother feature named in paper is the notion of self\\-[blinding](/wiki/Blinding_%28cryptography%29 \"Blinding (cryptography)\"). This is the ability to change one ciphertext into another without changing the content of its decryption. This has application to the development of [ecash](/wiki/Ecash \"Ecash\"), an effort originally spearheaded by [David Chaum](/wiki/David_Chaum \"David Chaum\"). Imagine paying for an item online without the vendor needing to know your credit card number, and hence your identity. The goal in both electronic cash and electronic voting, is to ensure the e\\-coin (likewise e\\-vote) is valid, while at the same time not disclosing the identity of the person with whom it is currently associated.\n\n", "#### Electronic auction\n\nThe Paillier cryptosystem plays a crucial role in enhancing the security of [electronic auctions](/wiki/Electronic_auction \"Electronic auction\"). It prevents fraudulent activities such as dishonest auctioneers and collusion between bidders and auctioneers who manipulate bids. By ensuring the confidentiality of actual bidding values while revealing auction results, the Pailler cryptosystem successfully promotes fair practices. Pan, M., Sun, J., \\& Fang, Y. (2011\\). Purging the Back\\-Room Dealing: Secure Spectrum Auction Leveraging Paillier Cryptosystem. IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, 29(4\\), 866–876\\. [https://doi.org/10\\.1109/JSAC.2011\\.110417](https://doi.org/10.1109/JSAC.2011.110417)\n\n", "#### Threshold cryptosystem\n\nThe homomorphic property of Paillier cryptosystem is sometimes used to build [Threshold](/wiki/Threshold_cryptosystem \"Threshold cryptosystem\") ECDSA signature.\n\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* The [Naccache–Stern cryptosystem](/wiki/Naccache%E2%80%93Stern_cryptosystem \"Naccache–Stern cryptosystem\") and the [Okamoto–Uchiyama cryptosystem](/wiki/Okamoto%E2%80%93Uchiyama_cryptosystem \"Okamoto–Uchiyama cryptosystem\") are historical antecedents of Paillier.\n* The [Damgård–Jurik cryptosystem](/wiki/Damg%C3%A5rd%E2%80%93Jurik_cryptosystem \"Damgård–Jurik cryptosystem\") is a generalization of Paillier.\n", "References\n----------\n\n### Notes\n\n", "### Notes\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [The Homomorphic Encryption Project](https://github.com/mikeazo/thep) implements the Paillier cryptosystem along with its homomorphic operations.\n* [Encounter: an open\\-source library providing an implementation of Paillier cryptosystem and a cryptographic counters construction based on the same.](https://github.com/secYOUre/Encounter)\n* [python\\-paillier](https://github.com/nicta/python-paillier) a library for Partially Homomorphic Encryption in Python, including full support for floating point numbers.\n* The [Paillier cryptosystem interactive simulator](http://security.hsr.ch/msevote/paillier) demonstrates a voting application.\n* An [interactive demo](http://liris.cnrs.fr/~ohasan/pprs/paillierdemo/) of the Paillier cryptosystem.\n* A proof\\-of\\-concept [Javascript implementation](https://github.com/mhe/jspaillier) of the Paillier cryptosystem with an [interactive demo](https://mhe.github.io/jspaillier/).\n* A [googletechtalk video](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZDnShu5V99s) on voting using cryptographic methods.\n* A [Ruby implementation](https://github.com/DaylightingSociety/Paillier) of Paillier homomorphic addition and a zero\\-knowledge proof protocol ([documentation](https://paillier.daylightingsociety.org/about))\n\n[Category:Public\\-key encryption schemes](/wiki/Category:Public-key_encryption_schemes \"Public-key encryption schemes\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 454221 ], "name": [ "Wcquidditch" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "History", "Early years", "Beautiful music", "Switch to AC", "Competing with 94.9", "DJs and programming changes", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**WSB\\-FM** (98\\.5 [MHz](/wiki/Hertz \"Hertz\")) is a [commercial](/wiki/Commercial_radio \"Commercial radio\") [radio station](/wiki/Radio_station \"Radio station\") in [Atlanta, Georgia](/wiki/Atlanta \"Atlanta\"). It carries an [adult contemporary](/wiki/Adult_contemporary \"Adult contemporary\") [radio format](/wiki/Radio_format \"Radio format\") and is owned by the [Cox Media Group](/wiki/Cox_Media_Group \"Cox Media Group\"), serving as the group's [flagship](/wiki/Flagship_%28broadcasting%29 \"Flagship (broadcasting)\") FM station. WSB\\-FM is the oldest FM radio station in Atlanta. The [studios](/wiki/Radio_studio \"Radio studio\") and offices are on [Peachtree Street](/wiki/Peachtree_Street \"Peachtree Street\") NE in Atlanta, in the [WSB\\-TV](/wiki/WSB-TV \"WSB-TV\") and Radio Group Building.\n\nWSB\\-FM has an [effective radiated power](/wiki/Effective_radiated_power \"Effective radiated power\") (ERP) of 100,000 [watts](/wiki/Watt \"Watt\").[FCC.gov/WSB\\-FM](https://transition.fcc.gov/fcc-bin/fmq?call=wsb-FM&fileno=&state=&city=&freq=0.0&fre2=107.9&serv=&status=&facid=&asrn=&class=&list=0&ThisTab=Results+to+This+Page%2FTab&dist=&dlat2=&mlat2=&slat2=&NS=N&dlon2=&mlon2=&slon2=&EW=W&size=9) The [transmitter](/wiki/Transmitter \"Transmitter\") is at the end of New Street NE in the [Edgewood](/wiki/Edgewood%2C_Atlanta \"Edgewood, Atlanta\") neighborhood of Atlanta. It shares the tower with [WABE\\-TV](/wiki/WABE-TV \"WABE-TV\"), [WSTR\\-FM](/wiki/WSTR-FM \"WSTR-FM\") and [WVEE\\-FM](/wiki/WVEE-FM \"WVEE-FM\"). It broadcasts in the [HD Radio](/wiki/HD_Radio \"HD Radio\") hybrid format; the HD2 subchannel airs a [soft adult contemporary](/wiki/Soft_adult_contemporary \"Soft adult contemporary\") format, and the HD3 subchannel carries the [Regional Mexican](/wiki/Regional_Mexican \"Regional Mexican\") format heard on [WLKQ\\-FM](/wiki/WLKQ-FM \"WLKQ-FM\"), and also feeds [FM translator](/wiki/FM_translator \"FM translator\") W296BB (107\\.1\\) in [Jonesboro](/wiki/Jonesboro%2C_Georgia \"Jonesboro, Georgia\").[http://hdradio.com/station\\_guides/widget.php?id\\=76](http://hdradio.com/station_guides/widget.php?id=76) HD Radio Guide for Atlanta\n\n", "History\n-------\n\n[thumb\\|WSB\\-FM logo until March 31, 2014](/wiki/Image:Wsb-fm.png \"Wsb-fm.png\")\n\n### Early years\n\nIn the early 1940s, the *[Atlanta Constitution](/wiki/Atlanta_Constitution \"Atlanta Constitution\")* started an FM radio station. After an experimental period, it became WCON\\-FM on 98\\.5 MHz.[Broadcasting Yearbook 1949 page 226](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1949/1949-BC-YB.pdf) The [call sign](/wiki/Call_sign \"Call sign\") contained the letters \"CON\" for \"Constitution\". The competing *[Atlanta Journal](/wiki/Atlanta_Journal \"Atlanta Journal\")* had already put Atlanta's first AM station on the air in 1922, [WSB](/wiki/WSB_%28AM%29 \"WSB (AM)\"). In 1948, the Journal added a companion FM station, WSB\\-FM, broadcasting on 104\\.5 MHz.[Broadcasting Yearbook 1949 page 505](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1949/1949-BC-YB.pdf)\n\nWhen the two newspapers merged under [Cox Enterprises](/wiki/Cox_Enterprises \"Cox Enterprises\") ownership in 1952, WCON\\-FM and WSB\\-FM went [silent](/wiki/Dark_%28broadcasting%29 \"Dark (broadcasting)\"). WSB\\-FM returned to the air in 1955 on WCON\\-FM's dial position, 98\\.5 FM. While it has the call letters of WSB\\-FM, the station traces its founding to when WCON\\-FM first [signed on](/wiki/Sign-on \"Sign-on\").\n\nDuring its early years, when few people had FM radio receivers, WSB\\-FM mostly [simulcast](/wiki/Simulcast \"Simulcast\") the programming on WSB (AM). That included dramas, comedies, news and sports from the [NBC Red Network](/wiki/NBC_Red_Network \"NBC Red Network\"), as well as local shows. As network programming moved from radio to television in the 1950s, WSB\\-AM\\-FM carried a [full service](/wiki/Full_service_radio \"Full service radio\"), [middle of the road](/wiki/Middle_of_the_road_%28music%29 \"Middle of the road (music)\") format of popular music, news, sports and information.\n\n### Beautiful music\n\nIn the 1960s, the [Federal Communications Commission](/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission \"Federal Communications Commission\") encouraged large market radio stations to provide separate programming on their FM outlets. WSB\\-FM would begin airing [beautiful music](/wiki/Beautiful_music \"Beautiful music\"), 15\\-minute sweeps of orchestral music, mostly [cover versions](/wiki/Cover_version \"Cover version\") of pop songs, as well as [Hollywood](/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_States \"Cinema of the United States\") and [Broadway show tunes](/wiki/Broadway_theatre \"Broadway theatre\").[Broadcasting Yearbook 1976 page C\\-47](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1976/C%20%20Broadcasting%20Yearbook%201976.pdf) It was mostly [automated](/wiki/Broadcast_automation \"Broadcast automation\").\n\nA planned merger of [General Electric](/wiki/General_Electric \"General Electric\") and Cox in the late 1970s would have caused WSB\\-FM to be spun off. Noted African\\-American broadcaster Ragan Henry had plans to acquire WSB\\-FM and use the call letters WEZA on the station, so it would no longer share its call sign with WSB\\-AM\\-TV, but the GE deal did not materialize.\n\n### Switch to AC\n\nIn the 1970s, WSB\\-FM added some soft vocals to its beautiful music [playlist](/wiki/Playlist \"Playlist\"). The ratio of vocals to instrumentals continued to increase until March 15, 1982, when the station formally switched to [soft adult contemporary](/wiki/Soft_adult_contemporary \"Soft adult contemporary\") music and eliminated the instrumentals.\n\nIn the 1980s, many FM stations were rounding off their dial positions on the air; WSB\\-FM stopped identifying itself as 98\\.5 and rounded it off to \"99FM\". In 1985, WSB\\-FM sued its soft AC competitor [WLTA\\-FM](/wiki/WWWQ \"WWWQ\"), owned by [Susquehanna Broadcasting](/wiki/Susquehanna_Broadcasting \"Susquehanna Broadcasting\"), which had begun calling itself \"Warm 99\". Cox Broadcasting claimed trademark infringement, saying listeners would be confused with two Atlanta stations with similar formats using \"99\" as their dial position. Arbitron was having trouble crediting each station in the ratings because of the common use of \"99\".\n\nCox v. Susquehanna Broadcasting became a landmark case in [United States district court](/wiki/United_States_district_court \"United States district court\").[http://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district\\-courts/FSupp/620/143/1456444/](http://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/FSupp/620/143/1456444/) Cox Communications v. Susquehanna Broadcasting Co. The judge was handed a digital radio and asked to tune to 100\\.0 MHz, but there was no signal. To find the nearest station, he pressed the \"Scan\" button, and it stopped on 101\\.5 MHz ([WKHX\\-FM](/wiki/WKHX-FM \"WKHX-FM\")). Next, he entered 99\\.0 MHz, which, again, contained no signal. Scanning from there, the radio hit 99\\.7, WLTA's frequency. In his precedent\\-setting decision, the judge stated that on a radio dial \"a radio station's frequency is its address\" and one cannot trademark an address. On June 25, he ruled in favor of Warm 99\\. A short time later, WSB\\-FM began calling itself \"B98\\.5FM\".\n\n### Competing with 94\\.9\n\nAnother former beautiful music station, WPCH, made the transition to soft AC shortly after WSB\\-FM in the early 1980s. The two stations were locked in a battle for \"at\\-work listeners\" for two decades, with formats designed for workplace listening. WPCH, at various times, called itself \"95 WPCH\", \"Peach 94\\.9\", and \"94\\.9 Lite FM\", and even switched its call letters to WLTM. On December 18, 2006, 94\\.9 flipped to [country music](/wiki/Country_music \"Country music\") as [WUBL](/wiki/WUBL \"WUBL\").\n\nFor a year, the soft AC format and WLTM call letters were moved to the weaker frequency of 96\\.7\\. When that station (now [WBZW](/wiki/WBZW \"WBZW\")) switched to classic country, WSB\\-FM became the only [adult contemporary music](/wiki/Adult_contemporary_music \"Adult contemporary music\") station in Atlanta. Over time, WSB\\-FM would move to a more upbeat AC direction.\n\n### DJs and programming changes\n\nOn December 29, 2006, WSB\\-FM became the Atlanta [affiliate](/wiki/Network_affiliate \"Network affiliate\") for the [nationally syndicated](/wiki/Radio_syndication \"Radio syndication\") [Delilah](/wiki/Delilah_Rene \"Delilah Rene\") show (which was previously broadcast on 94\\.9 [Lite FM](/wiki/WUBL \"WUBL\")/Peach 94\\.9\\). Delilah was dropped from WSB\\-FM in December 2011\\.\n\nOn July 1, 2008, [Steve McCoy](/wiki/Steve_McCoy \"Steve McCoy\") and Vikki Locke joined WSB\\-FM as the morning hosts after 17 years at [adult top 40](/wiki/Adult_top_40 \"Adult top 40\") station [WSTR](/wiki/WSTR_%28FM%29 \"WSTR (FM)\") \"Star 94\". Steve McCoy was let go on February 25, 2010\\. In March 2011, Kelly Stevens from the old \"Kelly and Alpha\" show rejoined the station and was paired with Vikki. In August 2012, in the early morning hours one day, Stevens' [SUV](/wiki/Sport_utility_vehicle \"Sport utility vehicle\") was [totaled](/wiki/Total_loss \"Total loss\") by a vehicle driving the wrong way while he was driving to work on the [Georgia 400](/wiki/Georgia_400 \"Georgia 400\") Freeway. The other driver was killed. Stevens' left leg was broken and left elbow shattered, but he was in good spirits later in the morning at [Grady Hospital](/wiki/Grady_Hospital \"Grady Hospital\"), when he called in to the show.\n\nIn the past, WSB\\-FM produced an annual \"Family Fun Fest\" event, where companies that provide products for kids and families would showcase the products and services they offered. The show featured live events and appearances from local sports stars. The station conducted live broadcasts from the location both days of the event. The festival ended in 2009\\.\n\nDuring the spring of 2011, WSB\\-FM shook up its on\\-air staff and format due to declining ratings. All music before 1980 was dropped, more songs from the 2000s were added, and WSB\\-FM abandoned the longtime \"Atlanta's Best Variety of Soft Rock\" tagline. Its slogan became \"Your Favorites From the 80s, 90s, and Now\", later shortened to \"80s, 90s \\& Now\".\n\nFrom 2001 to 2003 and again from 2009 to 2011, each weekend WSB\\-FM would play only music from the 1980s. On September 16, 2011, the station changed from \"All\\-80's Weekends\" to \"80's and 90's Weekends\". As of January 2012, 1980s and 1990s weekends no longer air. The station had previously aired all 1970s weekends during the 1990s.\n\nOn April 27, 2012, longtime WSB\\-FM afternoon DJ Kelly McCoy retired after 27 years in the same air shift, after joining the station in January 1985\\. At 4:00 that afternoon, WSB\\-FM aired a special tribute during his last show. It was the first time in recent memory that the station broke format during afternoon [drive time](/wiki/Drive_time \"Drive time\"). McCoy was replaced by DJ Mike Shannon. On January 4, 2013, Cox Radio management fired Shannon after just nine months on air.[http://atlradioinsider.blogspot.com/2013/01/ari\\-tip\\-line\\-mike\\-shannon\\-of\\-b985\\-out.html](http://atlradioinsider.blogspot.com/2013/01/ari-tip-line-mike-shannon-of-b985-out.html) \n\n", "### Early years\n\nIn the early 1940s, the *[Atlanta Constitution](/wiki/Atlanta_Constitution \"Atlanta Constitution\")* started an FM radio station. After an experimental period, it became WCON\\-FM on 98\\.5 MHz.[Broadcasting Yearbook 1949 page 226](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1949/1949-BC-YB.pdf) The [call sign](/wiki/Call_sign \"Call sign\") contained the letters \"CON\" for \"Constitution\". The competing *[Atlanta Journal](/wiki/Atlanta_Journal \"Atlanta Journal\")* had already put Atlanta's first AM station on the air in 1922, [WSB](/wiki/WSB_%28AM%29 \"WSB (AM)\"). In 1948, the Journal added a companion FM station, WSB\\-FM, broadcasting on 104\\.5 MHz.[Broadcasting Yearbook 1949 page 505](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1949/1949-BC-YB.pdf)\n\nWhen the two newspapers merged under [Cox Enterprises](/wiki/Cox_Enterprises \"Cox Enterprises\") ownership in 1952, WCON\\-FM and WSB\\-FM went [silent](/wiki/Dark_%28broadcasting%29 \"Dark (broadcasting)\"). WSB\\-FM returned to the air in 1955 on WCON\\-FM's dial position, 98\\.5 FM. While it has the call letters of WSB\\-FM, the station traces its founding to when WCON\\-FM first [signed on](/wiki/Sign-on \"Sign-on\").\n\nDuring its early years, when few people had FM radio receivers, WSB\\-FM mostly [simulcast](/wiki/Simulcast \"Simulcast\") the programming on WSB (AM). That included dramas, comedies, news and sports from the [NBC Red Network](/wiki/NBC_Red_Network \"NBC Red Network\"), as well as local shows. As network programming moved from radio to television in the 1950s, WSB\\-AM\\-FM carried a [full service](/wiki/Full_service_radio \"Full service radio\"), [middle of the road](/wiki/Middle_of_the_road_%28music%29 \"Middle of the road (music)\") format of popular music, news, sports and information.\n\n", "### Beautiful music\n\nIn the 1960s, the [Federal Communications Commission](/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission \"Federal Communications Commission\") encouraged large market radio stations to provide separate programming on their FM outlets. WSB\\-FM would begin airing [beautiful music](/wiki/Beautiful_music \"Beautiful music\"), 15\\-minute sweeps of orchestral music, mostly [cover versions](/wiki/Cover_version \"Cover version\") of pop songs, as well as [Hollywood](/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_States \"Cinema of the United States\") and [Broadway show tunes](/wiki/Broadway_theatre \"Broadway theatre\").[Broadcasting Yearbook 1976 page C\\-47](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1976/C%20%20Broadcasting%20Yearbook%201976.pdf) It was mostly [automated](/wiki/Broadcast_automation \"Broadcast automation\").\n\nA planned merger of [General Electric](/wiki/General_Electric \"General Electric\") and Cox in the late 1970s would have caused WSB\\-FM to be spun off. Noted African\\-American broadcaster Ragan Henry had plans to acquire WSB\\-FM and use the call letters WEZA on the station, so it would no longer share its call sign with WSB\\-AM\\-TV, but the GE deal did not materialize.\n\n", "### Switch to AC\n\nIn the 1970s, WSB\\-FM added some soft vocals to its beautiful music [playlist](/wiki/Playlist \"Playlist\"). The ratio of vocals to instrumentals continued to increase until March 15, 1982, when the station formally switched to [soft adult contemporary](/wiki/Soft_adult_contemporary \"Soft adult contemporary\") music and eliminated the instrumentals.\n\nIn the 1980s, many FM stations were rounding off their dial positions on the air; WSB\\-FM stopped identifying itself as 98\\.5 and rounded it off to \"99FM\". In 1985, WSB\\-FM sued its soft AC competitor [WLTA\\-FM](/wiki/WWWQ \"WWWQ\"), owned by [Susquehanna Broadcasting](/wiki/Susquehanna_Broadcasting \"Susquehanna Broadcasting\"), which had begun calling itself \"Warm 99\". Cox Broadcasting claimed trademark infringement, saying listeners would be confused with two Atlanta stations with similar formats using \"99\" as their dial position. Arbitron was having trouble crediting each station in the ratings because of the common use of \"99\".\n\nCox v. Susquehanna Broadcasting became a landmark case in [United States district court](/wiki/United_States_district_court \"United States district court\").[http://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district\\-courts/FSupp/620/143/1456444/](http://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/FSupp/620/143/1456444/) Cox Communications v. Susquehanna Broadcasting Co. The judge was handed a digital radio and asked to tune to 100\\.0 MHz, but there was no signal. To find the nearest station, he pressed the \"Scan\" button, and it stopped on 101\\.5 MHz ([WKHX\\-FM](/wiki/WKHX-FM \"WKHX-FM\")). Next, he entered 99\\.0 MHz, which, again, contained no signal. Scanning from there, the radio hit 99\\.7, WLTA's frequency. In his precedent\\-setting decision, the judge stated that on a radio dial \"a radio station's frequency is its address\" and one cannot trademark an address. On June 25, he ruled in favor of Warm 99\\. A short time later, WSB\\-FM began calling itself \"B98\\.5FM\".\n\n", "### Competing with 94\\.9\n\nAnother former beautiful music station, WPCH, made the transition to soft AC shortly after WSB\\-FM in the early 1980s. The two stations were locked in a battle for \"at\\-work listeners\" for two decades, with formats designed for workplace listening. WPCH, at various times, called itself \"95 WPCH\", \"Peach 94\\.9\", and \"94\\.9 Lite FM\", and even switched its call letters to WLTM. On December 18, 2006, 94\\.9 flipped to [country music](/wiki/Country_music \"Country music\") as [WUBL](/wiki/WUBL \"WUBL\").\n\nFor a year, the soft AC format and WLTM call letters were moved to the weaker frequency of 96\\.7\\. When that station (now [WBZW](/wiki/WBZW \"WBZW\")) switched to classic country, WSB\\-FM became the only [adult contemporary music](/wiki/Adult_contemporary_music \"Adult contemporary music\") station in Atlanta. Over time, WSB\\-FM would move to a more upbeat AC direction.\n\n", "### DJs and programming changes\n\nOn December 29, 2006, WSB\\-FM became the Atlanta [affiliate](/wiki/Network_affiliate \"Network affiliate\") for the [nationally syndicated](/wiki/Radio_syndication \"Radio syndication\") [Delilah](/wiki/Delilah_Rene \"Delilah Rene\") show (which was previously broadcast on 94\\.9 [Lite FM](/wiki/WUBL \"WUBL\")/Peach 94\\.9\\). Delilah was dropped from WSB\\-FM in December 2011\\.\n\nOn July 1, 2008, [Steve McCoy](/wiki/Steve_McCoy \"Steve McCoy\") and Vikki Locke joined WSB\\-FM as the morning hosts after 17 years at [adult top 40](/wiki/Adult_top_40 \"Adult top 40\") station [WSTR](/wiki/WSTR_%28FM%29 \"WSTR (FM)\") \"Star 94\". Steve McCoy was let go on February 25, 2010\\. In March 2011, Kelly Stevens from the old \"Kelly and Alpha\" show rejoined the station and was paired with Vikki. In August 2012, in the early morning hours one day, Stevens' [SUV](/wiki/Sport_utility_vehicle \"Sport utility vehicle\") was [totaled](/wiki/Total_loss \"Total loss\") by a vehicle driving the wrong way while he was driving to work on the [Georgia 400](/wiki/Georgia_400 \"Georgia 400\") Freeway. The other driver was killed. Stevens' left leg was broken and left elbow shattered, but he was in good spirits later in the morning at [Grady Hospital](/wiki/Grady_Hospital \"Grady Hospital\"), when he called in to the show.\n\nIn the past, WSB\\-FM produced an annual \"Family Fun Fest\" event, where companies that provide products for kids and families would showcase the products and services they offered. The show featured live events and appearances from local sports stars. The station conducted live broadcasts from the location both days of the event. The festival ended in 2009\\.\n\nDuring the spring of 2011, WSB\\-FM shook up its on\\-air staff and format due to declining ratings. All music before 1980 was dropped, more songs from the 2000s were added, and WSB\\-FM abandoned the longtime \"Atlanta's Best Variety of Soft Rock\" tagline. Its slogan became \"Your Favorites From the 80s, 90s, and Now\", later shortened to \"80s, 90s \\& Now\".\n\nFrom 2001 to 2003 and again from 2009 to 2011, each weekend WSB\\-FM would play only music from the 1980s. On September 16, 2011, the station changed from \"All\\-80's Weekends\" to \"80's and 90's Weekends\". As of January 2012, 1980s and 1990s weekends no longer air. The station had previously aired all 1970s weekends during the 1990s.\n\nOn April 27, 2012, longtime WSB\\-FM afternoon DJ Kelly McCoy retired after 27 years in the same air shift, after joining the station in January 1985\\. At 4:00 that afternoon, WSB\\-FM aired a special tribute during his last show. It was the first time in recent memory that the station broke format during afternoon [drive time](/wiki/Drive_time \"Drive time\"). McCoy was replaced by DJ Mike Shannon. On January 4, 2013, Cox Radio management fired Shannon after just nine months on air.[http://atlradioinsider.blogspot.com/2013/01/ari\\-tip\\-line\\-mike\\-shannon\\-of\\-b985\\-out.html](http://atlradioinsider.blogspot.com/2013/01/ari-tip-line-mike-shannon-of-b985-out.html) \n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n[SB\\-FM](/wiki/Category:Radio_stations_in_Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 \"Radio stations in Georgia (U.S. state)\")\n[Category:Cox Media Group](/wiki/Category:Cox_Media_Group \"Cox Media Group\")\n[Category:Radio stations established in 1948](/wiki/Category:Radio_stations_established_in_1948 \"Radio stations established in 1948\")\n[WSB](/wiki/Category:HD_Radio_stations \"HD Radio stations\")\n[Category:Mainstream adult contemporary radio stations in the United States](/wiki/Category:Mainstream_adult_contemporary_radio_stations_in_the_United_States \"Mainstream adult contemporary radio stations in the United States\")\n[Category:1948 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state)](/wiki/Category:1948_establishments_in_Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 \"1948 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state)\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ null ], "name": [ "74.102.212.172" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Nuclear energy applications", "Breeder reactors", "CANDU reactors", "Radiation shielding", "Downblending", "Nuclear weapons", "{{Anchor|Radium_series}} Radium series (or uranium series)", "Radioactive dating", "Health concerns", "See also", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**Uranium\\-238** (**238U** or **U\\-238**) is the most common [isotope](/wiki/Isotopes_of_uranium \"Isotopes of uranium\") of [uranium](/wiki/Uranium \"Uranium\") found in nature, with a relative abundance of 99%. Unlike [uranium\\-235](/wiki/Uranium-235 \"Uranium-235\"), it is non\\-fissile, which means it cannot sustain a [chain reaction](/wiki/Chain_reaction \"Chain reaction\") in a [thermal\\-neutron reactor](/wiki/Thermal-neutron_reactor \"Thermal-neutron reactor\"). However, it is [fissionable](/wiki/Fissionable \"Fissionable\") by [fast neutrons](/wiki/Fast_neutrons \"Fast neutrons\"), and is [*fertile*](/wiki/Fertile_material \"Fertile material\"), meaning it can be [transmuted](/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation \"Nuclear transmutation\") to fissile [plutonium\\-239](/wiki/Plutonium-239 \"Plutonium-239\"). 238U cannot support a chain reaction because [inelastic scattering](/wiki/Inelastic_scattering \"Inelastic scattering\") reduces [neutron energy](/wiki/Neutron_energy \"Neutron energy\") below the range where [fast fission](/wiki/Fast_fission \"Fast fission\") of one or more next\\-generation nuclei is probable. [Doppler broadening](/wiki/Doppler_broadening \"Doppler broadening\") of 238U's [neutron absorption](/wiki/Neutron_absorption \"Neutron absorption\") [resonances](/wiki/Resonance \"Resonance\"), increasing absorption as fuel temperature increases, is also an essential [negative feedback](/wiki/Negative_feedback \"Negative feedback\") mechanism for reactor control.\n\nAround 99\\.284% of [natural uranium](/wiki/Natural_uranium \"Natural uranium\")'s mass is uranium\\-238, which has a half\\-life of 1\\.41 [seconds](/wiki/Second \"Second\") (4\\.468 years, or 4\\.468 billion years).\nDue to its natural abundance and half\\-life relative to other [radioactive elements](/wiki/Radioactive_element \"Radioactive element\"), 238U produces \\~40% of the radioactive heat produced within the Earth. The 238U [decay chain](/wiki/Decay_chain \"Decay chain\") contributes six [electron anti\\-neutrinos](/wiki/Electron_neutrino \"Electron neutrino\") per 238U nucleus (one per [beta decay](/wiki/Beta_decay \"Beta decay\")), resulting in a large detectable [geoneutrino](/wiki/Geoneutrino \"Geoneutrino\") signal when decays occur within the Earth. The decay of 238U to daughter isotopes is extensively used in [radiometric dating](/wiki/Radiometric_dating \"Radiometric dating\"), particularly for material older than approximately 1 million years.\n\n[Depleted uranium](/wiki/Depleted_uranium \"Depleted uranium\") has an even higher concentration of the 238U isotope, and even [low\\-enriched uranium](/wiki/Low-enriched_uranium \"Low-enriched uranium\") (LEU), while having a higher proportion of the [uranium\\-235](/wiki/Uranium-235 \"Uranium-235\") isotope (in comparison to depleted uranium), is still mostly 238U. [Reprocessed uranium](/wiki/Reprocessed_uranium \"Reprocessed uranium\") is also mainly 238U, with about as much [uranium\\-235](/wiki/Uranium-235 \"Uranium-235\") as natural uranium, a comparable proportion of [uranium\\-236](/wiki/Uranium-236 \"Uranium-236\"), and much smaller amounts of other [isotopes of uranium](/wiki/Isotopes_of_uranium \"Isotopes of uranium\") such as [uranium\\-234](/wiki/Uranium-234 \"Uranium-234\"), [uranium\\-233](/wiki/Uranium-233 \"Uranium-233\"), and [uranium\\-232](/wiki/Uranium-232 \"Uranium-232\").\n\n", "Nuclear energy applications\n---------------------------\n\nIn a fission [nuclear reactor](/wiki/Nuclear_reactor \"Nuclear reactor\"), uranium\\-238 can be used to generate [plutonium\\-239](/wiki/Plutonium-239 \"Plutonium-239\"), which itself can be used in a [nuclear weapon](/wiki/Nuclear_weapon \"Nuclear weapon\") or as a nuclear\\-reactor fuel supply. In a typical nuclear reactor, up to one\\-third of the generated power comes from the fission of 239Pu, which is not supplied as a fuel to the reactor, but rather, [produced](/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation \"Nuclear transmutation\") from 238U. A certain amount of production of from is unavoidable wherever it is exposed to [neutron radiation](/wiki/Neutron_radiation \"Neutron radiation\"). Depending on [burnup](/wiki/Burnup \"Burnup\") and [neutron temperature](/wiki/Neutron_temperature \"Neutron temperature\"), different shares of the are converted to , which determines the \"grade\" of produced plutonium, ranging from [weapons grade](/wiki/Weapons_grade_plutonium \"Weapons grade plutonium\"), through [reactor grade](/wiki/Reactor_grade_plutonium \"Reactor grade plutonium\"), to plutonium so high in that it cannot be used in current reactors operating with a thermal neutron spectrum. The latter usually involves used \"recycled\" [MOX fuel](/wiki/MOX_fuel \"MOX fuel\") which entered the reactor containing significant amounts of plutonium.\n\n### Breeder reactors\n\n238U can produce energy via [\"fast\" fission](/wiki/Fast_fission \"Fast fission\"). In this process, a neutron that has a kinetic energy in excess of 1 [MeV](/wiki/MeV \"MeV\") can cause the nucleus of 238U to split. Depending on design, this process can contribute some one to ten percent of all fission reactions in a reactor, but too few of the average 2\\.5 neutrons produced in each fission have enough speed to continue a chain reaction.\n\n238U can be used as a source material for creating plutonium\\-239, which can in turn be used as nuclear fuel. [Breeder reactors](/wiki/Breeder_reactor \"Breeder reactor\") carry out such a process of [transmutation](/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation \"Nuclear transmutation\") to convert the [fertile](/wiki/Fertile_material \"Fertile material\") isotope 238U into fissile 239Pu. It has been estimated that there is anywhere from 10,000 to five billion years worth of 238U for use in these [power plants](/wiki/Power_station \"Power station\").[Facts from Cohen](http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/cohen.html) . Formal.stanford.edu (2007\\-01\\-26\\). Retrieved on 2010\\-10\\-24\\. Breeder technology has been used in several experimental nuclear reactors.[Advanced Nuclear Power Reactors \\| Generation III\\+ Nuclear Reactors](http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf08.html) . World\\-nuclear.org. Retrieved on 2010\\-10\\-24\\.\n\nBy December 2005, the only breeder reactor producing power was the 600\\-megawatt [BN\\-600 reactor](/wiki/BN-600_reactor \"BN-600 reactor\") at the [Beloyarsk Nuclear Power Station](/wiki/Beloyarsk_Nuclear_Power_Station \"Beloyarsk Nuclear Power Station\") in Russia. Russia later built another unit, [BN\\-800](/wiki/BN-800_reactor \"BN-800 reactor\"), at the Beloyarsk Nuclear Power Station which became fully operational in November 2016\\. Also, Japan's [Monju](/wiki/Monju_Nuclear_Power_Plant \"Monju Nuclear Power Plant\") breeder reactor, which has been inoperative for most of the time since it was originally built in 1986, was ordered for decommissioning in 2016, after safety and design hazards were uncovered, with a completion date set for 2047\\. Both China and India have announced plans to build nuclear breeder reactors.\n\nThe breeder reactor as its name implies creates even larger quantities of 239Pu or 233U than the fission nuclear reactor.\n\nThe [Clean And Environmentally Safe Advanced Reactor](/wiki/Clean_And_Environmentally_Safe_Advanced_Reactor \"Clean And Environmentally Safe Advanced Reactor\") (CAESAR), a nuclear reactor concept that would use steam as a moderator to control [delayed neutrons](/wiki/Delayed_neutron \"Delayed neutron\"), will potentially be able to use 238U as fuel once the reactor is started with [Low\\-enriched uranium](/wiki/Low-enriched_uranium \"Low-enriched uranium\") (LEU) fuel. This design is still in the early stages of development.\n\n### CANDU reactors\n\nNatural uranium, with 0\\.711% , is usable as [nuclear fuel](/wiki/Nuclear_fuel \"Nuclear fuel\") in reactors designed specifically to make use of naturally occurring uranium, such as [CANDU reactors](/wiki/CANDU_reactor \"CANDU reactor\"). By making use of non\\-enriched uranium, such reactor designs give a nation access to nuclear power for the purpose of electricity production without necessitating the development of fuel enrichment capabilities, which are often seen as a prelude to weapons production.\n\n### Radiation shielding\n\n238U is also used as a [radiation shield](/wiki/Radiation_shielding \"Radiation shielding\") – its [alpha radiation](/wiki/Alpha_radiation \"Alpha radiation\") is easily stopped by the non\\-[radioactive](/wiki/Radioactive \"Radioactive\") casing of the shielding and the uranium's high [atomic weight](/wiki/Atomic_weight \"Atomic weight\") and high number of [electrons](/wiki/Electron \"Electron\") are highly effective in absorbing [gamma rays](/wiki/Gamma_ray \"Gamma ray\") and [X\\-rays](/wiki/X-ray \"X-ray\"). It is not as effective as ordinary water for stopping [fast neutrons](/wiki/Fast_neutron \"Fast neutron\"). Both metallic [depleted uranium](/wiki/Depleted_uranium \"Depleted uranium\") and depleted [uranium dioxide](/wiki/Uranium_dioxide \"Uranium dioxide\") are used for radiation shielding. Uranium is about five times better as a gamma ray shield than [lead](/wiki/Lead \"Lead\"), so a shield with the same effectiveness can be packed into a thinner layer.\n\n[DUCRETE](/wiki/DUCRETE \"DUCRETE\"), a concrete made with uranium dioxide [aggregate](/wiki/Construction_aggregate \"Construction aggregate\") instead of gravel, is being investigated as a material for [dry cask storage](/wiki/Dry_cask_storage \"Dry cask storage\") systems to store [radioactive waste](/wiki/Radioactive_waste \"Radioactive waste\").\n\n### Downblending\n\nThe opposite of enriching is [downblending](/wiki/Enriched_uranium%23Downblending \"Enriched uranium#Downblending\"). Surplus [highly enriched uranium](/wiki/Highly_enriched_uranium \"Highly enriched uranium\") can be downblended with depleted uranium or natural uranium to turn it into low\\-enriched uranium suitable for use in commercial nuclear fuel.\n\n238U from depleted uranium and natural uranium is also used with recycled 239Pu from nuclear weapons stockpiles for making [mixed oxide fuel](/wiki/Mixed_oxide_fuel \"Mixed oxide fuel\") (MOX), which is now being redirected to become fuel for nuclear reactors. This dilution, also called downblending, means that any nation or group that acquired the finished fuel would have to repeat the very expensive and complex chemical separation of uranium and plutonium process before assembling a weapon.\n\n", "### Breeder reactors\n\n238U can produce energy via [\"fast\" fission](/wiki/Fast_fission \"Fast fission\"). In this process, a neutron that has a kinetic energy in excess of 1 [MeV](/wiki/MeV \"MeV\") can cause the nucleus of 238U to split. Depending on design, this process can contribute some one to ten percent of all fission reactions in a reactor, but too few of the average 2\\.5 neutrons produced in each fission have enough speed to continue a chain reaction.\n\n238U can be used as a source material for creating plutonium\\-239, which can in turn be used as nuclear fuel. [Breeder reactors](/wiki/Breeder_reactor \"Breeder reactor\") carry out such a process of [transmutation](/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation \"Nuclear transmutation\") to convert the [fertile](/wiki/Fertile_material \"Fertile material\") isotope 238U into fissile 239Pu. It has been estimated that there is anywhere from 10,000 to five billion years worth of 238U for use in these [power plants](/wiki/Power_station \"Power station\").[Facts from Cohen](http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/cohen.html) . Formal.stanford.edu (2007\\-01\\-26\\). Retrieved on 2010\\-10\\-24\\. Breeder technology has been used in several experimental nuclear reactors.[Advanced Nuclear Power Reactors \\| Generation III\\+ Nuclear Reactors](http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf08.html) . World\\-nuclear.org. Retrieved on 2010\\-10\\-24\\.\n\nBy December 2005, the only breeder reactor producing power was the 600\\-megawatt [BN\\-600 reactor](/wiki/BN-600_reactor \"BN-600 reactor\") at the [Beloyarsk Nuclear Power Station](/wiki/Beloyarsk_Nuclear_Power_Station \"Beloyarsk Nuclear Power Station\") in Russia. Russia later built another unit, [BN\\-800](/wiki/BN-800_reactor \"BN-800 reactor\"), at the Beloyarsk Nuclear Power Station which became fully operational in November 2016\\. Also, Japan's [Monju](/wiki/Monju_Nuclear_Power_Plant \"Monju Nuclear Power Plant\") breeder reactor, which has been inoperative for most of the time since it was originally built in 1986, was ordered for decommissioning in 2016, after safety and design hazards were uncovered, with a completion date set for 2047\\. Both China and India have announced plans to build nuclear breeder reactors.\n\nThe breeder reactor as its name implies creates even larger quantities of 239Pu or 233U than the fission nuclear reactor.\n\nThe [Clean And Environmentally Safe Advanced Reactor](/wiki/Clean_And_Environmentally_Safe_Advanced_Reactor \"Clean And Environmentally Safe Advanced Reactor\") (CAESAR), a nuclear reactor concept that would use steam as a moderator to control [delayed neutrons](/wiki/Delayed_neutron \"Delayed neutron\"), will potentially be able to use 238U as fuel once the reactor is started with [Low\\-enriched uranium](/wiki/Low-enriched_uranium \"Low-enriched uranium\") (LEU) fuel. This design is still in the early stages of development.\n\n", "### CANDU reactors\n\nNatural uranium, with 0\\.711% , is usable as [nuclear fuel](/wiki/Nuclear_fuel \"Nuclear fuel\") in reactors designed specifically to make use of naturally occurring uranium, such as [CANDU reactors](/wiki/CANDU_reactor \"CANDU reactor\"). By making use of non\\-enriched uranium, such reactor designs give a nation access to nuclear power for the purpose of electricity production without necessitating the development of fuel enrichment capabilities, which are often seen as a prelude to weapons production.\n\n", "### Radiation shielding\n\n238U is also used as a [radiation shield](/wiki/Radiation_shielding \"Radiation shielding\") – its [alpha radiation](/wiki/Alpha_radiation \"Alpha radiation\") is easily stopped by the non\\-[radioactive](/wiki/Radioactive \"Radioactive\") casing of the shielding and the uranium's high [atomic weight](/wiki/Atomic_weight \"Atomic weight\") and high number of [electrons](/wiki/Electron \"Electron\") are highly effective in absorbing [gamma rays](/wiki/Gamma_ray \"Gamma ray\") and [X\\-rays](/wiki/X-ray \"X-ray\"). It is not as effective as ordinary water for stopping [fast neutrons](/wiki/Fast_neutron \"Fast neutron\"). Both metallic [depleted uranium](/wiki/Depleted_uranium \"Depleted uranium\") and depleted [uranium dioxide](/wiki/Uranium_dioxide \"Uranium dioxide\") are used for radiation shielding. Uranium is about five times better as a gamma ray shield than [lead](/wiki/Lead \"Lead\"), so a shield with the same effectiveness can be packed into a thinner layer.\n\n[DUCRETE](/wiki/DUCRETE \"DUCRETE\"), a concrete made with uranium dioxide [aggregate](/wiki/Construction_aggregate \"Construction aggregate\") instead of gravel, is being investigated as a material for [dry cask storage](/wiki/Dry_cask_storage \"Dry cask storage\") systems to store [radioactive waste](/wiki/Radioactive_waste \"Radioactive waste\").\n\n", "### Downblending\n\nThe opposite of enriching is [downblending](/wiki/Enriched_uranium%23Downblending \"Enriched uranium#Downblending\"). Surplus [highly enriched uranium](/wiki/Highly_enriched_uranium \"Highly enriched uranium\") can be downblended with depleted uranium or natural uranium to turn it into low\\-enriched uranium suitable for use in commercial nuclear fuel.\n\n238U from depleted uranium and natural uranium is also used with recycled 239Pu from nuclear weapons stockpiles for making [mixed oxide fuel](/wiki/Mixed_oxide_fuel \"Mixed oxide fuel\") (MOX), which is now being redirected to become fuel for nuclear reactors. This dilution, also called downblending, means that any nation or group that acquired the finished fuel would have to repeat the very expensive and complex chemical separation of uranium and plutonium process before assembling a weapon.\n\n", "Nuclear weapons\n---------------\n\nMost modern [nuclear weapons](/wiki/Nuclear_weapon \"Nuclear weapon\") utilize 238U as a \"tamper\" material (see [nuclear weapon design](/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design \"Nuclear weapon design\")). A tamper which surrounds a fissile core works to [reflect neutrons](/wiki/Neutron_reflector \"Neutron reflector\") and to add [inertia](/wiki/Inertia \"Inertia\") to the compression of the 239Pu charge. As such, it increases the efficiency of the weapon and reduces the [critical mass](/wiki/Critical_mass_%28nuclear%29 \"Critical mass (nuclear)\") required. In the case of a [thermonuclear weapon](/wiki/Thermonuclear_weapon \"Thermonuclear weapon\"), 238U\ncan be used to encase the fusion fuel, the high flux of very energetic [neutrons](/wiki/Neutron \"Neutron\") from the resulting [fusion](/wiki/Nuclear_fusion \"Nuclear fusion\") reaction causes 238U nuclei to split and adds more energy to the \"yield\" of the weapon. Such weapons are referred to as *[fission\\-fusion\\-fission](/wiki/Fission-fusion-fission \"Fission-fusion-fission\")* weapons after the order in which each reaction takes place. An example of such a weapon is [Castle Bravo](/wiki/Castle_Bravo \"Castle Bravo\").\n\nThe larger portion of the total explosive yield in this design comes from the final fission stage fueled by 238U, producing enormous amounts of radioactive [fission products](/wiki/Fission_product \"Fission product\"). For example, an estimated 77% of the 10\\.4\\-[megaton](/wiki/Megatons \"Megatons\") yield of the [Ivy Mike](/wiki/Ivy_Mike \"Ivy Mike\") thermonuclear test in 1952 came from fast fission of the depleted uranium [tamper](/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design%23tamper_reflector \"Nuclear weapon design#tamper reflector\"). Because depleted uranium has no critical mass, it can be added to thermonuclear bombs in almost unlimited quantity. The [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\")'s test of the [Tsar Bomba](/wiki/Tsar_Bomba \"Tsar Bomba\") in 1961 produced \"only\" 50 megatons of explosive power, over 90% of which came from fusion because the 238U final stage had been replaced with lead. Had 238U been used instead, the yield of the Tsar Bomba could have been well above 100 megatons, and it would have produced [nuclear fallout](/wiki/Nuclear_fallout \"Nuclear fallout\") equivalent to one third of the global total that had been produced up to that time.\n\n", " Radium series (or uranium series)\n------------------------------------------------------------\n\n \nThe [decay chain](/wiki/Decay_chain \"Decay chain\") of 238U is commonly called the \"[radium series](/wiki/Radium_series \"Radium series\")\" (sometimes \"uranium series\"). Beginning with naturally occurring uranium\\-238, this series includes the following elements: [astatine](/wiki/Astatine \"Astatine\"), [bismuth](/wiki/Bismuth \"Bismuth\"), [lead](/wiki/Lead \"Lead\"), [polonium](/wiki/Polonium \"Polonium\"), [protactinium](/wiki/Protactinium \"Protactinium\"), [radium](/wiki/Radium \"Radium\"), [radon](/wiki/Radon \"Radon\"), [thallium](/wiki/Thallium \"Thallium\"), and [thorium](/wiki/Thorium \"Thorium\"). All of the [decay products](/wiki/Decay_product \"Decay product\") are present, at least transiently, in any uranium\\-containing sample, whether metal, compound, or mineral. The decay proceeds as:\n\n\\\\begin{array}{l}{}\\\\\\\\\n\\\\ce{^{238}\\_{92}U\\-\\>\\[\\\\alpha]\\[4\\.468 \\\\times 10^9 \\\\ \\\\ce y] {^{234}\\_{90}Th} \\-\\>\\[\\\\beta^\\-]\\[24\\.1 \\\\ \\\\ce d] {^{234\\\\!m}\\_{91}Pa\n\\\\begin{Bmatrix} \n\\\\ce{\\-\\>\\[0\\.16\\\\%]\\[1\\.17 \\\\ \\\\ce{min}] {^{234}\\_{91}Pa} \\-\\>\\[\\\\beta^\\-]\\[6\\.7 \\\\ \\\\ce h]} \\\\\\\\ \n\\\\ce{\\-\\>\\[99\\.84\\\\%\\\\ \\\\beta^\\-]\\[1\\.17 \\\\ \\\\ce{min}]}\n\\\\end{Bmatrix}\n\\\\ce{^{234}\\_{92}U \\-\\>\\[\\\\alpha]\\[2\\.445 \\\\times 10^5 \\\\ \\\\ce y] {^{230}\\_{90}Th} \\-\\>\\[\\\\alpha]\\[7\\.5 \\\\times 10^4 \\\\ \\\\ce y] {^{226}\\_{88}Ra} \\-\\>\\[\\\\alpha]\\[1600 \\\\ \\\\ce y] {^{222}\\_{86}Rn\n\\\\\\\\\n\\\\ce{^{222}\\_{86}Rn \\-\\>\\[\\\\alpha]\\[3\\.8235 \\\\ \\\\ce d] {^{218}\\_{84}Po} \\-\\>\\[\\\\alpha]\\[3\\.05 \\\\ \\\\ce{min}] {^{214}\\_{82}Pb} \\-\\>\\[\\\\beta^\\-]\\[26\\.8 \\\\ \\\\ce{min}] {^{214}\\_{83}Bi} \\-\\>\\[\\\\beta^\\-]\\[19\\.9 \\\\ \\\\ce{min}] {^{214}\\_{84}Po} \\-\\>\\[\\\\alpha]\\[164\\.3 \\\\ \\\\mu\\\\ce{s}] {^{210}\\_{82}Pb} \\-\\>\\[\\\\beta^\\-]\\[22\\.26 \\\\ \\\\ce y] {^{210}\\_{83}Bi} \\-\\>\\[\\\\beta^\\-]\\[5\\.012 \\\\ \\\\ce d] {^{210}\\_{84}Po} \\-\\>\\[\\\\alpha]\\[138\\.38 \\\\ \\\\ce d] {^{206}\\_{82}Pb\n\\\\end{array}\n\nThe [mean lifetime](/wiki/Mean_lifetime \"Mean lifetime\") of 238U is 1\\.41 seconds divided by [ln(2\\)](/wiki/Natural_logarithm_of_2 \"Natural logarithm of 2\") ≈ 0\\.693 (or multiplied by 1/ln(2\\) ≈  1\\.443\\), i.e. ca. 2 seconds, so 1 [mole](/wiki/Mole_%28unit%29 \"Mole (unit)\") of 238U emits 3 alpha particles per second, producing the same number of thorium\\-234 [atoms](/wiki/Atom \"Atom\"). In a closed system an equilibrium would be reached, with all amounts except for lead\\-206 and 238U in fixed ratios, in slowly decreasing amounts. The amount of 206Pb will increase accordingly while that of 238U decreases; all steps in the decay chain have this same rate of 3 decayed particles per second per mole 238U.\n\nThorium\\-234 has a mean lifetime of 3 seconds, so there is equilibrium if one mole of 238U contains 9 atoms of thorium\\-234, which is 1\\.5 mole (the ratio of the two half\\-lives). Similarly, in an equilibrium in a closed system the amount of each decay product, except the end product lead, is proportional to its half\\-life.\n\nWhile 238U is minimally radioactive, its decay products, thorium\\-234 and protactinium\\-234, are [beta particle](/wiki/Beta_particle \"Beta particle\") emitters with [half\\-lives](/wiki/Half-life \"Half-life\") of about 20 days and one minute respectively. Protactinium\\-234 decays to uranium\\-234, which has a half\\-life of hundreds of millennia, and this [isotope](/wiki/Isotope \"Isotope\") does not reach an equilibrium concentration for a very long time. When the two first isotopes in the decay chain reach their relatively small equilibrium concentrations, a sample of initially pure 238U will emit three times the radiation due to 238U itself, and most of this radiation is beta particles.\n\nAs already touched upon above, when starting with pure 238U, within a human timescale the equilibrium applies for the first three steps in the decay chain only. Thus, for one mole of 238U, 3 times per second one alpha and two beta particles and a gamma ray are produced, together 6\\.7 MeV, a rate of 3 μW.\n\n238U atom is itself a gamma emitter at 49\\.55 keV with probability 0\\.084%, but that is a very weak gamma line, so activity is measured through its daughter nuclides in its decay series.\n\n", "Radioactive dating\n------------------\n\n238U abundance and its decay to daughter isotopes comprises multiple uranium dating techniques and is one of the most common radioactive isotopes used in [radiometric dating](/wiki/Radiometric_dating \"Radiometric dating\"). The most common dating method is [uranium\\-lead dating](/wiki/Uranium%E2%80%93lead_dating \"Uranium–lead dating\"), which is used to date rocks older than 1 million years old and has provided ages for the oldest rocks on Earth at 4\\.4 billion years old.\n\nThe relation between 238U and 234U gives an indication of the age of [sediments](/wiki/Sediment \"Sediment\") and seawater that are between 100,000 years and 1,200,000 years in age.\n\nThe 238U daughter product, 206Pb, is an integral part of [lead–lead dating](/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93lead_dating \"Lead–lead dating\"), which is most famous for the determination of the [age of the Earth](/wiki/Age_of_the_Earth \"Age of the Earth\").\n\nThe [Voyager program](/wiki/Voyager_program \"Voyager program\") spacecraft carry small amounts of initially pure 238U on the covers of their [golden records](/wiki/Voyager_golden_record \"Voyager golden record\") to facilitate dating in the same manner.\n\n", "Health concerns\n---------------\n\nUranium emits [alpha particles](/wiki/Alpha_particle \"Alpha particle\") through the process of [alpha decay](/wiki/Alpha_decay \"Alpha decay\"). External exposure has limited effect. Significant internal exposure to tiny particles of uranium or its decay products, such as thorium\\-230, [radium\\-226](/wiki/Radium-226 \"Radium-226\") and [radon\\-222](/wiki/Radon-222 \"Radon-222\"), can cause severe health effects, such as cancer of the bone or liver.\n\nUranium is also a toxic chemical, meaning that ingestion of uranium can cause kidney damage from its chemical properties much sooner than its radioactive properties would cause cancers of the bone or liver.[*Radioisotope Brief*](https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/radiation/emergencies/isotopes/uranium.htm) CDC (accessed November 8, 2021\\)[*Uranium Mining in Virginia: Scientific, Technical, Environmental, Human Health and Safety, and Regulatory Aspects of Uranium Mining and Processing in Virginia*](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK201047/), Ch. 5\\. *Potential Human Health Effects of Uranium Mining, Processing, and Reclamation*. National Academies Press (US); December 19, 2011\\.\n\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [Depleted uranium](/wiki/Depleted_uranium \"Depleted uranium\")\n* [Uranium\\-lead dating](/wiki/Uranium%E2%80%93lead_dating \"Uranium–lead dating\")\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [NLM Hazardous Substances Databank – Uranium, Radioactive](http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search/r?dbs+hsdb:@term+@na+@rel+uranium,+radioactive)\n\n[Category:Actinides](/wiki/Category:Actinides \"Actinides\")\n[Category:Fertile materials](/wiki/Category:Fertile_materials \"Fertile materials\")\n[Category:Isotopes of uranium](/wiki/Category:Isotopes_of_uranium \"Isotopes of uranium\")\n[Category:Uranium](/wiki/Category:Uranium \"Uranium\")\n[Category:Radionuclides used in radiometric dating](/wiki/Category:Radionuclides_used_in_radiometric_dating \"Radionuclides used in radiometric dating\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 27823944 ], "name": [ "GreenC bot" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Genesis", "Personnel and contributors", "Content", "Counterfeit edition", "See also", "Notes", "Sources", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\nThe ***Irish Bulletin*** was the official [gazette](/wiki/Gazette \"Gazette\") of the government of the [Irish Republic](/wiki/Irish_Republic \"Irish Republic\"). It was produced by the [Department of Propaganda](/wiki/Minister_for_Publicity \"Minister for Publicity\") during the [Irish War of Independence](/wiki/Irish_War_of_Independence \"Irish War of Independence\"). and its offices were originally located at No. 6 [Harcourt Street](/wiki/Harcourt_Street \"Harcourt Street\"), [Dublin](/wiki/Dublin \"Dublin\"). The paper's first editor was [Desmond FitzGerald](/wiki/Desmond_FitzGerald_%28politician%29 \"Desmond FitzGerald (politician)\"), until his arrest and replacement by [Erskine Childers](/wiki/Erskine_Childers_%28author%29 \"Erskine Childers (author)\"). *The Bulletin* appeared in weekly editions from 11 November 1919 to 11 July 1921\\.\n\n", "Genesis\n-------\n\nIn April 1919, [Terence MacSwiney](/wiki/Terence_MacSwiney \"Terence MacSwiney\") proposed the establishment of a daily paper by the [Dáil](/wiki/First_D%C3%A1il \"First Dáil\") for the purpose of publicity. His suggestion was not implemented until November, when 'Desmond Fitzgerald decided that some form of printed counter\\-propaganda was vital to republican aims and to take advantage of the success of [Sinn Féin](/wiki/History_of_Sinn_F%C3%A9in \"History of Sinn Féin\") and the increasing international interest in Ireland'. Fitzgerald succeeded [Laurence Ginnell](/wiki/Laurence_Ginnell \"Laurence Ginnell\") in the Ministry following the latter's arrest in April 1919, though he did not take up the position until July. At a Cabinet meeting held on 7 November, there was agreement that there should be \"A scheme for daily news bulletin to foreign correspondents, weekly lists of atrocities; entertainment of friendly journalists approved, and £500 voted for expenses under Mr. Griffith's personal supervision.\" Four days later the *Irish Bulletin* made its début, in a run consisting of just thirty copies.Kenneally (2008\\) p. 48 Five issues of the bulletin were issued each week for the next two years, despite efforts by the British authorities to suppress it.\n\n", "Personnel and contributors\n--------------------------\n\nIn the early days, the paper was produced mainly by [Frank Gallagher](/wiki/Frank_Gallagher_%28author%29 \"Frank Gallagher (author)\") and [Robert Brennan](/wiki/Robert_Brennan_%28journalist%29 \"Robert Brennan (journalist)\"). Brennan, as Sinn Féin's Director of Publicity since April 1918, had played a leading role in that party's success in the 1918 General Election.Murphy (2006\\) p9\n\nFollowing Fitzgerald's arrest in 1921, Erskine Childers was appointed [Director of Propaganda](/wiki/Minister_for_Publicity \"Minister for Publicity\") taking charge of publicity and thus becoming the paper's new editor.The possible appointment of Childers as [Minister for Publicity](/wiki/Minister_for_Publicity \"Minister for Publicity\"), was objected to by some Deputies on the grounds that he was not a [Teachta Dála](/wiki/Teachta_D%C3%A1la \"Teachta Dála\")). However, they were assured by [Arthur Griffith](/wiki/Arthur_Griffith \"Arthur Griffith\") that Childers would be a civil servant and, as [President](/wiki/President_of_D%C3%A1il_%C3%89ireann \"President of Dáil Éireann\"), Griffith would be directly responsible to the House for the Department.\nOn 9 May 1921, both Childers and Gallagher were arrested and taken to [Dublin Castle](/wiki/Dublin_Castle \"Dublin Castle\"). Following the intervention of ['Andy' Cope](/wiki/Sir_Alfred_%27Andy%27_Cope \"Sir Alfred 'Andy' Cope\"), both were released that night and 'went on the run'. The hasty release of the two led to speculation between [Art O'Brien](/wiki/Art_O%27Brien \"Art O'Brien\") and [Michael Collins](/wiki/Michael_Collins_%28Irish_leader%29 \"Michael Collins (Irish leader)\") that there was a rift developing between the British military authorities and the civil administration. Despite the arrests, the *Bulletin* 'continued to appear on schedule'.Mitchell (1995\\) p254\nAlan J. Ellis, a journalist with the [*Cork Examiner*](/wiki/Irish_Examiner \"Irish Examiner\") made occasional contributions to the paper. [Kathleen Napoli McKenna](/wiki/Kathleen_Napoli_McKenna \"Kathleen Napoli McKenna\") was 'a key force behind the daily news\\-sheet.\n\n", "Content\n-------\n\nIn the early days, the *Bulletin* consisted mainly of lists of raids by the security forces and the arrests of suspects. In order to stimulate interest, this was expanded in 1921 at the behest of the Irish President in his direction to Childers to give more detailed accounts of events. Extracts from foreign publications, particularly sympathetic English papers, were frequently included. A regular feature was accounts from the [Dáil Courts](/wiki/D%C3%A1il_Courts \"Dáil Courts\"), which were reported in detail. The *Bulletin* was more graphic in its coverage of violence than was usual for its time. An example was its reporting on the deaths of two prominent Sinn Féin leaders, Henry and Patrick Loughnane, from Shanaglish, [Gort](/wiki/Gort \"Gort\"), [County Galway](/wiki/County_Galway \"County Galway\"). The men had been handed over by the [Royal Irish Constabulary](/wiki/Royal_Irish_Constabulary \"Royal Irish Constabulary\") to local members of the [Auxiliary Division](/wiki/Auxiliary_Division \"Auxiliary Division\").Kenneally (2008\\) p. 49\n\n> On Dec 6th, the bodies were found in a pond. The skulls were battered in and the flesh was hanging loose on both bodies.The two men were evidently tied by the neck to a motor lorry and dragged after it until they were dead. Before the bodies were hidden in a pond an effort was made to burn them.Kenneally (2008\\) p49 referencing IB, 21/Dec/1920 \"for more information on the two men see [www.clarelibrary.ie/eolas/claremuseum](http://www.clarelibrary.ie/eolas/claremuseum/acquisitions/patrick_harry_loughnane_mem_card.htm) \"\n\n", "Counterfeit edition\n-------------------\n\nOn the night of 26–27 March 1921, the offices of the Irish Bulletin were discovered by the British authorities. Captured typewriters and duplicators were used to fabricate bogus issues of the paper. These were distributed to the usual subscribers using lists found at the office. [Lord Henry Cavendish\\-Bentinck](/wiki/Lord_Henry_Cavendish-Bentinck \"Lord Henry Cavendish-Bentinck\") [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament \"Member of Parliament\") on receiving some of the counterfeit papers through the post, asked in the House that those responsible 'not (to) waste their money in sending me any more of their forgeries.' The initial efforts of the forgers, Captains [Hugh Pollard](/wiki/Hugh_Pollard_%28Major%29 \"Hugh Pollard (Major)\") and William Darling were of poor quality and easily identified as counterfeit.Kenneally pp 21, 51\n\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* *[Iris Oifigiúil](/wiki/Iris_Oifigi%C3%BAil \"Iris Oifigiúil\")*\n* *[Dublin Gazette](/wiki/Dublin_Gazette \"Dublin Gazette\")*\n", "Notes\n-----\n\n", "Sources\n-------\n\n* *The Origin and Organisation of British Propaganda in Ireland in 1920*, Brian P Murphy, [Aubane Historical Society](/wiki/Aubane_Historical_Society \"Aubane Historical Society\") and Spinwatch (2006\\), \n* *The Paper Wall: Newspapers and Propaganda in Ireland 1919\\-1921*, Ian Kenneally, The Collins Press (Cork 2008\\), \n* *The four glorious years*, Frank Gallagher, [Irish Press](/wiki/Irish_Press \"Irish Press\"), (1953\\) reprinted Blackwater Press, (2005\\) \n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [*An Phoblacht*](http://www.anphoblacht.com/news/detail/39138)\n\n[Category:Newspapers established in 1919](/wiki/Category:Newspapers_established_in_1919 \"Newspapers established in 1919\")\n[Category:Publications disestablished in 1921](/wiki/Category:Publications_disestablished_in_1921 \"Publications disestablished in 1921\")\n[Category:Irish War of Independence](/wiki/Category:Irish_War_of_Independence \"Irish War of Independence\")\n[Category:Defunct newspapers published in Ireland](/wiki/Category:Defunct_newspapers_published_in_Ireland \"Defunct newspapers published in Ireland\")\n[Category:Defunct newspapers published in the United Kingdom](/wiki/Category:Defunct_newspapers_published_in_the_United_Kingdom \"Defunct newspapers published in the United Kingdom\")\n[Category:1919 establishments in Ireland](/wiki/Category:1919_establishments_in_Ireland \"1919 establishments in Ireland\")\n[Category:1921 disestablishments in Ireland](/wiki/Category:1921_disestablishments_in_Ireland \"1921 disestablishments in Ireland\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 20836525 ], "name": [ "1234qwer1234qwer4" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Smooth hypersurface", "Affine algebraic hypersurface {{anchor|Algebraic hypersurface}}", "Properties", "Real and rational points", "Projective algebraic hypersurface{{anchor|projective hypersurface}}", "See also", "References" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\nIn [geometry](/wiki/Geometry \"Geometry\"), a **hypersurface** is a generalization of the concepts of [hyperplane](/wiki/Hyperplane \"Hyperplane\"), [plane curve](/wiki/Plane_curve \"Plane curve\"), and [surface](/wiki/Surface_%28mathematics%29 \"Surface (mathematics)\"). A hypersurface is a [manifold](/wiki/Manifold \"Manifold\") or an [algebraic variety](/wiki/Algebraic_variety \"Algebraic variety\") of dimension , which is embedded in an ambient space of dimension , generally a [Euclidean space](/wiki/Euclidean_space \"Euclidean space\"), an [affine space](/wiki/Affine_space \"Affine space\") or a [projective space](/wiki/Projective_space \"Projective space\").\nHypersurfaces share, with surfaces in a [three\\-dimensional space](/wiki/Three-dimensional_space \"Three-dimensional space\"), the property of being defined by a single [implicit equation](/wiki/Implicit_equation \"Implicit equation\"), at least locally (near every point), and sometimes globally.\n\nA hypersurface in a (Euclidean, affine, or projective) space of dimension two is a plane curve. In a space of dimension three, it is a surface. \n\nFor example, the equation\nx\\_1^2\\+x\\_2^2\\+\\\\cdots\\+x\\_n^2\\-1\\=0\ndefines an algebraic hypersurface of [dimension](/wiki/Dimension_of_an_algebraic_variety \"Dimension of an algebraic variety\") in the Euclidean space of dimension . This hypersurface is also a [smooth manifold](/wiki/Smooth_manifold \"Smooth manifold\"), and is called a [hypersphere](/wiki/Hypersphere \"Hypersphere\") or an [\\-sphere](/wiki/N-sphere \"N-sphere\").\n\n", "Smooth hypersurface\n-------------------\n\nA hypersurface that is a [smooth manifold](/wiki/Smooth_manifold \"Smooth manifold\") is called a *smooth hypersurface*.\n\nIn , a smooth hypersurface is [orientable](/wiki/Orientability \"Orientability\").[Hans Samelson](/wiki/Hans_Samelson \"Hans Samelson\") (1969\\) [\"Orientability of hypersurfaces in **R***n*](https://www.ams.org/journals/proc/1969-022-01/S0002-9939-1969-0245026-9/S0002-9939-1969-0245026-9.pdf)\", *[Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society](/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_American_Mathematical_Society \"Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society\")* 22(1\\): 301,2 Every [connected](/wiki/Connected_space \"Connected space\") [compact](/wiki/Compact_space \"Compact space\") smooth hypersurface is a [level set](/wiki/Level_set \"Level set\"), and separates **R***n* into two connected components; this is related to the [Jordan–Brouwer separation theorem](/wiki/Jordan_curve_theorem%23Proof_and_generalizations \"Jordan curve theorem#Proof and generalizations\").\n\n", "Affine algebraic hypersurface \n----------------------------------------------------------------\n\nAn **algebraic hypersurface** is an [algebraic variety](/wiki/Algebraic_variety \"Algebraic variety\") that may be defined by a single implicit equation of the form\np(x\\_1, \\\\ldots, x\\_n)\\=0,\nwhere is a [multivariate polynomial](/wiki/Multivariate_polynomial \"Multivariate polynomial\"). Generally the polynomial is supposed to be [irreducible](/wiki/Irreducible_polynomial \"Irreducible polynomial\"). When this is not the case, the hypersurface is not an algebraic variety, but only an [algebraic set](/wiki/Algebraic_set \"Algebraic set\"). It may depend on the authors or the context whether a reducible polynomial defines a hypersurface. For avoiding ambiguity, the term *irreducible hypersurface* is often used. \n\nAs for algebraic varieties, the coefficients of the defining polynomial may belong to any fixed [field](/wiki/Field_%28mathematics%29 \"Field (mathematics)\") , and the points of the hypersurface are the [zeros](/wiki/Zero_of_a_function \"Zero of a function\") of in the [affine space](/wiki/Affine_space \"Affine space\") K^n, where is an [algebraically closed extension](/wiki/Algebraically_closed_extension \"Algebraically closed extension\") of .\n\nA hypersurface may have [singularities](/wiki/Singular_point_of_an_algebraic_variety \"Singular point of an algebraic variety\"), which are the common zeros, if any, of the defining polynomial and its partial derivatives. In particular, a real algebraic hypersurface is not necessarily a manifold.\n\n### Properties\n\nHypersurfaces have some specific properties that are not shared with other algebraic varieties. \n\nOne of the main such properties is [Hilbert's Nullstellensatz](/wiki/Hilbert%27s_Nullstellensatz \"Hilbert's Nullstellensatz\"), which asserts that a hypersurface contains a given [algebraic set](/wiki/Algebraic_set \"Algebraic set\") if and only if the defining polynomial of the hypersurface has a power that belongs to the [ideal](/wiki/Ideal_%28ring_theory%29 \"Ideal (ring theory)\") generated by the defining polynomials of the algebraic set.\n\nA corollary of this theorem is that, if two [irreducible polynomials](/wiki/Irreducible_polynomial \"Irreducible polynomial\") (or more generally two [square\\-free polynomials](/wiki/Square-free_polynomial \"Square-free polynomial\")) define the same hypersurface, then one is the product of the other by a nonzero constant.\n\nHypersurfaces are exactly the subvarieties of [dimension](/wiki/Dimension_of_an_algebraic_variety \"Dimension of an algebraic variety\") of an [affine space](/wiki/Affine_space \"Affine space\") of dimension of . This is the geometric interpretation of the fact that, in a polynomial ring over a field, the [height](/wiki/Height_%28ring_theory%29 \"Height (ring theory)\") of an ideal is 1 if and only if the ideal is a [principal ideal](/wiki/Principal_ideal \"Principal ideal\"). In the case of possibly reducible hypersurfaces, this result may be restated as follows: hypersurfaces are exactly the algebraic sets whose all irreducible components have dimension .\n\n### Real and rational points\n\nA *real hypersurface* is a hypersurface that is defined by a polynomial with [real](/wiki/Real_number \"Real number\") coefficients. In this case the algebraically closed field over which the points are defined is generally the field \\\\mathbb C of [complex numbers](/wiki/Complex_number \"Complex number\"). The *real points* of a real hypersurface are the points that belong to \\\\mathbb R^n \\\\subset \\\\mathbb C^n. The set of the real points of a real hypersurface is the *real part* of the hypersurface. Often, it is left to the context whether the term *hypersurface* refers to all points or only to the real part.\n\nIf the coefficients of the defining polynomial belong to a field that is not [algebraically closed](/wiki/Algebraically_closed_field \"Algebraically closed field\") (typically the field of [rational numbers](/wiki/Rational_number \"Rational number\"), a [finite field](/wiki/Finite_field \"Finite field\") or a [number field](/wiki/Number_field \"Number field\")), one says that the hypersurface is *defined over* , and the points that belong to k^n are *[rational](/wiki/Rational_point \"Rational point\")* over (in the case of the field of rational numbers, \"over \" is generally omitted).\n\nFor example, the imaginary [\\-sphere](/wiki/N-sphere \"N-sphere\") defined by the equation\nx\\_0^2 \\+\\\\cdots\\+x\\_n^2 \\+1\\=0\nis a real hypersurface without any real point, which is defined over the rational numbers. It has no rational point, but has many points that are rational over the [Gaussian rationals](/wiki/Gaussian_rational \"Gaussian rational\").\n\n", "### Properties\n\nHypersurfaces have some specific properties that are not shared with other algebraic varieties. \n\nOne of the main such properties is [Hilbert's Nullstellensatz](/wiki/Hilbert%27s_Nullstellensatz \"Hilbert's Nullstellensatz\"), which asserts that a hypersurface contains a given [algebraic set](/wiki/Algebraic_set \"Algebraic set\") if and only if the defining polynomial of the hypersurface has a power that belongs to the [ideal](/wiki/Ideal_%28ring_theory%29 \"Ideal (ring theory)\") generated by the defining polynomials of the algebraic set.\n\nA corollary of this theorem is that, if two [irreducible polynomials](/wiki/Irreducible_polynomial \"Irreducible polynomial\") (or more generally two [square\\-free polynomials](/wiki/Square-free_polynomial \"Square-free polynomial\")) define the same hypersurface, then one is the product of the other by a nonzero constant.\n\nHypersurfaces are exactly the subvarieties of [dimension](/wiki/Dimension_of_an_algebraic_variety \"Dimension of an algebraic variety\") of an [affine space](/wiki/Affine_space \"Affine space\") of dimension of . This is the geometric interpretation of the fact that, in a polynomial ring over a field, the [height](/wiki/Height_%28ring_theory%29 \"Height (ring theory)\") of an ideal is 1 if and only if the ideal is a [principal ideal](/wiki/Principal_ideal \"Principal ideal\"). In the case of possibly reducible hypersurfaces, this result may be restated as follows: hypersurfaces are exactly the algebraic sets whose all irreducible components have dimension .\n\n", "### Real and rational points\n\nA *real hypersurface* is a hypersurface that is defined by a polynomial with [real](/wiki/Real_number \"Real number\") coefficients. In this case the algebraically closed field over which the points are defined is generally the field \\\\mathbb C of [complex numbers](/wiki/Complex_number \"Complex number\"). The *real points* of a real hypersurface are the points that belong to \\\\mathbb R^n \\\\subset \\\\mathbb C^n. The set of the real points of a real hypersurface is the *real part* of the hypersurface. Often, it is left to the context whether the term *hypersurface* refers to all points or only to the real part.\n\nIf the coefficients of the defining polynomial belong to a field that is not [algebraically closed](/wiki/Algebraically_closed_field \"Algebraically closed field\") (typically the field of [rational numbers](/wiki/Rational_number \"Rational number\"), a [finite field](/wiki/Finite_field \"Finite field\") or a [number field](/wiki/Number_field \"Number field\")), one says that the hypersurface is *defined over* , and the points that belong to k^n are *[rational](/wiki/Rational_point \"Rational point\")* over (in the case of the field of rational numbers, \"over \" is generally omitted).\n\nFor example, the imaginary [\\-sphere](/wiki/N-sphere \"N-sphere\") defined by the equation\nx\\_0^2 \\+\\\\cdots\\+x\\_n^2 \\+1\\=0\nis a real hypersurface without any real point, which is defined over the rational numbers. It has no rational point, but has many points that are rational over the [Gaussian rationals](/wiki/Gaussian_rational \"Gaussian rational\").\n\n", "Projective algebraic hypersurface\n--------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nA of dimension in a [projective space](/wiki/Projective_space \"Projective space\") of dimension over a field is defined by a [homogeneous polynomial](/wiki/Homogeneous_polynomial \"Homogeneous polynomial\") P(x\\_0, x\\_1, \\\\ldots, x\\_n) in indeterminates. As usual, means that all [monomials](/wiki/Monomial \"Monomial\") of have the same degree, or, equivalently that P(cx\\_0, cx\\_1, \\\\ldots, cx\\_n)\\=c^dP(x\\_0, x\\_1, \\\\ldots, x\\_n) for every constant , where is the degree of the polynomial. The of the hypersurface are the points of the projective space whose [projective coordinates](/wiki/Projective_coordinates \"Projective coordinates\") are zeros of .\n\nIf one chooses the [hyperplane](/wiki/Hyperplane \"Hyperplane\") of equation x\\_0\\=0 as [hyperplane at infinity](/wiki/Hyperplane_at_infinity \"Hyperplane at infinity\"), the complement of this hyperplane is an [affine space](/wiki/Affine_space \"Affine space\"), and the points of the projective hypersurface that belong to this affine space form an affine hypersurface of equation P(1, x\\_1, \\\\ldots, x\\_n) \\= 0\\. Conversely, given an affine hypersurface of equation p(x\\_1, \\\\ldots, x\\_n)\\=0, it defines a projective hypersurface, called its , whose equation is obtained by [homogenizing](/wiki/Homogeneous_polynomial%23Homogenization \"Homogeneous polynomial#Homogenization\") . That is, the equation of the projective completion is P(x\\_0, x\\_1, \\\\ldots, x\\_n) \\= 0, with \nP(x\\_0, x\\_1, \\\\ldots, x\\_n) \\= x\\_0^dp(x\\_1/x\\_0, \\\\ldots, x\\_n/x\\_0\\), \nwhere is the degree of .\n\nThese two processes projective completion and restriction to an affine subspace are inverse one to the other. Therefore, an affine hypersurface and its projective completion have essentially the same properties, and are often considered as two points\\-of\\-view for the same hypersurface. \n\nHowever, it may occur that an affine hypersurface is [nonsingular](/wiki/Singular_point_of_an_algebraic_variety \"Singular point of an algebraic variety\"), while its projective completion has singular points. In this case, one says that the affine surface is . For example, the [circular cylinder](/wiki/Circular_cylinder \"Circular cylinder\") of equation \nx^2\\+y^2\\-1\\=0 \nin the affine space of dimension three has a unique singular point, which is at infinity, in the direction .\n\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [Affine sphere](/wiki/Affine_sphere \"Affine sphere\")\n* [Coble hypersurface](/wiki/Coble_hypersurface \"Coble hypersurface\")\n* [Dwork family](/wiki/Dwork_family \"Dwork family\")\n* [Null hypersurface](/wiki/Null_hypersurface \"Null hypersurface\")\n* [Polar hypersurface](/wiki/Polar_hypersurface \"Polar hypersurface\")\n", "References\n----------\n\n* [Shoshichi Kobayashi](/wiki/Shoshichi_Kobayashi \"Shoshichi Kobayashi\") and [Katsumi Nomizu](/wiki/Katsumi_Nomizu \"Katsumi Nomizu\") (1969\\), [Foundations of Differential Geometry](/wiki/Foundations_of_Differential_Geometry \"Foundations of Differential Geometry\") Vol II, [Wiley Interscience](/wiki/Wiley_Interscience \"Wiley Interscience\")\n* P.A. Simionescu \\& D. Beal (2004\\) [Visualization of hypersurfaces and multivariable (objective) functions by partial globalization](https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00371-004-0260-4), *The Visual Computer* 20(10\\):665–81\\.\n\n[Category:Algebraic geometry](/wiki/Category:Algebraic_geometry \"Algebraic geometry\")\n[Category:Multi\\-dimensional geometry](/wiki/Category:Multi-dimensional_geometry \"Multi-dimensional geometry\")\n[Category:Surfaces](/wiki/Category:Surfaces \"Surfaces\")\n[Category:Dimension theory](/wiki/Category:Dimension_theory \"Dimension theory\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 40330219 ], "name": [ "RodRabelo7" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Population", "See also", "References" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**Cernay** () is a [commune](/wiki/Communes_of_France \"Communes of France\") in the [Calvados](/wiki/Calvados_%28department%29 \"Calvados (department)\") [department](/wiki/Departments_of_France \"Departments of France\") in the [Normandy](/wiki/Normandy_%28administrative_region%29 \"Normandy (administrative region)\") [region](/wiki/Regions_of_France \"Regions of France\") in northwestern [France](/wiki/France \"France\").\n\n", "Population\n----------\n\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [Communes of the Calvados department](/wiki/Communes_of_the_Calvados_department \"Communes of the Calvados department\")\n", "References\n----------\n\n[Category:Communes of Calvados (department)](/wiki/Category:Communes_of_Calvados_%28department%29 \"Communes of Calvados (department)\")\n[Category:Calvados communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia](/wiki/Category:Calvados_communes_articles_needing_translation_from_French_Wikipedia \"Calvados communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia\")\n\n \n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 11308236 ], "name": [ "John of Reading" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Lines of business", "History", "Founding", "2000–2010", "2011–2013", "Since 2016: Sale of image licensing business", "See also", "References", "Further reading" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**BENlabs**, formerly **BEN Group Inc,** is a Los Angeles–based [product placement](/wiki/Product_placement \"Product placement\"), [influencer marketing](/wiki/Influencer_marketing \"Influencer marketing\") and [licensing](/wiki/Licensing_agency \"Licensing agency\") company. The company offers AI\\-driven [product placement](/wiki/Product_placement \"Product placement\"), [influencer marketing services](/wiki/Influencer_marketing \"Influencer marketing\"), music partnerships, rights clearance, and [personality rights](/wiki/Personality_rights \"Personality rights\") management services for the entertainment industry.\n\nThe company was founded in [Seattle](/wiki/Seattle \"Seattle\") by [Bill Gates](/wiki/Bill_Gates \"Bill Gates\") in 1989 as **Interactive Home Systems**, and later renamed **Corbis**. The company's original goal was to license and digitize artwork and other historic images for the prospective concept of [digital frames](/wiki/Digital_photo_frame \"Digital photo frame\"). In 1997, Corbis changed its business model to focus on [licensing](/wiki/Stock_photography \"Stock photography\") the imagery and footage in its collection.\n\nThe Corbis collection included contemporary creative, editorial, entertainment, and historical photography as well as art and illustrations. Among its acquisitions were the 11 million piece [Bettmann Archive](/wiki/Bettmann_Archive \"Bettmann Archive\"), acquired in 1995; the [Sygma](/wiki/Sygma_%28agency%29 \"Sygma (agency)\") collection in France (1999\\); and the German [stock image](/wiki/Stock_photography \"Stock photography\") company [ZEFA](/wiki/ZEFA \"ZEFA\") (2005\\). Corbis also had the rights to digital reproduction for art from the [Hermitage Museum](/wiki/Hermitage_Museum \"Hermitage Museum\") in [St. Petersburg, Russia](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg \"Saint Petersburg\"), the [Philadelphia Museum of Art](/wiki/Philadelphia_Museum_of_Art \"Philadelphia Museum of Art\") and the [National Gallery](/wiki/National_Gallery_%28London%29 \"National Gallery (London)\") in London.\n\nCorbis later expanded into providing services for the entertainment industry, including [brand integration](/wiki/Product_placement \"Product placement\") and rights clearance services. In January 2016, Corbis announced that it had sold its image licensing businesses to Unity Glory International, an affiliate of [Visual China Group](/wiki/Visual_China_Group \"Visual China Group\"). VCG licensed the images to Corbis's historic rival, [Getty Images](/wiki/Getty_Images \"Getty Images\"), outside China. Corbis retained its entertainment businesses under the name Branded Entertainment Network, which has since evolved to BENlabs.\n\n", "Lines of business\n-----------------\n\nBEN Group's Inc's businesses include [product placement](/wiki/Product_placement \"Product placement\") services, the celebrity photo agency [Splash News](/wiki/Splash_News \"Splash News\"), as well as Greenlight, a business that provides clearances for images, music, video, and licenses [personality rights](/wiki/Personality_rights \"Personality rights\") for commercial use. BEN directly represents the personality rights of various figures, including [Albert Einstein](/wiki/Albert_Einstein \"Albert Einstein\"), [Buzz Aldrin](/wiki/Buzz_Aldrin \"Buzz Aldrin\"), [Sophia Loren](/wiki/Sophia_Loren \"Sophia Loren\"), [Charlie Chaplin](/wiki/Charlie_Chaplin \"Charlie Chaplin\"), [Maria Callas](/wiki/Maria_Callas \"Maria Callas\"), [Andy Warhol](/wiki/Andy_Warhol \"Andy Warhol\"), [Martin Luther King Jr.](/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr. \"Martin Luther King Jr.\"), [Marvin Gaye](/wiki/Marvin_Gaye \"Marvin Gaye\"), [Muhammad Ali](/wiki/Muhammad_Ali \"Muhammad Ali\"), [Steve McQueen](/wiki/Steve_McQueen \"Steve McQueen\"), and [Thomas Edison](/wiki/Thomas_Edison \"Thomas Edison\") among others. In 2015, BEN Group Inc acquired Plaid Social Labs, a leader in digital [influencer marketing](/wiki/Influencer_marketing \"Influencer marketing\") and integrations. In 2016, BEN Group Inc sold Splash.\n\n", "History\n-------\n\n### Founding\n\n[Bill Gates](/wiki/Bill_Gates \"Bill Gates\") founded the company in 1989 under the name Interactive Home Systems; he envisioned a system for allowing customers to decorate their homes with revolving displays of [artwork](/wiki/Artwork \"Artwork\"), including works by notable painters, using [digital frames](/wiki/Digital_frame \"Digital frame\") and technology that had yet to have been developed. The company's name was changed to Continuum Productions in 1992 and later, to Corbis Corporation. Interactive television was suggested as a way to deliver the content, but as the development of the planned product was under way, Corbis focused on digitizing content and acquiring rights to images. Corbis signed agreements with the [National Gallery of London](/wiki/National_Gallery_of_London \"National Gallery of London\"), the [Library of Congress](/wiki/Library_of_Congress \"Library of Congress\"), the Sakamoto Archive, the Philadelphia Museum of Art, and the State Hermitage Museum in [St. Petersburg](/wiki/St._Petersburg \"St. Petersburg\"), Russia.\n\nIn October 1995, the company purchased the [Bettmann Archive](/wiki/Bettmann_Archive \"Bettmann Archive\") collection, which included the pre\\-1983 photo library of [United Press International](/wiki/United_Press_International \"United Press International\") and its predecessor photo agencies, Acme and INP, the photo arm of the [International News Service](/wiki/International_News_Service \"International News Service\"). Prior to acquiring the Bettmann Archive, Corbis represented roughly 500,000 images, a total that increased substantially when the Bettmann drawings, artworks, news photographs, and other illustrations were added to the company's portfolio. In all the Bettmann Archive contained 19 million images. The archive was stored 220 feet underground in a refrigerated cave in the [Iron Mountain storage facility](/wiki/Iron_Mountain_storage_facility \"Iron Mountain storage facility\"),\n\nIn 1995, the company won a contract with its first major photographer, [Roger Ressmeyer](/wiki/Roger_Ressmeyer \"Roger Ressmeyer\"), followed by several more, including [Galen Rowell](/wiki/Galen_Rowell \"Galen Rowell\"); this signalled growing interest in the world of professional photography, which up to that point had not taken the company seriously. In 1996 the company acquired the exclusive rights to approximately 40,000 images photographed by wilderness photographer [Ansel Adams](/wiki/Ansel_Adams \"Ansel Adams\").\n\nIn 1997, Corbis named company veterans, Steve Davis and Tony Rojas, co\\-CEOs. Corbis also hired David Rheins to run Corbis' Productions, and Leslie Hughes to lead the company's B2B image licensing division, Corbis Images. These hires marked the company's shift to a more market focused entity. Corbis Productions published several award\\-winning CD\\-ROM titles such as *A Passion for Art: Renoir, Cézanne, Matisse, and Dr. Barnes*, compiled from the [Barnes Foundation](/wiki/Barnes_Foundation \"Barnes Foundation\") collection, and *[Leonardo da Vinci](/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci_%28video_game%29 \"Leonardo da Vinci (video game)\")*, which showcased the [Codex Leicester](/wiki/Codex_Leicester \"Codex Leicester\").\n\nIn 1998, Leslie Hughes was named President of Corbis Images. The company expanded internationally and through product development and further acquisitions. The company acquired Digital Stock Corp., a supplier of royalty\\-free images to further expand its offering. In 1998, another division was added to Corbis Images when the company acquired Outline Press Syndicate, Inc., a supplier of celebrity portrait photography. Renamed Corbis Outline, the company syndicated studio portraits and candid photographs of actors, musicians, athletes, politicians, business leaders, scientists, and other celebrities and provided the images for sale to a broad range of national magazines. The same year, Corbis also acquired Westlight, adding over 3 million images to their archives while scanning best selling images.\n\nIn June 1999, the company acquired the French news photo agency [Sygma](/wiki/Sygma_%28agency%29 \"Sygma (agency)\"), adding 40 million additional images to the company's collection, and expanding Corbis's portfolio beyond 65 million images. The archive is today stored in a preservation and access facility outside Paris.\n\nIn 2000, [Microsoft](/wiki/Microsoft \"Microsoft\") (a fellow venture of Gates) purchased the rights through Corbis to the image *Bucolic Green Hills*, which it renamed to *[Bliss](/wiki/Bliss_%28image%29 \"Bliss (image)\")* for the default wallpaper of [Windows XP](/wiki/Windows_XP \"Windows XP\"). The image was taken in the [Los Carneros](/wiki/Los_Carneros \"Los Carneros\") [American Viticultural Area](/wiki/American_Viticultural_Area \"American Viticultural Area\") of [Sonoma County, California](/wiki/Sonoma_County%2C_California \"Sonoma County, California\"), United States by photographer [Charles O'Rear](/wiki/Charles_O%27Rear \"Charles O'Rear\") in 1996, who previously sent it to Westlight which Corbis had acquired in 1998\\.\n\n### 2000–2010\n\nCorbis's business\\-to\\-business image licensing business expanded with the growth of the internet in the early part of the decade. The company also expanded geographically, making multiple acquisitions such as the Stock Market and expanding into the footage licensing market with the acquisition of Sekani.\n\n* In 2000, after the company's dramatic growth in the professional licensing business, Corbis named Leslie Hughes President of the newly consolidated Markets and Products Group (CMPG). The new group represented the consolidation of formerly separate business units, professional licensing and business communicator (small office).\n* In 2001 Corbis built a state\\-of\\-the\\-art preservation facility in western Pennsylvania to house the Bettmann Archive. Corbis committed to preserving the collection for generations to come, and to allow continued access to this extraordinary collection.\n* In late 2002, Leslie Hughes stepped down as President of Corbis' Markets and Products Group. Steve Davis was named as sole CEO, and Tony Rojas was appointed the company's president.\n* In 2005, the company expanded further into Europe with the acquisition of zefa, and into Australia in 2006, with the acquisition of Australian Picture Library.\n* In April 2007, the company announced it was naming new leadership. Steve Davis stepped down as CEO, and Gary Shenk was named as the new CEO as of July 1\\. Shenk oversaw aggressive cost\\-cutting efforts to improve the company's financial performance and address the rise of low\\-cost competitors. The company experienced several waves of layoffs for the next several years, shed non\\-profitable lines of business and reduced its number of offices globally.\n* In November 2007, Corbis announced that it would be purchasing Veer and would continue to operate it as a separate brand.\n* In early June 2007, Corbis announced that it was creating a [microstock](/wiki/Microstock \"Microstock\") website, SnapVillage. The company said it intended to use its microstock site as a farm club to find photographers who could also sell their photographs on the main Corbis Web site. In late June, the company launched SnapVillage, with about 10,000 images initially viewable. SnapVillage was closed due to low sales in early 2009 and rolled into Veer.\n* Corbis rebranded its Rights Services Division, previously a Division of Corbis Images, as \"GreenLight\" in 2008\\.\n* In July 2008 Corbis sold eMotion LLC, its media management division, to [Open Text Corporation](/wiki/Open_Text_Corporation \"Open Text Corporation\").\n* In May 2009, Corbis opened the Sygma Preservation and Access Facility outside Paris, France, housing tens of millions of photographic elements from the past half century in Europe. The company in 2009 also re\\-launched its Corbis Motion website with hundreds of thousands of new video clips, after signing a new partnership with Thought Equity Motion.\n* In 2010, Corbis increased its focus on serving web and mobile customers, with the introduction of low\\-resolution file sizes images that were more affordable for Web and Mobile use. Corbis also relaunched its Veer.com website with a greater focus on affordable images and fonts to compete more effectively against low cost competitors.\n* In 2010, Corbis was found to have committed fraud against Infoflows Corporation.\n* In this decade, Corbis has discussed its financial direction in moving towards profitability multiple times without success.\n\n### 2011–2013\n\n* In January 2011, [Shirley Jones](/wiki/Shirley_Jones \"Shirley Jones\") sued Corbis alleging the company violated her [publicity rights](/wiki/Publicity_rights \"Publicity rights\"), and seeking [class\\-action](/wiki/Class-action \"Class-action\") status for other celebrities. The case was thrown out in June 2011, with the court forcing Jones to pay Corbis's legal fees and other costs.\n* July 2011 – Five Photographers take Corbis to court for misuse of corporate assets in closing Corbis Sygma.\n* July 2011 – Corbis acquires [Splash News](/wiki/Splash_News \"Splash News\"), a Los Angeles–based firm that deals in celebrity photography.\n* August 2011 –Corbis and the [Associated Press](/wiki/Associated_Press \"Associated Press\") announce a distribution deal to try to reach each other's customers for current and archival photographs. Corbis' collection includes the library of onetime AP\\-rival [UPI](/wiki/UPI \"UPI\"), acquired in the purchase of [Bettmann](/wiki/Bettmann_Archive \"Bettmann Archive\").\n* January 2012 – Corbis acquires the product placement agency Norm Marshall Group.\n* May 2012 – Washington State Appellate Court upholds jury verdict that Corbis committed fraud.\n* Nov 2012 – Corbis expands global media footprint and acquires breaking news photojournalism newswire, [Demotix](/wiki/Demotix \"Demotix\"), following successful investment and global distribution partnership.\n\n### Since 2016: Sale of image licensing business\n\nOn January 22, 2016, Corbis announced that it had sold its general image licensing business, including the Corbis Images, Corbis Motion and Veer libraries and their associated assets, to Unity Glory, an affiliate of [Visual China Group](/wiki/Visual_China_Group \"Visual China Group\"). The sale did not include the Corbis Entertainment business, which would remain owned by the company under a new name. Concurrently, it was announced that VCG would exclusively license distribution of the Corbis images library outside China to its rival, [Getty Images](/wiki/Getty_Images \"Getty Images\"). VCG has historically served as the exclusive distributor of Getty content in China. Distribution of Corbis content was transitioned to Getty's outlets, and the company manages Corbis's physical archives on behalf of VCG. Of the deal, Getty CEO [Jonathan Klein](/wiki/Jonathan_Klein_%28Getty_Images%29 \"Jonathan Klein (Getty Images)\") remarked that after 21 years in business, it was \"lovely to get the milk, the cream, cheese, yogurt and the meat without buying the cow.\"\n\nIn May 2016, following the handover of the Corbis images business to Unity Glory and Getty, Corbis Entertainment was renamed Branded Entertainment Network, and re\\-located its operations to Los Angeles. CEO Gary Shenk stated that the company had organized over 5,000 brand placements in 2015, with clients including [Cadillac](/wiki/Cadillac \"Cadillac\"), [Jose Cuervo](/wiki/Jose_Cuervo \"Jose Cuervo\"), [Microsoft](/wiki/Microsoft \"Microsoft\"), and others. In 2018, Ricky Ray Butler, was named CEO. In 2020 BEN won the Agency of the Year award at the [10th Streamy Awards](/wiki/10th_Streamy_Awards \"10th Streamy Awards\").\n\nIn February 2023, BEN Group was rebranded as BENlabs.\n\n", "### Founding\n\n[Bill Gates](/wiki/Bill_Gates \"Bill Gates\") founded the company in 1989 under the name Interactive Home Systems; he envisioned a system for allowing customers to decorate their homes with revolving displays of [artwork](/wiki/Artwork \"Artwork\"), including works by notable painters, using [digital frames](/wiki/Digital_frame \"Digital frame\") and technology that had yet to have been developed. The company's name was changed to Continuum Productions in 1992 and later, to Corbis Corporation. Interactive television was suggested as a way to deliver the content, but as the development of the planned product was under way, Corbis focused on digitizing content and acquiring rights to images. Corbis signed agreements with the [National Gallery of London](/wiki/National_Gallery_of_London \"National Gallery of London\"), the [Library of Congress](/wiki/Library_of_Congress \"Library of Congress\"), the Sakamoto Archive, the Philadelphia Museum of Art, and the State Hermitage Museum in [St. Petersburg](/wiki/St._Petersburg \"St. Petersburg\"), Russia.\n\nIn October 1995, the company purchased the [Bettmann Archive](/wiki/Bettmann_Archive \"Bettmann Archive\") collection, which included the pre\\-1983 photo library of [United Press International](/wiki/United_Press_International \"United Press International\") and its predecessor photo agencies, Acme and INP, the photo arm of the [International News Service](/wiki/International_News_Service \"International News Service\"). Prior to acquiring the Bettmann Archive, Corbis represented roughly 500,000 images, a total that increased substantially when the Bettmann drawings, artworks, news photographs, and other illustrations were added to the company's portfolio. In all the Bettmann Archive contained 19 million images. The archive was stored 220 feet underground in a refrigerated cave in the [Iron Mountain storage facility](/wiki/Iron_Mountain_storage_facility \"Iron Mountain storage facility\"),\n\nIn 1995, the company won a contract with its first major photographer, [Roger Ressmeyer](/wiki/Roger_Ressmeyer \"Roger Ressmeyer\"), followed by several more, including [Galen Rowell](/wiki/Galen_Rowell \"Galen Rowell\"); this signalled growing interest in the world of professional photography, which up to that point had not taken the company seriously. In 1996 the company acquired the exclusive rights to approximately 40,000 images photographed by wilderness photographer [Ansel Adams](/wiki/Ansel_Adams \"Ansel Adams\").\n\nIn 1997, Corbis named company veterans, Steve Davis and Tony Rojas, co\\-CEOs. Corbis also hired David Rheins to run Corbis' Productions, and Leslie Hughes to lead the company's B2B image licensing division, Corbis Images. These hires marked the company's shift to a more market focused entity. Corbis Productions published several award\\-winning CD\\-ROM titles such as *A Passion for Art: Renoir, Cézanne, Matisse, and Dr. Barnes*, compiled from the [Barnes Foundation](/wiki/Barnes_Foundation \"Barnes Foundation\") collection, and *[Leonardo da Vinci](/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci_%28video_game%29 \"Leonardo da Vinci (video game)\")*, which showcased the [Codex Leicester](/wiki/Codex_Leicester \"Codex Leicester\").\n\nIn 1998, Leslie Hughes was named President of Corbis Images. The company expanded internationally and through product development and further acquisitions. The company acquired Digital Stock Corp., a supplier of royalty\\-free images to further expand its offering. In 1998, another division was added to Corbis Images when the company acquired Outline Press Syndicate, Inc., a supplier of celebrity portrait photography. Renamed Corbis Outline, the company syndicated studio portraits and candid photographs of actors, musicians, athletes, politicians, business leaders, scientists, and other celebrities and provided the images for sale to a broad range of national magazines. The same year, Corbis also acquired Westlight, adding over 3 million images to their archives while scanning best selling images.\n\nIn June 1999, the company acquired the French news photo agency [Sygma](/wiki/Sygma_%28agency%29 \"Sygma (agency)\"), adding 40 million additional images to the company's collection, and expanding Corbis's portfolio beyond 65 million images. The archive is today stored in a preservation and access facility outside Paris.\n\nIn 2000, [Microsoft](/wiki/Microsoft \"Microsoft\") (a fellow venture of Gates) purchased the rights through Corbis to the image *Bucolic Green Hills*, which it renamed to *[Bliss](/wiki/Bliss_%28image%29 \"Bliss (image)\")* for the default wallpaper of [Windows XP](/wiki/Windows_XP \"Windows XP\"). The image was taken in the [Los Carneros](/wiki/Los_Carneros \"Los Carneros\") [American Viticultural Area](/wiki/American_Viticultural_Area \"American Viticultural Area\") of [Sonoma County, California](/wiki/Sonoma_County%2C_California \"Sonoma County, California\"), United States by photographer [Charles O'Rear](/wiki/Charles_O%27Rear \"Charles O'Rear\") in 1996, who previously sent it to Westlight which Corbis had acquired in 1998\\.\n\n", "### 2000–2010\n\nCorbis's business\\-to\\-business image licensing business expanded with the growth of the internet in the early part of the decade. The company also expanded geographically, making multiple acquisitions such as the Stock Market and expanding into the footage licensing market with the acquisition of Sekani.\n\n* In 2000, after the company's dramatic growth in the professional licensing business, Corbis named Leslie Hughes President of the newly consolidated Markets and Products Group (CMPG). The new group represented the consolidation of formerly separate business units, professional licensing and business communicator (small office).\n* In 2001 Corbis built a state\\-of\\-the\\-art preservation facility in western Pennsylvania to house the Bettmann Archive. Corbis committed to preserving the collection for generations to come, and to allow continued access to this extraordinary collection.\n* In late 2002, Leslie Hughes stepped down as President of Corbis' Markets and Products Group. Steve Davis was named as sole CEO, and Tony Rojas was appointed the company's president.\n* In 2005, the company expanded further into Europe with the acquisition of zefa, and into Australia in 2006, with the acquisition of Australian Picture Library.\n* In April 2007, the company announced it was naming new leadership. Steve Davis stepped down as CEO, and Gary Shenk was named as the new CEO as of July 1\\. Shenk oversaw aggressive cost\\-cutting efforts to improve the company's financial performance and address the rise of low\\-cost competitors. The company experienced several waves of layoffs for the next several years, shed non\\-profitable lines of business and reduced its number of offices globally.\n* In November 2007, Corbis announced that it would be purchasing Veer and would continue to operate it as a separate brand.\n* In early June 2007, Corbis announced that it was creating a [microstock](/wiki/Microstock \"Microstock\") website, SnapVillage. The company said it intended to use its microstock site as a farm club to find photographers who could also sell their photographs on the main Corbis Web site. In late June, the company launched SnapVillage, with about 10,000 images initially viewable. SnapVillage was closed due to low sales in early 2009 and rolled into Veer.\n* Corbis rebranded its Rights Services Division, previously a Division of Corbis Images, as \"GreenLight\" in 2008\\.\n* In July 2008 Corbis sold eMotion LLC, its media management division, to [Open Text Corporation](/wiki/Open_Text_Corporation \"Open Text Corporation\").\n* In May 2009, Corbis opened the Sygma Preservation and Access Facility outside Paris, France, housing tens of millions of photographic elements from the past half century in Europe. The company in 2009 also re\\-launched its Corbis Motion website with hundreds of thousands of new video clips, after signing a new partnership with Thought Equity Motion.\n* In 2010, Corbis increased its focus on serving web and mobile customers, with the introduction of low\\-resolution file sizes images that were more affordable for Web and Mobile use. Corbis also relaunched its Veer.com website with a greater focus on affordable images and fonts to compete more effectively against low cost competitors.\n* In 2010, Corbis was found to have committed fraud against Infoflows Corporation.\n* In this decade, Corbis has discussed its financial direction in moving towards profitability multiple times without success.\n", "### 2011–2013\n\n* In January 2011, [Shirley Jones](/wiki/Shirley_Jones \"Shirley Jones\") sued Corbis alleging the company violated her [publicity rights](/wiki/Publicity_rights \"Publicity rights\"), and seeking [class\\-action](/wiki/Class-action \"Class-action\") status for other celebrities. The case was thrown out in June 2011, with the court forcing Jones to pay Corbis's legal fees and other costs.\n* July 2011 – Five Photographers take Corbis to court for misuse of corporate assets in closing Corbis Sygma.\n* July 2011 – Corbis acquires [Splash News](/wiki/Splash_News \"Splash News\"), a Los Angeles–based firm that deals in celebrity photography.\n* August 2011 –Corbis and the [Associated Press](/wiki/Associated_Press \"Associated Press\") announce a distribution deal to try to reach each other's customers for current and archival photographs. Corbis' collection includes the library of onetime AP\\-rival [UPI](/wiki/UPI \"UPI\"), acquired in the purchase of [Bettmann](/wiki/Bettmann_Archive \"Bettmann Archive\").\n* January 2012 – Corbis acquires the product placement agency Norm Marshall Group.\n* May 2012 – Washington State Appellate Court upholds jury verdict that Corbis committed fraud.\n* Nov 2012 – Corbis expands global media footprint and acquires breaking news photojournalism newswire, [Demotix](/wiki/Demotix \"Demotix\"), following successful investment and global distribution partnership.\n", "### Since 2016: Sale of image licensing business\n\nOn January 22, 2016, Corbis announced that it had sold its general image licensing business, including the Corbis Images, Corbis Motion and Veer libraries and their associated assets, to Unity Glory, an affiliate of [Visual China Group](/wiki/Visual_China_Group \"Visual China Group\"). The sale did not include the Corbis Entertainment business, which would remain owned by the company under a new name. Concurrently, it was announced that VCG would exclusively license distribution of the Corbis images library outside China to its rival, [Getty Images](/wiki/Getty_Images \"Getty Images\"). VCG has historically served as the exclusive distributor of Getty content in China. Distribution of Corbis content was transitioned to Getty's outlets, and the company manages Corbis's physical archives on behalf of VCG. Of the deal, Getty CEO [Jonathan Klein](/wiki/Jonathan_Klein_%28Getty_Images%29 \"Jonathan Klein (Getty Images)\") remarked that after 21 years in business, it was \"lovely to get the milk, the cream, cheese, yogurt and the meat without buying the cow.\"\n\nIn May 2016, following the handover of the Corbis images business to Unity Glory and Getty, Corbis Entertainment was renamed Branded Entertainment Network, and re\\-located its operations to Los Angeles. CEO Gary Shenk stated that the company had organized over 5,000 brand placements in 2015, with clients including [Cadillac](/wiki/Cadillac \"Cadillac\"), [Jose Cuervo](/wiki/Jose_Cuervo \"Jose Cuervo\"), [Microsoft](/wiki/Microsoft \"Microsoft\"), and others. In 2018, Ricky Ray Butler, was named CEO. In 2020 BEN won the Agency of the Year award at the [10th Streamy Awards](/wiki/10th_Streamy_Awards \"10th Streamy Awards\").\n\nIn February 2023, BEN Group was rebranded as BENlabs.\n\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [Image hosting service](/wiki/Image_hosting_service \"Image hosting service\")\n* [List of online image archives](/wiki/List_of_online_image_archives \"List of online image archives\")\n* [List of photo sharing websites](/wiki/List_of_photo_sharing_websites \"List of photo sharing websites\")\n* [Social media influencer](/wiki/Social_media_influencer \"Social media influencer\")\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "Further reading\n---------------\n\n* [Corbis history](http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/Corbis-Corporation-Company-History.html)\n\n[Category:Bill Gates](/wiki/Category:Bill_Gates \"Bill Gates\")\n[Category:Companies established in 1989](/wiki/Category:Companies_established_in_1989 \"Companies established in 1989\")\n[Category:Companies based in Seattle](/wiki/Category:Companies_based_in_Seattle \"Companies based in Seattle\")\n[Category:Companies based in Los Angeles](/wiki/Category:Companies_based_in_Los_Angeles \"Companies based in Los Angeles\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ null ], "name": [ "81.105.123.102" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Arts and entertainment", "Fictional entities", "Literature", "Film", "Television", "Episodes", "Shows", "Gaming", "Music", "Albums", "Songs", "Other uses in music", "Roller coasters", "Visual art", "Transportation", "Biology", "Other uses", "See also" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\nA **[vampire](/wiki/Vampire \"Vampire\")** is a being from folklore who subsists by feeding on the life essence of the living.\n\n(**The**) **vampire**(**s**) or **vampyre** may also refer to:\n\n", "Arts and entertainment\n----------------------\n\n### Fictional entities\n\n* [Vampire (Marvel Comics)](/wiki/Vampire_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Vampire (Marvel Comics)\"), including a list of vampires in the Marvel universe\n* [Vampire (*Buffy the Vampire Slayer*)](/wiki/Vampire_%28Buffy_the_Vampire_Slayer%29 \"Vampire (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)\"), in the fictional world of the TV series\n* [Vampire (*Doctor Who*)](/wiki/Vampire_%28Doctor_Who%29 \"Vampire (Doctor Who)\"), several characters\n* [Vampire (*Dungeons \\& Dragons*)](/wiki/Vampire_%28Dungeons_%26_Dragons%29 \"Vampire (Dungeons & Dragons)\"), in the fantasy role\\-playing game\n* [Vampire (*Twilight*)](/wiki/Vampire_%28Twilight%29 \"Vampire (Twilight)\"), several characters\n* [Vampire (*Underworld*)](/wiki/Vampire_%28Underworld%29 \"Vampire (Underworld)\"), several characters\n\n### Literature\n\n* *[The Vampyre](/wiki/The_Vampyre \"The Vampyre\")*, an 1819 short novel by John William Polidori\n* [*The Vampire* (play)](/wiki/The_Vampire_%28play%29 \"The Vampire (play)\"), an 1820 drama by James Planché\n* [*The Vampire* (novella)](/wiki/The_Vampire_%28novella%29 \"The Vampire (novella)\"), an 1841 Gothic novella by Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy\n* *[Le Vampire](/wiki/La_Vampire_%28roman%29 \"La Vampire (roman)\")*, an 1851 drama by [Alexandre Dumas](/wiki/Alexandre_Dumas \"Alexandre Dumas\") and [Auguste Maquet](/wiki/Auguste_Maquet \"Auguste Maquet\")\n* *The Vampire* (), a 1852 novel [Angelo de Sorr](/wiki/Angelo_de_Sorr \"Angelo de Sorr\")\n* \"Le Vampire\", a poem featured in the \"Spleen et Idéal\" section of the 1857 volume *[Les Fleurs du mal](/wiki/Les_Fleurs_du_mal \"Les Fleurs du mal\")*\n* *La Vampire*, an 1865 book by [Paul Féval, père](/wiki/Paul_F%C3%A9val%2C_p%C3%A8re \"Paul Féval, père\")\n* *The Vampire*, a 1891 book by [Henry Steel Olcott](/wiki/Henry_Steel_Olcott \"Henry Steel Olcott\")\n* \"The Vampire\", a 1897 poem by [Rudyard Kipling](/wiki/Rudyard_Kipling \"Rudyard Kipling\")\n* *The Vampire* (), a 1911 novel by [Władysław Reymont](/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Reymont \"Władysław Reymont\")\n* *Vampire* (), a 1921 novel by [Hanns Heinz Ewers](/wiki/Hanns_Heinz_Ewers \"Hanns Heinz Ewers\")\n* *The Vampire*, a 1935 novel by [Sydney Horler](/wiki/Sydney_Horler \"Sydney Horler\")\n* [*The Vampires* (manga)](/wiki/The_Vampires_%28manga%29 \"The Vampires (manga)\"), a 1966 manga by Osamu Tezuka\n* *The Vampires*, a 1971 novel by [John Rechy](/wiki/John_Rechy \"John Rechy\")\n* *Vampires*, a 1973 non\\-fiction book by [Nancy Garden](/wiki/Nancy_Garden \"Nancy Garden\"), the first book in *The Weird and Horrible Library* series\n* *Vampires*, a 1991 short story collection edited by Martin H. Greenberg and [Jane Yolen](/wiki/Jane_Yolen \"Jane Yolen\")\n* [*Vampires* (novel)](/wiki/Vampires_%28novel%29 \"Vampires (novel)\"), a 1991 novel by John Steakley\n* *Vampire*, a 1991 novel by [Richie Tankersley Cusick](/wiki/Richie_Tankersley_Cusick \"Richie Tankersley Cusick\")\n* *[Vampires: The World of the Undead](/wiki/Vampires:The_World_of_the_Undead \"The World of the Undead\")*, a 1993 non\\-fiction book by Jean Marigny\n* *[Vampire: Netherworld](/wiki/Vampire:Netherworld \"Netherworld\")*, a 1995 novel by Richard Lee Byers\n* *The Vampires*, a 1997 novella by [Cameron Rogers](/wiki/Cameron_Rogers \"Cameron Rogers\") and Anthony Short, the 21st installment of the *After Dark* series\n* [*Vampire: The Masquerade* (Vault Comics)](/wiki/Vampire:The_Masquerade_%28Vault_Comics%29 \"The Masquerade (Vault Comics)\"), a monthly horror comic book series based on the tabletop role\\-playing game of the same name, running since 2020\n\n### Film\n\n* [*Vampire* (2010 film)](/wiki/Vampire_%282010_film%29 \"Vampire (2010 film)\"), a horror\\-thriller drama film starring Jason Carter\n* [*The Vampire* (1913 film)](/wiki/The_Vampire_%281913_film%29 \"The Vampire (1913 film)\")\n* [*The Vampire* (1915 film)](/wiki/The_Vampire_%281915_film%29 \"The Vampire (1915 film)\"), an American silent drama film\n* [*The Vampire* (1957 film)](/wiki/The_Vampire_%281957_film%29 \"The Vampire (1957 film)\"), a black and white 1957 horror film\n* [*Vampire* (1979 film)](/wiki/Vampire_%281979_film%29 \"Vampire (1979 film)\"), an American made\\-for\\-television horror film\n* [*Vampire* (2011 film)](/wiki/Vampire_%282011_film%29 \"Vampire (2011 film)\"), a horror\\-thriller drama by Shunji Iwai\n* *[Les Vampires](/wiki/Les_Vampires \"Les Vampires\")*, a 1915–16 French silent crime serial film\n* [*Vampires* (1986 film)](/wiki/Vampires_%281986_film%29 \"Vampires (1986 film)\"), or *Abandon*, a horror film\n* [*Vampires* (1998 film)](/wiki/Vampires_%281998_film%29 \"Vampires (1998 film)\"), a film adaptation of the novel *Vampires*\n* *[El vampiro](/wiki/El_vampiro \"El vampiro\")* (*The Vampire*), a 1957 Mexican horror film\n* *[Vampyr](/wiki/Vampyr \"Vampyr\")*, a 1932 German horror film\n* [*Vampyres* (film)](/wiki/Vampyres_%28film%29 \"Vampyres (film)\"), a 1974 British horror film\n* [Cuadecuc, vampir](/wiki/Cuadecuc%2C_vampir \"Cuadecuc, vampir\"), a 1970 Spanish experimental feature film\n* [*Vampir* (2021 film)](/wiki/Vampir_%282021_film%29 \"Vampir (2021 film)\"), a European arthouse horror film\n### Television\n\n#### Episodes\n* \"Vampir\", [*Kiko* season 2, episode 4](/wiki/Kiko_%28TV_series%29%23Season_two \"Kiko (TV series)#Season two\") (2017\\)\n* \"Vampire\", [*Aahat* season 3, episode 16](/wiki/List_of_Aahat_episodes%23ep329 \"List of Aahat episodes#ep329\") (2007\\)\n* \"Vampire\", [*Lost Tapes* season 2, episode 1](/wiki/List_of_Lost_Tapes_episodes%23ep15 \"List of Lost Tapes episodes#ep15\") (2009\\)\n* \"Vampire\", [*So Weird* season 2, episode 22](/wiki/List_of_So_Weird_episodes%23ep35 \"List of So Weird episodes#ep35\") (2000\\)\n* \"Vampire\", [*Undead Murder Farce* episode 2](/wiki/Undead_Girl_Murder_Farce%23ep2 \"Undead Girl Murder Farce#ep2\") (2023\\)\n* \"Vampire\", the alternative title of \"A Normal Night\", [*Wellington Paranormal* season 1, episode 5](/wiki/Wellington_Paranormal%23ep5 \"Wellington Paranormal#ep5\") (2018\\)\n* \"Vampire\", [*Wildlife on One* series 5, episode 4](/wiki/List_of_Wildlife_on_One_episodes%23ep28 \"List of Wildlife on One episodes#ep28\") (1980\\)\n* \"Vampires Part I\" and \"Vampires Part II\", [*Aahat* season 4, episodes 51–52](/wiki/List_of_Aahat_episodes%23ep385 \"List of Aahat episodes#ep385\") (2010\\)\n* \"Vampires\", [*Beyond* (Canadian) season 4, episode 5](/wiki/Beyond_%28Canadian_TV_series%29%23Season_IV_%282007%29 \"Beyond (Canadian TV series)#Season IV (2007)\") (2007\\)\n* \"Vampires\", [*Is It Real?* season 2, episode 10](/wiki/Is_It_Real%3F%23ep20 \"Is It Real?#ep20\") (2006\\)\n* \"Vampires\", [*Play for Today* series 9, episode 11](/wiki/Play_for_Today%23Series_9 \"Play for Today#Series 9\") (1979\\)\n* \"Vampires\", [*Prisoners of Gravity* season 5, episode 19](/wiki/List_of_Prisoners_of_Gravity_episodes%23ep522819 \"List of Prisoners of Gravity episodes#ep522819\") (1994\\)\n* \"Vampires/Cannibals\", [*Most Evil* season 3, episode 4](/wiki/Most_Evil%23Season_3_%282008%29 \"Most Evil#Season 3 (2008)\") (2008\\)\n* \"The Vampire\", [*Dead Mount Death Play* episode 15](/wiki/Dead_Mount_Death_Play%23ep15 \"Dead Mount Death Play#ep15\") (2023\\)\n* \"The Vampire\", [*Highlander: The Series* season 2, episode 16](/wiki/Highlander:The_Series_season_2%23ep38 \"The Series season 2#ep38\") (1994\\)\n* \"The Vampire\", [*Kolchak: The Night Stalker* episode 4](/wiki/Kolchak:The_Night_Stalker%23ep4 \"The Night Stalker#ep4\") (1974\\)\n* \"The Vampire\", [*Starsky \\& Hutch* season 2, episode 7](/wiki/List_of_Starsky_%26_Hutch_episodes%23ep29 \"List of Starsky & Hutch episodes#ep29\") (1976\\)\n* \"The Vampire\", [*The Collector* (Canadian) season 3, episode 4](/wiki/The_Collector_%28Canadian_TV_series%29%23Season_3_%282006%29 \"The Collector (Canadian TV series)#Season 3 (2006)\") (2006\\)\n* \"The Vampires\", [*Nate Is Late* season 2, episode 18](/wiki/Nate_Is_Late%23ep770 \"Nate Is Late#ep770\") (2022\\)\n#### Shows\n* [*Vampires* (TV series)](/wiki/Vampires_%28TV_series%29 \"Vampires (TV series)\"), a 2020 French\\-language supernatural horror television series\n\n### Gaming\n\n* *[Vampire: The Dark Ages](/wiki/Vampire:The_Dark_Ages \"The Dark Ages\")*, a tabletop role\\-playing game\n* *[Vampire: The Eternal Struggle](/wiki/Vampire:The_Eternal_Struggle \"The Eternal Struggle\")*, a collectible card game\n* *[Vampire: The Masquerade](/wiki/Vampire:The_Masquerade \"The Masquerade\")*, a tabletop roleplaying game\n* *[Vampire: The Requiem](/wiki/Vampire:The_Requiem \"The Requiem\")*, a roleplaying game\n* *[Darkstalkers](/wiki/Darkstalkers \"Darkstalkers\")*, known as *Vampire* in Japan, a fighting game series and media franchise\n\t+ *[Vampire: Darkstalkers Collection](/wiki/Vampire:Darkstalkers_Collection \"Darkstalkers Collection\")*, 2005\n* *[The Sims 4: Vampires](/wiki/The_Sims_4:Vampires \"Vampires\")*, a 2017 game pack\n* [*Vampyr* (video game)](/wiki/Vampyr_%28video_game%29 \"Vampyr (video game)\"), 2018\n\n### Music\n\n#### Albums\n\n* [*Vampire* (album)](/wiki/Vampire_%28album%29 \"Vampire (album)\"), by Akina Nakamori\n* *Vampire*, an album by [9mm Parabellum Bullet](/wiki/9mm_Parabellum_Bullet \"9mm Parabellum Bullet\"), 2008\n* [*Vampyre* (album)](/wiki/Vampyre_%28album%29 \"Vampyre (album)\"), by Midnight Syndicate, 2008\n\n#### Songs\n\n* [\"Vampire\" (2 Chainz song)](/wiki/Vampire_%282_Chainz_song%29 \"Vampire (2 Chainz song)\"), 2020\n* [\"Vampire\" (Dominic Fike song)](/wiki/Vampire_%28Dominic_Fike_song%29 \"Vampire (Dominic Fike song)\"), 2020\n* [\"Vampire\" (Iz\\*One song)](/wiki/Vampire_%28Iz%2AOne_song%29 \"Vampire (Iz*One song)\"), 2019\n* [\"Vampire\" (Olivia Rodrigo song)](/wiki/Vampire_%28Olivia_Rodrigo_song%29 \"Vampire (Olivia Rodrigo song)\"), 2023\n* \"Vampires\", a song by Gucci Mane on the 2010 album *[The Appeal: Georgia's Most Wanted](/wiki/The_Appeal:Georgia%27s_Most_Wanted \"Georgia's Most Wanted\")*\n* \"Vampires\", a song by Pet Shop Boys from the 1999 album *[Nightlife](/wiki/Nightlife_%28Pet_Shop_Boys_album%29 \"Nightlife (Pet Shop Boys album)\")*\n* [\"Vampires\" (Dukes song)](/wiki/Vampires_%28Dukes_song%29 \"Vampires (Dukes song)\"), 2009\n* [\"Vampires\" (Godsmack song)](/wiki/Vampires_%28Godsmack_song%29 \"Vampires (Godsmack song)\"), 2000\n\n#### Other uses in music\n\n* [The Vampires (band)](/wiki/The_Vampires_%28band%29 \"The Vampires (band)\"), an Australian musical group formed in 2005\n* [*Vampires* (soundtrack)](/wiki/Vampires_%28soundtrack%29 \"Vampires (soundtrack)\"), for the 1998 film\n\n### Roller coasters\n\n* [Vampire (roller coaster)](/wiki/Vampire_%28roller_coaster%29 \"Vampire (roller coaster)\"), at Chessington World of Adventures, England\n* [Vampire (Walibi Belgium)](/wiki/Vampire_%28Walibi_Belgium%29 \"Vampire (Walibi Belgium)\")\n* [Le Vampire](/wiki/Le_Vampire \"Le Vampire\"), at La Ronde amusement park in Montreal, Quebec, Canada\n\n### Visual art\n\n* [*Vampire* (Edvard Munch)](/wiki/Vampire_%28Edvard_Munch%29 \"Vampire (Edvard Munch)\"), or *Love and Pain*, a painting\n", "### Fictional entities\n\n* [Vampire (Marvel Comics)](/wiki/Vampire_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Vampire (Marvel Comics)\"), including a list of vampires in the Marvel universe\n* [Vampire (*Buffy the Vampire Slayer*)](/wiki/Vampire_%28Buffy_the_Vampire_Slayer%29 \"Vampire (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)\"), in the fictional world of the TV series\n* [Vampire (*Doctor Who*)](/wiki/Vampire_%28Doctor_Who%29 \"Vampire (Doctor Who)\"), several characters\n* [Vampire (*Dungeons \\& Dragons*)](/wiki/Vampire_%28Dungeons_%26_Dragons%29 \"Vampire (Dungeons & Dragons)\"), in the fantasy role\\-playing game\n* [Vampire (*Twilight*)](/wiki/Vampire_%28Twilight%29 \"Vampire (Twilight)\"), several characters\n* [Vampire (*Underworld*)](/wiki/Vampire_%28Underworld%29 \"Vampire (Underworld)\"), several characters\n\n", "### Literature\n\n* *[The Vampyre](/wiki/The_Vampyre \"The Vampyre\")*, an 1819 short novel by John William Polidori\n* [*The Vampire* (play)](/wiki/The_Vampire_%28play%29 \"The Vampire (play)\"), an 1820 drama by James Planché\n* [*The Vampire* (novella)](/wiki/The_Vampire_%28novella%29 \"The Vampire (novella)\"), an 1841 Gothic novella by Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy\n* *[Le Vampire](/wiki/La_Vampire_%28roman%29 \"La Vampire (roman)\")*, an 1851 drama by [Alexandre Dumas](/wiki/Alexandre_Dumas \"Alexandre Dumas\") and [Auguste Maquet](/wiki/Auguste_Maquet \"Auguste Maquet\")\n* *The Vampire* (), a 1852 novel [Angelo de Sorr](/wiki/Angelo_de_Sorr \"Angelo de Sorr\")\n* \"Le Vampire\", a poem featured in the \"Spleen et Idéal\" section of the 1857 volume *[Les Fleurs du mal](/wiki/Les_Fleurs_du_mal \"Les Fleurs du mal\")*\n* *La Vampire*, an 1865 book by [Paul Féval, père](/wiki/Paul_F%C3%A9val%2C_p%C3%A8re \"Paul Féval, père\")\n* *The Vampire*, a 1891 book by [Henry Steel Olcott](/wiki/Henry_Steel_Olcott \"Henry Steel Olcott\")\n* \"The Vampire\", a 1897 poem by [Rudyard Kipling](/wiki/Rudyard_Kipling \"Rudyard Kipling\")\n* *The Vampire* (), a 1911 novel by [Władysław Reymont](/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Reymont \"Władysław Reymont\")\n* *Vampire* (), a 1921 novel by [Hanns Heinz Ewers](/wiki/Hanns_Heinz_Ewers \"Hanns Heinz Ewers\")\n* *The Vampire*, a 1935 novel by [Sydney Horler](/wiki/Sydney_Horler \"Sydney Horler\")\n* [*The Vampires* (manga)](/wiki/The_Vampires_%28manga%29 \"The Vampires (manga)\"), a 1966 manga by Osamu Tezuka\n* *The Vampires*, a 1971 novel by [John Rechy](/wiki/John_Rechy \"John Rechy\")\n* *Vampires*, a 1973 non\\-fiction book by [Nancy Garden](/wiki/Nancy_Garden \"Nancy Garden\"), the first book in *The Weird and Horrible Library* series\n* *Vampires*, a 1991 short story collection edited by Martin H. Greenberg and [Jane Yolen](/wiki/Jane_Yolen \"Jane Yolen\")\n* [*Vampires* (novel)](/wiki/Vampires_%28novel%29 \"Vampires (novel)\"), a 1991 novel by John Steakley\n* *Vampire*, a 1991 novel by [Richie Tankersley Cusick](/wiki/Richie_Tankersley_Cusick \"Richie Tankersley Cusick\")\n* *[Vampires: The World of the Undead](/wiki/Vampires:The_World_of_the_Undead \"The World of the Undead\")*, a 1993 non\\-fiction book by Jean Marigny\n* *[Vampire: Netherworld](/wiki/Vampire:Netherworld \"Netherworld\")*, a 1995 novel by Richard Lee Byers\n* *The Vampires*, a 1997 novella by [Cameron Rogers](/wiki/Cameron_Rogers \"Cameron Rogers\") and Anthony Short, the 21st installment of the *After Dark* series\n* [*Vampire: The Masquerade* (Vault Comics)](/wiki/Vampire:The_Masquerade_%28Vault_Comics%29 \"The Masquerade (Vault Comics)\"), a monthly horror comic book series based on the tabletop role\\-playing game of the same name, running since 2020\n\n", "### Film\n\n* [*Vampire* (2010 film)](/wiki/Vampire_%282010_film%29 \"Vampire (2010 film)\"), a horror\\-thriller drama film starring Jason Carter\n* [*The Vampire* (1913 film)](/wiki/The_Vampire_%281913_film%29 \"The Vampire (1913 film)\")\n* [*The Vampire* (1915 film)](/wiki/The_Vampire_%281915_film%29 \"The Vampire (1915 film)\"), an American silent drama film\n* [*The Vampire* (1957 film)](/wiki/The_Vampire_%281957_film%29 \"The Vampire (1957 film)\"), a black and white 1957 horror film\n* [*Vampire* (1979 film)](/wiki/Vampire_%281979_film%29 \"Vampire (1979 film)\"), an American made\\-for\\-television horror film\n* [*Vampire* (2011 film)](/wiki/Vampire_%282011_film%29 \"Vampire (2011 film)\"), a horror\\-thriller drama by Shunji Iwai\n* *[Les Vampires](/wiki/Les_Vampires \"Les Vampires\")*, a 1915–16 French silent crime serial film\n* [*Vampires* (1986 film)](/wiki/Vampires_%281986_film%29 \"Vampires (1986 film)\"), or *Abandon*, a horror film\n* [*Vampires* (1998 film)](/wiki/Vampires_%281998_film%29 \"Vampires (1998 film)\"), a film adaptation of the novel *Vampires*\n* *[El vampiro](/wiki/El_vampiro \"El vampiro\")* (*The Vampire*), a 1957 Mexican horror film\n* *[Vampyr](/wiki/Vampyr \"Vampyr\")*, a 1932 German horror film\n* [*Vampyres* (film)](/wiki/Vampyres_%28film%29 \"Vampyres (film)\"), a 1974 British horror film\n* [Cuadecuc, vampir](/wiki/Cuadecuc%2C_vampir \"Cuadecuc, vampir\"), a 1970 Spanish experimental feature film\n* [*Vampir* (2021 film)](/wiki/Vampir_%282021_film%29 \"Vampir (2021 film)\"), a European arthouse horror film\n\n", "### Television\n\n#### Episodes\n\n* \"Vampir\", [*Kiko* season 2, episode 4](/wiki/Kiko_%28TV_series%29%23Season_two \"Kiko (TV series)#Season two\") (2017\\)\n* \"Vampire\", [*Aahat* season 3, episode 16](/wiki/List_of_Aahat_episodes%23ep329 \"List of Aahat episodes#ep329\") (2007\\)\n* \"Vampire\", [*Lost Tapes* season 2, episode 1](/wiki/List_of_Lost_Tapes_episodes%23ep15 \"List of Lost Tapes episodes#ep15\") (2009\\)\n* \"Vampire\", [*So Weird* season 2, episode 22](/wiki/List_of_So_Weird_episodes%23ep35 \"List of So Weird episodes#ep35\") (2000\\)\n* \"Vampire\", [*Undead Murder Farce* episode 2](/wiki/Undead_Girl_Murder_Farce%23ep2 \"Undead Girl Murder Farce#ep2\") (2023\\)\n* \"Vampire\", the alternative title of \"A Normal Night\", [*Wellington Paranormal* season 1, episode 5](/wiki/Wellington_Paranormal%23ep5 \"Wellington Paranormal#ep5\") (2018\\)\n* \"Vampire\", [*Wildlife on One* series 5, episode 4](/wiki/List_of_Wildlife_on_One_episodes%23ep28 \"List of Wildlife on One episodes#ep28\") (1980\\)\n* \"Vampires Part I\" and \"Vampires Part II\", [*Aahat* season 4, episodes 51–52](/wiki/List_of_Aahat_episodes%23ep385 \"List of Aahat episodes#ep385\") (2010\\)\n* \"Vampires\", [*Beyond* (Canadian) season 4, episode 5](/wiki/Beyond_%28Canadian_TV_series%29%23Season_IV_%282007%29 \"Beyond (Canadian TV series)#Season IV (2007)\") (2007\\)\n* \"Vampires\", [*Is It Real?* season 2, episode 10](/wiki/Is_It_Real%3F%23ep20 \"Is It Real?#ep20\") (2006\\)\n* \"Vampires\", [*Play for Today* series 9, episode 11](/wiki/Play_for_Today%23Series_9 \"Play for Today#Series 9\") (1979\\)\n* \"Vampires\", [*Prisoners of Gravity* season 5, episode 19](/wiki/List_of_Prisoners_of_Gravity_episodes%23ep522819 \"List of Prisoners of Gravity episodes#ep522819\") (1994\\)\n* \"Vampires/Cannibals\", [*Most Evil* season 3, episode 4](/wiki/Most_Evil%23Season_3_%282008%29 \"Most Evil#Season 3 (2008)\") (2008\\)\n* \"The Vampire\", [*Dead Mount Death Play* episode 15](/wiki/Dead_Mount_Death_Play%23ep15 \"Dead Mount Death Play#ep15\") (2023\\)\n* \"The Vampire\", [*Highlander: The Series* season 2, episode 16](/wiki/Highlander:The_Series_season_2%23ep38 \"The Series season 2#ep38\") (1994\\)\n* \"The Vampire\", [*Kolchak: The Night Stalker* episode 4](/wiki/Kolchak:The_Night_Stalker%23ep4 \"The Night Stalker#ep4\") (1974\\)\n* \"The Vampire\", [*Starsky \\& Hutch* season 2, episode 7](/wiki/List_of_Starsky_%26_Hutch_episodes%23ep29 \"List of Starsky & Hutch episodes#ep29\") (1976\\)\n* \"The Vampire\", [*The Collector* (Canadian) season 3, episode 4](/wiki/The_Collector_%28Canadian_TV_series%29%23Season_3_%282006%29 \"The Collector (Canadian TV series)#Season 3 (2006)\") (2006\\)\n* \"The Vampires\", [*Nate Is Late* season 2, episode 18](/wiki/Nate_Is_Late%23ep770 \"Nate Is Late#ep770\") (2022\\)\n#### Shows\n* [*Vampires* (TV series)](/wiki/Vampires_%28TV_series%29 \"Vampires (TV series)\"), a 2020 French\\-language supernatural horror television series\n\n", "#### Episodes\n\n* \"Vampir\", [*Kiko* season 2, episode 4](/wiki/Kiko_%28TV_series%29%23Season_two \"Kiko (TV series)#Season two\") (2017\\)\n* \"Vampire\", [*Aahat* season 3, episode 16](/wiki/List_of_Aahat_episodes%23ep329 \"List of Aahat episodes#ep329\") (2007\\)\n* \"Vampire\", [*Lost Tapes* season 2, episode 1](/wiki/List_of_Lost_Tapes_episodes%23ep15 \"List of Lost Tapes episodes#ep15\") (2009\\)\n* \"Vampire\", [*So Weird* season 2, episode 22](/wiki/List_of_So_Weird_episodes%23ep35 \"List of So Weird episodes#ep35\") (2000\\)\n* \"Vampire\", [*Undead Murder Farce* episode 2](/wiki/Undead_Girl_Murder_Farce%23ep2 \"Undead Girl Murder Farce#ep2\") (2023\\)\n* \"Vampire\", the alternative title of \"A Normal Night\", [*Wellington Paranormal* season 1, episode 5](/wiki/Wellington_Paranormal%23ep5 \"Wellington Paranormal#ep5\") (2018\\)\n* \"Vampire\", [*Wildlife on One* series 5, episode 4](/wiki/List_of_Wildlife_on_One_episodes%23ep28 \"List of Wildlife on One episodes#ep28\") (1980\\)\n* \"Vampires Part I\" and \"Vampires Part II\", [*Aahat* season 4, episodes 51–52](/wiki/List_of_Aahat_episodes%23ep385 \"List of Aahat episodes#ep385\") (2010\\)\n* \"Vampires\", [*Beyond* (Canadian) season 4, episode 5](/wiki/Beyond_%28Canadian_TV_series%29%23Season_IV_%282007%29 \"Beyond (Canadian TV series)#Season IV (2007)\") (2007\\)\n* \"Vampires\", [*Is It Real?* season 2, episode 10](/wiki/Is_It_Real%3F%23ep20 \"Is It Real?#ep20\") (2006\\)\n* \"Vampires\", [*Play for Today* series 9, episode 11](/wiki/Play_for_Today%23Series_9 \"Play for Today#Series 9\") (1979\\)\n* \"Vampires\", [*Prisoners of Gravity* season 5, episode 19](/wiki/List_of_Prisoners_of_Gravity_episodes%23ep522819 \"List of Prisoners of Gravity episodes#ep522819\") (1994\\)\n* \"Vampires/Cannibals\", [*Most Evil* season 3, episode 4](/wiki/Most_Evil%23Season_3_%282008%29 \"Most Evil#Season 3 (2008)\") (2008\\)\n* \"The Vampire\", [*Dead Mount Death Play* episode 15](/wiki/Dead_Mount_Death_Play%23ep15 \"Dead Mount Death Play#ep15\") (2023\\)\n* \"The Vampire\", [*Highlander: The Series* season 2, episode 16](/wiki/Highlander:The_Series_season_2%23ep38 \"The Series season 2#ep38\") (1994\\)\n* \"The Vampire\", [*Kolchak: The Night Stalker* episode 4](/wiki/Kolchak:The_Night_Stalker%23ep4 \"The Night Stalker#ep4\") (1974\\)\n* \"The Vampire\", [*Starsky \\& Hutch* season 2, episode 7](/wiki/List_of_Starsky_%26_Hutch_episodes%23ep29 \"List of Starsky & Hutch episodes#ep29\") (1976\\)\n* \"The Vampire\", [*The Collector* (Canadian) season 3, episode 4](/wiki/The_Collector_%28Canadian_TV_series%29%23Season_3_%282006%29 \"The Collector (Canadian TV series)#Season 3 (2006)\") (2006\\)\n* \"The Vampires\", [*Nate Is Late* season 2, episode 18](/wiki/Nate_Is_Late%23ep770 \"Nate Is Late#ep770\") (2022\\)\n", "#### Shows\n\n* [*Vampires* (TV series)](/wiki/Vampires_%28TV_series%29 \"Vampires (TV series)\"), a 2020 French\\-language supernatural horror television series\n", "### Gaming\n\n* *[Vampire: The Dark Ages](/wiki/Vampire:The_Dark_Ages \"The Dark Ages\")*, a tabletop role\\-playing game\n* *[Vampire: The Eternal Struggle](/wiki/Vampire:The_Eternal_Struggle \"The Eternal Struggle\")*, a collectible card game\n* *[Vampire: The Masquerade](/wiki/Vampire:The_Masquerade \"The Masquerade\")*, a tabletop roleplaying game\n* *[Vampire: The Requiem](/wiki/Vampire:The_Requiem \"The Requiem\")*, a roleplaying game\n* *[Darkstalkers](/wiki/Darkstalkers \"Darkstalkers\")*, known as *Vampire* in Japan, a fighting game series and media franchise\n\t+ *[Vampire: Darkstalkers Collection](/wiki/Vampire:Darkstalkers_Collection \"Darkstalkers Collection\")*, 2005\n* *[The Sims 4: Vampires](/wiki/The_Sims_4:Vampires \"Vampires\")*, a 2017 game pack\n* [*Vampyr* (video game)](/wiki/Vampyr_%28video_game%29 \"Vampyr (video game)\"), 2018\n", "### Music\n\n#### Albums\n\n* [*Vampire* (album)](/wiki/Vampire_%28album%29 \"Vampire (album)\"), by Akina Nakamori\n* *Vampire*, an album by [9mm Parabellum Bullet](/wiki/9mm_Parabellum_Bullet \"9mm Parabellum Bullet\"), 2008\n* [*Vampyre* (album)](/wiki/Vampyre_%28album%29 \"Vampyre (album)\"), by Midnight Syndicate, 2008\n\n#### Songs\n\n* [\"Vampire\" (2 Chainz song)](/wiki/Vampire_%282_Chainz_song%29 \"Vampire (2 Chainz song)\"), 2020\n* [\"Vampire\" (Dominic Fike song)](/wiki/Vampire_%28Dominic_Fike_song%29 \"Vampire (Dominic Fike song)\"), 2020\n* [\"Vampire\" (Iz\\*One song)](/wiki/Vampire_%28Iz%2AOne_song%29 \"Vampire (Iz*One song)\"), 2019\n* [\"Vampire\" (Olivia Rodrigo song)](/wiki/Vampire_%28Olivia_Rodrigo_song%29 \"Vampire (Olivia Rodrigo song)\"), 2023\n* \"Vampires\", a song by Gucci Mane on the 2010 album *[The Appeal: Georgia's Most Wanted](/wiki/The_Appeal:Georgia%27s_Most_Wanted \"Georgia's Most Wanted\")*\n* \"Vampires\", a song by Pet Shop Boys from the 1999 album *[Nightlife](/wiki/Nightlife_%28Pet_Shop_Boys_album%29 \"Nightlife (Pet Shop Boys album)\")*\n* [\"Vampires\" (Dukes song)](/wiki/Vampires_%28Dukes_song%29 \"Vampires (Dukes song)\"), 2009\n* [\"Vampires\" (Godsmack song)](/wiki/Vampires_%28Godsmack_song%29 \"Vampires (Godsmack song)\"), 2000\n\n#### Other uses in music\n\n* [The Vampires (band)](/wiki/The_Vampires_%28band%29 \"The Vampires (band)\"), an Australian musical group formed in 2005\n* [*Vampires* (soundtrack)](/wiki/Vampires_%28soundtrack%29 \"Vampires (soundtrack)\"), for the 1998 film\n", "#### Albums\n\n* [*Vampire* (album)](/wiki/Vampire_%28album%29 \"Vampire (album)\"), by Akina Nakamori\n* *Vampire*, an album by [9mm Parabellum Bullet](/wiki/9mm_Parabellum_Bullet \"9mm Parabellum Bullet\"), 2008\n* [*Vampyre* (album)](/wiki/Vampyre_%28album%29 \"Vampyre (album)\"), by Midnight Syndicate, 2008\n", "#### Songs\n\n* [\"Vampire\" (2 Chainz song)](/wiki/Vampire_%282_Chainz_song%29 \"Vampire (2 Chainz song)\"), 2020\n* [\"Vampire\" (Dominic Fike song)](/wiki/Vampire_%28Dominic_Fike_song%29 \"Vampire (Dominic Fike song)\"), 2020\n* [\"Vampire\" (Iz\\*One song)](/wiki/Vampire_%28Iz%2AOne_song%29 \"Vampire (Iz*One song)\"), 2019\n* [\"Vampire\" (Olivia Rodrigo song)](/wiki/Vampire_%28Olivia_Rodrigo_song%29 \"Vampire (Olivia Rodrigo song)\"), 2023\n* \"Vampires\", a song by Gucci Mane on the 2010 album *[The Appeal: Georgia's Most Wanted](/wiki/The_Appeal:Georgia%27s_Most_Wanted \"Georgia's Most Wanted\")*\n* \"Vampires\", a song by Pet Shop Boys from the 1999 album *[Nightlife](/wiki/Nightlife_%28Pet_Shop_Boys_album%29 \"Nightlife (Pet Shop Boys album)\")*\n* [\"Vampires\" (Dukes song)](/wiki/Vampires_%28Dukes_song%29 \"Vampires (Dukes song)\"), 2009\n* [\"Vampires\" (Godsmack song)](/wiki/Vampires_%28Godsmack_song%29 \"Vampires (Godsmack song)\"), 2000\n", "#### Other uses in music\n\n* [The Vampires (band)](/wiki/The_Vampires_%28band%29 \"The Vampires (band)\"), an Australian musical group formed in 2005\n* [*Vampires* (soundtrack)](/wiki/Vampires_%28soundtrack%29 \"Vampires (soundtrack)\"), for the 1998 film\n", "### Roller coasters\n\n* [Vampire (roller coaster)](/wiki/Vampire_%28roller_coaster%29 \"Vampire (roller coaster)\"), at Chessington World of Adventures, England\n* [Vampire (Walibi Belgium)](/wiki/Vampire_%28Walibi_Belgium%29 \"Vampire (Walibi Belgium)\")\n* [Le Vampire](/wiki/Le_Vampire \"Le Vampire\"), at La Ronde amusement park in Montreal, Quebec, Canada\n", "### Visual art\n\n* [*Vampire* (Edvard Munch)](/wiki/Vampire_%28Edvard_Munch%29 \"Vampire (Edvard Munch)\"), or *Love and Pain*, a painting\n", "Transportation\n--------------\n\n* [de Havilland Vampire](/wiki/De_Havilland_Vampire \"De Havilland Vampire\"), a British jet fighter aircraft\n* [Flying Machines FM250 Vampire](/wiki/Flying_Machines_FM250_Vampire \"Flying Machines FM250 Vampire\"), a Czech light aircraft\n* [HMAS *Vampire*](/wiki/HMAS_Vampire \"HMAS Vampire\"), the name of two Australian ships\n* [HMS *Vampire*](/wiki/HMS_Vampire \"HMS Vampire\"), the name of two British ships\n* \"Vampire\", a variant of [Land Rover 101 Forward Control](/wiki/Land_Rover_101_Forward_Control \"Land Rover 101 Forward Control\") for electronic warfare\n* [Vampire (car)](/wiki/Vampire_%28car%29 \"Vampire (car)\"), a jet\\-propelled car, holder of the British land speed record\n* [Vickers Vampire](/wiki/Vickers_Vampire \"Vickers Vampire\"), a British single\\-seat pusher biplane fighter\n", "Biology\n-------\n\n* [Vampire bat](/wiki/Vampire_bat \"Vampire bat\"), a bat that feeds on blood\n* [Vampire fish (disambiguation)](/wiki/Vampire_fish_%28disambiguation%29 \"Vampire fish (disambiguation)\"), several uses\n* [Vampire ground finch](/wiki/Vampire_ground_finch \"Vampire ground finch\"), a bird that occasionally feeds on blood\n* [Vampire squid](/wiki/Vampire_squid \"Vampire squid\"), a small deep\\-sea creature\n", "Other uses\n----------\n\n* Vampire, [multiservice tactical brevity code](/wiki/Multiservice_tactical_brevity_code \"Multiservice tactical brevity code\") for hostile anti\\-ship missile\n* [Vampire (theorem prover)](/wiki/Vampire_%28theorem_prover%29 \"Vampire (theorem prover)\"), an automated theorem prover for first\\-order classical logic\n* [RPG\\-29](/wiki/RPG-29 \"RPG-29\") \"Vampir\", a Russian rocket\\-propelled grenade launcher\n* *El Vampiro* (Spanish, 'the Vampire'), nickname of Chilean tennis player [Nicolás Massú](/wiki/Nicol%C3%A1s_Mass%C3%BA \"Nicolás Massú\")\n* [Zielgerät 1229](/wiki/Zielger%C3%A4t_1229 \"Zielgerät 1229\"), code name Vampir, an infra\\-red device for a German assault rifle\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [Dhampir](/wiki/Dhampir \"Dhampir\"), in Balkans folklore\n* [Large flying fox](/wiki/Large_flying_fox \"Large flying fox\"), *Pteropus vampyrus*\n* [Psychic vampire](/wiki/Psychic_vampire \"Psychic vampire\"), a creature in folklore\n* [Vampiro (disambiguation)](/wiki/Vampiro_%28disambiguation%29 \"Vampiro (disambiguation)\")\n* [Vampire dugout](/wiki/Vampire_dugout \"Vampire dugout\"), a First World War underground shelter in Belgium\n* [Vampire lifestyle](/wiki/Vampire_lifestyle \"Vampire lifestyle\"), a modern alternative lifestyle\n* [Vampire number](/wiki/Vampire_number \"Vampire number\"), in number theory\n* [Vampire power](/wiki/Vampire_power \"Vampire power\") or standby power, the electric power consumed when in standby mode\n* [Vampire tap](/wiki/Vampire_tap \"Vampire tap\"), a device for physically connecting a station to a network\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 1682772 ], "name": [ "Pemilligan" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Overview", "Episodes", "Cast", "Production", "Cancellation", "Broadcast syndication", "Home media", "Cultural references", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n* + - * + - * + - * + \n\n***Baretta*** is an American [detective](/wiki/Detective_fiction \"Detective fiction\") television series which ran on [ABC](/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company \"American Broadcasting Company\") from 1975 to 1978\\.\n\nThe show was a revised and milder version of a 1973–1974 ABC series, *[Toma](/wiki/Toma_%28TV_series%29 \"Toma (TV series)\")*, starring [Tony Musante](/wiki/Tony_Musante \"Tony Musante\") as chameleon\\-like, real\\-life [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey \"New Jersey\") [police officer](/wiki/Police_officer \"Police officer\") [David Toma](/wiki/Dave_Toma \"Dave Toma\"). When Musante left the series after a single season, the concept was retooled as *Baretta*, with [Robert Blake](/wiki/Robert_Blake_%28actor%29 \"Robert Blake (actor)\") in the title role.\n\n\"[Keep Your Eye on the Sparrow](/wiki/Keep_Your_Eye_on_the_Sparrow \"Keep Your Eye on the Sparrow\"),\" the show's theme music, was composed by [Dave Grusin](/wiki/Dave_Grusin \"Dave Grusin\") and Morgan Ames and sung by [Sammy Davis Jr.](/wiki/Sammy_Davis_Jr. \"Sammy Davis Jr.\"), in addition to being a chart hit for two other artists.\n\n", "Overview\n--------\n\nAnthony Vincenzo \"Tony\" Baretta is an unorthodox [plainclothes](/wiki/Undercover_operation%23Plainclothes_law_enforcement \"Undercover operation#Plainclothes law enforcement\") [police detective](/wiki/Police_detective \"Police detective\") (Badge \\#609\\) with the 53rd Precinct in an unnamed, fictional city. He resides in Apartment 2C of the run\\-down King Edward Hotel with Fred, his [Triton cockatoo](/wiki/Triton_cockatoo \"Triton cockatoo\"). A master of disguise, Baretta wears many while performing his duties. When not working he usually wears a short\\-sleeve sweatshirt, casual slacks, a brown suede jacket and a [newsboy cap](/wiki/Newsboy_cap \"Newsboy cap\").\n\nBaretta is often seen with an unlit cigarette in his lips or behind his ear. His catchphrases include \"Don't do the crime if you can't do the time\", \"You can take dat to da bank\" and \"And dat's the name of dat tune.\" When exasperated, he occasionally speaks in asides to his late father, Louie Baretta. He drives a rusted\\-out Mist Blue 1966 [Chevrolet Impala](/wiki/Chevrolet_Impala \"Chevrolet Impala\") four\\-door sport sedan nicknamed \"The Blue Ghost\" ([license plate](/wiki/License_plate \"License plate\") 532 BEM). He frequents Ross's Billiard Academy and refers to his numerous girlfriends as his \"cousins\".\n\n", "Episodes\n--------\n\n", "Cast\n----\n\n* Anthony Vincenzo \"Tony\" Baretta ([Robert Blake](/wiki/Robert_Blake_%28actor%29 \"Robert Blake (actor)\")), a police detective.\n* Billy Truman ([Tom Ewell](/wiki/Tom_Ewell \"Tom Ewell\")), retired cop who used to work with Baretta's father Louie at the 53rd Precinct.\n* Rooster ([Michael D. Roberts](/wiki/Michael_D._Roberts \"Michael D. Roberts\")), a streetwise [pimp](/wiki/Pimp \"Pimp\") and Baretta's favorite [informant](/wiki/Informant \"Informant\").\n* Inspector Shiller ([Dana Elcar](/wiki/Dana_Elcar \"Dana Elcar\")) and Lieutenant Hal Brubaker ([Edward Grover](/wiki/Edward_Grover \"Edward Grover\")), Baretta's supervisors.\n* Detective Foley ([John Ward](/wiki/John_Ward_%28American_actor%29 \"John Ward (American actor)\")), police detective.\n* Fats ([Chino 'Fats' Williams](/wiki/Chino_%27Fats%27_Williams \"Chino 'Fats' Williams\")), a gravelly\\-voiced, older detective.\n* Detective Nopke ([Ron Thompson](/wiki/Ron_Thompson_%28actor%29 \"Ron Thompson (actor)\")), a rookie detective.\n* Little Moe ([Angelo Rossitto](/wiki/Angelo_Rossitto \"Angelo Rossitto\")), a shoeshine man and informant.\n* Mr. Nicholas ([Titos Vandis](/wiki/Titos_Vandis \"Titos Vandis\")), a mob boss.\n* Mr. Muncie ([Paul Lichtman](/wiki/Paul_Lichtman \"Paul Lichtman\")), the owner of a liquor store at 52nd and Main.\n", "Production\n----------\n\nUpon watching Blake in the 1973 film *[Electra Glide in Blue](/wiki/Electra_Glide_in_Blue \"Electra Glide in Blue\")*, then ABC executive [Michael Eisner](/wiki/Michael_Eisner \"Michael Eisner\") contacted him about doing a police series, which culminated in *Baretta*. Blake was given creative control in most aspects of production.\n\nThe series came about as a reboot of *[Toma](/wiki/Toma_%28TV_series%29 \"Toma (TV series)\")* when actor [Tony Musante](/wiki/Tony_Musante \"Tony Musante\") chose to move on after completing his single season commitment to the series.O'Connor, John (1974\\-07\\-24\\). \"TV: Star of Dropped *Toma* Tells What Happened\". The New York Times.\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|Baretta with Fred.](/wiki/File:Robert_Blake_Baretta_and_Fred_1976.JPG \"Robert Blake Baretta and Fred 1976.JPG\")\n\nThe theme song, \"Keep Your Eye on the Sparrow\", was written by [Dave Grusin](/wiki/Dave_Grusin \"Dave Grusin\") and Morgan Ames; initially an instrumental, lyrics were added in later seasons that were sung by [Sammy Davis, Jr.](/wiki/Sammy_Davis%2C_Jr. \"Sammy Davis, Jr.\") Every episode of *Baretta* began with the song, which contained the motto, \"Don't do the [crime](/wiki/Crime \"Crime\") if you can't do [the time](/wiki/Imprisonment \"Imprisonment\").\" According to Blake, studio executives did not want Davis's vocals for the theme song for fear that audiences would think *Baretta* was a black series. Blake threatened to leave production if Davis's recording was rejected. His bosses relented.\n\nThe song was released as a single in Europe in 1976, reaching number one in the Dutch Top 40 as \"Baretta's Theme\". The music for the theme song was performed by Los Angeles\\-based Latin influenced Rock band [El Chicano](/wiki/El_Chicano \"El Chicano\"). [El Chicano](/wiki/El_Chicano \"El Chicano\") also released the song as a 45 and also as a track on one of their albums. The *Baretta* theme song by El Chicano was a huge hit in many countries including Turkey, Malaysia, Singapore, France and The Philippines.\n\nThe song was released as a single in the US, but only charted as high as \\#42 on the Adult Contemporary Chart, while it \"[bubbled under the Hot 100](/wiki/Bubbling_Under_Hot_100 \"Bubbling Under Hot 100\")\" at \\#101\\.\n\nFred the cockatoo was portrayed by two [Triton cockatoos](/wiki/Triton_cockatoo \"Triton cockatoo\") named Lalah and Weird Harold, the latter used as a stunt double for flying sequences.\n\n", "Cancellation\n------------\n\nOn April 27, 1977, Blake announced that he would leave after completing his contractual run on the show for the season. \"I proved everything I had to prove,\" he said. Through his efforts, he said, *Baretta* became the only midseason replacement to win an Emmy.\n\n\"I put *Baretta* in the top 10, I tried to make a human being out of a cop and I tried to do a cop show and make social comment,\" he added.\n\nIn a 1996 TV interview with [Tom Snyder](/wiki/Tom_Snyder \"Tom Snyder\"), Blake stated that he hated being committed to the series and compared it to screwing a gorilla. \"*Baretta* was a terrible experience,\" Blake stated, \"you do a series so you can work with giants \\[in film].\"\n\n", "Broadcast syndication\n---------------------\n\nAfter its initial run in syndication beginning in 1979, the series later re\\-appeared on [TV Land](/wiki/TV_Land \"TV Land\") in 1999 as part of a package of series licensed from [Universal](/wiki/Universal_Studios \"Universal Studios\"). [MeTV](/wiki/MeTV \"MeTV\") aired reruns of *Baretta* on Saturday afternoons in 2007\\. It was also aired on [WKAQ\\-TV](/wiki/WKAQ-TV \"WKAQ-TV\").\n\n", "Home media\n----------\n\nOn October 29, 2002, [Universal Studios](/wiki/Universal_Pictures_Home_Entertainment \"Universal Pictures Home Entertainment\") released the first season of *Baretta* on [Region 1](/wiki/DVD_region_code%231 \"DVD region code#1\") DVD in the United States. On July 26th, 2017, The Complete 2nd Season was released in the UK with French audio as the only audio option. The series has been rarely televised or even streamed since the late 2000s. Many have asserted that this is due to Blake's alleged involvement in the 2001 murder of his second wife [Bonnie Lee Bakley](/wiki/Bonnie_Lee_Bakley \"Bonnie Lee Bakley\").\n\n| \\+Release dates | DVD name | Ep \\# | Region 1 | Region 2 (France) |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Season 1 | 12 | Oct 29, 2002 | February 26, 2014 |\n| Season 2 | 22 | N/A | July 26, 2017 |\n\n", "Cultural references\n-------------------\n\n[*Mad*](/wiki/Mad_%28magazine%29 \"Mad (magazine)\") magazine spoofed the series as \"Barfetta\".\n\nIn Taskmaster Live, a 2016 show at the Edinburgh Festival contested by five television executives, Jeff Ford, the UK Managing Director of Fox Networks Group and SVP and Content Development Manager for Europe and Africa, described Baretta as a \"lesser known 1960s vehicle\".\n\nIn the [*Barney Miller*](/wiki/Barney_Miller_%28season_4%29 \"Barney Miller (season 4)\") episode \"Copycat\", Detective Arthur Dietrich tells a [copycat](/wiki/Copycat_crime%23Television_series \"Copycat crime#Television series\") criminal that cops and committing a crime are not like they are depicted on television, and ends by saying, \"And dat's the name of dat tune.\"\n\nIn the film *[Reservoir Dogs](/wiki/Reservoir_Dogs \"Reservoir Dogs\")*, protagonist Mr. Orange steels himself before meeting main antagonist Joe Cabot by saying \"You're not gonna get hurt. You're fucking Baretta. They believe every fucking word 'cause you're super cool.\"\n\nIn the sitcom *[That '70s Show](/wiki/That_%2770s_Show \"That '70s Show\")*, in the season one episode “Stolen Car”, Bob Pinciotti tells his wife Midge, \"you can't tell me anything while I'm watching *Baretta*, it's complicated.\"\n\nIn the *[Party Down](/wiki/Party_Down \"Party Down\")* episode \"Investors Dinner\" (2009\\), the opening scene is an argument about why Tony Baretta is named so, with two characters arguing that it's because he carries a [Beretta](/wiki/Beretta \"Beretta\") pistol.\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [TV Character Bio: Tony Baretta](https://archive.today/20130105054342/http://www.tvacres.com/char_baretta_tony.htm) at [TV Acres](/wiki/TV_Acres \"TV Acres\")\n* [Roy Huggins discusses the creation of *Baretta* in an Archive of American Television Interview](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XsB5gsi2PzI)\n\n[Category:1975 American television series debuts](/wiki/Category:1975_American_television_series_debuts \"1975 American television series debuts\")\n[Category:1978 American television series endings](/wiki/Category:1978_American_television_series_endings \"1978 American television series endings\")\n[Category:1970s American crime drama television series](/wiki/Category:1970s_American_crime_drama_television_series \"1970s American crime drama television series\")\n[Category:American detective television series](/wiki/Category:American_detective_television_series \"American detective television series\")\n[Category:American English\\-language television shows](/wiki/Category:American_English-language_television_shows \"American English-language television shows\")\n[Category:Television series by Stephen J. Cannell Productions](/wiki/Category:Television_series_by_Stephen_J._Cannell_Productions \"Television series by Stephen J. Cannell Productions\")\n[Category:Television series by Universal Television](/wiki/Category:Television_series_by_Universal_Television \"Television series by Universal Television\")\n[Category:Television shows set in New Jersey](/wiki/Category:Television_shows_set_in_New_Jersey \"Television shows set in New Jersey\")\n[Category:Television series created by Stephen J. Cannell](/wiki/Category:Television_series_created_by_Stephen_J._Cannell \"Television series created by Stephen J. Cannell\")\n[Category:American Broadcasting Company television dramas](/wiki/Category:American_Broadcasting_Company_television_dramas \"American Broadcasting Company television dramas\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 27823944 ], "name": [ "GreenC bot" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "People", "Poetry", "Visual art", "Galleries", "Music", "Dance", "References", "Bibliography", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\nThe **New York School** was an informal group of American poets, painters, dancers, and musicians active in the 1950s and 1960s in New York City. They often drew inspiration from [surrealism](/wiki/Surrealism \"Surrealism\") and the contemporary [avant\\-garde](/wiki/Avant-garde \"Avant-garde\") art movements, in particular [action painting](/wiki/Action_painting \"Action painting\"), [abstract expressionism](/wiki/Abstract_expressionism \"Abstract expressionism\"), [jazz](/wiki/Jazz \"Jazz\"), improvisational theater, [experimental music](/wiki/Experimental_music \"Experimental music\"), and the interaction of friends in the New York City art world's [vanguard circle](/wiki/Avant-garde \"Avant-garde\").\n\n", "People\n------\n\n[Frank O'Hara](/wiki/Frank_O%27Hara \"Frank O'Hara\") was at the center of the group before his death in 1966\\. Because of his numerous friendships and his post as a curator at the [Museum of Modern Art](/wiki/Museum_of_Modern_Art \"Museum of Modern Art\"), he provided connections between the poets and painters such as [Jane Freilicher](/wiki/Jane_Freilicher \"Jane Freilicher\"), [Fairfield Porter](/wiki/Fairfield_Porter \"Fairfield Porter\"), and [Larry Rivers](/wiki/Larry_Rivers \"Larry Rivers\") (who was O'Hara's lover). There were many joint works and collaborations, particularly between poets such as O'Hara, [Kenneth Koch](/wiki/Kenneth_Koch \"Kenneth Koch\"), [John Ashbery](/wiki/John_Ashbery \"John Ashbery\"), and [James Schuyler](/wiki/James_Schuyler \"James Schuyler\"): Rivers inspired a play by Koch, Koch and Ashbery together wrote the poem \"A Postcard to Popeye\", Ashbery and Schuyler wrote the novel *A Nest of Ninnies*, and Schuyler collaborated on an [ode](/wiki/Ode \"Ode\") with O'Hara, whose portrait was painted by Rivers.[https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res\\=9F01E3DC1F3CF930A35752C0A96F958260](https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F01E3DC1F3CF930A35752C0A96F958260) [Yezzi, David](/wiki/Yezzi%2C_David \"Yezzi, David\"), \"Last One Off the Barricade Turn Out the Lights\", a review in *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")* of *The Last Avant\\-Garde: The Making of the New York School of Poets,* by David Lehman, Thursday, January 3, 1999\\.\n\n[Ron Padgett](/wiki/Ron_Padgett \"Ron Padgett\"), [Dick Gallup](/wiki/Dick_Gallup \"Dick Gallup\"), [Joe Brainard](/wiki/Joe_Brainard \"Joe Brainard\"), and [Ted Berrigan](/wiki/Ted_Berrigan \"Ted Berrigan\") came to the group from [Tulsa, Oklahoma](/wiki/Tulsa%2C_Oklahoma \"Tulsa, Oklahoma\").\n\nKoch, O'Hara, Schuyler, and Ashbery were quite different as poets, but they admired each other and had much in common personally:\n\n* Except for Schuyler, all overlapped at [Harvard University](/wiki/Harvard_University \"Harvard University\"),\n* Except for Ashbery, all did military service,\n* Except for Koch, all reviewed art,\n* Except for Ashbery, all lived in New York during their formative years as poets.\n\nAll four were inspired by [French Surrealists](/wiki/Surrealism \"Surrealism\") such as [Raymond Roussel](/wiki/Raymond_Roussel \"Raymond Roussel\"), [Pierre Reverdy](/wiki/Pierre_Reverdy \"Pierre Reverdy\"), and [Guillaume Apollinaire](/wiki/Guillaume_Apollinaire \"Guillaume Apollinaire\"). [David Lehman](/wiki/David_Lehman \"David Lehman\"), in his book on the New York poets, wrote: \"They favored wit, humor and the advanced irony of the [blague](/wiki/wikt:Blague \"Blague\") (that is, the insolent prank or jest) in ways more suggestive of [Jasper Johns](/wiki/Jasper_Johns \"Jasper Johns\") and [Robert Rauschenberg](/wiki/Robert_Rauschenberg \"Robert Rauschenberg\") than of the New York School [abstract expressionist](/wiki/Abstract_expressionism \"Abstract expressionism\") painters after whom they were named.\"\n\n", "Poetry\n------\n\nConcerning the New York School poets, critics argued that their work was a reaction to the [Confessionalist](/wiki/Confessional_poetry \"Confessional poetry\") movement in Contemporary Poetry. Their poetic subject matter was often light, violent, or observational, while their writing style was often described as cosmopolitan and world\\-traveled.\n\nThe poets often wrote in an immediate and spontaneous manner reminiscent of [stream of consciousness](/wiki/Stream_of_consciousness_%28narrative_mode%29 \"Stream of consciousness (narrative mode)\") writing, often using vivid imagery. They drew on inspiration from [Surrealism](/wiki/Surrealism \"Surrealism\") and the contemporary [avant\\-garde](/wiki/Avant-garde \"Avant-garde\") art movements, in particular the [action painting](/wiki/Action_painting \"Action painting\") of their friends in the New York City art world circle such as [Jackson Pollock](/wiki/Jackson_Pollock \"Jackson Pollock\") and [Willem de Kooning](/wiki/Willem_de_Kooning \"Willem de Kooning\").\n\nPoets often associated with the New York School include [John Ashbery](/wiki/John_Ashbery \"John Ashbery\"), [Frank O'Hara](/wiki/Frank_O%27Hara \"Frank O'Hara\"), [Joe Brainard](/wiki/Joe_Brainard \"Joe Brainard\"), [Kenneth Koch](/wiki/Kenneth_Koch \"Kenneth Koch\"), [James Schuyler](/wiki/James_Schuyler \"James Schuyler\"), [Barbara Guest](/wiki/Barbara_Guest \"Barbara Guest\"), [Ted Berrigan](/wiki/Ted_Berrigan \"Ted Berrigan\"), [Bernadette Mayer](/wiki/Bernadette_Mayer \"Bernadette Mayer\"), [Alice Notley](/wiki/Alice_Notley \"Alice Notley\"), [Tom Clark](/wiki/Tom_Clark_%28poet%29 \"Tom Clark (poet)\"), [Clark Coolidge](/wiki/Clark_Coolidge \"Clark Coolidge\"), [David Shapiro](/wiki/David_Shapiro_%28poet%29 \"David Shapiro (poet)\"), [Lorenzo Thomas](/wiki/Lorenzo_Thomas_%28poet%29 \"Lorenzo Thomas (poet)\"), [Ted Greenwald](/wiki/Ted_Greenwald \"Ted Greenwald\"), [Eileen Myles](/wiki/Eileen_Myles \"Eileen Myles\"), [Kenward Elmslie](/wiki/Kenward_Elmslie \"Kenward Elmslie\"), [John Giorno](/wiki/John_Giorno \"John Giorno\"), [Barbara Barg](/wiki/Barbara_Barg \"Barbara Barg\"), [Jerome Sala](/wiki/Jerome_Sala \"Jerome Sala\"), [Elaine Equi](/wiki/Elaine_Equi \"Elaine Equi\"), [Frank Lima](/wiki/Frank_Lima_%28poet%29 \"Frank Lima (poet)\"), [Ron Padgett](/wiki/Ron_Padgett \"Ron Padgett\"), [Lewis Warsh](/wiki/Lewis_Warsh \"Lewis Warsh\"), [Tom Savage](/wiki/Tom_Savage_%28poet%29 \"Tom Savage (poet)\") and [Joseph Ceravolo](/wiki/Joseph_Ceravolo \"Joseph Ceravolo\").\n\n", "Visual art\n----------\n\nThe New York School which represented the New York [abstract expressionists](/wiki/Abstract_expressionism \"Abstract expressionism\") of the 1950s was documented through a series of artists' [committee](/wiki/Committee \"Committee\") invitational [exhibitions](/wiki/Art_exhibition \"Art exhibition\") commencing with the [9th Street Art Exhibition](/wiki/9th_Street_Art_Exhibition \"9th Street Art Exhibition\") in 1951 and followed by consecutive exhibitions at the Stable Gallery, NYC: Second Annual Exhibition of Painting and Sculpture, 1953;[*Second Annual Exhibition of Painting and Sculpture,* (poster)](http://albertkotin.com/stable1953.jpg) , *Albertkotin.com*. Third Annual Exhibition of Painting and Sculpture, 1954;[*Third Annual Exhibition of Painting and Sculpture,* (poster)](http://albertkotin.com/stable1954.jpg) , *Albertkotin.com*. Fourth Annual Exhibition of Painting and Sculpture, 1955;[*Fourth Annual Exhibition of Painting and Sculpture,* (poster)](http://albertkotin.com/stable1955.jpg) , *Albertkotin.com*. Fifth Annual Exhibitions of Painting and Sculpture, 1956[*Fifth Annual Exhibition of Painting and Sculpture,* (poster)](http://albertkotin.com/stable1956.jpg) , *Albertkotin.com*. and Sixth New York Artists’ Annual Exhibition, 1957\\.[*New York Artists' 6th Annual Exhibition.* (poster)](http://albertkotin.com/stable1957.jpg) , *Albertkotin.com*.\n\nIncluded in the New York School were [Bradley Walker Tomlin](/wiki/Bradley_Walker_Tomlin \"Bradley Walker Tomlin\"), [Robert Goodnough](/wiki/Robert_Goodnough \"Robert Goodnough\"), [Rosemarie Beck](/wiki/Rosemarie_Beck \"Rosemarie Beck\"), [Joan Mitchell](/wiki/Joan_Mitchell \"Joan Mitchell\"), and [Philip Guston](/wiki/Philip_Guston \"Philip Guston\").\n\nOther New York School artists, including those of the 1960s, have included painters [Richard Pousette\\-Dart](/wiki/Richard_Pousette-Dart \"Richard Pousette-Dart\"), [Cecile Gray Bazelon](/wiki/Cecile_Gray_Bazelon \"Cecile Gray Bazelon\"), [William Baziotes](/wiki/William_Baziotes \"William Baziotes\"), [Nell Blaine](/wiki/Nell_Blaine \"Nell Blaine\"), [Seymour Boardman](/wiki/Seymour_Boardman \"Seymour Boardman\"), [Ilya Bolotowsky](/wiki/Ilya_Bolotowsky \"Ilya Bolotowsky\"), [Ernest Briggs](/wiki/Ernest_Briggs \"Ernest Briggs\"), [Peter Busa](/wiki/Peter_Busa \"Peter Busa\"), [Lawrence Calcagno](/wiki/Lawrence_Calcagno \"Lawrence Calcagno\"), [Nicolas Carone](/wiki/Nicolas_Carone \"Nicolas Carone\"), [Nanno de Groot](/wiki/Nanno_de_Groot \"Nanno de Groot\"), [Beauford Delaney](/wiki/Beauford_Delaney \"Beauford Delaney\"), [Lynne Mapp Drexler](/wiki/Lynne_Mapp_Drexler \"Lynne Mapp Drexler\"), [Edward Dugmore](/wiki/Edward_Dugmore \"Edward Dugmore\"), [Amaranth Ehrenhalt](/wiki/Amaranth_Ehrenhalt \"Amaranth Ehrenhalt\"), [John Ferren](/wiki/John_Ferren \"John Ferren\"), [Perle Fine](/wiki/Perle_Fine \"Perle Fine\"), [Joseph Glasco](/wiki/Joseph_Glasco \"Joseph Glasco\"), [Karl Hagedorn](/wiki/Karl_Hagedorn_%28German-American_painter%29 \"Karl Hagedorn (German-American painter)\"), [John Hultberg](/wiki/John_Hultberg \"John Hultberg\"), [Albert Kotin](/wiki/Albert_Kotin \"Albert Kotin\"), [Clarence Major](/wiki/Clarence_Major \"Clarence Major\"), [Knox Martin](/wiki/Knox_Martin \"Knox Martin\"), [Hugh Mesibov](/wiki/Hugh_Mesibov \"Hugh Mesibov\"), Ray Parker, [Misha Reznikoff](/wiki/Misha_Reznikoff \"Misha Reznikoff\"), [Joop Sanders](/wiki/Joop_Sanders \"Joop Sanders\") [William Scharf](/wiki/William_Scharf \"William Scharf\"), [Ethel Schwabacher](/wiki/Ethel_Schwabacher \"Ethel Schwabacher\"), [Kendall Shaw](/wiki/Kendall_Shaw \"Kendall Shaw\"), [Gloria Shapiro](/wiki/Gloria_Shapiro \"Gloria Shapiro\"), [Thomas Sills](/wiki/Thomas_Sills \"Thomas Sills\"), [Merton Simpson](/wiki/Merton_Simpson \"Merton Simpson\"), [Hedda Sterne](/wiki/Hedda_Sterne \"Hedda Sterne\"), and [Jack Stewart](/wiki/Jack_Stewart_%28artist%29 \"Jack Stewart (artist)\").[\"The Art of Karl Hagedorn\"](http://www.highbrowmagazine.com/3962-art-karl-hagedorn), *Highbrow Magazine*, May 7, 2014\\. In addition, painter/sculptors [Karel Appel](/wiki/Karel_Appel \"Karel Appel\"), [Claire Falkenstein](/wiki/Claire_Falkenstein \"Claire Falkenstein\"), [Betty Parsons](/wiki/Betty_Parsons \"Betty Parsons\"), and [Antoni Tàpies](/wiki/Antoni_T%C3%A0pies \"Antoni Tàpies\") are known as members of the New York School.Holland Cotter (July 13, 2005\\). [\"'Betty Parsons and the Women'; An Artist and Dealer and the Women She Promoted\"](https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/13/arts/design/13chan.html), *The New York Times*.\n\n### Galleries\n\nThe [Anita Shapolsky Gallery](/wiki/Anita_Shapolsky_Gallery \"Anita Shapolsky Gallery\") in New York City specializes in 1950s and 1960s New York School art, and exhibits [expressionism](/wiki/Expressionism \"Expressionism\"), [geometric abstraction](/wiki/Geometric_abstraction \"Geometric abstraction\"), and [painterly](/wiki/Painterly \"Painterly\") [abstraction](/wiki/Abstract_art \"Abstract art\"). It most frequently exhibits works in [oil](/wiki/Oil_painting \"Oil painting\") and [acrylic](/wiki/Acrylic_paint \"Acrylic paint\"), as well as sculpture. The [Tibor de Nagy Gallery](/wiki/Tibor_de_Nagy_Gallery \"Tibor de Nagy Gallery\") and [Stable Gallery](/wiki/Stable_Gallery \"Stable Gallery\") have also exhibited New York School art, and in 1998, the [Gagosian Gallery](/wiki/Gagosian_Gallery \"Gagosian Gallery\") also in New York City presented an exhibit of New York School art.[\"Raymond Spillenger of the New York School Gets Noticed\"](https://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/08/arts/design/raymond-spillenger-of-the-new-york-school-gets-noticed.html), *The New York Times*, June 8, 2014\\.\n\n", "### Galleries\n\nThe [Anita Shapolsky Gallery](/wiki/Anita_Shapolsky_Gallery \"Anita Shapolsky Gallery\") in New York City specializes in 1950s and 1960s New York School art, and exhibits [expressionism](/wiki/Expressionism \"Expressionism\"), [geometric abstraction](/wiki/Geometric_abstraction \"Geometric abstraction\"), and [painterly](/wiki/Painterly \"Painterly\") [abstraction](/wiki/Abstract_art \"Abstract art\"). It most frequently exhibits works in [oil](/wiki/Oil_painting \"Oil painting\") and [acrylic](/wiki/Acrylic_paint \"Acrylic paint\"), as well as sculpture. The [Tibor de Nagy Gallery](/wiki/Tibor_de_Nagy_Gallery \"Tibor de Nagy Gallery\") and [Stable Gallery](/wiki/Stable_Gallery \"Stable Gallery\") have also exhibited New York School art, and in 1998, the [Gagosian Gallery](/wiki/Gagosian_Gallery \"Gagosian Gallery\") also in New York City presented an exhibit of New York School art.[\"Raymond Spillenger of the New York School Gets Noticed\"](https://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/08/arts/design/raymond-spillenger-of-the-new-york-school-gets-noticed.html), *The New York Times*, June 8, 2014\\.\n\n", "Music\n-----\n\nThe term also refers to a circle of composers in the 1950s which included [John Cage](/wiki/John_Cage \"John Cage\"), [Morton Feldman](/wiki/Morton_Feldman \"Morton Feldman\"), [Earle Brown](/wiki/Earle_Brown \"Earle Brown\") and [Christian Wolff](/wiki/Christian_Wolff_%28composer%29 \"Christian Wolff (composer)\").See David Ni of Music and the Visual Arts, Routledge 2001, pp. 17–56\\. Their music influenced the music and events of the [Fluxus](/wiki/Fluxus \"Fluxus\") group, and drew its name from the [Abstract Expressionist](/wiki/Abstract_expressionism \"Abstract expressionism\") painters above.\n\n", "Dance\n-----\n\nDuring the 1960s the [Judson Dance Theater](/wiki/Judson_Dance_Theater \"Judson Dance Theater\") located at the [Judson Memorial Church](/wiki/Judson_Memorial_Church \"Judson Memorial Church\"), New York City, revolutionized [Modern dance](/wiki/Modern_dance \"Modern dance\"). Combining in new ways the idea of [Performance art](/wiki/Performance_art \"Performance art\"), radical and new Choreography, sound from [avant\\-garde](/wiki/Avant-garde \"Avant-garde\") composers, and dancers in collaboration with several New York School Visual artists.\n\nThe group of artists that formed Judson Dance Theater are considered the founders of [Postmodern dance](/wiki/Postmodern_dance \"Postmodern dance\"). The theater grew out of a dance composition class taught by [Robert Dunn](/wiki/Robert_Ellis_Dunn \"Robert Ellis Dunn\"), a musician who had studied with [John Cage](/wiki/John_Cage \"John Cage\"). The artists involved with Judson Dance Theater were avant\\-garde experimenatalists who rejected the confines of ballet technique, vocabulary and theory.\n\nThe first Judson concert took place on July 6, 1962, with dance works presented by Steve Paxton, [Freddie Herko](/wiki/Freddie_Herko \"Freddie Herko\"), [David Gordon](/wiki/David_Gordon_%28choreographer%29 \"David Gordon (choreographer)\"), Alex and Deborah Hay, Yvonne Rainer, Elaine Summers, William Davis, and Ruth Emerson. Seminal dance artists that were a part of the Judson Dance Theater include:\n[David Gordon](/wiki/David_Gordon_%28choreographer%29 \"David Gordon (choreographer)\"), [Steve Paxton](/wiki/Steve_Paxton \"Steve Paxton\"), [Yvonne Rainer](/wiki/Yvonne_Rainer \"Yvonne Rainer\"), [Trisha Brown](/wiki/Trisha_Brown \"Trisha Brown\"), Lucinda Childs, Deborah Hay, [Elaine Summers](/wiki/Elaine_Summers \"Elaine Summers\"), Sally Gross, Aileen Passloff, and [Meredith Monk](/wiki/Meredith_Monk \"Meredith Monk\"). The years 1962 to 1964 are considered the golden age of the Judson Dance Theater.\n\nDuring the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s New York School artists collaborated with several other choreographer / dancers including: Simone Forti, Anna Halprin, [Merce Cunningham](/wiki/Merce_Cunningham \"Merce Cunningham\"), [Martha Graham](/wiki/Martha_Graham \"Martha Graham\"), and [Paul Taylor](/wiki/Paul_Taylor_%28choreographer%29 \"Paul Taylor (choreographer)\").\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "Bibliography\n------------\n\n* Philip Pavia; Natalie Edgar, [*Club without walls: selection from the Journals of Philip Pavia*](http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/154659564&referer=brief_results), New York: Midmarch Arts, 2007\\.\n* Irving Sandler, [‘’The New York School: the painters \\& sculptors of the fifties,’’](http://www.worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/3205093&referer=brief_results), New York; London: Harper and Row, 1978\\. , \n* Irving Sandler, [‘’ The triumph of American painting: a history of abstract expressionism’’](http://www.worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/16378551&referer=brief_results), New York; London: Harper and Row, 1977\\. , \n* Marika Herskovic, [*American Abstract Expressionism of the 1950s An Illustrated Survey,*](http://www.worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/50253062&tab=holdings) (New York School Press, 2003\\.) \n* Marika Herskovic, [*New York School Abstract Expressionists Artists Choice by Artists,*](http://www.worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/50666793&tab=holdings) (New York School Press, 2000\\.) \n* *Statutes of Liberty, The New York School of Poets*, Geoff Ward, Second Edition, 2001\\.\n* *[The New American Poetry, 1945–1960](/wiki/The_New_American_Poetry_1945-1960 \"The New American Poetry 1945-1960\")*, Donald Merriam Allen, 1969\\.\n* *An Anthology of New York Poets*, [Ron Padgett](/wiki/Ron_Padgett \"Ron Padgett\") (ed.) and [David Shapiro](/wiki/David_Shapiro_%28poet%29 \"David Shapiro (poet)\") (ed.), 1970\\.\n* [Marjorie Perloff](/wiki/Marjorie_Perloff \"Marjorie Perloff\"), *Frank O'Hara: Poet Among Painters*, [University of Texas Press](/wiki/University_of_Texas_Press \"University of Texas Press\"), 1977\\.\n* *The Last Avant\\-Garde: The Making of the New York School of Poets*, [David Lehman](/wiki/David_Lehman \"David Lehman\"), 1998\\.\n* Maurice Tuchman (ed.), *The New York School,* Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1965\\.\n* Dore Ashton, *The New York School: A Cultural Reckoning*, Penguin Books, 1979\\.\n* Serge Guilbaut, *How New York Stole the Idea of Modern Art : Abstract Expressionism, Freedom, and the Cold War,* Chicago : [University of Chicago Press](/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press \"University of Chicago Press\"), 1983\\.\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [Tate Museum page](https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/n/new-york-school)\n* [New York School, Art, in Britannica](https://www.britannica.com/art/New-York-school-art-group)\n* [The New York School, Robert Motherwell and the Abstract Expressionism](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZxCCa-j9T_s), a shorten taken from Storming the Citadel, 1991\\. Video released by art critic and curator dr [Alain Chivilò](/wiki/Alain_Chivil%C3%B2 \"Alain Chivilò\")\n\n \n\n[Category:Abstract expressionism](/wiki/Category:Abstract_expressionism \"Abstract expressionism\")\n[Category:American contemporary art](/wiki/Category:American_contemporary_art \"American contemporary art\")\n[Category:Modern art](/wiki/Category:Modern_art \"Modern art\")\n[Category:Modernism](/wiki/Category:Modernism \"Modernism\")\n[Category:American literary movements](/wiki/Category:American_literary_movements \"American literary movements\")\n[Category:Cultural history of New York City](/wiki/Category:Cultural_history_of_New_York_City \"Cultural history of New York City\")\n[Category:Modernist poetry in English](/wiki/Category:Modernist_poetry_in_English \"Modernist poetry in English\")\n[Category:American art movements](/wiki/Category:American_art_movements \"American art movements\")\n[Category:20th\\-century American literature](/wiki/Category:20th-century_American_literature \"20th-century American literature\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 38411991 ], "name": [ "Anthropophoca" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "General information", "Basal traits", "Behavior", "Taxonomy", "''Zaglossus attenboroughi''", "''Zaglossus bartoni''", "''Zaglossus bruijni''", "See also", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n* + - * + - * \n\nThe **long\\-beaked echidnas** (genus ***Zaglossus***) make up one of the two extant [genera](/wiki/Genus \"Genus\") of [echidnas](/wiki/Echidna \"Echidna\"): there are three [extant](/wiki/Extant_taxon \"Extant taxon\") species, all living in [New Guinea](/wiki/New_Guinea \"New Guinea\"). They are medium\\-sized, solitary mammals covered with coarse hair and spines made of [keratin](/wiki/Keratin \"Keratin\"). They have short, strong limbs with large claws, and are [powerful diggers](/wiki/Fossorial \"Fossorial\"). They forage in [leaf litter](/wiki/Leaf_litter \"Leaf litter\") on the [forest floor](/wiki/Forest_floor \"Forest floor\"), eating [earthworms](/wiki/Earthworm \"Earthworm\") and [insects](/wiki/Insect \"Insect\").\n\nThe extant species are:\n* [Western long\\-beaked echidna](/wiki/Western_long-beaked_echidna \"Western long-beaked echidna\") (*Z. bruijni*), of the highland forests;\n* [Attenborough's long\\-beaked echidna](/wiki/Attenborough%27s_long-beaked_echidna \"Attenborough's long-beaked echidna\") (*Z. attenboroughi*), discovered by Western science in 1961 (described in 1998\\) and preferring a still higher habitat;\n* [Eastern long\\-beaked echidna](/wiki/Eastern_long-beaked_echidna \"Eastern long-beaked echidna\") (*Z. bartoni*), of which four distinct subspecies have been identified.\n\nThe Eastern species is listed as vulnerable, while the Attenborough's and western long\\-beaked echidna species are listed as [Critically Endangered](/wiki/Critically_Endangered \"Critically Endangered\") by the [IUCN](/wiki/IUCN \"IUCN\").\n\nA number of extinct species were known in the genus, but they are currently treated as members of their own genera, such as *[Murrayglossus](/wiki/Murrayglossus \"Murrayglossus\")* and *[Megalibgwilia](/wiki/Megalibgwilia \"Megalibgwilia\")*.\n\n", "General information\n-------------------\n\nThe long\\-beaked echidna is larger\\-bodied than the [short\\-beaked](/wiki/Short-beaked_echidna \"Short-beaked echidna\") and has fewer, shorter [spines](/wiki/Spine_%28zoology%29 \"Spine (zoology)\") scattered among its coarse hairs. The [snout](/wiki/Snout \"Snout\") is two\\-thirds of the head's length and curves slightly downward. There are five [digits](/wiki/Digit_%28anatomy%29 \"Digit (anatomy)\") on both hind and forefeet, but on the former, only the three middle toes are equipped with [claws](/wiki/Claw \"Claw\"). Like the other species of echidna, long\\-beaked echidnas have [spurs](/wiki/Spur_%28zoology%29 \"Spur (zoology)\") on their hind legs. These spurs are [vestigial](/wiki/Vestigiality \"Vestigiality\"); part of a repressed [venom system](/wiki/Venom \"Venom\") akin to the one on the [platypus](/wiki/Platypus \"Platypus\"). Male spurs are nonfunctional and females usually lose their spurs as they age.\n\n### Basal traits\n\nThe breeding female develops a temporary abdominal [brood patch](/wiki/Brood_patch \"Brood patch\"), in which her egg is [incubated](/wiki/Egg_incubation \"Egg incubation\") and in which the newborn young (or puggle) remains in safety as it feeds and develops. Since they reproduce by laying eggs which are incubated outside of the mother's body it is accompanied by the [prototherian](/wiki/Prototheria \"Prototheria\") lactation process, which shows that they are [basal mammals](/wiki/Evolution_of_mammals \"Evolution of mammals\"). The long\\-beaked echidna has a short [weaning](/wiki/Weaning \"Weaning\") period. During this time milk is their only source of nutrition and protection for the hatchlings; they are [altricial](/wiki/Altricial \"Altricial\") and immunologically naive.\n\nThe long\\-beaked echidna's limb posture is sprawled, similar to extant reptiles like [lizards](/wiki/Lizard \"Lizard\") and [crocodilians](/wiki/Crocodilia \"Crocodilia\"). Although the stances between the animal groups are similar, the way the limbs move are very different between the [clades](/wiki/Clade \"Clade\"). The echidna swings its limbs at a 45 degree angle while a lizard's is more horizontal. They walk with two legs on one side of the body moving in unison.\n\n### Behavior\n\nThese echidnas are primarily [nocturnal](/wiki/Nocturnal_animal \"Nocturnal animal\"); foraging for its [insect food](/wiki/Entomophagy \"Entomophagy\") on the [forest floor](/wiki/Forest_floor \"Forest floor\"). These animals are not usually found foraging in the daylight. The long\\-beaked echidna establish and are commonly found in [dens or burrows](/wiki/Burrow \"Burrow\").\n\nA study published in 2015 shows that *Zaglossus spp.* in captivity exhibited \"[handedness](/wiki/Handedness \"Handedness\")\" when performing certain behaviors related to [foraging](/wiki/Foraging \"Foraging\"), [locomotion](/wiki/Animal_locomotion \"Animal locomotion\"), and male\\-female interactions. The results of this study suggest that handedness in mammals is a [basal trait](/wiki/Basal_trait \"Basal trait\") rather than one [derived several times](/wiki/Convergent_evolution \"Convergent evolution\") in extant mammals.\n\nLittle is known [about the life](/wiki/Life_history_theory \"Life history theory\") of these rarely seen animals, but it is believed to have habits similar to those of the short\\-beaked echidna; unlike them, however, the long\\-beaked echidnas feed primarily on [earthworms](/wiki/Earthworm \"Earthworm\") rather than [ants](/wiki/Ant \"Ant\"), as they live in much more [humid](/wiki/Humidity \"Humidity\") environments than the smaller *Tachyglossus* echidna. The population of echidnas in New Guinea is declining because of [forest clearing](/wiki/Forest_clearing \"Forest clearing\") and [overhunting](/wiki/Overhunting \"Overhunting\"), and the animal is much in need of protection. In November 2023, a *Zaglossus attenboroughi* was first recorded alive on video in Indonesia's [Cyclops Mountains](/wiki/Cyclops_Mountains \"Cyclops Mountains\"), the first confirmed sightings of an individual in 62 years.\n\n", "### Basal traits\n\nThe breeding female develops a temporary abdominal [brood patch](/wiki/Brood_patch \"Brood patch\"), in which her egg is [incubated](/wiki/Egg_incubation \"Egg incubation\") and in which the newborn young (or puggle) remains in safety as it feeds and develops. Since they reproduce by laying eggs which are incubated outside of the mother's body it is accompanied by the [prototherian](/wiki/Prototheria \"Prototheria\") lactation process, which shows that they are [basal mammals](/wiki/Evolution_of_mammals \"Evolution of mammals\"). The long\\-beaked echidna has a short [weaning](/wiki/Weaning \"Weaning\") period. During this time milk is their only source of nutrition and protection for the hatchlings; they are [altricial](/wiki/Altricial \"Altricial\") and immunologically naive.\n\nThe long\\-beaked echidna's limb posture is sprawled, similar to extant reptiles like [lizards](/wiki/Lizard \"Lizard\") and [crocodilians](/wiki/Crocodilia \"Crocodilia\"). Although the stances between the animal groups are similar, the way the limbs move are very different between the [clades](/wiki/Clade \"Clade\"). The echidna swings its limbs at a 45 degree angle while a lizard's is more horizontal. They walk with two legs on one side of the body moving in unison.\n\n", "### Behavior\n\nThese echidnas are primarily [nocturnal](/wiki/Nocturnal_animal \"Nocturnal animal\"); foraging for its [insect food](/wiki/Entomophagy \"Entomophagy\") on the [forest floor](/wiki/Forest_floor \"Forest floor\"). These animals are not usually found foraging in the daylight. The long\\-beaked echidna establish and are commonly found in [dens or burrows](/wiki/Burrow \"Burrow\").\n\nA study published in 2015 shows that *Zaglossus spp.* in captivity exhibited \"[handedness](/wiki/Handedness \"Handedness\")\" when performing certain behaviors related to [foraging](/wiki/Foraging \"Foraging\"), [locomotion](/wiki/Animal_locomotion \"Animal locomotion\"), and male\\-female interactions. The results of this study suggest that handedness in mammals is a [basal trait](/wiki/Basal_trait \"Basal trait\") rather than one [derived several times](/wiki/Convergent_evolution \"Convergent evolution\") in extant mammals.\n\nLittle is known [about the life](/wiki/Life_history_theory \"Life history theory\") of these rarely seen animals, but it is believed to have habits similar to those of the short\\-beaked echidna; unlike them, however, the long\\-beaked echidnas feed primarily on [earthworms](/wiki/Earthworm \"Earthworm\") rather than [ants](/wiki/Ant \"Ant\"), as they live in much more [humid](/wiki/Humidity \"Humidity\") environments than the smaller *Tachyglossus* echidna. The population of echidnas in New Guinea is declining because of [forest clearing](/wiki/Forest_clearing \"Forest clearing\") and [overhunting](/wiki/Overhunting \"Overhunting\"), and the animal is much in need of protection. In November 2023, a *Zaglossus attenboroughi* was first recorded alive on video in Indonesia's [Cyclops Mountains](/wiki/Cyclops_Mountains \"Cyclops Mountains\"), the first confirmed sightings of an individual in 62 years.\n\n", "Taxonomy\n--------\n\n### *Zaglossus attenboroughi*\n\n* Habitat: known only from the [Cyclops Mountains](/wiki/Cyclops_Mountains \"Cyclops Mountains\") of [Jayapura Regency](/wiki/Jayapura_Regency \"Jayapura Regency\"), [Papua](/wiki/Papua_%28province%29 \"Papua (province)\"), Indonesia\n* Period: [Holocene](/wiki/Holocene \"Holocene\")\n* Critically endangered Database entry includes justification for why this species is listed as critically endangered.\n\n### *Zaglossus bartoni*\n\n* Habitat: on the central cordillera between the [Paniai Lakes](/wiki/Paniai_Lakes \"Paniai Lakes\") and the Nanneau Range, as well as the [Huon Peninsula](/wiki/Huon_Peninsula \"Huon Peninsula\")\n* Period: [Holocene](/wiki/Holocene \"Holocene\")\n* Vulnerable Database entry includes justification for why this species is listed as critically endangered.\n\n### *Zaglossus bruijni*\n\n* Habitat: [highland forests](/wiki/Montane_forest \"Montane forest\") of [West Papua](/wiki/West_Papua_%28province%29 \"West Papua (province)\") and [Papua](/wiki/Papua_%28Indonesian_province%29 \"Papua (Indonesian province)\") provinces, [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia \"Indonesia\"), [New Guinea](/wiki/New_Guinea \"New Guinea\")\n* Period: [Holocene](/wiki/Holocene \"Holocene\")\n* Critically endangered Database entry includes justification for why this species is listed as critically endangered\n", "### *Zaglossus attenboroughi*\n\n* Habitat: known only from the [Cyclops Mountains](/wiki/Cyclops_Mountains \"Cyclops Mountains\") of [Jayapura Regency](/wiki/Jayapura_Regency \"Jayapura Regency\"), [Papua](/wiki/Papua_%28province%29 \"Papua (province)\"), Indonesia\n* Period: [Holocene](/wiki/Holocene \"Holocene\")\n* Critically endangered Database entry includes justification for why this species is listed as critically endangered.\n", "### *Zaglossus bartoni*\n\n* Habitat: on the central cordillera between the [Paniai Lakes](/wiki/Paniai_Lakes \"Paniai Lakes\") and the Nanneau Range, as well as the [Huon Peninsula](/wiki/Huon_Peninsula \"Huon Peninsula\")\n* Period: [Holocene](/wiki/Holocene \"Holocene\")\n* Vulnerable Database entry includes justification for why this species is listed as critically endangered.\n", "### *Zaglossus bruijni*\n\n* Habitat: [highland forests](/wiki/Montane_forest \"Montane forest\") of [West Papua](/wiki/West_Papua_%28province%29 \"West Papua (province)\") and [Papua](/wiki/Papua_%28Indonesian_province%29 \"Papua (Indonesian province)\") provinces, [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia \"Indonesia\"), [New Guinea](/wiki/New_Guinea \"New Guinea\")\n* Period: [Holocene](/wiki/Holocene \"Holocene\")\n* Critically endangered Database entry includes justification for why this species is listed as critically endangered\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [Fossil monotremes](/wiki/Monotreme%23Fossil_monotremes \"Monotreme#Fossil monotremes\")\n* [List of mammal genera](/wiki/List_of_mammal_genera \"List of mammal genera\")\n* [List of recently extinct mammals](/wiki/List_of_recently_extinct_mammals \"List of recently extinct mammals\")\n* [List of prehistoric mammals](/wiki/List_of_prehistoric_mammals \"List of prehistoric mammals\")\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* EDGE of Existence [(*Zaglossus* spp.)](http://www.edgeofexistence.org/mammals/species_info.php?id=2) – Saving the World's most Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered (EDGE) species\n* ARKive – [images and movies of the long\\-beaked echidna (*Zaglossus* spp.)](https://web.archive.org/web/20060426170156/http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/mammals/Zaglossus_spp/)\n* [A summary, including references, on animalinfo.org](http://www.animalinfo.org/species/zaglbrui.htm)\n* [(Long Necked) Echidna find rewrites natural history books](https://web.archive.org/web/20130107090852/http://au.news.yahoo.com/queensland/a/-/latest/15762284/echidna-find-rewrites-natural-history-books/) – 'Mount Anderson, West Kimberley'\n\n[Category:Monotremes of New Guinea](/wiki/Category:Monotremes_of_New_Guinea \"Monotremes of New Guinea\")\n[Category:Extant Miocene first appearances](/wiki/Category:Extant_Miocene_first_appearances \"Extant Miocene first appearances\")\n[Category:Taxa named by Theodore Gill](/wiki/Category:Taxa_named_by_Theodore_Gill \"Taxa named by Theodore Gill\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 21621158 ], "name": [ "Sigehelmus" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Biography", "Career in the United States", "Death", "Work", "Biology", "Evolution", "''Walam Olum''", "Study of prehistoric cultures", "Legacy", "Published works", "In popular culture", "Correspondence", "See also", "References", "Bibliography", "Further reading", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 2, 2, 3, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**Constantine Samuel Rafinesque\\-Schmaltz** (; 22 October 178318 September 1840\\) was a French early 19th\\-century [polymath](/wiki/Polymath \"Polymath\") born near [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople \"Constantinople\") in the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\") and self\\-educated in France. He traveled as a young man in the United States, ultimately settling in Ohio in 1815, where he made notable contributions to botany, zoology, and the study of [prehistoric earthworks in North America](/wiki/Mound_Builders \"Mound Builders\"). He also contributed to the study of ancient [Mesoamerican linguistics](/wiki/Mesoamerican_languages \"Mesoamerican languages\"), in addition to work he had already completed in Europe.\n\nRafinesque was an eccentric and erratic genius. He was an [autodidact](/wiki/Autodidact \"Autodidact\"), who excelled in various fields of knowledge, as a zoologist, botanist, writer and [polyglot](/wiki/Polyglot_%28person%29 \"Polyglot (person)\"). He wrote prolifically on such diverse topics as anthropology, biology, geology, and linguistics, but was honored in none of these fields during his lifetime. Indeed, he was an outcast in the American scientific community and his submissions were automatically rejected by leading journals. Among his theories were that ancestors of Native Americans had migrated by the Bering Sea from Asia to North America, and that the Americas were populated by black indigenous peoples at the time of European contact.\n\n", "Biography\n---------\n\nRafinesque was born on 22 October 1783, in [Galata](/wiki/Galata \"Galata\"), a suburb of Constantinople. His father, F. G. Rafinesque, was a French merchant from [Marseilles](/wiki/Marseilles \"Marseilles\"); his mother, M. Schmaltz, was of German descent and born in Constantinople. His father died in [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia \"Philadelphia\") about 1793\\. Rafinesque spent his youth in Marseilles, and was mostly self\\-educated; he never attended university.[Discovering Lewis \\& Clark: biography of Rafinesque](http://lewis-clark.org/content/content-article.asp?ArticleID=518) ; accessed : 17 November 2010[\"The oddest of characters\"](http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1985/4/1985_4_58.shtml) , *American Heritage*, April 1985; accessed 17 November 2010\\. By the age of 12, he had begun collecting plants for an [herbarium](/wiki/Herbarium \"Herbarium\"). By 14, he had taught himself Greek and Latin because he needed to follow footnotes in the books he was reading in his paternal grandmother's libraries. In 1802, at the age of 19, Rafinesque sailed to Philadelphia in the United States with his younger brother. They traveled through [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania \"Pennsylvania\") and [Delaware](/wiki/Delaware \"Delaware\"), where he made the acquaintance of most of the young nation's few botanists.\n\nIn 1805, Rafinesque returned to Europe with his collection of botanical specimens, and settled in [Palermo](/wiki/Palermo \"Palermo\"), Sicily, where he learned Italian. He became so successful in trade that he retired by age 25 and devoted his time entirely to natural history. For a time Rafinesque also worked as secretary to the American consul. During his stay in Sicily, he studied plants and fishes, naming many newly discovered species of each. He was elected a Fellow of the [American Academy of Arts and Sciences](/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences \"American Academy of Arts and Sciences\") in 1808\\.\n\n### Career in the United States\n\nRafinesque had a [common\\-law wife](/wiki/Common-law_marriage \"Common-law marriage\"). After their son died in 1815, he left her and returned to the United States. When his ship *Union* foundered near the coast of Connecticut, he lost all his books (50 boxes) and all his specimens (including more than 60,000 [shells](/wiki/Mollusc_shell \"Mollusc shell\")). Cited in . Settling in New York, Rafinesque became a founding member of the newly established **[Lyceum of Natural History](/wiki/Lyceum_of_Natural_History \"Lyceum of Natural History\")**. In 1817, his book * or A Flora of the State of Louisiana* was strongly criticized by fellow botanists, which caused his writings to be ignored. By 1818, he had collected and named more than 250 new species of plants and animals. Slowly, he was rebuilding his collection of objects from nature.\n\nIn the summer of 1818, in [Henderson, Kentucky](/wiki/Henderson%2C_Kentucky \"Henderson, Kentucky\"), Rafinesque made the acquaintance of fellow naturalist [John James Audubon](/wiki/John_James_Audubon \"John James Audubon\"), and stayed in Audubon's home for some three weeks. Audubon, although enjoying Rafinesque's company, took advantage of him by practical jokes involving fantastic, made\\-up species.\n\nIn 1819, Rafinesque became professor of botany at [Transylvania University](/wiki/Transylvania_University \"Transylvania University\") in [Lexington, Kentucky](/wiki/Lexington%2C_Kentucky \"Lexington, Kentucky\"), where he also gave private lessons in French, Italian, and Spanish. He was loosely associated with John D. Clifford, a merchant who was also interested in the ancient earthworks that remained throughout the Ohio Valley. Clifford conducted archival research, seeking the origins of these mounds, and Rafinesque measured and mapped them. Some had already been lost to American development.\n\nHe was elected a member of the [American Antiquarian Society](/wiki/American_Antiquarian_Society \"American Antiquarian Society\") in 1820\\.\n\nRafinesque started recording all the new species of plants and animals he encountered in travels throughout the state. He was considered an erratic student of higher plants. In the spring of 1826, he left the university after quarreling with its president.\n\nHe traveled and lectured in various places, and endeavored to establish a magazine and a botanic garden, but without success. He moved to Philadelphia, a center of publishing and research, without employment. He published *The Atlantic Journal and Friend of Knowledge, a Cyclopædic Journal and Review*, of which only eight issues were printed (1832–1833\\). He also gave public lectures and continued publishing, mostly at his own expense.\n\n### Death\n\nRafinesque died of stomach and liver cancer in Philadelphia on 18 September 1840\\. The cancer may have been induced by Rafinesque's [self\\-medication](/wiki/Self-medication \"Self-medication\") years before with a mixture containing [maidenhair fern](/wiki/Maidenhair_fern \"Maidenhair fern\"). He was buried in a plot in what is now Ronaldson's Cemetery. In March 1924, what were thought to be his remains were transported to Transylvania University and reinterred in a tomb under a stone inscribed, \"Honor to whom honor is overdue.\"\n\n", "### Career in the United States\n\nRafinesque had a [common\\-law wife](/wiki/Common-law_marriage \"Common-law marriage\"). After their son died in 1815, he left her and returned to the United States. When his ship *Union* foundered near the coast of Connecticut, he lost all his books (50 boxes) and all his specimens (including more than 60,000 [shells](/wiki/Mollusc_shell \"Mollusc shell\")). Cited in . Settling in New York, Rafinesque became a founding member of the newly established **[Lyceum of Natural History](/wiki/Lyceum_of_Natural_History \"Lyceum of Natural History\")**. In 1817, his book * or A Flora of the State of Louisiana* was strongly criticized by fellow botanists, which caused his writings to be ignored. By 1818, he had collected and named more than 250 new species of plants and animals. Slowly, he was rebuilding his collection of objects from nature.\n\nIn the summer of 1818, in [Henderson, Kentucky](/wiki/Henderson%2C_Kentucky \"Henderson, Kentucky\"), Rafinesque made the acquaintance of fellow naturalist [John James Audubon](/wiki/John_James_Audubon \"John James Audubon\"), and stayed in Audubon's home for some three weeks. Audubon, although enjoying Rafinesque's company, took advantage of him by practical jokes involving fantastic, made\\-up species.\n\nIn 1819, Rafinesque became professor of botany at [Transylvania University](/wiki/Transylvania_University \"Transylvania University\") in [Lexington, Kentucky](/wiki/Lexington%2C_Kentucky \"Lexington, Kentucky\"), where he also gave private lessons in French, Italian, and Spanish. He was loosely associated with John D. Clifford, a merchant who was also interested in the ancient earthworks that remained throughout the Ohio Valley. Clifford conducted archival research, seeking the origins of these mounds, and Rafinesque measured and mapped them. Some had already been lost to American development.\n\nHe was elected a member of the [American Antiquarian Society](/wiki/American_Antiquarian_Society \"American Antiquarian Society\") in 1820\\.\n\nRafinesque started recording all the new species of plants and animals he encountered in travels throughout the state. He was considered an erratic student of higher plants. In the spring of 1826, he left the university after quarreling with its president.\n\nHe traveled and lectured in various places, and endeavored to establish a magazine and a botanic garden, but without success. He moved to Philadelphia, a center of publishing and research, without employment. He published *The Atlantic Journal and Friend of Knowledge, a Cyclopædic Journal and Review*, of which only eight issues were printed (1832–1833\\). He also gave public lectures and continued publishing, mostly at his own expense.\n\n", "### Death\n\nRafinesque died of stomach and liver cancer in Philadelphia on 18 September 1840\\. The cancer may have been induced by Rafinesque's [self\\-medication](/wiki/Self-medication \"Self-medication\") years before with a mixture containing [maidenhair fern](/wiki/Maidenhair_fern \"Maidenhair fern\"). He was buried in a plot in what is now Ronaldson's Cemetery. In March 1924, what were thought to be his remains were transported to Transylvania University and reinterred in a tomb under a stone inscribed, \"Honor to whom honor is overdue.\"\n\n", "Work\n----\n\n### Biology\n\nRafinesque published 6,700 [binomial names](/wiki/Binomial_name \"Binomial name\") of plants, many of which have [priority](/wiki/Principle_of_Priority \"Principle of Priority\") over more familiar names. The quantity of new taxa he produced, both plants and animals, has made Rafinesque memorable or even notorious among biologists.\n\n[thumb\\|The [mule deer](/wiki/Mule_deer \"Mule deer\") is one of many species first named by Rafinesque.](/wiki/File:Mule_Deer_at_Clearwater_Pass_2.jpg \"Mule Deer at Clearwater Pass 2.jpg\")\nRafinesque applied to join one of the western scientific expeditions organized by President [Thomas Jefferson](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson \"Thomas Jefferson\"), but received notice of appointment to the [Dunbar and Hunter Expedition](/wiki/Dunbar_and_Hunter_Expedition \"Dunbar and Hunter Expedition\") only after his arrival in Sicily. After studying the specimens collected by the Lewis and Clark expedition, he assigned scientific names to the [black\\-tailed prairie dog](/wiki/Black-tailed_prairie_dog \"Black-tailed prairie dog\") (*Cynomys ludovicianus*), the [white\\-footed mouse](/wiki/White-footed_mouse \"White-footed mouse\") (*Peromyscus leucopus*), and the [mule deer](/wiki/Mule_deer \"Mule deer\") (*Odocoileus hemionus*).\n\n### Evolution\n\nRafinesque was one of the first to use the term \"[evolution](/wiki/Evolution \"Evolution\")\" in the context of biological speciation.\n\nRafinesque proposed a theory of evolution before [Charles Darwin](/wiki/Charles_Darwin \"Charles Darwin\"). In a letter in 1832, Rafinesque wrote:\n\n> The truth is that Species and perhaps Genera also, are forming in organized beings by gradual deviations of shapes, forms and organs, taking place in the lapse of time. There is a tendency to deviations and mutations through plants and animals by gradual steps at remote irregular periods. This is a part of the great universal law of perpetual mutability in everything. Thus it is needless to dispute and differ about new genera, species and varieties. Every variety is a deviation which becomes a species as soon as it is permanent by reproduction. Deviations in essential organs may thus gradually become new genera.\n\nIn the third edition of *[On the Origin of Species](/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species \"On the Origin of Species\")* published in 1861, Charles Darwin added a *Historical Sketch* that acknowledged the ideas of Rafinesque.\n\nRafinesque's evolutionary theory appears in a two\\-page article in the 1833 spring issue of the *Atlantic Journal and Friend of Knowledge* (a journal founded by himself). Rafinesque held that [species](/wiki/Species \"Species\") are not fixed; they gradually change through time. He used the term \"[mutations](/wiki/Mutation \"Mutation\")\". He believed that evolution had occurred \"by gradual steps at remote irregular periods.\" This has been compared to the concept of [punctuated equilibrium](/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium \"Punctuated equilibrium\"). He also held that the same processes apply to humans.\n\n### *Walam Olum*\n\nIn 1836, Rafinesque published his first volume of *The American Nations*. This included *[Walam Olum](/wiki/Walam_Olum \"Walam Olum\")*, a purported migration and creation narrative of the [Lenape](/wiki/Lenape \"Lenape\") (also known by English speakers as the Delaware Indians). It told of their migration to the lands around the [Delaware River](/wiki/Delaware_River \"Delaware River\"). Rafinesque claimed he had obtained wooden tablets engraved and painted with indigenous [pictographs](/wiki/Pictographs \"Pictographs\"), together with a transcription in the [Lenape language](/wiki/Lenape_language \"Lenape language\"). Based on this, he produced an English translation of the tablets' contents. Rafinesque claimed the original tablets and transcription were later lost, leaving his notes and transcribed copy as the only record of evidence.\n\nFor over a century after Rafinesque's publication, the *Walam Olum* was widely accepted by ethnohistorians as authentically Native American in origin, but as early as 1849, when the document was republished by [Ephraim G. Squier](/wiki/E._G._Squier \"E. G. Squier\"), [Henry Rowe Schoolcraft](/wiki/Henry_Schoolcraft \"Henry Schoolcraft\"), an ethnologist who had worked extensively in Michigan and related territories, wrote to Squier saying that he believed the document might be fraudulent. In the 1950s, the [Indiana Historical Society](/wiki/Indiana_Historical_Society \"Indiana Historical Society\") published a \"retranslation\" of the *Walam Olum*, as \"a worthy subject for students of aboriginal culture\".*Walam Olum: or, Red Score, The Migration Legend of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians.* See \n\nSince the late 20th century, studies especially in linguistic, ethnohistorical, archaeological, and [textual analyses](/wiki/Textual_analysis \"Textual analysis\") suggest that the *Walam Olum* account was largely or entirely a fabrication. Scholars have described its record of \"authentic Lenape traditional migration stories\" as spurious. After the publication in 1995 of [David Oestreicher](/wiki/David_Oestreicher \"David Oestreicher\")'s thesis, *The Anatomy of the Walam Olum: A 19th Century Anthropological Hoax*, many scholars concurred with his analysis. They concluded that Rafinesque had been either the perpetrator, or perhaps the victim, of a hoax. Other scholars, writers, and some among the Lenape continue to find the account plausible and support its authenticity.\n\n### Study of prehistoric cultures\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|Examples of calculating the value of Mayan numerals](/wiki/File:Examples_of_how_to_calculate_the_value_of_Mayan_numerals.gif \"Examples of how to calculate the value of Mayan numerals.gif\")\nRafinesque made a notable contribution to North American prehistory with his studies of ancient [earthworks](/wiki/Earthwork_%28archaeology%29 \"Earthwork (archaeology)\") of the [Adena](/wiki/Adena_culture \"Adena culture\") and [Hopewell cultures](/wiki/Hopewell_culture \"Hopewell culture\"), especially in the [Ohio Valley](/wiki/Ohio_Valley \"Ohio Valley\"). He was the first to identify these as the \"Ancient Monuments of America\". He listed more than 500 such archaeological sites in Ohio and Kentucky. Rafinesque never excavated; rather, he recorded the sites visited by careful measurements, sketches, and written descriptions. Only a few of his descriptions were published, with his friend John D. Clifford's series \"Indian Antiquities\", eight long letters in Lexington's short\\-lived *[Western Review and Miscellaneous Magazine](/wiki/Western_Review_and_Miscellaneous_Magazine \"Western Review and Miscellaneous Magazine\")* (1819–1820\\). Clifford died suddenly in 1820, ending his contributions.\n\nRafinesque's work was used by others. For instance, he identified 148 ancient earthworks sites in Kentucky. All sites in Kentucky that were included by E. G. Squier and Davis in their notable *[Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley](/wiki/Ancient_Monuments_of_the_Mississippi_Valley \"Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley\")* (1848\\), completed for the [Smithsonian Institution](/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution \"Smithsonian Institution\"), were first identified by Rafinesque in his manuscripts.\n\nRafinesque also made contributions to [Mesoamerican](/wiki/Mesoamerica \"Mesoamerica\") studies. The latter were based on linguistic data, which he extracted from printed sources, mostly those of travelers. He designated as *[Taino](/wiki/Ta%C3%ADno_language \"Taíno language\")*, the ancient language of the [Caribbean](/wiki/Caribbean \"Caribbean\") island of [Hispaniola](/wiki/Hispaniola \"Hispaniola\"). Others later also used the term to identify the [ethnicity](/wiki/Ethnicity \"Ethnicity\") of indigenous Caribbean peoples.\n\nAlthough mistaken in his presumption that the ancient [Maya script](/wiki/Maya_script \"Maya script\") was [alphabetical](/wiki/Alphabetical \"Alphabetical\") in nature, Rafinesque was probably first to insist that studying modern [Mayan languages](/wiki/Mayan_languages \"Mayan languages\") could lead to deciphering the ancient script. In 1832, he was the first to partly decipher ancient Maya. He explained that its [bar\\-and\\-dot symbols](/wiki/Maya_numerals \"Maya numerals\") represent fives and ones, respectively.\n\n[thumb\\|The genus *[Rafinesquia](/wiki/Rafinesquia \"Rafinesquia\")* was named in Rafinesque's honor.](/wiki/File:Rafinesquia_neomexicana_capitulum_2005-04-01.jpg \"Rafinesquia neomexicana capitulum 2005-04-01.jpg\")\n\n### Legacy\n\nAccording to historian George Daniels, Rafinesque was a brilliant but erratic naturalist who roamed the American wilderness. His style was offputting to the emerging professionalization of science and achievements were controversial at the time and by historians ever since. By 1820, he was virtually an outcast in the scientific community as all the important publications rejected his submissions. The two leading American scientists of the day, [Benjamin Silliman](/wiki/Benjamin_Silliman \"Benjamin Silliman\") and [Asa Gray](/wiki/Asa_Gray \"Asa Gray\"), were harshly critical. Modern historians agree that Rafinesque was often hasty, and tried to claim credit properly due to other researchers. Scientists were troubled that his theory of evolution – long before Darwin – seemed to be based more on his speculation and exaggerations than on solid research. Despite all his faults, says Daniels, \"he made enormous contributions to the natural history phase of American science...with the establishment of 34 genera and 24 species of American fishes.\" He was also a brilliant teacher at Transylvania University.George H. Daniels, \"Rafinesque, Constantine Samuel\" in John A. Garraty, *Encyclopedia of American Biography* (1974\\) pp 886–887\\.\n* In 1838, the [white\\-spotted lantern fish](/wiki/White-spotted_lantern_fish \"White-spotted lantern fish\") was named *Collettia rafinesquii* in his honour by [Anastasio Cocco](/wiki/Anastasio_Cocco \"Anastasio Cocco\"); it has since been moved to *Diaphus rafinesquii*.\n* In 1841, [Thomas Nuttall](/wiki/Thomas_Nuttall \"Thomas Nuttall\") named a new genus *[Rafinesquia](/wiki/Rafinesquia \"Rafinesquia\")* after Rafinesque. He felt indebted to the naturalist, who had inspired his work and given Nuttall's *Flora* a positive review. The genus now contains two species, *[Rafinesquia californica](/wiki/Rafinesquia_californica \"Rafinesquia californica\")* Nutt. (California plumeseed or California chicory) and *[Rafinesquia neomexicana](/wiki/Rafinesquia_neomexicana \"Rafinesquia neomexicana\")* A. Gray (desert chicory or plumeseed).\n* In 1892, [James Hall](/wiki/James_Hall_%28paleontologist%29 \"James Hall (paleontologist)\") and J. M. Clarke proposed the genus name *[Rafinesquina](/wiki/Rafinesquina \"Rafinesquina\")* in honor of Rafinesque for a number of fossil [brachiopod](/wiki/Brachiopod \"Brachiopod\") species then belonging to genus *[Leptaena](/wiki/Leptaena \"Leptaena\")*; the genus is now in the family Rafinesquinidae.\n\n", "### Biology\n\nRafinesque published 6,700 [binomial names](/wiki/Binomial_name \"Binomial name\") of plants, many of which have [priority](/wiki/Principle_of_Priority \"Principle of Priority\") over more familiar names. The quantity of new taxa he produced, both plants and animals, has made Rafinesque memorable or even notorious among biologists.\n\n[thumb\\|The [mule deer](/wiki/Mule_deer \"Mule deer\") is one of many species first named by Rafinesque.](/wiki/File:Mule_Deer_at_Clearwater_Pass_2.jpg \"Mule Deer at Clearwater Pass 2.jpg\")\nRafinesque applied to join one of the western scientific expeditions organized by President [Thomas Jefferson](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson \"Thomas Jefferson\"), but received notice of appointment to the [Dunbar and Hunter Expedition](/wiki/Dunbar_and_Hunter_Expedition \"Dunbar and Hunter Expedition\") only after his arrival in Sicily. After studying the specimens collected by the Lewis and Clark expedition, he assigned scientific names to the [black\\-tailed prairie dog](/wiki/Black-tailed_prairie_dog \"Black-tailed prairie dog\") (*Cynomys ludovicianus*), the [white\\-footed mouse](/wiki/White-footed_mouse \"White-footed mouse\") (*Peromyscus leucopus*), and the [mule deer](/wiki/Mule_deer \"Mule deer\") (*Odocoileus hemionus*).\n\n", "### Evolution\n\nRafinesque was one of the first to use the term \"[evolution](/wiki/Evolution \"Evolution\")\" in the context of biological speciation.\n\nRafinesque proposed a theory of evolution before [Charles Darwin](/wiki/Charles_Darwin \"Charles Darwin\"). In a letter in 1832, Rafinesque wrote:\n\n> The truth is that Species and perhaps Genera also, are forming in organized beings by gradual deviations of shapes, forms and organs, taking place in the lapse of time. There is a tendency to deviations and mutations through plants and animals by gradual steps at remote irregular periods. This is a part of the great universal law of perpetual mutability in everything. Thus it is needless to dispute and differ about new genera, species and varieties. Every variety is a deviation which becomes a species as soon as it is permanent by reproduction. Deviations in essential organs may thus gradually become new genera.\n\nIn the third edition of *[On the Origin of Species](/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species \"On the Origin of Species\")* published in 1861, Charles Darwin added a *Historical Sketch* that acknowledged the ideas of Rafinesque.\n\nRafinesque's evolutionary theory appears in a two\\-page article in the 1833 spring issue of the *Atlantic Journal and Friend of Knowledge* (a journal founded by himself). Rafinesque held that [species](/wiki/Species \"Species\") are not fixed; they gradually change through time. He used the term \"[mutations](/wiki/Mutation \"Mutation\")\". He believed that evolution had occurred \"by gradual steps at remote irregular periods.\" This has been compared to the concept of [punctuated equilibrium](/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium \"Punctuated equilibrium\"). He also held that the same processes apply to humans.\n\n", "### *Walam Olum*\n\nIn 1836, Rafinesque published his first volume of *The American Nations*. This included *[Walam Olum](/wiki/Walam_Olum \"Walam Olum\")*, a purported migration and creation narrative of the [Lenape](/wiki/Lenape \"Lenape\") (also known by English speakers as the Delaware Indians). It told of their migration to the lands around the [Delaware River](/wiki/Delaware_River \"Delaware River\"). Rafinesque claimed he had obtained wooden tablets engraved and painted with indigenous [pictographs](/wiki/Pictographs \"Pictographs\"), together with a transcription in the [Lenape language](/wiki/Lenape_language \"Lenape language\"). Based on this, he produced an English translation of the tablets' contents. Rafinesque claimed the original tablets and transcription were later lost, leaving his notes and transcribed copy as the only record of evidence.\n\nFor over a century after Rafinesque's publication, the *Walam Olum* was widely accepted by ethnohistorians as authentically Native American in origin, but as early as 1849, when the document was republished by [Ephraim G. Squier](/wiki/E._G._Squier \"E. G. Squier\"), [Henry Rowe Schoolcraft](/wiki/Henry_Schoolcraft \"Henry Schoolcraft\"), an ethnologist who had worked extensively in Michigan and related territories, wrote to Squier saying that he believed the document might be fraudulent. In the 1950s, the [Indiana Historical Society](/wiki/Indiana_Historical_Society \"Indiana Historical Society\") published a \"retranslation\" of the *Walam Olum*, as \"a worthy subject for students of aboriginal culture\".*Walam Olum: or, Red Score, The Migration Legend of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians.* See \n\nSince the late 20th century, studies especially in linguistic, ethnohistorical, archaeological, and [textual analyses](/wiki/Textual_analysis \"Textual analysis\") suggest that the *Walam Olum* account was largely or entirely a fabrication. Scholars have described its record of \"authentic Lenape traditional migration stories\" as spurious. After the publication in 1995 of [David Oestreicher](/wiki/David_Oestreicher \"David Oestreicher\")'s thesis, *The Anatomy of the Walam Olum: A 19th Century Anthropological Hoax*, many scholars concurred with his analysis. They concluded that Rafinesque had been either the perpetrator, or perhaps the victim, of a hoax. Other scholars, writers, and some among the Lenape continue to find the account plausible and support its authenticity.\n\n", "### Study of prehistoric cultures\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|Examples of calculating the value of Mayan numerals](/wiki/File:Examples_of_how_to_calculate_the_value_of_Mayan_numerals.gif \"Examples of how to calculate the value of Mayan numerals.gif\")\nRafinesque made a notable contribution to North American prehistory with his studies of ancient [earthworks](/wiki/Earthwork_%28archaeology%29 \"Earthwork (archaeology)\") of the [Adena](/wiki/Adena_culture \"Adena culture\") and [Hopewell cultures](/wiki/Hopewell_culture \"Hopewell culture\"), especially in the [Ohio Valley](/wiki/Ohio_Valley \"Ohio Valley\"). He was the first to identify these as the \"Ancient Monuments of America\". He listed more than 500 such archaeological sites in Ohio and Kentucky. Rafinesque never excavated; rather, he recorded the sites visited by careful measurements, sketches, and written descriptions. Only a few of his descriptions were published, with his friend John D. Clifford's series \"Indian Antiquities\", eight long letters in Lexington's short\\-lived *[Western Review and Miscellaneous Magazine](/wiki/Western_Review_and_Miscellaneous_Magazine \"Western Review and Miscellaneous Magazine\")* (1819–1820\\). Clifford died suddenly in 1820, ending his contributions.\n\nRafinesque's work was used by others. For instance, he identified 148 ancient earthworks sites in Kentucky. All sites in Kentucky that were included by E. G. Squier and Davis in their notable *[Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley](/wiki/Ancient_Monuments_of_the_Mississippi_Valley \"Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley\")* (1848\\), completed for the [Smithsonian Institution](/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution \"Smithsonian Institution\"), were first identified by Rafinesque in his manuscripts.\n\nRafinesque also made contributions to [Mesoamerican](/wiki/Mesoamerica \"Mesoamerica\") studies. The latter were based on linguistic data, which he extracted from printed sources, mostly those of travelers. He designated as *[Taino](/wiki/Ta%C3%ADno_language \"Taíno language\")*, the ancient language of the [Caribbean](/wiki/Caribbean \"Caribbean\") island of [Hispaniola](/wiki/Hispaniola \"Hispaniola\"). Others later also used the term to identify the [ethnicity](/wiki/Ethnicity \"Ethnicity\") of indigenous Caribbean peoples.\n\nAlthough mistaken in his presumption that the ancient [Maya script](/wiki/Maya_script \"Maya script\") was [alphabetical](/wiki/Alphabetical \"Alphabetical\") in nature, Rafinesque was probably first to insist that studying modern [Mayan languages](/wiki/Mayan_languages \"Mayan languages\") could lead to deciphering the ancient script. In 1832, he was the first to partly decipher ancient Maya. He explained that its [bar\\-and\\-dot symbols](/wiki/Maya_numerals \"Maya numerals\") represent fives and ones, respectively.\n\n[thumb\\|The genus *[Rafinesquia](/wiki/Rafinesquia \"Rafinesquia\")* was named in Rafinesque's honor.](/wiki/File:Rafinesquia_neomexicana_capitulum_2005-04-01.jpg \"Rafinesquia neomexicana capitulum 2005-04-01.jpg\")\n\n", "### Legacy\n\nAccording to historian George Daniels, Rafinesque was a brilliant but erratic naturalist who roamed the American wilderness. His style was offputting to the emerging professionalization of science and achievements were controversial at the time and by historians ever since. By 1820, he was virtually an outcast in the scientific community as all the important publications rejected his submissions. The two leading American scientists of the day, [Benjamin Silliman](/wiki/Benjamin_Silliman \"Benjamin Silliman\") and [Asa Gray](/wiki/Asa_Gray \"Asa Gray\"), were harshly critical. Modern historians agree that Rafinesque was often hasty, and tried to claim credit properly due to other researchers. Scientists were troubled that his theory of evolution – long before Darwin – seemed to be based more on his speculation and exaggerations than on solid research. Despite all his faults, says Daniels, \"he made enormous contributions to the natural history phase of American science...with the establishment of 34 genera and 24 species of American fishes.\" He was also a brilliant teacher at Transylvania University.George H. Daniels, \"Rafinesque, Constantine Samuel\" in John A. Garraty, *Encyclopedia of American Biography* (1974\\) pp 886–887\\.\n* In 1838, the [white\\-spotted lantern fish](/wiki/White-spotted_lantern_fish \"White-spotted lantern fish\") was named *Collettia rafinesquii* in his honour by [Anastasio Cocco](/wiki/Anastasio_Cocco \"Anastasio Cocco\"); it has since been moved to *Diaphus rafinesquii*.\n* In 1841, [Thomas Nuttall](/wiki/Thomas_Nuttall \"Thomas Nuttall\") named a new genus *[Rafinesquia](/wiki/Rafinesquia \"Rafinesquia\")* after Rafinesque. He felt indebted to the naturalist, who had inspired his work and given Nuttall's *Flora* a positive review. The genus now contains two species, *[Rafinesquia californica](/wiki/Rafinesquia_californica \"Rafinesquia californica\")* Nutt. (California plumeseed or California chicory) and *[Rafinesquia neomexicana](/wiki/Rafinesquia_neomexicana \"Rafinesquia neomexicana\")* A. Gray (desert chicory or plumeseed).\n* In 1892, [James Hall](/wiki/James_Hall_%28paleontologist%29 \"James Hall (paleontologist)\") and J. M. Clarke proposed the genus name *[Rafinesquina](/wiki/Rafinesquina \"Rafinesquina\")* in honor of Rafinesque for a number of fossil [brachiopod](/wiki/Brachiopod \"Brachiopod\") species then belonging to genus *[Leptaena](/wiki/Leptaena \"Leptaena\")*; the genus is now in the family Rafinesquinidae.\n\n", "Published works\n---------------\n\n* 1810: [*Indice d'ittiologia siciliana ossia catalogo metodico dei nomi latini, italiani, e siciliani dei pesci, che si rinvengono in Sicilia disposti secondo un metodo naturale eseguito da un appendice che contiene la descrizione di alcuni nuovi pesci siciliani. Opuscolo del signore C.S. Rafinesque Schmaltz*](https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/30032). Messina. 70 pp. \\+ 2 plates.\n* 1810: [*Caratteri di Alcuni Nuovi Generi e Nuove Specie di Animali e Piante della Sicilia*](https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/185076). Palermo.\n* 1814: [*Specchio delle Scienze*](https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/53769). Palermo.\n* 1814: [*Précis des Découvertes et Travaux Somiologiques*](https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/27701). Palermo.\n* 1814: [*Principes Fondamentaux de Somiologie*](https://archive.org/details/tudesurleslcyth01pottgoog). Palermo.\n* 1815: [*Analyse de la Nature ou tableau de l'univers et des corps organisés*](https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/188066). Palermo, 223 pp.\n* 1815–1840: [*Autikon Botanikon*](https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/6306). Philadelphia.\n* 1817: [*Florula ludoviciana; or, A flora of the state of Louisiana*](/wiki/iarchive:Florulaludovici00rafigoog \"Florulaludovici00rafigoog\"). New York: C. Wiley \\& Co.\n* 1818: Description of three new genera of fluviatile fish, *Pomoxis*, *Sarchirus* and *Exoglossum*. *Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia* 1, 417–422\\. (Read 1 and 8 December 1818\\) ([BHL link](https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/79416#page/489/mode/1up))\n* 1819: \"Dissertation on Water\\-Snakes\", published in the London *[Literary Gazette](/wiki/Literary_Gazette \"Literary Gazette\")*.\n* 1820: [*Ichthyologia Ohiensis*](https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/30031). Lexington.\n* 1824: [*Ancient History, or Annals of Kentucky*](https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/009036878). Frankfort.\n* 1825: [*Neogenyton*](https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/012446234). Lexington.\n* 1828–1830: [*Medical Flora, a Manual of the Medical Botany of the United States of North America*](https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10237) (two volumes). Philadelphia.\n* 1830: \n* 1832: *American Florist*\n[thumb\\|upright\\|*Atlantic Journal* (1832–1833\\)](/wiki/File:Rafinesque.AtlanticJournal.1832-1833..jpg \"Rafinesque.AtlanticJournal.1832-1833..jpg\")\n* 1832: \n* 1832–1833: [*Atlantic Journal and Friend of Knowledge*](https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/011570122). Philadelphia.\n* 1833: [*Herbarium Rafinesquianum*](https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/009083256). Philadelphia.\n* 1836: [*A Life of Travels*](http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k980671/f1.table). Philadelphia.\n* 1836: [Pars Prima](https://archive.org/stream/floratelluriana00rafi#page/n13/mode/2up), [Pars Secunda](https://archive.org/stream/floratelluriana00rafi#page/n125/mode/2up), [Pars Tertia](https://archive.org/stream/floratelluriana00rafi#page/n241/mode/2up) \\& [Pars IV Et Ult](https://archive.org/stream/floratelluriana00rafi#page/n345/mode/2up).\n* 1836: [*The American Nations*](https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/008399892) (two volumes). Philadelphia.\n* 1836: [*A Life of Travels and Researches in North America and South Europe*](https://archive.org/details/lifeoftravelsres00rafi)\n* 1836: \"The World\", a poem.\n* 1836–1838: [*New Flora and Botany of North America*](https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/27706) (four parts). Philadelphia.\n* 1837: *Safe Banking*\n* 1837: Notes to [Thomas Wright](/wiki/Thomas_Wright_%28astronomer%29 \"Thomas Wright (astronomer)\")'s *Original Theory, or New Hypothesis of the Universe*.\n* 1838: [*Genius and Spirit of the Hebrew Bible*](https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/006500621). Philadelphia.\n* 1838: [*Alsographia Americana*](https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/81538). Philadelphia.\n* 1838: [*The American Monuments of North and South America*](https://archive.org/details/ancientmonuments00rafirich). Philadelphia.\n* 1838: [*Sylva Telluriana*](https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/20634). Philadelphia.\n* 1839: *Celestial Wonders and Philosophy of the Visible Heavens*.\n* 1840: [*The Good Book* (Amenities of Nature).](http://resource.nlm.nih.gov/101203231) Philadelphia.\n* 1840: [*Pleasure and Duties of Wealth*](https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/233408).\n\n### In popular culture\n\n[John Jeremiah Sullivan](/wiki/John_Jeremiah_Sullivan \"John Jeremiah Sullivan\")'s essay *La\\-Hwi\\-Ne\\-Ski: Career of an Eccentric Naturalist*, which appears in his 2011 collection, *[Pulphead](/wiki/Pulphead \"Pulphead\")*, chronicles the life and times of Rafinesque.\n\n### Correspondence\n\n", "### In popular culture\n\n[John Jeremiah Sullivan](/wiki/John_Jeremiah_Sullivan \"John Jeremiah Sullivan\")'s essay *La\\-Hwi\\-Ne\\-Ski: Career of an Eccentric Naturalist*, which appears in his 2011 collection, *[Pulphead](/wiki/Pulphead \"Pulphead\")*, chronicles the life and times of Rafinesque.\n\n", "### Correspondence\n\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [Rafinesque's big\\-eared bat](/wiki/Rafinesque%27s_big-eared_bat \"Rafinesque's big-eared bat\")\n", "References\n----------\n\n### Bibliography\n\n", "### Bibliography\n\n", "Further reading\n---------------\n\n* A comprehensive work which contains all of Rafinesque's malacological writings, including all his plates.\n* (Indexes Rafinesque's plant names.)\n* (Reprints Rafinesque's autobiography and the books by Call and Fitzpatrick.)\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [Constantine Samuel Rafinesque Papers, 1815–1834 and undated](http://siarchives.si.edu/collections/siris_arc_217407) from the [Smithsonian Institution Archives](/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution_Archives \"Smithsonian Institution Archives\")\n* [Constantine Samuel Rafinesque](http://faculty.evansville.edu/ck6/bstud/rafin.html), by Clark Kimberling\n* [Fishes sketched by Rafinesque](https://web.archive.org/web/20040625121921/http://faculty.evansville.edu/ck6/bstud/rafsketch.html)\n* [Fishes first described by Rafinesque](https://web.archive.org/web/20040624201622/http://faculty.evansville.edu/ck6/bstud/raffish.html)\n\n[Category:French zoologists](/wiki/Category:French_zoologists \"French zoologists\")\n[Category:1783 births](/wiki/Category:1783_births \"1783 births\")\n[Category:1840 deaths](/wiki/Category:1840_deaths \"1840 deaths\")\n[Category:American biologists](/wiki/Category:American_biologists \"American biologists\")\n[Category:American carcinologists](/wiki/Category:American_carcinologists \"American carcinologists\")\n[Category:American entomologists](/wiki/Category:American_entomologists \"American entomologists\")\n[Category:American malacologists](/wiki/Category:American_malacologists \"American malacologists\")\n[Category:American Mesoamericanists](/wiki/Category:American_Mesoamericanists \"American Mesoamericanists\")\n[Category:American mycologists](/wiki/Category:American_mycologists \"American mycologists\")\n[Category:American phycologists](/wiki/Category:American_phycologists \"American phycologists\")\n[Category:American taxonomists](/wiki/Category:American_taxonomists \"American taxonomists\")\n[Category:Bryologists](/wiki/Category:Bryologists \"Bryologists\")\n[Category:Mayanists](/wiki/Category:Mayanists \"Mayanists\")\n[Category:Proto\\-evolutionary biologists](/wiki/Category:Proto-evolutionary_biologists \"Proto-evolutionary biologists\")\n[Category:Pteridologists](/wiki/Category:Pteridologists \"Pteridologists\")\n[Category:Teuthologists](/wiki/Category:Teuthologists \"Teuthologists\")\n[Category:Botanists active in North America](/wiki/Category:Botanists_active_in_North_America \"Botanists active in North America\")\n[Category:Botanists with author abbreviations](/wiki/Category:Botanists_with_author_abbreviations \"Botanists with author abbreviations\")\n[Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences](/wiki/Category:Fellows_of_the_American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences \"Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences\")\n[Category:Members of the American Antiquarian Society](/wiki/Category:Members_of_the_American_Antiquarian_Society \"Members of the American Antiquarian Society\")\n[Category:French emigrants to the United States](/wiki/Category:French_emigrants_to_the_United_States \"French emigrants to the United States\")\n[Category:French biologists](/wiki/Category:French_biologists \"French biologists\")\n[Category:French carcinologists](/wiki/Category:French_carcinologists \"French carcinologists\")\n[Category:French entomologists](/wiki/Category:French_entomologists \"French entomologists\")\n[Category:French malacologists](/wiki/Category:French_malacologists \"French malacologists\")\n[Category:French mycologists](/wiki/Category:French_mycologists \"French mycologists\")\n[Category:French Mesoamericanists](/wiki/Category:French_Mesoamericanists \"French Mesoamericanists\")\n[Category:French taxonomists](/wiki/Category:French_taxonomists \"French taxonomists\")\n[Category:Scientists from Marseille](/wiki/Category:Scientists_from_Marseille \"Scientists from Marseille\")\n[Category:Transylvania University faculty](/wiki/Category:Transylvania_University_faculty \"Transylvania University faculty\")\n[Category:Deaths from cancer in Pennsylvania](/wiki/Category:Deaths_from_cancer_in_Pennsylvania \"Deaths from cancer in Pennsylvania\")\n[Category:Deaths from stomach cancer in the United States](/wiki/Category:Deaths_from_stomach_cancer_in_the_United_States \"Deaths from stomach cancer in the United States\")\n[Category:French people of German descent](/wiki/Category:French_people_of_German_descent \"French people of German descent\")\n[Category:19th\\-century Mesoamericanists](/wiki/Category:19th-century_Mesoamericanists \"19th-century Mesoamericanists\")\n[Category:19th\\-century American botanists](/wiki/Category:19th-century_American_botanists \"19th-century American botanists\")\n[Category:19th\\-century French botanists](/wiki/Category:19th-century_French_botanists \"19th-century French botanists\")\n[Category:19th\\-century American zoologists](/wiki/Category:19th-century_American_zoologists \"19th-century American zoologists\")\n[Category:19th\\-century French zoologists](/wiki/Category:19th-century_French_zoologists \"19th-century French zoologists\")\n[Category:French expatriates in the Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Category:French_expatriates_in_the_Ottoman_Empire \"French expatriates in the Ottoman Empire\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 36378140 ], "name": [ "Mistico Dois" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n[thumb\\|Rainer in *Arnulf Rainer \\- Sternsucher* a 1994 film by ](/wiki/Image:Arnulf_Rainer%2C_Sternsucher%2C_1994%2C_ein_Film_von_Herbert_Br%C3%B6dl.jpg \"Arnulf Rainer, Sternsucher, 1994, ein Film von Herbert Brödl.jpg\")\n**Arnulf Rainer** (born 8 December 1929\\) is an Austrian painter noted for his abstract informal art.\n\nRainer was born in [Baden](/wiki/Baden%2C_Austria \"Baden, Austria\"), [Austria](/wiki/Austria \"Austria\"). During his early years, Rainer was influenced by [Surrealism](/wiki/Surrealism \"Surrealism\"). In 1950, he founded the *Hundsgruppe* (*dog group*) together with [Ernst Fuchs](/wiki/Ernst_Fuchs_%28artist%29 \"Ernst Fuchs (artist)\"), [Arik Brauer](/wiki/Arik_Brauer \"Arik Brauer\"), and [Josef Mikl](/wiki/Josef_Mikl \"Josef Mikl\"). After 1954, Rainer's style evolved towards *Destruction of Forms*, with blackenings, overpaintings, and maskings of [illustrations](/wiki/Illustration \"Illustration\") and [photographs](/wiki/Photograph \"Photograph\") dominating his later work. He was close to the *Vienna Actionism*, featuring [body art](/wiki/Body_art \"Body art\") and painting under the influence of drugs. He painted extensively on the subject of [Hiroshima](/wiki/Hiroshima \"Hiroshima\") such as it relates to the nuclear bombing of the Japanese city and the inherent political and physical fallout.\n\nIn 1978, he received the [Grand Austrian State Prize](/wiki/Grand_Austrian_State_Prize \"Grand Austrian State Prize\"). In the same year, and in 1980, he became the Austrian representative at the [Venice Biennale](/wiki/Venice_Biennale \"Venice Biennale\"). From 1981 to 1995, Rainer held a professorship at the [Academy of Fine Arts](/wiki/Academy_of_Fine_Arts%2C_Vienna \"Academy of Fine Arts, Vienna\") in [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna \"Vienna\") \\- the same place where he aborted his own studies after three days, unsatisfied.\n\nHis works are shown in the [Museum of Modern Art](/wiki/Museum_of_Modern_Art \"Museum of Modern Art\"), the Arnulf Rainer Museum in Baden Austria and the [Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum](/wiki/Solomon_R._Guggenheim_Museum \"Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum\"). As the culmination of the appraisal of his work, the Arnulf Rainer Museum opened in New York City in 1993\\. His works have also continuously been shown at the [European Cultural Centre](/wiki/European_Cultural_Centre \"European Cultural Centre\")'s palazzos in Venice during the Biennale since 2011\\. In the same year, he published the work *Unfinished into Death* () with the same organisation.\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [Arnulf Rainer Museum](http://www.arnulf-rainer-museum.at/museum.php), Baden\n* [Arnulf Rainer at the Museum of Modern Art. MoMa \\- The Collection](http://www.moma.org/collection/artist.php?artist_id=4792), New York\n* [Arnulf Rainer at Galerie Lelong](https://web.archive.org/web/20190127041850/http://www.galerie-lelong.com/fr/oeuvres-arnulf-rainer-26.html), Paris\n* [Arnulf Rainer at the Galerie m Bochum](https://web.archive.org/web/20170331114453/http://www.galerie-m-bochum.de/artist_image_en.php?SID=4l3t1PUJ1Ko3&aid=39&aname=ArnulfRainer), Bochum\n\n[Category:1929 births](/wiki/Category:1929_births \"1929 births\")\n[Category:Living people](/wiki/Category:Living_people \"Living people\")\n[Category:Modern painters](/wiki/Category:Modern_painters \"Modern painters\")\n[Category:20th\\-century Austrian painters](/wiki/Category:20th-century_Austrian_painters \"20th-century Austrian painters\")\n[Category:Austrian male painters](/wiki/Category:Austrian_male_painters \"Austrian male painters\")\n[Category:21st\\-century Austrian painters](/wiki/Category:21st-century_Austrian_painters \"21st-century Austrian painters\")\n[Category:21st\\-century male artists](/wiki/Category:21st-century_male_artists \"21st-century male artists\")\n[Category:Members of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts](/wiki/Category:Members_of_the_European_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Arts \"Members of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts\")\n[Category:Members of the Academy of Arts, Berlin](/wiki/Category:Members_of_the_Academy_of_Arts%2C_Berlin \"Members of the Academy of Arts, Berlin\")\n[Category:People from Baden bei Wien](/wiki/Category:People_from_Baden_bei_Wien \"People from Baden bei Wien\")\n[Category:Academic staff of the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna](/wiki/Category:Academic_staff_of_the_Academy_of_Fine_Arts_Vienna \"Academic staff of the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna\")\n[Category:Theodor Körner Prize recipients](/wiki/Category:Theodor_K%C3%B6rner_Prize_recipients \"Theodor Körner Prize recipients\")\n[Category:Austrian contemporary artists](/wiki/Category:Austrian_contemporary_artists \"Austrian contemporary artists\")\n[Category:20th\\-century Austrian male artists](/wiki/Category:20th-century_Austrian_male_artists \"20th-century Austrian male artists\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 27015025 ], "name": [ "InternetArchiveBot" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Rugby league", "Rugby union", "England", "British & Irish Lions", "International retirement", "Return", "Fylde", "International tries", "England", "British & Irish Lions", "Coaching career", "Awards", "Personal life", "See also", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**Jason Thorpe Robinson** (born 30 July 1974\\) is an English former [dual\\-code international](/wiki/List_of_dual-code_rugby_internationals \"List of dual-code rugby internationals\") [rugby league](/wiki/Rugby_league \"Rugby league\") and [rugby union](/wiki/Rugby_union \"Rugby union\") footballer who played in the 1990s and 2000s. Playing as a [wing](/wiki/Wing_%28rugby_union%29 \"Wing (rugby union)\") or [fullback](/wiki/Fullback_%28rugby_union%29 \"Fullback (rugby union)\"), he won 51 rugby union international caps for [England](/wiki/England_national_rugby_union_team \"England national rugby union team\") and is the first black man to captain the England team. He was part of the [2003 World Cup](/wiki/2003_Rugby_World_Cup \"2003 Rugby World Cup\") winning rugby union England team.\n\nIn [rugby league](/wiki/Rugby_league \"Rugby league\") he won 12 caps for [Great Britain](/wiki/Great_Britain_national_rugby_league_team \"Great Britain national rugby league team\") and seven for [England](/wiki/England_national_rugby_league_team \"England national rugby league team\"). Throughout his career Robinson was noted for his speed and acceleration, side\\-step and ability to beat defenders.\n\n", "Rugby league\n------------\n\nBorn 30 July 1974 in [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds \"Leeds\"), [West Yorkshire](/wiki/West_Yorkshire \"West Yorkshire\"), Robinson began playing rugby as a child at Hunslet Boys Club and then Hunslet Parkside before starting his [rugby league](/wiki/Rugby_league \"Rugby league\") career in 1991 at semi\\-professional side [Hunslet](/wiki/Hunslet_R.L.F.C. \"Hunslet R.L.F.C.\"). Despite being offered a contract by [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds_Rhinos \"Leeds Rhinos\"), he stuck by his club as it would have meant leaving at an inconvenient time. He was later rewarded by a contract with [Wigan Warriors](/wiki/Wigan_Warriors \"Wigan Warriors\") who went on to dominate British rugby league. His form quickly establishing him in Wigan's first team, as a teenager he was touted as a future halfback or loose forward. He was selected to play on the wing for Wigan against the visiting [Brisbane Broncos](/wiki/Brisbane_Broncos \"Brisbane Broncos\") in the [1992 World Club Challenge](/wiki/1992_World_Club_Challenge \"1992 World Club Challenge\").\n\nRobinson played in [Wigan](/wiki/Wigan_Warriors \"Wigan Warriors\")'s 5–4 victory over [St. Helens](/wiki/St_Helens_R.F.C. \"St Helens R.F.C.\") in the [1992 Lancashire Cup](/wiki/1992_Lancashire_Cup \"1992 Lancashire Cup\") Final at [Knowsley Road](/wiki/Knowsley_Road \"Knowsley Road\"), [St. Helens](/wiki/St_Helens%2C_Merseyside \"St Helens, Merseyside\") on Sunday 18 October 1992\\.\n\nHe played and scored a [try](/wiki/Try_%28rugby%29 \"Try (rugby)\") in [Wigan](/wiki/Wigan_Warriors \"Wigan Warriors\")'s 15–8 victory over [Bradford Northern](/wiki/Bradford_Bulls \"Bradford Bulls\") in the [1992–93 Regal Trophy](/wiki/1992%E2%80%9393_League_Cup_%28rugby_league%29 \"1992–93 League Cup (rugby league)\") Final during the [1992–93 season](/wiki/1992%E2%80%9393_Rugby_Football_League_season \"1992–93 Rugby Football League season\") at [Elland Road](/wiki/Elland_Road \"Elland Road\"), [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds \"Leeds\") on Saturday 23 January 1993, played in the 2–33 defeat by [Castleford](/wiki/Castleford_Tigers \"Castleford Tigers\") in the [1993–94 Regal Trophy](/wiki/1993%E2%80%9394_League_Cup_%28rugby_league%29 \"1993–94 League Cup (rugby league)\") Final during the [1993–94 season](/wiki/1993%E2%80%9394_Rugby_Football_League_season \"1993–94 Rugby Football League season\") at [Headingley Rugby Stadium](/wiki/Headingley_Rugby_Stadium \"Headingley Rugby Stadium\"), [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds \"Leeds\") on Saturday 22 January 1994, played in the 40–10 victory over [Warrington](/wiki/Warrington_Wolves \"Warrington Wolves\") in the [1994–95 Regal Trophy](/wiki/1994%E2%80%9395_League_Cup_%28rugby_league%29 \"1994–95 League Cup (rugby league)\") Final during the [1994–95 season](/wiki/1994%E2%80%9395_Rugby_Football_League_season \"1994–95 Rugby Football League season\") at [Alfred McAlpine Stadium](/wiki/Kirklees_Stadium \"Kirklees Stadium\"), [Huddersfield](/wiki/Huddersfield \"Huddersfield\") on Saturday28 January 1995, and played in the 25–16 victory over [St. Helens](/wiki/St_Helens_R.F.C. \"St Helens R.F.C.\") in the [1995–96 Regal Trophy](/wiki/1995%E2%80%9396_League_Cup_%28rugby_league%29 \"1995–96 League Cup (rugby league)\") Final during the [1995–96 season](/wiki/1995%E2%80%9396_Rugby_Football_League_season \"1995–96 Rugby Football League season\") at [Alfred McAlpine Stadium](/wiki/Kirklees_Stadium \"Kirklees Stadium\"), [Huddersfield](/wiki/Huddersfield \"Huddersfield\") on Saturday 13 January 1996\\.\n\nIn 1993, Robinson played in his first [Challenge Cup](/wiki/Challenge_Cup \"Challenge Cup\") Final, with Wigan defeating Widnes. Later that year at age 19 Robinson was first selected to represent [Great Britain](/wiki/Great_Britain_national_rugby_league_team \"Great Britain national rugby league team\") on the wing against New Zealand.\n\nAfter the [1993–94 Rugby Football League season](/wiki/1993%E2%80%9394_Rugby_Football_League_season \"1993–94 Rugby Football League season\"), Robinson travelled with defending champions [Wigan](/wiki/Wigan_Warriors \"Wigan Warriors\") to Brisbane, playing on the wing in their [1994 World Club Challenge](/wiki/1994_World_Club_Challenge \"1994 World Club Challenge\") victory over Australian premiers, the [Brisbane Broncos](/wiki/Brisbane_Broncos \"Brisbane Broncos\").\n\nIn 1995, Robinson was offered a 4\\-year deal worth a record £1\\.25 million by the [Australian Rugby League](/wiki/Australian_Rugby_League \"Australian Rugby League\") to play for the [South Sydney Rabbitohs](/wiki/South_Sydney_Rabbitohs \"South Sydney Rabbitohs\") at the end of 1997's [Super League II](/wiki/Super_League_II \"Super League II\"). He recovered from a foot injury to play in Wigan's 30–10 Challenge Cup Final victory over Leeds, scoring two tries and earning himself the [Lance Todd Trophy](/wiki/Lance_Todd_Trophy \"Lance Todd Trophy\") as man\\-of\\-the\\-match.\n\nRobinson played for [England](/wiki/England_national_rugby_league_team \"England national rugby league team\") in the [1995 World Cup](/wiki/1995_Rugby_League_World_Cup \"1995 Rugby League World Cup\") Final on the wing but [Australia](/wiki/Australia_national_rugby_league_team \"Australia national rugby league team\") won the match and retained the Cup.\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|Jason Robinson](/wiki/File:Jubil%C3%A9_Chabal-Nallet_-_20150604_-_Jason_Robinson.jpg \"Jubilé Chabal-Nallet - 20150604 - Jason Robinson.jpg\")\n\nIn May 1996, Robinson played for Wigan in a special two\\-game, cross code challenge series against [Bath](/wiki/Bath_Rugby \"Bath Rugby\"), then the leading club side in English rugby union. Robinson scored twice in the first game, an 82–6 victory for Wigan under league rules, as well as playing in the union game, which ended 44–19 to Bath. Following the cross\\-code challenge series, a number of Wigan's players, including Robinson, elected to take advantage of the fact that rugby union had turned professional, and ended its ban on players that had played rugby league, by signing short\\-term contracts to play union during the Super League off\\-season. Robinson joined Bath and played 14 games for the side between September 1996 and January 1997\\. At the end of the first [Super League](/wiki/Super_League \"Super League\") season, Robinson was named on the wing in the 1996 [Super League Dream Team](/wiki/Super_League_Dream_Team \"Super League Dream Team\").\n\nIn the midst of the [Super League war](/wiki/Super_League_war \"Super League war\"), Robinson played a one\\-off international for a 'Rest of the World' team in their 28–8 loss against the [Australian Rugby League](/wiki/Australian_Rugby_League \"Australian Rugby League\")'s Kangaroos in mid\\-1997\\. With his contracted move to Sydney set to take place at the conclusion of the 1997's [Super League II](/wiki/Super_League_II \"Super League II\"), Robinson had had a change of heart and Wigan were able to negotiate his release from the ARL's contract so he could continue playing for his club. He then scored a try for Great Britain in each of the three matches against Australia in the post\\-season [Super League Test series](/wiki/Super_League_Test_series \"Super League Test series\").\n\nIn 1998, Robinson scored Wigan's only try in [Super League's first ever Grand Final](/wiki/1998_Super_League_Grand_Final \"1998 Super League Grand Final\"), which the Cherry \\& Whites won. As a result, he was awarded the [Harry Sunderland Trophy](/wiki/Harry_Sunderland_Trophy \"Harry Sunderland Trophy\") as man\\-of\\-the\\-match. He was also named on the wing in the 1998 season's [Super League Dream Team](/wiki/Super_League_Dream_Team \"Super League Dream Team\"), and again in 1999 and 2000\\.\n\nRobinson played at [fullback](/wiki/Fullback_%28rugby_league%29 \"Fullback (rugby league)\") in the Wigan Warriors' defeat by St. Helens in the [2000 Super League Grand Final](/wiki/2000_Super_League_Grand_Final \"2000 Super League Grand Final\"). Days after the match, it was announced that he had signed for the Zurich Premiership's Sale Sharks [rugby union](/wiki/Rugby_union \"Rugby union\") side, with Robinson citing the lack of anything left to prove in rugby league and the desire to represent England and the British Lions in the 15\\-man code.\n\n", "Rugby union\n-----------\n\nHe made his debut for [Sale Sharks](/wiki/Sale_Sharks \"Sale Sharks\") against Coventry in November 2000\\. In the 2005/6 season he became the first person to have won both the [Guinness Premiership](/wiki/Guinness_Premiership \"Guinness Premiership\"), and the [Super League](/wiki/Super_League \"Super League\") trophies.\n\n### England\n\nRobinson made his [England](/wiki/England_national_rugby_union_team \"England national rugby union team\") début as a substitute against [Italy](/wiki/Italy_national_rugby_union_team \"Italy national rugby union team\") in February 2001, having played in the A match against Wales at Wrexham a fortnight earlier. In doing so he was only the second man ever to play rugby union for England after having first played Rugby League for Great Britain (the first having been [Barrie\\-Jon Mather](/wiki/Barrie-Jon_Mather \"Barrie-Jon Mather\") in 1999\\).\n\nHe scored 30 tries in 56 international matches, including a try in the [2003 World Cup](/wiki/2003_Rugby_Union_World_Cup \"2003 Rugby Union World Cup\") Final against [Australia](/wiki/Australian_national_rugby_union_team \"Australian national rugby union team\"). He played in all seven of England's World Cup games in 2003\\.\n\nAfter [Lawrence Dallaglio](/wiki/Lawrence_Dallaglio \"Lawrence Dallaglio\")'s international retirement in 2005, [Jonny Wilkinson](/wiki/Jonny_Wilkinson \"Jonny Wilkinson\") was initially appointed captain. However, Wilkinson was injured for the 2005 autumn internationals and Robinson was appointed captain. He was the 118th captain of England, the first mixed\\-race player and the first former professional [rugby league](/wiki/Rugby_league \"Rugby league\") footballer to captain England. In his first appearance as captain, he scored a [hat\\-trick](/wiki/Hat-trick \"Hat-trick\") of [tries](/wiki/Try_%28rugby%29 \"Try (rugby)\") in a 70–0 rout of [Canada](/wiki/Canada_national_rugby_union_team \"Canada national rugby union team\").\n\nIn the [2004 Six Nations](/wiki/2004_Six_Nations_Championship \"2004 Six Nations Championship\"), he scored three tries playing as a centre in the opening match against Italy and was named [Man of the Match](/wiki/Man_of_the_Match \"Man of the Match\"). Robinson chose to opt out of the 2004 summer tour to recover.\n\n### British \\& Irish Lions\n\nRobinson was selected by the [British \\& Irish Lions](/wiki/British_%26_Irish_Lions \"British & Irish Lions\") for their [2001 tour of Australia](/wiki/2001_British_%26_Irish_Lions_tour_to_Australia \"2001 British & Irish Lions tour to Australia\"), and was one of the outstanding players in the side that won the first Test in Brisbane 29–13\\. In that game he sidestepped past [Australian](/wiki/Australia_national_rugby_union_team \"Australia national rugby union team\") fullback [Chris Latham](/wiki/Chris_Latham_%28rugby_player%29 \"Chris Latham (rugby player)\"). He went on to score another try in the last Test.\n\nRobinson was again called up to the Lions' [2005 tour of New Zealand](/wiki/2005_British_%26_Irish_Lions_tour_to_New_Zealand \"2005 British & Irish Lions tour to New Zealand\"). He was excused from travelling with the bulk of the touring party to spend time with his wife, who was expecting the couple's fourth child in August. Throughout his career, he normally brought his wife and children along when he went on a tour, but her pregnancy made this impossible for the 2005 tour. He joined the team on 7 June, well in advance of the first [New Zealand](/wiki/All_Blacks \"All Blacks\") test on 25 June.\n\n### International retirement\n\n[thumb\\|Robinson playing for Sale Sharks towards the end of the 2005–2006 Guinness Premiership in which he led the club to their first Premiership title.](/wiki/File:Jason_Robinson_Sale_vs_Northampton.jpg \"Jason Robinson Sale vs Northampton.jpg\")\nOn 24 September 2005, Robinson announced his retirement from international rugby union, stating that he wished to spend more time with his family. In the [2005–2006 season](/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_Guinness_Premiership \"2005–06 Guinness Premiership\"), Robinson led his club [Sale Sharks](/wiki/Sale_Sharks \"Sale Sharks\") to their first ever [Premiership](/wiki/Guinness_Premiership \"Guinness Premiership\") title.\n\n### Return\n\nRobinson returned to the England set\\-up for the 2007 Six Nations tournament, following the decision of new head coach [Brian Ashton](/wiki/Brian_Ashton_%28rugby_player%29 \"Brian Ashton (rugby player)\") to recall him to provide the leadership and winning quality the team had lacked in the past year, ending a 15\\-month absence from the international scene. He scored two tries on his return in England's opening victory over Scotland. He also scored another try against the [Italians](/wiki/Italy_national_rugby_union_team \"Italy national rugby union team\") the following week.\n\nOn 2 April 2007, Robinson announced he would retire from playing club rugby at the end of the 2006/07 season. He also announced he would participate, if required, in England's summer friendlies and the 2007 Rugby World Cup, before retiring completely from the sport. His last game for Sale Sharks came at home to Bath on Friday 13 April. Robinson said, \"I have thoroughly enjoyed my time at Sale Sharks but the time has come to move on to other things. I want my last game for Sale Sharks to be a home game (v Bath) and want to be able to say a big thank you to the supporters of this great club.\"\n\nOn 13 April 2007, Robinson ended his club career with a match\\-winning try 6 seconds from time as Sale edged past Bath in the Guinness Premiership. In the last play of the game, he received the ball 30 metres out and could not be stopped. He was then given the opportunity to convert the try, only to miss by a matter of inches past the left post.\n\n[left\\|thumb\\|upright\\|Robinson training in 2007](/wiki/File:Jason_Robinson_on_the_mend.jpg \"Jason Robinson on the mend.jpg\")\n\nOn 14 September 2007, Robinson left the field to a standing ovation during England's defeat by South Africa, with a [hamstring](/wiki/Hamstring \"Hamstring\") injury. This kept him out of England's remaining two group games, but he resumed full training in time to be available to play in the knock\\-out stages. In the quarter\\-final against Australia, Robinson returned to the side as full back and played his part in a tense 12–10 victory over the Wallabies. In the semi\\-final victory over France, his 50th cap, he was given the honour of leading out the England team. Robinson's last game for England came in the 2007 World Cup Final defeat by South Africa, when he was forced to leave the field during the second half, due to an injury. He was one of only four players to have started both the 2003 and 2007 Finals, the other three being [Jonny Wilkinson](/wiki/Jonny_Wilkinson \"Jonny Wilkinson\"), [Ben Kay](/wiki/Ben_Kay \"Ben Kay\"), and [Phil Vickery](/wiki/Phil_Vickery_%28rugby_union%29 \"Phil Vickery (rugby union)\").\n\nRobinson was selected to play for the [Barbarians](/wiki/Barbarian_F.C. \"Barbarian F.C.\") at Twickenham on 1 December 2007, showing many of his trademark runs and received a standing ovation as he left the field for the last time in the 68th minute of the match.\n\n### Fylde\n\nOn 26 July 2010, Robinson came out of retirement at the age of 35 to play for [National League 2 North](/wiki/National_League_2_North \"National League 2 North\") side; [Fylde](/wiki/Fylde_Rugby_Club \"Fylde Rugby Club\"). He announced his final retirement on 7 July 2011\\.\n\n### International tries\n\n#### England\n\n| Try | Opposing team | Location | Venue | Competition | Date | Result | Score |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | | [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), [England](/wiki/England \"England\") | [Twickenham Stadium](/wiki/Twickenham_Stadium \"Twickenham Stadium\") | [2001 Autumn Internationals](/wiki/2001_end-of-year_rugby_union_internationals \"2001 end-of-year rugby union internationals\") | 17 November 2001 | Win | **134** – 0 |\n| 2 |\n| 3 |\n| 4 |\n| 5 | | [Edinburgh](/wiki/Edinburgh \"Edinburgh\"), [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland \"Scotland\") | [Murrayfield Stadium](/wiki/Murrayfield_Stadium \"Murrayfield Stadium\") | [2002 Six Nations Championship](/wiki/2002_Six_Nations_Championship \"2002 Six Nations Championship\") | 2 February 2002 | Win | 3 – **29** |\n| 6 |\n| 7 | | [Saint\\-Denis](/wiki/Saint-Denis%2C_Seine-Saint-Denis \"Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis\"), [France](/wiki/France \"France\") | [Stade de France](/wiki/Stade_de_France \"Stade de France\") | [2002 Six Nations Championship](/wiki/2002_Six_Nations_Championship \"2002 Six Nations Championship\") | 2 March 2002 | Loss | 20 – **15** |\n| 8 | | [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\"), [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\") | [Stadio Flaminio](/wiki/Stadio_Flaminio \"Stadio Flaminio\") | [2002 Six Nations Championship](/wiki/2002_Six_Nations_Championship \"2002 Six Nations Championship\") | 7 April 2002 | Win | 9 – **45** |\n| 9 | | [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), [England](/wiki/England \"England\") | [Twickenham Stadium](/wiki/Twickenham_Stadium \"Twickenham Stadium\") | [2003 Six Nations Championship](/wiki/2003_Six_Nations_Championship \"2003 Six Nations Championship\") | 15 February 2003 | Win | **25** – 17 |\n| 10 | | [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), [England](/wiki/England \"England\") | [Twickenham Stadium](/wiki/Twickenham_Stadium \"Twickenham Stadium\") | [2003 Six Nations Championship](/wiki/2003_Six_Nations_Championship \"2003 Six Nations Championship\") | 22 March 2003 | Win | **40** – 9 |\n| 11 |\n| 12 | | [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), [England](/wiki/England \"England\") | [Twickenham Stadium](/wiki/Twickenham_Stadium \"Twickenham Stadium\") | [2003 Rugby World Cup warm\\-up matches](/wiki/2003_Rugby_World_Cup_warm-up_matches \"2003 Rugby World Cup warm-up matches\") | 6 September 2003 | Win | **45** – 14 |\n| 13 | | [Perth](/wiki/Perth \"Perth\"), [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\") | [Subiaco Oval](/wiki/Subiaco_Oval \"Subiaco Oval\") | [2003 Rugby World Cup](/wiki/2003_Rugby_World_Cup \"2003 Rugby World Cup\") | 12 October 2003 | Win | **84** – 6 |\n| 14 | | [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane \"Brisbane\"), [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\") | [Suncorp Stadium](/wiki/Suncorp_Stadium \"Suncorp Stadium\") | [2003 Rugby World Cup](/wiki/2003_Rugby_World_Cup \"2003 Rugby World Cup\") | 2 November 2003 | Win | **111** – 13 |\n| 15 |\n| 16 | | [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\"), [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\") | [Stadium Australia](/wiki/Stadium_Australia \"Stadium Australia\") | [2003 Rugby World Cup Final](/wiki/2003_Rugby_World_Cup_Final \"2003 Rugby World Cup Final\") | 22 November 2003 | Win | 17 – **20** |\n| 17 | | [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\"), [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\") | [Stadio Flaminio](/wiki/Stadio_Flaminio \"Stadio Flaminio\") | [2004 Six Nations Championship](/wiki/2004_Six_Nations_Championship \"2004 Six Nations Championship\") | 15 February 2004 | Win | 9 – **50** |\n| 18 |\n| 19 |\n| 20 | | [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), [England](/wiki/England \"England\") | [Twickenham Stadium](/wiki/Twickenham_Stadium \"Twickenham Stadium\") | [2004 end\\-of\\-year rugby union internationals](/wiki/2004_end-of-year_rugby_union_internationals \"2004 end-of-year rugby union internationals\") | 13 November 2004 | Win | **70** – 0 |\n| 21 |\n| 22 |\n| 23 | | [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), [England](/wiki/England \"England\") | [Twickenham Stadium](/wiki/Twickenham_Stadium \"Twickenham Stadium\") | [2007 Six Nations Championship](/wiki/2007_Six_Nations_Championship \"2007 Six Nations Championship\") | 3 February 2007 | Win | **42** – 20 |\n| 24 |\n| 25 | | [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), [England](/wiki/England \"England\") | [Twickenham Stadium](/wiki/Twickenham_Stadium \"Twickenham Stadium\") | [2007 Six Nations Championship](/wiki/2007_Six_Nations_Championship \"2007 Six Nations Championship\") | 10 February 2007 | Win | **20** – 7 |\n| 26 | | [Cardiff](/wiki/Cardiff \"Cardiff\"), [Wales](/wiki/Wales \"Wales\") | [Millennium Stadium](/wiki/Millennium_Stadium \"Millennium Stadium\") | [2007 Six Nations Championship](/wiki/2007_Six_Nations_Championship \"2007 Six Nations Championship\") | 17 March 2007 | Loss | 27 – **18** |\n| 27 | | [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), [England](/wiki/England \"England\") | [Twickenham Stadium](/wiki/Twickenham_Stadium \"Twickenham Stadium\") | [2007 Rugby World Cup warm\\-up matches](/wiki/2007_Rugby_World_Cup_warm-up_matches \"2007 Rugby World Cup warm-up matches\") | 4 August 2007 | Win | **62** – 5 |\n| 28 | | [Lens](/wiki/Lens%2C_France \"Lens, France\"), [France](/wiki/France \"France\") | [Stade Félix Bollaert](/wiki/Stade_F%C3%A9lix_Bollaert \"Stade Félix Bollaert\") | [2007 Rugby World Cup](/wiki/2007_Rugby_World_Cup \"2007 Rugby World Cup\") | 8 September 2007 | Win | **28** – 10 |\n\n#### British \\& Irish Lions\n\n| Try | Opposing team | Location | Venue | Competition | Date | Result | Score |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | | [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane \"Brisbane\"), [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\") | [The Gabba](/wiki/The_Gabba \"The Gabba\") | [2001 British \\& Irish Lions tour to Australia](/wiki/2001_British_%26_Irish_Lions_tour_to_Australia \"2001 British & Irish Lions tour to Australia\") | 30 June 2001 | Win | 13 – **29** |\n| 2 | | [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\"), [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\") | [Stadium Australia](/wiki/Stadium_Australia \"Stadium Australia\") | [2001 British \\& Irish Lions tour to Australia](/wiki/2001_British_%26_Irish_Lions_tour_to_Australia \"2001 British & Irish Lions tour to Australia\") | 14 July 2001 | Loss | 29 – **23** |\n\n", "### England\n\nRobinson made his [England](/wiki/England_national_rugby_union_team \"England national rugby union team\") début as a substitute against [Italy](/wiki/Italy_national_rugby_union_team \"Italy national rugby union team\") in February 2001, having played in the A match against Wales at Wrexham a fortnight earlier. In doing so he was only the second man ever to play rugby union for England after having first played Rugby League for Great Britain (the first having been [Barrie\\-Jon Mather](/wiki/Barrie-Jon_Mather \"Barrie-Jon Mather\") in 1999\\).\n\nHe scored 30 tries in 56 international matches, including a try in the [2003 World Cup](/wiki/2003_Rugby_Union_World_Cup \"2003 Rugby Union World Cup\") Final against [Australia](/wiki/Australian_national_rugby_union_team \"Australian national rugby union team\"). He played in all seven of England's World Cup games in 2003\\.\n\nAfter [Lawrence Dallaglio](/wiki/Lawrence_Dallaglio \"Lawrence Dallaglio\")'s international retirement in 2005, [Jonny Wilkinson](/wiki/Jonny_Wilkinson \"Jonny Wilkinson\") was initially appointed captain. However, Wilkinson was injured for the 2005 autumn internationals and Robinson was appointed captain. He was the 118th captain of England, the first mixed\\-race player and the first former professional [rugby league](/wiki/Rugby_league \"Rugby league\") footballer to captain England. In his first appearance as captain, he scored a [hat\\-trick](/wiki/Hat-trick \"Hat-trick\") of [tries](/wiki/Try_%28rugby%29 \"Try (rugby)\") in a 70–0 rout of [Canada](/wiki/Canada_national_rugby_union_team \"Canada national rugby union team\").\n\nIn the [2004 Six Nations](/wiki/2004_Six_Nations_Championship \"2004 Six Nations Championship\"), he scored three tries playing as a centre in the opening match against Italy and was named [Man of the Match](/wiki/Man_of_the_Match \"Man of the Match\"). Robinson chose to opt out of the 2004 summer tour to recover.\n\n", "### British \\& Irish Lions\n\nRobinson was selected by the [British \\& Irish Lions](/wiki/British_%26_Irish_Lions \"British & Irish Lions\") for their [2001 tour of Australia](/wiki/2001_British_%26_Irish_Lions_tour_to_Australia \"2001 British & Irish Lions tour to Australia\"), and was one of the outstanding players in the side that won the first Test in Brisbane 29–13\\. In that game he sidestepped past [Australian](/wiki/Australia_national_rugby_union_team \"Australia national rugby union team\") fullback [Chris Latham](/wiki/Chris_Latham_%28rugby_player%29 \"Chris Latham (rugby player)\"). He went on to score another try in the last Test.\n\nRobinson was again called up to the Lions' [2005 tour of New Zealand](/wiki/2005_British_%26_Irish_Lions_tour_to_New_Zealand \"2005 British & Irish Lions tour to New Zealand\"). He was excused from travelling with the bulk of the touring party to spend time with his wife, who was expecting the couple's fourth child in August. Throughout his career, he normally brought his wife and children along when he went on a tour, but her pregnancy made this impossible for the 2005 tour. He joined the team on 7 June, well in advance of the first [New Zealand](/wiki/All_Blacks \"All Blacks\") test on 25 June.\n\n", "### International retirement\n\n[thumb\\|Robinson playing for Sale Sharks towards the end of the 2005–2006 Guinness Premiership in which he led the club to their first Premiership title.](/wiki/File:Jason_Robinson_Sale_vs_Northampton.jpg \"Jason Robinson Sale vs Northampton.jpg\")\nOn 24 September 2005, Robinson announced his retirement from international rugby union, stating that he wished to spend more time with his family. In the [2005–2006 season](/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_Guinness_Premiership \"2005–06 Guinness Premiership\"), Robinson led his club [Sale Sharks](/wiki/Sale_Sharks \"Sale Sharks\") to their first ever [Premiership](/wiki/Guinness_Premiership \"Guinness Premiership\") title.\n\n", "### Return\n\nRobinson returned to the England set\\-up for the 2007 Six Nations tournament, following the decision of new head coach [Brian Ashton](/wiki/Brian_Ashton_%28rugby_player%29 \"Brian Ashton (rugby player)\") to recall him to provide the leadership and winning quality the team had lacked in the past year, ending a 15\\-month absence from the international scene. He scored two tries on his return in England's opening victory over Scotland. He also scored another try against the [Italians](/wiki/Italy_national_rugby_union_team \"Italy national rugby union team\") the following week.\n\nOn 2 April 2007, Robinson announced he would retire from playing club rugby at the end of the 2006/07 season. He also announced he would participate, if required, in England's summer friendlies and the 2007 Rugby World Cup, before retiring completely from the sport. His last game for Sale Sharks came at home to Bath on Friday 13 April. Robinson said, \"I have thoroughly enjoyed my time at Sale Sharks but the time has come to move on to other things. I want my last game for Sale Sharks to be a home game (v Bath) and want to be able to say a big thank you to the supporters of this great club.\"\n\nOn 13 April 2007, Robinson ended his club career with a match\\-winning try 6 seconds from time as Sale edged past Bath in the Guinness Premiership. In the last play of the game, he received the ball 30 metres out and could not be stopped. He was then given the opportunity to convert the try, only to miss by a matter of inches past the left post.\n\n[left\\|thumb\\|upright\\|Robinson training in 2007](/wiki/File:Jason_Robinson_on_the_mend.jpg \"Jason Robinson on the mend.jpg\")\n\nOn 14 September 2007, Robinson left the field to a standing ovation during England's defeat by South Africa, with a [hamstring](/wiki/Hamstring \"Hamstring\") injury. This kept him out of England's remaining two group games, but he resumed full training in time to be available to play in the knock\\-out stages. In the quarter\\-final against Australia, Robinson returned to the side as full back and played his part in a tense 12–10 victory over the Wallabies. In the semi\\-final victory over France, his 50th cap, he was given the honour of leading out the England team. Robinson's last game for England came in the 2007 World Cup Final defeat by South Africa, when he was forced to leave the field during the second half, due to an injury. He was one of only four players to have started both the 2003 and 2007 Finals, the other three being [Jonny Wilkinson](/wiki/Jonny_Wilkinson \"Jonny Wilkinson\"), [Ben Kay](/wiki/Ben_Kay \"Ben Kay\"), and [Phil Vickery](/wiki/Phil_Vickery_%28rugby_union%29 \"Phil Vickery (rugby union)\").\n\nRobinson was selected to play for the [Barbarians](/wiki/Barbarian_F.C. \"Barbarian F.C.\") at Twickenham on 1 December 2007, showing many of his trademark runs and received a standing ovation as he left the field for the last time in the 68th minute of the match.\n\n", "### Fylde\n\nOn 26 July 2010, Robinson came out of retirement at the age of 35 to play for [National League 2 North](/wiki/National_League_2_North \"National League 2 North\") side; [Fylde](/wiki/Fylde_Rugby_Club \"Fylde Rugby Club\"). He announced his final retirement on 7 July 2011\\.\n\n", "### International tries\n\n#### England\n\n| Try | Opposing team | Location | Venue | Competition | Date | Result | Score |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | | [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), [England](/wiki/England \"England\") | [Twickenham Stadium](/wiki/Twickenham_Stadium \"Twickenham Stadium\") | [2001 Autumn Internationals](/wiki/2001_end-of-year_rugby_union_internationals \"2001 end-of-year rugby union internationals\") | 17 November 2001 | Win | **134** – 0 |\n| 2 |\n| 3 |\n| 4 |\n| 5 | | [Edinburgh](/wiki/Edinburgh \"Edinburgh\"), [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland \"Scotland\") | [Murrayfield Stadium](/wiki/Murrayfield_Stadium \"Murrayfield Stadium\") | [2002 Six Nations Championship](/wiki/2002_Six_Nations_Championship \"2002 Six Nations Championship\") | 2 February 2002 | Win | 3 – **29** |\n| 6 |\n| 7 | | [Saint\\-Denis](/wiki/Saint-Denis%2C_Seine-Saint-Denis \"Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis\"), [France](/wiki/France \"France\") | [Stade de France](/wiki/Stade_de_France \"Stade de France\") | [2002 Six Nations Championship](/wiki/2002_Six_Nations_Championship \"2002 Six Nations Championship\") | 2 March 2002 | Loss | 20 – **15** |\n| 8 | | [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\"), [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\") | [Stadio Flaminio](/wiki/Stadio_Flaminio \"Stadio Flaminio\") | [2002 Six Nations Championship](/wiki/2002_Six_Nations_Championship \"2002 Six Nations Championship\") | 7 April 2002 | Win | 9 – **45** |\n| 9 | | [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), [England](/wiki/England \"England\") | [Twickenham Stadium](/wiki/Twickenham_Stadium \"Twickenham Stadium\") | [2003 Six Nations Championship](/wiki/2003_Six_Nations_Championship \"2003 Six Nations Championship\") | 15 February 2003 | Win | **25** – 17 |\n| 10 | | [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), [England](/wiki/England \"England\") | [Twickenham Stadium](/wiki/Twickenham_Stadium \"Twickenham Stadium\") | [2003 Six Nations Championship](/wiki/2003_Six_Nations_Championship \"2003 Six Nations Championship\") | 22 March 2003 | Win | **40** – 9 |\n| 11 |\n| 12 | | [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), [England](/wiki/England \"England\") | [Twickenham Stadium](/wiki/Twickenham_Stadium \"Twickenham Stadium\") | [2003 Rugby World Cup warm\\-up matches](/wiki/2003_Rugby_World_Cup_warm-up_matches \"2003 Rugby World Cup warm-up matches\") | 6 September 2003 | Win | **45** – 14 |\n| 13 | | [Perth](/wiki/Perth \"Perth\"), [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\") | [Subiaco Oval](/wiki/Subiaco_Oval \"Subiaco Oval\") | [2003 Rugby World Cup](/wiki/2003_Rugby_World_Cup \"2003 Rugby World Cup\") | 12 October 2003 | Win | **84** – 6 |\n| 14 | | [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane \"Brisbane\"), [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\") | [Suncorp Stadium](/wiki/Suncorp_Stadium \"Suncorp Stadium\") | [2003 Rugby World Cup](/wiki/2003_Rugby_World_Cup \"2003 Rugby World Cup\") | 2 November 2003 | Win | **111** – 13 |\n| 15 |\n| 16 | | [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\"), [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\") | [Stadium Australia](/wiki/Stadium_Australia \"Stadium Australia\") | [2003 Rugby World Cup Final](/wiki/2003_Rugby_World_Cup_Final \"2003 Rugby World Cup Final\") | 22 November 2003 | Win | 17 – **20** |\n| 17 | | [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\"), [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\") | [Stadio Flaminio](/wiki/Stadio_Flaminio \"Stadio Flaminio\") | [2004 Six Nations Championship](/wiki/2004_Six_Nations_Championship \"2004 Six Nations Championship\") | 15 February 2004 | Win | 9 – **50** |\n| 18 |\n| 19 |\n| 20 | | [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), [England](/wiki/England \"England\") | [Twickenham Stadium](/wiki/Twickenham_Stadium \"Twickenham Stadium\") | [2004 end\\-of\\-year rugby union internationals](/wiki/2004_end-of-year_rugby_union_internationals \"2004 end-of-year rugby union internationals\") | 13 November 2004 | Win | **70** – 0 |\n| 21 |\n| 22 |\n| 23 | | [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), [England](/wiki/England \"England\") | [Twickenham Stadium](/wiki/Twickenham_Stadium \"Twickenham Stadium\") | [2007 Six Nations Championship](/wiki/2007_Six_Nations_Championship \"2007 Six Nations Championship\") | 3 February 2007 | Win | **42** – 20 |\n| 24 |\n| 25 | | [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), [England](/wiki/England \"England\") | [Twickenham Stadium](/wiki/Twickenham_Stadium \"Twickenham Stadium\") | [2007 Six Nations Championship](/wiki/2007_Six_Nations_Championship \"2007 Six Nations Championship\") | 10 February 2007 | Win | **20** – 7 |\n| 26 | | [Cardiff](/wiki/Cardiff \"Cardiff\"), [Wales](/wiki/Wales \"Wales\") | [Millennium Stadium](/wiki/Millennium_Stadium \"Millennium Stadium\") | [2007 Six Nations Championship](/wiki/2007_Six_Nations_Championship \"2007 Six Nations Championship\") | 17 March 2007 | Loss | 27 – **18** |\n| 27 | | [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), [England](/wiki/England \"England\") | [Twickenham Stadium](/wiki/Twickenham_Stadium \"Twickenham Stadium\") | [2007 Rugby World Cup warm\\-up matches](/wiki/2007_Rugby_World_Cup_warm-up_matches \"2007 Rugby World Cup warm-up matches\") | 4 August 2007 | Win | **62** – 5 |\n| 28 | | [Lens](/wiki/Lens%2C_France \"Lens, France\"), [France](/wiki/France \"France\") | [Stade Félix Bollaert](/wiki/Stade_F%C3%A9lix_Bollaert \"Stade Félix Bollaert\") | [2007 Rugby World Cup](/wiki/2007_Rugby_World_Cup \"2007 Rugby World Cup\") | 8 September 2007 | Win | **28** – 10 |\n\n#### British \\& Irish Lions\n\n| Try | Opposing team | Location | Venue | Competition | Date | Result | Score |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | | [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane \"Brisbane\"), [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\") | [The Gabba](/wiki/The_Gabba \"The Gabba\") | [2001 British \\& Irish Lions tour to Australia](/wiki/2001_British_%26_Irish_Lions_tour_to_Australia \"2001 British & Irish Lions tour to Australia\") | 30 June 2001 | Win | 13 – **29** |\n| 2 | | [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\"), [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\") | [Stadium Australia](/wiki/Stadium_Australia \"Stadium Australia\") | [2001 British \\& Irish Lions tour to Australia](/wiki/2001_British_%26_Irish_Lions_tour_to_Australia \"2001 British & Irish Lions tour to Australia\") | 14 July 2001 | Loss | 29 – **23** |\n\n", "#### England\n\n| Try | Opposing team | Location | Venue | Competition | Date | Result | Score |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | | [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), [England](/wiki/England \"England\") | [Twickenham Stadium](/wiki/Twickenham_Stadium \"Twickenham Stadium\") | [2001 Autumn Internationals](/wiki/2001_end-of-year_rugby_union_internationals \"2001 end-of-year rugby union internationals\") | 17 November 2001 | Win | **134** – 0 |\n| 2 |\n| 3 |\n| 4 |\n| 5 | | [Edinburgh](/wiki/Edinburgh \"Edinburgh\"), [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland \"Scotland\") | [Murrayfield Stadium](/wiki/Murrayfield_Stadium \"Murrayfield Stadium\") | [2002 Six Nations Championship](/wiki/2002_Six_Nations_Championship \"2002 Six Nations Championship\") | 2 February 2002 | Win | 3 – **29** |\n| 6 |\n| 7 | | [Saint\\-Denis](/wiki/Saint-Denis%2C_Seine-Saint-Denis \"Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis\"), [France](/wiki/France \"France\") | [Stade de France](/wiki/Stade_de_France \"Stade de France\") | [2002 Six Nations Championship](/wiki/2002_Six_Nations_Championship \"2002 Six Nations Championship\") | 2 March 2002 | Loss | 20 – **15** |\n| 8 | | [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\"), [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\") | [Stadio Flaminio](/wiki/Stadio_Flaminio \"Stadio Flaminio\") | [2002 Six Nations Championship](/wiki/2002_Six_Nations_Championship \"2002 Six Nations Championship\") | 7 April 2002 | Win | 9 – **45** |\n| 9 | | [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), [England](/wiki/England \"England\") | [Twickenham Stadium](/wiki/Twickenham_Stadium \"Twickenham Stadium\") | [2003 Six Nations Championship](/wiki/2003_Six_Nations_Championship \"2003 Six Nations Championship\") | 15 February 2003 | Win | **25** – 17 |\n| 10 | | [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), [England](/wiki/England \"England\") | [Twickenham Stadium](/wiki/Twickenham_Stadium \"Twickenham Stadium\") | [2003 Six Nations Championship](/wiki/2003_Six_Nations_Championship \"2003 Six Nations Championship\") | 22 March 2003 | Win | **40** – 9 |\n| 11 |\n| 12 | | [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), [England](/wiki/England \"England\") | [Twickenham Stadium](/wiki/Twickenham_Stadium \"Twickenham Stadium\") | [2003 Rugby World Cup warm\\-up matches](/wiki/2003_Rugby_World_Cup_warm-up_matches \"2003 Rugby World Cup warm-up matches\") | 6 September 2003 | Win | **45** – 14 |\n| 13 | | [Perth](/wiki/Perth \"Perth\"), [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\") | [Subiaco Oval](/wiki/Subiaco_Oval \"Subiaco Oval\") | [2003 Rugby World Cup](/wiki/2003_Rugby_World_Cup \"2003 Rugby World Cup\") | 12 October 2003 | Win | **84** – 6 |\n| 14 | | [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane \"Brisbane\"), [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\") | [Suncorp Stadium](/wiki/Suncorp_Stadium \"Suncorp Stadium\") | [2003 Rugby World Cup](/wiki/2003_Rugby_World_Cup \"2003 Rugby World Cup\") | 2 November 2003 | Win | **111** – 13 |\n| 15 |\n| 16 | | [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\"), [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\") | [Stadium Australia](/wiki/Stadium_Australia \"Stadium Australia\") | [2003 Rugby World Cup Final](/wiki/2003_Rugby_World_Cup_Final \"2003 Rugby World Cup Final\") | 22 November 2003 | Win | 17 – **20** |\n| 17 | | [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\"), [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\") | [Stadio Flaminio](/wiki/Stadio_Flaminio \"Stadio Flaminio\") | [2004 Six Nations Championship](/wiki/2004_Six_Nations_Championship \"2004 Six Nations Championship\") | 15 February 2004 | Win | 9 – **50** |\n| 18 |\n| 19 |\n| 20 | | [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), [England](/wiki/England \"England\") | [Twickenham Stadium](/wiki/Twickenham_Stadium \"Twickenham Stadium\") | [2004 end\\-of\\-year rugby union internationals](/wiki/2004_end-of-year_rugby_union_internationals \"2004 end-of-year rugby union internationals\") | 13 November 2004 | Win | **70** – 0 |\n| 21 |\n| 22 |\n| 23 | | [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), [England](/wiki/England \"England\") | [Twickenham Stadium](/wiki/Twickenham_Stadium \"Twickenham Stadium\") | [2007 Six Nations Championship](/wiki/2007_Six_Nations_Championship \"2007 Six Nations Championship\") | 3 February 2007 | Win | **42** – 20 |\n| 24 |\n| 25 | | [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), [England](/wiki/England \"England\") | [Twickenham Stadium](/wiki/Twickenham_Stadium \"Twickenham Stadium\") | [2007 Six Nations Championship](/wiki/2007_Six_Nations_Championship \"2007 Six Nations Championship\") | 10 February 2007 | Win | **20** – 7 |\n| 26 | | [Cardiff](/wiki/Cardiff \"Cardiff\"), [Wales](/wiki/Wales \"Wales\") | [Millennium Stadium](/wiki/Millennium_Stadium \"Millennium Stadium\") | [2007 Six Nations Championship](/wiki/2007_Six_Nations_Championship \"2007 Six Nations Championship\") | 17 March 2007 | Loss | 27 – **18** |\n| 27 | | [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), [England](/wiki/England \"England\") | [Twickenham Stadium](/wiki/Twickenham_Stadium \"Twickenham Stadium\") | [2007 Rugby World Cup warm\\-up matches](/wiki/2007_Rugby_World_Cup_warm-up_matches \"2007 Rugby World Cup warm-up matches\") | 4 August 2007 | Win | **62** – 5 |\n| 28 | | [Lens](/wiki/Lens%2C_France \"Lens, France\"), [France](/wiki/France \"France\") | [Stade Félix Bollaert](/wiki/Stade_F%C3%A9lix_Bollaert \"Stade Félix Bollaert\") | [2007 Rugby World Cup](/wiki/2007_Rugby_World_Cup \"2007 Rugby World Cup\") | 8 September 2007 | Win | **28** – 10 |\n\n", "#### British \\& Irish Lions\n\n| Try | Opposing team | Location | Venue | Competition | Date | Result | Score |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | | [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane \"Brisbane\"), [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\") | [The Gabba](/wiki/The_Gabba \"The Gabba\") | [2001 British \\& Irish Lions tour to Australia](/wiki/2001_British_%26_Irish_Lions_tour_to_Australia \"2001 British & Irish Lions tour to Australia\") | 30 June 2001 | Win | 13 – **29** |\n| 2 | | [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\"), [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\") | [Stadium Australia](/wiki/Stadium_Australia \"Stadium Australia\") | [2001 British \\& Irish Lions tour to Australia](/wiki/2001_British_%26_Irish_Lions_tour_to_Australia \"2001 British & Irish Lions tour to Australia\") | 14 July 2001 | Loss | 29 – **23** |\n\n", "Coaching career\n---------------\n\nOn 5 March 2008, the [RFL](/wiki/Rugby_Football_League \"Rugby Football League\") announced that Robinson would be returning to rugby league in a coaching capacity at grass roots level from under 8s to open age, as a dual code ambassador for the sport in association with [Gillette](/wiki/Gillette_%28brand%29 \"Gillette (brand)\").\n\nOn 25 February 2009 it was announced that Robinson would be re\\-joining Sale Sharks as the new head coach from the 2009–10 season.\n\n", "Awards\n------\n\nAlready a [Member of the Order of the British Empire](/wiki/Member_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire \"Member of the Order of the British Empire\") (MBE), he was appointed [Officer of the Order of the British Empire](/wiki/Officer_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire \"Officer of the Order of the British Empire\") (OBE) in the [2008 New Year Honours](/wiki/New_Year_Honours_2008 \"New Year Honours 2008\").\n\nIn March 2017, Robinson was awarded the Lifetime Achievement Award at the [Lycamobile](/wiki/Lycamobile \"Lycamobile\") British Ethnic Diversity Sports Awards (BEDSAs) held at the [London Hilton on Park Lane](/wiki/London_Hilton_on_Park_Lane \"London Hilton on Park Lane\").\n\n", "Personal life\n-------------\n\nHe is of Scottish and [Jamaican](/wiki/British_Jamaicans \"British Jamaicans\") descent. His father William Thorpe, a Jamaican living in Leeds, left his mother before Robinson's birth. Robinson and his two older brothers Bernard and George were raised by his mother and a step father. In 2003, he was reunited with his natural father again through his brother and sister. Robinson is nicknamed '[Billy Whizz](/wiki/Billy_Whizz \"Billy Whizz\")' after a character in the British comic *[The Beano](/wiki/The_Beano \"The Beano\")*, who is an extremely fast runner.\n\nIn 2012, his eldest son [Lewis Tierney](/wiki/Lewis_Tierney \"Lewis Tierney\"), who plays as a full back, signed a two\\-year deal with Wigan Warriors at age 18\\. Tierney has declared himself for Scotland. Robinson has five other children including [Patrick](/wiki/Patrick_Robinson_%28cyclist%29 \"Patrick Robinson (cyclist)\"), a professional cyclist.\n\nAfter the 2003 Rugby World Cup, Robinson wrote an autobiography entitled *Finding My Feet: My Autobiography* published by [Coronet Books](/wiki/Coronet_Books \"Coronet Books\"). In it, he wrote about how he overcame issues from his childhood and bouts of drinking when he found success as a rugby league star. In 2005, a biography, *The Real Jason Robinson*, written with Robinson's full co\\-operation by Dave Swanton, was published by Empire Publications.\n\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [List of top English points scorers and try scorers](/wiki/List_of_top_English_points_scorers_and_try_scorers \"List of top English points scorers and try scorers\")\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [Statistics (RL) at wigan.rlfans.com](http://wigan.rlfans.com/readarticle.php?article_id=873) \n* (archived by web.archive.org) [Profile (RU) at england\\-rugby.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20080412122625/http://www.england-rugby.com/englandrugby/index.cfm?fuseaction=News.News_Detail&storyid=4191)\n* [Jason Robinson photo 1 by sportingheroes.net](http://www.sporting-heroes.net/rugby-heroes/displayhero.asp?HeroID=1306)\n* [Jason Robinson photo 2 by sportingheroes.net](http://www.sporting-heroes.net/rugby-heroes/displayhero.asp?HeroID=1861)\n* (archived by web.archive.org) [Jason Robinson feature at bbc.co.uk](https://web.archive.org/web/20121112060804/http://www.bbc.co.uk/manchester/content/articles/2006/04/05/080406_robinson_500_feature.shtml)\n\n[Category:1974 births](/wiki/Category:1974_births \"1974 births\")\n[Category:Living people](/wiki/Category:Living_people \"Living people\")\n[Category:Barbarian F.C. players](/wiki/Category:Barbarian_F.C._players \"Barbarian F.C. players\")\n[Category:Bath Rugby players](/wiki/Category:Bath_Rugby_players \"Bath Rugby players\")\n[Category:Black British sportsmen](/wiki/Category:Black_British_sportsmen \"Black British sportsmen\")\n[Category:British \\& Irish Lions rugby union players from England](/wiki/Category:British_%26_Irish_Lions_rugby_union_players_from_England \"British & Irish Lions rugby union players from England\")\n[Category:Dual\\-code rugby internationals](/wiki/Category:Dual-code_rugby_internationals \"Dual-code rugby internationals\")\n[Category:England international rugby union players](/wiki/Category:England_international_rugby_union_players \"England international rugby union players\")\n[Category:England national rugby league team players](/wiki/Category:England_national_rugby_league_team_players \"England national rugby league team players\")\n[Category:English people of Jamaican descent](/wiki/Category:English_people_of_Jamaican_descent \"English people of Jamaican descent\")\n[Category:Sportspeople of Jamaican descent](/wiki/Category:Sportspeople_of_Jamaican_descent \"Sportspeople of Jamaican descent\")\n[Category:English people of Scottish descent](/wiki/Category:English_people_of_Scottish_descent \"English people of Scottish descent\")\n[Category:English rugby league coaches](/wiki/Category:English_rugby_league_coaches \"English rugby league coaches\")\n[Category:English rugby league players](/wiki/Category:English_rugby_league_players \"English rugby league players\")\n[Category:English rugby union coaches](/wiki/Category:English_rugby_union_coaches \"English rugby union coaches\")\n[Category:English rugby union players](/wiki/Category:English_rugby_union_players \"English rugby union players\")\n[Category:Great Britain national rugby league team players](/wiki/Category:Great_Britain_national_rugby_league_team_players \"Great Britain national rugby league team players\")\n[Category:Hunslet R.L.F.C. players](/wiki/Category:Hunslet_R.L.F.C._players \"Hunslet R.L.F.C. players\")\n[Category:Lance Todd Trophy winners](/wiki/Category:Lance_Todd_Trophy_winners \"Lance Todd Trophy winners\")\n[Category:Officers of the Order of the British Empire](/wiki/Category:Officers_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire \"Officers of the Order of the British Empire\")\n[Category:People from Belle Isle, Leeds](/wiki/Category:People_from_Belle_Isle%2C_Leeds \"People from Belle Isle, Leeds\")\n[Category:Rugby league fullbacks](/wiki/Category:Rugby_league_fullbacks \"Rugby league fullbacks\")\n[Category:Rugby league players from Leeds](/wiki/Category:Rugby_league_players_from_Leeds \"Rugby league players from Leeds\")\n[Category:Rugby league wingers](/wiki/Category:Rugby_league_wingers \"Rugby league wingers\")\n[Category:Rugby union fullbacks](/wiki/Category:Rugby_union_fullbacks \"Rugby union fullbacks\")\n[Category:Rugby union players from Leeds](/wiki/Category:Rugby_union_players_from_Leeds \"Rugby union players from Leeds\")\n[Category:Rugby union wings](/wiki/Category:Rugby_union_wings \"Rugby union wings\")\n[Category:Sale Sharks players](/wiki/Category:Sale_Sharks_players \"Sale Sharks players\")\n[Category:Wigan Warriors players](/wiki/Category:Wigan_Warriors_players \"Wigan Warriors players\")\n[Category:2003 Rugby World Cup players](/wiki/Category:2003_Rugby_World_Cup_players \"2003 Rugby World Cup players\")\n[Category:2007 Rugby World Cup players](/wiki/Category:2007_Rugby_World_Cup_players \"2007 Rugby World Cup players\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 14566909 ], "name": [ "Spsn34" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Climate", "References" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n[thumb\\|Weihenstephan](/wiki/File:Freising_weihenstephan.jpg \"Freising weihenstephan.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|400px\\|Weihenstephan](/wiki/File:Panorama_Weihenstephan_mit_Dom.jpg \"Panorama Weihenstephan mit Dom.jpg\")\n**Weihenstephan** is a part of [Freising](/wiki/Freising \"Freising\") north of [Munich, Germany](/wiki/Munich%2C_Germany \"Munich, Germany\"). It is located on the Weihenstephan Hill, named after the [Weihenstephan Abbey](/wiki/Weihenstephan_Abbey \"Weihenstephan Abbey\"), in the west of the city.\n\nWeihenstephan is known for:\n* the [Benedictine](/wiki/Benedictine \"Benedictine\") [Weihenstephan Abbey](/wiki/Weihenstephan_Abbey \"Weihenstephan Abbey\"), founded 725, which established the oldest still\\-operating [brewery](/wiki/Brewery \"Brewery\") in the world in 1040 (see [History of beer](/wiki/History_of_beer%23Early_modern_Europe \"History of beer#Early modern Europe\")).Giebel, Wieland, ed (1992\\). *The New Germany*. Singapore: Höfer Press Pte. Ltd. The brewery is now a company called *[Bayerische Staatsbrauerei Weihenstephan](/wiki/Bayerische_Staatsbrauerei_Weihenstephan \"Bayerische Staatsbrauerei Weihenstephan\")* (Bavarian State Brewery Weihenstephan, i.e. it is owned by the State of Bavaria) and closely related to the [Technical University of Munich](/wiki/Technical_University_of_Munich \"Technical University of Munich\") (TUM) and its graduate studies program for [brewing](/wiki/Brewing \"Brewing\") and [beverage](/wiki/Beverage \"Beverage\") manufacturing.[Bavarian State Brewery Weihenstephan](http://www.weihenstephaner.de)\n* the site of one of the four [campuses](/wiki/Campus \"Campus\") of the Technical University of Munich, namely the [School of Life Sciences](/wiki/TUM_School_of_Life_Sciences \"TUM School of Life Sciences\")\n* the [Hochschule Weihenstephan\\-Triesdorf](/wiki/Hochschule_Weihenstephan-Triesdorf \"Hochschule Weihenstephan-Triesdorf\")\n* the , a formerly state\\-operated [dairy](/wiki/Dairy \"Dairy\") that also closely cooperated with the TUM and its agricultural studies programme, but which has now been sold to the [Müller](/wiki/M%C3%BCller_%28company%29 \"Müller (company)\") dairy group.\n* the [Sichtungsgarten Weihenstephan](/wiki/Sichtungsgarten_Weihenstephan \"Sichtungsgarten Weihenstephan\"), a notable [horticultural](/wiki/Horticultural \"Horticultural\") garden\n\n", "Climate\n-------\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n[Category:Freising (district)](/wiki/Category:Freising_%28district%29 \"Freising (district)\")\n[Category:1040s establishments in the Holy Roman Empire](/wiki/Category:1040s_establishments_in_the_Holy_Roman_Empire \"1040s establishments in the Holy Roman Empire\")\n[Category:History of Bavaria](/wiki/Category:History_of_Bavaria \"History of Bavaria\")\n[Category:History of Altbayern](/wiki/Category:History_of_Altbayern \"History of Altbayern\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 18453936 ], "name": [ "Gobantini" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "See also" ], "level": [ 1, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**Sośnica Gliwice** is a Polish women's [handball](/wiki/Team_handball \"Team handball\") team, based in [Gliwice](/wiki/Gliwice \"Gliwice\").\n\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [Handball in Poland](/wiki/Handball_in_Poland \"Handball in Poland\")\n* [Sports in Poland](/wiki/Sports_in_Poland \"Sports in Poland\")\n\n[Category:Sport in Gliwice](/wiki/Category:Sport_in_Gliwice \"Sport in Gliwice\")\n[Category:Women's handball clubs in Poland](/wiki/Category:Women%27s_handball_clubs_in_Poland \"Women's handball clubs in Poland\")\n\n \n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 40325129 ], "name": [ "IBrock" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Atlantic", "Antarctic Patrol", "Atlantic Patrol Tasking North", "Atlantic Patrol Tasking South", "Falkland Islands Patrol Task", "Standing NATO Maritime Group 1", "British and Northern European Waters", "Littoral Response Group (North)", "Baltops", "Cold Weather Training", "Faslane Patrol Boat Squadron", "Fishery Protection", "Fleet Ready Escort", "Fleet Operational Sea Training", "Joint Warrior", "Towed Array Patrol Ship", "East of Suez", "Combined Task Force", "Humanitarian Missions", "Operation Kipion", "Operation Kipion Mine Countermeasures", "Littoral Response Group (South)", "Indian Ocean/Pacific Offshore Patrol Vessels", "Global", "Continuous At Sea Deterrent", "International Partnerships", "Joint Expeditionary Force (Maritime)", "NATO Mine Countermeasures", "UK Carrier Strike Group", "Mediterranean", "Gibraltar Squadron", "Standing NATO Maritime Group 2", "Special Purpose Task Group", "Operation Sea Guardian", "Humanitarian Missions", "Humanitarian Missions", "See also", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**Standing Royal Navy deployments** is a list of operations and commitments undertaken by the United Kingdom's [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\") on a worldwide basis. The following list details these commitments and deployments sorted by region and in alphabetical order. Routine deployments made by the Navy's nuclear\\-powered submarines and their location of operations is classified.\n\nPreviously, before the withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union in 2020 (\"[Brexit](/wiki/Brexit \"Brexit\"),\") the Royal Navy sent vessels to [Operation Atalanta](/wiki/Operation_Atalanta \"Operation Atalanta\"), a European Union multinational task force charged to combat [Somali piracy](/wiki/Somali_piracy \"Somali piracy\") off the [Horn of Africa](/wiki/Horn_of_Africa \"Horn of Africa\"). For a period, the operation's headquarters was located in the United Kingdom at [Northwood Headquarters](/wiki/Northwood_Headquarters \"Northwood Headquarters\"), London.[Spanish Ambassador Visits Operational Headquarters in the United Kingdom](http://eunavfor.eu/the-spanish-ambassador-to-united-kingdom-visits-eu-naval-force-operational-headquarters/), eunavfor.eu, 28 May 2014 In November 2017 Major General [Charles Stickland](/wiki/Charles_Stickland \"Charles Stickland\") Royal Marines was appointed as Operation Commander of Operation Atlanta.\n\n", "Atlantic\n--------\n\n### Antarctic Patrol\n\n[thumb\\|*Protector* on Antarctic Patrol](/wiki/File:HMS_Protector_Assisting_the_Antarctic_Community._MOD_45156397.jpg \"HMS Protector Assisting the Antarctic Community. MOD 45156397.jpg\")\nAntarctic Patrol is undertaken during the regional summer by the Royal Navy's [Icebreaker](/wiki/Icebreaker \"Icebreaker\") and survey ship, , in the South Atlantic Ocean. Its primary mission is \"*surveying and gathering data on the seas around Antarctica*\" while also providing support to the [British Antarctic Survey](/wiki/British_Antarctic_Survey \"British Antarctic Survey\") operation stationed in and around the [British Antarctic Territory](/wiki/British_Antarctic_Territory \"British Antarctic Territory\").[Antarctic Patrol](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/operations/south-atlantic/antarctic-patrol), royalnavy.mod.uk, Retrieved 1 June 2014 A [Royal Research Ship](/wiki/Royal_Research_Ship \"Royal Research Ship\") is also deployed during the regional summer; [RRS *Sir David Attenborough*](/wiki/RRS_Sir_David_Attenborough \"RRS Sir David Attenborough\").\n\n### Atlantic Patrol Tasking North\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|Former at the South Yard (HMS *Malabar*) of the [Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda](/wiki/Royal_Naval_Dockyard%2C_Bermuda \"Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda\") in 1988](/wiki/File:HMS_Ambuscade_in_Bermuda.jpg \"HMS Ambuscade in Bermuda.jpg\")\nFormerly known as the **West Indies Guard Ship** (the remnant of the former squadron of the [America and West Indies Station](/wiki/North_America_and_West_Indies_Station \"North America and West Indies Station\"). This is the Royal Navy's commitment to secure and protect the interests of the United Kingdom and [British Overseas Territories](/wiki/British_Overseas_Territories \"British Overseas Territories\") in the regions of the North Atlantic and the [Caribbean](/wiki/Caribbean \"Caribbean\"). The deployment primarily conducts [counter narcotics](/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade \"Illegal drug trade\") missions and provides humanitarian assistance during hurricane season.[Atlantic Patrol Tasking North](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/operations/north-atlantic/atlantic-patrol-tasking-north), royalnavy.mod.uk, Retrieved 1 June 2014\n\nThis tasking was augmented by [Operation Ruman](/wiki/Operation_Ruman \"Operation Ruman\") in 2017 as a result of damage caused by [Hurricane Irma](/wiki/Hurricane_Irma \"Hurricane Irma\").\n\nThe task is typically carried out by a single warship, or more recently by a [River\\-class](/wiki/River-class_patrol_vessel \"River-class patrol vessel\") patrol vessel or a [Royal Fleet Auxiliary](/wiki/Royal_Fleet_Auxiliary \"Royal Fleet Auxiliary\") vessel.Tony Skinner, 'RN cuts back Standing Task commitments,' [Jane's Defence Weekly](/wiki/Jane%27s_Defence_Weekly \"Jane's Defence Weekly\"), 20 July 2005, p.12 Since 2020 has been assigned permanently to the Caribbean.\n\n### Atlantic Patrol Tasking South\n\nThe Royal Navy has maintained a permanent presence in the South Atlantic and West Africa to provide \"*ongoing protection and reassurance to British interests*\" such as the sovereignty of the [Falkland Islands](/wiki/Falkland_Islands \"Falkland Islands\") and [South Georgia](/wiki/South_Georgia_Island \"South Georgia Island\"), while also supporting [British Forces South Atlantic Islands](/wiki/Military_of_the_Falkland_Islands \"Military of the Falkland Islands\"). The commitment has, at times, consisted of two warships; either a [guided\\-missile destroyer](/wiki/Guided-missile_destroyer \"Guided-missile destroyer\") or [frigate](/wiki/Frigate \"Frigate\") accompanied by a Royal Fleet Auxiliary vessel.[Atlantic Patrol Tasking South](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/operations/south-atlantic/atlantic-patrol-tasking), royalnavy.mod.uk, Retrieved 1 June 2014 Since 2015, a major warship has not been deployed. As of 2020, the commitment is maintained by the Offshore Patrol Vessel . The 2021 defence white paper indicated that henceforth, one [River\\-class offshore patrol vessel](/wiki/River-class_offshore_patrol_vessel \"River-class offshore patrol vessel\"), , would be permanently based in [Gibraltar](/wiki/Gibraltar \"Gibraltar\") for operations in the Mediterranean and also in the Gulf of Guinea.\n\n### Falkland Islands Patrol Task\n\n[thumb\\|Former HMS *Clyde* patrols off West Falkland](/wiki/File:HMS-Clyde_Fox-Bay.jpg \"HMS-Clyde Fox-Bay.jpg\")\nThe Falkland Islands Patrol Task consists of a single warship (an Offshore Patrol Vessel) stationed around the EEZ of the Falkland Islands. It forms part of British Forces South Atlantic Islands and aims to reassure the inhabitants of the region and maintain British sovereignty.\n\n has been permanently assigned to the task since November 2019\\.[Falkland Islands Patrol Task](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/operations/south-atlantic/falkland-islands-patrol-vessel), royalnavy.mod.uk, Retrieved 1 June 2014 *Forth* uses the deepwater naval base facilities of East Cove Military Port at [Mare Harbour](/wiki/Mare_Harbour \"Mare Harbour\"), [East Falkland](/wiki/East_Falkland \"East Falkland\").\n\n### Standing NATO Maritime Group 1\n\nThe [Standing NATO Maritime Group 1](/wiki/Standing_NATO_Maritime_Group_1 \"Standing NATO Maritime Group 1\") is part of the wider [NATO Response Force](/wiki/NATO_Response_Force \"NATO Response Force\"), its standard area of operations is the Atlantic Ocean.[Standing NATO Maritime Group 1 and 2](http://www.aco.nato.int/page13615814.aspx), aco.nato.int, Retrieved 2 June 2014 As of Feb 2023, the latest contribution to the task group was the Type 23 [HMS *Portland*](/wiki/HMS_Portland_%28F79%29 \"HMS Portland (F79)\").\n\n", "### Antarctic Patrol\n\n[thumb\\|*Protector* on Antarctic Patrol](/wiki/File:HMS_Protector_Assisting_the_Antarctic_Community._MOD_45156397.jpg \"HMS Protector Assisting the Antarctic Community. MOD 45156397.jpg\")\nAntarctic Patrol is undertaken during the regional summer by the Royal Navy's [Icebreaker](/wiki/Icebreaker \"Icebreaker\") and survey ship, , in the South Atlantic Ocean. Its primary mission is \"*surveying and gathering data on the seas around Antarctica*\" while also providing support to the [British Antarctic Survey](/wiki/British_Antarctic_Survey \"British Antarctic Survey\") operation stationed in and around the [British Antarctic Territory](/wiki/British_Antarctic_Territory \"British Antarctic Territory\").[Antarctic Patrol](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/operations/south-atlantic/antarctic-patrol), royalnavy.mod.uk, Retrieved 1 June 2014 A [Royal Research Ship](/wiki/Royal_Research_Ship \"Royal Research Ship\") is also deployed during the regional summer; [RRS *Sir David Attenborough*](/wiki/RRS_Sir_David_Attenborough \"RRS Sir David Attenborough\").\n\n", "### Atlantic Patrol Tasking North\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|Former at the South Yard (HMS *Malabar*) of the [Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda](/wiki/Royal_Naval_Dockyard%2C_Bermuda \"Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda\") in 1988](/wiki/File:HMS_Ambuscade_in_Bermuda.jpg \"HMS Ambuscade in Bermuda.jpg\")\nFormerly known as the **West Indies Guard Ship** (the remnant of the former squadron of the [America and West Indies Station](/wiki/North_America_and_West_Indies_Station \"North America and West Indies Station\"). This is the Royal Navy's commitment to secure and protect the interests of the United Kingdom and [British Overseas Territories](/wiki/British_Overseas_Territories \"British Overseas Territories\") in the regions of the North Atlantic and the [Caribbean](/wiki/Caribbean \"Caribbean\"). The deployment primarily conducts [counter narcotics](/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade \"Illegal drug trade\") missions and provides humanitarian assistance during hurricane season.[Atlantic Patrol Tasking North](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/operations/north-atlantic/atlantic-patrol-tasking-north), royalnavy.mod.uk, Retrieved 1 June 2014\n\nThis tasking was augmented by [Operation Ruman](/wiki/Operation_Ruman \"Operation Ruman\") in 2017 as a result of damage caused by [Hurricane Irma](/wiki/Hurricane_Irma \"Hurricane Irma\").\n\nThe task is typically carried out by a single warship, or more recently by a [River\\-class](/wiki/River-class_patrol_vessel \"River-class patrol vessel\") patrol vessel or a [Royal Fleet Auxiliary](/wiki/Royal_Fleet_Auxiliary \"Royal Fleet Auxiliary\") vessel.Tony Skinner, 'RN cuts back Standing Task commitments,' [Jane's Defence Weekly](/wiki/Jane%27s_Defence_Weekly \"Jane's Defence Weekly\"), 20 July 2005, p.12 Since 2020 has been assigned permanently to the Caribbean.\n\n", "### Atlantic Patrol Tasking South\n\nThe Royal Navy has maintained a permanent presence in the South Atlantic and West Africa to provide \"*ongoing protection and reassurance to British interests*\" such as the sovereignty of the [Falkland Islands](/wiki/Falkland_Islands \"Falkland Islands\") and [South Georgia](/wiki/South_Georgia_Island \"South Georgia Island\"), while also supporting [British Forces South Atlantic Islands](/wiki/Military_of_the_Falkland_Islands \"Military of the Falkland Islands\"). The commitment has, at times, consisted of two warships; either a [guided\\-missile destroyer](/wiki/Guided-missile_destroyer \"Guided-missile destroyer\") or [frigate](/wiki/Frigate \"Frigate\") accompanied by a Royal Fleet Auxiliary vessel.[Atlantic Patrol Tasking South](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/operations/south-atlantic/atlantic-patrol-tasking), royalnavy.mod.uk, Retrieved 1 June 2014 Since 2015, a major warship has not been deployed. As of 2020, the commitment is maintained by the Offshore Patrol Vessel . The 2021 defence white paper indicated that henceforth, one [River\\-class offshore patrol vessel](/wiki/River-class_offshore_patrol_vessel \"River-class offshore patrol vessel\"), , would be permanently based in [Gibraltar](/wiki/Gibraltar \"Gibraltar\") for operations in the Mediterranean and also in the Gulf of Guinea.\n\n", "### Falkland Islands Patrol Task\n\n[thumb\\|Former HMS *Clyde* patrols off West Falkland](/wiki/File:HMS-Clyde_Fox-Bay.jpg \"HMS-Clyde Fox-Bay.jpg\")\nThe Falkland Islands Patrol Task consists of a single warship (an Offshore Patrol Vessel) stationed around the EEZ of the Falkland Islands. It forms part of British Forces South Atlantic Islands and aims to reassure the inhabitants of the region and maintain British sovereignty.\n\n has been permanently assigned to the task since November 2019\\.[Falkland Islands Patrol Task](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/operations/south-atlantic/falkland-islands-patrol-vessel), royalnavy.mod.uk, Retrieved 1 June 2014 *Forth* uses the deepwater naval base facilities of East Cove Military Port at [Mare Harbour](/wiki/Mare_Harbour \"Mare Harbour\"), [East Falkland](/wiki/East_Falkland \"East Falkland\").\n\n", "### Standing NATO Maritime Group 1\n\nThe [Standing NATO Maritime Group 1](/wiki/Standing_NATO_Maritime_Group_1 \"Standing NATO Maritime Group 1\") is part of the wider [NATO Response Force](/wiki/NATO_Response_Force \"NATO Response Force\"), its standard area of operations is the Atlantic Ocean.[Standing NATO Maritime Group 1 and 2](http://www.aco.nato.int/page13615814.aspx), aco.nato.int, Retrieved 2 June 2014 As of Feb 2023, the latest contribution to the task group was the Type 23 [HMS *Portland*](/wiki/HMS_Portland_%28F79%29 \"HMS Portland (F79)\").\n\n", "British and Northern European Waters\n------------------------------------\n\n### Littoral Response Group (North)\n\n[Littoral Response Group (North)](/wiki/Littoral_Response_Group%23Littoral_Response_Group_%28North%29 \"Littoral Response Group#Littoral Response Group (North)\"), is the lead formation, based in Europe, with an area of responsibility in the Atlantic, Baltic and Mediterranean. As of 2024, it includes a and a company of [45 Commando Royal Marines](/wiki/45_Commando_Royal_Marines \"45 Commando Royal Marines\") and supporting elements. While an is nominally assigned to LRG (North), both *Albion*\\-class vessels were in reserve as of 2024 with [HMS Bulwark](/wiki/HMS_Bulwark_%28L15%29 \"HMS Bulwark (L15)\") only to be activated \"if required\".\n\nLRG (North) is supported by other Royal Navy and allied assets, including the Royal Navy's [Carrier Strike Group](/wiki/UK_Carrier_Strike_Group \"UK Carrier Strike Group\"), as may be required.\n\n### Baltops\n\nBaltops is an annual 2\\-week exercise run by the [US Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\"). It is an exercise in which several NATO members come together to take part in a huge multinational exercise designed to strengthen the bonds of international partnership. The 2021 exercises included Royal Navy ships [HMS *Albion*](/wiki/HMS_Albion_%28L14%29 \"HMS Albion (L14)\") and [RFA *Mounts Bay*](/wiki/RFA_Mounts_Bay_%28L3008%29 \"RFA Mounts Bay (L3008)\").\n\n### Cold Weather Training\n\n[thumb\\|Royal Marines during the annual Cold Weather Training exercise in the Norwegian Arctic](/wiki/File:Royal_Marines_During_Winter_Training_in_Norway_MOD_45152252.jpg \"Royal Marines During Winter Training in Norway MOD 45152252.jpg\")\nCold Weather Training is a Royal Navy commitment to the annual Norwegian\\-led exercise in the Arctic regions. Its purpose is to build and strengthen military ties and to enable the [Royal Marines](/wiki/Royal_Marines \"Royal Marines\") and Royal Navy sailors to \"fight and win\" in extreme conditions.[Cold Weather Training](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/operations/arctic-and-northern-european-waters/norway-cold-weather), royalnavy.mod.uk, Retrieved 2 February 2015\n\n### Faslane Patrol Boat Squadron\n\nThe Faslane Patrol Boat Squadron (FPBS) provides force protection in around the waters of [HMNB Clyde](/wiki/HMNB_Clyde \"HMNB Clyde\"), where the Royal Navy's nuclear\\-powered submarine fleet is based. The squadron currently consists of [HMS *Tracker*](/wiki/HMS_Tracker_%28P274%29 \"HMS Tracker (P274)\") and [HMS *Raider*](/wiki/HMS_Raider_%28P275%29 \"HMS Raider (P275)\").\n\n### Fishery Protection\n\nThe [Fishery Protection Squadron](/wiki/Fishery_Protection_Squadron \"Fishery Protection Squadron\") is charged with protecting the British fishing industry, providing security to the oil and gas fields in the [North Sea](/wiki/North_Sea \"North Sea\") and other duties in the United Kingdoms [Exclusive economic zone](/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone \"Exclusive economic zone\"). It consists of three warships: [HMS *Tyne*](/wiki/HMS_Tyne_%28P281%29 \"HMS Tyne (P281)\"), [HMS *Severn*](/wiki/HMS_Severn_%28P282%29 \"HMS Severn (P282)\") and [HMS *Mersey*](/wiki/HMS_Mersey_%28P283%29 \"HMS Mersey (P283)\").\n\n### Fleet Ready Escort\n\n[thumb\\|Fleet Ready Escort [HMS *Dragon*](/wiki/HMS_Dragon_%28D35%29 \"HMS Dragon (D35)\") escorting the Russian aircraft carrier, [*Admiral Kuznetsov*](/wiki/Russian_aircraft_carrier_Admiral_Kuznetsov \"Russian aircraft carrier Admiral Kuznetsov\"), through the [English Channel](/wiki/English_Channel \"English Channel\")](/wiki/File:HMS_Dragon_with_Russian_Aircraft_Carrier_%27Admiral_Kuzetsov%27_MOD_45157552.jpg \"HMS Dragon with Russian Aircraft Carrier 'Admiral Kuzetsov' MOD 45157552.jpg\")\nThe Fleet Ready Escort (FRE) is a single warship maintained at high readiness for deployment at short notice anywhere in the world. The FRE consists of either a guided\\-missile destroyer or a frigate. As of January 2014, this commitment has been 'gapped' by the Royal Navy twice; for 19 days in 2011 and 18 days in 2012\\.[House of Commons Hansard Written Answers](https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201314/cmhansrd/cm140127/text/140127w0002.htm#140127w0002.htm_wqn32) (publications.parliament.uk) 27 January 2014\n\n### Fleet Operational Sea Training\n\nTraining in UK Home Waters is essential for preparing both crews and ships before overseas deployment. [Flag Officer Sea Training](/wiki/Flag_Officer_Sea_Training_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Flag Officer Sea Training (United Kingdom)\") (FOST) is responsible for making sure that both Royal Navy and Royal Fleet Auxiliary ships are fit for operational purpose after rigorous exercises and readiness inspections. This commitment is ongoing 365 days a year.[Training](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/operations/uk-home-waters/training), royalnavy.mod.uk, Retrieved 2 June 2014\n\n### Joint Warrior\n\n[Exercise Joint Warrior](/wiki/Exercise_Joint_Warrior \"Exercise Joint Warrior\") is a Royal Navy (and wider British Armed Forces) commitment to engage in a biannual tri\\-service exercise (including multinational [NATO](/wiki/NATO \"NATO\") forces) intended to achieve enhanced military effect. It is the largest military exercise in Europe.[Joint Warrior](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/operations/uk-home-waters/joint-warrior), royalnavy.mod.uk, Retrieved 2 June 2014\n\n### Towed Array Patrol Ship\n\nTowed Array Patrol Ship (TAPS) is a standing task for reactive anti\\-submarine patrol duties in support of the Continuous At Sea Deterrent ([Trident](/wiki/Trident_nuclear_programme \"Trident nuclear programme\")). A Type 23 frigate is maintained at high readiness for this task 365 days a year.\n\n", "### Littoral Response Group (North)\n\n[Littoral Response Group (North)](/wiki/Littoral_Response_Group%23Littoral_Response_Group_%28North%29 \"Littoral Response Group#Littoral Response Group (North)\"), is the lead formation, based in Europe, with an area of responsibility in the Atlantic, Baltic and Mediterranean. As of 2024, it includes a and a company of [45 Commando Royal Marines](/wiki/45_Commando_Royal_Marines \"45 Commando Royal Marines\") and supporting elements. While an is nominally assigned to LRG (North), both *Albion*\\-class vessels were in reserve as of 2024 with [HMS Bulwark](/wiki/HMS_Bulwark_%28L15%29 \"HMS Bulwark (L15)\") only to be activated \"if required\".\n\nLRG (North) is supported by other Royal Navy and allied assets, including the Royal Navy's [Carrier Strike Group](/wiki/UK_Carrier_Strike_Group \"UK Carrier Strike Group\"), as may be required.\n\n", "### Baltops\n\nBaltops is an annual 2\\-week exercise run by the [US Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\"). It is an exercise in which several NATO members come together to take part in a huge multinational exercise designed to strengthen the bonds of international partnership. The 2021 exercises included Royal Navy ships [HMS *Albion*](/wiki/HMS_Albion_%28L14%29 \"HMS Albion (L14)\") and [RFA *Mounts Bay*](/wiki/RFA_Mounts_Bay_%28L3008%29 \"RFA Mounts Bay (L3008)\").\n\n", "### Cold Weather Training\n\n[thumb\\|Royal Marines during the annual Cold Weather Training exercise in the Norwegian Arctic](/wiki/File:Royal_Marines_During_Winter_Training_in_Norway_MOD_45152252.jpg \"Royal Marines During Winter Training in Norway MOD 45152252.jpg\")\nCold Weather Training is a Royal Navy commitment to the annual Norwegian\\-led exercise in the Arctic regions. Its purpose is to build and strengthen military ties and to enable the [Royal Marines](/wiki/Royal_Marines \"Royal Marines\") and Royal Navy sailors to \"fight and win\" in extreme conditions.[Cold Weather Training](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/operations/arctic-and-northern-european-waters/norway-cold-weather), royalnavy.mod.uk, Retrieved 2 February 2015\n\n", "### Faslane Patrol Boat Squadron\n\nThe Faslane Patrol Boat Squadron (FPBS) provides force protection in around the waters of [HMNB Clyde](/wiki/HMNB_Clyde \"HMNB Clyde\"), where the Royal Navy's nuclear\\-powered submarine fleet is based. The squadron currently consists of [HMS *Tracker*](/wiki/HMS_Tracker_%28P274%29 \"HMS Tracker (P274)\") and [HMS *Raider*](/wiki/HMS_Raider_%28P275%29 \"HMS Raider (P275)\").\n\n", "### Fishery Protection\n\nThe [Fishery Protection Squadron](/wiki/Fishery_Protection_Squadron \"Fishery Protection Squadron\") is charged with protecting the British fishing industry, providing security to the oil and gas fields in the [North Sea](/wiki/North_Sea \"North Sea\") and other duties in the United Kingdoms [Exclusive economic zone](/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone \"Exclusive economic zone\"). It consists of three warships: [HMS *Tyne*](/wiki/HMS_Tyne_%28P281%29 \"HMS Tyne (P281)\"), [HMS *Severn*](/wiki/HMS_Severn_%28P282%29 \"HMS Severn (P282)\") and [HMS *Mersey*](/wiki/HMS_Mersey_%28P283%29 \"HMS Mersey (P283)\").\n\n", "### Fleet Ready Escort\n\n[thumb\\|Fleet Ready Escort [HMS *Dragon*](/wiki/HMS_Dragon_%28D35%29 \"HMS Dragon (D35)\") escorting the Russian aircraft carrier, [*Admiral Kuznetsov*](/wiki/Russian_aircraft_carrier_Admiral_Kuznetsov \"Russian aircraft carrier Admiral Kuznetsov\"), through the [English Channel](/wiki/English_Channel \"English Channel\")](/wiki/File:HMS_Dragon_with_Russian_Aircraft_Carrier_%27Admiral_Kuzetsov%27_MOD_45157552.jpg \"HMS Dragon with Russian Aircraft Carrier 'Admiral Kuzetsov' MOD 45157552.jpg\")\nThe Fleet Ready Escort (FRE) is a single warship maintained at high readiness for deployment at short notice anywhere in the world. The FRE consists of either a guided\\-missile destroyer or a frigate. As of January 2014, this commitment has been 'gapped' by the Royal Navy twice; for 19 days in 2011 and 18 days in 2012\\.[House of Commons Hansard Written Answers](https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201314/cmhansrd/cm140127/text/140127w0002.htm#140127w0002.htm_wqn32) (publications.parliament.uk) 27 January 2014\n\n", "### Fleet Operational Sea Training\n\nTraining in UK Home Waters is essential for preparing both crews and ships before overseas deployment. [Flag Officer Sea Training](/wiki/Flag_Officer_Sea_Training_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Flag Officer Sea Training (United Kingdom)\") (FOST) is responsible for making sure that both Royal Navy and Royal Fleet Auxiliary ships are fit for operational purpose after rigorous exercises and readiness inspections. This commitment is ongoing 365 days a year.[Training](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/operations/uk-home-waters/training), royalnavy.mod.uk, Retrieved 2 June 2014\n\n", "### Joint Warrior\n\n[Exercise Joint Warrior](/wiki/Exercise_Joint_Warrior \"Exercise Joint Warrior\") is a Royal Navy (and wider British Armed Forces) commitment to engage in a biannual tri\\-service exercise (including multinational [NATO](/wiki/NATO \"NATO\") forces) intended to achieve enhanced military effect. It is the largest military exercise in Europe.[Joint Warrior](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/operations/uk-home-waters/joint-warrior), royalnavy.mod.uk, Retrieved 2 June 2014\n\n", "### Towed Array Patrol Ship\n\nTowed Array Patrol Ship (TAPS) is a standing task for reactive anti\\-submarine patrol duties in support of the Continuous At Sea Deterrent ([Trident](/wiki/Trident_nuclear_programme \"Trident nuclear programme\")). A Type 23 frigate is maintained at high readiness for this task 365 days a year.\n\n", "East of Suez\n------------\n\nThis is a list of operations and commitments presently undertaken by the Royal Navy [East of Suez](/wiki/East_of_Suez \"East of Suez\") in the [Red Sea](/wiki/Red_Sea \"Red Sea\"), [Gulf of Aden](/wiki/Gulf_of_Aden \"Gulf of Aden\"), [Persian Gulf](/wiki/Persian_Gulf \"Persian Gulf\"), [Arabian Sea](/wiki/Arabian_Sea \"Arabian Sea\"), the wider Indian Ocean and the [Far East](/wiki/Far_East \"Far East\"):\n\n### Combined Task Force\n\nThe Royal Navy regularly contributes to two multinational coalitions; [Combined Task Force 150](/wiki/Combined_Task_Force_150 \"Combined Task Force 150\") and [Combined Task Force 151](/wiki/Combined_Task_Force_151 \"Combined Task Force 151\"). Combined Task Force 150 is focused on maritime security and counter\\-terrorism; while Combined Task Force 151 is charged with anti\\-piracy missions.[CTF 150](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/operations/indian-ocean/ctf-150), royalnavy.mod.uk, Retrieved 2 June 2014\n\n### Humanitarian Missions\n\nThe Royal Navy remains committed to providing humanitarian aid where possible. During the [2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami](/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_and_tsunami \"2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami\") the Royal Navy responded by deploying [RFA *Diligence*](/wiki/RFA_Diligence_%28A132%29 \"RFA Diligence (A132)\") and the frigate [HMS *Chatham*](/wiki/HMS_Chatham_%28F87%29 \"HMS Chatham (F87)\") with [Westland Lynx](/wiki/Westland_Lynx \"Westland Lynx\") helicopters to provide assistance.[UK boosts help for tsunami victims](https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/dec/31/tsunami2004.politics1), theguardian.com, 31 December 2004 In 2014, the Royal Navy deployed [HMS *Echo*](/wiki/HMS_Echo_%28H87%29 \"HMS Echo (H87)\") (a multi\\-role hydrographic survey ship) and [HMS *Tireless*](/wiki/HMS_Tireless_%28S88%29 \"HMS Tireless (S88)\") (a [nuclear\\-powered fleet submarine](/wiki/SSN_%28hull_classification_symbol%29 \"SSN (hull classification symbol)\")) to search for the missing [Malaysia Airlines Flight 370](/wiki/Malaysia_Airlines_Flight_370 \"Malaysia Airlines Flight 370\") in the Indian Ocean Region.[Search For MH370](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/operations/indian-ocean/mh370-search), royalnavy.mod.uk, Retrieved 2 June 2014\n\n### Operation Kipion\n\n[Operation Kipion](/wiki/Operation_Kipion \"Operation Kipion\") is an ongoing maritime presence in the Gulf and Indian Ocean by the Royal Navy to protect and secure the nation's many political and commercial interests. The enduring commitment usually consists of an escort (a guided\\-missile destroyer or frigate), a supporting Royal Fleet Auxiliary ship and several other ships with various roles.[Operation Kipion](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/operations/red-sea-and-persian-gulf/kipion), royalnavy.mod.uk, Retrieved 2 June 2014 Operation Kipion was formerly known as the [Armilla patrol](/wiki/Armilla_patrol \"Armilla patrol\") during the 1980s and 1990s.\n\nIn a new initiative the frigate forward deployed to located at the [Mina Salman Port](/wiki/Mina_Salman \"Mina Salman\") in Bahrain in April 2019, remaining there until November 2022\\. She operated with a similar manning system to the Hunt and Sandown Class crew system, with two crews rotating every four months. This was achieved through the ship's own crew being redesignated as the Port crew, while the crew of became the Starboard crew. In August 2022, departed Portsmouth en route to the Gulf to replace *Montrose* as the forward deployed Type 23 frigate and *Montrose* departed the Gulf to return to the U.K. in November 2022\\. It was expected that *Lancaster* would remain on station in the Gulf until 2025 using the same two crew manning system.\n\n### Operation Kipion Mine Countermeasures\n\nThe Royal Navy maintains a permanent [presence in the Gulf consisting of mine countermeasure vessels](/wiki/9th_Mine_Counter-Measures_Squadron \"9th Mine Counter-Measures Squadron\"). It provides continued support to the region ensuring the \"*safe flow of trade and oil*\".[Operation Kipion Mine Countermeasures](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/operations/red-sea-and-persian-gulf/kipion-mcmv), royalnavy.mod.uk, Retrieved 27 April 2014 Typically the mine countermeasure vessels are supported by a Royal Fleet Auxiliary ship acting as a 'mothership'.\n\nAs of January 2023 the following ships are assigned: [RFA *Cardigan Bay*](/wiki/RFA_Cardigan_Bay_%28L3009%29 \"RFA Cardigan Bay (L3009)\"), [HMS *Chiddingfold*](/wiki/HMS_Chiddingfold_%28M37%29 \"HMS Chiddingfold (M37)\"), [HMS *Middleton*](/wiki/HMS_Middleton_%28M34%29 \"HMS Middleton (M34)\") and [HMS *Bangor*](/wiki/HMS_Bangor_%28M109%29 \"HMS Bangor (M109)\").\n\n### Littoral Response Group (South)\n\n[Littoral Response Group (South)](/wiki/Littoral_Response_Group%23Littoral_Response_Group_%28South%29 \"Littoral Response Group#Littoral Response Group (South)\"), to deploy from late 2023, is to be based at the [UK Joint Logistics Support Base](/wiki/UK_Joint_Logistics_Support_Base \"UK Joint Logistics Support Base\") in [Duqm](/wiki/Duqm \"Duqm\"), [Oman](/wiki/Oman \"Oman\") with responsibility for the [Indo\\-Pacific](/wiki/Indo-Pacific \"Indo-Pacific\"). As of 2023, the principal vessels for LRG (South) are RFAs [Argus](/wiki/RFA_Argus \"RFA Argus\") and [Lyme Bay](/wiki/RFA_Lyme_Bay \"RFA Lyme Bay\"). The LRG concept provides the UK options in an era of sub\\-threshold competition, a \"grey zone\" where nation states and actors compete in a hostile manner using tactics below the threshold of war.\n\n### Indian Ocean/Pacific Offshore Patrol Vessels\n\nIn September 2021, two Offshore Patrol Vessels, [HMS Tamar](/wiki/HMS_Tamar_%28P233%29 \"HMS Tamar (P233)\") and [HMS Spey](/wiki/HMS_Spey_%28P234%29 \"HMS Spey (P234)\"), sailed from the U.K. for a planned five to ten\\-year deployment in the Indian Ocean/Pacific region. The vessels were to be assigned missions ranging from \"security patrols to deal with drug\\-running, smuggling, terrorism and other illegal activities\" to \"joining in exercises with other navies and armed forces\". Crews would be rotated to the ships on a regular basis and the ships were expected to operate from friendly ports as required, though the primary logistics hub is at the [British Defence Singapore Support Unit](/wiki/British_Defence_Singapore_Support_Unit \"British Defence Singapore Support Unit\") in Singapore.\n\n", "### Combined Task Force\n\nThe Royal Navy regularly contributes to two multinational coalitions; [Combined Task Force 150](/wiki/Combined_Task_Force_150 \"Combined Task Force 150\") and [Combined Task Force 151](/wiki/Combined_Task_Force_151 \"Combined Task Force 151\"). Combined Task Force 150 is focused on maritime security and counter\\-terrorism; while Combined Task Force 151 is charged with anti\\-piracy missions.[CTF 150](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/operations/indian-ocean/ctf-150), royalnavy.mod.uk, Retrieved 2 June 2014\n\n", "### Humanitarian Missions\n\nThe Royal Navy remains committed to providing humanitarian aid where possible. During the [2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami](/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_and_tsunami \"2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami\") the Royal Navy responded by deploying [RFA *Diligence*](/wiki/RFA_Diligence_%28A132%29 \"RFA Diligence (A132)\") and the frigate [HMS *Chatham*](/wiki/HMS_Chatham_%28F87%29 \"HMS Chatham (F87)\") with [Westland Lynx](/wiki/Westland_Lynx \"Westland Lynx\") helicopters to provide assistance.[UK boosts help for tsunami victims](https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/dec/31/tsunami2004.politics1), theguardian.com, 31 December 2004 In 2014, the Royal Navy deployed [HMS *Echo*](/wiki/HMS_Echo_%28H87%29 \"HMS Echo (H87)\") (a multi\\-role hydrographic survey ship) and [HMS *Tireless*](/wiki/HMS_Tireless_%28S88%29 \"HMS Tireless (S88)\") (a [nuclear\\-powered fleet submarine](/wiki/SSN_%28hull_classification_symbol%29 \"SSN (hull classification symbol)\")) to search for the missing [Malaysia Airlines Flight 370](/wiki/Malaysia_Airlines_Flight_370 \"Malaysia Airlines Flight 370\") in the Indian Ocean Region.[Search For MH370](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/operations/indian-ocean/mh370-search), royalnavy.mod.uk, Retrieved 2 June 2014\n\n", "### Operation Kipion\n\n[Operation Kipion](/wiki/Operation_Kipion \"Operation Kipion\") is an ongoing maritime presence in the Gulf and Indian Ocean by the Royal Navy to protect and secure the nation's many political and commercial interests. The enduring commitment usually consists of an escort (a guided\\-missile destroyer or frigate), a supporting Royal Fleet Auxiliary ship and several other ships with various roles.[Operation Kipion](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/operations/red-sea-and-persian-gulf/kipion), royalnavy.mod.uk, Retrieved 2 June 2014 Operation Kipion was formerly known as the [Armilla patrol](/wiki/Armilla_patrol \"Armilla patrol\") during the 1980s and 1990s.\n\nIn a new initiative the frigate forward deployed to located at the [Mina Salman Port](/wiki/Mina_Salman \"Mina Salman\") in Bahrain in April 2019, remaining there until November 2022\\. She operated with a similar manning system to the Hunt and Sandown Class crew system, with two crews rotating every four months. This was achieved through the ship's own crew being redesignated as the Port crew, while the crew of became the Starboard crew. In August 2022, departed Portsmouth en route to the Gulf to replace *Montrose* as the forward deployed Type 23 frigate and *Montrose* departed the Gulf to return to the U.K. in November 2022\\. It was expected that *Lancaster* would remain on station in the Gulf until 2025 using the same two crew manning system.\n\n", "### Operation Kipion Mine Countermeasures\n\nThe Royal Navy maintains a permanent [presence in the Gulf consisting of mine countermeasure vessels](/wiki/9th_Mine_Counter-Measures_Squadron \"9th Mine Counter-Measures Squadron\"). It provides continued support to the region ensuring the \"*safe flow of trade and oil*\".[Operation Kipion Mine Countermeasures](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/operations/red-sea-and-persian-gulf/kipion-mcmv), royalnavy.mod.uk, Retrieved 27 April 2014 Typically the mine countermeasure vessels are supported by a Royal Fleet Auxiliary ship acting as a 'mothership'.\n\nAs of January 2023 the following ships are assigned: [RFA *Cardigan Bay*](/wiki/RFA_Cardigan_Bay_%28L3009%29 \"RFA Cardigan Bay (L3009)\"), [HMS *Chiddingfold*](/wiki/HMS_Chiddingfold_%28M37%29 \"HMS Chiddingfold (M37)\"), [HMS *Middleton*](/wiki/HMS_Middleton_%28M34%29 \"HMS Middleton (M34)\") and [HMS *Bangor*](/wiki/HMS_Bangor_%28M109%29 \"HMS Bangor (M109)\").\n\n", "### Littoral Response Group (South)\n\n[Littoral Response Group (South)](/wiki/Littoral_Response_Group%23Littoral_Response_Group_%28South%29 \"Littoral Response Group#Littoral Response Group (South)\"), to deploy from late 2023, is to be based at the [UK Joint Logistics Support Base](/wiki/UK_Joint_Logistics_Support_Base \"UK Joint Logistics Support Base\") in [Duqm](/wiki/Duqm \"Duqm\"), [Oman](/wiki/Oman \"Oman\") with responsibility for the [Indo\\-Pacific](/wiki/Indo-Pacific \"Indo-Pacific\"). As of 2023, the principal vessels for LRG (South) are RFAs [Argus](/wiki/RFA_Argus \"RFA Argus\") and [Lyme Bay](/wiki/RFA_Lyme_Bay \"RFA Lyme Bay\"). The LRG concept provides the UK options in an era of sub\\-threshold competition, a \"grey zone\" where nation states and actors compete in a hostile manner using tactics below the threshold of war.\n\n", "### Indian Ocean/Pacific Offshore Patrol Vessels\n\nIn September 2021, two Offshore Patrol Vessels, [HMS Tamar](/wiki/HMS_Tamar_%28P233%29 \"HMS Tamar (P233)\") and [HMS Spey](/wiki/HMS_Spey_%28P234%29 \"HMS Spey (P234)\"), sailed from the U.K. for a planned five to ten\\-year deployment in the Indian Ocean/Pacific region. The vessels were to be assigned missions ranging from \"security patrols to deal with drug\\-running, smuggling, terrorism and other illegal activities\" to \"joining in exercises with other navies and armed forces\". Crews would be rotated to the ships on a regular basis and the ships were expected to operate from friendly ports as required, though the primary logistics hub is at the [British Defence Singapore Support Unit](/wiki/British_Defence_Singapore_Support_Unit \"British Defence Singapore Support Unit\") in Singapore.\n\n", "Global\n------\n\n### Continuous At Sea Deterrent\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\|A Trident II D\\-5 ballistic missile launched from a Vanguard\\-class submarine](/wiki/Image:Trident_II_missile_image.jpg \"Trident II missile image.jpg\")\nThe Continuous At Sea Deterrent (CASD) (*or* Trident) is provided by the Royal Navy's four [Vanguard\\-class submarines](/wiki/Vanguard-class_submarine \"Vanguard-class submarine\") which deploy on a continuous basis around the globe. The Vanguard\\-class are each armed with a maximum of 16 [Trident II D\\-5](/wiki/Trident_%28missile%29 \"Trident (missile)\") submarine\\-launched ballistic missiles and 48 nuclear warheads.[Continuous At Sea Deterrent](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/operations/global/continuous-at-sea-deterrent), royalnavy.mod.uk, Retrieved 2 June 2014\n\n### International Partnerships\n\nThe Royal Navy remains committed to working with its International Partners around the globe. The principal purpose of these partnerships is to reassure allied nations, to share intelligence and expertise, to build trust and ultimately provide security across the worlds oceans.[International Partnerships](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/what-we-do/international-partnerships), royalnavy.mod.uk, Retrieved 2 June 2014 Examples of such International Partnerships of which the Royal Navy plays a leading role include; the maritime component of the Anglo\\-French [Combined Joint Expeditionary Force (CJEF)](/wiki/Combined_Joint_Expeditionary_Force_%28CJEF%29 \"Combined Joint Expeditionary Force (CJEF)\"), the [North Atlantic Treaty Organization](/wiki/NATO \"NATO\"), [AUSCANNZUKUS](/wiki/AUSCANNZUKUS \"AUSCANNZUKUS\"), the [European Maritime Force](/wiki/European_Maritime_Force \"European Maritime Force\") and the [Five Power Defence Arrangements](/wiki/Five_Power_Defence_Arrangements \"Five Power Defence Arrangements\"). The United Kingdom is a member of [RIMPAC](/wiki/Exercise_RIMPAC \"Exercise RIMPAC\") also, although it hasn't participated in way of deploying a surface ship in several years.\n\n### Joint Expeditionary Force (Maritime)\n\n[thumb\\|Former LPH HMS *Ocean* during the JEF(M) Amphibious Task Group in October 2016](/wiki/File:UK%27s_Joint_Expeditionary_Force_%28Maritime%29_MOD_45162223.jpg \"UK's Joint Expeditionary Force (Maritime) MOD 45162223.jpg\")\n[Joint Expeditionary Force (Maritime)](/wiki/Joint_Expeditionary_Force_%28Maritime%29 \"Joint Expeditionary Force (Maritime)\") (JEF(M)) \\-formerly the Response Force Task Group (RFTG) created under the 2010 [Strategic Defence and Security Review](/wiki/Strategic_Defence_and_Security_Review_2010 \"Strategic Defence and Security Review 2010\")\\- is the Royal Navy's amphibious expeditionary task group maintained at high\\-readiness and available at short notice to respond to unexpected global events. In addition to amphibious operations, the JEF(M) can undertake a diverse range of activities such as evacuation operations, disaster relief or humanitarian aid.[Royal Navy ready for unforeseen global events](https://www.gov.uk/government/news/royal-navy-ready-for-unforeseen-global-events), gov.uk, 9 May 2011 The composition of the JEF(M) generally consists of several large [amphibious warfare ships](/wiki/Amphibious_warfare_ship \"Amphibious warfare ship\") (both RN and RFA) and replenishment ships from the Royal Fleet Auxiliary.\n\nTo demonstrate the operational readiness and global reach of the JEF(M), the Royal Navy deploys the amphibious task group on annual large scale international exercises, primarily in the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean.[Royal Navy sails for annual ‘Cougar’ deployment](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/news/2013/august/09/130809-cougar-13), royalnavy.mod.uk, 9 August 2013[Royal Navy set for Cougar 13](https://www.gov.uk/government/news/royal-navy-set-for-cougar-13), gov.uk, 8 August 2013 As an international deployment, the JEF(M) gets the chance to engage in \"intense\" exercises with foreign and allied navies, such as (for example) the [Royal Navy of Oman](/wiki/Royal_Navy_of_Oman \"Royal Navy of Oman\").[Royal Navy sharpens claws for Exercise Omani Cougar](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/news/2013/october/25/131025-rn-sharpens-claws), royalnavy.mod.uk, 25 October 2013\n\nThe 2021 JEF (M) is centred on the Type 23's [HMS *Lancaster*](/wiki/HMS_Lancaster_%28F229%29 \"HMS Lancaster (F229)\") and [HMS *Westminster*](/wiki/HMS_Westminster_%28F237%29 \"HMS Westminster (F237)\") supported by where they are operating in the Baltic. HMS Lancaster is the flagship for the group. The group comprises Estonian, Latvian and Lithuanian vessels supported by aircraft from Sweden. The group have recently been operating with SNMG1 within the baltic.\n\n### NATO Mine Countermeasures\n\nThis is the Royal Navy's commitment to support NATO MCM operations in the [Baltic](/wiki/Baltic_Sea \"Baltic Sea\"), Northern European Waters, the Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea (though it is capable of deploying globally if needed). There are two organisational structures; [Standing NATO Mine Countermeasures Group 1](/wiki/Standing_NATO_Mine_Countermeasures_Group_1 \"Standing NATO Mine Countermeasures Group 1\") and [Standing NATO Mine Countermeasures Group 2](/wiki/Standing_NATO_Mine_Countermeasures_Group_2 \"Standing NATO Mine Countermeasures Group 2\").[NATO Mine Countermeasures](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/operations/mediterranean-and-black-sea/nato-mcmv), royalnavy.mod.uk, Retrieved 2 June 2014\n\nAs of April 2022 the latest ship to be assigned was with [Standing NATO Mine Countermeasures Group 1](/wiki/Standing_NATO_Mine_Countermeasures_Group_1 \"Standing NATO Mine Countermeasures Group 1\").\n\n### UK Carrier Strike Group\n\nSince 2015, the Royal Navy has maintained a [carrier strike group](/wiki/Carrier_strike_group \"Carrier strike group\") based around the *Queen Elizabeth*\\-class aircraft carriers with the aim to facilitate carrier\\-enabled [power projection](/wiki/Power_projection \"Power projection\"). It took to sea for the first time in October 2020 and its inaugural operational deployment is scheduled for 2021\\. CGS21 will demonstrate a fully [sovereign](/wiki/Sovereignty \"Sovereignty\") UK carrier strike group comprising: , , , , , an attack submarine of the class, and a . Also accompanying will be a U.S. Navy destroyer .\n\n", "### Continuous At Sea Deterrent\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\|A Trident II D\\-5 ballistic missile launched from a Vanguard\\-class submarine](/wiki/Image:Trident_II_missile_image.jpg \"Trident II missile image.jpg\")\nThe Continuous At Sea Deterrent (CASD) (*or* Trident) is provided by the Royal Navy's four [Vanguard\\-class submarines](/wiki/Vanguard-class_submarine \"Vanguard-class submarine\") which deploy on a continuous basis around the globe. The Vanguard\\-class are each armed with a maximum of 16 [Trident II D\\-5](/wiki/Trident_%28missile%29 \"Trident (missile)\") submarine\\-launched ballistic missiles and 48 nuclear warheads.[Continuous At Sea Deterrent](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/operations/global/continuous-at-sea-deterrent), royalnavy.mod.uk, Retrieved 2 June 2014\n\n", "### International Partnerships\n\nThe Royal Navy remains committed to working with its International Partners around the globe. The principal purpose of these partnerships is to reassure allied nations, to share intelligence and expertise, to build trust and ultimately provide security across the worlds oceans.[International Partnerships](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/what-we-do/international-partnerships), royalnavy.mod.uk, Retrieved 2 June 2014 Examples of such International Partnerships of which the Royal Navy plays a leading role include; the maritime component of the Anglo\\-French [Combined Joint Expeditionary Force (CJEF)](/wiki/Combined_Joint_Expeditionary_Force_%28CJEF%29 \"Combined Joint Expeditionary Force (CJEF)\"), the [North Atlantic Treaty Organization](/wiki/NATO \"NATO\"), [AUSCANNZUKUS](/wiki/AUSCANNZUKUS \"AUSCANNZUKUS\"), the [European Maritime Force](/wiki/European_Maritime_Force \"European Maritime Force\") and the [Five Power Defence Arrangements](/wiki/Five_Power_Defence_Arrangements \"Five Power Defence Arrangements\"). The United Kingdom is a member of [RIMPAC](/wiki/Exercise_RIMPAC \"Exercise RIMPAC\") also, although it hasn't participated in way of deploying a surface ship in several years.\n\n", "### Joint Expeditionary Force (Maritime)\n\n[thumb\\|Former LPH HMS *Ocean* during the JEF(M) Amphibious Task Group in October 2016](/wiki/File:UK%27s_Joint_Expeditionary_Force_%28Maritime%29_MOD_45162223.jpg \"UK's Joint Expeditionary Force (Maritime) MOD 45162223.jpg\")\n[Joint Expeditionary Force (Maritime)](/wiki/Joint_Expeditionary_Force_%28Maritime%29 \"Joint Expeditionary Force (Maritime)\") (JEF(M)) \\-formerly the Response Force Task Group (RFTG) created under the 2010 [Strategic Defence and Security Review](/wiki/Strategic_Defence_and_Security_Review_2010 \"Strategic Defence and Security Review 2010\")\\- is the Royal Navy's amphibious expeditionary task group maintained at high\\-readiness and available at short notice to respond to unexpected global events. In addition to amphibious operations, the JEF(M) can undertake a diverse range of activities such as evacuation operations, disaster relief or humanitarian aid.[Royal Navy ready for unforeseen global events](https://www.gov.uk/government/news/royal-navy-ready-for-unforeseen-global-events), gov.uk, 9 May 2011 The composition of the JEF(M) generally consists of several large [amphibious warfare ships](/wiki/Amphibious_warfare_ship \"Amphibious warfare ship\") (both RN and RFA) and replenishment ships from the Royal Fleet Auxiliary.\n\nTo demonstrate the operational readiness and global reach of the JEF(M), the Royal Navy deploys the amphibious task group on annual large scale international exercises, primarily in the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean.[Royal Navy sails for annual ‘Cougar’ deployment](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/news/2013/august/09/130809-cougar-13), royalnavy.mod.uk, 9 August 2013[Royal Navy set for Cougar 13](https://www.gov.uk/government/news/royal-navy-set-for-cougar-13), gov.uk, 8 August 2013 As an international deployment, the JEF(M) gets the chance to engage in \"intense\" exercises with foreign and allied navies, such as (for example) the [Royal Navy of Oman](/wiki/Royal_Navy_of_Oman \"Royal Navy of Oman\").[Royal Navy sharpens claws for Exercise Omani Cougar](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/news/2013/october/25/131025-rn-sharpens-claws), royalnavy.mod.uk, 25 October 2013\n\nThe 2021 JEF (M) is centred on the Type 23's [HMS *Lancaster*](/wiki/HMS_Lancaster_%28F229%29 \"HMS Lancaster (F229)\") and [HMS *Westminster*](/wiki/HMS_Westminster_%28F237%29 \"HMS Westminster (F237)\") supported by where they are operating in the Baltic. HMS Lancaster is the flagship for the group. The group comprises Estonian, Latvian and Lithuanian vessels supported by aircraft from Sweden. The group have recently been operating with SNMG1 within the baltic.\n\n", "### NATO Mine Countermeasures\n\nThis is the Royal Navy's commitment to support NATO MCM operations in the [Baltic](/wiki/Baltic_Sea \"Baltic Sea\"), Northern European Waters, the Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea (though it is capable of deploying globally if needed). There are two organisational structures; [Standing NATO Mine Countermeasures Group 1](/wiki/Standing_NATO_Mine_Countermeasures_Group_1 \"Standing NATO Mine Countermeasures Group 1\") and [Standing NATO Mine Countermeasures Group 2](/wiki/Standing_NATO_Mine_Countermeasures_Group_2 \"Standing NATO Mine Countermeasures Group 2\").[NATO Mine Countermeasures](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/operations/mediterranean-and-black-sea/nato-mcmv), royalnavy.mod.uk, Retrieved 2 June 2014\n\nAs of April 2022 the latest ship to be assigned was with [Standing NATO Mine Countermeasures Group 1](/wiki/Standing_NATO_Mine_Countermeasures_Group_1 \"Standing NATO Mine Countermeasures Group 1\").\n\n", "### UK Carrier Strike Group\n\nSince 2015, the Royal Navy has maintained a [carrier strike group](/wiki/Carrier_strike_group \"Carrier strike group\") based around the *Queen Elizabeth*\\-class aircraft carriers with the aim to facilitate carrier\\-enabled [power projection](/wiki/Power_projection \"Power projection\"). It took to sea for the first time in October 2020 and its inaugural operational deployment is scheduled for 2021\\. CGS21 will demonstrate a fully [sovereign](/wiki/Sovereignty \"Sovereignty\") UK carrier strike group comprising: , , , , , an attack submarine of the class, and a . Also accompanying will be a U.S. Navy destroyer .\n\n", "Mediterranean\n-------------\n\n### Gibraltar Squadron\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\|[Merlin HC3](/wiki/AgustaWestland_AW101%23Royal_Navy \"AgustaWestland AW101#Royal Navy\") of [846 NAS](/wiki/846_NAS \"846 NAS\") with former [HMS *Scimitar*](/wiki/HMS_Scimitar_%28P284%29 \"HMS Scimitar (P284)\") in British territorial waters off Gibraltar](/wiki/File:Merlin_Mk3s_prove_their_mettle_in_day-long_Gibraltar_transit_MOD_45160593.jpg \"Merlin Mk3s prove their mettle in day-long Gibraltar transit MOD 45160593.jpg\")\nThe [Gibraltar Squadron](/wiki/Gibraltar_Squadron \"Gibraltar Squadron\") consists of two fast patrol boats: [HMS *Cutlass* (P295\\)](/wiki/HMS_Cutlass_%28P295%29 \"HMS Cutlass (P295)\") and HMS *Dagger* (P296\\). The squadron provides force protection for NATO or coalition warships entering the naval facilities of [Gibraltar](/wiki/Gibraltar \"Gibraltar\") and conduct maritime security in the surrounding British territorial waters.[Gibraltar Squadron](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/operations/mediterranean-and-black-sea/gibraltar-squadron), royalnavy.mod.uk, Retrieved 2 June 2014 The 2021 defence white paper indicated that henceforth, one [River\\-class offshore patrol vessel](/wiki/River-class_offshore_patrol_vessel \"River-class offshore patrol vessel\"), , would also be permanently based in [Gibraltar](/wiki/Gibraltar \"Gibraltar\") for operations in the Mediterranean and in the Gulf of Guinea.\n\n### Standing NATO Maritime Group 2\n\nThe Royal Navy routinely provides a single warship to the [Standing NATO Maritime Group 2](/wiki/Standing_NATO_Maritime_Group_2 \"Standing NATO Maritime Group 2\") (part of the NATO Response Force). The standard area of operations for the Standing NRF Maritime Group 2 is the [Mediterranean Sea](/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea \"Mediterranean Sea\"). In 2017, [HMS *Duncan*](/wiki/HMS_Duncan_%28D37%29 \"HMS Duncan (D37)\") deployed as flagship of the group, HM Ships [*Diamond*](/wiki/HMS_Diamond_%28D34%29 \"HMS Diamond (D34)\") and [*Ocean*](/wiki/HMS_Ocean_%28L12%29 \"HMS Ocean (L12)\") also took on the role prior to *Duncan* resuming her duties in early 2018 till July 2018\\. The latest ship to be assigned was [HMS *Duncan*](/wiki/HMS_Duncan_%28D37%29 \"HMS Duncan (D37)\") in June 2023 as flagship.\n\n### Special Purpose Task Group\n\nIn April 2016, *[IHS Jane's](/wiki/Jane%27s_Information_Group \"Jane's Information Group\")* reported that the Royal Navy had formed a new marine task group, named the Special Purpose Task Group (SPTG), in December 2015\\. The task group is reportedly 150\\-strong and centred around Zulu Company of [45 Commando Royal Marines](/wiki/45_Commando_Royal_Marines \"45 Commando Royal Marines\"). It conducts counter\\-trafficking, counter\\-terrorism operations as well as providing support to [United Kingdom Special Forces](/wiki/United_Kingdom_Special_Forces \"United Kingdom Special Forces\"). The SPTG's first operational deployment was in January 2016 to the Mediterranean on board . Additional personnel from [29 Regiment Royal Artillery](/wiki/Royal_Artillery \"Royal Artillery\"), [17 Port and Maritime Regiment of the Royal Logistic Corps](/wiki/Royal_Logistic_Corps \"Royal Logistic Corps\"), [24 Engineer Regiment](/wiki/24_Commando_Regiment_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"24 Commando Regiment (United Kingdom)\"), and [30 (Information Exploitation) Commando Royal Marines](/wiki/30_Commando_Information_Exploitation_Group \"30 Commando Information Exploitation Group\") were attached to provide specialist capabilities and expertise.\n\n### Operation Sea Guardian\n\n[Operation Sea Guardian](/wiki/Operation_Sea_Guardian \"Operation Sea Guardian\")\n\nShips transiting or operating in the Mediterranean will routinely be assigned in Associated Support to Operation Sea Guardian. With the forward basing of HMS *Trent* to Gibraltar, she has been assigned to OSG in direct support. In 2020 and [RFA *Lyme Bay*](/wiki/RFA_Lyme_Bay_%28L3007%29 \"RFA Lyme Bay (L3007)\") have also operated in support of the operation.\n\n### Humanitarian Missions\n\nThe Royal Navy remains committed to providing humanitarian assistance in the Mediterranean. The most high profile of these missions in the area has been Operation Sophia. This was the EU led mission to counter illegal people trafficking from Libya. The Royal Navy's contribution has been highly successful. During a 12 month deployment, provided the most days on task of any other unit and saved the most lives (9,100\\).\n\nIn 2020, HMS *Enterprise* was ordered to sail from Crete to use her hydrographic survey expertise to help to re\\-open the port of Beirut following the massive explosion which devastated the port and surrounding area. She also delivered humanitarian aid.\n\n", "### Gibraltar Squadron\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\|[Merlin HC3](/wiki/AgustaWestland_AW101%23Royal_Navy \"AgustaWestland AW101#Royal Navy\") of [846 NAS](/wiki/846_NAS \"846 NAS\") with former [HMS *Scimitar*](/wiki/HMS_Scimitar_%28P284%29 \"HMS Scimitar (P284)\") in British territorial waters off Gibraltar](/wiki/File:Merlin_Mk3s_prove_their_mettle_in_day-long_Gibraltar_transit_MOD_45160593.jpg \"Merlin Mk3s prove their mettle in day-long Gibraltar transit MOD 45160593.jpg\")\nThe [Gibraltar Squadron](/wiki/Gibraltar_Squadron \"Gibraltar Squadron\") consists of two fast patrol boats: [HMS *Cutlass* (P295\\)](/wiki/HMS_Cutlass_%28P295%29 \"HMS Cutlass (P295)\") and HMS *Dagger* (P296\\). The squadron provides force protection for NATO or coalition warships entering the naval facilities of [Gibraltar](/wiki/Gibraltar \"Gibraltar\") and conduct maritime security in the surrounding British territorial waters.[Gibraltar Squadron](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/operations/mediterranean-and-black-sea/gibraltar-squadron), royalnavy.mod.uk, Retrieved 2 June 2014 The 2021 defence white paper indicated that henceforth, one [River\\-class offshore patrol vessel](/wiki/River-class_offshore_patrol_vessel \"River-class offshore patrol vessel\"), , would also be permanently based in [Gibraltar](/wiki/Gibraltar \"Gibraltar\") for operations in the Mediterranean and in the Gulf of Guinea.\n\n", "### Standing NATO Maritime Group 2\n\nThe Royal Navy routinely provides a single warship to the [Standing NATO Maritime Group 2](/wiki/Standing_NATO_Maritime_Group_2 \"Standing NATO Maritime Group 2\") (part of the NATO Response Force). The standard area of operations for the Standing NRF Maritime Group 2 is the [Mediterranean Sea](/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea \"Mediterranean Sea\"). In 2017, [HMS *Duncan*](/wiki/HMS_Duncan_%28D37%29 \"HMS Duncan (D37)\") deployed as flagship of the group, HM Ships [*Diamond*](/wiki/HMS_Diamond_%28D34%29 \"HMS Diamond (D34)\") and [*Ocean*](/wiki/HMS_Ocean_%28L12%29 \"HMS Ocean (L12)\") also took on the role prior to *Duncan* resuming her duties in early 2018 till July 2018\\. The latest ship to be assigned was [HMS *Duncan*](/wiki/HMS_Duncan_%28D37%29 \"HMS Duncan (D37)\") in June 2023 as flagship.\n\n", "### Special Purpose Task Group\n\nIn April 2016, *[IHS Jane's](/wiki/Jane%27s_Information_Group \"Jane's Information Group\")* reported that the Royal Navy had formed a new marine task group, named the Special Purpose Task Group (SPTG), in December 2015\\. The task group is reportedly 150\\-strong and centred around Zulu Company of [45 Commando Royal Marines](/wiki/45_Commando_Royal_Marines \"45 Commando Royal Marines\"). It conducts counter\\-trafficking, counter\\-terrorism operations as well as providing support to [United Kingdom Special Forces](/wiki/United_Kingdom_Special_Forces \"United Kingdom Special Forces\"). The SPTG's first operational deployment was in January 2016 to the Mediterranean on board . Additional personnel from [29 Regiment Royal Artillery](/wiki/Royal_Artillery \"Royal Artillery\"), [17 Port and Maritime Regiment of the Royal Logistic Corps](/wiki/Royal_Logistic_Corps \"Royal Logistic Corps\"), [24 Engineer Regiment](/wiki/24_Commando_Regiment_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"24 Commando Regiment (United Kingdom)\"), and [30 (Information Exploitation) Commando Royal Marines](/wiki/30_Commando_Information_Exploitation_Group \"30 Commando Information Exploitation Group\") were attached to provide specialist capabilities and expertise.\n\n", "### Operation Sea Guardian\n\n[Operation Sea Guardian](/wiki/Operation_Sea_Guardian \"Operation Sea Guardian\")\n\nShips transiting or operating in the Mediterranean will routinely be assigned in Associated Support to Operation Sea Guardian. With the forward basing of HMS *Trent* to Gibraltar, she has been assigned to OSG in direct support. In 2020 and [RFA *Lyme Bay*](/wiki/RFA_Lyme_Bay_%28L3007%29 \"RFA Lyme Bay (L3007)\") have also operated in support of the operation.\n\n", "### Humanitarian Missions\n\nThe Royal Navy remains committed to providing humanitarian assistance in the Mediterranean. The most high profile of these missions in the area has been Operation Sophia. This was the EU led mission to counter illegal people trafficking from Libya. The Royal Navy's contribution has been highly successful. During a 12 month deployment, provided the most days on task of any other unit and saved the most lives (9,100\\).\n\nIn 2020, HMS *Enterprise* was ordered to sail from Crete to use her hydrographic survey expertise to help to re\\-open the port of Beirut following the massive explosion which devastated the port and surrounding area. She also delivered humanitarian aid.\n\n", "Humanitarian Missions\n---------------------\n\nWhen [Typhoon Haiyan](/wiki/Typhoon_Haiyan \"Typhoon Haiyan\") struck the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\") in late 2013, the Royal Navy deployed [HMS *Daring*](/wiki/HMS_Daring_%28D32%29 \"HMS Daring (D32)\") and [HMS *Illustrious*](/wiki/HMS_Illustrious_%28R06%29 \"HMS Illustrious (R06)\") as part of the United Kingdom's humanitarian aid mission to the region (known as Operation Patwin).[Operation Patwin](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/operations/pacific/patwin), royalnavy.mod.uk, Retrieved 2014\n\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [Naval Party (Royal Navy)](/wiki/Naval_Party_%28Royal_Navy%29 \"Naval Party (Royal Navy)\")\n* [Blue\\-water navy](/wiki/Blue-water_navy \"Blue-water navy\")\n* [His Majesty's Naval Service](/wiki/His_Majesty%27s_Naval_Service \"His Majesty's Naval Service\")\n* [Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)](/wiki/Merchant_Navy_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)\")\n* [Overseas military bases of the United Kingdom](/wiki/Overseas_military_bases_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Overseas military bases of the United Kingdom\")\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [Royal Navy: Operations](http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/Operations/Current-Operations) (royalnavy.mod.uk)\n\n[Category:Royal Navy](/wiki/Category:Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\")\n[Category:Non\\-combat military operations involving the United Kingdom](/wiki/Category:Non-combat_military_operations_involving_the_United_Kingdom \"Non-combat military operations involving the United Kingdom\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 18872885 ], "name": [ "WikiCleanerBot" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "RAF use 1943&ndash;1947", "Since 1948", "See also", "References" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**Royal Air Force Silverstone** or more simply **RAF Silverstone** is a former [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force \"Royal Air Force\") (RAF) [station](/wiki/List_of_former_Royal_Air_Force_stations \"List of former Royal Air Force stations\"), built during the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\"), and used by the RAF from 1943 until 1947\\. It straddles the [Northamptonshire](/wiki/Northamptonshire \"Northamptonshire\") and [Buckinghamshire](/wiki/Buckinghamshire \"Buckinghamshire\") border south west of [Northampton](/wiki/Northampton \"Northampton\"), and is named after the nearby village of Silverstone.\n\nIn 1948 the [Royal Automobile Club](/wiki/Royal_Automobile_Club \"Royal Automobile Club\") hosted the first British Grand Prix at this location, and the site is now a racing circuit known simply as 'Silverstone'.\n\n", "RAF use 1943–1947\n-----------------\n\nThe station was the base for [No. 17 Operational Training Unit RAF](/wiki/No._17_OTU \"No. 17 OTU\") operating the [Vickers Wellington](/wiki/Vickers_Wellington \"Vickers Wellington\") bomber.Sturtivant 2007, pp. 198\\-206\n\n", "Since 1948\n----------\n\nToday the airfield is a major racing circuit known as [Silverstone](/wiki/Silverstone_Circuit \"Silverstone Circuit\"). Private aircraft and helicopters have continued to use this location, particularly in 2009 for the World Aerobatic Championships, but mostly it is now helicopters in connection with motor racing events. The airfield's three runways, in a [standard World War II era triangle](/wiki/Class_A_airfield \"Class A airfield\"), lie within the outline of the classic racetrack, but have either been removed, or re\\-purposed and are no longer available as dedicated runways. In 2010 the main straight between turn 5 and turn 6, following the line of one of the runways, was renamed the 'Wellington Straight'.\n\nThe circuit is also home to the [Silverstone Heliport](/wiki/Silverstone_Heliport \"Silverstone Heliport\").\n\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [List of former Royal Air Force stations](/wiki/List_of_former_Royal_Air_Force_stations \"List of former Royal Air Force stations\")\n", "References\n----------\n\n[Category:Royal Air Force stations in Northamptonshire](/wiki/Category:Royal_Air_Force_stations_in_Northamptonshire \"Royal Air Force stations in Northamptonshire\")\n[Category:Royal Air Force stations of World War II in the United Kingdom](/wiki/Category:Royal_Air_Force_stations_of_World_War_II_in_the_United_Kingdom \"Royal Air Force stations of World War II in the United Kingdom\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 24801517 ], "name": [ "AusLondonder" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Functions", "Historical origins", "Structure and leadership", "Controversy", "Environmental sustainability", "See also", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\nThe **San Francisco Public Utilities Commission** (**SFPUC**) is a public agency of the [City and County of San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco%2C_California \"San Francisco, California\") that provides water, wastewater, and electric power services to the city and an additional 1\\.9 million customers within three [San Francisco Bay Area](/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay_Area \"San Francisco Bay Area\") counties.\n\n", "Functions\n---------\n\nThe SFPUC manages a complex water supply system consisting of reservoirs, tunnels, pipelines and treatment facilities and is the third largest municipal utility agency in California. The SFPUC protects its watershed properties with security utility trucks and [fire apparatus](/wiki/Fire_apparatus \"Fire apparatus\") painted white over green. The SFPUC provides fresh water from [Hetch Hetchy Reservoir](/wiki/Hetch_Hetchy_Reservoir \"Hetch Hetchy Reservoir\") to 2\\.7 million customers for residential, commercial, and industrial uses. Near one\\-third of its delivered water is sent to customers within San Francisco, while the remaining two\\-thirds is sent to [Alameda](/wiki/Alameda_County \"Alameda County\"), [San Mateo](/wiki/San_Mateo_County \"San Mateo County\"), and [Santa Clara](/wiki/Santa_Clara_County \"Santa Clara County\") counties.\n\nSince its creation in February 2005, the SFPUC Power Enterprise Division has supplied power to many city facilities including [Muni](/wiki/San_Francisco_Municipal_Railway \"San Francisco Municipal Railway\"), [San Francisco International Airport](/wiki/San_Francisco_International_Airport \"San Francisco International Airport\") as well as the Modesto and Turlock Irrigation districts. The SFPUC also administers and operates [CleanPowerSF](/wiki/CleanPowerSF \"CleanPowerSF\"), a [Community Choice Aggregation](/wiki/Community_Choice_Aggregation \"Community Choice Aggregation\") program within the guidelines of California State law. The SFPUC is also the water, full retail electricity service, and wastewater utility for occupants of [Treasure Island](/wiki/Treasure_Island%2C_San_Francisco \"Treasure Island, San Francisco\") and [Yerba Buena Island](/wiki/Yerba_Buena_Island \"Yerba Buena Island\").\n\nThe SFPUC manages an extensive wastewater system that collects, conveys, and provides secondary treatment to combined sewage flows (both stormwater and sewage) within the City \\& County of San Francisco before discharging it into the San Francisco Bay and the Pacific Ocean. The [Southeast Water Pollution Control Plant](/wiki/Southeast_Water_Pollution_Control_Plant \"Southeast Water Pollution Control Plant\") handles about 80% of the city's wastewater, while the [Oceanside Water Pollution Control Plant](/wiki/Oceanside_Water_Pollution_Control_Plant \"Oceanside Water Pollution Control Plant\") handles the remaining 20%. A third facility, the [North Point Wet\\-Weather Facility](/wiki/North_Point_Wet-Weather_Facility \"North Point Wet-Weather Facility\"), only operates during wet weather to provide primary treatment to combined sewage prior to discharging to the San Francisco Bay.\n\n", "Historical origins\n------------------\n\n[thumb\\|1922 map showing the pipelines of the SVWC and the Sunol Water Temple](/wiki/Image:Springvalley-lg2.gif \"Springvalley-lg2.gif\")\n\nFrom the mid\\-19th Century, much of the [Alameda County](/wiki/Alameda_County \"Alameda County\") [watershed](/wiki/Drainage_basin \"Drainage basin\") was owned by the Spring Valley Water Company (SVWC), a private enterprise which held a monopoly on water service to [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\").\n\nIn 1906, [William Bowers Bourn II](/wiki/William_Bowers_Bourn_II \"William Bowers Bourn II\"), a major stockholder in the SVWC, and owner of the giant [Empire Mine](/wiki/Empire_Mine_State_Historic_Park \"Empire Mine State Historic Park\"), hired [Willis Polk](/wiki/Willis_Polk \"Willis Polk\") to design a \"water temple\" atop the spot where three subterranean water mains converge, from the [Arroyo de la Laguna](/wiki/Arroyo_de_la_Laguna \"Arroyo de la Laguna\") and [Alameda Creeks](/wiki/Alameda_Creek \"Alameda Creek\"), the Sunol [infiltration galleries](/wiki/Infiltration_gallery \"Infiltration gallery\"), and a 30\\-inch pipeline from the [artesian well](/wiki/Artesian_well \"Artesian well\") field of [Pleasanton](/wiki/Pleasanton%2C_California \"Pleasanton, California\").\n\nMunicipal efforts to buy out the SVWC had been a source of constant controversy from as early as 1873, when the first attempt to purchase it was turned down by San Francisco voters because the price was too high. Other sources claim that as one born into wealth and classically educated, Bourn was partially motivated by a sense of civic responsibility.\n\nPrior to completion of the [Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct](/wiki/Hetch_Hetchy_Aqueduct \"Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct\") in 1934, half of San Francisco's water supply, approximately 6 million gallons per day passed through the [Sunol temple](/wiki/Sunol_temple \"Sunol temple\"). The SVWC, including the temple, was purchased by the city of San Francisco in 1930 for US$40 million.\n\nIn 1932, a new city charter was adopted which established the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission. At the time of its formation, the commission was responsible for the [Hetch Hetchy Project](/wiki/Hetch_Hetchy_Project \"Hetch Hetchy Project\"), [San Francisco Municipal Railway](/wiki/San_Francisco_Municipal_Railway \"San Francisco Municipal Railway\"), Water Department, and [Airport](/wiki/San_Francisco_International_Airport \"San Francisco International Airport\"). The Airport was later transferred out of the SFPUC to the newly formed Airport Commission in 1971\\. Similarly, in 1994 the Municipal Railway was moved out to the separate Public Transportation Commission.\n\n", "Structure and leadership\n------------------------\n\nThe SFPUC is headed by a board consisting of five Commissioners, who are nominated by the [Mayor of San Francisco](/wiki/Mayor_of_San_Francisco \"Mayor of San Francisco\") and confirmed by the [San Francisco Board of Supervisors](/wiki/San_Francisco_Board_of_Supervisors \"San Francisco Board of Supervisors\"). Each of the five Commissioners is chosen according to criteria set forth in the San Francisco City Charter:\n\n> Seat 1 on the Commission shall be a member with experience in environmental policy and an understanding of [environmental justice](/wiki/Environmental_justice \"Environmental justice\") issues. Seat 2 shall be a member with experience in ratepayer or consumer advocacy. Seat 3 shall be a member with experience in project finance. Seat 4 shall be a member with expertise in water systems, power systems, or public utility management, and Seat 5 shall be an at\\-large member.\n\nThe Commission meets on the second and fourth Tuesdays of each month. Their responsibility is to provide operational oversight in such areas as rates and charges for services, approval of contracts, and organizational policy.\n\nThe board appoints a General Manager as the chief executive of the SFPUC, with each division headed by an Assistant General Manager (AGM). The six divisions are: Business Services, External Affairs, Infrastructure Division, Power Enterprise, Water Enterprise, and Wastewater Enterprise.\n\n", "Controversy\n-----------\n\nSFPUC director, since 2012, Harlan Kelly, resigned 30 November 2020, charged with accepting bribes from a contractor. Kelly's trial began in June 2023\\.\n\n", "Environmental sustainability\n----------------------------\n\nWith the goal of improving [sustainability](/wiki/Sustainability \"Sustainability\") and the city of San Francisco's goal to become a \"zero emission city\" by 2030, the SFPUC is implementing a number of projects in all of its core businesses: water, power and sewer.\n\n* Water: SFPUC is applying a \"Water System Improvement Program\" (WSIP) to manage a wide range of projects focusing on the optimization of pipelines, pump stations and water tanks usage.\n* Power: SFPUC is generating and providing different typologies of clean energy (hydroelectric, solar and [biogas](/wiki/Biogas \"Biogas\")) for municipal services and citizens needs. Moreover, in collaboration with [Paradox Engineering](/wiki/Paradox_Engineering \"Paradox Engineering\") is seeking to exploit street light pole developing an integrated infrastructure with the specific scope of monitor the usage of urban services, optimize the power consumption and consequently reduce waste.\n* Sewer: SFPUC is applying the \"Sewer System Improvement Program\" (SSIP) to manage a wide range of projects that includes optimization of pump stations and [wastewater treatment](/wiki/Wastewater_treatment \"Wastewater treatment\") processes. In addition, SFPUC has applied over $50M of funding to pilot and are constructing various Low Impact Designs (LID) through their \"Early Implementation Projects\" to test if LID features such as bio\\-retention systems or creek daylighting projects would reduce the volume of stormwater that would be collected, conveyed and treated. By reducing the stormwater flows to the [wastewater treatment](/wiki/Wastewater_treatment \"Wastewater treatment\") plants, energy consumption may be reduced. SFPUC is equally committed to environmental justice causes and will address sewage flooding at many flood\\-prone neighborhoods in San Francisco: (1\\) [Cayuga Avenue](http://www.sfweekly.com/news/shit-storm-why-wont-sf-stop-flooding-homes-with-sewage/), (2\\) Alemany Circle, (3\\) Folsom and 17th Streets, (4\\) Toland Street, (5\\) Foerster Street, (6\\) Urbano Dr and Victoria Street, (7\\) Wawona Ave and 15th Ave. The low\\-lying areas of San Francisco along the San Francisco Bay is vulnerable to periodic flooding from runoff and wastewater during winter storms. Continued land subsidence, [sea level rise](/wiki/Sea_level_rise \"Sea level rise\"), and urban growth in hitherto industrial neighborhoods will continue to challenge the runoff and sewage collection and conveyance system.\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [Hetch Hetchy](/wiki/Hetch_Hetchy \"Hetch Hetchy\")\n* [Sunol Water Temple](/wiki/Sunol_Water_Temple \"Sunol Water Temple\") \\- an unusual structure owned by the SFPUC\n* [Pulgas Water Temple](/wiki/Pulgas_Water_Temple \"Pulgas Water Temple\") \\- an inoperative structure similar to the Sunol Water Temple\n* [Crystal Springs Park, California](/wiki/Crystal_Springs_Park%2C_California \"Crystal Springs Park, California\")\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [official website](http://sfpuc.org/)\n\n[Category:1932 establishments in California](/wiki/Category:1932_establishments_in_California \"1932 establishments in California\")\n[Category:Government agencies established in 1932](/wiki/Category:Government_agencies_established_in_1932 \"Government agencies established in 1932\")\n[Public Utilities](/wiki/Category:Government_of_San_Francisco \"Government of San Francisco\")\n[Category:Hetch Hetchy Project](/wiki/Category:Hetch_Hetchy_Project \"Hetch Hetchy Project\")\n[Category:Public utilities of the United States](/wiki/Category:Public_utilities_of_the_United_States \"Public utilities of the United States\")\n[Category:Water management authorities in California](/wiki/Category:Water_management_authorities_in_California \"Water management authorities in California\")\n[Category:History of the San Francisco Bay Area](/wiki/Category:History_of_the_San_Francisco_Bay_Area \"History of the San Francisco Bay Area\")\n[Category:Energy in the San Francisco Bay Area](/wiki/Category:Energy_in_the_San_Francisco_Bay_Area \"Energy in the San Francisco Bay Area\")\n[Category:Water in California](/wiki/Category:Water_in_California \"Water in California\")\n[Category:Water companies of the United States](/wiki/Category:Water_companies_of_the_United_States \"Water companies of the United States\")\n[Category:Government of Alameda County, California](/wiki/Category:Government_of_Alameda_County%2C_California \"Government of Alameda County, California\")\n[Category:Government of San Mateo County, California](/wiki/Category:Government_of_San_Mateo_County%2C_California \"Government of San Mateo County, California\")\n[Category:Government of Santa Clara County, California](/wiki/Category:Government_of_Santa_Clara_County%2C_California \"Government of Santa Clara County, California\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 2304267 ], "name": [ "CommonsDelinker" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "History", "Exhibits", "Olympic Park", "Gallery", "See also", "Notes and references", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\nThe **Olympic Museum** () in [Lausanne](/wiki/Lausanne \"Lausanne\"), Switzerland houses permanent and temporary exhibits relating to sport and the Olympic movement. With more than 10,000 artifacts, the museum is the largest archive of [Olympic Games](/wiki/Olympic_Games \"Olympic Games\") memorabilia in the world and one of Lausanne's prime tourist site draws attracting more than 250,000 visitors each year.\n\nThe Olympic Museum and the Olympic Park (sculpture garden between the museum and [Lake Léman](/wiki/Lake_L%C3%A9man \"Lake Léman\")) are located at [Ouchy](/wiki/Ouchy \"Ouchy\"), south of Lausanne. The headquarters of the [International Olympic Committee](/wiki/International_Olympic_Committee \"International Olympic Committee\") (IOC) are located at [Vidy](/wiki/Vidy \"Vidy\"), to the west of Ouchy.\n\n", "History\n-------\n\nThe museum was founded on 23 June 1993, on the initiative of then\\-president of the IOC [Juan Antonio Samaranch](/wiki/Juan_Antonio_Samaranch \"Juan Antonio Samaranch\"). Mexican architect [Pedro Ramírez Vázquez](/wiki/Pedro_Ram%C3%ADrez_V%C3%A1zquez \"Pedro Ramírez Vázquez\"), an [International Olympic Committee](/wiki/International_Olympic_Committee \"International Olympic Committee\") member, and Jean\\-Pierre Cahen, were in charge of the project. The museum was named the [European Museum of the Year](/wiki/European_Museum_of_the_Year_Award \"European Museum of the Year Award\") in 1995\\.\n\nAfter 23 months of renovation between 2012 and 2013, the Olympic Museum re\\-opened on 21 December 2013\\. During the transformations of the building, a temporary exhibition was set up in a boat (*Helvétie*) of the [CGN](/wiki/Compagnie_G%C3%A9n%C3%A9rale_de_Navigation_sur_le_lac_L%C3%A9man \"Compagnie Générale de Navigation sur le lac Léman\"), in front of the Olympic Park.\n\nWith the renovation, the surface of the museum increased from (in 2011\\) to (in 2013\\).\n\n", "Exhibits\n--------\n\nThe permanent exhibition is organized into three major themes on three separate floors: Olympic World, Olympic Games, and Olympic Spirit. A visit begins on the third floor, where the Olympic World part of the exhibition informs visitors of the history of the [ancient Olympic Games](/wiki/Ancient_Olympic_Games \"Ancient Olympic Games\") and the rebirth of the modern Games in the 19th century. Highlights include a display of Olympic torches, as well as a video documenting major moments in the history of opening ceremonies history.\n\nThe second floor focuses on Olympic Games. Sporting equipment for a variety of sports are on display, and visitors are introduced to the [Youth Olympic Games](/wiki/Youth_Olympic_Games \"Youth Olympic Games\") and the [Paralympic Games](/wiki/Paralympic_Games \"Paralympic Games\"). More than 1,000 video clips of Olympic Games events and athletes can be searched and viewed at individual viewing stations.\n\nThe final part of the permanent exhibit covers the Olympic Spirit, where visitors are made to feel part of an [Olympic Village](/wiki/Olympic_Village \"Olympic Village\") and can test their balance, agility, and mental skills with interactive exercises. [Olympic medals](/wiki/Olympic_medals \"Olympic medals\") are also on display.\n\nThe renovated museum also includes a temporary exhibit space, where the museum regularly hosts traveling exhibits.\n\n", "Olympic Park\n------------\n\nThe Olympic Museum is surrounded by a park containing numerous works of art on the theme of sports. Among the most notable works of art in the museum's permanent collection are the French sculptors [Auguste Rodin](/wiki/Auguste_Rodin \"Auguste Rodin\")'s *The American Athlete* and [Niki de Saint Phalle](/wiki/Niki_de_Saint_Phalle \"Niki de Saint Phalle\")'s *Les Footballeurs*, the [Luxembourgish](/wiki/Luxembourg \"Luxembourg\") sculptor [Lucien Wercollier](/wiki/Lucien_Wercollier \"Lucien Wercollier\")'s tribute to the [pole vault](/wiki/Pole_vault \"Pole vault\") titled *Altius*, the [Colombian](/wiki/Colombia \"Colombia\") sculptor [Fernando Botero](/wiki/Fernando_Botero \"Fernando Botero\")'s *Jeune Fille a la Balle*, and a [kinetic art](/wiki/Kinetic_art \"Kinetic art\") sculpture by the Swiss sculptor [Jean Tinguely](/wiki/Jean_Tinguely \"Jean Tinguely\") which combines a hockey stick, a boar's head, and a motorbike wheel.\n\n", "Gallery\n-------\n\nFile:Losanna, museo olimpico, ext., 00\\.JPG\\|From the shores of \\[\\[Lake Léman]]\nFile:Olympic Flames.jpg\\|Olympic torches inside the museum (before the transformation of the museum)\nFile:Flamme olympique Lausanne.jpg\\|The Olympic Flame\nFile:Picswiss VD\\-46\\-60\\.jpg\\|''\\[\\[Non\\-Violence (sculpture)\\|Non\\-Violence]]'' sculpture in the Olympic Park\nFile:Lausanne MO.jpg\\|Statue in front of the museum, on the shore of \\[\\[Lake Geneva\\|Lake Léman]]\nFile:Olympic Museum on MS Helvétie.jpg\\|During the transformations of the building (until December 2013\\), a temporary exhibition is set up in this \\[\\[Compagnie Générale de Navigation sur le lac Léman\\|CGN]] boat, in front of the Olympic Park\nFile:Cyclistes \\- Gabor Mihaly.jpg\\|''Cyclistes'', sculpture by Gabor Mihaly\nFile:Citius Altius Fortius Berrocal.jpg\\|''Citius, Altius, Fortius'', sculpture by \\[\\[Miguel Ortiz Berrocal]] at the entrance to the Olympic Museum\n\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [International Olympic Committee](/wiki/International_Olympic_Committee \"International Olympic Committee\") (IOC)\n", "Notes and references\n--------------------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [Page on the website of the City of Lausanne](https://archive.today/20130628075418/http://www.lausanne.ch/en/ville-sportive/capitale-olympique/capitale-a-visiter/le-musee-olympique.html)\n* [Olympic Museum](https://artsandculture.google.com/partner/the-olympic-museum?hl=en) within [Google Arts \\& Culture](/wiki/Google_Arts_%26_Culture \"Google Arts & Culture\")\n[Category:Olympic museums](/wiki/Category:Olympic_museums \"Olympic museums\")\n[Category:Museums in Lausanne](/wiki/Category:Museums_in_Lausanne \"Museums in Lausanne\")\n[Category:Sport in Lausanne](/wiki/Category:Sport_in_Lausanne \"Sport in Lausanne\")\n[Category:International Sports Heritage Association](/wiki/Category:International_Sports_Heritage_Association \"International Sports Heritage Association\")\n[Category:Museums established in 1993](/wiki/Category:Museums_established_in_1993 \"Museums established in 1993\")\n[Category:1993 establishments in Switzerland](/wiki/Category:1993_establishments_in_Switzerland \"1993 establishments in Switzerland\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 7903804 ], "name": [ "Citation bot" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "References", "Additional sources" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**Daniel Michael Tellep** (20 November 1931 – 26 November 2020\\) was an American [aerospace](/wiki/Aerospace \"Aerospace\") businessman. He died on November 26, 2020\\. He served as CEO and [chairman of the board](/wiki/Board_of_directors \"Board of directors\") of the [Lockheed Corporation](/wiki/Lockheed_Corporation \"Lockheed Corporation\") from 1989 to 1995 and CEO of [Lockheed Martin Corporation](/wiki/Lockheed_Martin \"Lockheed Martin\") in 1996\\. \nMr. Tellep joined Lockheed in 1955 and served as President of Lockheed Missiles \\& Space Company Inc., a wholly owned subsidiary of Lockheed, from 1984 to 1988\\. He served as group president\\-missiles and space systems from 1986 to 1988\\. Mr. Tellep served as chairman of the board of Lockheed Martin Corporation (Aerospace Industry) until 1996\\. Mr. Tellep served as Director of Wells Fargo Bank National Association of WFC Holdings Corporation and has been its Director since 1996\\. He served as Director of First Interstate Bancorp since 1991\\. He served as a Director of Edison International, Scecorp and Southern California Edison Company, a subsidiary of Edison International since 1992\\. Mr. Tellep held two degrees from the [University of California, Berkeley](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Berkeley \"University of California, Berkeley\") (B.S. in Mechanical Engineering in 1954 and M.S. in 1955\\) and has completed studies at [Harvard Business School](/wiki/Harvard_Business_School \"Harvard Business School\").\n\nIn 1979, Tellep was elected to the [National Academy of Engineering](/wiki/National_Academy_of_Engineering \"National Academy of Engineering\") for his \"Pioneering theoretical, experimental, and design contributions in the development of re\\-entry systems for U.S. Fleet Ballistic Missiles.\"\n\nIt was Tellep who, in 1994, proposed the merger which resulted in the formation of [Lockheed Martin](/wiki/Lockheed_Martin \"Lockheed Martin\").\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "Additional sources\n------------------\n\n[Tellep, Daniel Michael](/wiki/Category:1931_births \"1931 births\")\n[Category:2020 deaths](/wiki/Category:2020_deaths \"2020 deaths\")\n[Category:American chief executives](/wiki/Category:American_chief_executives \"American chief executives\")\n[Category:Lockheed people](/wiki/Category:Lockheed_people \"Lockheed people\")\n[Category:Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering](/wiki/Category:Members_of_the_United_States_National_Academy_of_Engineering \"Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering\")\n[Category:Harvard Business School alumni](/wiki/Category:Harvard_Business_School_alumni \"Harvard Business School alumni\")\n\n \n\n[Category:20th\\-century American businesspeople](/wiki/Category:20th-century_American_businesspeople \"20th-century American businesspeople\")\n[Category:UC Berkeley College of Engineering alumni](/wiki/Category:UC_Berkeley_College_of_Engineering_alumni \"UC Berkeley College of Engineering alumni\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 35936988 ], "name": [ "JJMC89 bot III" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Contributions to French gastronomy", "Restaurants", "Institut Paul Bocuse Worldwide Alliance", "Death", "Works", "See also", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**Paul François Pierre Bocuse** (; 11 February 1926 – 20 January 2018\\) was a [French chef](/wiki/French_cuisine \"French cuisine\") based in [Lyon](/wiki/Lyon \"Lyon\") known for the high quality of his restaurants and his innovative approaches to cuisine. Dubbed \"the pope of gastronomy\", he was affectionately nicknamed **Monsieur Paul** (Mister Paul). The [Bocuse d'Or](/wiki/Bocuse_d%27Or \"Bocuse d'Or\"), a biennial world chef championship, bears his name.\n\nA student of [Eugénie Brazier](/wiki/Eug%C3%A9nie_Brazier \"Eugénie Brazier\"), he was one of the most prominent chefs associated with the *[nouvelle cuisine](/wiki/Nouvelle_cuisine \"Nouvelle cuisine\")*, which is less opulent and calorific than the traditional *[cuisine classique](/wiki/Haute_cuisine \"Haute cuisine\")*, as well as stresses the importance of fresh ingredients of the highest quality. Bocuse claimed that [Henri Gault](/wiki/Henri_Gault \"Henri Gault\") first used the term, *nouvelle cuisine*, to describe food prepared by Bocuse and other top chefs for the maiden flight of the [Concorde](/wiki/Concorde \"Concorde\") airliner in 1969\\.*France on a Plate*, [BBC Four](/wiki/BBC_Four \"BBC Four\") TV programme, 1 December 2008\\.\n\nIn popular culture, Bocuse inspired the character of chef Auguste Gusteau in the 2007 animated film *[Ratatouille](/wiki/Ratatouille_%28film%29 \"Ratatouille (film)\")*, directed by [Brad Bird](/wiki/Brad_Bird \"Brad Bird\"), the plot line of which was also influenced by fellow chef [Bernard Loiseau](/wiki/Bernard_Loiseau \"Bernard Loiseau\")'s life story.\n\nAfter completing his formal education, Bocuse enrolled in a culinary apprenticeship in Lyon, a city renowned for its culinary traditions. Under the guidance of some of the most skilled and experienced chefs in France, he honed his skills and gained a deep understanding of the art and science of French cuisine.\n\n", "Contributions to French gastronomy\n----------------------------------\n\n[thumb\\|alt\\=Black and white portrait of older man taken at a 45 degree slant filling the image field, his chef hat and coat are just visible\\|left\\|Bocuse in 2007](/wiki/File:Paul_Bocuse_2007.jpg \"Paul Bocuse 2007.jpg\")\nBocuse made many contributions to French [gastronomy](/wiki/Gastronomy \"Gastronomy\") both directly and indirectly, because he had numerous students, many of whom have become notable chefs themselves. One of his students was Austrian [Eckart Witzigmann](/wiki/Eckart_Witzigmann \"Eckart Witzigmann\"), one of four *Chefs of the Century* and chef at the first German restaurant to receive three [Michelin stars](/wiki/List_of_Michelin_3-star_restaurants%23France \"List of Michelin 3-star restaurants#France\"). Since 1987, the *[Bocuse d'Or](/wiki/Bocuse_d%27Or \"Bocuse d'Or\")* has been regarded as the most prestigious award for chefs in the world (at least when French food is considered), and is sometimes seen as the unofficial world championship for chefs. Bocuse received numerous awards throughout his career, including the medal of Commandeur de la [Légion d'honneur](/wiki/L%C3%A9gion_d%27honneur \"Légion d'honneur\").\n\n[The Culinary Institute of America](/wiki/The_Culinary_Institute_of_America \"The Culinary Institute of America\") honoured Bocuse in their Leadership Awards Gala on 30 March 2011\\. He received the \"Chef of the Century\" award. In July 2012 the Culinary Institute of America announced in *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")* that they would change the name of their [Escoffier](/wiki/Escoffier \"Escoffier\") Restaurant to the Bocuse Restaurant, after a year\\-long renovation.\n\nIn 1975, he created *soupe aux truffes* ([truffle](/wiki/Truffle \"Truffle\") soup) for a presidential dinner at the [Élysée Palace](/wiki/%C3%89lys%C3%A9e_Palace \"Élysée Palace\"). Since then, the soup has been served in Bocuse's restaurant near Lyon as *Soupe V.G.E.*, VGE being the initials of former president of France [Valéry Giscard d'Estaing](/wiki/Val%C3%A9ry_Giscard_d%27Estaing \"Valéry Giscard d'Estaing\").\n\n", "Restaurants\n-----------\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\|*Le Nord*, one of Bocuse's chain of brasseries in central [Lyon](/wiki/Lyon \"Lyon\")](/wiki/Image:Paul_Bocuse_le_nord.jpg \"Paul Bocuse le nord.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\|Bocuse wearing his *[Meilleur Ouvrier de France](/wiki/Meilleur_Ouvrier_de_France \"Meilleur Ouvrier de France\")* medal, 2005](/wiki/File:Meilleur_Ouvrier_de_France_-_Paul_Bocuse.jpg \"Meilleur Ouvrier de France - Paul Bocuse.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\|*[L'Auberge du Pont de Collonges](/wiki/L%27Auberge_du_Pont_de_Collonges \"L'Auberge du Pont de Collonges\")*, Bocuse's main restaurant in [Collonges\\-au\\-Mont\\-d'Or](/wiki/Collonges-au-Mont-d%27Or \"Collonges-au-Mont-d'Or\"), the place of both his birth and death](/wiki/File:Restaurant_Paul_Bocuse.JPG \"Restaurant Paul Bocuse.JPG\")\nBocuse's main restaurant, *[L'Auberge du Pont de Collonges](/wiki/L%27Auberge_du_Pont_de_Collonges \"L'Auberge du Pont de Collonges\")*, is a luxury establishment near Lyon, which has been serving a traditional menu for decades. It was one of only 27 restaurants in France to receive a three\\-star rating in 2017 by the [Michelin Guide](/wiki/List_of_Michelin_3-star_restaurants%23France \"List of Michelin 3-star restaurants#France\"). However, it lost its record\\-breaking 55\\-year long 3\\-star rating in the 2020 Michelin Guide, sparking controversy in the French culinary world. He also operated a chain of [brasseries](/wiki/Brasserie \"Brasserie\") in Lyon, named *Le Nord*, *L'Est*, *Le Sud* and *L'Ouest*, each of which specialize in a different aspect of French cuisine.\n\nPaul Bocuse's son, [Jérôme](/wiki/J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_Bocuse \"Jérôme Bocuse\"), manages the \"[Les Chefs de France](/wiki/Les_Chefs_de_France \"Les Chefs de France\")\" restaurant which the elder Bocuse co\\-founded with [Roger Vergé](/wiki/Roger_Verg%C3%A9 \"Roger Vergé\") and [Gaston Lenôtre](/wiki/Gaston_Len%C3%B4tre \"Gaston Lenôtre\") and is located inside the [French pavilion](/wiki/France_%28Epcot%29 \"France (Epcot)\") at [Walt Disney World's](/wiki/Walt_Disney_World_Resort \"Walt Disney World Resort\") [EPCOT](/wiki/EPCOT \"EPCOT\").\n\nBocuse was considered an ambassador of modern French cuisine. He was honoured in 1961 with the title [Meilleur Ouvrier de France](/wiki/Meilleur_Ouvrier_de_France \"Meilleur Ouvrier de France\"). He had been apprenticed to [Fernand Point](/wiki/Fernand_Point \"Fernand Point\"), a master of [classic French cuisine](/wiki/Classic_French_cuisine \"Classic French cuisine\"). Bocuse dedicated his first book to him.\n\n", "Institut Paul Bocuse Worldwide Alliance\n---------------------------------------\n\nIn 2004, the [Institut Paul Bocuse](/wiki/Institut_Paul_Bocuse \"Institut Paul Bocuse\") Worldwide Alliance was created. In 2014, the Alliance brought together students of 14 nationalities for a course in [Lyon](/wiki/Lyon \"Lyon\").\n\nNotable alumni of the programme include Lebanese chef [Tara Khattar](/wiki/Tara_Khattar \"Tara Khattar\").\n\n", "Death\n-----\n\nBocuse died of [Parkinson's disease](/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease \"Parkinson's disease\") on 20 January 2018 at age 91 in [Collonges\\-au\\-Mont\\-d'Or](/wiki/Collonges-au-Mont-d%27Or \"Collonges-au-Mont-d'Or\"), north of Lyon, in the same room above his restaurant, [L'Auberge du Pont de Collonges](/wiki/L%27Auberge_du_Pont_de_Collonges \"L'Auberge du Pont de Collonges\"), in which he was born in 1926\\. His son [Jérôme](/wiki/J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_Bocuse \"Jérôme Bocuse\") asked there not be a national tribute, stating it is not what his father would have wanted, remembering a \"simple\" man; President [Emmanuel Macron](/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron \"Emmanuel Macron\") recognised a \"mythical figure\" who represented \"French gastronomy in its generosity, its respect for traditions but also its inventiveness\".\n\n", "Works\n-----\n\n* *Paul Bocuse's French Cooking*, translated by [Colette Rossant](/wiki/Colette_Rossant \"Colette Rossant\") (Pantheon Books 1977\\)\n* *Bocuse a la Carte*, translated by [Colette Rossant](/wiki/Colette_Rossant \"Colette Rossant\") (Pantheon Books 1987\\)\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [Fernand Point](/wiki/Fernand_Point \"Fernand Point\")\n* [Awards and Honors](https://thecookbook.pk/biography-of-chef-paul-bocuse-born-in-france-but-of-german-descent-germany/)\n* [Final Years and Passing](https://thecookbook.pk/biography-of-chef-paul-bocuse-born-in-france-but-of-german-descent-germany/)\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [Official website](https://www.bocuse.fr)\n\n[Category:1926 births](/wiki/Category:1926_births \"1926 births\")\n[Category:2018 deaths](/wiki/Category:2018_deaths \"2018 deaths\")\n[Category:Chefs from Lyon](/wiki/Category:Chefs_from_Lyon \"Chefs from Lyon\")\n[Category:Deaths from Parkinson's disease in France](/wiki/Category:Deaths_from_Parkinson%27s_disease_in_France \"Deaths from Parkinson's disease in France\")\n[Category:People from Lyon Metropolis](/wiki/Category:People_from_Lyon_Metropolis \"People from Lyon Metropolis\")\n[Category:French restaurateurs](/wiki/Category:French_restaurateurs \"French restaurateurs\")\n[Category:Head chefs of Michelin\\-starred restaurants](/wiki/Category:Head_chefs_of_Michelin-starred_restaurants \"Head chefs of Michelin-starred restaurants\")\n[Category:Officers Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany](/wiki/Category:Officers_Crosses_of_the_Order_of_Merit_of_the_Federal_Republic_of_Germany \"Officers Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany\")\n[Category:Commanders of the Legion of Honour](/wiki/Category:Commanders_of_the_Legion_of_Honour \"Commanders of the Legion of Honour\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 27015025 ], "name": [ "InternetArchiveBot" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Early life", "Governor", "Coal Creek War", "Death", "Family", "See also", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**John Price Buchanan** (October 24, 1847May 14, 1930\\) was an American politician and farmers' advocate. He served as the 25th [governor of Tennessee](/wiki/Governor_of_Tennessee \"Governor of Tennessee\") from 1891 to 1893, and was president of the Tennessee Farmers' Alliance and Laborers' Union in the late 1880s. Buchanan's lone term as governor was largely marred by the [Coal Creek War](/wiki/Coal_Creek_War \"Coal Creek War\"), an armed uprising by coal miners aimed at ending the state's [convict lease](/wiki/Convict_lease \"Convict lease\") system.Connie Lester, \"[John Price Buchanan](http://tennesseeencyclopedia.net/entry.php?rec=155),\" *Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture*, 2009\\. Retrieved: November 13, 2012\\.\n\n", "Early life\n----------\n\nBuchanan was born on October 24, 1847[Biographical Directory of the Governors of the United States, 1789–1978](https://books.google.com/books?id=lhRqUo9HzVwC&pg=PA68) in [Williamson County, Tennessee](/wiki/Williamson_County%2C_Tennessee \"Williamson County, Tennessee\"), the son of Thomas and Rebecca (Shannon) Buchanan. He attended common schools, and joined the [Confederate Army](/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America \"Confederate States of America\") as a private in the Fourth Alabama Cavalry in 1864\\. After the war, he moved to [Rutherford County, Tennessee](/wiki/Rutherford_County%2C_Tennessee \"Rutherford County, Tennessee\"), where he engaged in farming and livestock breeding. By the 1880s, his farm was one of the most successful in the county.Karin Shapiro, *A New South Rebellion: The Battle Against Convict Labor in the Tennessee Coalfields, 1871–1896* (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1998\\). He was elected to the county's seat in the [Tennessee House of Representatives](/wiki/Tennessee_House_of_Representatives \"Tennessee House of Representatives\") in 1886, and again in 1888\\. Among the legislation he sponsored was a bill exempting [farmers' co\\-ops](/wiki/Agricultural_cooperatives \"Agricultural cooperatives\") from the state's merchant tax.\n\nIn the decades after the Civil War, Tennessee's farmers struggled with both falling crop prices and rising transportation costs, and called for regulation of railroad rates.Phillip Langsdon, *Tennessee: A Political History* (Franklin, Tenn.: Hillsboro Press, 2000\\), pp. 220–222\\. Governor [William B. Bate](/wiki/William_B._Bate \"William B. Bate\") had established a railroad commission during his first term, but the party's [Bourbon](/wiki/Bourbon_Democrats \"Bourbon Democrats\") and industrial wings repealed the act authorizing this commission in 1885, leaving farmers outraged. The state's farmers formed a chapter of the [Farmers' Alliance](/wiki/Farmers%27_Alliance \"Farmers' Alliance\"), the Tennessee Farmers' Alliance, which elected Buchanan its first president in 1888\\. The following year, Buchanan helped implement the Farmers' Alliance's merger with a rival group, the [Agricultural Wheel](/wiki/Agricultural_Wheel \"Agricultural Wheel\"), to form the Tennessee Farmers' Alliance and Laborers' Union (TFLU).\n\n", "Governor\n--------\n\nBy the late 1880s, the TFLU and its supporters comprised a significant faction of the state [Democratic Party](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\"), known as the \"Hayseed\" or \"Wool\\-hat\" Democrats. In the gubernatorial race of 1890, incumbent [Robert Love Taylor](/wiki/Robert_Love_Taylor \"Robert Love Taylor\") was not seeking reelection, and at the party's July convention, various factions put forth their own candidates for the party's nomination. The Bourbon faction supported Congressman [Josiah Patterson](/wiki/Josiah_Patterson \"Josiah Patterson\"), the [New South](/wiki/New_South \"New South\") faction supported railroad magnate [Jere Baxter](/wiki/Jere_Baxter \"Jere Baxter\"), and the Hayseeds supported Buchanan. After six days and multiple ballots, Buchanan was declared the nominee. Many Democrats blasted Buchanan as too unsophisticated to run as the party's nominee, and he was ridiculed by newspapers across the state.\n\nAlong with the farmers' vote, Buchanan courted the labor vote by promising to appoint a commissioner of labor. He argued that banks and financiers had too much political influence, and proposed regulating railroad rates. Seeking to further cement his position among white farmers, he campaigned against the federal [Lodge Bill](/wiki/Lodge_Bill \"Lodge Bill\"), which would have provided protections for voting rights for blacks in the South. On election day, he won easily, capturing 113,549 votes to 76,081 votes for the [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\") candidate, Lewis Baxter, and 11,082 votes for the [Prohibition](/wiki/Prohibition_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Prohibition Party (United States)\") candidate, David Cato Kelley.*[The World Almanac and Encyclopedia](https://books.google.com/books?id=QR0fAQAAMAAJ&dq=%22john+p.+buchanan%22&pg=PA416)* (Press Publishing Company, 1894\\), p. 416\\.\n\nAfter his inauguration in early 1891, Buchanan, working with a coalition of Hayseed Democrats and Republicans in the state legislature, enacted several measures aimed at helping farmers and labor, including laws regulating fertilizer products and recognizing [Labor Day](/wiki/Labor_Day \"Labor Day\"), restrictions on foreign companies doing business in Tennessee, and a law establishing a state commissioner of labor. For the latter office, he appointed [Knights of Labor](/wiki/Knights_of_Labor \"Knights of Labor\") activist George Ford. He also signed a law standardizing the state's public school curriculum, and enacted a measure providing pensions for Confederate veterans. Buchanan strengthened the state's [poll tax](/wiki/Poll_tax_%28United_States%29 \"Poll tax (United States)\"), and enacted several voting restrictions aimed at suppressing the African\\-American vote.\n\n### Coal Creek War\n\nIn July 1891, an open insurrection, known as the Coal Creek War, erupted in East Tennessee when the Tennessee Coal Mining Company (TCMC) attempted to replace striking miners at its [Briceville](/wiki/Briceville%2C_Tennessee \"Briceville, Tennessee\") mine with convicts leased from the state. The striking miners had rounded up the convicts and had sent them to [Knoxville](/wiki/Knoxville%2C_Tennessee \"Knoxville, Tennessee\") via train, and the TCMC demanded Buchanan call up the state guard and put down the insurrection. This presented a difficult dilemma for Buchanan, who had campaigned on labor rights, but as governor was obligated to enforce the law. Furthermore, while the Farmers' Alliance sought to end convict leasing, Buchanan supported it, arguing it saved the state hundreds of thousands of dollars.\n\nOn July 16, Buchanan, at the head of three state guard companies, personally escorted the convicts from Knoxville back to the stockades in the Coal Creek Valley. He met with the leaders of the striking miners near Briceville, and assured them that while he was a friend of labor, he had no choice but to uphold the law. One of the strike leaders, a blacklisted miner named Eugene Merrell, rejected Buchanan's statements. He argued that if Buchanan were intent on enforcing the law, he would also uphold laws requiring independent checkweighmen (who weighed the coal for which the miners were paid) and payment in legal tender (as opposed to [scrip](/wiki/Scrip \"Scrip\")), which the TCMC had consistently ignored. The governor returned to Nashville the following day, leaving the valley's stockades under the protection of 107 guardsmen.\n\nOn July 20, just a few days after Buchanan left the valley, the striking miners overwhelmed the guardsmen protecting the stockades at Briceville and nearby [Coal Creek](/wiki/Lake_City%2C_Tennessee \"Lake City, Tennessee\"), and once again sent the convicts back to Knoxville. After meeting with labor and business leaders in Knoxville, Buchanan negotiated a 60\\-day truce with the miners, agreeing to call a special session of the state legislature to consider ending the convict leasing system. He also called up an additional twelve guard companies to protect the Coal Creek stockades.\n\nThe state legislature met in a special session in September 1891 to consider the convict lease system and the events surrounding the Coal Creek War. Buchanan suggested they modify existing contracts to protect free miners, and called for the establishment of a state penitentiary. While the legislature upheld miners' rights to independent checkweighmen and payment in legal tender, it refused to end the convict lease system, and passed bills making it a felony to interfere with state convicts.\n\nWhen the legislature failed to end convict leasing, Buchanan's labor commissioner, George Ford, tried to help the miners by suing the state on behalf of the convicts, arguing that the state's primary lessee, the Tennessee Coal and Iron Company (TCI), had no authority to sublease the convicts to TCMC. In October 1891, the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court \"Tennessee Supreme Court\"), led by Chief Justice [Peter Turney](/wiki/Peter_Turney \"Peter Turney\"), ruled against Ford. With nowhere else to turn, the striking miners launched a series of attacks against mining company stockades in late 1891 and early 1892, in some cases freeing the convicts and burning the stockades. By April 1892, the revolt had spread to mines in [Grundy County](/wiki/Grundy_County%2C_Tennessee \"Grundy County, Tennessee\") to the south. In August, Buchanan dispatched General Samuel T. Carnes to Coal Creek with over 500 militiamen, and order was finally restored.\n\nBuchanan was vilified by both miners and mining company owners as ineffective and incompetent, and was frequently assailed in the press. In the gubernatorial race of 1892, the Democratic Party's Bourbon and New South factions thwarted his bid for reelection, instead choosing Chief Justice Turney as the party's nominee. Buchanan entered the race as an independent, still claiming to represent farmers' interests, and winning the backing of the rising [Populist](/wiki/Populist_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Populist Party (United States)\") movement. On election day, however, he placed third, winning just 31,515 votes to 127,247 for Turney, 100,629 for Republican George Winstead, and 5,427 for Prohibitionist [Edward H. East](/wiki/Edward_H._East \"Edward H. East\").\n\n", "### Coal Creek War\n\nIn July 1891, an open insurrection, known as the Coal Creek War, erupted in East Tennessee when the Tennessee Coal Mining Company (TCMC) attempted to replace striking miners at its [Briceville](/wiki/Briceville%2C_Tennessee \"Briceville, Tennessee\") mine with convicts leased from the state. The striking miners had rounded up the convicts and had sent them to [Knoxville](/wiki/Knoxville%2C_Tennessee \"Knoxville, Tennessee\") via train, and the TCMC demanded Buchanan call up the state guard and put down the insurrection. This presented a difficult dilemma for Buchanan, who had campaigned on labor rights, but as governor was obligated to enforce the law. Furthermore, while the Farmers' Alliance sought to end convict leasing, Buchanan supported it, arguing it saved the state hundreds of thousands of dollars.\n\nOn July 16, Buchanan, at the head of three state guard companies, personally escorted the convicts from Knoxville back to the stockades in the Coal Creek Valley. He met with the leaders of the striking miners near Briceville, and assured them that while he was a friend of labor, he had no choice but to uphold the law. One of the strike leaders, a blacklisted miner named Eugene Merrell, rejected Buchanan's statements. He argued that if Buchanan were intent on enforcing the law, he would also uphold laws requiring independent checkweighmen (who weighed the coal for which the miners were paid) and payment in legal tender (as opposed to [scrip](/wiki/Scrip \"Scrip\")), which the TCMC had consistently ignored. The governor returned to Nashville the following day, leaving the valley's stockades under the protection of 107 guardsmen.\n\nOn July 20, just a few days after Buchanan left the valley, the striking miners overwhelmed the guardsmen protecting the stockades at Briceville and nearby [Coal Creek](/wiki/Lake_City%2C_Tennessee \"Lake City, Tennessee\"), and once again sent the convicts back to Knoxville. After meeting with labor and business leaders in Knoxville, Buchanan negotiated a 60\\-day truce with the miners, agreeing to call a special session of the state legislature to consider ending the convict leasing system. He also called up an additional twelve guard companies to protect the Coal Creek stockades.\n\nThe state legislature met in a special session in September 1891 to consider the convict lease system and the events surrounding the Coal Creek War. Buchanan suggested they modify existing contracts to protect free miners, and called for the establishment of a state penitentiary. While the legislature upheld miners' rights to independent checkweighmen and payment in legal tender, it refused to end the convict lease system, and passed bills making it a felony to interfere with state convicts.\n\nWhen the legislature failed to end convict leasing, Buchanan's labor commissioner, George Ford, tried to help the miners by suing the state on behalf of the convicts, arguing that the state's primary lessee, the Tennessee Coal and Iron Company (TCI), had no authority to sublease the convicts to TCMC. In October 1891, the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court \"Tennessee Supreme Court\"), led by Chief Justice [Peter Turney](/wiki/Peter_Turney \"Peter Turney\"), ruled against Ford. With nowhere else to turn, the striking miners launched a series of attacks against mining company stockades in late 1891 and early 1892, in some cases freeing the convicts and burning the stockades. By April 1892, the revolt had spread to mines in [Grundy County](/wiki/Grundy_County%2C_Tennessee \"Grundy County, Tennessee\") to the south. In August, Buchanan dispatched General Samuel T. Carnes to Coal Creek with over 500 militiamen, and order was finally restored.\n\nBuchanan was vilified by both miners and mining company owners as ineffective and incompetent, and was frequently assailed in the press. In the gubernatorial race of 1892, the Democratic Party's Bourbon and New South factions thwarted his bid for reelection, instead choosing Chief Justice Turney as the party's nominee. Buchanan entered the race as an independent, still claiming to represent farmers' interests, and winning the backing of the rising [Populist](/wiki/Populist_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Populist Party (United States)\") movement. On election day, however, he placed third, winning just 31,515 votes to 127,247 for Turney, 100,629 for Republican George Winstead, and 5,427 for Prohibitionist [Edward H. East](/wiki/Edward_H._East \"Edward H. East\").\n\n", "Death\n-----\n\nAfter his defeat in the 1892 election, Buchanan returned to his farm in Rutherford County, and never again sought public office. He died in [Murfreesboro](/wiki/Murfreesboro%2C_Tennessee \"Murfreesboro, Tennessee\") on May 14, 1930, and was buried in the city's [Evergreen Cemetery](/wiki/Evergreen_Cemetery_%28Murfreesboro%2C_Tennessee%29 \"Evergreen Cemetery (Murfreesboro, Tennessee)\").\n\n", "Family\n------\n\nBuchanan's ancestors were [Scots\\-Irish](/wiki/Scotch-Irish_American \"Scotch-Irish American\").Reuben Kyle, *[From Nashville to the Nobel Prize: The Buchanans of Tennessee](http://frank.mtsu.edu/~berc/pdfs/bookoct6a.pdf)* (Twin Oaks Press, 2012\\). His family was among the earliest to settle in the Nashville area, and constructed [Buchanan's Station](/wiki/Buchanan%27s_Station \"Buchanan's Station\") south of the city in the 1780s. Buchanan's younger brother, [James S. Buchanan](/wiki/James_S._Buchanan \"James S. Buchanan\"), served as president of the [University of Oklahoma](/wiki/University_of_Oklahoma \"University of Oklahoma\") in the 1920s.\n\nBuchanan married Frances McGill in 1867\\. They had nine children. Buchanan's grandson, [James M. Buchanan](/wiki/James_M._Buchanan \"James M. Buchanan\") (1919–2013\\), was a noted economist who won the Nobel Prize in 1986\\.\n\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [List of governors of Tennessee](/wiki/List_of_governors_of_Tennessee \"List of governors of Tennessee\")\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [Governor John P. Buchanan (1847–1930\\) 1891–1893](http://www.tennessee.gov/tsla/history/govpapers/findingaids/gp29.pdf#search=%22%22John%20P.%20Buchanan%22%22) . Online finding aid to the gubernatorial papers of Tennessee Governor John P. Buchanan. PDF document. Retrieved August 26, 2006\\.\n* [Farmer's Alliance (Farmer's and Laborer's Union)](https://web.archive.org/web/20070927191200/http://tennesseeencyclopedia.net/imagegallery.php?EntryID=F005). At [Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture](http://tennesseeencyclopedia.net). Retrieved August 26, 2006\\.\n\n[Category:1847 births](/wiki/Category:1847_births \"1847 births\")\n[Category:1930 deaths](/wiki/Category:1930_deaths \"1930 deaths\")\n[Category:Governors of Tennessee](/wiki/Category:Governors_of_Tennessee \"Governors of Tennessee\")\n[Category:Members of the Tennessee House of Representatives](/wiki/Category:Members_of_the_Tennessee_House_of_Representatives \"Members of the Tennessee House of Representatives\")\n[Category:People from Murfreesboro, Tennessee](/wiki/Category:People_from_Murfreesboro%2C_Tennessee \"People from Murfreesboro, Tennessee\")\n[Category:People from Williamson County, Tennessee](/wiki/Category:People_from_Williamson_County%2C_Tennessee \"People from Williamson County, Tennessee\")\n[Category:Democratic Party governors of Tennessee](/wiki/Category:Democratic_Party_governors_of_Tennessee \"Democratic Party governors of Tennessee\")\n[Category:Tennessee Democrats](/wiki/Category:Tennessee_Democrats \"Tennessee Democrats\")\n[Category:Tennessee Independents](/wiki/Category:Tennessee_Independents \"Tennessee Independents\")\n[Category:19th\\-century American politicians](/wiki/Category:19th-century_American_politicians \"19th-century American politicians\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 2731577 ], "name": [ "Kansas Bear" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Biography", "Family", "Notes", "References", "Sources", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**Mstislav I Vladimirovich Monomakh** (; [Christian name](/wiki/Christian_name \"Christian name\"): *Fedor*; February 1076 – 14 April 1132\\), also known as **Mstislav the Great**, was [Grand Prince of Kiev](/wiki/Grand_Prince_of_Kiev \"Grand Prince of Kiev\") from 1125 until his death in 1132\\. After his death, the state began to quickly disintegrate into rival principalities.\n\nHe was the eldest son of [Vladimir II Monomakh](/wiki/Vladimir_II_Monomakh \"Vladimir II Monomakh\") by [Gytha of Wessex](/wiki/Gytha_of_Wessex \"Gytha of Wessex\").Philip Line, *Kingship and State Formation in Sweden 1130\\-1290*, (Brill, 2007\\), 597\\. He is figured prominently in the [Norse Sagas](/wiki/Norse_Saga \"Norse Saga\") under the name **Harald**, to allude to his grandfather, [Harold II of England](/wiki/Harold_Godwinson \"Harold Godwinson\").\n\n", "Biography\n---------\n\nMstislav was born in [Turov](/wiki/Turov%2C_Belarus \"Turov, Belarus\"). As his father's future successor, he reigned in [Novgorod](/wiki/Veliky_Novgorod \"Veliky Novgorod\") from 1088 to 1093 and (after a brief stint at [Rostov](/wiki/Rostov%2C_Yaroslavl_Oblast \"Rostov, Yaroslavl Oblast\")) from 1095 to 1117\\. Thereafter, he was Monomakh's co\\-ruler in [Belgorod Kievsky](/wiki/Belgorod_Kievsky \"Belgorod Kievsky\"), and inherited the Kievan throne after his death. He built numerous churches in Novgorod, of which St. Nicholas Cathedral (1113\\),George Heard Hamilton, *The Art and Architecture of Russia*, (Yale University Press, 1983\\), 43\\. and the cathedral of St Anthony Cloister (1117\\) survive to the present day. Later, he would also erect important churches in [Kiev](/wiki/Kiev \"Kiev\"), notably his family [sepulchre](/wiki/Sepulchre \"Sepulchre\") at [Berestovo](/wiki/Berestovo \"Berestovo\") and the church of the Assumption of the Mother of God in [Podol](/wiki/Podil \"Podil\").\n[thumb\\|St Nicholas Cathedral, built by Mstislav I near his palace at Yaroslav's Court, Novgorod, contains 12th\\-century [frescoes](/wiki/Fresco \"Fresco\") depicting his illustrious family](/wiki/Image:St._Nicholas_Cathedral%2C_Novgorod.JPG \"St. Nicholas Cathedral, Novgorod.JPG\")\nMstislav's life was spent in constant warfare with the [Cumans](/wiki/Cumans \"Cumans\") (1093; 1107; 1111; 1129\\), [Estonians](/wiki/Estonia \"Estonia\") (1111; 1113; 1116; 1130\\), [Lithuanians](/wiki/Lithuania \"Lithuania\") (1131\\), and the princedom of [Polotsk](/wiki/Principality_of_Polotsk \"Principality of Polotsk\") (1127; 1129\\). In 1096, he defeated his uncle [Oleg of Chernigov](/wiki/Oleg_of_Chernigov \"Oleg of Chernigov\") on the Koloksha River, thereby laying foundation for the centuries of enmity between his and Oleg's descendants. Mstislav was the last ruler of a unified state, and upon his death, as the chronicler put it, \"the land of Rus was torn apart\". He died in Kiev, aged 55\\.\n\nAfter his death, the state began to quickly disintegrate. At the time of Monomakhs's death, there had been only two main groups in the princely family, the *[Monomakhovichi](/wiki/Monomakhovichi \"Monomakhovichi\")* and *[Olgovichi](/wiki/Olgovichi \"Olgovichi\")*, but as the family proliferated, it broke up into a number of local branches and sub\\-branches.\n\nHe was canonized as a saint by the [Russian Orthodox Church](/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church \"Russian Orthodox Church\") and is commemorated on 15 April in the [Eastern Orthodox Church](/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church \"Eastern Orthodox Church\").\n\n", "Family\n------\n\nIn 1095, Mstislav married Princess [Christina Ingesdotter of Sweden](/wiki/Christina_Ingesdotter_of_Sweden \"Christina Ingesdotter of Sweden\"), daughter of King [Inge I of Sweden](/wiki/Inge_I_of_Sweden \"Inge I of Sweden\"). They had:\n1. [Ingeborg of Kiev](/wiki/Ingeborg_of_Kiev \"Ingeborg of Kiev\"), married [Canute Lavard](/wiki/Canute_Lavard \"Canute Lavard\") of [Jutland](/wiki/Schleswig \"Schleswig\"), and was mother to [Valdemar I of Denmark](/wiki/Valdemar_I_of_Denmark \"Valdemar I of Denmark\")\n2. [Malmfred](/wiki/Malmfred \"Malmfred\"), married (1\\) [Sigurd I of Norway](/wiki/Sigurd_I_of_Norway \"Sigurd I of Norway\"); (2\\) [Eric II of Denmark](/wiki/Eric_II_of_Denmark \"Eric II of Denmark\")\n3. [Eupraxia](/wiki/Dobrodeia_of_Kiev \"Dobrodeia of Kiev\"), married [Alexius Comnenus](/wiki/Alexios_Komnenos_%28d._1142%29 \"Alexios Komnenos (d. 1142)\"), son of [John II Comnenus](/wiki/John_II_Comnenus \"John II Comnenus\")\n4. [Vsevolod of Novgorod and Pskov](/wiki/Vsevolod_Mstislavich_of_Novgorod_and_Pskov \"Vsevolod Mstislavich of Novgorod and Pskov\")\n5. [Maria Mstislavna of Kiev](/wiki/Maria_Mstislavna_of_Kiev \"Maria Mstislavna of Kiev\"), married [Vsevolod II of Kiev](/wiki/Vsevolod_II_of_Kiev \"Vsevolod II of Kiev\")\n6. [Iziaslav II of Kiev](/wiki/Iziaslav_II_of_Kiev \"Iziaslav II of Kiev\")\n7. [Rostislav of Kiev](/wiki/Rostislav_I_of_Kiev \"Rostislav I of Kiev\")\n8. Sviatopolk of Pskov\n9. Rogneda, married Yaroslav of Volhynia\n10. Xenia, married Briachislav of Izyaslavl\n\nChristine died on 18 January 1122\\. Later that year Mstislav married again, to [Liubava Dmitrievna Zavidich](/wiki/Liubava_Dmitrievna_Zavidich \"Liubava Dmitrievna Zavidich\"), the daughter of Dmitry Saviditsch, a nobleman of Novgorod. Their children were:\n1. [Vladimir III Mstislavich](/wiki/Vladimir_III_Mstislavich \"Vladimir III Mstislavich\") (1132–1171\\)\n2. [Euphrosyne of Kiev](/wiki/Euphrosyne_of_Kiev \"Euphrosyne of Kiev\"), (c. 1130 – c. 1193\\) married King [Géza II of Hungary](/wiki/G%C3%A9za_II_of_Hungary \"Géza II of Hungary\") in 1146\\.\n\n \n\n", "Notes\n-----\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "Sources\n-------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n[Category:1076 births](/wiki/Category:1076_births \"1076 births\")\n[Category:1132 deaths](/wiki/Category:1132_deaths \"1132 deaths\")\n[Category:Monomakhovichi family](/wiki/Category:Monomakhovichi_family \"Monomakhovichi family\")\n[Category:Princes of Novgorod](/wiki/Category:Princes_of_Novgorod \"Princes of Novgorod\")\n[Category:Princes of Rostov](/wiki/Category:Princes_of_Rostov \"Princes of Rostov\")\n[Category:Princes of Belgorod](/wiki/Category:Princes_of_Belgorod \"Princes of Belgorod\")\n[Category:Grand princes of Kiev](/wiki/Category:Grand_princes_of_Kiev \"Grand princes of Kiev\")\n[Category:11th\\-century princes from Kievan Rus'](/wiki/Category:11th-century_princes_from_Kievan_Rus%27 \"11th-century princes from Kievan Rus'\")\n[Category:12th\\-century princes from Kievan Rus'](/wiki/Category:12th-century_princes_from_Kievan_Rus%27 \"12th-century princes from Kievan Rus'\")\n[Category:People from Gomel Region](/wiki/Category:People_from_Gomel_Region \"People from Gomel Region\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 43731920 ], "name": [ "Wikieditor9117" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Junior teams", "Season-by-season record", "References", "Bibliography", "Notes" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3 ], "content": [ "\n[thumb\\|right\\|250px\\|[Crystal Palace Skating Rink](/wiki/Crystal_Palace_%28Montreal%29 \"Crystal Palace (Montreal)\"), where the team played from 1885 to 1889\\.](/wiki/File:Crystal_Palace_in_Montreal_1866.jpg \"Crystal Palace in Montreal 1866.jpg\")\n\nThe **Montreal Crystals** (*Crystal Hockey Club*[\"Hockey.\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/61032883/hockey-crystal-hockey-club-formation/) *Montreal Gazette*. Jan. 3, 1884 (pg. 8\\).) were an [ice hockey](/wiki/Ice_hockey \"Ice hockey\") team based in [Montreal](/wiki/Montreal \"Montreal\"), [Quebec](/wiki/Quebec \"Quebec\"), Canada that existed from 1884 to 1895\\. One of the first established ice hockey teams, the Crystals played various challenges against other clubs in the early days of ice hockey competition. They won the Canadian championship in 1886, defeating [Quebec](/wiki/Quebec_Bulldogs \"Quebec Bulldogs\"), which withdrew due to numerous injuries in the final game. Later that year the Crystals helped to found the [Amateur Hockey Association of Canada](/wiki/Amateur_Hockey_Association_of_Canada \"Amateur Hockey Association of Canada\") where they played the first five seasons. The club won the championship in 1887, defeating the [Montreal Victorias](/wiki/Montreal_Victorias \"Montreal Victorias\") in the last challenge of the season. The team played further challenges for the championship from 1888 to 1891\\. \nFor the 1890 season, the club became known as the **Montreal Dominions**[\"Hockey. The Canadian Hockey Convention.\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/61033087/hockey-the-canadian-hockey-convention/) *Montreal Gazette*. Nov. 23, 1889 (pg. 8\\). (*Dominion Hockey Club*). In 1891 they became known as the **Montreal Crescents**[\"The Crescents Elect Officers\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/61033396/the-crescents-elect-officers/) *Montreal Gazette*. Dec. 15, 1890 (pg. 8\\). (*Crescent Hockey Club*). The team sat out the 1892 season. In 1893 they returned to the league and returned to their original name of **Montreal Crystals**.[\"QUEBEC BOYS NOT IN IT – The Crystals Defeat the Hockey Men Eight to Three\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/61033934/quebec-boys-not-in-it-the-crystals/) *Montreal Gazette*. Jan. 14, 1893 (pg. 8\\).\n\nIn February 1895, the Crystals were purchased by the *Shamrocks Amateur Athletic Association*, and were merged into the dormant [Montreal Shamrocks](/wiki/Montreal_Shamrocks \"Montreal Shamrocks\") Hockey Club,[\"The Crystal Club\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/61034236/the-crystal-club/) *Montreal Gazette*. Feb. 7, 1895 (pg. 8\\). who were then revived replacing the Crystals in the AHAC.\n\nThe club took their various names from the rinks they played in. The [Crystal Palace Skating Rink](/wiki/Crystal_Palace_%28Montreal%29 \"Crystal Palace (Montreal)\") from 1884–1889\\. *The Dominion Rink* in 1890, and the *Crescent Skating Rink* in 1891\\. When the team moved to the [Victoria Skating Rink](/wiki/Victoria_Skating_Rink_%28Montreal%29 \"Victoria Skating Rink (Montreal)\") in 1893, they reverted to their original name of Montreal Crystals, since they were unable to use the Victoria name because of the [Montreal Victorias](/wiki/Montreal_Victorias \"Montreal Victorias\").\n\n", "Junior teams\n------------\n\nOutside of the senior club, the Montreal Crystals had two lower\\-tier teams as well.\nA junior team called the **Montreal Jr Crystals** (*Junior Crystals Hockey Club*) debuted in 1887 in the JAHAC (Junior Amateur Hockey Association of Canada) and played until 1895 (with the exceptions of the 1890 and 1892 seasons).\nIn 1894, an intermediate version of the Montreal Crystals played in the IAHAC (Intermediate Amateur Hockey Association of Canada). This team only played that one season.\n\n", "Season\\-by\\-season record\n-------------------------\n\n| **Year** | **GP** | **W** | **L** | **T** | **PTS** | **GF** | **GA** | **PIM** | **Finish** | **Playoffs** |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [1893](/wiki/1893_AHAC_season \"1893 AHAC season\") | 8 | 3 | 5 | 0 | 6 | 25 | 34 | \\-\\- | 3rd in [AHAC](/wiki/Amateur_Hockey_Association_of_Canada \"Amateur Hockey Association of Canada\") | \\-\\- |\n| [1894](/wiki/1894_AHAC_season \"1894 AHAC season\") | 8 | 0 | 8 | 0 | 0 | 10 | 43 | \\-\\- | 5th in [AHAC](/wiki/Amateur_Hockey_Association_of_Canada \"Amateur Hockey Association of Canada\") | \\-\\- |\n| [1895](/wiki/1895_AHAC_season \"1895 AHAC season\") | 7 | 3 | 4 | 0 | 6 | 21 | 39 | \\-\\- | 4th in [AHAC](/wiki/Amateur_Hockey_Association_of_Canada \"Amateur Hockey Association of Canada\") | \\-\\- |\n|\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n### Bibliography\n\n### Notes\n\n[Cry](/wiki/Category:Defunct_ice_hockey_teams_in_Montreal \"Defunct ice hockey teams in Montreal\")\n[Category:Amateur Hockey Association of Canada teams](/wiki/Category:Amateur_Hockey_Association_of_Canada_teams \"Amateur Hockey Association of Canada teams\")\n[Category:1885 establishments in Quebec](/wiki/Category:1885_establishments_in_Quebec \"1885 establishments in Quebec\")\n[Category:1895 disestablishments in Quebec](/wiki/Category:1895_disestablishments_in_Quebec \"1895 disestablishments in Quebec\")\n[Category:Ice hockey clubs established in 1885](/wiki/Category:Ice_hockey_clubs_established_in_1885 \"Ice hockey clubs established in 1885\")\n[Category:Ice hockey clubs disestablished in 1895](/wiki/Category:Ice_hockey_clubs_disestablished_in_1895 \"Ice hockey clubs disestablished in 1895\")\n\n", "### Bibliography\n\n", "### Notes\n\n[Cry](/wiki/Category:Defunct_ice_hockey_teams_in_Montreal \"Defunct ice hockey teams in Montreal\")\n[Category:Amateur Hockey Association of Canada teams](/wiki/Category:Amateur_Hockey_Association_of_Canada_teams \"Amateur Hockey Association of Canada teams\")\n[Category:1885 establishments in Quebec](/wiki/Category:1885_establishments_in_Quebec \"1885 establishments in Quebec\")\n[Category:1895 disestablishments in Quebec](/wiki/Category:1895_disestablishments_in_Quebec \"1895 disestablishments in Quebec\")\n[Category:Ice hockey clubs established in 1885](/wiki/Category:Ice_hockey_clubs_established_in_1885 \"Ice hockey clubs established in 1885\")\n[Category:Ice hockey clubs disestablished in 1895](/wiki/Category:Ice_hockey_clubs_disestablished_in_1895 \"Ice hockey clubs disestablished in 1895\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 9385 ], "name": [ "Error" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "History", "Schools and colleges", "Departments", "Facilities", "Staff", "Notable alumni", "Notable professors", "Some honorary doctors", "See also", "Notes and references", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|280px\\|Original university building in Oviedo](/wiki/Image:Claustru_vieyu_de_la_Universid%C3%A1_d%27Uvi%C3%A9u.jpg \"Claustru vieyu de la Universidá d'Uviéu.jpg\")\n[280px\\|thumb\\|right\\|*Viesques campus* in Gijón](/wiki/File:Fotodelcampus.JPG \"Fotodelcampus.JPG\")\nThe **University of Oviedo** (, [Asturian](/wiki/Asturian_language \"Asturian language\"): *Universidá d'Uviéu*) is a [public university](/wiki/Public_university \"Public university\") in [Asturias](/wiki/Asturias \"Asturias\") ([Spain](/wiki/Spain \"Spain\")). It is the only [university](/wiki/University \"University\") in the region. It has three campus and research centres, located in [Oviedo](/wiki/Oviedo \"Oviedo\"), [Gijón](/wiki/Gij%C3%B3n \"Gijón\") and [Mieres](/wiki/Mieres%2C_Asturias \"Mieres, Asturias\").\n\n", "History\n-------\n\nThe University of Oviedo was established under the terms and conditions of the will of Archbishop [Fernando de Valdés Salas](/wiki/Fernando_de_Vald%C3%A9s_Salas \"Fernando de Valdés Salas\") (1483–1568\\), who was the [General Inquisitor](/wiki/General_Inquisitor \"General Inquisitor\") under [Philip II of Spain](/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain \"Philip II of Spain\"), and funded by his estate. In 1574 [Pope Gregory XIII](/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XIII \"Pope Gregory XIII\") granted the [papal bull](/wiki/Papal_bull \"Papal bull\") to create the university and in 1604 [Philip III](/wiki/Philip_III_of_Spain \"Philip III of Spain\") issued its charter. It first opened for the teaching of classes on September 21, 1608\\.\n\nThe ancient university had three [faculties](/wiki/Faculty_%28division%29 \"Faculty (division)\"): the Faculty of Arts, which every student had to graduate from in order to continue his training in one of the other; and the Faculties of Theology and Law, sometimes known as the higher faculties.\n\nAfter [the French invasion of Spain](/wiki/Spanish_War_of_Independence \"Spanish War of Independence\") the *Historical Building* of the university was occupied by invading troops and lectures were suspended until the War ended in 1812\\.\n[thumb\\|Sign commemorating the extension programme.\\|alt\\=A stone rectangle on a white wall with red letters reading: \"LAS UNIVERSIDADES ESPAÑOLAS REUNIDAS EN OVIEDO ACORDARON RENDIR HOMENAJE DE GRATITUD Y ADMIRACION A LOS PROFESORES DE ESTA UNIVERSIDAD QUE CREARON E INICIARON LA EXTENSION \\[sic] UNIVERSITARIA COMO INSTRUMENTO PERMANENTE DE LAS RELACIONES SOCIEDAD\\-UNIVERSIDAD Y COMO EXPRESIÓN DE LA VOCACIÓN DE SERVICIO QUE DEBE PRESIDIR LA LABOR UNIVERSITARIA. OVIEDO 15 DE NOVIEMBRE DE 1898\\-25 DE NOVIEMBRE DE 1992\"](/wiki/File:Placa_conmemorativa._Universid%C3%A1_d%27Uvi%C3%A9u.jpg \"Placa conmemorativa. Universidá d'Uviéu.jpg\")\nDuring the 19th century, a group of liberal professors tried to bring the university closer to the working class with the (a popular education programme sponsored by the institution). However, this goal was not fully achieved, and on October 13, 1934, during the [leftist miners revolt in Asturias](/wiki/Asturian_miners%27_strike_of_1934 \"Asturian miners' strike of 1934\"), the university (including its Library and the Art Gallery) was set fire either by the revolutionaries or the government bomber airplanes.\nIt was rebuilt after the [Spanish Civil War](/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War \"Spanish Civil War\") (1936–1939\\).\n\nThe number of faculties has multiplied in the modern university, both through subdivisions of the traditional four faculties, and through the absorption of academic disciplines which have developed within originally vocational schools, in areas such as engineering or nursing.\n\nNowadays, the university has 31 faculties and professional schools, offering degrees and diplomas in over 150 fields of study.\n\n", "Schools and colleges\n--------------------\n\nSchool of Law (since 1608\\), Teaching and Education (1845\\), Chemistry (1848\\), Polytechnic School of Mieres (1855\\), Jovellanos Faculty of Commerce, Tourism and Social Sciences (1866\\), [Gijón Polytechnic School of Engineering](/wiki/Gij%C3%B3n_Polytechnic_School_of_Engineering \"Gijón Polytechnic School of Engineering\") (1888\\), Philosophy and Letters (1892\\), Economy and Business (1908\\), Teaching and Geology (1958\\), Mining Engineering (1959\\), Biology (1961\\), Medicine and Health Sciences (1968\\), Merchant Marine (1979\\), [School of Computer Engineering](/wiki/University_of_Oviedo_School_of_Computer_Engineering \"University of Oviedo School of Computer Engineering\") (1982\\), Sciences (1990\\), Psychology (1991\\)\n\n", "Departments\n-----------\n\n* **Experimental Sciences**: Analytic and Physical\\-Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Environment Technologies, Mathematics, Organic and Inorganic Chemistry, Physics, Statistics and Operations Research and Mathematics Education.\n* **Health Sciences**: Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biology of Organisms and Systems, Functional Biology, Medicine, Morphology and Cellular Biology, Surgery and Medical\\-Surgical Specialities.\n* **Engineering**: Telecommunication, Computer Sciences, Construction and Manufacturing Engineering, Electrical, Electronical, Computers and Systems Engineering, Energy, Materials Science and Metallurgical Engineering, Mining Working and Prospecting, Nautical Science and Technologies.\n* **Social Sciences and Law**: Accounting, Applied Economy, Basic Legal Sciences, Business Administration, Education Sciences, Economy, Private and Companies Law, Psychology, Public Law, Quantitative Economy, Sociology.\n* **Humanities**: Anglo\\-German and French Philology, Art and Music History, Classical and Romance Philology, Geography, History, Philosophy, Spanish Philology.\n", "Facilities\n----------\n\nThe school has a large number of places in different classrooms, total counted 6 classrooms in the building, with spaces ranging from the 171 seats in the classroom with greater capacity, up to 75 seats in the lower\\-capacity classroom. In addition to these classrooms, there is a room hold up to 112 places, which are usually done lectures and presentations both subjects, as final projects. \nSpecial mention also the different laboratories that school has a total of 15 laboratories. Included in this equipment of various kinds, both PC and MAC.\n\n", "Staff\n-----\n\n**Rector**: [Santiago García Granda](/wiki/Santiago_Garc%C3%ADa_Granda \"Santiago García Granda\") (since May 2016\\)\n**General Secretary**: Eva María Cordero González\n**General Manager**: Ana Isabel Caro Muñoz\n**Vice\\-rectorates**:\n* Delegate for Coordination and University Strategy: Xabiel García Pañeda\n* Vice\\-rectorate for Academic Organization: Juan José del Coz Díaz\n* Vice\\-rectorate for Research: José Ramón Obeso Suárez\n* Vice\\-rectorate for University Extension and International Development: Francisco José Borge López\n* Vice\\-rectorate for Student Affairs: Elisa Miguélez González\n* Vice\\-rectorate for Material and Technological Resources: Marta María Hernando Álvarez\n* Vice\\-rectorate for Crosscutting Actions and Enterprise Cooperation: Eugenia Suárez Serrano\n* Vice\\-rectorate for Student Activism and Gastronomy: Manu Alarcón Casillas\n \n\n**Social Council**: Ladislao Azcona (President), representatives of political parties, trade\\-unions, employers, etc.\n**Council of Government** : Rectoral Council and Representatives from University Staff, Faculties, Schools and Departments\n**University Staff**: Representatives of Professors, Administration Staff and Students\n**Rectoral Council**: Rector together with the Vice\\-Chancellors\n\n", "Notable alumni\n--------------\n\n* [Ana Cano](/wiki/Ana_Cano \"Ana Cano\"), philologist\n* [Antonio Arrúe Zarauz](/wiki/Antonio_Arr%C3%BAe_Zarauz \"Antonio Arrúe Zarauz\"), Basque cultural activist and Carlist politician\n* [Antón de Marirreguera](/wiki/Ant%C3%B3n_de_Marirreguera \"Antón de Marirreguera\"), Asturian\\-language writer\n* [Melchor de Navarra y Rocafull](/wiki/Melchor_de_Navarra_y_Rocafull \"Melchor de Navarra y Rocafull\"), viceroy of Peru\n* [Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos](/wiki/Gaspar_Melchor_de_Jovellanos \"Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos\"), Enlightenment statesman, author and philosopher\n* [Agustín Argüelles](/wiki/Agust%C3%ADn_Arg%C3%BCelles \"Agustín Argüelles\"), politic\n* [Faustino Rodríguez\\-San Pedro Díaz\\-Argüelles](/wiki/Faustino_Rodr%C3%ADguez-San_Pedro \"Faustino Rodríguez-San Pedro\"), Minister of Finance\n* [Rafael del Riego](/wiki/Rafael_del_Riego \"Rafael del Riego\"), general and liberal politician\n* [Leopoldo Alas *Clarín*](/wiki/Leopoldo_Alas_y_Ure%C3%B1a \"Leopoldo Alas y Ureña\"), journalist and writer\n* [Armando Palacio Valdés](/wiki/Armando_Palacio_Vald%C3%A9s \"Armando Palacio Valdés\"), novelist and critic\n* [Melquíades Álvarez](/wiki/Melqu%C3%ADades_%C3%81lvarez_%28politician%29 \"Melquíades Álvarez (politician)\"), politic\n* [Antonio Flores de Lemus](/wiki/Antonio_Flores_de_Lemus \"Antonio Flores de Lemus\"), economist and politic\n* [Ramón Pérez de Ayala](/wiki/Ram%C3%B3n_P%C3%A9rez_de_Ayala \"Ramón Pérez de Ayala\"), novelist\n* [Alejandro Casona](/wiki/Alejandro_Casona \"Alejandro Casona\"), poet and playwright\n* [Gonzalo Torrente Ballester](/wiki/Gonzalo_Torrente_Ballester \"Gonzalo Torrente Ballester\"), novelist\n* [Luis Suárez Fernández](/wiki/Luis_Su%C3%A1rez_Fern%C3%A1ndez \"Luis Suárez Fernández\"), historian\n* [Carlos Bousoño](/wiki/Carlos_Bouso%C3%B1o \"Carlos Bousoño\"), poet\n* [Ángel González](/wiki/%C3%81ngel_Gonz%C3%A1lez_Mu%C3%B1iz \"Ángel González Muñiz\"), poet\n* [José Manuel Castañón](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Manuel_Casta%C3%B1%C3%B3n \"José Manuel Castañón\"), writer\n* [Santiago Vera\\-Rivera](/wiki/Santiago_Vera-Rivera \"Santiago Vera-Rivera\"), composer\n* [Gil Carlos Rodríguez Iglesias](/wiki/Gil_Carlos_Rodr%C3%ADguez_Iglesias \"Gil Carlos Rodríguez Iglesias\"), former judge at the [European Court of Justice](/wiki/European_Court_of_Justice \"European Court of Justice\")\n* [Miguel Dongil y Sánchez](/wiki/Miguel_Dongil_y_S%C3%A1nchez \"Miguel Dongil y Sánchez\"), historian\n* [Olvido García Valdés](/wiki/Olvido_Garc%C3%ADa_Vald%C3%A9s \"Olvido García Valdés\"), poet and essayist\n* [Luis Martínez Noval](/wiki/Luis_Mart%C3%ADnez_Noval \"Luis Martínez Noval\"), Minister of Labour and Social Security (1990–1993\\)\n* [Gustavo Suárez Pertierra](/wiki/Gustavo_Su%C3%A1rez_Pertierra \"Gustavo Suárez Pertierra\"), minister of Education and Science (1993–1995\\) and Defence (1995–1996\\)\n* [Gaspar Llamazares](/wiki/Gaspar_Llamazares \"Gaspar Llamazares\"), leader of United Left Coalition ([Izquierda Unida](/wiki/United_Left_%28Spain%29 \"United Left (Spain)\")) (2000–2008\\)\n* [Miguel Álvarez\\-Fernández](/wiki/Miguel_%C3%81lvarez-Fern%C3%A1ndez \"Miguel Álvarez-Fernández\"), musician\n* [Fernando Suárez González](/wiki/Fernando_Su%C3%A1rez_Gonz%C3%A1lez \"Fernando Suárez González\"), Minister of Labour (1974–1975\\)\n* [Víctor García de la Concha](/wiki/V%C3%ADctor_Garc%C3%ADa_de_la_Concha \"Víctor García de la Concha\"), Director of Royal Spanish Academy\n* [Salvador Gutiérrez Ordóñez](/wiki/Salvador_Guti%C3%A9rrez_Ord%C3%B3%C3%B1ez \"Salvador Gutiérrez Ordóñez\"), linguist\n* [Alejandro Fernández Sordo](/wiki/Alejandro_Fern%C3%A1ndez_Sordo \"Alejandro Fernández Sordo\"), lawyer and politician\n* [Regino Olivares](/wiki/Regino_Olivares \"Regino Olivares\"), lawyer\n* [Sara Torres](/wiki/Sara_Torres \"Sara Torres\") (born 1991\\), poet and novelist\n* [Xaviel Vilareyo](/wiki/Xaviel_Vilareyo \"Xaviel Vilareyo\"), author\n* [Celso Arango](/wiki/Celso_Arango \"Celso Arango\"), physician (psychiatrist)\n* [Darin Paine](/wiki/Darin_Paine \"Darin Paine\"), development officer\n", "Notable professors\n------------------\n\n* [Luis Alfonso de Carvallo](/wiki/Luis_Alfonso_de_Carvallo \"Luis Alfonso de Carvallo\"), historian, rector of San Gregorio College\n* [Leopoldo Alas *Clarín*](/wiki/Leopoldo_Alas_y_Ure%C3%B1a \"Leopoldo Alas y Ureña\"), journalist and writer\n* [Benito Jerónimo Feijoo](/wiki/Benito_Jer%C3%B3nimo_Feijoo_e_Montenegro \"Benito Jerónimo Feijoo e Montenegro\"), Enlightenment monk and scholar\n* [Rafael Altamira y Crevea](/wiki/Rafael_Altamira_y_Crevea \"Rafael Altamira y Crevea\"), historian and lawyer\n* [Félix de Aramburu y Zuloaga](/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_de_Aramburu_y_Zuloaga \"Félix de Aramburu y Zuloaga\"), lawyer and poet\n* [Matías Barrio y Mier](/wiki/Mat%C3%ADas_Barrio_y_Mier \"Matías Barrio y Mier\"), professor of law 1881–1892, [Carlist](/wiki/Carlist \"Carlist\") political leader\n* [Fermín Canella Secades](/wiki/Ferm%C3%ADn_Canella_Secades \"Fermín Canella Secades\"), historian\n* [Nicolás Salmerón y Alonso](/wiki/Nicol%C3%A1s_Salmer%C3%B3n_y_Alonso \"Nicolás Salmerón y Alonso\"), politician, President of the [First Spanish Republic](/wiki/First_Spanish_Republic \"First Spanish Republic\") (1873\\)\n* [Aniceto Sela Sampil](/wiki/Aniceto_Sela_Sampil \"Aniceto Sela Sampil\"), lawyer\n* [Jesús Arias de Velasco](/wiki/Jes%C3%BAs_Arias_de_Velasco \"Jesús Arias de Velasco\"), lawyer\n* [José María Gil\\-Robles](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Gil-Robles \"José María Gil-Robles\"), politician, leader of the Right Wing under the II Republic\n* [Torcuato Fernández\\-Miranda](/wiki/Torcuato_Fern%C3%A1ndez-Miranda \"Torcuato Fernández-Miranda\"), politician, president of the Spanish *Cortes* (1975–1977\\), *interim* prime minister (1974\\), vice\\-prime minister (1973–1974\\), General Secretary of the National Movement ([Movimiento Nacional](/wiki/Movimiento_Nacional \"Movimiento Nacional\")) (1969–1974\\)\n* [Carmina Virgili](/wiki/Carmina_Virgili \"Carmina Virgili\") \\- first female professor\n* [Vicente Alberto Álvarez Areces](/wiki/Vicente_Alberto_%C3%81lvarez_Areces \"Vicente Alberto Álvarez Areces\"), President of the Principality of [Asturias](/wiki/Asturias \"Asturias\") from 1999 to 2011\n* [Luis Martínez Noval](/wiki/Luis_Mart%C3%ADnez_Noval \"Luis Martínez Noval\"), minister of Labour and Social Security (1990–1993\\)\n* [Josep Oliú Creus](/wiki/Josep_Oli%C3%BA_Creus \"Josep Oliú Creus\"), economist. President and CEO of Banco Sabadell\n* [Gustavo Bueno](/wiki/Gustavo_Bueno \"Gustavo Bueno\"), notable philosopher\n* [Eloy Benito Ruano](/wiki/Eloy_Benito_Ruano \"Eloy Benito Ruano\"), historian\n* [Juan Ignacio Ruiz de la Peña Solar](/wiki/Juan_Ignacio_Ruiz_de_la_Pe%C3%B1a_Solar \"Juan Ignacio Ruiz de la Peña Solar\"), historian\n* [Sergio Marqués Fernández](/wiki/Sergio_Marqu%C3%A9s_Fern%C3%A1ndez \"Sergio Marqués Fernández\"), politician, [President of the Principality of Asturias](/wiki/President_of_the_Principality_of_Asturias \"President of the Principality of Asturias\") from 1995 to 1999\n* [Aurelio González Ovies](/wiki/Aurelio_Gonz%C3%A1lez_Ovies \"Aurelio González Ovies\"), poet\n* [Emilio Alarcos Llorach](/wiki/Emilio_Alarcos_Llorach \"Emilio Alarcos Llorach\"), poet and linguist\n* [Vicente Miguel Gotor Santamaría](/wiki/Vicente_Miguel_Gotor_Santamar%C3%ADa \"Vicente Miguel Gotor Santamaría\"), chemist\n* [Antonello Novelli](/wiki/Antonello_Novelli \"Antonello Novelli\"), neuroscientist\n* [Paz Andrés Sáenz de Santamaría](/wiki/Paz_Andr%C3%A9s_S%C3%A1enz_de_Santamar%C3%ADa \"Paz Andrés Sáenz de Santamaría\"), lawyer\n* [José Luis García Delgado](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Luis_Garc%C3%ADa_Delgado \"José Luis García Delgado\"), economist\n* [M. Teresa Fernández Sánchez](/wiki/M._Teresa_Fern%C3%A1ndez_S%C3%A1nchez \"M. Teresa Fernández Sánchez\"), biochemist\n* [José Joaquín Barluenga Mur](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Joaqu%C3%ADn_Barluenga_Mur \"José Joaquín Barluenga Mur\"), chemist\n* [Carlos López Otín](/wiki/Carlos_L%C3%B3pez_Ot%C3%ADn \"Carlos López Otín\"), biochemist\n* [Ana Cano](/wiki/Ana_Cano \"Ana Cano\"), philologist and president of [Academy of the Asturian Language](/wiki/Academy_of_the_Asturian_Language \"Academy of the Asturian Language\")\n* [Pablo Xuan Manzano Rodríguez](/wiki/Pablo_Xuan_Manzano_Rodr%C3%ADguez \"Pablo Xuan Manzano Rodríguez\"), Asturian\\-language linguist and educator (also alumni)\n", "Some honorary doctors\n---------------------\n\n* 1967 [Severo Ochoa](/wiki/Severo_Ochoa \"Severo Ochoa\")\n* 1968 [Walter Hallstein](/wiki/Walter_Hallstein \"Walter Hallstein\")\n* 1976 [Claudio Sánchez Albornoz](/wiki/Claudio_S%C3%A1nchez_Albornoz \"Claudio Sánchez Albornoz\")\n* 1982 [Ramón Areces](/wiki/Ram%C3%B3n_Areces \"Ramón Areces\")\n* 1982 [Günther Wilke](/wiki/G%C3%BCnther_Wilke \"Günther Wilke\")\n* 1985 [Rafael Lapesa](/wiki/Rafael_Lapesa \"Rafael Lapesa\")\n* 1988 [Óscar Arias Sánchez](/wiki/%C3%93scar_Arias_S%C3%A1nchez \"Óscar Arias Sánchez\"), presidente de [Costa Rica](/wiki/Costa_Rica \"Costa Rica\")\n* 1991 [Federico Mayor Zaragoza](/wiki/Federico_Mayor_Zaragoza \"Federico Mayor Zaragoza\")\n* 1992 [William Golding](/wiki/William_Golding \"William Golding\")\n* 1995 [Lotfi A. Zadeh](/wiki/Lotfi_A._Zadeh \"Lotfi A. Zadeh\")\n* 1998 [Sheila Sherlock](/wiki/Sheila_Sherlock \"Sheila Sherlock\")\n* 2001 [Gil Carlos Rodríguez Iglesias](/wiki/Gil_Carlos_Rodr%C3%ADguez_Iglesias \"Gil Carlos Rodríguez Iglesias\")\n* 2007 [Ángel González](/wiki/%C3%81ngel_Gonz%C3%A1lez_Mu%C3%B1iz \"Ángel González Muñiz\")\n* 2007 [Juan José Millás](/wiki/Juan_Jos%C3%A9_Mill%C3%A1s \"Juan José Millás\")\n* 2008 [Walter Alvarez](/wiki/Walter_Alvarez \"Walter Alvarez\")\n* 2008 [Efim Zelmanov](/wiki/Efim_Zelmanov \"Efim Zelmanov\")\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [List of early modern universities in Europe](/wiki/List_of_early_modern_universities_in_Europe \"List of early modern universities in Europe\")\n", "Notes and references\n--------------------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [International Students](https://www.uniovi.es/en/internacional/extranjeros)\n* [School of Computer Science Engineering](https://www.uniovi.es/en/centros/escuelas/ingenieriainformatica)\n\n[Category:1574 establishments in Spain](/wiki/Category:1574_establishments_in_Spain \"1574 establishments in Spain\")\n[Category:Educational institutions established in the 1570s](/wiki/Category:Educational_institutions_established_in_the_1570s \"Educational institutions established in the 1570s\")\n[Category:Buildings and structures in Asturias](/wiki/Category:Buildings_and_structures_in_Asturias \"Buildings and structures in Asturias\")\n[Category:Buildings and structures in Oviedo](/wiki/Category:Buildings_and_structures_in_Oviedo \"Buildings and structures in Oviedo\")\n[Category:Universities and colleges in Spain](/wiki/Category:Universities_and_colleges_in_Spain \"Universities and colleges in Spain\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 13791031 ], "name": [ "Frietjes" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Summary", "The science", "Production", "Style of the series", "Episodes", "Series One", "Broadcast", "International", "Home media", "DVD", "Disc 1", "Disc 2", "Disc 3", "Disc 4", "Disc 5", "Disc 6", "Special Features", "Discs 1–3", "Discs 4–6", "Blu-ray", "Other media", "Comics", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 2, 3, 2, 3, 2, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n* + - * + - * + - * + - * \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t***Space Patrol*** is a British science\\-fiction television series featuring [marionettes](/wiki/Marionette \"Marionette\") that was produced in 1962 and broadcast from the beginning of April 1963\\. It was written and produced by [Roberta Leigh](/wiki/Roberta_Leigh \"Roberta Leigh\") in association with [ABC Weekend TV](/wiki/ABC_Weekend_TV \"ABC Weekend TV\").\n\n", "Summary\n-------\n\nThe series features the vocal talents of [Dick Vosburgh](/wiki/Dick_Vosburgh \"Dick Vosburgh\"), [Ronnie Stevens](/wiki/Ronnie_Stevens_%28actor%29 \"Ronnie Stevens (actor)\"), [Libby Morris](/wiki/Libby_Morris \"Libby Morris\"), Murray Kash and [Ysanne Churchman](/wiki/Ysanne_Churchman \"Ysanne Churchman\"), and comprises 39 half\\-hour episodes. This series is also known by its US title ***Planet Patrol*** to avoid confusion with the [1950s American live\\-action series of the same name](/wiki/Space_Patrol_%281950_TV_series%29 \"Space Patrol (1950 TV series)\"). The marionettes used in the series incorporated some elements of [Gerry Anderson](/wiki/Gerry_Anderson \"Gerry Anderson\")'s [Supermarionation](/wiki/Supermarionation \"Supermarionation\") technique – specifically their mouths would move in synch with dialogue; Leigh had previously worked with Anderson on the series *[The Adventures of Twizzle](/wiki/The_Adventures_of_Twizzle \"The Adventures of Twizzle\")* and first season of *[Torchy the Battery Boy](/wiki/Torchy_the_Battery_Boy \"Torchy the Battery Boy\")*, though Anderson would not develop Supermarionation until after his association with Leigh ended.\n\nThe series is set in the year 2100, by which time the indigenous and autonomous civilizations on Earth, Mars and Venus have banded together to form the United Galactic Organization (UGO). Space Patrol is the UGO's military wing, and the series follows the actions of this interplanetary force, focusing on the missions of a tiny unit led by the heroic, bearded Captain Larry Dart. The humanoids in his crew consist of the elfin Slim from [Venus](/wiki/Venus \"Venus\"), and the stocky, ravenously sausage\\-mad Husky from the Red Planet, [Mars](/wiki/Mars \"Mars\"). The imperfect Slavic accent variants and six\\-pointed star chest emblems of these two may have been a sly nod to the Jewish\\-Russian heritage of the English series creator/writer. These men would regularly use one of two interplanetary space vehicles, the *Galasphere 347* and the *Galasphere 024*.\n\nProviding technical support on Earth is the brilliant and inventive Irishman Professor Aloysius O’Brien O’Rourke Haggarty,[Space Patrol: The Website: Slim's Encyclopedia: H](https://web.archive.org/web/20100523154735/http://homepages.tesco.net/~space.patrol/SpacePatrol/SlimH.htm) called \"Pop\" by his daughter Cassiopeia, to his perpetual dismay. Haggarty's garrulous pet Martian \"parrot\" (a Gabblerdictum bird), taught to talk in \"The Slaves of Neptune\" episode, accompanies the crew on rare occasions. Keeping them all on a tight rein are Colonel Raeburn and his super\\-efficient Venusian secretary, Marla, both also based on Earth.\n\nThe show reflected sex roles characteristic of the culture and era which produced it, but blonde and brainy Marla would often explicitly point out that \"There are no dumb blondes on Venus.\" Indeed, the series was created and written by the prolific polymath artist [Roberta Leigh](/wiki/Roberta_Leigh \"Roberta Leigh\"), the first woman producer in Britain to have her own film company.\n\nThe series was sold overseas and broadcast in the US, Canada and Australia, and in spite of the very low budget – which meant that sometimes the shadow of a puppet could be seen behind a \"TV Screen\" before the communication device was supposedly turned on —the show rated strongly with young audiences in many regions (including New York City)[allmovie.com – *Space Patrol*](http://www.allmovie.com/work/space-patrol-tv-series-307171) and garnered a huge following. *[Babylon 5](/wiki/Babylon_5 \"Babylon 5\")* creator [J. Michael Straczynski](/wiki/J._Michael_Straczynski \"J. Michael Straczynski\") said that it was his favourite TV show as a child.\n\n", "The science\n-----------\n\nWhereas Gerry Anderson had a rocket ship in *[Fireball XL5](/wiki/Fireball_XL5 \"Fireball XL5\")* that could travel light years to planets around other stars as though they were just a few million miles away, Space Patrol took a more realistic approach. Because of limited speed, trips to other planets in our solar system could take weeks or months and this was facilitated by the crew of the Galasphere going into a freezer chamber and being put in suspended animation for the trip. A robot would then take over (its movements were said to cost £2,000 a time rather than being just a puppet.) The ray (faster than light) could be used from Earth to wake them up in an emergency. The term \"galaxy\" was used inaccurately, but consistently, to refer to a solar system in the series, so \"Galactic Control\" only supervised the local planets and \"other galaxies\" referred to nearby star\\-systems.\n\nOn other planets, they would use dial\\-selector translators (dial P for Pluto) to talk to alien beings – at the time, even some serious scientists considered the possibility of life on Venus, Mars and maybe elsewhere. Unusually for a TV show, the translators didn't instantly pick up new languages; they had to be programmed on Earth before they could be used, a lengthy process requiring recordings of the alien language. Life support in hazardous atmospheres was provided by a \"Mo\\-lung\" (short for 'Mobile Lung')\\- a sealed cylindrical transparent helmet, and the crew would often ride around on \"Hover Jets\", or more rarely, an \"Ion Gun\" which looked like a giant sparkler firework. Neptune was said to have atomic heating but none of the planets were really cold, such as when Dart walked about on Pluto (in \"The Buried Spaceship\") without any extra protection in what would be temperatures of about −230 °C.\n\nThe Galasphere had a top speed of about 800,000 mph, using \"meson power\". In \"The Talking Bell\" episode, they use \"Boost Speed\", which is dangerous, but allows them to travel at almost one million miles per hour for a long period. Meson power is dangerous to use in atmosphere. The engine also used [gamma rays](/wiki/Gamma_rays \"Gamma rays\") and 'Yobba rays'. The Galasphere has a force field which would protect it from enemy missiles, and it also turned out to protect them from the mind control of the evil Neptunians who were thousands of years ahead of Earth people, with great mental powers, and who hated work.\n\nThe Galasphere was constructed of Plutonite from Pluto, and a number of times, like in \"The Human Fish\", it also travelled underwater. Pluto was the furthest they normally travelled but after an accident they went way beyond that to a self\\-heated new planet which was full of giants who treated the Galasphere as a toy. Another time, an alien from Alpha Centauri visited them and installed a device which allowed the Galasphere to travel faster than light (at which point it vanished). They had their adventure twenty five trillion miles away and then returned to Earth, and just made it, with Galasphere 347 collapsing under the strain of such travel, just as they left it. In \"The Planet of Light\", Dart and Slim were taken to a planet circling Sirius (8\\.7 light years away) in just a few hours. This fast journey was necessary as the \"light beings\" who took them would be poisoned by air, so the two had to rely on their own supplies.\n\nIn \"The Rings of Saturn\" and a minority of other episodes, the crew rode the Galasphere 024, rather than the Galasphere 347\\. The references to Galasphere 024 are, for the most part, continuity errors introduced by the continual re\\-use of stock footage from the pilot episode, \"The Swamps of Jupiter\". Although the Galasphere is referred to as 024 during the takeoff programme sequence, it is often later referred to as 347 in the same episode.\n\n[Colin Ronan](/wiki/Colin_Ronan \"Colin Ronan\") is listed as Space Consultant in the end credits.\n\n", "Production\n----------\n\nThe series was filmed in converted church buildings in [Stoke Newington](/wiki/Stoke_Newington \"Stoke Newington\") and [Harlesden](/wiki/Harlesden \"Harlesden\"), London. The production was completed in two blocks consisting of 26 and 13 episodes, which are considered as the first series. The final 13 episodes employ refurbished puppets and sets, and are copyrighted 1962 Wonderama Productions on the end credits (the first 26 episodes omitted any on\\-screen copyright information).\n\nVarious puppets from the series were re\\-used in later Roberta Leigh productions including *Wonderboy and Tiger* and *Send for Dithers*. These colour films reveal the fact that the Gabblerdictum was bright pink. Other than two endpapers from the *TV Comic Annual* for 1966, no colour photographic materials from the series have survived. These images indicate that the puppets were dressed in monochromatic uniforms, although most comic strip and book illustrations depict them as red and silver. Slim's darker complexion in the series suggests that the Venusians and Martians were repainted in their 'correct' skin tone for this batch of episodes, although no colour stills from the second series are known to exist.\n\nLeigh had previously worked with [Gerry Anderson](/wiki/Gerry_Anderson \"Gerry Anderson\") on children's puppet series, and there are some obvious similarities between *Space Patrol* and Anderson's *[Fireball XL5](/wiki/Fireball_XL5 \"Fireball XL5\")*, although *Space Patrol* was made on a lower budget. [Arthur Provis](/wiki/Arthur_Provis \"Arthur Provis\"), Anderson's former business partner in [AP Films](/wiki/AP_Films \"AP Films\") was responsible for the cinematography. For many years it was believed that all but a handful of episodes had been destroyed, until a complete cache of [16 mm](/wiki/16_mm_film \"16 mm film\") prints was discovered in the garage of Roberta Leigh's home. Despite their scratched and grainy condition, they were of sufficient historic interest to warrant a commercial release, initially on VHS tapes, and later on DVD. Two episodes have survived from the original [35 mm](/wiki/35mm_movie_film \"35mm movie film\") prints and these were later made available on [Blu\\-ray Disc](/wiki/Blu-ray_Disc \"Blu-ray Disc\").\n\n### Style of the series\n\nAlthough compared (and often confused) with the [Gerry Anderson](/wiki/Gerry_Anderson \"Gerry Anderson\") productions (due to the similar use of voice\\-synchronised marionettes), *Space Patrol* is distinguished by some of its creative choices. The only music involved is *avant\\-garde*, the theme being made by Roberta Leigh herself using [electronic](/wiki/Electronic_music \"Electronic music\") equipment she bought locally after asking an assistant for anything that made interesting noises. [F. C. Judd](/wiki/Fred_Judd \"Fred Judd\") was responsible for creating all the electronic music for the series; he was an early British electronic experimenter, amateur radio expert, circuit designer, author and contributor to many wireless and electronics magazines from the 1950s to the 1990s.\n\nIn addition, the marionettes used for *Space Patrol* were more realistic\\-looking and less cartoon\\-like than those being used on *Fireball XL5*; in terms of relative realism, the puppets of *Space Patrol* fall between that of *[Thunderbirds](/wiki/Thunderbirds_%28TV_series%29 \"Thunderbirds (TV series)\")* and *[Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons](/wiki/Captain_Scarlet_and_the_Mysterons \"Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons\")*. There were two types of robots, and the ones with the thick upper bodies were mainly used.\n\nFinal credits always showed panoramic views over a gigantic city of the future, and never featured any music; only the throb of some industrial machinery, sounding like a gigantic pump or a steam engine beating rhythmically. A model of London's [GPO tower](/wiki/BT_Tower \"BT Tower\") can be seen among the other futuristic buildings; when this series was filmed, the GPO tower was still in the early stages of construction. The male characters from the planet Venus (Slim for example) had obvious [androgynous](/wiki/Androgyne \"Androgyne\") features (in contrast to the more rustic and [virile](/wiki/Virile \"Virile\") Martians).\n\n", "### Style of the series\n\nAlthough compared (and often confused) with the [Gerry Anderson](/wiki/Gerry_Anderson \"Gerry Anderson\") productions (due to the similar use of voice\\-synchronised marionettes), *Space Patrol* is distinguished by some of its creative choices. The only music involved is *avant\\-garde*, the theme being made by Roberta Leigh herself using [electronic](/wiki/Electronic_music \"Electronic music\") equipment she bought locally after asking an assistant for anything that made interesting noises. [F. C. Judd](/wiki/Fred_Judd \"Fred Judd\") was responsible for creating all the electronic music for the series; he was an early British electronic experimenter, amateur radio expert, circuit designer, author and contributor to many wireless and electronics magazines from the 1950s to the 1990s.\n\nIn addition, the marionettes used for *Space Patrol* were more realistic\\-looking and less cartoon\\-like than those being used on *Fireball XL5*; in terms of relative realism, the puppets of *Space Patrol* fall between that of *[Thunderbirds](/wiki/Thunderbirds_%28TV_series%29 \"Thunderbirds (TV series)\")* and *[Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons](/wiki/Captain_Scarlet_and_the_Mysterons \"Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons\")*. There were two types of robots, and the ones with the thick upper bodies were mainly used.\n\nFinal credits always showed panoramic views over a gigantic city of the future, and never featured any music; only the throb of some industrial machinery, sounding like a gigantic pump or a steam engine beating rhythmically. A model of London's [GPO tower](/wiki/BT_Tower \"BT Tower\") can be seen among the other futuristic buildings; when this series was filmed, the GPO tower was still in the early stages of construction. The male characters from the planet Venus (Slim for example) had obvious [androgynous](/wiki/Androgyne \"Androgyne\") features (in contrast to the more rustic and [virile](/wiki/Virile \"Virile\") Martians).\n\n", "Episodes\n--------\n\nThere are 39 episodes across one series.\n\n### Series One\n\n1. \"The Swamps of Jupiter\" – Captain Dart and his crew are sent to investigate the loss of contact with a scientific base on [Jupiter](/wiki/Jupiter \"Jupiter\") and encounter [Martian](/wiki/Mars \"Mars\") fur trappers who are killing the local Loomi creatures for their heat\\-retaining skins. (DVD Disc 1\\)\n2. \"The Wandering Asteroid\" – The Space Patrol crew accept a dangerous mission to destroy an [asteroid](/wiki/Asteroid \"Asteroid\") deflected from its orbit by a [cometary](/wiki/Comet \"Comet\") collision and heading directly for the Martian capital of Wotan. Many have noted the extraordinary similarities between this episode and the [Bruce Willis](/wiki/Bruce_Willis \"Bruce Willis\") vehicle *[Armageddon](/wiki/Armageddon_%281998_film%29 \"Armageddon (1998 film)\")*. (DVD Disc 1\\)\n3. \"The Dark Planet\" – Professor Haggerty and his daughter Cassiopeia are baffled by a plant sample from [Uranus](/wiki/Uranus \"Uranus\") with a mind of its own! Following the disappearance of a 20\\-strong survey team on Uranus, Colonel Raeburn dispatches the Space Patrol crew to locate larger versions of the plant, where they discover the adult specimens of the plant are far from friendly. (DVD Disc 1\\)\n4. \"The Slaves of Neptune\" – The crew of the Galasphere are sent to solve the mystery of a spaceship sending colonists to [Pluto](/wiki/Pluto \"Pluto\") which disappeared near [Neptune](/wiki/Neptune \"Neptune\"). On approach to Neptune, Dart, Slim and Husky fall under the hypnotic influence of Neptunian overlord Tyro who is using his powers to trap [Earth](/wiki/Earth \"Earth\") colonists as slaves. (DVD Disc 1\\)\n5. \"The Fires of Mercury\" – Professor Haggerty's device for translating the language of [ants](/wiki/Ant \"Ant\") also converts heat waves into radio waves. Marla realises that this might provide a way of transmitting warmth from [Mercury](/wiki/Mercury_%28planet%29 \"Mercury (planet)\") to the Colony on Pluto, where freezing conditions worsen as the planet nears the point in its orbit farthest from the [Sun](/wiki/Sun \"Sun\"). (DVD Disc 3\\)\n6. \"The Shrinking Spaceman\" – When the Galasphere crew are sent to repair the sonar beam transmitter on the asteroid [Pallas](/wiki/2_Pallas \"2 Pallas\"), Husky succumbs to a mysterious shrinking disease after cutting his hand on a rock. Keeping him in [suspended animation](/wiki/Suspended_animation \"Suspended animation\"), Professor Haggerty attempts to find a cure. (DVD Disc 1\\)\n7. \"The Robot Revolution\" – When an undersea eruption at the [Atlantic](/wiki/Atlantic \"Atlantic\") sea farm damages robot workers, Space Headquarters is overrun by the rampaging machines, determined to seize control of the city. (DVD Disc 2\\)\n8. \"The Cloud of Death\" – A cloud of metallic [particles](/wiki/Particle \"Particle\") plunges the [Earth](/wiki/Earth \"Earth\") into darkness. The work of Neptunian leader Tyro, he threatens to freeze the [Earth](/wiki/Earth \"Earth\") unless Raeburn agrees to send human slaves to work for the Neptunians. (DVD Disc 4\\)\n9. \"The Rings of Saturn\" – Observing [Saturn](/wiki/Saturn \"Saturn\"), Dart and his crew notice a [meteor](/wiki/Meteor \"Meteor\") shadowing the Galasphere. On discovering it is actually a Saturnian spacecraft, Dart makes contact and brings a tape of Saturnian language back to Earth for decoding. When contact is finally made with the planet, it transpires that Dart has inadvertently offended the Saturnian by picking leaves off their sacred tree. (DVD Disc 2\\)\n10. \"Volcanoes of Venus\" – A [virus](/wiki/Virus \"Virus\") is paralysing areas of [Venus](/wiki/Venus \"Venus\"). Raeburn learns that Slim's uncle Gallia intends to seize power by releasing into the air a powder that causes the [paralysis](/wiki/Paralysis \"Paralysis\"). Slim is sent to [Venus](/wiki/Venus \"Venus\") to investigate, but contacts Space Headquarters to announce that he has changed allegiance and will assist his uncle...back to his mother ship. (DVD Disc 4\\)\n11. \"Mystery on the Moon\" – From a base on the [Moon](/wiki/Moon \"Moon\"), Berridge threatens Space Headquarters with destruction by laser beam unless Raeburn agrees to send him a freighter full of gold. Dart is sent to Moon Station One to investigate and discovers an artificial [crater](/wiki/Impact_crater \"Impact crater\"). (DVD Disc 2\\)\n12. \"The Miracle Tree of Saturn\" – A [fungus](/wiki/Fungus \"Fungus\") is destroying crops at an alarming rate. By chance Professor Haggarty discovers a cutting from the Saturnian's sacred tree on Raeburn's desk destroys the fungus and Dart is dispatched to Saturn to obtain further supplies. However, their plan has been overheard by an unscrupulous technician. (DVD Disc 4\\)\n13. \"The Forgers\" – Colonel Raeburn is baffled by a sudden influx of forged currency while Dart and his crew take it upon themselves to investigate what appears to be a disease killing the vegetation on Mars. Dart and Husky stumble across the source of the forgeries... (DVD Disc 1\\)\n14. \"The Planet of Thought\" – Tyro has come to [Earth](/wiki/Earth \"Earth\") with a view to joining the UGO but is sidetracked when he catches sight of Marla. Using his [hypnotic](/wiki/Hypnotism \"Hypnotism\") powers, Tyro returns to [Neptune](/wiki/Neptune \"Neptune\") with Marla where he makes her his [princess](/wiki/Princess \"Princess\"). Dart follows them to discover a way to break the [spell](/wiki/Spell_%28paranormal%29 \"Spell (paranormal)\").(DVD Disc 4\\)\n15. \"The Glowing Eggs of Titan\" – Husky's discovery of a luminous egg on the Saturnian moon of [Titan](/wiki/Titan_%28moon%29 \"Titan (moon)\") could prove to be the solution to the Martian energy crisis. While Dart and his crew are on an egg\\-gathering mission, Slim falls and damages his air line. As he waits to be rescued he hears a strange humming... (DVD Disc 2\\)\n16. \"The Planet of Light\" – Dart and Slim are invited to the planet of Lumen. On their arrival Dart's [oxygen](/wiki/Oxygen \"Oxygen\") cylinder is pierced. The planet's only oxygen comes from blister plants in the \"cave of death\". Dart and Slim must find the plants before dawn, or risk being boiled alive in the heat of the Sun...(DVD Disc 4\\)\n17. \"Time Stands Still\" – Stolen art treasures are being transported into space. Raeburn suspects that [Venusian](/wiki/Venus \"Venus\") millionaire Tara is behind the thefts, but his palace is too well guarded. Professor Haggarty develops a watch that speeds up the wearer's reaction times by a factor of sixty, which enables Dart to sneak into the palace unnoticed. (DVD Disc 3\\)\n18. \"Husky Becomes Invisible\" – When Dart is sent to Mars to find the eggs of the Aba bird to help find a cure for a condition known as the \"floats\", he calls on Professor Zeller who has discovered that his new star\\-measuring apparatus can make objects disappear. (DVD Disc 2\\)\n19. \"The Walking Lake of Jupiter\" – Scientists Dr. Brown and Dr. Smith discover that water from a Jovian lake has the power to cause inanimate objects to move as if with a life of their own. Dart arrives to witness the phenomenon and ends up on the trail of the unfortunate Dr. Brown, whose spacesuit has become energised by the Jovian water. (DVD Disc 2\\)\n20. \"The New Planet\" – Galasphere 347 is in deep space. After a comet collides with the ship, Dart and his crew discover a new planet beyond the orbit of Pluto. Touching down in the dense forest, Dart and Slim meet one of the planet's giant inhabitants. (DVD Disc 3\\)\n21. \"The Human Fish\" – The Tula Fish in the Venusian Magda Ocean are evolving at an extraordinary rate and attack fishermen. The Galasphere crew are sent to help and discover that routinely dumped building materials may be the cause of the Tula's accelerated evolution. (DVD Disc 3\\)\n22. \"The Invisible Invasion\" – On Uranus, the Duos are planning to seize power on Earth by taking over the minds of everyone at Space Headquarters, including Colonel Raeburn. The one person seemingly unaffected by the Duos' power is Professor Haggarty, who is installed beneath his electronic hair\\-restorer! (DVD Disc 3\\)\n23. \"The Talking Bell\" – On a hunting trip, Raeburn and Haggarty encounter a soft, bell\\-shaped object with a single extensible leg. It is a visitor from another planet, but Raeburn has accidentally shot its space vehicle down with his 12\\-bore! Dart is assigned to return \"Mr. Bell\" to his mother ship. (DVD Disc 4\\)\n24. \"The Buried Spaceship\" – \"Operation Ice Cube\" is put into action when Marla suggests moving ice through space as a solution to a drought problem on Mars. Galasphere 347 is sent to assist but develops a fault in the [Meson](/wiki/Meson \"Meson\") Power Unit forcing the craft to land for repairs... (DVD Disc 2\\)\n25. \"Message from a Star\" – Signals from [Alpha Centauri](/wiki/Alpha_Centauri \"Alpha Centauri\") suggest intelligent life but it would take a Galasphere 3,000 years to cross the immense distance. Irya, a being from the planet Delta, teleports himself to Earth to fit a special power unit to the Galasphere, enabling it to travel at [faster\\-than\\-light](/wiki/Faster-than-light \"Faster-than-light\") speeds. Professor Haggarty, however, has reservations about making the trip. (DVD Disc 3\\)\n26. \"Explosion on the Sun\" – An [explosion](/wiki/Explosion \"Explosion\") on the surface of [Sun](/wiki/Sun \"Sun\") causes a [temperature](/wiki/Temperature \"Temperature\") rise on [Earth](/wiki/Earth \"Earth\") and [Venus](/wiki/Venus \"Venus\"). The Venusian [president](/wiki/President_%28government_title%29 \"President (government title)\") is contacted by Dr. Duncan, who has been causing the [explosions](/wiki/Explosion \"Explosion\") by firing a freighter of [beryllium](/wiki/Beryllium \"Beryllium\") into the [Sun](/wiki/Sun \"Sun\"). He threatens to release further charges unless [Earth](/wiki/Earth \"Earth\") and [Venus](/wiki/Venus \"Venus\") send [weapons](/wiki/Weapon \"Weapon\") and [robots](/wiki/Robot \"Robot\") to [Ganymede](/wiki/Ganymede_%28moon%29 \"Ganymede (moon)\"). (DVD Disc 4\\)\n27. \"The Unknown Asteroid\" – The problem of dwindling supplies of Plutonite is solved when an asteroid made of the material is discovered. But before Raeburn has managed to secure the asteroid Miga, a wealthy Venusian has taken possession and intends to sell it. Raeburn reluctantly agrees to the asking price and sends Dart to complete the transaction. (DVD Disc 5\\)\n28. \"The Evil Eye of Venus\" – Professor Borra of Venus has invented a mechanical eye which can destroy any ship constructed of metal alien to Earth, Mars or Venus. The demonstration is impressive but what will happen when a Galasphere constructed from metal mined from Pluto comes within range? (DVD Disc 5\\)\n29. \"Secret Formula\" – Exploring the Silver Forest of Venus, Husky becomes trapped in the web of a Spirigum Spider. Haggarty manages to free him and discovers that fragments of the web act as a truth drug. Raeburn, meanwhile, is offered the formula for Kinotine, which has the ability to store heat indefinitely. Kinotine's inventor, Dr. Mason, will donate the formula but when a call is received from Kolig, head of Mars's largest chemical plant, offering the formula for sale, Raeburn suspects foul play. (DVD Disc 5\\)\n30. \"The Telepathic Robot\" – Haggarty invents a robot that responds to thoughts. Dart tests the range of telepathic thought in space and investigates a new planet near the Sun unaware that the Neptunians have encamped there. Only Haggarty's new robot escapes the Neptunians' hypnotic influence. (DVD Disc 5\\)\n31. \"Deadly Whirlwind\" – To halt a virus destroying Martian vegetation, Dart is sent with a spray that is deadly to all forms of life except those native to Mars. When the spray comes into contact with a whirlwind, the chemical is rushed into space and is soon on a collision course with Earth. (DVD Disc 5\\)\n32. \"The Jitter Waves\" – A strange jittering is affecting the city and other Earth locations. Haggarty discovers, by chance, that the jittering is caused by radio waves emitted by Uranus, where the Duos are once again planning an invasion. (DVD disc 5\\)\n33. \"Sands of Death\" – Tyrig plans to use a nerve gas to seize power on Mars. Raeburn discovers that Tyrig and his men have set up base on the Martian moon [Phobos](/wiki/Phobos_%28moon%29 \"Phobos (moon)\") and Dart is sent to investigate. Dart and his crew are captured by Tyrig, who wants to use the Galasphere to spread the gas. Refusing to co\\-operate they are placed in a dungeon which slowly fills with sand. (DVD Disc 5\\)\n34. \"The Hairy Men of Mars\" – The Galasphere's Meson unit malfunctions and lands in the unexplored Tuhera jungle. Dart and Husky leave to fix the problem. When Husky fails to return, Dart follows and is captured by a giant primitive man. Husky speaks with the giant in its native language and they are set free. They return to Earth with some Martian fruit which makes hair grow—the perfect solution to Haggarty's problem. (DVD Disc 6\\)\n35. \"The Grass of Saturn\" – Saturn has a new leader. Riga is succeeded by his brother Simba and whilst Dart is en route to investigate, Simba launches rockets destined for Earth containing Saturnian grass seed—which absorbs [oxygen](/wiki/Oxygen \"Oxygen\") and emits [carbon dioxide](/wiki/Carbon_dioxide \"Carbon dioxide\"). (DVD Disc 6\\)\n36. \"Force Field X\" – The Neptunians create a forcefield around the Earth containing particles with strong electromagnetic properties. The field begins disrupting electricity supplies, causing a complete blackout. (DVD Disc 6\\)\n37. \"The Water Bomb\" – The Galasphere is sent on a rain\\-making mission to Mars with a cargo of oxygen and hydrogen—the very ingredients escaped criminal Marog requires to complete his bomb under construction at his Phobos hideaway. (DVD Disc 6\\)\n38. \"Destruction by Sound\" – Raeburn is contacted by Yria from Alpha Centauri who is seeking help to destroy an evil computer superbrain which is attempting to take over the planet Delta. (DVD Disc 6\\)\n39. \"The Shrinking Gas of Jupiter\" – On a mission to Jupiter, Slim disappears in the swamps. Raeburn orders Dart and Husky to leave but trouble with the Galasphere's primary drives gives Dart an excuse to resume the search only to find that Slim has shrunk to dwarf\\-like proportions. (DVD Disc 6\\)\n", "### Series One\n\n1. \"The Swamps of Jupiter\" – Captain Dart and his crew are sent to investigate the loss of contact with a scientific base on [Jupiter](/wiki/Jupiter \"Jupiter\") and encounter [Martian](/wiki/Mars \"Mars\") fur trappers who are killing the local Loomi creatures for their heat\\-retaining skins. (DVD Disc 1\\)\n2. \"The Wandering Asteroid\" – The Space Patrol crew accept a dangerous mission to destroy an [asteroid](/wiki/Asteroid \"Asteroid\") deflected from its orbit by a [cometary](/wiki/Comet \"Comet\") collision and heading directly for the Martian capital of Wotan. Many have noted the extraordinary similarities between this episode and the [Bruce Willis](/wiki/Bruce_Willis \"Bruce Willis\") vehicle *[Armageddon](/wiki/Armageddon_%281998_film%29 \"Armageddon (1998 film)\")*. (DVD Disc 1\\)\n3. \"The Dark Planet\" – Professor Haggerty and his daughter Cassiopeia are baffled by a plant sample from [Uranus](/wiki/Uranus \"Uranus\") with a mind of its own! Following the disappearance of a 20\\-strong survey team on Uranus, Colonel Raeburn dispatches the Space Patrol crew to locate larger versions of the plant, where they discover the adult specimens of the plant are far from friendly. (DVD Disc 1\\)\n4. \"The Slaves of Neptune\" – The crew of the Galasphere are sent to solve the mystery of a spaceship sending colonists to [Pluto](/wiki/Pluto \"Pluto\") which disappeared near [Neptune](/wiki/Neptune \"Neptune\"). On approach to Neptune, Dart, Slim and Husky fall under the hypnotic influence of Neptunian overlord Tyro who is using his powers to trap [Earth](/wiki/Earth \"Earth\") colonists as slaves. (DVD Disc 1\\)\n5. \"The Fires of Mercury\" – Professor Haggerty's device for translating the language of [ants](/wiki/Ant \"Ant\") also converts heat waves into radio waves. Marla realises that this might provide a way of transmitting warmth from [Mercury](/wiki/Mercury_%28planet%29 \"Mercury (planet)\") to the Colony on Pluto, where freezing conditions worsen as the planet nears the point in its orbit farthest from the [Sun](/wiki/Sun \"Sun\"). (DVD Disc 3\\)\n6. \"The Shrinking Spaceman\" – When the Galasphere crew are sent to repair the sonar beam transmitter on the asteroid [Pallas](/wiki/2_Pallas \"2 Pallas\"), Husky succumbs to a mysterious shrinking disease after cutting his hand on a rock. Keeping him in [suspended animation](/wiki/Suspended_animation \"Suspended animation\"), Professor Haggerty attempts to find a cure. (DVD Disc 1\\)\n7. \"The Robot Revolution\" – When an undersea eruption at the [Atlantic](/wiki/Atlantic \"Atlantic\") sea farm damages robot workers, Space Headquarters is overrun by the rampaging machines, determined to seize control of the city. (DVD Disc 2\\)\n8. \"The Cloud of Death\" – A cloud of metallic [particles](/wiki/Particle \"Particle\") plunges the [Earth](/wiki/Earth \"Earth\") into darkness. The work of Neptunian leader Tyro, he threatens to freeze the [Earth](/wiki/Earth \"Earth\") unless Raeburn agrees to send human slaves to work for the Neptunians. (DVD Disc 4\\)\n9. \"The Rings of Saturn\" – Observing [Saturn](/wiki/Saturn \"Saturn\"), Dart and his crew notice a [meteor](/wiki/Meteor \"Meteor\") shadowing the Galasphere. On discovering it is actually a Saturnian spacecraft, Dart makes contact and brings a tape of Saturnian language back to Earth for decoding. When contact is finally made with the planet, it transpires that Dart has inadvertently offended the Saturnian by picking leaves off their sacred tree. (DVD Disc 2\\)\n10. \"Volcanoes of Venus\" – A [virus](/wiki/Virus \"Virus\") is paralysing areas of [Venus](/wiki/Venus \"Venus\"). Raeburn learns that Slim's uncle Gallia intends to seize power by releasing into the air a powder that causes the [paralysis](/wiki/Paralysis \"Paralysis\"). Slim is sent to [Venus](/wiki/Venus \"Venus\") to investigate, but contacts Space Headquarters to announce that he has changed allegiance and will assist his uncle...back to his mother ship. (DVD Disc 4\\)\n11. \"Mystery on the Moon\" – From a base on the [Moon](/wiki/Moon \"Moon\"), Berridge threatens Space Headquarters with destruction by laser beam unless Raeburn agrees to send him a freighter full of gold. Dart is sent to Moon Station One to investigate and discovers an artificial [crater](/wiki/Impact_crater \"Impact crater\"). (DVD Disc 2\\)\n12. \"The Miracle Tree of Saturn\" – A [fungus](/wiki/Fungus \"Fungus\") is destroying crops at an alarming rate. By chance Professor Haggarty discovers a cutting from the Saturnian's sacred tree on Raeburn's desk destroys the fungus and Dart is dispatched to Saturn to obtain further supplies. However, their plan has been overheard by an unscrupulous technician. (DVD Disc 4\\)\n13. \"The Forgers\" – Colonel Raeburn is baffled by a sudden influx of forged currency while Dart and his crew take it upon themselves to investigate what appears to be a disease killing the vegetation on Mars. Dart and Husky stumble across the source of the forgeries... (DVD Disc 1\\)\n14. \"The Planet of Thought\" – Tyro has come to [Earth](/wiki/Earth \"Earth\") with a view to joining the UGO but is sidetracked when he catches sight of Marla. Using his [hypnotic](/wiki/Hypnotism \"Hypnotism\") powers, Tyro returns to [Neptune](/wiki/Neptune \"Neptune\") with Marla where he makes her his [princess](/wiki/Princess \"Princess\"). Dart follows them to discover a way to break the [spell](/wiki/Spell_%28paranormal%29 \"Spell (paranormal)\").(DVD Disc 4\\)\n15. \"The Glowing Eggs of Titan\" – Husky's discovery of a luminous egg on the Saturnian moon of [Titan](/wiki/Titan_%28moon%29 \"Titan (moon)\") could prove to be the solution to the Martian energy crisis. While Dart and his crew are on an egg\\-gathering mission, Slim falls and damages his air line. As he waits to be rescued he hears a strange humming... (DVD Disc 2\\)\n16. \"The Planet of Light\" – Dart and Slim are invited to the planet of Lumen. On their arrival Dart's [oxygen](/wiki/Oxygen \"Oxygen\") cylinder is pierced. The planet's only oxygen comes from blister plants in the \"cave of death\". Dart and Slim must find the plants before dawn, or risk being boiled alive in the heat of the Sun...(DVD Disc 4\\)\n17. \"Time Stands Still\" – Stolen art treasures are being transported into space. Raeburn suspects that [Venusian](/wiki/Venus \"Venus\") millionaire Tara is behind the thefts, but his palace is too well guarded. Professor Haggarty develops a watch that speeds up the wearer's reaction times by a factor of sixty, which enables Dart to sneak into the palace unnoticed. (DVD Disc 3\\)\n18. \"Husky Becomes Invisible\" – When Dart is sent to Mars to find the eggs of the Aba bird to help find a cure for a condition known as the \"floats\", he calls on Professor Zeller who has discovered that his new star\\-measuring apparatus can make objects disappear. (DVD Disc 2\\)\n19. \"The Walking Lake of Jupiter\" – Scientists Dr. Brown and Dr. Smith discover that water from a Jovian lake has the power to cause inanimate objects to move as if with a life of their own. Dart arrives to witness the phenomenon and ends up on the trail of the unfortunate Dr. Brown, whose spacesuit has become energised by the Jovian water. (DVD Disc 2\\)\n20. \"The New Planet\" – Galasphere 347 is in deep space. After a comet collides with the ship, Dart and his crew discover a new planet beyond the orbit of Pluto. Touching down in the dense forest, Dart and Slim meet one of the planet's giant inhabitants. (DVD Disc 3\\)\n21. \"The Human Fish\" – The Tula Fish in the Venusian Magda Ocean are evolving at an extraordinary rate and attack fishermen. The Galasphere crew are sent to help and discover that routinely dumped building materials may be the cause of the Tula's accelerated evolution. (DVD Disc 3\\)\n22. \"The Invisible Invasion\" – On Uranus, the Duos are planning to seize power on Earth by taking over the minds of everyone at Space Headquarters, including Colonel Raeburn. The one person seemingly unaffected by the Duos' power is Professor Haggarty, who is installed beneath his electronic hair\\-restorer! (DVD Disc 3\\)\n23. \"The Talking Bell\" – On a hunting trip, Raeburn and Haggarty encounter a soft, bell\\-shaped object with a single extensible leg. It is a visitor from another planet, but Raeburn has accidentally shot its space vehicle down with his 12\\-bore! Dart is assigned to return \"Mr. Bell\" to his mother ship. (DVD Disc 4\\)\n24. \"The Buried Spaceship\" – \"Operation Ice Cube\" is put into action when Marla suggests moving ice through space as a solution to a drought problem on Mars. Galasphere 347 is sent to assist but develops a fault in the [Meson](/wiki/Meson \"Meson\") Power Unit forcing the craft to land for repairs... (DVD Disc 2\\)\n25. \"Message from a Star\" – Signals from [Alpha Centauri](/wiki/Alpha_Centauri \"Alpha Centauri\") suggest intelligent life but it would take a Galasphere 3,000 years to cross the immense distance. Irya, a being from the planet Delta, teleports himself to Earth to fit a special power unit to the Galasphere, enabling it to travel at [faster\\-than\\-light](/wiki/Faster-than-light \"Faster-than-light\") speeds. Professor Haggarty, however, has reservations about making the trip. (DVD Disc 3\\)\n26. \"Explosion on the Sun\" – An [explosion](/wiki/Explosion \"Explosion\") on the surface of [Sun](/wiki/Sun \"Sun\") causes a [temperature](/wiki/Temperature \"Temperature\") rise on [Earth](/wiki/Earth \"Earth\") and [Venus](/wiki/Venus \"Venus\"). The Venusian [president](/wiki/President_%28government_title%29 \"President (government title)\") is contacted by Dr. Duncan, who has been causing the [explosions](/wiki/Explosion \"Explosion\") by firing a freighter of [beryllium](/wiki/Beryllium \"Beryllium\") into the [Sun](/wiki/Sun \"Sun\"). He threatens to release further charges unless [Earth](/wiki/Earth \"Earth\") and [Venus](/wiki/Venus \"Venus\") send [weapons](/wiki/Weapon \"Weapon\") and [robots](/wiki/Robot \"Robot\") to [Ganymede](/wiki/Ganymede_%28moon%29 \"Ganymede (moon)\"). (DVD Disc 4\\)\n27. \"The Unknown Asteroid\" – The problem of dwindling supplies of Plutonite is solved when an asteroid made of the material is discovered. But before Raeburn has managed to secure the asteroid Miga, a wealthy Venusian has taken possession and intends to sell it. Raeburn reluctantly agrees to the asking price and sends Dart to complete the transaction. (DVD Disc 5\\)\n28. \"The Evil Eye of Venus\" – Professor Borra of Venus has invented a mechanical eye which can destroy any ship constructed of metal alien to Earth, Mars or Venus. The demonstration is impressive but what will happen when a Galasphere constructed from metal mined from Pluto comes within range? (DVD Disc 5\\)\n29. \"Secret Formula\" – Exploring the Silver Forest of Venus, Husky becomes trapped in the web of a Spirigum Spider. Haggarty manages to free him and discovers that fragments of the web act as a truth drug. Raeburn, meanwhile, is offered the formula for Kinotine, which has the ability to store heat indefinitely. Kinotine's inventor, Dr. Mason, will donate the formula but when a call is received from Kolig, head of Mars's largest chemical plant, offering the formula for sale, Raeburn suspects foul play. (DVD Disc 5\\)\n30. \"The Telepathic Robot\" – Haggarty invents a robot that responds to thoughts. Dart tests the range of telepathic thought in space and investigates a new planet near the Sun unaware that the Neptunians have encamped there. Only Haggarty's new robot escapes the Neptunians' hypnotic influence. (DVD Disc 5\\)\n31. \"Deadly Whirlwind\" – To halt a virus destroying Martian vegetation, Dart is sent with a spray that is deadly to all forms of life except those native to Mars. When the spray comes into contact with a whirlwind, the chemical is rushed into space and is soon on a collision course with Earth. (DVD Disc 5\\)\n32. \"The Jitter Waves\" – A strange jittering is affecting the city and other Earth locations. Haggarty discovers, by chance, that the jittering is caused by radio waves emitted by Uranus, where the Duos are once again planning an invasion. (DVD disc 5\\)\n33. \"Sands of Death\" – Tyrig plans to use a nerve gas to seize power on Mars. Raeburn discovers that Tyrig and his men have set up base on the Martian moon [Phobos](/wiki/Phobos_%28moon%29 \"Phobos (moon)\") and Dart is sent to investigate. Dart and his crew are captured by Tyrig, who wants to use the Galasphere to spread the gas. Refusing to co\\-operate they are placed in a dungeon which slowly fills with sand. (DVD Disc 5\\)\n34. \"The Hairy Men of Mars\" – The Galasphere's Meson unit malfunctions and lands in the unexplored Tuhera jungle. Dart and Husky leave to fix the problem. When Husky fails to return, Dart follows and is captured by a giant primitive man. Husky speaks with the giant in its native language and they are set free. They return to Earth with some Martian fruit which makes hair grow—the perfect solution to Haggarty's problem. (DVD Disc 6\\)\n35. \"The Grass of Saturn\" – Saturn has a new leader. Riga is succeeded by his brother Simba and whilst Dart is en route to investigate, Simba launches rockets destined for Earth containing Saturnian grass seed—which absorbs [oxygen](/wiki/Oxygen \"Oxygen\") and emits [carbon dioxide](/wiki/Carbon_dioxide \"Carbon dioxide\"). (DVD Disc 6\\)\n36. \"Force Field X\" – The Neptunians create a forcefield around the Earth containing particles with strong electromagnetic properties. The field begins disrupting electricity supplies, causing a complete blackout. (DVD Disc 6\\)\n37. \"The Water Bomb\" – The Galasphere is sent on a rain\\-making mission to Mars with a cargo of oxygen and hydrogen—the very ingredients escaped criminal Marog requires to complete his bomb under construction at his Phobos hideaway. (DVD Disc 6\\)\n38. \"Destruction by Sound\" – Raeburn is contacted by Yria from Alpha Centauri who is seeking help to destroy an evil computer superbrain which is attempting to take over the planet Delta. (DVD Disc 6\\)\n39. \"The Shrinking Gas of Jupiter\" – On a mission to Jupiter, Slim disappears in the swamps. Raeburn orders Dart and Husky to leave but trouble with the Galasphere's primary drives gives Dart an excuse to resume the search only to find that Slim has shrunk to dwarf\\-like proportions. (DVD Disc 6\\)\n", "Broadcast\n---------\n\n*Space Patrol* debuted on Sunday, 7 April 1963 on [ABC Weekend TV](/wiki/ABC_Weekend_TV \"ABC Weekend TV\"), at the time the [ITV](/wiki/ITV_%28TV_network%29 \"ITV (TV network)\") contractor for England's [Midlands](/wiki/Midlands \"Midlands\") and [North](/wiki/Northern_England \"Northern England\"). It continued to be shown in parts of the ITV network until 1970\\. Following these broadcasts, the series was not shown again until 2024\\.\n\nIn the London area, *Space Patrol* was shown on weekdays by [Associated Rediffusion](/wiki/Associated_Rediffusion \"Associated Rediffusion\").\n\nThe British [free\\-to\\-air](/wiki/Free-to-air \"Free-to-air\") vintage film and nostalgia television channel [Talking Pictures TV](/wiki/Talking_Pictures_TV \"Talking Pictures TV\") announced in June 2024 that it would be showing the series weekly from 15 June 2024\\. This will be the first repeat of the show for over fifty years.\n\n### International\n\n*Planet Patrol* was distributed in the U.S. by M \\& A Alexander Productions. It debuted in the U.S. on [WPIX](/wiki/WPIX \"WPIX\"), a local New York station, on Sunday, 12 January 1964, at 5:30 p.m. It was sponsored by [Drake's Cakes](/wiki/Drake%27s_Cakes \"Drake's Cakes\").Broadcasting, 27 January 1964\\. The show appeared in Los Angeles in September 1964 on [KHJ\\-TV](/wiki/KCAL-TV \"KCAL-TV\").\"Outstanding Films Scheduled by KHJ.\" Los Angeles Times, 13 Sept. 1964 The show appears on the schedule of Boston's [WKBG\\-TV](/wiki/WLVI \"WLVI\") in January 1967\\.\n\nThe series was also broadcast in Malta and Australia.\n\n", "### International\n\n*Planet Patrol* was distributed in the U.S. by M \\& A Alexander Productions. It debuted in the U.S. on [WPIX](/wiki/WPIX \"WPIX\"), a local New York station, on Sunday, 12 January 1964, at 5:30 p.m. It was sponsored by [Drake's Cakes](/wiki/Drake%27s_Cakes \"Drake's Cakes\").Broadcasting, 27 January 1964\\. The show appeared in Los Angeles in September 1964 on [KHJ\\-TV](/wiki/KCAL-TV \"KCAL-TV\").\"Outstanding Films Scheduled by KHJ.\" Los Angeles Times, 13 Sept. 1964 The show appears on the schedule of Boston's [WKBG\\-TV](/wiki/WLVI \"WLVI\") in January 1967\\.\n\nThe series was also broadcast in Malta and Australia.\n\n", "Home media\n----------\n\n### DVD\n\nA 'best of' DVD release appeared in 2001, comprising six episodes: \"The Swamps of Jupiter\", \"The Wandering Asteroid\", \"The Robot Revolution\", \"The Rings of Saturn,\" \"Husky Becomes Invisible\" and \"Mystery on the Moon\", including transfers of the two 35mm episodes and other special features.\n\nThe definitive DVD release, released in 2004, is a six\\-disc box set in [PAL](/wiki/PAL \"PAL\") Region 0 (playable on any DVD player that can play PAL\\-encoded discs), containing all 39 episodes and numerous extras.\n\n#### Disc 1\n\n* The Swamps of Jupiter\n* The Wandering Asteroid\n* The Dark Planet\n* The Slaves of Neptune\n* The Shrinking Spaceman\n* The Forgers\n\n#### Disc 2\n\n* The Robot Revolution\n* The Rings of Saturn\n* Husky becomes Invisible\n* The Buried Spacecraft\n* Mystery on the Moon\n* The Glowing Eggs of Titan\n* The Walking Lake of Jupiter\n\n#### Disc 3\n\n* Time Stands Still\n* Message from a Star\n* The Fires of Mercury\n* The Invisible Invasion\n* The New Planet\n* The Human Fish\n\n#### Disc 4\n\n* The Planet of Light\n* The Talking Bell\n* The Miracle Tree of Saturn\n* The Cloud of Death\n* The Planet of Thought\n* Explosion on the Sun\n* Volcanoes of Venus\n\n#### Disc 5\n\n* The Unknown Asteroid\n* The Evil Eye of Venus\n* Secret Formula\n* The Telepathic Robot\n* Deadly Whirlwind\n* The Jitter Waves\n* Sands of Death\n\n#### Disc 6\n\n* The Hairy Men of Mars\n* The Grass of Saturn\n* Forcefield X\n* The Water Bomb\n* Destruction by Sound\n* The Shrinking Gas of Jupiter\n\n#### Special Features\n\n##### Discs 1–3\n\n* [Sara and Hoppity](/wiki/Sara_and_Hoppity \"Sara and Hoppity\") Episode\n* [Roberta Leigh](/wiki/Roberta_Leigh \"Roberta Leigh\") interview\n* National Interest Pictures Brochure\n* The Adventures of Twizzle Episode\n* [Arthur Provis](/wiki/Arthur_Provis \"Arthur Provis\") interview\n* [Dick Vosburgh](/wiki/Dick_Vosburgh \"Dick Vosburgh\") Interview\n* Mr Hero pilot\n\n##### Discs 4–6\n\n* [Joe\\-Michael Straczynski](/wiki/J._Michael_Straczynski \"J. Michael Straczynski\") Interview\n* Commercial Break Bumpers\n* Paul Starr pilot*[Paul Starr](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXSlmZt4qlM)*, URL accessed 13 July 2015\n* [Andy Partridge](/wiki/Andy_Partridge \"Andy Partridge\") Interview\n* Send for Dithers Episode *(also in 3\\-disc set)*\n* Wonder Boy \\& Tiger Episode *(also in 3\\-disc set)*\n* The Solarnauts pilot\n\n### Blu\\-ray\n\nIn March 2018, the Network imprint announced that a Region\\-free Blu\\-ray box set of the complete series, restored using the latest technology, would be released on 2 April of that year. There are no subtitles or special features.\n\n### Other media\n\nA small number of *Space Patrol* episodes were made available in the Standard\\-8 and Super\\-8 home movie formats from Mountain Films during the 1960s and 70s. Episodes known to have been released in this format are: \"The Swamps of Jupiter\", \"The Miracle Tree of Saturn\", \"The Robot Revolution\" and \"Mystery on the Moon.\" The films were released in 400' sound editions, and packaging for all titles used the same artwork as the first release, \"Mystery on the Moon.\" The title *Space Patrol* did not appear anywhere on the packaging. The films were all around 16 minutes long, with most of the material coming from the second act of the episodes. The complete series was released by Network on VHS tape following the recovery of the episodes in the late 1990s.\n\n", "### DVD\n\nA 'best of' DVD release appeared in 2001, comprising six episodes: \"The Swamps of Jupiter\", \"The Wandering Asteroid\", \"The Robot Revolution\", \"The Rings of Saturn,\" \"Husky Becomes Invisible\" and \"Mystery on the Moon\", including transfers of the two 35mm episodes and other special features.\n\nThe definitive DVD release, released in 2004, is a six\\-disc box set in [PAL](/wiki/PAL \"PAL\") Region 0 (playable on any DVD player that can play PAL\\-encoded discs), containing all 39 episodes and numerous extras.\n\n#### Disc 1\n\n* The Swamps of Jupiter\n* The Wandering Asteroid\n* The Dark Planet\n* The Slaves of Neptune\n* The Shrinking Spaceman\n* The Forgers\n\n#### Disc 2\n\n* The Robot Revolution\n* The Rings of Saturn\n* Husky becomes Invisible\n* The Buried Spacecraft\n* Mystery on the Moon\n* The Glowing Eggs of Titan\n* The Walking Lake of Jupiter\n\n#### Disc 3\n\n* Time Stands Still\n* Message from a Star\n* The Fires of Mercury\n* The Invisible Invasion\n* The New Planet\n* The Human Fish\n\n#### Disc 4\n\n* The Planet of Light\n* The Talking Bell\n* The Miracle Tree of Saturn\n* The Cloud of Death\n* The Planet of Thought\n* Explosion on the Sun\n* Volcanoes of Venus\n\n#### Disc 5\n\n* The Unknown Asteroid\n* The Evil Eye of Venus\n* Secret Formula\n* The Telepathic Robot\n* Deadly Whirlwind\n* The Jitter Waves\n* Sands of Death\n\n#### Disc 6\n\n* The Hairy Men of Mars\n* The Grass of Saturn\n* Forcefield X\n* The Water Bomb\n* Destruction by Sound\n* The Shrinking Gas of Jupiter\n\n#### Special Features\n\n##### Discs 1–3\n\n* [Sara and Hoppity](/wiki/Sara_and_Hoppity \"Sara and Hoppity\") Episode\n* [Roberta Leigh](/wiki/Roberta_Leigh \"Roberta Leigh\") interview\n* National Interest Pictures Brochure\n* The Adventures of Twizzle Episode\n* [Arthur Provis](/wiki/Arthur_Provis \"Arthur Provis\") interview\n* [Dick Vosburgh](/wiki/Dick_Vosburgh \"Dick Vosburgh\") Interview\n* Mr Hero pilot\n\n##### Discs 4–6\n\n* [Joe\\-Michael Straczynski](/wiki/J._Michael_Straczynski \"J. Michael Straczynski\") Interview\n* Commercial Break Bumpers\n* Paul Starr pilot*[Paul Starr](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXSlmZt4qlM)*, URL accessed 13 July 2015\n* [Andy Partridge](/wiki/Andy_Partridge \"Andy Partridge\") Interview\n* Send for Dithers Episode *(also in 3\\-disc set)*\n* Wonder Boy \\& Tiger Episode *(also in 3\\-disc set)*\n* The Solarnauts pilot\n", "#### Disc 1\n\n* The Swamps of Jupiter\n* The Wandering Asteroid\n* The Dark Planet\n* The Slaves of Neptune\n* The Shrinking Spaceman\n* The Forgers\n", "#### Disc 2\n\n* The Robot Revolution\n* The Rings of Saturn\n* Husky becomes Invisible\n* The Buried Spacecraft\n* Mystery on the Moon\n* The Glowing Eggs of Titan\n* The Walking Lake of Jupiter\n", "#### Disc 3\n\n* Time Stands Still\n* Message from a Star\n* The Fires of Mercury\n* The Invisible Invasion\n* The New Planet\n* The Human Fish\n", "#### Disc 4\n\n* The Planet of Light\n* The Talking Bell\n* The Miracle Tree of Saturn\n* The Cloud of Death\n* The Planet of Thought\n* Explosion on the Sun\n* Volcanoes of Venus\n", "#### Disc 5\n\n* The Unknown Asteroid\n* The Evil Eye of Venus\n* Secret Formula\n* The Telepathic Robot\n* Deadly Whirlwind\n* The Jitter Waves\n* Sands of Death\n", "#### Disc 6\n\n* The Hairy Men of Mars\n* The Grass of Saturn\n* Forcefield X\n* The Water Bomb\n* Destruction by Sound\n* The Shrinking Gas of Jupiter\n", "#### Special Features\n\n##### Discs 1–3\n\n* [Sara and Hoppity](/wiki/Sara_and_Hoppity \"Sara and Hoppity\") Episode\n* [Roberta Leigh](/wiki/Roberta_Leigh \"Roberta Leigh\") interview\n* National Interest Pictures Brochure\n* The Adventures of Twizzle Episode\n* [Arthur Provis](/wiki/Arthur_Provis \"Arthur Provis\") interview\n* [Dick Vosburgh](/wiki/Dick_Vosburgh \"Dick Vosburgh\") Interview\n* Mr Hero pilot\n\n##### Discs 4–6\n\n* [Joe\\-Michael Straczynski](/wiki/J._Michael_Straczynski \"J. Michael Straczynski\") Interview\n* Commercial Break Bumpers\n* Paul Starr pilot*[Paul Starr](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXSlmZt4qlM)*, URL accessed 13 July 2015\n* [Andy Partridge](/wiki/Andy_Partridge \"Andy Partridge\") Interview\n* Send for Dithers Episode *(also in 3\\-disc set)*\n* Wonder Boy \\& Tiger Episode *(also in 3\\-disc set)*\n* The Solarnauts pilot\n", "##### Discs 1–3\n\n* [Sara and Hoppity](/wiki/Sara_and_Hoppity \"Sara and Hoppity\") Episode\n* [Roberta Leigh](/wiki/Roberta_Leigh \"Roberta Leigh\") interview\n* National Interest Pictures Brochure\n* The Adventures of Twizzle Episode\n* [Arthur Provis](/wiki/Arthur_Provis \"Arthur Provis\") interview\n* [Dick Vosburgh](/wiki/Dick_Vosburgh \"Dick Vosburgh\") Interview\n* Mr Hero pilot\n", "##### Discs 4–6\n\n* [Joe\\-Michael Straczynski](/wiki/J._Michael_Straczynski \"J. Michael Straczynski\") Interview\n* Commercial Break Bumpers\n* Paul Starr pilot*[Paul Starr](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXSlmZt4qlM)*, URL accessed 13 July 2015\n* [Andy Partridge](/wiki/Andy_Partridge \"Andy Partridge\") Interview\n* Send for Dithers Episode *(also in 3\\-disc set)*\n* Wonder Boy \\& Tiger Episode *(also in 3\\-disc set)*\n* The Solarnauts pilot\n", "### Blu\\-ray\n\nIn March 2018, the Network imprint announced that a Region\\-free Blu\\-ray box set of the complete series, restored using the latest technology, would be released on 2 April of that year. There are no subtitles or special features.\n\n", "### Other media\n\nA small number of *Space Patrol* episodes were made available in the Standard\\-8 and Super\\-8 home movie formats from Mountain Films during the 1960s and 70s. Episodes known to have been released in this format are: \"The Swamps of Jupiter\", \"The Miracle Tree of Saturn\", \"The Robot Revolution\" and \"Mystery on the Moon.\" The films were released in 400' sound editions, and packaging for all titles used the same artwork as the first release, \"Mystery on the Moon.\" The title *Space Patrol* did not appear anywhere on the packaging. The films were all around 16 minutes long, with most of the material coming from the second act of the episodes. The complete series was released by Network on VHS tape following the recovery of the episodes in the late 1990s.\n\n", "Comics\n------\n\nA number of comic strip adaptations of *Space Patrol* were produced:\n\n* *[TV Comic](/wiki/TV_Comic \"TV Comic\")*: 52 double\\-page strips forming the centrespread of each issue, in issue no's 668 dated 3 October 1964 to 719 dated 25 September 1965\\. They were written by Roberta Leigh herself and illustrated by artist Bill Mevin, and in colour it was shown that Venusians had blue skin and Martians green.\n* *[The Beezer](/wiki/The_Beezer \"The Beezer\")*: from issue 558 dated 24 September 1966 to issue 583 dated 18 March 1967, illustrated by artist Terry Patrick (i.e. 26 2\\-page colour episodes in total).\n* Two Gold Token Super Mag comic books published in UK by Young World Productions Ltd. See issue no. 12 dated June 1964 \\& issue no. 24 dated December 1964\\. Nb. Young World Productions Ltd published 2 issues of the Gold Token Super Mag comic book every month featuring various licensed properties\n* A World Distributors (Manchester) Limited hard back story book with two text stories by Roberta Leigh with illustrations by R. W. Smethurst. Title: *Space Patrol and the Secret Weapon* Copyright 1965 by Wonderama Productions Limited.\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [*Space Patrol*, the website](https://web.archive.org/web/20110629101434/http://homepages.tesco.net/~space.patrol/SpacePatrol/Home.htm) (archived 29\\-Jun\\-2011\\) provides a comprehensive guide to the series, including screenshots, episode guide, encyclopaedia of terms, behind\\-the\\-scenes information, and links to other *Space Patrol* websites.\n\n[Category:1960s British children's television series](/wiki/Category:1960s_British_children%27s_television_series \"1960s British children's television series\")\n[Category:1960s British science fiction television series](/wiki/Category:1960s_British_science_fiction_television_series \"1960s British science fiction television series\")\n[Category:1963 British television series debuts](/wiki/Category:1963_British_television_series_debuts \"1963 British television series debuts\")\n[Category:1963 British television series endings](/wiki/Category:1963_British_television_series_endings \"1963 British television series endings\")\n[Category:Black\\-and\\-white British television shows](/wiki/Category:Black-and-white_British_television_shows \"Black-and-white British television shows\")\n[Category:British children's adventure television series](/wiki/Category:British_children%27s_adventure_television_series \"British children's adventure television series\")\n[Category:British television shows featuring puppetry](/wiki/Category:British_television_shows_featuring_puppetry \"British television shows featuring puppetry\")\n[Category:British English\\-language television shows](/wiki/Category:British_English-language_television_shows \"British English-language television shows\")\n[Category:First\\-run syndicated television programs in the United States](/wiki/Category:First-run_syndicated_television_programs_in_the_United_States \"First-run syndicated television programs in the United States\")\n[Category:ITV children's television shows](/wiki/Category:ITV_children%27s_television_shows \"ITV children's television shows\")\n[Category:Marionette films](/wiki/Category:Marionette_films \"Marionette films\")\n[Category:Fiction about the Solar System](/wiki/Category:Fiction_about_the_Solar_System \"Fiction about the Solar System\")\n[Category:Space adventure television series](/wiki/Category:Space_adventure_television_series \"Space adventure television series\")\n[Category:Space Western television series](/wiki/Category:Space_Western_television_series \"Space Western television series\")\n[Category:Television series about extraterrestrial life](/wiki/Category:Television_series_about_extraterrestrial_life \"Television series about extraterrestrial life\")\n[Category:Television shows produced by ABC Weekend TV](/wiki/Category:Television_shows_produced_by_ABC_Weekend_TV \"Television shows produced by ABC Weekend TV\")\n[Category:Television series set in the future](/wiki/Category:Television_series_set_in_the_future \"Television series set in the future\")\n[Category:Television shows adapted into comics](/wiki/Category:Television_shows_adapted_into_comics \"Television shows adapted into comics\")\n[Category:Television shows shot in London](/wiki/Category:Television_shows_shot_in_London \"Television shows shot in London\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 70274 ], "name": [ "Acad Ronin" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "See also", "Battle honours", "Citations" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\nNine ships of the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\") and one of the [Royal Fleet Auxiliary](/wiki/Royal_Fleet_Auxiliary \"Royal Fleet Auxiliary\") have been named ***Argus***, after [Argus](/wiki/Argus_Panoptes \"Argus Panoptes\"), the hundred\\-eyed giant of [mythology](/wiki/Mythology \"Mythology\"):\n\n* was a 10\\-gun [sloop](/wiki/Sloop-of-war \"Sloop-of-war\"), originally a French privateer, captured in 1799 and broken up in 1811\\.\n* HMS *Argus* was to have been a 36\\-gun [fifth rate](/wiki/Fifth_rate \"Fifth rate\"). She was ordered in 1812, but cancelled that same year.\n* was an 18\\-gun launched in 1813 and sold in 1827\\. The sale was subsequently cancelled and she was resold in 1828\\.\n* HMS *Argus* was to have been an 18\\-gun sloop. She was laid down in 1831, but cancelled later that year.\n* was a wooden\\-hulled paddle sloop launched in 1849 and broken up in 1881\\.\n* was a [coastguard](/wiki/Her_Majesty%27s_Coastguard \"Her Majesty's Coastguard\") vessel launched in 1851, renamed HMS *Amelia* in 1872, and HMS *Fanny* in 1889\\. She was hulked in 1899, used as a boom defence vessel from 1902 and was sold in 1907\\.\n* HMS *Argus* was a coastguard vessel launched in 1864 as . She was renamed HMS *Argus* in 1884 and was sold in 1903\\.\n* was a coastguard vessel launched in 1904, renamed HMS *Argon* in 1918 and sold in 1920\\. Renamed *Peninnis* and operated by the [Isles of Scilly Steamship Company](/wiki/Isles_of_Scilly_Steamship_Company \"Isles of Scilly Steamship Company\") from 1920 to 1926\\. Renamed *Riduna* and sold to the [Alderney Steam Packet Company](/wiki/Alderney_Steam_Packet_Company \"Alderney Steam Packet Company\") in 1926\\. Sent for break\\-up at Plymouth in 1931\\.\n* was an [aircraft carrier](/wiki/Aircraft_carrier \"Aircraft carrier\"), originally laid down as the Italian liner *Conte Rosso*. She was purchased in 1916 and launched in 1917\\. She was on harbour service from 1944 and was sold for breaking up in 1946\n* is a [Royal Fleet Auxiliary](/wiki/Royal_Fleet_Auxiliary \"Royal Fleet Auxiliary\") aviation training and primary casualty receiving ship, previously the [container ship](/wiki/Container_ship \"Container ship\") MV *Contender Bezant*, launched in 1981\\. She was purchased in 1984 and renamed RFA *Argus* in 1987\\. She is currently in service.\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* was a 14\\-gun [lugger](/wiki/Lugger \"Lugger\") hired in 1794 and captured by a French [privateer](/wiki/Privateer \"Privateer\") in the Atlantic in 1799\\. *Argus* was at [Plymouth](/wiki/Plymouth \"Plymouth\") on 20 January 1795 and so shared in the proceeds of the detention of the Dutch naval vessels, [East Indiamen](/wiki/East_Indiamen \"East Indiamen\"), and other merchant vessels that were in port on the outbreak of war between Britain and the Netherlands.\n", "Battle honours\n--------------\n\n* [Groix Island](/wiki/Battle_of_Groix \"Battle of Groix\") 1795\n* [Ashantee](/wiki/Anglo-Ashanti_wars%23Third_Anglo-Ashanti_War \"Anglo-Ashanti wars#Third Anglo-Ashanti War\") 1873–74\n* [Arctic](/wiki/Arctic_convoys \"Arctic convoys\") 1941\n* [Atlantic](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic \"Battle of the Atlantic\") 1941–42\n* [Malta Convoys](/wiki/Malta_convoys \"Malta convoys\") 1942\n* [North Africa](/wiki/North_African_Campaign \"North African Campaign\") 1942\n* [Kuwait](/wiki/Operation_Granby \"Operation Granby\") 1991\n", "Citations\n---------\n\n[Category:Royal Navy ship names](/wiki/Category:Royal_Navy_ship_names \"Royal Navy ship names\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 39079878 ], "name": [ "BlueboyLINY" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Early life", "Career", "Personal life", "Death", "Filmography", "Film", "Television", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**Albert Paul Shenar** (February 12, 1936 − October 11, 1989\\) was an American actor and theater director, known for portraying the evil rat Jenner in Don Bluth's film, *[The Secret of NIMH](/wiki/The_Secret_of_NIMH \"The Secret of NIMH\")* (1982\\) and Bolivian drug lord [Alejandro Sosa](/wiki/Alejandro_Sosa \"Alejandro Sosa\") in *[Scarface](/wiki/Scarface_%281983_film%29 \"Scarface (1983 film)\")* (1983\\).\n\nA veteran [Broadway](/wiki/Broadway_theatre \"Broadway theatre\") and [Shakespearean](/wiki/Shakespearean \"Shakespearean\") actor, he was one of the twenty\\-seven founding members of the [American Conservatory Theater](/wiki/American_Conservatory_Theater \"American Conservatory Theater\").\n\n", "Early life\n----------\n\nShenar was born in [Milwaukee, Wisconsin](/wiki/Milwaukee%2C_Wisconsin \"Milwaukee, Wisconsin\"), the second of four boys (one older brother John, two younger brothers Michael and Marc), born from Mary Rosella (née Puhek) and Eugene Joseph Shenar. He was of [Polish](/wiki/Polish_people \"Polish people\") and [Slovenian](/wiki/Slovenes \"Slovenes\") descent.\n\n", "Career\n------\n\nShenar became involved in theater at an early age, working in Milwaukee playhouse productions. After graduating from high school, he enlisted in the [United States Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force \"United States Air Force\"). Following his military career he began acting again. Shenar gained attention playing larger\\-than\\-life entertainment legends in late 1970s television films—[Orson Welles](/wiki/Orson_Welles \"Orson Welles\") in *[The Night That Panicked America](/wiki/The_Night_That_Panicked_America \"The Night That Panicked America\")* and [Florenz Ziegfeld, Jr.](/wiki/Florenz_Ziegfeld%2C_Jr. \"Florenz Ziegfeld, Jr.\"), in *Ziegfeld: The Man and His Women*. He portrayed the character John Carrington in Part II of the miniseries *[Roots](/wiki/Roots_%281977_miniseries%29 \"Roots (1977 miniseries)\")*.\n\nIn 1983, Shenar also portrayed [Alejandro Sosa](/wiki/Alejandro_Sosa \"Alejandro Sosa\") in [Brian De Palma](/wiki/Brian_De_Palma \"Brian De Palma\")'s *[Scarface](/wiki/Scarface_%281983_film%29 \"Scarface (1983 film)\")* and later portrayed Paulo Rocca in *[Raw Deal](/wiki/Raw_Deal_%281986_film%29 \"Raw Deal (1986 film)\")*.\n\nA founding member, actor, director and teacher of the American Conservatory Theater (ACT) in San Francisco, he played more than forty roles there, including *[Hamlet](/wiki/Hamlet \"Hamlet\")*, *[Oedipus Rex](/wiki/Oedipus_Rex \"Oedipus Rex\")* and Brother Julian in *[Tiny Alice](/wiki/Tiny_Alice \"Tiny Alice\")*. In 1982, he portrayed Jenner in [Don Bluth](/wiki/Don_Bluth \"Don Bluth\")'s *[The Secret of NIMH](/wiki/The_Secret_of_NIMH \"The Secret of NIMH\")*; his performance in the film impressed Bluth so much that he wanted Shenar to also portray Borf in *[Space Ace](/wiki/Space_Ace \"Space Ace\")*, but was unable to do so due to budget issues and the role ultimately went to Bluth himself.*Space Ace* Blu\\-ray, commentary by Bluth\n\nShenar continued to act during the late 1980s. He did a stage version of *[Macbeth](/wiki/Macbeth \"Macbeth\")* in Los Angeles and appeared in films like *[Best Seller](/wiki/Best_Seller \"Best Seller\")* (1987\\), *[The Bedroom Window](/wiki/The_Bedroom_Window_%281987_film%29 \"The Bedroom Window (1987 film)\")* (1987\\), *[The Big Blue](/wiki/The_Big_Blue \"The Big Blue\")* (1988\\), plus the TV film *Rage of Angels: The Story Continues*.\n\n", "Personal life\n-------------\n\nShenar was gay, and was romantically involved with the British actor [Jeremy Brett](/wiki/Jeremy_Brett \"Jeremy Brett\") during the 1970s; they were in a relationship that reportedly lasted from 1973 to 1978\\.Graham, David, *Casting About: A Memoir* (iUniverse, 2007\\), page 265 After the couple separated, they remained close friends until Shenar's death in 1989\\.\n\n", "Death\n-----\n\nIn 1983, Shenar was [diagnosed with AIDS](/wiki/HIV/AIDS \"HIV/AIDS\"). He died from the disease on October 11, 1989\\. He was 53 years old. His remains were cremated and given to his [executor](/wiki/Executor \"Executor\"), Thomas Wiley.\n\n", "Filmography\n-----------\n\n### Film\n\n| Year | Title | Role | Notes |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1978 | *Lulu* | Ludwig Schon | |\n| 1982 | *The End of August* | Arobin | |\n| *[The Secret of NIMH](/wiki/The_Secret_of_NIMH \"The Secret of NIMH\")* | Jenner | Voice |\n| 1983 | *[Deadly Force](/wiki/Deadly_Force_%28film%29 \"Deadly Force (film)\")* | Joshua Adams | |\n| *[Scarface](/wiki/Scarface_%281983_film%29 \"Scarface (1983 film)\")* | [Alejandro Sosa](/wiki/Alejandro_Sosa \"Alejandro Sosa\") | |\n| 1986 | *[Dream Lover](/wiki/Dream_Lover_%281986_film%29 \"Dream Lover (1986 film)\")* | Ben Gardner | |\n| *[Raw Deal](/wiki/Raw_Deal_%281986_film%29 \"Raw Deal (1986 film)\")* | Paulo Rocca | |\n| 1987 | *[The Bedroom Window](/wiki/The_Bedroom_Window_%281987_film%29 \"The Bedroom Window (1987 film)\")* | Collin Wentworth | |\n| *[Man on Fire](/wiki/Man_on_Fire_%281987_film%29 \"Man on Fire (1987 film)\")* | Ettore | |\n| *[Best Seller](/wiki/Best_Seller \"Best Seller\")* | David Madlock | |\n| 1988 | *[The Big Blue](/wiki/The_Big_Blue \"The Big Blue\")* | Dr. Laurence | |\n\n### Television\n\n| Year | Title | Role | Notes |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1973 | *[The ABC Afternoon Playbreak](/wiki/The_ABC_Afternoon_Playbreak \"The ABC Afternoon Playbreak\")* | Lt. Joe Moroni | Episode: \"Alone with Terror\" |\n| 1974 | *[Columbo](/wiki/Columbo \"Columbo\")* | Sgt. Young | Episode: \"Publish or Perish\" |\n| *[Owen Marshall, Counselor at Law](/wiki/Owen_Marshall%2C_Counselor_at_Law \"Owen Marshall, Counselor at Law\")* | Blair | Episode: \"House of Friends\" |\n| *[Mannix](/wiki/Mannix \"Mannix\")* | Johnny Sands | Episode: \"The Dark Hours\" |\n| *[Great Performances](/wiki/Great_Performances \"Great Performances\")* | De Guiche | Episode: \"[Cyrano de Bergerac](/wiki/Cyrano_de_Bergerac_%281974_film%29 \"Cyrano de Bergerac (1974 film)\")\" |\n| *[The Execution of Private Slovik](/wiki/The_Execution_of_Private_Slovik \"The Execution of Private Slovik\")* | Crawford | TV movie |\n| 1975 | *[Kojak](/wiki/Kojak \"Kojak\")* | Arthur Harris | Episode: \"Night of the Piraeus\" |\n| *[Petrocelli](/wiki/Petrocelli \"Petrocelli\")* | Archie LaSalle | Episode: \"Death in Small Doses\" |\n| *[The Invisible Man](/wiki/The_Invisible_Man_%281975_TV_series%29 \"The Invisible Man (1975 TV series)\")* | Alexi Zartov | Episode: \"Barnard Wants Out\" |\n| *[Ellery Queen](/wiki/Ellery_Queen_%28TV_series%29 \"Ellery Queen (TV series)\")* | Announcer Wendell Warren | Episode: \"The Adventure of Miss Aggie's Farewell Performance\" |\n| *[The Night That Panicked America](/wiki/The_Night_That_Panicked_America \"The Night That Panicked America\")* | [Orson Welles](/wiki/Orson_Welles \"Orson Welles\") | TV movie |\n| 1976, 1977 | *[Hawaii Five\\-O](/wiki/Hawaii_Five-O_%281968_TV_series%29 \"Hawaii Five-O (1968 TV series)\")* | ChadwickTodd Daniels | Episodes: \"A Killer Grows Wings\"\"See How She Runs\" |\n| 1976 | *The Keegans* | Rudi Portinari | TV movie |\n| *[Gemini Man](/wiki/Gemini_Man_%28TV_series%29 \"Gemini Man (TV series)\")* | Charles Edward Royce | Episode: \"Pilot\" |\n| *[The Bionic Woman](/wiki/The_Bionic_Woman \"The Bionic Woman\")* | Dr. Alan Cory | Episode: \"The Ghosthunter\" |\n| *[Wonder Woman](/wiki/Wonder_Woman_%28TV_series%29 \"Wonder Woman (TV series)\")* | Lieutenant Wertz | Episodes: \"The Feminum Mystique: Part 1\"\"The Feminum Mystique: Part 2\" |\n| 1977 | *[Roots](/wiki/Roots_%281977_miniseries%29 \"Roots (1977 miniseries)\")* | John Carrington | Episode: \"Part II\" |\n| *[The Hostage Heart](/wiki/The_Hostage_Heart \"The Hostage Heart\")* | James Cardone | TV movie |\n| *[Young Dan'l Boone](/wiki/Young_Dan%27l_Boone \"Young Dan'l Boone\")* | Hammond | Episode: \"The Pirate\" |\n| *[Logan's Run](/wiki/Logan%27s_Run_%28TV_series%29 \"Logan's Run (TV series)\")* | David Eakins | Episode: \"Man Out of Time\" |\n| *The Mask of Alexander Cross* | Alexander Cross | TV movie |\n| 1978 | *[Ziegfeld: The Man and His Women](/wiki/Ziegfeld:The_Man_and_His_Women \"The Man and His Women\")* | Florenz Ziegfeld |\n| *The Courage and the Passion* | Nick Silcox |\n| *Suddenly, Love* | Jack Graham |\n| 1979 | *[Family](/wiki/Family_%281976_TV_series%29 \"Family (1976 TV series)\")* | Bob Gantry | Episode: \"Moment of Truth\" |\n| 1980 | *[Hart to Hart](/wiki/Hart_to_Hart \"Hart to Hart\")* | Michael Shillingford | Episode: \"Night Horrors\" |\n| *Beulah Land* | Roscoe Corlay | TV mini\\-series |\n| 1983, 1985 | *[Dynasty](/wiki/Dynasty_%281981_TV_series%29 \"Dynasty (1981 TV series)\")* | Jason DehnerJustin Dehner | Episodes: \"The Search\"\"Samantha\"\"The Californians\" |\n| 1983 | *[Scarecrow and Mrs. King](/wiki/Scarecrow_and_Mrs._King \"Scarecrow and Mrs. King\")* | James Delano | Episode: \"Service Above and Beyond\" |\n| 1984 | *[Paper Dolls](/wiki/Paper_Dolls \"Paper Dolls\")* | Jonathan Westfield | Episode: \\#1\\.1 |\n| 1985 | *Brass* | Schuyler Ross | TV movie |\n| *[Spenser: For Hire](/wiki/Spenser:For_Hire \"For Hire\")* | Matthew Lowington | Episode: \"Discord in a Minor\" |\n| *Streets of Justice* | J. Elliott Sloan | TV movie |\n| *Best of the Football Follies* | Narrator |\n| 1986 | *[Dark Mansions](/wiki/Dark_Mansions \"Dark Mansions\")* | Phillip Drake |\n| *Rage of Angels: The Story Continues* | Jerry Worth |\n| 1987 | *Time Out for Dad* | Chase |\n\n", "### Film\n\n| Year | Title | Role | Notes |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1978 | *Lulu* | Ludwig Schon | |\n| 1982 | *The End of August* | Arobin | |\n| *[The Secret of NIMH](/wiki/The_Secret_of_NIMH \"The Secret of NIMH\")* | Jenner | Voice |\n| 1983 | *[Deadly Force](/wiki/Deadly_Force_%28film%29 \"Deadly Force (film)\")* | Joshua Adams | |\n| *[Scarface](/wiki/Scarface_%281983_film%29 \"Scarface (1983 film)\")* | [Alejandro Sosa](/wiki/Alejandro_Sosa \"Alejandro Sosa\") | |\n| 1986 | *[Dream Lover](/wiki/Dream_Lover_%281986_film%29 \"Dream Lover (1986 film)\")* | Ben Gardner | |\n| *[Raw Deal](/wiki/Raw_Deal_%281986_film%29 \"Raw Deal (1986 film)\")* | Paulo Rocca | |\n| 1987 | *[The Bedroom Window](/wiki/The_Bedroom_Window_%281987_film%29 \"The Bedroom Window (1987 film)\")* | Collin Wentworth | |\n| *[Man on Fire](/wiki/Man_on_Fire_%281987_film%29 \"Man on Fire (1987 film)\")* | Ettore | |\n| *[Best Seller](/wiki/Best_Seller \"Best Seller\")* | David Madlock | |\n| 1988 | *[The Big Blue](/wiki/The_Big_Blue \"The Big Blue\")* | Dr. Laurence | |\n\n", "### Television\n\n| Year | Title | Role | Notes |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1973 | *[The ABC Afternoon Playbreak](/wiki/The_ABC_Afternoon_Playbreak \"The ABC Afternoon Playbreak\")* | Lt. Joe Moroni | Episode: \"Alone with Terror\" |\n| 1974 | *[Columbo](/wiki/Columbo \"Columbo\")* | Sgt. Young | Episode: \"Publish or Perish\" |\n| *[Owen Marshall, Counselor at Law](/wiki/Owen_Marshall%2C_Counselor_at_Law \"Owen Marshall, Counselor at Law\")* | Blair | Episode: \"House of Friends\" |\n| *[Mannix](/wiki/Mannix \"Mannix\")* | Johnny Sands | Episode: \"The Dark Hours\" |\n| *[Great Performances](/wiki/Great_Performances \"Great Performances\")* | De Guiche | Episode: \"[Cyrano de Bergerac](/wiki/Cyrano_de_Bergerac_%281974_film%29 \"Cyrano de Bergerac (1974 film)\")\" |\n| *[The Execution of Private Slovik](/wiki/The_Execution_of_Private_Slovik \"The Execution of Private Slovik\")* | Crawford | TV movie |\n| 1975 | *[Kojak](/wiki/Kojak \"Kojak\")* | Arthur Harris | Episode: \"Night of the Piraeus\" |\n| *[Petrocelli](/wiki/Petrocelli \"Petrocelli\")* | Archie LaSalle | Episode: \"Death in Small Doses\" |\n| *[The Invisible Man](/wiki/The_Invisible_Man_%281975_TV_series%29 \"The Invisible Man (1975 TV series)\")* | Alexi Zartov | Episode: \"Barnard Wants Out\" |\n| *[Ellery Queen](/wiki/Ellery_Queen_%28TV_series%29 \"Ellery Queen (TV series)\")* | Announcer Wendell Warren | Episode: \"The Adventure of Miss Aggie's Farewell Performance\" |\n| *[The Night That Panicked America](/wiki/The_Night_That_Panicked_America \"The Night That Panicked America\")* | [Orson Welles](/wiki/Orson_Welles \"Orson Welles\") | TV movie |\n| 1976, 1977 | *[Hawaii Five\\-O](/wiki/Hawaii_Five-O_%281968_TV_series%29 \"Hawaii Five-O (1968 TV series)\")* | ChadwickTodd Daniels | Episodes: \"A Killer Grows Wings\"\"See How She Runs\" |\n| 1976 | *The Keegans* | Rudi Portinari | TV movie |\n| *[Gemini Man](/wiki/Gemini_Man_%28TV_series%29 \"Gemini Man (TV series)\")* | Charles Edward Royce | Episode: \"Pilot\" |\n| *[The Bionic Woman](/wiki/The_Bionic_Woman \"The Bionic Woman\")* | Dr. Alan Cory | Episode: \"The Ghosthunter\" |\n| *[Wonder Woman](/wiki/Wonder_Woman_%28TV_series%29 \"Wonder Woman (TV series)\")* | Lieutenant Wertz | Episodes: \"The Feminum Mystique: Part 1\"\"The Feminum Mystique: Part 2\" |\n| 1977 | *[Roots](/wiki/Roots_%281977_miniseries%29 \"Roots (1977 miniseries)\")* | John Carrington | Episode: \"Part II\" |\n| *[The Hostage Heart](/wiki/The_Hostage_Heart \"The Hostage Heart\")* | James Cardone | TV movie |\n| *[Young Dan'l Boone](/wiki/Young_Dan%27l_Boone \"Young Dan'l Boone\")* | Hammond | Episode: \"The Pirate\" |\n| *[Logan's Run](/wiki/Logan%27s_Run_%28TV_series%29 \"Logan's Run (TV series)\")* | David Eakins | Episode: \"Man Out of Time\" |\n| *The Mask of Alexander Cross* | Alexander Cross | TV movie |\n| 1978 | *[Ziegfeld: The Man and His Women](/wiki/Ziegfeld:The_Man_and_His_Women \"The Man and His Women\")* | Florenz Ziegfeld |\n| *The Courage and the Passion* | Nick Silcox |\n| *Suddenly, Love* | Jack Graham |\n| 1979 | *[Family](/wiki/Family_%281976_TV_series%29 \"Family (1976 TV series)\")* | Bob Gantry | Episode: \"Moment of Truth\" |\n| 1980 | *[Hart to Hart](/wiki/Hart_to_Hart \"Hart to Hart\")* | Michael Shillingford | Episode: \"Night Horrors\" |\n| *Beulah Land* | Roscoe Corlay | TV mini\\-series |\n| 1983, 1985 | *[Dynasty](/wiki/Dynasty_%281981_TV_series%29 \"Dynasty (1981 TV series)\")* | Jason DehnerJustin Dehner | Episodes: \"The Search\"\"Samantha\"\"The Californians\" |\n| 1983 | *[Scarecrow and Mrs. King](/wiki/Scarecrow_and_Mrs._King \"Scarecrow and Mrs. King\")* | James Delano | Episode: \"Service Above and Beyond\" |\n| 1984 | *[Paper Dolls](/wiki/Paper_Dolls \"Paper Dolls\")* | Jonathan Westfield | Episode: \\#1\\.1 |\n| 1985 | *Brass* | Schuyler Ross | TV movie |\n| *[Spenser: For Hire](/wiki/Spenser:For_Hire \"For Hire\")* | Matthew Lowington | Episode: \"Discord in a Minor\" |\n| *Streets of Justice* | J. Elliott Sloan | TV movie |\n| *Best of the Football Follies* | Narrator |\n| 1986 | *[Dark Mansions](/wiki/Dark_Mansions \"Dark Mansions\")* | Phillip Drake |\n| *Rage of Angels: The Story Continues* | Jerry Worth |\n| 1987 | *Time Out for Dad* | Chase |\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n[Category:1936 births](/wiki/Category:1936_births \"1936 births\")\n[Category:1989 deaths](/wiki/Category:1989_deaths \"1989 deaths\")\n[Category:20th\\-century American male actors](/wiki/Category:20th-century_American_male_actors \"20th-century American male actors\")\n[Category:20th\\-century American LGBTQ people](/wiki/Category:20th-century_American_LGBTQ_people \"20th-century American LGBTQ people\")\n[Category:Male actors from Milwaukee](/wiki/Category:Male_actors_from_Milwaukee \"Male actors from Milwaukee\")\n[Category:AIDS\\-related deaths in California](/wiki/Category:AIDS-related_deaths_in_California \"AIDS-related deaths in California\")\n[Category:American male film actors](/wiki/Category:American_male_film_actors \"American male film actors\")\n[Category:American male television actors](/wiki/Category:American_male_television_actors \"American male television actors\")\n[Category:American male voice actors](/wiki/Category:American_male_voice_actors \"American male voice actors\")\n[Category:American people of Polish descent](/wiki/Category:American_people_of_Polish_descent \"American people of Polish descent\")\n[Category:American people of Slovenian descent](/wiki/Category:American_people_of_Slovenian_descent \"American people of Slovenian descent\")\n[Category:United States Air Force airmen](/wiki/Category:United_States_Air_Force_airmen \"United States Air Force airmen\")\n[Category:American gay actors](/wiki/Category:American_gay_actors \"American gay actors\")\n[Category:LGBTQ people from Wisconsin](/wiki/Category:LGBTQ_people_from_Wisconsin \"LGBTQ people from Wisconsin\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 36112485 ], "name": [ "Sc2353" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Plot", "Cast", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n***Everyman's Feast***, also known as ***Jedermanns Fest***, is a 2002 Austrian [drama film](/wiki/Drama_%28film_and_television%29 \"Drama (film and television)\") written and directed by . It was entered into the [24th Moscow International Film Festival](/wiki/24th_Moscow_International_Film_Festival \"24th Moscow International Film Festival\").\n\n", "Plot\n----\n\nJan Jedermann (played by [Klaus Maria Brandauer](/wiki/Klaus_Maria_Brandauer \"Klaus Maria Brandauer\")) is an ingenious [fashion designer](/wiki/Fashion_designer \"Fashion designer\"), but also an unscrupulous [showman](/wiki/Showman \"Showman\"). He dies in a car accident and ruminates during his last hours about how one more night in his life could have gone by. He just cannot accept that Death comes to get him on the evening of his greatest triumph, a fashion show set on the roof of the [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna \"Vienna\") [Opera](/wiki/Opera \"Opera\"). He makes a pact with Death, allowing him to remain among the living at least until the morning.\n\n", "Cast\n----\n\n* [Klaus Maria Brandauer](/wiki/Klaus_Maria_Brandauer \"Klaus Maria Brandauer\") as Jan Jedermann\n* [Juliette Gréco](/wiki/Juliette_Gr%C3%A9co \"Juliette Gréco\") as Yvonne Becker\n* [Redbad Klynstra](/wiki/Redbad_Klynstra \"Redbad Klynstra\") as Daniel\n* [Sylvie Testud](/wiki/Sylvie_Testud \"Sylvie Testud\") as Sophie\n* [Alexa Sommer](/wiki/Alexa_Sommer \"Alexa Sommer\") as Isabelle\n* [Veronika Lucanska](/wiki/Veronika_Lucanska \"Veronika Lucanska\") as Cocaine\n* [Susan Lynch](/wiki/Susan_Lynch \"Susan Lynch\") as Maria\n* [Piotr Wawrzynczak](/wiki/Piotr_Wawrzynczak \"Piotr Wawrzynczak\") as Jurek\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [Jedermanns Fest](http://www.austrianfilms.com/jart/prj3/afc-new/main.jart?reserve-mode=reserve&rel=de&content-id=1422972473150&fid=3372)\n\n[Category:2002 films](/wiki/Category:2002_films \"2002 films\")\n[Category:2002 drama films](/wiki/Category:2002_drama_films \"2002 drama films\")\n[Category:Austrian drama films](/wiki/Category:Austrian_drama_films \"Austrian drama films\")\n[Category:2000s German\\-language films](/wiki/Category:2000s_German-language_films \"2000s German-language films\")\n[Category:Films about fashion designers](/wiki/Category:Films_about_fashion_designers \"Films about fashion designers\")\n[Category:Films about death](/wiki/Category:Films_about_death \"Films about death\")\n[Category:Everyman](/wiki/Category:Everyman \"Everyman\")\n\n \n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 48057767 ], "name": [ "FreeGarlicBread" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Organization", "Mission", "Capabilities", "Members", "Biological warfare agents", "See also", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n was an [Imperial Japanese Army](/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army \"Imperial Japanese Army\") facility called the [Kwantung Army](/wiki/Kwantung_Army \"Kwantung Army\") **Warhorse Disease Prevention Shop** that focused on the development of [biological weapons](/wiki/Biological_weapon \"Biological weapon\") during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). It was operated by the [Kempeitai](/wiki/Kempeitai \"Kempeitai\"), the Japanese [military police](/wiki/Military_police \"Military police\"). Its headquarters was located in [Mokotan](/wiki/Mokotan \"Mokotan\"), [Manchukuo](/wiki/Manchukuo \"Manchukuo\"), a village just south of the city of [Changchun](/wiki/Changchun \"Changchun\"). It had branches in [Dairen](/wiki/Dairen \"Dairen\") and [Hailar](/wiki/Hailar_District \"Hailar District\"). The Hailar branch was later transferred to [Foshan](/wiki/Foshan \"Foshan\"). Between 600 and 800 people worked at Unit 100\\. \n\nThe Unit focused on plant and animal biological warfare, producing and deploying livestock and crop viruses in China. The Unit was led by Wakamatsu Yujiro. Unit 100 would cooperate with [Unit 731](/wiki/Unit_731 \"Unit 731\") when necessary.\n\n", "Organization\n------------\n\nUnit 100 had six sections.\n1. Bacteriological section\n2. Pathological section\n3. Animal Experimentation\n4. Organic chemistry\n5. Botanical, and plant pathology. Poisoning, or infecting, plants with the help of bacteria.\n6. Preparations for bacteriological warfare\n\n", "Mission\n-------\n\nThe main purpose of Unit 100 was to conduct research about diseases originating from animals. As most armies were still heavily dependent on horses, the [Imperial Japanese Army](/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army \"Imperial Japanese Army\") hoped to find ways to kill them and therefore to weaken military power. Furthermore, they hoped to spread disease via animal carriers. To this end, former members claim that experiments were also conducted with human beings. In practice, [Unit 731](/wiki/Unit_731 \"Unit 731\") was the group tasked with developing biological weapons against humans. Although smaller than Unit 731, Unit 100 was still a large organization. Its annual bacteria production capacity was projected to reach 1,000 kg of [anthrax](/wiki/Anthrax \"Anthrax\"), 500 kg of [glanders](/wiki/Glanders \"Glanders\"), and 100 kg of red [rust (fungus)](/wiki/Rust_%28fungus%29 \"Rust (fungus)\"). The goal was never reached, due to equipment shortages.\n\nSenior Sgt. Kazuo Mitomo described some of Unit 100's human experiments:\n\"I put as much as a gram of [heroin](/wiki/Heroin \"Heroin\") into some porridge and gave this porridge to an arrested Chinese citizen who ate it; about 20 minutes later he lost consciousness and remained in that state until he died 15\\-16 hours later. We knew that such a dose of heroin is fatal, but it did not make any difference to us whether he died or lived. On some of the prisoners I experimented 5\\-6 times, testing the action of [Korean bindweed](/wiki/Convolvulus_arvensis \"Convolvulus arvensis\"), [bactal](/wiki/Bactal \"Bactal\") and [castor oil](/wiki/Castor_oil \"Castor oil\") seeds. One of the prisoners of Russian nationality became so exhausted from the experiments that no more could be performed on him, and Matsui ordered me to kill that Russian by giving him an injection of [potassium cyanide](/wiki/Potassium_cyanide \"Potassium cyanide\"). After the injection, the man died at once. Bodies were buried in the unit's cattle cemetery.\"\n\nUnit chief Yujiro Wakamatsu ordered Hirazakura to purchase hundreds of cattle and put them to pasture along the Siberian border north\\-east of Hailar, ready to be infected by airborne dispersion. It was hoped that in the event of a Soviet invasion these infected livestock would mingle with local herds to cause epidemics and to destroy food supplies.\n\nUnit 100 staff poisoned and drugged Russians, Chinese and Koreans with heroin, castor oil, tobacco and other substances for weeks at a time. Some died during the experimentation. When survivors were determined to no longer be useful for experimentation and were complaining of illness, staff told them they would receive a shot of medicine, but instead executed them with potassium cyanide injections. Executions were also carried out by gunshots.\n\n", "Capabilities\n------------\n\nUnit 100 could produce 1,000 kilograms of anthrax germs, 500 kilograms of glanders germs, and 100 kilograms of redrust germs in a single year.\n\n", "Members\n-------\n\n* [Otozō Yamada](/wiki/Otoz%C5%8D_Yamada \"Otozō Yamada\"), Direct controller, 1944\\-1945\n* [Lieutenant General Takahashi](/wiki/Lieutenant_General_Takahashi \"Lieutenant General Takahashi\"), Chief of the Veterinary Administration of the Kwantung Army\n* [Hirazakura Zensaku](/wiki/Hirazakura_Zensaku \"Hirazakura Zensaku\"), officer of the 1st and 2nd division from July 1942 to December 1943\\. Was in the 6th division from December 1943 until April 1944\\. He was then at [Unit 543](/wiki/Unit_543 \"Unit 543\") until the end of the war.\n* [Fukuzumi Mitsuyoshi](/wiki/Fukuzumi_Mitsuyoshi \"Fukuzumi Mitsuyoshi\"), doctor\n* [Sakurashita Kiyoshi](/wiki/Sakurashita_Kiyoshi \"Sakurashita Kiyoshi\"), civilian employee\n* [Hataki Akira](/wiki/Hataki_Akira \"Hataki Akira\"), civilian employee\n* Wakamatsu, Major General of the Veterinary Service\n", "Biological warfare agents\n-------------------------\n\nThe following potential agents were tested:\n* *[Yersinia pestis](/wiki/Yersinia_pestis \"Yersinia pestis\")*, which causes [plague](/wiki/Plague_%28disease%29 \"Plague (disease)\")\n* *[Burkholderia mallei](/wiki/Burkholderia_mallei \"Burkholderia mallei\")*, which causes [Glanders](/wiki/Glanders \"Glanders\") in horses: Kuwabara gave testimony after World War II that Unit 100 released horses infected with Glanders.\n* *[Bacillus anthracis](/wiki/Bacillus_anthracis \"Bacillus anthracis\")*, which causes [anthrax](/wiki/Anthrax \"Anthrax\")\n\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [Japanese war crimes](/wiki/Japanese_war_crimes \"Japanese war crimes\")\n\t+ [Unit 731](/wiki/Unit_731 \"Unit 731\")\n* [Second Sino\\-Japanese War](/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War \"Second Sino-Japanese War\")\n\t+ [Kwantung Army](/wiki/Kwantung_Army \"Kwantung Army\")\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [The Other Holocaust](http://www.skycitygallery.com/japan/japan.html).\n* [Alliance for Preserving the Truth of Sino\\-Japanese War](https://web.archive.org/web/20050321034928/http://www.sjwar.org/htm/731.html)\n\n[Category:Biological warfare facilities](/wiki/Category:Biological_warfare_facilities \"Biological warfare facilities\")\n[Category:Japanese prisoner of war and internment camps](/wiki/Category:Japanese_prisoner_of_war_and_internment_camps \"Japanese prisoner of war and internment camps\")\n[Category:Japanese human subject research](/wiki/Category:Japanese_human_subject_research \"Japanese human subject research\")\n[Category:Second Sino\\-Japanese War crimes](/wiki/Category:Second_Sino-Japanese_War_crimes \"Second Sino-Japanese War crimes\")\n[Category:Japanese biological weapons program](/wiki/Category:Japanese_biological_weapons_program \"Japanese biological weapons program\")\n[Category:Japanese war crimes in China](/wiki/Category:Japanese_war_crimes_in_China \"Japanese war crimes in China\")\n[Category:War crimes in Manchukuo](/wiki/Category:War_crimes_in_Manchukuo \"War crimes in Manchukuo\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 38813033 ], "name": [ "Conde Richard Dassler" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Historical context", "United States \"Manifest Destiny\"", "Founding of the Nationalist Party", "Nationalist Party during 1930–1950", "Nationalist Revolts of 1950", "1960s–present", "Photo gallery", "See also", "Notable members of the PNPR", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n* + - * \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe **Nationalist Party of Puerto Rico** (, PNPR) is a [Puerto Rican](/wiki/Puerto_Rico \"Puerto Rico\") [political party](/wiki/Political_party \"Political party\") founded on September 17, 1922, in [San Juan, Puerto Rico](/wiki/San_Juan%2C_Puerto_Rico \"San Juan, Puerto Rico\").Reinaldo E. Gonzalez Blanco. *El Turismo Cultural en Ponce durante el Plan Ponce en Marcha, 1900–2000\\.* Neysa Rodriguez Deynes, Editor. Ponce, Puerto Rico: Professional Editions. 2018\\. p.15\\. Its primary goal is to work for [Puerto Rico's independence](/wiki/Puerto_Rican_independence \"Puerto Rican independence\"). The Party's selection in 1930 of [Pedro Albizu Campos](/wiki/Pedro_Albizu_Campos \"Pedro Albizu Campos\") as its president brought a radical change to the organization and its tactics.\n\nIn the 1930s, intimidation, repression and persecution of Party members by the government, then headed by a [U.S. president](/wiki/POTUS \"POTUS\")\\-appointed governor, led to the assassination of two government officials, the attempted assassination of a [federal judge](/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_District_of_Puerto_Rico \"United States District Court for the District of Puerto Rico\") in Puerto Rico, and the [Rio Piedras](/wiki/R%C3%ADo_Piedras_massacre \"Río Piedras massacre\") and [Ponce massacres](/wiki/Ponce_massacre \"Ponce massacre\"). Under the leadership of Albizu Campos, the party abandoned the electoral process in favor of direct armed conflict as means to gain independence from the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\").\n\nBy the late 1940s, a more US\\-friendly party, the *Partido Popular Democrático* ([PPD](/wiki/Popular_Democratic_Party_%28Puerto_Rico%29 \"Popular Democratic Party (Puerto Rico)\")), had gained an overwhelming number of seats in the legislature and, in 1948, it passed *Ley de la Mordaza* ([Gag Law](/wiki/Gag_Law_%28Puerto_Rico%29 \"Gag Law (Puerto Rico)\")), which attempted to suppress the Nationalist Party and similar opposition. The Puerto Rican police arrested many Nationalist Party members under this law, some of whom were sentenced to lengthy prison terms. With a new political status pending for Puerto Rico as a Commonwealth, Albizu Campos ordered armed uprisings in several Puerto Rican towns to occur on October 30, 1950\\. In a related effort, two Nationalists also attempted to assassinate US President [Harry S. Truman](/wiki/Harry_S._Truman \"Harry S. Truman\") on November 1, 1950, in an effort to call international attention to issues related to [Puerto Rico's political status](/wiki/Political_status_of_Puerto_Rico \"Political status of Puerto Rico\"), but the attempt failed. The last major armed event by the Nationalists occurred in 1954 at the [US House of Representatives](/wiki/United_States_Capitol_shooting_incident_%281954%29 \"United States Capitol shooting incident (1954)\") when four party members shot and wounded five Congressmen.\n\nAfter Albizu Campos's death in 1965, the party dissolved into factions and members joined other parties, but some continue to follow the party's ideals in one form or another, often informally or [ad hoc](/wiki/Ad_hoc \"Ad hoc\"), to this day.[*Protesta interrumpe mensaje del gobernador.*](http://www.elnuevodia.com/protestainterrumpemensajedelgobernador-1559373.html) Antonio R. Gómez. El Nuevo Dia. Guaynabo, Puerto Rico. 25 July 2013\\. Retrieved 25 July 2013\\.\n\n", "Historical context\n------------------\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|236x236px\\|The first American governor of Puerto Rico resigned to become Puerto Rico's first sugar baron](/wiki/File:Charles_Herbert_Allen%2C_1898.jpg \"Charles Herbert Allen, 1898.jpg\")\n\nAfter four hundred years of colonial domination under the [Spanish Empire](/wiki/Spanish_Empire \"Spanish Empire\"), Puerto Rico finally received its sovereignty in 1898 through a *Carta de Autonomía* (Charter of Autonomy). This Charter of Autonomy was signed by Spanish Prime Minister [Práxedes Mateo Sagasta](/wiki/Pr%C3%A1xedes_Mateo_Sagasta \"Práxedes Mateo Sagasta\") and ratified by the [Spanish Cortes](/wiki/Spanish_Cortes \"Spanish Cortes\").Ribes Tovar et al., p.106–109 Despite this, just a few months later, the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") claimed ownership of the island as part of the [Treaty of Paris](/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_%281898%29 \"Treaty of Paris (1898)\") which concluded the [Spanish–American War](/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War \"Spanish–American War\").\n\nOpponents to the colonial government argued that the profits generated by this arrangement were one\\-sided, enormous for the United States.\n\nWhen the war ended, U.S. President McKinley appointed [Charles Herbert Allen](/wiki/Charles_Herbert_Allen \"Charles Herbert Allen\") as the first civilian [governor of Puerto Rico](/wiki/Governor_of_Puerto_Rico \"Governor of Puerto Rico\"). Though Allen had a business background, his financial administration of Puerto Rico was strikingly unsound. He ignored the appropriation requests of the Puerto Rican [House of Delegates](/wiki/Legislative_Assembly_of_Puerto_Rico \"Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico\"), refused to make any [municipal](/wiki/Municipal \"Municipal\"), agricultural or [small business](/wiki/Small_business \"Small business\") loans, built roads at double the costs of preceding administrations, and left 85% of the school\\-age [population](/wiki/Population \"Population\") without schools. Rather than making these requested infrastructure and education investments, Allen's budget raided the Puerto Rican treasury. His administration re\\-directed tax revenues to [no\\-bid contracts](/wiki/No-bid_contracts \"No-bid contracts\") for U.S. businessmen, railroad subsidies for U.S.\\-owned sugar plantations, and high [salaries](/wiki/Salaries \"Salaries\") for U.S. bureaucrats in the island government.Thomas Aitken, Jr.; *Luis Munoz Marin: Poet in the Fortress,* pp. 60–61; Signet Books/New American Library, 1965Manuel Maldonado\\-Denis; *Puerto Rico: A Socio\\-Historic Interpretation*, pp. 70–76; Random House, 1972\n\nAllen's [financial](/wiki/Financial \"Financial\") acumen improved considerably when he returned to the U.S., and resumed his own personal [business](/wiki/Business \"Business\") interests. In 1901, Allen resigned as governor and installed himself as president of the largest sugar\\-refining company in the world, the [American Sugar Refining Company](/wiki/American_Sugar_Refining_Company \"American Sugar Refining Company\"). This company was later renamed as the [Domino Sugar](/wiki/Domino_Sugar \"Domino Sugar\") company. In effect, Charles Allen leveraged his [governorship](/wiki/Governorship \"Governorship\") of Puerto Rico into a [controlling interest](/wiki/Controlling_interest \"Controlling interest\") over the entire Puerto Rican [economy](/wiki/Economy \"Economy\").Ribes Tovar et al., p.122–144\n\nIn 1914, the Puerto Rican House of Delegates voted unanimously for independence from the United States. In 1917, the US Congress passed an act by which it granted citizenship to Puerto Rican residents. This was overwhelmingly opposed by the island's political leaders. Critics said the US was simply interested in increasing the size of its conscription pool to get soldiers for World War I.Manuel Maldonado\\-Denis; *Puerto Rico: A Socio\\-Historic Interpretation*, pp. 65–82; Random House, 1972\n\n", "United States \"Manifest Destiny\"\n--------------------------------\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|295px\\|Pres. Roosevelt wielding his big stick in the Caribbean](/wiki/File:Tr-bigstick-cartoon.JPG \"Tr-bigstick-cartoon.JPG\")\n\nBy 1930, over 40 percent of all the arable land in Puerto Rico had been converted into [sugar plantations](/wiki/Sugar_plantations \"Sugar plantations\"), which were entirely owned by Domino Sugar Company and U.S. banking interests. These bank syndicates also owned the entire coastal railroad, and the San Juan international seaport.\n\nThis was not limited to Puerto Rico. By 1930 the [United Fruit](/wiki/United_Fruit \"United Fruit\") Company owned over one million acres of land in [Guatemala](/wiki/Guatemala \"Guatemala\"), [Honduras](/wiki/Honduras \"Honduras\"), [Colombia](/wiki/Colombia \"Colombia\"), [Panama](/wiki/Panama \"Panama\"), [Nicaragua](/wiki/Nicaragua \"Nicaragua\"), [Costa Rica](/wiki/Costa_Rica \"Costa Rica\"), [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico \"Mexico\") and [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba \"Cuba\").Rich Cohen; *The Fish That Ate the Whale;* pub. Farrar, Straus \\& Giroux, 2012; pp. 146–150 By 1940, in Honduras alone, the United Fruit Company owned 50 percent of all private land in the entire country. In Guatemala, the United Fruit Company owned 75 percent of all private land by 1942 – plus most of Guatemala's roads, power stations and phone lines, the only [Pacific](/wiki/Pacific \"Pacific\") seaport, and every mile of railroad.Rich Cohen; *The Fish That Ate the Whale;* pub. Farrar, Straus \\& Giroux, 2012; p. 174\n\nThe [U.S. government](/wiki/U.S._government \"U.S. government\") supported all these economic exploits, and provided military \"persuasion\" whenever necessary.\n\n", "Founding of the Nationalist Party\n---------------------------------\n\n[left\\|120px\\|thumb\\|Jose Coll y Cuchi](/wiki/File:Jose_Coll_y_Cuchi.jpg \"Jose Coll y Cuchi.jpg\")\nThe origins of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party date to 1917, when a group of Union Party members in Ponce, dissatisfied with the attitude of the [Union Party of Puerto Rico](/wiki/Union_of_Puerto_Rico \"Union of Puerto Rico\") towards the \"granting\" of U.S. citizenship, formed the *\"Asociación Nacionalista de Ponce\"* (Ponce Nationalist Association). Among its founders were Guillermo Salazar, Rafael Matos Bernier, J. A. González, and Julio César Fernández. These men also founded the newspaper *El Nacionalista*.Neysa Rodriguez Deynes, Rafael J. Torres Torres and Carlos Aneiro Perez. *Breviario sobre la Historia de Ponce y sus Principales Lugares de Interes.* San Juan, Puerto Rico: Model Offset Printing. 1991\\. Page 63\\.\n\nThe Puerto Rican Nationalist Party was formed as a direct response to the American colonial government. In 1919, [José Coll y Cuchí](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Coll_y_Cuch%C3%AD \"José Coll y Cuchí\"), a member of the [Union Party of Puerto Rico](/wiki/Union_Party_of_Puerto_Rico \"Union Party of Puerto Rico\"), felt that the Union Party was not doing enough for the cause of Puerto Rican independence. Coll y Cuchí and some followers left to form the Nationalist Association of Puerto Rico in [San Juan](/wiki/San_Juan%2C_Puerto_Rico \"San Juan, Puerto Rico\"). Under Coll y Cuchí's presidency, the party convinced the Puerto Rican Legislative Assembly to approve an Act that would permit the transfer of the remains of the Puerto Rican patriot, [Ramón Emeterio Betances](/wiki/Ram%C3%B3n_Emeterio_Betances \"Ramón Emeterio Betances\"), from [Paris, France](/wiki/Paris%2C_France \"Paris, France\"), to Puerto Rico. \n[165px\\|thumb\\|right\\|Don Pedro Albizu Campos](/wiki/File:Pedro_Albizu_Campos_raising_his_hat_to_a_crowd%2C_1936.jpg \"Pedro Albizu Campos raising his hat to a crowd, 1936.jpg\")\nThe Legislative Assembly appointed Alfonso Lastra Charriez as its emissary since he had French heritage and spoke the language fluently. Betances' remains arrived in San Juan on August 5, 1920\\. A funeral caravan organized by the Nationalist Association transferred the remains from San Juan to the town of [Cabo Rojo](/wiki/Cabo_Rojo%2C_Puerto_Rico \"Cabo Rojo, Puerto Rico\"), where his ashes were interred by his [monument](/wiki/Monument \"Monument\").\n\nBy the 1920s, two other pro\\-independence organizations had formed on the Island: the Nationalist Youth and the [Independence Association of Puerto Rico](/wiki/Independence_Association_of_Puerto_Rico \"Independence Association of Puerto Rico\"). The Independence Association was founded by [José S. Alegría](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_S._Alegr%C3%ADa \"José S. Alegría\"), Eugenio Font Suárez and [Leopoldo Figueroa](/wiki/Leopoldo_Figueroa \"Leopoldo Figueroa\") in 1920\\. On September 17, 1922, these three political organizations joined forces and formed the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party. Coll y Cuchi was elected president and José S. Alegría (father of [Ricardo Alegría](/wiki/Ricardo_Alegr%C3%ADa \"Ricardo Alegría\")) vice\\-president.\n\nIn 1924, Pedro Albizu Campos joined the party and was named vice\\-president. Alegría was named Nationalist Party president in 1928 and held that position until 1930\\. By 1930, disagreements between Coll y Cuchi and Albizu Campos as to how the party should be run, led the former and his followers to leave and return to the Union Party. Albizu Campos did not like what he considered to be Coll y Cuchí's attitude of fraternal solidarity with the enemy.Luis Muñoz Marín, By A. W. Maldonado, Pg. 86, Publisher: La Editorial, Universidad de Puerto Rico, (December 1, 2006\\), , On May 11, 1930, Pedro Albizu Campos was elected president of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party.\n\nThe Puerto Rican Nationalist Party maintained that, as a matter of international law, the Treaty of Paris following the Spanish–American War could not have empowered the Spanish to \"give\" to the US what was no longer theirs. Under Albizu Campos's leadership during the years of the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\"), the party became the largest [independence movement](/wiki/Puerto_Rican_Independence_Movement \"Puerto Rican Independence Movement\") in Puerto Rico.\n\nIn the mid\\-1930s, there were disappointing electoral results and strong repression by the territorial police authorities. The party staged some protests that developed into celebrated incidents because of police overreaction: The October 1935 [Rio Piedras](/wiki/R%C3%ADo_Piedras_massacre \"Río Piedras massacre\")[*The Imprisonment of Men and Women Fighting Colonialism, 1898 – 1958: 1930 – 1940\\.*](http://www.prdream.com/patria/timelines/timeline1-1930.html) Retrieved 18 October 2012\\. and the [Ponce](/wiki/Ponce_massacre \"Ponce massacre\") massacres. In these, government forces fired on unarmed civilians.Rovira, \"Remember the 1950 Uprising of October 30: Puerto Rico\"[Victor Villanueva, \"Colonial Memory and the Crime of Rhetoric: Pedro Albizu Campos\"](http://www.buffalostate.edu/orientation/documents/CE0716Colonial.pdf) . Washington State University, Program in American Studies. Common Reading Assignment. Also in *College English*, Volume 71, Number 6\\. July 2009\\. National Council of Teachers of English. (Also appearing as \"Colonial Research: A Preamble to a Case Study\" in \"Beyond the Archives: Research as a Lived Process\", Gesa Kirsch and Liz Rohan, editors. Southern Illinois University Press.) Page 636\\. Retrieved 21 October 2012\\. After the Río Piedras massacre, in December 1935, Albizu Campos announced that the Nationalist Party would withdraw from electoral participation while the United States kept control. Albizu Campos began to advocate direct, violent revolution.\n\n", "Nationalist Party during 1930–1950\n----------------------------------\n\nNationalist Party partisans were involved in a variety of dramatic and violent confrontations between 1930 and 1950:\n\n* In the 1930s, the party founded the official youth organization *[Cadetes de la República](/wiki/Cadets_of_the_Republic \"Cadets of the Republic\")*, headed by [Raimundo Díaz Pacheco](/wiki/Raimundo_D%C3%ADaz_Pacheco \"Raimundo Díaz Pacheco\"), and the *Hijas de la Libertad* (Daughters of Freedom), the women's branch of the *Cadetes* and in which [Julia de Burgos](/wiki/Julia_de_Burgos \"Julia de Burgos\") served as secretary general.\n* On April 6, 1932, Nationalist partisans marched into the [Capitol building](/wiki/Capitol_of_Puerto_Rico \"Capitol of Puerto Rico\") in San Juan to protest a legislative proposal to establish the current Puerto Rican flag as the official flag of the [insular government](https://web.archive.org/web/20110721034923/http://www.doi.gov/oia/Islandpages/political_types.htm). Nationalists preferred the flag used during the [Grito de Lares](/wiki/Grito_de_Lares \"Grito de Lares\"). A [melée](/wiki/Mel%C3%A9e \"Melée\") ensued in the building, and one partisan fell to his death from a second floor interior balcony. The protest was condemned by the legislators Rafael Martínez Nadal and [Santiago Iglesias](/wiki/Santiago_Iglesias \"Santiago Iglesias\"); and endorsed by others, including the future leader of the statehood party, Manuel García Méndez.\n[thumb\\|420px\\|right\\|The [Ponce massacre](/wiki/Ponce_massacre \"Ponce massacre\"). Police open fire on unarmed marchers and bystanders on Palm Sunday. The 19 dead included a 7\\-year\\-old girl, who was shot in the back.](/wiki/File:Ponce_Massacre.JPG \"Ponce Massacre.JPG\")\n* On October 24, 1935, a confrontation with police at [University of Puerto Rico](/wiki/University_of_Puerto_Rico \"University of Puerto Rico\") campus in [Río Piedras](/wiki/R%C3%ADo_Piedras \"Río Piedras\") resulted in the deaths of 4 Nationalist partisans and one policeman. The event is known as the [Río Piedras massacre](/wiki/R%C3%ADo_Piedras_massacre \"Río Piedras massacre\"). This and other events led the party to announce on December 12, 1935, a boycott of all elections held while Puerto Rico remained part of the United States.\n* On February 23, 1936, in San Juan, two Nationalists assassinated the Insular Police Chief and ex\\-U.S. Marine officer, E. Francis Riggs. The Nationalist perpetrators, [Hiram Rosado](/wiki/Hiram_Rosado \"Hiram Rosado\") and [Elías Beauchamp](/wiki/El%C3%ADas_Beauchamp \"Elías Beauchamp\"), were arrested, transported to police headquarters, and killed within hours without trial. No policeman was ever tried or indicted for their deaths.Manuel Maldonado\\-Denis; *Puerto Rico: A Socio\\-Historic Interpretation*, Random House, 1972\n* On March 21, 1937, the Nationalist Party organized a peaceful march in the southern city of [Ponce](/wiki/Ponce%2C_Puerto_Rico \"Ponce, Puerto Rico\"). At the last moment, the permit was withdrawn, and the Insular Police (a force \"somewhat resembling the [National Guard](/wiki/National_Guard_of_the_United_States \"National Guard of the United States\") of the typical U.S. state\" and which answered to the U.S.\\-appointed governor [Blanton Winship](/wiki/Blanton_Winship \"Blanton Winship\")) were arrayed against the marchers. They opened fire upon what a U.S. Congressman and others reported were unarmed and defenseless[Don Luis Sanchez Frasquieri, President of the Ponce Rotary Club at the time](http://www.cheverote.com/reviews/marcantonio.html) Cadets and bystanders alike, killing 19 and badly wounding over 200 more.\n\nMany of these unarmed people were shot in the back while trying to run away – including a 7\\-year old girl, who died as a result.[**Five Years of Tyranny**, Speech before the U.S. House of Representatives.](http://www.cheverote.com/reviews/marcantonio.html) The entire speech is contained in the *Congressional Record* of August 14, 1939\\. It is reported in the Cong. Rec., and various other publications elsewhere, that among those shot in their backs was a 7\\-year\\-old girl, Georgina Maldonado, who \"was shot in the back while running to a nearby church.\" An [ACLU](/wiki/ACLU \"ACLU\") report declared it a massacre and it has since been known as the [Ponce massacre](/wiki/Ponce_massacre \"Ponce massacre\"). The march had been organized to commemorate the ending of slavery in Puerto Rico by the governing Spanish National Assembly in 1873, and to protest the incarceration by the [U.S. government](/wiki/U.S._government \"U.S. government\") of nationalist leader Pedro Albizu Campos. Soon thereafter, the Puerto Rican government arrested the leadership of the Nationalist party, including Pedro Albizu Campos. In two trials, they were convicted of conspiracy to overthrow the government of the United States.\nA government investigation into the incident drew few conclusions. A second, independent investigation ordered by the US Commission for Civil Rights (May 5, 1937\\) led by [Arthur Garfield Hays](/wiki/Arthur_Garfield_Hays \"Arthur Garfield Hays\") (a member of the [ACLU](/wiki/ACLU \"ACLU\")) with Fulgencio Piñero, Emilio Belaval, Jose Davila Rice, Antonio Ayuyo Valdivieso, Manuel Diaz Garcia, and Franscisco M. Zeno, concluded that the events on March 21constituted a massacre. The report harshly criticized the repressive tactics and massive civil rights violations by the administration of Governor [Blanton Winship](/wiki/Blanton_Winship \"Blanton Winship\").\n\n* On July 25, 1938, the municipality of Ponce organized celebrations to commemorate the American landing in 1898\\. This included a military parade and speeches by Governor [Blanton Winship](/wiki/Blanton_Winship \"Blanton Winship\"), Senate president Rafael Martínez Nadal, and others. When Winship rose to speak, shots were fired at him, slaying police Colonel Luis Irizarry, who was seated next to the governor. The Nationalist Interim President M. Medina Ramírez repudiated the shooting and denied any involvement in it, but numerous Nationalists were arrested and convicted of participating in the shooting. Winship worked to repress the Nationalists. [Jaime Benitez](/wiki/Jaime_Benitez \"Jaime Benitez\"), a student at the [University of Chicago](/wiki/University_of_Chicago \"University of Chicago\") at the time, wrote a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt which in part read as follows:\n\n> Soon afterward, two Nationalist partisans, among them Raimundo Díaz Pacheco, attempted to assassinate [Robert Cooper](/wiki/Robert_Archer_Cooper \"Robert Archer Cooper\"), judge of the Federal Court in Puerto Rico. On May 12, 1939, Winship was summarily removed from his post as Governor by President Roosevelt.[*Five Years of Tyranny.*](http://www.cheverote.com/reviews/marcantonio.html) [Piri Thomas](/wiki/Piri_Thomas \"Piri Thomas\"). Berkeley, CA: Cheverote Productions. 2003\\. Retrieved 8 December 2012\\.\n\n* On May 21, 1948, a bill was introduced before the [Puerto Rican Senate](/wiki/Puerto_Rican_Senate \"Puerto Rican Senate\") which would restrain the rights of the independence and Nationalist movements on the [archipelago](/wiki/Archipelago \"Archipelago\"). The Senate, which at the time was controlled by the *Partido Popular Democrático* ([PPD](/wiki/Popular_Democratic_Party_%28Puerto_Rico%29 \"Popular Democratic Party (Puerto Rico)\")) and presided by [Luis Muñoz Marín](/wiki/Luis_Mu%C3%B1oz_Mar%C3%ADn \"Luis Muñoz Marín\"), approved the bill that day.[\"La obra jurídica del Profesor David M. Helfeld (1948–2008\\)'; by: Dr. Carmelo Delgado Cintrón](http://academiajurisprudenciapr.org/en/revistas/volumen-vii/) This bill, which resembled the anti\\-communist [Smith Act](/wiki/Smith_Act \"Smith Act\") passed in the United States in 1940, became known as the *Ley de la Mordaza* ([Gag Law](/wiki/Gag_Law_%28Puerto_Rico%29 \"Gag Law (Puerto Rico)\")) when the U.S.\\-appointed governor of Puerto Rico, [Jesús T. Piñero](/wiki/Jes%C3%BAs_T._Pi%C3%B1ero \"Jesús T. Piñero\"), signed it into law on June 10, 1948\\.Manuel Maldonado\\-Denis; *Puerto Rico: A Socio\\-Historic Interpretation*; Random House, 1972\n\nOfficially known as Law 53 (*Ley 53*) of 1948, the Gag Law made it illegal to display the [Puerto Rican flag](/wiki/Flag_of_Puerto_Rico \"Flag of Puerto Rico\"), sing patriotic songs, talk about independence, or fight for the liberation of the island, with anyone found guilty of disobeying the law being subject to a sentence of up to ten years imprisonment, a fine of US$10,000 (), or both.\n* Albizu Campos ordered Nationalist uprisings to take place on October 30, 1950 (they had originally been planned for 1952, when Commonwealth status was expected.) These involved a dozen or so skirmishes throughout the island.\n", "Nationalist Revolts of 1950\n---------------------------\n\n[160px\\|thumb\\|left\\|El Imparcial headline: \"Aviation (US) bombs Utuado\"](/wiki/File:El_Imparcial_Utuado.jpg \"El Imparcial Utuado.jpg\")\n\nThe first battle of the Nationalist uprisings occurred in the early hours of October 29, in *barrio* Macaná of [Peñuelas](/wiki/Pe%C3%B1uelas \"Peñuelas\"). The police surrounded the house of the mother of Melitón Muñiz, the president of the Peñuelas Nationalist Party, that he was using as a distribution center for weapons for the Nationalist Revolt. Without warning, the police fired on the Nationalists and a firefight ensued, resulting in the death of two Nationalists and wounding of six police officers.*El ataque Nacionalista a La Fortaleza.* by [Pedro Aponte Vázquez](/wiki/Pedro_Aponte_V%C3%A1zquez \"Pedro Aponte Vázquez\"). Page 7\\. Publicaciones RENÉ. \n[460px\\|thumb\\|right\\|The 296th Regiment of the **[U.S. National Guard](/wiki/U.S._National_Guard \"U.S. National Guard\")** occupy Jayuya](/wiki/File:Troops_in_Jayuya.gif \"Troops in Jayuya.gif\")\nIn the [Jayuya Uprising](/wiki/Jayuya_Uprising \"Jayuya Uprising\"), led by Nationalist leader [Blanca Canales](/wiki/Blanca_Canales \"Blanca Canales\"), a police station and post office were burned. The town was held by the Nationalists for three days.\n\nThe [Utuado Uprising](/wiki/Utuado_Uprising \"Utuado Uprising\") culminated in the Utuado Massacre by the local police, in which five Nationalists were executed.\n\nThe [San Juan Nationalist revolt](/wiki/San_Juan_Nationalist_revolt \"San Juan Nationalist revolt\") was a Nationalist attempt to enter the Governor's mansion, *[La Fortaleza](/wiki/La_Fortaleza \"La Fortaleza\")*, in order to attack then\\-governor [Luis Muñoz Marín](/wiki/Luis_Mu%C3%B1oz_Mar%C3%ADn \"Luis Muñoz Marín\"). The hour\\-long shootout resulted in the death of four Nationalists: Domingo Hiraldo Resto, Carlos Hiraldo Resto, Manuel Torres Medina and Raimundo Díaz Pacheco. Three guards were also seriously wounded.\n[thumb\\|left\\|145px\\|Hipólito Miranda Díaz, killed in the Arecibo incident](/wiki/File:Scan0001-Miranda_Diaz-Arecibo_%282%29.jpg \"Scan0001-Miranda Diaz-Arecibo (2).jpg\")\nVarious other shootouts took place throughout island – including those at [Mayagüez](/wiki/Mayag%C3%BCez%2C_Puerto_Rico \"Mayagüez, Puerto Rico\"), [Naranjito](/wiki/Naranjito%2C_Puerto_Rico \"Naranjito, Puerto Rico\"), [Arecibo](/wiki/Arecibo%2C_Puerto_Rico \"Arecibo, Puerto Rico\"), and [Ponce](/wiki/Ponce%2C_Puerto_Rico \"Ponce, Puerto Rico\"), where Antonio Alicea, Jose Miguel Alicea, Francisco Campos (Albizu Campos's nephew), Osvaldo Perez Martinez and Ramon Pedrosa Rivera were arrested and accused of the murder of police corporal Aurelio Miranda during the revolt. Raul de Jesus was accused of violating the Insular Firearms Law.\n\nOn October 31, police officers and National Guardsmen surrounded *Salón Boricua,* a barbershop in [Santurce](/wiki/Santurce%2C_San_Juan%2C_Puerto_Rico \"Santurce, San Juan, Puerto Rico\"). Believing that a group of Nationalists were inside the shop, they opened fire. The only person in the shop was Campos barber [Vidal Santiago Díaz](/wiki/Vidal_Santiago_D%C3%ADaz \"Vidal Santiago Díaz\"). Santiago Díaz, who fought alone against the attackers for three hours, received five wounds, including one in the head. The battle was transmitted \"live\" via the radio airwaves to the public in general.\n\nOn November 1, 1950, [Griselio Torresola](/wiki/Griselio_Torresola \"Griselio Torresola\") and [Oscar Collazo](/wiki/Oscar_Collazo \"Oscar Collazo\") unsuccessfully attempted to assassinate U.S. President [Harry S. Truman](/wiki/Harry_S._Truman \"Harry S. Truman\"), who was staying at the [Blair House](/wiki/Blair_House \"Blair House\") in Washington, D.C.\n\nTruman supported development of a constitution for Puerto Rico and the 1952 status referendum on it; 82% of the voters approved the constitution. The US Congress also approved the constitution.\n\nOn March 1, 1954, [Lolita Lebrón](/wiki/Lolita_Lebr%C3%B3n \"Lolita Lebrón\") together with fellow Nationalists [Rafael Cancel Miranda](/wiki/Rafael_Cancel_Miranda \"Rafael Cancel Miranda\"), [Irvin Flores](/wiki/Irvin_Flores \"Irvin Flores\") and [Andrés Figueroa Cordero](/wiki/Andres_Figueroa_Cordero \"Andres Figueroa Cordero\") [attacked](/wiki/United_States_Capitol_shooting_incident_%281954%29 \"United States Capitol shooting incident (1954)\") the [U.S. House of Representatives](/wiki/U.S._House_of_Representatives \"U.S. House of Representatives\") in Washington, D.C. The group opened fire with automatic pistols. Some 30 shots were fired (mostly by Cancel, according to his account), wounding five lawmakers. One of the congressmen, Representative Alvin Bentley from Michigan, was seriously wounded. On her arrest, Lebrón yelled \"I did not come to kill anyone, I came to die for Puerto Rico!\"\n\nOn November 18, 1955, a non\\-violent splinter group of nationalists calling themselves *La Quinta Columna* (The 5th Column) broke away from the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party due to not supporting the ideas and thoughts of Albizu Campos, as to a Puerto Rico relationship with Spain as its Mother country and their nationalistic love for Puerto Rico as their Motherland. The other reason for the splinter group was due to the violence that took place in the 1950s. This splinter group would later become known in 1968 as *El Movimiento Indio Taino de Boriken* (The Taino Indian Movement of Puerto Rico) which was primarily made up of the children of the Puerto Rican Nationalists whom would come to establish the indigenous grassroots civil rights movement in Puerto Rico.\n\n", "1960s–present\n-------------\n\nAlthough less active, the Nationalist Party continues to exist as an [organization](/wiki/Organization \"Organization\") and an [ideology](/wiki/Ideology \"Ideology\"). It also has somewhat of a \"chapter\" in New York City. The New York [Junta](/wiki/Committee \"Committee\") is an autonomous organ of the party that recognizes, and is recognized by, the National Junta in Puerto Rico.\n\nIn 2006 and in representation of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party, Jose Castillo spoke before the [United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization](/wiki/United_Nations_Special_Committee_on_Decolonization \"United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization\") and said that the Nationalist Party \"had appeared in the past to denounce colonialism in Puerto Rico and hoped the Special Committee would show its commitment to the island's struggle for self\\-determination, so that it could join the United Nations in its own right ... The Special Committee and its resolutions on Puerto Rico were indispensable instruments.\" Castillo \"called upon the United States Government to assure the Puerto Rican people of their right to self\\-determination and human rights and immediately cease the persecution, arrests, and murders perpetrated against independence fighters. Vieques peace activists must be freed immediately, and the FBI's electronic surveillance and continued harassment of independence fighters must be stopped. The United States must also end its actions against basic human rights while fully implementing the United Nations resolution calling for a constituent assembly to begin decolonization.\" Castillo added that \"Puerto Rico had its own national identity ... Since its 1898 invasion, the United States had tried to destroy the nationality of Puerto Rican people. It kept Puerto Rico in isolation, maintaining it as private corporation from which it earned billions a year ... exploitation had made foreigners richer and the Puerto Rican people poorer. The fact that Puerto Rico was the last territory in the world could not be hidden. Violation of rights there would cease only once it was a free and independent nation. The United States must provide compensation for what it had done to Puerto Rico's land and people.\"[*Special Committee on Decolonization Approves Text Calling on United States to Expedite Puerto Rican Self\\-determination Process; Draft Resolution Urges Probe of Pro\\-Independence Leader’s Killing, Human Rights Abuses; Calls for Clean\\-up, Decontamination of Vieques (Issued on 13 June 2006\\.).*](https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/gacol3138.doc.htm) UN General Assembly. GA/COL/3138/Rev.1\\. 12 June 2006\\. UN Department of Public Information. News and Media Division. New York, New York. Special Committee on Decolonization. 8th \\& 9th Meetings (AM \\& PM). Retrieved 24 January 2014\\. [*Archived*](https://web.archive.org/web/20131104192226/https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/gacol3138.doc.htm) at WayBack Machine on 2013\\-11\\-04 (4 November 2013\\).\n\nIn 2013 the Puerto Rico Nationalist Party made a public demonstration of their pro\\-Independence commitment by protesting a speech from the [Governor of Puerto Rico](/wiki/Governor_of_Puerto_Rico \"Governor of Puerto Rico\"), [Alejandro García Padilla](/wiki/Alejandro_Garc%C3%ADa_Padilla \"Alejandro García Padilla\").[*Protesta interrumpe mensaje del gobernador.*](http://www.elnuevodia.com/protestainterrumpemensajedelgobernador-1559373.html) Antonio R. Gómez. El Nuevo Dia. Guaynabo, Puerto Rico. July 25, 2013\\. Retrieved March 8, 2014\\.\n\nIts last president was Antonio \"Toñito\" Cruz Colón until his death in October 2014\\.\n\n", "Photo gallery\n-------------\n\nFile:Albizu.jpg\\|\\[\\[Pedro Albizu Campos]]\nFile:Jose Coll y Cuchi.jpg\\|\\[\\[José Coll y Cuchí]]\nFile:Olga Viscal Garriga.JPG\\|\\[\\[Olga Viscal Garriga]]\nFile:RuthReynolds.jpg\\|(Left to right) Nationalists Carmen María Pérez González, \\[\\[Olga Viscal Garriga]] and \\[\\[Ruth Mary Reynolds]]\nFile:Raimundo Díaz Pacheco.jpg\\|\\[\\[Raimundo Díaz Pacheco]] commanding the Nationalist Cadets\n\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [Intentona de Yauco](/wiki/Intentona_de_Yauco \"Intentona de Yauco\")\n* [Puerto Rican Nationalist Party Revolts of the 1950s](/wiki/Puerto_Rican_Nationalist_Party_Revolts_of_the_1950s \"Puerto Rican Nationalist Party Revolts of the 1950s\")\n* [Puerto Rican Independence Party](/wiki/Puerto_Rican_Independence_Party \"Puerto Rican Independence Party\")\n* [Truman assassination attempt](/wiki/Attempted_assassination_of_Harry_S._Truman \"Attempted assassination of Harry S. Truman\")\n\n### Notable members of the PNPR\n\n* [Casimiro Berenguer](/wiki/Casimiro_Berenguer \"Casimiro Berenguer\")\n* [Rosa Collazo](/wiki/Rosa_Collazo \"Rosa Collazo\")\n* [Juan Antonio Corretjer](/wiki/Juan_Antonio_Corretjer \"Juan Antonio Corretjer\")\n* [Carmelo Delgado Delgado](/wiki/Carmelo_Delgado_Delgado \"Carmelo Delgado Delgado\")\n* [Isabel Freire de Matos](/wiki/Isabel_Freire_de_Matos \"Isabel Freire de Matos\")\n* [Hugo Margenat](/wiki/Hugo_Margenat \"Hugo Margenat\")\n* [Francisco Matos Paoli](/wiki/Francisco_Matos_Paoli \"Francisco Matos Paoli\")\n* [Isolina Rondón](/wiki/Isolina_Rond%C3%B3n \"Isolina Rondón\")\n* [Isabel Rosado](/wiki/Isabel_Rosado \"Isabel Rosado\")\n* [Daniel Santos](/wiki/Daniel_Santos_%28singer%29 \"Daniel Santos (singer)\")\n* [Clemente Soto Vélez](/wiki/Clemente_Soto_V%C3%A9lez \"Clemente Soto Vélez\")\n* [Antonio Vélez Alvarado](/wiki/Antonio_V%C3%A9lez_Alvarado \"Antonio Vélez Alvarado\")\n* [Carlos Vélez Rieckehoff](/wiki/Carlos_V%C3%A9lez_Rieckehoff \"Carlos Vélez Rieckehoff\")\n* [Teófilo Villavicencio Marxuach](/wiki/Te%C3%B3filo_Villavicencio_Marxuach \"Teófilo Villavicencio Marxuach\")\n\n", "### Notable members of the PNPR\n\n* [Casimiro Berenguer](/wiki/Casimiro_Berenguer \"Casimiro Berenguer\")\n* [Rosa Collazo](/wiki/Rosa_Collazo \"Rosa Collazo\")\n* [Juan Antonio Corretjer](/wiki/Juan_Antonio_Corretjer \"Juan Antonio Corretjer\")\n* [Carmelo Delgado Delgado](/wiki/Carmelo_Delgado_Delgado \"Carmelo Delgado Delgado\")\n* [Isabel Freire de Matos](/wiki/Isabel_Freire_de_Matos \"Isabel Freire de Matos\")\n* [Hugo Margenat](/wiki/Hugo_Margenat \"Hugo Margenat\")\n* [Francisco Matos Paoli](/wiki/Francisco_Matos_Paoli \"Francisco Matos Paoli\")\n* [Isolina Rondón](/wiki/Isolina_Rond%C3%B3n \"Isolina Rondón\")\n* [Isabel Rosado](/wiki/Isabel_Rosado \"Isabel Rosado\")\n* [Daniel Santos](/wiki/Daniel_Santos_%28singer%29 \"Daniel Santos (singer)\")\n* [Clemente Soto Vélez](/wiki/Clemente_Soto_V%C3%A9lez \"Clemente Soto Vélez\")\n* [Antonio Vélez Alvarado](/wiki/Antonio_V%C3%A9lez_Alvarado \"Antonio Vélez Alvarado\")\n* [Carlos Vélez Rieckehoff](/wiki/Carlos_V%C3%A9lez_Rieckehoff \"Carlos Vélez Rieckehoff\")\n* [Teófilo Villavicencio Marxuach](/wiki/Te%C3%B3filo_Villavicencio_Marxuach \"Teófilo Villavicencio Marxuach\")\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "Further reading\n---------------\n\n* Pagán, Bolívar. *Historia de los Partidos Politicos Puertorriqueños 1898–1956*. San Juan: Librería Campos, (1959\\).\n* Power, Margaret M. (2023\\). *Solidarity across the Americas: The Puerto Rican Nationalist Party and Anti\\-imperialism*. UNC Press\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [New York Junta of the PNPR (bilingual)](http://www.pnpr.org)\n\n[Category:Political history of Puerto Rico](/wiki/Category:Political_history_of_Puerto_Rico \"Political history of Puerto Rico\")\n[Category:Political parties established in 1922](/wiki/Category:Political_parties_established_in_1922 \"Political parties established in 1922\")\n[Category:Secessionist organizations](/wiki/Category:Secessionist_organizations \"Secessionist organizations\")\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 1008048 ], "name": [ "Namiba" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "History and development", "Maine Monster", "Gallery", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**Hadlock Field** (officially, **Delta Dental Park at Hadlock Field**) is a [minor league baseball](/wiki/Minor_League_Baseball \"Minor League Baseball\") [stadium](/wiki/Stadium \"Stadium\") in [Portland](/wiki/Portland%2C_Maine \"Portland, Maine\"), [Maine](/wiki/Maine \"Maine\"). The stadium is primarily home to the [Portland Sea Dogs](/wiki/Portland_Sea_Dogs \"Portland Sea Dogs\") of the [Eastern League](/wiki/Eastern_League_%281938%E2%80%93present%29 \"Eastern League (1938–present)\") but also the [Portland High School](/wiki/Portland_High_School_%28Maine%29 \"Portland High School (Maine)\") Bulldogs and [Deering High School](/wiki/Deering_High_School \"Deering High School\") Rams baseball teams. The stadium is owned by the city and leased to the Sea Dogs, a [Boston Red Sox](/wiki/Boston_Red_Sox \"Boston Red Sox\") affiliate owned by [Diamond Baseball Holdings](/wiki/Diamond_Baseball_Holdings \"Diamond Baseball Holdings\").\n\nThe stadium is named for Edson B. Hadlock Jr., a long\\-time Portland High School baseball coach and physics teacher and member of the Maine Baseball Hall of Fame. \n\n", "History and development\n-----------------------\n\nThe park opened on April 18, 1994, with a [capacity](/wiki/Seating_capacity \"Seating capacity\") of 6,000\\. A year later, 500 seats were added. An expansion in 1998 increased capacity to 6,860, and in 2002 to 6,975\\. About 400 seats were added in right field before the start of the 2006 season, and the park currently seats 7,368\\. Hadlock Field is located between [Interstate 295](/wiki/Interstate_295_%28Maine%29 \"Interstate 295 (Maine)\"), the historic [Fitzpatrick Stadium](/wiki/Fitzpatrick_Stadium \"Fitzpatrick Stadium\"), and the [Portland Exposition Building](/wiki/Portland_Exposition_Building \"Portland Exposition Building\"), the second\\-oldest arena in continuous operation in the United States. \n\nIn 2003, when the Sea Dogs affiliated with the [Boston Red Sox](/wiki/Boston_Red_Sox \"Boston Red Sox\"), various features were added to the stadium to allude to [Fenway Park](/wiki/Fenway_Park \"Fenway Park\"): a replica [Green Monster](/wiki/Green_Monster \"Green Monster\"), called the [Maine Monster](/wiki/Maine_Monster \"Maine Monster\"), in left field; a replica [Citgo sign](/wiki/Citgo%23The_Boston_Citgo_sign \"Citgo#The Boston Citgo sign\"); and a large [Coke](/wiki/Coca-Cola \"Coca-Cola\") bottle.\n\nIn 2006, the tenant Sea Dogs were [Eastern League](/wiki/Eastern_League_%281938%E2%80%93present%29 \"Eastern League (1938–present)\") champions. The left\\-field fence is from home plate, the center\\-field fence is , and the right\\-field fence is away. New video boards were added before the 2014 season.\n\nField of Dreams Day at Hadlock Field is held on the first Sunday of September. It features the team wearing 1926 [Portland Eskimos](/wiki/Portland_Eskimos \"Portland Eskimos\") uniforms. [Much like the Hollywood film](/wiki/Field_of_Dreams \"Field of Dreams\"), with the cornfield set up in center field, the Sea Dogs players emerge through the stalks and run onto the field for the Fan Appreciation Day Game.\n\nIn April 2018, Hadlock was named one of the ten best [Minor League Baseball](/wiki/Minor_League_Baseball \"Minor League Baseball\") (MiLB) stadiums. During the 2019 offseason, new lighting was installed, replacing the prior [metal\\-halide lamps](/wiki/Metal-halide_lamp \"Metal-halide lamp\") with [LED lamps](/wiki/LED_lamp \"LED lamp\") and reducing power consumption by nearly 50%.\n\nWhen a Sea Dogs player hits a [home run](/wiki/Home_run \"Home run\"), or when the team wins, a [fog horn](/wiki/Fog_horn \"Fog horn\") sounds and a [light house](/wiki/Light_house \"Light house\") emerges from behind the outfield fence.\n\nIn 2024, Maine lawmakers granted the Sea Dogs $2 million in tax breaks for a new player clubhouse and to make renovations to the playing field. The stadium failed to meet facility requirements set by [Major League Baseball](/wiki/Major_League_Baseball \"Major League Baseball\") for stadiums serving MiLB teams. The clubhouse for visiting teams is in the basement of the nearby Portland Exposition Center. After renovations, the Sea Dogs are to move into a new clubhouse, with visiting teams using the vacated clubhouse.\n\nIn October 2024, the team announced that it had accepted an undisclosed amount of money to rename the stadium **Delta Dental Park at Hadlock Field** after the [Delta Dental](/wiki/Delta_Dental \"Delta Dental\") insurance network.\n\n", "Maine Monster\n-------------\n\nThe Maine Monster is the nickname of the left\\-field wall at Hadlock Field. It is located 315 feet from home plate along the foul lines. It is 160 feet long and made of wood. Like the [Green Monster](/wiki/Green_Monster \"Green Monster\") in [Fenway Park](/wiki/Fenway_Park \"Fenway Park\"), it is high, and green. There is a screen above the wall to catch home run balls. Seats cannot be added to the Maine Monster because the [Union Branch](/wiki/Union_Station_%28Portland%2C_Maine%29 \"Union Station (Portland, Maine)\") railroad runs immediately behind it. On September 18, 2002, the Portland Sea Dogs announced a new affiliation with the [Boston Red Sox](/wiki/Boston_Red_Sox \"Boston Red Sox\") after nine years of affiliation with the [Florida Marlins](/wiki/Miami_Marlins \"Miami Marlins\"). To help train future Red Sox left fielders for the Green Monster and to add character to the ballpark, a likeness of the Green Monster was built. Construction started on October 28, 2002\\. The name, Maine Monster, was chosen from a contest of fans.\n\n", "Gallery\n-------\n\nFile:Hadlock Field 2022\\.jpg\\|The diamond, outfield, and the \"\\[\\[Maine Monster]]\", 2022\nFile:Hadlock Field picnic area.jpg\\|Hadlock Field's picnic area is located alongside the right\\-field line\nFile:HadlockField1Alc.jpg\\|Hadlock Field. May 12, 2007\n\n \n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n[Category:Baseball venues in Maine](/wiki/Category:Baseball_venues_in_Maine \"Baseball venues in Maine\")\n[Category:High school baseball venues in the United States](/wiki/Category:High_school_baseball_venues_in_the_United_States \"High school baseball venues in the United States\")\n[Category:Sports venues in Portland, Maine](/wiki/Category:Sports_venues_in_Portland%2C_Maine \"Sports venues in Portland, Maine\")\n[Category:Sports venues completed in 1994](/wiki/Category:Sports_venues_completed_in_1994 \"Sports venues completed in 1994\")\n[Category:Portland Sea Dogs](/wiki/Category:Portland_Sea_Dogs \"Portland Sea Dogs\")\n[Category:Eastern League (1938–present) ballparks](/wiki/Category:Eastern_League_%281938%E2%80%93present%29_ballparks \"Eastern League (1938–present) ballparks\")\n[Category:1994 establishments in Maine](/wiki/Category:1994_establishments_in_Maine \"1994 establishments in Maine\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 25500704 ], "name": [ "Selinous" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Satellite craters", "References" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n[left\\|thumb\\|428x428px\\|Selenochromatic Image (Si) of the crater area](/wiki/File:Almanon-Baco_Si_Ferruggia_Zetta.jpg \"Almanon-Baco Si Ferruggia Zetta.jpg\")\n**Nicolai** is a [lunar](/wiki/Lunar_craters \"Lunar craters\") [impact crater](/wiki/Impact_crater \"Impact crater\") that is located in the southern hemisphere of the [Moon](/wiki/Moon \"Moon\"), in a region that is less disturbed by significant impacts than most of the [highlands](/wiki/Highland_%28geography%29 \"Highland (geography)\"). The nearest craters of note are [Spallanzani](/wiki/Spallanzani_%28lunar_crater%29 \"Spallanzani (lunar crater)\") to the south, and the much larger [Maurolycus](/wiki/Maurolycus_%28crater%29 \"Maurolycus (crater)\") and [Barocius](/wiki/Barocius_%28crater%29 \"Barocius (crater)\") to the east.Moore, Patrick (2001\\). *On the Moon*. Sterling Publishing Co.. . The crater is named after the 19th\\-century [German](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\") astronomer [Friedrich Bernhard Gottfried Nicolai](/wiki/Friedrich_Bernhard_Gottfried_Nicolai \"Friedrich Bernhard Gottfried Nicolai\"). It is 42 kilometers in diameter and reaches a depth of 1\\.8 kilometers.\n\nThe outer wall of this crater is worn, with a number of tiny craterlets lying along the rim. The most notable of these is a tiny crater located across the northern rim. The satellite crater Nicolai B is attached to the exterior of the southwest rim. The inner walls slope down relatively smoothly to the flat interior floor filled with lava. The only marking on the inner surface is a tiny craterlet in the northern part of the crater. Nicolai is from the [Nectarian](/wiki/Nectarian \"Nectarian\") period, which lasted from 3\\.92 billion to 3\\.85 billion years ago.*Autostar Suite Astronomer Edition*. CD\\-ROM. Meade, April 2006\\.\n\n", "Satellite craters\n-----------------\n\nBy convention these features are identified on lunar maps by placing the letter on the side of the crater midpoint that is closest to Nicolai.\n\n|Nicolai \n\nLatitude\n\nLongitude\n\nDiameter\n\n| |\n|A\n\n42\\.4° S\n\n23\\.6° E\n\n13 km\n\n|B\n\n43\\.2° S\n\n25\\.3° E\n\n13 km\n\n|C\n\n44\\.0° S\n\n29\\.0° E\n\n25 km\n\n|D\n\n41\\.7° S\n\n25\\.5° E\n\n6 km\n\n|E\n\n40\\.6° S\n\n25\\.3° E\n\n13 km\n\n|G\n\n42\\.8° S\n\n22\\.4° E\n\n11 km\n\n|H\n\n43\\.5° S\n\n26\\.8° E\n\n17 km\n\n|J\n\n40\\.5° S\n\n22\\.0° E\n\n8 km\n\n|K\n\n42\\.9° S\n\n28\\.2° E\n\n25 km\n\n|L\n\n44\\.1° S\n\n25\\.6° E\n\n13 km\n\n|M\n\n42\\.4° S\n\n29\\.0° E\n\n11 km\n\n|P\n\n43\\.1° S\n\n29\\.7° E\n\n30 km\n\n|Q\n\n42\\.3° S\n\n30\\.1° E\n\n26 km\n\n|R\n\n41\\.5° S\n\n25\\.9° E\n\n6 km\n\n|Z\n\n40\\.9° S\n\n21\\.5° E\n\n24 km\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n[Category:Impact craters on the Moon](/wiki/Category:Impact_craters_on_the_Moon \"Impact craters on the Moon\")\n[Category:Nectarian](/wiki/Category:Nectarian \"Nectarian\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 24280065 ], "name": [ "Nathan Carlson" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Formalism", "Scalar modes", "Tensor modes", "Adiabatic/isocurvature fluctuations", "See also", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n**Primordial fluctuations** are [density](/wiki/Density \"Density\") variations in the early universe which are considered the seeds of all [structure](/wiki/Large-scale_structure_of_the_cosmos \"Large-scale structure of the cosmos\") in the universe. Currently, the most widely accepted explanation for their origin is in the context of [cosmic inflation](/wiki/Cosmic_inflation \"Cosmic inflation\"). According to the inflationary paradigm, the exponential growth of the [scale factor](/wiki/Scale_factor_%28cosmology%29 \"Scale factor (cosmology)\") during inflation caused [quantum fluctuations](/wiki/Quantum_fluctuation \"Quantum fluctuation\") of the inflaton field to be stretched to macroscopic scales, and, upon leaving the [horizon](/wiki/Observable_universe%23Horizons \"Observable universe#Horizons\"), to \"freeze in\".\nAt the later stages of radiation\\- and matter\\-domination, these fluctuations re\\-entered the horizon, and thus set the [initial conditions](/wiki/Initial_conditions \"Initial conditions\") for [structure formation](/wiki/Structure_formation \"Structure formation\").\n\nThe statistical properties of the primordial fluctuations can be inferred from observations of [anisotropies](/wiki/Anisotropy \"Anisotropy\") in the [cosmic microwave background](/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation \"Cosmic microwave background radiation\") and from measurements of the distribution of matter, e.g., galaxy [redshift surveys](/wiki/Redshift_survey \"Redshift survey\"). Since the fluctuations are believed to arise from inflation, such measurements can also set constraints on parameters within inflationary theory.\n\n", "Formalism\n---------\n\nPrimordial fluctuations are typically quantified by a [power spectrum](/wiki/Power_spectrum \"Power spectrum\") which gives the power of the variations as a function of spatial scale. Within this formalism, one usually considers the fractional energy density of the fluctuations, given by:\n\n\\\\delta(\\\\vec{x}) \\\\ \\\\stackrel{\\\\mathrm{def{\\=}\\\\ \\\\frac{\\\\rho(\\\\vec{x})}{\\\\bar{\\\\rho \\- 1 \\=\n\n```\n\\int \\text{d}k \\; \\delta_k \\, e^{i\\vec{k} \\cdot \\vec{x,\n```\n\nwhere \\\\rho is the energy density, \\\\bar{\\\\rho} its average and k the [wavenumber](/wiki/Wavenumber \"Wavenumber\") of the fluctuations. The power spectrum \\\\mathcal{P}(k) can then be defined via the ensemble average of the [Fourier components](/wiki/Fourier_transform \"Fourier transform\"):\n \\\\langle \\\\delta\\_k \\\\delta\\_{k'} \\\\rangle \\= \\\\frac{2 \\\\pi^2}{k^3} \\\\, \\\\delta(k\\-k') \\\\, \\\\mathcal{P}(k).\n\nThere are both scalar and tensor modes of fluctuations.\n\n### Scalar modes\n\nScalar modes have the power spectrum defined as the mean squared density fluctuation for a specific wavenumber k, i.e., the average fluctuation amplitude at a given scale:\n\\\\mathcal{P}\\_\\\\mathrm{s}(k) \\= \\\\langle\\\\delta\\_k\\\\rangle^2\\.\n\nMany inflationary models predict that the scalar component of the fluctuations obeys a [power law](/wiki/Power_law \"Power law\") in which\n\\\\mathcal{P}\\_\\\\mathrm{s}(k) \\\\propto k^{n\\_\\\\mathrm{s.\nFor scalar fluctuations, n\\_\\\\mathrm{s} is referred to as the scalar spectral index, with n\\_\\\\mathrm{s} \\= 1 corresponding to [scale invariant](/wiki/Scale_invariance \"Scale invariance\") fluctuations (not scale invariant in \\\\delta but in the comoving curvature perturbation \\\\zeta for which the power \\\\mathcal{P}\\_{\\\\zeta}(k) \\\\propto k^{n\\_s\\-1} is indeed invariant with k when n\\_s\\=1).\n\nThe scalar *spectral index* describes how the density fluctuations vary with scale. As the size of these fluctuations depends upon the inflaton's motion when these quantum fluctuations are becoming super\\-horizon sized, different inflationary potentials predict different spectral indices. These depend upon the slow roll parameters, in particular the gradient and curvature of the potential. In models where the curvature is large and positive n\\_s \\> 1. On the other hand, models such as monomial potentials predict a red spectral index n\\_s \\< 1. Planck provides a value of n\\_s \\= 0\\.968 \\\\pm 0\\.006.\n\n### Tensor modes\n\nThe presence of primordial [tensor](/wiki/Tensor \"Tensor\") fluctuations is predicted by many inflationary models. As with scalar fluctuations, tensor fluctuations are expected to follow a power law and are parameterized by the tensor index (the tensor version of the scalar index). The ratio of the tensor to scalar power spectra is given by\nr\\=\\\\frac{2\\|\\\\delta\\_h\\|^2}{\\|\\\\delta\\_R\\|^2},\nwhere the 2 arises due to the two polarizations of the tensor modes. 2015 [CMB](/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background \"Cosmic microwave background\") data from the [Planck satellite](/wiki/Planck_%28spacecraft%29 \"Planck (spacecraft)\") gives a constraint of r\\<0\\.11.\n\n", "### Scalar modes\n\nScalar modes have the power spectrum defined as the mean squared density fluctuation for a specific wavenumber k, i.e., the average fluctuation amplitude at a given scale:\n\\\\mathcal{P}\\_\\\\mathrm{s}(k) \\= \\\\langle\\\\delta\\_k\\\\rangle^2\\.\n\nMany inflationary models predict that the scalar component of the fluctuations obeys a [power law](/wiki/Power_law \"Power law\") in which\n\\\\mathcal{P}\\_\\\\mathrm{s}(k) \\\\propto k^{n\\_\\\\mathrm{s.\nFor scalar fluctuations, n\\_\\\\mathrm{s} is referred to as the scalar spectral index, with n\\_\\\\mathrm{s} \\= 1 corresponding to [scale invariant](/wiki/Scale_invariance \"Scale invariance\") fluctuations (not scale invariant in \\\\delta but in the comoving curvature perturbation \\\\zeta for which the power \\\\mathcal{P}\\_{\\\\zeta}(k) \\\\propto k^{n\\_s\\-1} is indeed invariant with k when n\\_s\\=1).\n\nThe scalar *spectral index* describes how the density fluctuations vary with scale. As the size of these fluctuations depends upon the inflaton's motion when these quantum fluctuations are becoming super\\-horizon sized, different inflationary potentials predict different spectral indices. These depend upon the slow roll parameters, in particular the gradient and curvature of the potential. In models where the curvature is large and positive n\\_s \\> 1. On the other hand, models such as monomial potentials predict a red spectral index n\\_s \\< 1. Planck provides a value of n\\_s \\= 0\\.968 \\\\pm 0\\.006.\n\n", "### Tensor modes\n\nThe presence of primordial [tensor](/wiki/Tensor \"Tensor\") fluctuations is predicted by many inflationary models. As with scalar fluctuations, tensor fluctuations are expected to follow a power law and are parameterized by the tensor index (the tensor version of the scalar index). The ratio of the tensor to scalar power spectra is given by\nr\\=\\\\frac{2\\|\\\\delta\\_h\\|^2}{\\|\\\\delta\\_R\\|^2},\nwhere the 2 arises due to the two polarizations of the tensor modes. 2015 [CMB](/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background \"Cosmic microwave background\") data from the [Planck satellite](/wiki/Planck_%28spacecraft%29 \"Planck (spacecraft)\") gives a constraint of r\\<0\\.11.\n\n", "Adiabatic/isocurvature fluctuations\n-----------------------------------\n\n[Adiabatic](/wiki/Adiabatic \"Adiabatic\") fluctuations are density variations in all forms of [matter](/wiki/Matter \"Matter\") and [energy](/wiki/Energy \"Energy\") which have equal fractional over/under densities in the number density. So for example, an adiabatic [photon](/wiki/Photon \"Photon\") overdensity of a factor of two in the number density would also correspond to an [electron](/wiki/Electron \"Electron\") overdensity of two. For isocurvature fluctuations, the number density variations for one component do not necessarily correspond to number density variations in other components. While it is usually assumed that the initial fluctuations are adiabatic, the possibility of isocurvature fluctuations can be considered given current cosmological data. Current [cosmic microwave background](/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background \"Cosmic microwave background\") data favor adiabatic fluctuations and constrain uncorrelated isocurvature [cold dark matter](/wiki/Cold_dark_matter \"Cold dark matter\") modes to be small.\n\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [Big Bang](/wiki/Big_Bang \"Big Bang\")\n* [Cosmological perturbation theory](/wiki/Cosmological_perturbation_theory \"Cosmological perturbation theory\")\n* [Cosmic microwave background spectral distortions](/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background_spectral_distortions \"Cosmic microwave background spectral distortions\")\n* [Press–Schechter formalism](/wiki/Press%E2%80%93Schechter_formalism \"Press–Schechter formalism\")\n* [Primordial gravitational wave](/wiki/Primordial_gravitational_wave \"Primordial gravitational wave\")\n* [Primordial black hole](/wiki/Primordial_black_hole \"Primordial black hole\")\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* Crotty, Patrick, \"Bounds on isocurvature perturbations from CMB and LSS data\". Physical Review Letters. \n* Linde, Andrei, \"Quantum Cosmology and the Structure of Inflationary Universe\". Invited talk. \n* [Peiris, Hiranya](/wiki/Hiranya_Peiris \"Hiranya Peiris\"), \"First Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Implications for Inflation\". Astrophysical Journal. \n* Tegmark, Max, \"Cosmological parameters from SDSS and WMAP\". Physical Review D. \n\n[Category:Physical cosmology](/wiki/Category:Physical_cosmology \"Physical cosmology\")\n[Category:Inflation (cosmology)](/wiki/Category:Inflation_%28cosmology%29 \"Inflation (cosmology)\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ null ], "name": [ "2601:642:4600:3210:4DA3:E718:3CBA:7939" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Background", "Mass killings of hostages and Jews on October 22–24", "Destruction of the Romanian commandant's office", "The execution of hostages", "The beginning of the Holocaust", "Subsequent events", "The survivors of the Holocaust", "Trials and punishment of the main perpetrators", "Commemoration", "Memorial in Prokhorovsky Square", "The Holocaust Museum in Odessa", "Other", "See also", "References", "Sources", "Further reading", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|300px\\|Map of the Holocaust in Ukraine. Odessa ghetto marked with gold\\-red star. Transnistria massacres marked with red skulls.](/wiki/File:WW2-Holocaust-Ukraine.PNG \"WW2-Holocaust-Ukraine.PNG\")\n\nThe **Odessa massacre** was the mass murder of the [Jewish](/wiki/Jews \"Jews\") population of [Odessa](/wiki/Odessa \"Odessa\") and surrounding towns in the [Transnistria Governorate](/wiki/Transnistria_Governorate \"Transnistria Governorate\") during the autumn of 1941 and the winter of 1942 while it was under [Romanian](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania \"Kingdom of Romania\") control. It was one of the worst massacres in Ukrainian territory.Ugo Poletti. [The Forgotten Holocaust: The Massacre of Odesa’s Jews](https://www.kyivpost.com/then-and-now/the-forgotten-holocaust-the-massacre-of-odesas-jews.html) *[Kyiv Post](/wiki/Kyiv_Post \"Kyiv Post\")*. Retrieved 18 December 2022\n\nDepending on the accepted terms of reference and scope, the Odessa massacre refers either to the events of October 22–24, 1941 in which some 25,000 to 34,000 Jews were shot or burned, or to the murder of well over 100,000 Jews in the town and the areas between the [Dniester](/wiki/Dniester \"Dniester\") and [Bug](/wiki/Southern_Bug \"Southern Bug\") rivers, during the Romanian and German occupation which took place following the massacre. As of 2018, it was estimated that up to 30,000 people, mostly Ukrainian Jews, were murdered in the actual massacre, which occurred October 22–23, 1941\\. The primary perpetrators were Romanian soldiers, [Einsatzgruppe](/wiki/Einsatzgruppen \"Einsatzgruppen\") SS and local ethnic Germans.\n\n", "Background\n----------\n\nBefore the war, Odessa had a large Jewish population of approximately 200,000, or 30% of the city's total population. By the time the Romanians had taken the city, between 80,000 and 90,000 Jews remained, the rest having fled or been evacuated by the Soviets. As the massacres occurred, Jews from surrounding villages were interned in Odessa and Romanian concentration camps set up in the surrounding areas.\n\nOn October 16, following a two\\-month [siege of Odessa](/wiki/Siege_of_Odessa_%281941%29 \"Siege of Odessa (1941)\"), the Germans and Romanians captured the city.\n\n", "Mass killings of hostages and Jews on October 22–24\n---------------------------------------------------\n\n[thumb\\|Plaque on the wall of the Odessa\\-Sortuvalna railway station, commemorating the Holocaust](/wiki/File:Holocaust_commemorative_plaque.jpg \"Holocaust commemorative plaque.jpg\")\n\n### Destruction of the Romanian commandant's office\n\nOn October 22, 1941, in the building of the [NKVD](/wiki/NKVD \"NKVD\") on the Marazlievskaya street where the [Romanian military](/wiki/Romanian_Armed_Forces \"Romanian Armed Forces\") commander's office and the headquarters of the Romanian 10th Infantry Division had settled to occupy the city, a [radio\\-controlled mine](/wiki/Explosive_mine \"Explosive mine\") exploded. The mine had been planted there by the [sappers](/wiki/Sapper \"Sapper\") of the [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army \"Red Army\") before the surrender of the city by [Soviet troops](/wiki/Red_Army \"Red Army\"). The building collapsed, and under its rubble, 67 people were killed, including 16 [officers](/wiki/Officers \"Officers\"), among whom was the military commander of the city, Romanian General [Ioan Glogojeanu](/wiki/Ioan_Glogojeanu \"Ioan Glogojeanu\"). Responsibility for the explosion was placed on the Jews and Communists.\n\n### The execution of hostages\n\nIn response to the explosion at the commandant's office, General [Nicolae Tătăranu](/wiki/Nicolae_T%C4%83t%C4%83ranu \"Nicolae Tătăranu\") received a direct order from [Marshal](/wiki/Mare%C8%99al_%28Romania%29 \"Mareșal (Romania)\") [Ion Antonescu](/wiki/Ion_Antonescu \"Ion Antonescu\"), ordering \"immediate reprisals\" be carried out on the Jewish population. The Romanian troops and the German \"Einsatzgruppe\" arrived in [Odessa](/wiki/Odessa \"Odessa\") on [October 23](/wiki/October_23 \"October 23\") to kill from 5,000 to 10,000 hostages, many of whom were Jews.\n\nAcross the Marazlievskaya street, occupiers broke into the apartments of Odessa citizens and shot or hanged all residents found, without exception. They raided the streets and markets of the city and suburbs, and people who knew nothing of the bombing were shot on sight against fences or the walls of houses. Nearly 100 men were seized and shot at the Big Fountain, about two hundred people were executed in the Slobodka neighborhood near the market, 251 residents were shot in [Moldavanka](/wiki/Moldavanka \"Moldavanka\"), Near and Far Windmills and in Aleksandrovsky Prospekt about 400 townspeople were executed. The columns of the captured hostages were driven to the area of artillery warehouses on Lustdorf Road, where they were shot or burned alive.\n\nAfter the war, more than 22,000 corpses were found in mass graves.\n\n### The beginning of the Holocaust\n\nOn October 23, an order was issued threatening all Jews with death on the spot and ordering them to report to the village of [Dalnyk](/wiki/Dalnyk \"Dalnyk\") on October 24\\. In the afternoon of October 24, about 5,000 Jews were gathered near the outpost of Dalnyk. The first 50 people were brought to the anti\\-tank ditch and shot by the commander of the 10th machine\\-gun battalion, Lieutenant\\-Colonel Nicolae Deleanu.\n\nTo speed up the process of destruction, the Jews were driven into four barracks, in which holes were made for machine guns, and the floor was pre\\-filled with gasoline. People in two barracks were shot with machine guns on the same day. At 17:00 the barracks were set on fire. The next day, the prisoners were shot, placed in the remaining two barracks, and in one of the barracks grenades were thrown.\n\nMeanwhile, the Jews who were not selected for the first group, and who had already arrived in Dalnyk, were told that they were \"forgiven\". They were sent to various military headquarters and Gendarmerie stations for \"registration\", where they were detained for different lengths of time. When they were released, they discovered that their houses had been occupied and their property plundered.\n\nDuring the first week of Romanian occupation of Odessa, the city lost about 10% of its inhabitants.\n\n", "### Destruction of the Romanian commandant's office\n\nOn October 22, 1941, in the building of the [NKVD](/wiki/NKVD \"NKVD\") on the Marazlievskaya street where the [Romanian military](/wiki/Romanian_Armed_Forces \"Romanian Armed Forces\") commander's office and the headquarters of the Romanian 10th Infantry Division had settled to occupy the city, a [radio\\-controlled mine](/wiki/Explosive_mine \"Explosive mine\") exploded. The mine had been planted there by the [sappers](/wiki/Sapper \"Sapper\") of the [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army \"Red Army\") before the surrender of the city by [Soviet troops](/wiki/Red_Army \"Red Army\"). The building collapsed, and under its rubble, 67 people were killed, including 16 [officers](/wiki/Officers \"Officers\"), among whom was the military commander of the city, Romanian General [Ioan Glogojeanu](/wiki/Ioan_Glogojeanu \"Ioan Glogojeanu\"). Responsibility for the explosion was placed on the Jews and Communists.\n\n", "### The execution of hostages\n\nIn response to the explosion at the commandant's office, General [Nicolae Tătăranu](/wiki/Nicolae_T%C4%83t%C4%83ranu \"Nicolae Tătăranu\") received a direct order from [Marshal](/wiki/Mare%C8%99al_%28Romania%29 \"Mareșal (Romania)\") [Ion Antonescu](/wiki/Ion_Antonescu \"Ion Antonescu\"), ordering \"immediate reprisals\" be carried out on the Jewish population. The Romanian troops and the German \"Einsatzgruppe\" arrived in [Odessa](/wiki/Odessa \"Odessa\") on [October 23](/wiki/October_23 \"October 23\") to kill from 5,000 to 10,000 hostages, many of whom were Jews.\n\nAcross the Marazlievskaya street, occupiers broke into the apartments of Odessa citizens and shot or hanged all residents found, without exception. They raided the streets and markets of the city and suburbs, and people who knew nothing of the bombing were shot on sight against fences or the walls of houses. Nearly 100 men were seized and shot at the Big Fountain, about two hundred people were executed in the Slobodka neighborhood near the market, 251 residents were shot in [Moldavanka](/wiki/Moldavanka \"Moldavanka\"), Near and Far Windmills and in Aleksandrovsky Prospekt about 400 townspeople were executed. The columns of the captured hostages were driven to the area of artillery warehouses on Lustdorf Road, where they were shot or burned alive.\n\nAfter the war, more than 22,000 corpses were found in mass graves.\n\n", "### The beginning of the Holocaust\n\nOn October 23, an order was issued threatening all Jews with death on the spot and ordering them to report to the village of [Dalnyk](/wiki/Dalnyk \"Dalnyk\") on October 24\\. In the afternoon of October 24, about 5,000 Jews were gathered near the outpost of Dalnyk. The first 50 people were brought to the anti\\-tank ditch and shot by the commander of the 10th machine\\-gun battalion, Lieutenant\\-Colonel Nicolae Deleanu.\n\nTo speed up the process of destruction, the Jews were driven into four barracks, in which holes were made for machine guns, and the floor was pre\\-filled with gasoline. People in two barracks were shot with machine guns on the same day. At 17:00 the barracks were set on fire. The next day, the prisoners were shot, placed in the remaining two barracks, and in one of the barracks grenades were thrown.\n\nMeanwhile, the Jews who were not selected for the first group, and who had already arrived in Dalnyk, were told that they were \"forgiven\". They were sent to various military headquarters and Gendarmerie stations for \"registration\", where they were detained for different lengths of time. When they were released, they discovered that their houses had been occupied and their property plundered.\n\nDuring the first week of Romanian occupation of Odessa, the city lost about 10% of its inhabitants.\n\n", "Subsequent events\n-----------------\n\n[thumb\\|Aftermath of the Odesa Massacre: Jewish deportees killed outside Birzula (now [Podilsk](/wiki/Podilsk \"Podilsk\")).](/wiki/File:Dup%C4%83_trecerea_unui_convoi_%C3%AEntre_Birzula_%C8%99i_Grozdovca.jpg \"După trecerea unui convoi între Birzula și Grozdovca.jpg\")\n\nThe registration carried out by the Romanian administration in late 1941 counted about 60,000 Jews in Odesa. This number included persons having only one Jewish ancestor. Jews were required to wear a special distinctive badge, a yellow hexagram ([Magen David](/wiki/Magen_David \"Magen David\"), the Star of David, a symbol of Judaism) on a black background.\n\nOn November 7, 1941, an order was issued, making it mandatory for all male Jews from 18 to 50 years old to report to the city prison.\n\nFrom that day on, the entire Jewish population of the city was sent to concentration camps, organized by Romanians in the countryside, primarily to the village of (now in the [Mykolaiv Oblast](/wiki/Mykolaiv_Oblast \"Mykolaiv Oblast\")). Later, a [ghetto](/wiki/Ghetto \"Ghetto\") was arranged in Odessa itself.\n\nThe Romanian administration took measures to seize the property of future victims. In mid\\-November, a new order was issued clarifying the authorities' demands for Jews. It said:\n\nBy the middle of December, about 55,000 Jews were gathered in Bogdanovka, though some of them were not from Odessa. From December 20, 1941, until January 15, 1942, each of them was shot by a team of the [Einsatzgruppe](/wiki/Einsatzgruppen \"Einsatzgruppen\") SS, Romanian soldiers, Ukrainian police and local German colonists.\n\nA month later, a death march of 10,000 Jews was organized in three concentration camps in [Golta](/wiki/Pervomaisk%2C_Mykolaiv_Oblast \"Pervomaisk, Mykolaiv Oblast\").\n\nIn January 1942, about 35,000\\-40,000 of the Jews left in Odessa were evicted and sent to the ghetto that had been created on January 10, 1942, in the poor area of Slobodka. The evicted endured terrible conditions; with inadequate housing for all and severe crowding, many were forced out into the open winter air, which led to [mass mortality](/wiki/Mass_mortality_event \"Mass mortality event\") from hypothermia.\n\nFrom January 12 to February 20, 1942, the remaining 19,582 Jews were deported to [Berezivka Raion](/wiki/Berezivka_Raion \"Berezivka Raion\") of [Odessa Oblast](/wiki/Odessa_Oblast \"Odessa Oblast\"). They were transported in unheated [echelons](/wiki/wikt:Echelon \"Echelon\"), and many died on the road. In [Berezivka](/wiki/Berezivka \"Berezivka\"), groups were forced to walk to [Domanevka](/wiki/Domanevka \"Domanevka\"), Bogdanovka, Golta and other concentration camps. Many died of hunger and cold along the way. The guards, consisting of Romanian and German soldiers, organized mass executions of Jews during the journeys. In 18 months, almost all the prisoners of Golta died.\n\n", "The survivors of the Holocaust\n------------------------------\n\nSome Jews were sent to work in the villages, and about half of them survived the occupation. The situation in the ghetto of Domanevka and other ghettos in [Transnistria](/wiki/Transnistria \"Transnistria\") improved in 1943 after the Jews began to receive assistance from Jewish organizations in Romania. About 600 Odessa residents in these ghettos lived to be released. Several hundred Jews who were hiding in Odessa itself also survived. Jews participated in the struggle of the Odessa underground and constituted a significant part of the guerrilla units, based in the [Odesa catacombs](/wiki/Odessa_catacombs \"Odessa catacombs\").\n\n", "Trials and punishment of the main perpetrators\n----------------------------------------------\n\nAt the [Bucharest People's Tribunal](/wiki/Romanian_People%27s_Tribunals \"Romanian People's Tribunals\"), set up in 1946 by the new Romanian government in conjunction with the [Allied Control Council](/wiki/Allied_Control_Council \"Allied Control Council\"), one of the charges brought against Marshal [Ion Antonescu](/wiki/Ion_Antonescu \"Ion Antonescu\"), the Governor of Transnistria, [Gheorghe Alexianu](/wiki/Gheorghe_Alexianu \"Gheorghe Alexianu\"), and the commander of the Odessa garrison, General [Nicolae Macici](/wiki/Nicolae_Macici \"Nicolae Macici\"), was \"the organization of repressions against the civilian population of Odessa autumn of 1941\". For these crimes, they were sentenced to death. The first two were shot on July 1, 1946\\. Later, [King Michael](/wiki/Michael_I_of_Romania \"Michael I of Romania\") commuted Macici's death sentence to [life imprisonment](/wiki/Life_imprisonment \"Life imprisonment\"). Macici died in prison in 1950\\.\n\nIn response to the appeal of the verdict filed by the son of Alexianu, on November 5, 2006, Bucharest Court of Appeal confirmed the verdict of war criminals to death, dated May 17, 1946\\. In response to the appeal filed by the Prosecutor General, on May 6, 2008, the case was re\\-examined and the judges of the [High Court of Cassation and Justice](/wiki/High_Court_of_Cassation_and_Justice \"High Court of Cassation and Justice\") finally rejected the application for revision of the 1946 sentence.\n\n", "Commemoration\n-------------\n\n### Memorial in Prokhorovsky Square\n\nIn the early 1990s in Odessa's Prokhorovsky Square, where the \"road of death\" to the extermination camps for Odessa's Jews and [Gypsies](/wiki/Romani_people \"Romani people\") had begun on the outskirts of the city in 1941, a memorial commemorating the [victims of the Holocaust](/wiki/Victims_of_the_Holocaust \"Victims of the Holocaust\") was created. A memorial sign was installed, along with the \"Alley of the [Righteous Among the World](/wiki/Righteous_Among_the_Nations \"Righteous Among the Nations\")\", featuring trees planted in honor of each Odessa citizen who had harbored and saved the Jews. The complex was completed in 2004 with the erection of a monument to the victims of the Holocaust in Odessa by sculptor [Zurab Tsereteli](/wiki/Zurab_Tsereteli \"Zurab Tsereteli\").\n\nFile:Holocaust\\-ODS\\-2\\.JPG\\|Memorial to the victims of the Holocaust\nFile:Odessa holocaust monument 02\\.JPG\\|Monument by Zurab Tsereteli\nFile:Odessa holocaust monument 05\\.JPG\\|Alley of the \"Righteous Among the World\".\nFile:Odessa holocaust monument 10\\.JPG\\|Memorial sign\nFile:Odessa holocaust monument 08\\.JPG\\|Memorial sign\n\n### The Holocaust Museum in Odessa\n\nThe Museum of the Holocaust in Odesa was created in accordance with the decision of the Council of the Odesa Regional Association of Jews, former prisoners of the ghetto and [Nazi concentration camps](/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps \"Nazi concentration camps\"). The chairman of the association is [Roman Shvartsman](/wiki/Roman_Shvartsman \"Roman Shvartsman\"). The opening of the museum took place on June 22, 2009\\.\n\n### Other\n\nIn January 2015, the authorities of the Italian town of Ceriano Laghetto, in the province of [Monza\\-e\\-Brianza](/wiki/Monza_e_Brianza \"Monza e Brianza\") in the [Lombardy region](/wiki/Lombardy_Region \"Lombardy Region\"), named a city square \"Martyrs Square of Odesa\" in memory of the victims of the occupation regimes in Odesa: Jews killed October 22–24, 1941, as well as [anti\\-Maidan](/wiki/Anti-Maidan \"Anti-Maidan\") activists, [rescuers](/wiki/Rescuers_assisting_Jews_during_the_Holocaust \"Rescuers assisting Jews during the Holocaust\") and accidental victims who died on May 2, 2014, in the [Odesa Trade Union House](/wiki/2014_Odesa_clashes \"2014 Odesa clashes\").\n\nOn May 2, 2015, the first anniversary of the events in the House of Trade Unions, a commemorative monument dedicated to the \"Martyrs of Odesa\" was opened at this square. The monument is a tongue of flame with a silhouette of a dove, a symbol of the world, inside.\n\nThe 2018 tragicomic Romanian film *[I Do Not Care If We Go Down in History as Barbarians](/wiki/I_Do_Not_Care_If_We_Go_Down_in_History_as_Barbarians \"I Do Not Care If We Go Down in History as Barbarians\")* deals with the massacre and historical memory among modern Romanians.\n\n", "### Memorial in Prokhorovsky Square\n\nIn the early 1990s in Odessa's Prokhorovsky Square, where the \"road of death\" to the extermination camps for Odessa's Jews and [Gypsies](/wiki/Romani_people \"Romani people\") had begun on the outskirts of the city in 1941, a memorial commemorating the [victims of the Holocaust](/wiki/Victims_of_the_Holocaust \"Victims of the Holocaust\") was created. A memorial sign was installed, along with the \"Alley of the [Righteous Among the World](/wiki/Righteous_Among_the_Nations \"Righteous Among the Nations\")\", featuring trees planted in honor of each Odessa citizen who had harbored and saved the Jews. The complex was completed in 2004 with the erection of a monument to the victims of the Holocaust in Odessa by sculptor [Zurab Tsereteli](/wiki/Zurab_Tsereteli \"Zurab Tsereteli\").\n\nFile:Holocaust\\-ODS\\-2\\.JPG\\|Memorial to the victims of the Holocaust\nFile:Odessa holocaust monument 02\\.JPG\\|Monument by Zurab Tsereteli\nFile:Odessa holocaust monument 05\\.JPG\\|Alley of the \"Righteous Among the World\".\nFile:Odessa holocaust monument 10\\.JPG\\|Memorial sign\nFile:Odessa holocaust monument 08\\.JPG\\|Memorial sign\n\n", "### The Holocaust Museum in Odessa\n\nThe Museum of the Holocaust in Odesa was created in accordance with the decision of the Council of the Odesa Regional Association of Jews, former prisoners of the ghetto and [Nazi concentration camps](/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps \"Nazi concentration camps\"). The chairman of the association is [Roman Shvartsman](/wiki/Roman_Shvartsman \"Roman Shvartsman\"). The opening of the museum took place on June 22, 2009\\.\n\n", "### Other\n\nIn January 2015, the authorities of the Italian town of Ceriano Laghetto, in the province of [Monza\\-e\\-Brianza](/wiki/Monza_e_Brianza \"Monza e Brianza\") in the [Lombardy region](/wiki/Lombardy_Region \"Lombardy Region\"), named a city square \"Martyrs Square of Odesa\" in memory of the victims of the occupation regimes in Odesa: Jews killed October 22–24, 1941, as well as [anti\\-Maidan](/wiki/Anti-Maidan \"Anti-Maidan\") activists, [rescuers](/wiki/Rescuers_assisting_Jews_during_the_Holocaust \"Rescuers assisting Jews during the Holocaust\") and accidental victims who died on May 2, 2014, in the [Odesa Trade Union House](/wiki/2014_Odesa_clashes \"2014 Odesa clashes\").\n\nOn May 2, 2015, the first anniversary of the events in the House of Trade Unions, a commemorative monument dedicated to the \"Martyrs of Odesa\" was opened at this square. The monument is a tongue of flame with a silhouette of a dove, a symbol of the world, inside.\n\nThe 2018 tragicomic Romanian film *[I Do Not Care If We Go Down in History as Barbarians](/wiki/I_Do_Not_Care_If_We_Go_Down_in_History_as_Barbarians \"I Do Not Care If We Go Down in History as Barbarians\")* deals with the massacre and historical memory among modern Romanians.\n\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [List of massacres in the Soviet Union](/wiki/List_of_massacres_in_the_Soviet_Union \"List of massacres in the Soviet Union\")\n* [List of massacres in Ukraine](/wiki/List_of_massacres_in_Ukraine \"List of massacres in Ukraine\")\n* [History of the Jews in Odesa](/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Odessa \"History of the Jews in Odessa\")\n* [Hostages Trial](/wiki/Hostages_Trial \"Hostages Trial\")\n* [Romania in World War II](/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_II \"Romania in World War II\")\n* [The Holocaust in Romania](/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Romania \"The Holocaust in Romania\")\n* [Bibliography of the Soviet Union during World War II](/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_Soviet_Union_during_World_War_II \"Bibliography of the Soviet Union during World War II\")\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "Sources\n-------\n\n", "Further reading\n---------------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* (PDF)\n* [E. Bloshtein. Features of the Holocaust in Odessa](http://news.rusrek.com/ru/eshhe/istoriya/45175-osobennosti-xolokosta-v-odesse)\n* [Official site of the Museum of the Holocaust in Odessa](https://web.archive.org/web/20141218115524/http://holocaust.od.ua/)\n* [Book\\-trailer literary and documentary novel *The Ways of Death*. Notes ghetovtsa »IA Alexandrovich about the Holocaust in Odessa](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Eho5pHZeyuU/)\n\n[Odessa massacre](/wiki/Category:1941_in_Ukraine \"1941 in Ukraine\")\n[Category:October 1941 events](/wiki/Category:October_1941_events \"October 1941 events\")\n[Category:Massacres in 1941](/wiki/Category:Massacres_in_1941 \"Massacres in 1941\")\n[Odessa](/wiki/Category:Einsatzgruppen \"Einsatzgruppen\")\n[Odessa](/wiki/Category:The_Holocaust_in_Transnistria \"The Holocaust in Transnistria\")\n[Category:Jews and Judaism in Odesa](/wiki/Category:Jews_and_Judaism_in_Odesa \"Jews and Judaism in Odesa\")\n[Odessa](/wiki/Category:Massacres_in_Ukraine \"Massacres in Ukraine\")\n[Category:Holocaust massacres and pogroms in Ukraine](/wiki/Category:Holocaust_massacres_and_pogroms_in_Ukraine \"Holocaust massacres and pogroms in Ukraine\")\n[Category:Odessa in World War II](/wiki/Category:Odessa_in_World_War_II \"Odessa in World War II\")\n[Category:World War II massacres](/wiki/Category:World_War_II_massacres \"World War II massacres\")\n[Category:Nazi war crimes in Ukraine](/wiki/Category:Nazi_war_crimes_in_Ukraine \"Nazi war crimes in Ukraine\")\n[Category:Romania–Soviet Union relations](/wiki/Category:Romania%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations \"Romania–Soviet Union relations\")\n[Category:Massacres in the Soviet Union](/wiki/Category:Massacres_in_the_Soviet_Union \"Massacres in the Soviet Union\")\n[Category:Romani genocide](/wiki/Category:Romani_genocide \"Romani genocide\")\n[Category:Romanian war crimes](/wiki/Category:Romanian_war_crimes \"Romanian war crimes\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 43665358 ], "name": [ "LRQ 98" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Early life", "Career", "Film and television", "Theatre", "''EastEnders''", "Personal life", "Death", "Filmography", "Film", "Television", "Radio", "Theatre", "Directed", "Bibliography", "Awards and nominations", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**June Muriel Brown** (16 February 1927 – 3 April 2022\\) was an English actress and author. She was best known for her role as [Dot Cotton](/wiki/Dot_Cotton \"Dot Cotton\") on the [BBC](/wiki/BBC \"BBC\") soap opera *[EastEnders](/wiki/EastEnders \"EastEnders\")* (1985–1993; 1997–2020\\). In 2005, she won Best Actress at the [*Inside Soap* Awards](/wiki/Inside_Soap_Awards \"Inside Soap Awards\") and received the [Lifetime Achievement](/wiki/British_Soap_Award_for_Outstanding_Achievement \"British Soap Award for Outstanding Achievement\") award at the [2005 British Soap Awards](/wiki/2005_British_Soap_Awards \"2005 British Soap Awards\"). Brown was appointed a [Member of the Order of the British Empire](/wiki/Order_of_the_British_Empire \"Order of the British Empire\") (MBE) in the [2008 Birthday Honours](/wiki/2008_Birthday_Honours \"2008 Birthday Honours\") for services to drama and to charity, and promoted to an OBE in the [2022 New Year Honours](/wiki/2022_New_Year_Honours \"2022 New Year Honours\"). In 2009, she was nominated for the [BAFTA TV Award for Best Actress](/wiki/British_Academy_Television_Award_for_Best_Actress \"British Academy Television Award for Best Actress\"), making her the second performer to receive a [BAFTA](/wiki/BAFTA \"BAFTA\") nomination for their work in a soap opera, after [Jean Alexander](/wiki/Jean_Alexander \"Jean Alexander\"). In February 2020, at the age of 93, she announced that she had left *EastEnders* permanently.\n\n", "Early life\n----------\n\nBrown was born on 16 February 1927 in [Needham Market](/wiki/Needham_Market \"Needham Market\"), [Suffolk](/wiki/Suffolk \"Suffolk\"), one of five children of Louisa Ann (née Butler) and Henry William Melton Brown. Her ancestry included English, Irish and Scottish, and from her maternal grandmother, [Sephardic Jewish](/wiki/Sephardi_Jews \"Sephardi Jews\") (from Algeria, the Netherlands and Italy). Through her grandmother, she was descended from the noted Jewish bare\\-knuckle boxer [Isaac Bitton](/wiki/Isaac_Bitton_%28boxer%29 \"Isaac Bitton (boxer)\").\n\nBrown was educated at St John's Church of England School in [Ipswich](/wiki/Ipswich \"Ipswich\") and then won a scholarship to [Ipswich High School](/wiki/Ipswich_High_School%2C_Suffolk \"Ipswich High School, Suffolk\"), where she passed the [school certificate](/wiki/School_Certificate_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"School Certificate (United Kingdom)\") examinations. During the [Second World War](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), she was evacuated to the Welsh village of [Pontyates](/wiki/Pontyates \"Pontyates\") in [Carmarthenshire](/wiki/Carmarthenshire \"Carmarthenshire\"). During the later years of the war, she served in the [Wrens](/wiki/Women%27s_Royal_Naval_Service \"Women's Royal Naval Service\") and was classically trained at the Old Vic Theatre School in [Lambeth](/wiki/Lambeth \"Lambeth\"), London.\n\n", "Career\n------\n\n### Film and television\n\nBrown had a long television career, appearing on three episodes of *[Coronation Street](/wiki/Coronation_Street \"Coronation Street\")* as [Mrs Parsons](/wiki/List_of_Coronation_Street_characters_%281970%29%23Mrs_Parsons \"List of Coronation Street characters (1970)#Mrs Parsons\") (1970–71\\); the *[Play for Today](/wiki/Play_for_Today \"Play for Today\")*, *[Edna, the Inebriate Woman](/wiki/Edna%2C_the_Inebriate_Woman \"Edna, the Inebriate Woman\")* as Clara (1971\\); the *[Doctor Who](/wiki/Doctor_Who \"Doctor Who\")* story *[The Time Warrior](/wiki/The_Time_Warrior \"The Time Warrior\")* as Lady Eleanor (1973–74\\); the nursing soap *[Angels](/wiki/Angels_%28TV_series%29 \"Angels (TV series)\")*; the history\\-of\\-Britain *Churchill's People*; long\\-running comedy drama *[Minder](/wiki/Minder_%28TV_series%29 \"Minder (TV series)\")*; the police drama soap *[The Bill](/wiki/The_Bill \"The Bill\")*; and cult sci\\-fi series *[Survivors](/wiki/Survivors_%281975_TV_series%29 \"Survivors (1975 TV series)\")*. She had a bigger part as Mrs Leyton in the costume drama *[The Duchess of Duke Street](/wiki/The_Duchess_of_Duke_Street \"The Duchess of Duke Street\")* (1976\\), and played Mrs Mann in *[Oliver Twist](/wiki/Oliver_Twist_%281985_TV_serial%29 \"Oliver Twist (1985 TV serial)\")* (1985\\).\n\nShe also played Nanny Slagg in the BBC's big\\-budget production of *[Gormenghast](/wiki/Gormenghast_%28series%29 \"Gormenghast (series)\")* in 2000\\. She was cast in small roles in several movies, appearing as the grieving mother of an undead biker in British horror flick *[Psychomania](/wiki/Psychomania \"Psychomania\")* (1971\\), as well as *[Sunday Bloody Sunday](/wiki/Sunday_Bloody_Sunday_%28film%29 \"Sunday Bloody Sunday (film)\")* (1971\\), *[Sitting Target](/wiki/Sitting_Target \"Sitting Target\")* (1972\\), *[The 14](/wiki/The_14 \"The 14\")* (1973\\), *[Murder by Decree](/wiki/Murder_by_Decree \"Murder by Decree\")* (1979\\), *[Nijinsky](/wiki/Nijinsky_%28film%29 \"Nijinsky (film)\")* (1980\\), *[The Mambo Kings](/wiki/The_Mambo_Kings \"The Mambo Kings\")* (1992\\) and the *[Mr. Bean](/wiki/Mr._Bean \"Mr. Bean\")* movie spin\\-off *[Bean](/wiki/Bean_%28film%29 \"Bean (film)\")* (1997\\). She also appeared as Tom Hedden's wife in *[Straw Dogs](/wiki/Straw_Dogs_%281971_film%29 \"Straw Dogs (1971 film)\")* (1971\\), although her scenes were cut from the film. In 1984, she featured in the TV mini\\-series *[Lace](/wiki/Lace_%28miniseries%29 \"Lace (miniseries)\")* which starred actress [Phoebe Cates](/wiki/Phoebe_Cates \"Phoebe Cates\").\n\nIn 2006, Brown appeared as Aunt Spiker at the [Children's Party at the Palace](/wiki/Children%27s_Party_at_the_Palace \"Children's Party at the Palace\"), an all\\-star event to celebrate [the Queen](/wiki/Elizabeth_II \"Elizabeth II\")'s 80th birthday. In 2010, Brown took part in [the annual Christmas special](/wiki/List_of_Strictly_Come_Dancing_specials%232010_Christmas_Special \"List of Strictly Come Dancing specials#2010 Christmas Special\") of *[Strictly Come Dancing](/wiki/Strictly_Come_Dancing \"Strictly Come Dancing\")*. Brown said \"I'm terrified and apprehensive about what I've let myself in for, I must be barmy and I'm not sure what's come over me ... I just hope I can remember the steps to the routines. I'm looking forward to working with the professional dancers and the other contestants.\" Her dancing partner was [Vincent Simone](/wiki/Vincent_Simone \"Vincent Simone\"), with whom she danced the tango.\n\nIn August 2011 she was featured in the BBC's *[Who Do You Think You Are?](/wiki/Who_Do_You_Think_You_Are%3F_%28British_TV_series%29 \"Who Do You Think You Are? (British TV series)\")*, and was the oldest person to have appeared on the programme.\n\nIn July 2012, Brown hosted a documentary for the BBC called *Respect Your Elders*, which looked at society's treatment and attitudes towards the elderly.\n\n### Theatre\n\nBrown was also active in British theatre. She directed and starred in *Pin Money* by [Malcolm Needs](/wiki/Malcolm_Needs \"Malcolm Needs\") in London, and *Double D* by Matthew Westwood in [Edinburgh](/wiki/Edinburgh \"Edinburgh\") and London. She played Mrs Danvers in a touring production of *[Rebecca](/wiki/Rebecca_%28novel%29 \"Rebecca (novel)\")*. Other plays include *[An Inspector Calls](/wiki/An_Inspector_Calls \"An Inspector Calls\")*, *[The Lion in Winter](/wiki/The_Lion_in_Winter \"The Lion in Winter\")*, *[A View from the Bridge](/wiki/A_View_from_the_Bridge \"A View from the Bridge\")*, and numerous [pantomimes](/wiki/Pantomime \"Pantomime\"). During her early career, she played the roles of [Hedda Gabler](/wiki/Hedda_Gabler \"Hedda Gabler\") and [Lady Macbeth](/wiki/Lady_Macbeth \"Lady Macbeth\"). \n\nIn 2009, Brown played Jessie in the West End production of *[Calendar Girls](/wiki/Calendar_Girls_%28play%29 \"Calendar Girls (play)\")* at the [Noël Coward Theatre](/wiki/No%C3%ABl_Coward_Theatre \"Noël Coward Theatre\"). Also in the play were former *[EastEnders](/wiki/EastEnders \"EastEnders\")* stars [Anita Dobson](/wiki/Anita_Dobson \"Anita Dobson\") ([Angie Watts](/wiki/Angie_Watts \"Angie Watts\")), [Jill Halfpenny](/wiki/Jill_Halfpenny \"Jill Halfpenny\") ([Kate Mitchell](/wiki/Kate_Mitchell_%28EastEnders%29 \"Kate Mitchell (EastEnders)\")) and [Jack Ryder](/wiki/Jack_Ryder_%28actor%29 \"Jack Ryder (actor)\") ([Jamie Mitchell](/wiki/Jamie_Mitchell \"Jamie Mitchell\")).\n\n### *EastEnders*\n\nBrown was recommended to producers for the role of [Dot Cotton](/wiki/Dot_Cotton \"Dot Cotton\") in *EastEnders* by one of its original cast members, [Leslie Grantham](/wiki/Leslie_Grantham \"Leslie Grantham\"), who played [Den Watts](/wiki/Den_Watts \"Den Watts\"). Brown played the role from 1985 to 2020, with a break between 1993 and 1997\\.\n\nOn 31 January 2008, aged 80, Brown became the first and, to date, only soap actor to carry an entire episode single\\-handed. [The episode](/wiki/Pretty_Baby.... \"Pretty Baby....\") featured a monologue looking back over her character's life, dictated to a cassette machine for her husband [Jim](/wiki/Jim_Branning \"Jim Branning\") to listen to in hospital following a stroke. The fact that co\\-star and close friend [John Bardon](/wiki/John_Bardon \"John Bardon\") (who played Jim) was recovering from a stroke in real life added extra pathos to the episode. In 2009, Brown was nominated for the [British Academy Television Award for Best Actress](/wiki/British_Academy_Television_Award_for_Best_Actress \"British Academy Television Award for Best Actress\"). Brown's nomination came as a result of her \"single\\-hander\" episode of *EastEnders*, the director of which she praised.\n\nOn 30 April 2012, it was announced that Brown was to take a six\\-month break from *EastEnders* and planned to write her autobiography during her time off. In October 2012, it was announced she had returned to filming, and she appeared on screen again from January 2013\\. Her autobiography, *Before the Year Dot*, was published in 2013\\.\n\nIn May 2015, Brown revealed that her eyesight was failing due to [macular degeneration](/wiki/Macular_degeneration \"Macular degeneration\"). Later, in 2016, a storyline for Dot in which her eyesight was deteriorating was introduced. Speaking about the condition in April 2019, Brown said that it had worsened since undergoing surgery in 2017, and that she no longer went out socially because of her eyesight: \"I never go to soap awards or suchlike now. I don't recognise people that I know and they would think I was snubbing them.\"\n\nOn 20 February 2020, Brown announced that she had left *EastEnders*.\n\n", "### Film and television\n\nBrown had a long television career, appearing on three episodes of *[Coronation Street](/wiki/Coronation_Street \"Coronation Street\")* as [Mrs Parsons](/wiki/List_of_Coronation_Street_characters_%281970%29%23Mrs_Parsons \"List of Coronation Street characters (1970)#Mrs Parsons\") (1970–71\\); the *[Play for Today](/wiki/Play_for_Today \"Play for Today\")*, *[Edna, the Inebriate Woman](/wiki/Edna%2C_the_Inebriate_Woman \"Edna, the Inebriate Woman\")* as Clara (1971\\); the *[Doctor Who](/wiki/Doctor_Who \"Doctor Who\")* story *[The Time Warrior](/wiki/The_Time_Warrior \"The Time Warrior\")* as Lady Eleanor (1973–74\\); the nursing soap *[Angels](/wiki/Angels_%28TV_series%29 \"Angels (TV series)\")*; the history\\-of\\-Britain *Churchill's People*; long\\-running comedy drama *[Minder](/wiki/Minder_%28TV_series%29 \"Minder (TV series)\")*; the police drama soap *[The Bill](/wiki/The_Bill \"The Bill\")*; and cult sci\\-fi series *[Survivors](/wiki/Survivors_%281975_TV_series%29 \"Survivors (1975 TV series)\")*. She had a bigger part as Mrs Leyton in the costume drama *[The Duchess of Duke Street](/wiki/The_Duchess_of_Duke_Street \"The Duchess of Duke Street\")* (1976\\), and played Mrs Mann in *[Oliver Twist](/wiki/Oliver_Twist_%281985_TV_serial%29 \"Oliver Twist (1985 TV serial)\")* (1985\\).\n\nShe also played Nanny Slagg in the BBC's big\\-budget production of *[Gormenghast](/wiki/Gormenghast_%28series%29 \"Gormenghast (series)\")* in 2000\\. She was cast in small roles in several movies, appearing as the grieving mother of an undead biker in British horror flick *[Psychomania](/wiki/Psychomania \"Psychomania\")* (1971\\), as well as *[Sunday Bloody Sunday](/wiki/Sunday_Bloody_Sunday_%28film%29 \"Sunday Bloody Sunday (film)\")* (1971\\), *[Sitting Target](/wiki/Sitting_Target \"Sitting Target\")* (1972\\), *[The 14](/wiki/The_14 \"The 14\")* (1973\\), *[Murder by Decree](/wiki/Murder_by_Decree \"Murder by Decree\")* (1979\\), *[Nijinsky](/wiki/Nijinsky_%28film%29 \"Nijinsky (film)\")* (1980\\), *[The Mambo Kings](/wiki/The_Mambo_Kings \"The Mambo Kings\")* (1992\\) and the *[Mr. Bean](/wiki/Mr._Bean \"Mr. Bean\")* movie spin\\-off *[Bean](/wiki/Bean_%28film%29 \"Bean (film)\")* (1997\\). She also appeared as Tom Hedden's wife in *[Straw Dogs](/wiki/Straw_Dogs_%281971_film%29 \"Straw Dogs (1971 film)\")* (1971\\), although her scenes were cut from the film. In 1984, she featured in the TV mini\\-series *[Lace](/wiki/Lace_%28miniseries%29 \"Lace (miniseries)\")* which starred actress [Phoebe Cates](/wiki/Phoebe_Cates \"Phoebe Cates\").\n\nIn 2006, Brown appeared as Aunt Spiker at the [Children's Party at the Palace](/wiki/Children%27s_Party_at_the_Palace \"Children's Party at the Palace\"), an all\\-star event to celebrate [the Queen](/wiki/Elizabeth_II \"Elizabeth II\")'s 80th birthday. In 2010, Brown took part in [the annual Christmas special](/wiki/List_of_Strictly_Come_Dancing_specials%232010_Christmas_Special \"List of Strictly Come Dancing specials#2010 Christmas Special\") of *[Strictly Come Dancing](/wiki/Strictly_Come_Dancing \"Strictly Come Dancing\")*. Brown said \"I'm terrified and apprehensive about what I've let myself in for, I must be barmy and I'm not sure what's come over me ... I just hope I can remember the steps to the routines. I'm looking forward to working with the professional dancers and the other contestants.\" Her dancing partner was [Vincent Simone](/wiki/Vincent_Simone \"Vincent Simone\"), with whom she danced the tango.\n\nIn August 2011 she was featured in the BBC's *[Who Do You Think You Are?](/wiki/Who_Do_You_Think_You_Are%3F_%28British_TV_series%29 \"Who Do You Think You Are? (British TV series)\")*, and was the oldest person to have appeared on the programme.\n\nIn July 2012, Brown hosted a documentary for the BBC called *Respect Your Elders*, which looked at society's treatment and attitudes towards the elderly.\n\n", "### Theatre\n\nBrown was also active in British theatre. She directed and starred in *Pin Money* by [Malcolm Needs](/wiki/Malcolm_Needs \"Malcolm Needs\") in London, and *Double D* by Matthew Westwood in [Edinburgh](/wiki/Edinburgh \"Edinburgh\") and London. She played Mrs Danvers in a touring production of *[Rebecca](/wiki/Rebecca_%28novel%29 \"Rebecca (novel)\")*. Other plays include *[An Inspector Calls](/wiki/An_Inspector_Calls \"An Inspector Calls\")*, *[The Lion in Winter](/wiki/The_Lion_in_Winter \"The Lion in Winter\")*, *[A View from the Bridge](/wiki/A_View_from_the_Bridge \"A View from the Bridge\")*, and numerous [pantomimes](/wiki/Pantomime \"Pantomime\"). During her early career, she played the roles of [Hedda Gabler](/wiki/Hedda_Gabler \"Hedda Gabler\") and [Lady Macbeth](/wiki/Lady_Macbeth \"Lady Macbeth\"). \n\nIn 2009, Brown played Jessie in the West End production of *[Calendar Girls](/wiki/Calendar_Girls_%28play%29 \"Calendar Girls (play)\")* at the [Noël Coward Theatre](/wiki/No%C3%ABl_Coward_Theatre \"Noël Coward Theatre\"). Also in the play were former *[EastEnders](/wiki/EastEnders \"EastEnders\")* stars [Anita Dobson](/wiki/Anita_Dobson \"Anita Dobson\") ([Angie Watts](/wiki/Angie_Watts \"Angie Watts\")), [Jill Halfpenny](/wiki/Jill_Halfpenny \"Jill Halfpenny\") ([Kate Mitchell](/wiki/Kate_Mitchell_%28EastEnders%29 \"Kate Mitchell (EastEnders)\")) and [Jack Ryder](/wiki/Jack_Ryder_%28actor%29 \"Jack Ryder (actor)\") ([Jamie Mitchell](/wiki/Jamie_Mitchell \"Jamie Mitchell\")).\n\n", "### *EastEnders*\n\nBrown was recommended to producers for the role of [Dot Cotton](/wiki/Dot_Cotton \"Dot Cotton\") in *EastEnders* by one of its original cast members, [Leslie Grantham](/wiki/Leslie_Grantham \"Leslie Grantham\"), who played [Den Watts](/wiki/Den_Watts \"Den Watts\"). Brown played the role from 1985 to 2020, with a break between 1993 and 1997\\.\n\nOn 31 January 2008, aged 80, Brown became the first and, to date, only soap actor to carry an entire episode single\\-handed. [The episode](/wiki/Pretty_Baby.... \"Pretty Baby....\") featured a monologue looking back over her character's life, dictated to a cassette machine for her husband [Jim](/wiki/Jim_Branning \"Jim Branning\") to listen to in hospital following a stroke. The fact that co\\-star and close friend [John Bardon](/wiki/John_Bardon \"John Bardon\") (who played Jim) was recovering from a stroke in real life added extra pathos to the episode. In 2009, Brown was nominated for the [British Academy Television Award for Best Actress](/wiki/British_Academy_Television_Award_for_Best_Actress \"British Academy Television Award for Best Actress\"). Brown's nomination came as a result of her \"single\\-hander\" episode of *EastEnders*, the director of which she praised.\n\nOn 30 April 2012, it was announced that Brown was to take a six\\-month break from *EastEnders* and planned to write her autobiography during her time off. In October 2012, it was announced she had returned to filming, and she appeared on screen again from January 2013\\. Her autobiography, *Before the Year Dot*, was published in 2013\\.\n\nIn May 2015, Brown revealed that her eyesight was failing due to [macular degeneration](/wiki/Macular_degeneration \"Macular degeneration\"). Later, in 2016, a storyline for Dot in which her eyesight was deteriorating was introduced. Speaking about the condition in April 2019, Brown said that it had worsened since undergoing surgery in 2017, and that she no longer went out socially because of her eyesight: \"I never go to soap awards or suchlike now. I don't recognise people that I know and they would think I was snubbing them.\"\n\nOn 20 February 2020, Brown announced that she had left *EastEnders*.\n\n", "Personal life\n-------------\n\nIn 1950, Brown met and married actor John Garley; he suffered from [depression](/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder \"Major depressive disorder\") and died of suicide in 1957\\. In 1958, she married actor Robert Arnold. They had six children in seven years, one of whom died in infancy. The couple were together for 45 years, until he died in 2003 of [Lewy\\-body dementia](/wiki/Lewy_body_dementias \"Lewy body dementias\"). Thereafter, she lived alone in Surrey.\n\nBrown was a supporter of the [Conservative Party](/wiki/Conservative_Party_%28UK%29 \"Conservative Party (UK)\") and told *[The Guardian](/wiki/The_Guardian \"The Guardian\")* in 2009, \"I wouldn't vote [Labour](/wiki/Labour_Party_%28UK%29 \"Labour Party (UK)\"), dear, if you paid me. I vote Conservative.\" Like her *EastEnders* character, she was a [Christian](/wiki/Christians \"Christians\").\n\nBrown was appointed [Member of the Order of the British Empire](/wiki/Member_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire \"Member of the Order of the British Empire\") (MBE) in the [2008 Birthday Honours](/wiki/2008_Birthday_Honours \"2008 Birthday Honours\") and [Officer of the Order of the British Empire](/wiki/Officer_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire \"Officer of the Order of the British Empire\") (OBE) in the [2022 New Year Honours](/wiki/2022_New_Year_Honours \"2022 New Year Honours\"), both for services to drama and to charity.\n\n", "Death\n-----\n\nBrown died on 3 April 2022, aged 95\\. On the announcement of her death, the following day, *EastEnders* paid tribute to Brown and posted condolences from several of her former co\\-stars on social media, including [Gillian Taylforth](/wiki/Gillian_Taylforth \"Gillian Taylforth\"), [Natalie Cassidy](/wiki/Natalie_Cassidy \"Natalie Cassidy\"), [Lacey Turner](/wiki/Lacey_Turner \"Lacey Turner\"), [Diane Parish](/wiki/Diane_Parish \"Diane Parish\"), [Emma Barton](/wiki/Emma_Barton \"Emma Barton\"), [Shona McGarty](/wiki/Shona_McGarty \"Shona McGarty\"), [Adam Woodyatt](/wiki/Adam_Woodyatt \"Adam Woodyatt\") and [Letitia Dean](/wiki/Letitia_Dean \"Letitia Dean\"). The episode broadcast that evening was dedicated to her memory. Following this, the documentary *June Brown: A Walford Legend*, which originally aired in 2017, to celebrate Brown's 90th birthday, and her 2011 episode of *Who Do You Think You Are?*, were aired on BBC One, in a change to the original schedule.\n\n", "Filmography\n-----------\n\n### Film\n\n* *[Sunday Bloody Sunday](/wiki/Sunday_Bloody_Sunday_%28film%29 \"Sunday Bloody Sunday (film)\")* (1971\\) as Woman Patient\n* *[Straw Dogs](/wiki/Straw_Dogs_%281971_film%29 \"Straw Dogs (1971 film)\")* (1971\\) as Mrs Hedden (scenes deleted)\n* *[Sitting Target](/wiki/Sitting_Target \"Sitting Target\")* (1972\\) as Lomart's neighbour\n* *[Psychomania](/wiki/Psychomania \"Psychomania\")* (1972\\) as Mrs Pettibone\n* *[The 14](/wiki/The_14 \"The 14\")* (1973\\) as The Mother\n* *[Murder by Decree](/wiki/Murder_by_Decree \"Murder by Decree\")* (1979\\) as [Annie Chapman](/wiki/Annie_Chapman \"Annie Chapman\")\n* *[Nijinsky](/wiki/Nijinsky_%28film%29 \"Nijinsky (film)\")* (1980\\) as Maria Stepanova\n* *[Misunderstood](/wiki/Misunderstood_%281984_film%29 \"Misunderstood (1984 film)\")* (1984\\) as Mrs Paley\n* *[The Mambo Kings](/wiki/The_Mambo_Kings \"The Mambo Kings\")* (1992\\) as Portly Woman\n* *[Bean](/wiki/Bean_%28film%29 \"Bean (film)\")* (1997\\) as Delilah\n* *[Margery and Gladys](/wiki/Margery_and_Gladys \"Margery and Gladys\")* (2003\\) as Gladys Gladwell\n* *Spidarlings* (2016\\) as June\n* *[Ethel \\& Ernest](/wiki/Ethel_%26_Ernest_%28film%29 \"Ethel & Ernest (film)\")* (2016\\) as Ernest's stepmother\n\n### Television\n\n* *The Rough and Ready Lot* (1959\\) as Chica\n* *[Coronation Street](/wiki/Coronation_Street \"Coronation Street\")* (1970–1971\\) as [Mrs. Parsons](/wiki/List_of_Coronation_Street_characters_%281970%29%23Mrs._Parsons \"List of Coronation Street characters (1970)#Mrs. Parsons\") (3 episodes)\n* *[Edna, the Inebriate Woman](/wiki/Edna%2C_the_Inebriate_Woman \"Edna, the Inebriate Woman\")* (1971\\) as Clara\n* *[Doctor Who](/wiki/Doctor_Who \"Doctor Who\")* (*[The Time Warrior](/wiki/The_Time_Warrior \"The Time Warrior\")* serial) (1973–1974\\) as Lady Eleanor (4 episodes)\n* *[South Riding](/wiki/South_Riding_%28novel%29 \"South Riding (novel)\")* (1974\\) as Lily Sawdon (4 episodes)\n* *[Special Branch](/wiki/Special_Branch_%28TV_series%29 \"Special Branch (TV series)\")* (1974\\) as Chrissy (1 episode)\n* *[Churchill's People](/wiki/Churchill%27s_People \"Churchill's People\")* (1975\\) as Agnes Paston (1 episode)\n* *[The Sweeney](/wiki/The_Sweeney \"The Sweeney\")* (1975\\) as Mrs Martin (1 episode)\n* *The Prince and the Pauper* (1976\\) as Mother Canty (5 episodes)\n* *[The Duchess of Duke Street](/wiki/The_Duchess_of_Duke_Street \"The Duchess of Duke Street\")* (1976–1977\\) as Mrs Violet Leyton (6 episodes)\n* *[Survivors](/wiki/Survivors_%281975_TV_series%29 \"Survivors (1975 TV series)\")* (1977\\) as Susan (1 episode)\n* *[God's Wonderful Railway](/wiki/God%27s_Wonderful_Railway \"God's Wonderful Railway\")* (1980\\) as Elsie Grant (3 episodes)\n* *Instant Enlightenment Including VAT* (1980\\) as Melanie\n* *[Lace](/wiki/Lace_%28miniseries%29 \"Lace (miniseries)\")* (1984\\) as Mrs Trelawney (2 episodes)\n* *[Minder](/wiki/Minder_%28TV_series%29 \"Minder (TV series)\")* (1984\\) as Joany (1 episode)\n* *[The Bill](/wiki/The_Bill \"The Bill\")* (1984\\) as Mrs Doleman (1 episode)\n* *[Oliver Twist](/wiki/Oliver_Twist_%281985_TV_serial%29 \"Oliver Twist (1985 TV serial)\")* (1985\\) as Mrs Mann (1 episode)\n* *[EastEnders](/wiki/EastEnders \"EastEnders\")* (1985–1993, 1997–2020\\) as [Dot Cotton](/wiki/Dot_Cotton \"Dot Cotton\") (2,884 episodes)\n* *[Gormenghast](/wiki/Gormenghast_%28TV_serial%29 \"Gormenghast (TV serial)\")* (2000\\) as Nannie Slagg (2 episodes)\n* *[Heading Out](/wiki/Heading_Out \"Heading Out\")* (2013\\) as Sozzie (1 episode)\n* *[Would I Lie to You? (game show)](/wiki/Would_I_Lie_to_You%3F_%28British_game_show%29 \"Would I Lie to You? (British game show)\")* (2014\\) as herself (1 episode)\n* *June Brown at 90: A Walford Legend* (2017\\), TV special\n* *100 Years Younger in 21 Days* (2018\\) as herself (documentary series)\n* *Hard to Please OAPS* (2019\\) as herself (documentary series, 6 episodes)\n\n### Radio\n\n* *Missing You* (2021\\) as Margey (1 episode)\n", "### Film\n\n* *[Sunday Bloody Sunday](/wiki/Sunday_Bloody_Sunday_%28film%29 \"Sunday Bloody Sunday (film)\")* (1971\\) as Woman Patient\n* *[Straw Dogs](/wiki/Straw_Dogs_%281971_film%29 \"Straw Dogs (1971 film)\")* (1971\\) as Mrs Hedden (scenes deleted)\n* *[Sitting Target](/wiki/Sitting_Target \"Sitting Target\")* (1972\\) as Lomart's neighbour\n* *[Psychomania](/wiki/Psychomania \"Psychomania\")* (1972\\) as Mrs Pettibone\n* *[The 14](/wiki/The_14 \"The 14\")* (1973\\) as The Mother\n* *[Murder by Decree](/wiki/Murder_by_Decree \"Murder by Decree\")* (1979\\) as [Annie Chapman](/wiki/Annie_Chapman \"Annie Chapman\")\n* *[Nijinsky](/wiki/Nijinsky_%28film%29 \"Nijinsky (film)\")* (1980\\) as Maria Stepanova\n* *[Misunderstood](/wiki/Misunderstood_%281984_film%29 \"Misunderstood (1984 film)\")* (1984\\) as Mrs Paley\n* *[The Mambo Kings](/wiki/The_Mambo_Kings \"The Mambo Kings\")* (1992\\) as Portly Woman\n* *[Bean](/wiki/Bean_%28film%29 \"Bean (film)\")* (1997\\) as Delilah\n* *[Margery and Gladys](/wiki/Margery_and_Gladys \"Margery and Gladys\")* (2003\\) as Gladys Gladwell\n* *Spidarlings* (2016\\) as June\n* *[Ethel \\& Ernest](/wiki/Ethel_%26_Ernest_%28film%29 \"Ethel & Ernest (film)\")* (2016\\) as Ernest's stepmother\n", "### Television\n\n* *The Rough and Ready Lot* (1959\\) as Chica\n* *[Coronation Street](/wiki/Coronation_Street \"Coronation Street\")* (1970–1971\\) as [Mrs. Parsons](/wiki/List_of_Coronation_Street_characters_%281970%29%23Mrs._Parsons \"List of Coronation Street characters (1970)#Mrs. Parsons\") (3 episodes)\n* *[Edna, the Inebriate Woman](/wiki/Edna%2C_the_Inebriate_Woman \"Edna, the Inebriate Woman\")* (1971\\) as Clara\n* *[Doctor Who](/wiki/Doctor_Who \"Doctor Who\")* (*[The Time Warrior](/wiki/The_Time_Warrior \"The Time Warrior\")* serial) (1973–1974\\) as Lady Eleanor (4 episodes)\n* *[South Riding](/wiki/South_Riding_%28novel%29 \"South Riding (novel)\")* (1974\\) as Lily Sawdon (4 episodes)\n* *[Special Branch](/wiki/Special_Branch_%28TV_series%29 \"Special Branch (TV series)\")* (1974\\) as Chrissy (1 episode)\n* *[Churchill's People](/wiki/Churchill%27s_People \"Churchill's People\")* (1975\\) as Agnes Paston (1 episode)\n* *[The Sweeney](/wiki/The_Sweeney \"The Sweeney\")* (1975\\) as Mrs Martin (1 episode)\n* *The Prince and the Pauper* (1976\\) as Mother Canty (5 episodes)\n* *[The Duchess of Duke Street](/wiki/The_Duchess_of_Duke_Street \"The Duchess of Duke Street\")* (1976–1977\\) as Mrs Violet Leyton (6 episodes)\n* *[Survivors](/wiki/Survivors_%281975_TV_series%29 \"Survivors (1975 TV series)\")* (1977\\) as Susan (1 episode)\n* *[God's Wonderful Railway](/wiki/God%27s_Wonderful_Railway \"God's Wonderful Railway\")* (1980\\) as Elsie Grant (3 episodes)\n* *Instant Enlightenment Including VAT* (1980\\) as Melanie\n* *[Lace](/wiki/Lace_%28miniseries%29 \"Lace (miniseries)\")* (1984\\) as Mrs Trelawney (2 episodes)\n* *[Minder](/wiki/Minder_%28TV_series%29 \"Minder (TV series)\")* (1984\\) as Joany (1 episode)\n* *[The Bill](/wiki/The_Bill \"The Bill\")* (1984\\) as Mrs Doleman (1 episode)\n* *[Oliver Twist](/wiki/Oliver_Twist_%281985_TV_serial%29 \"Oliver Twist (1985 TV serial)\")* (1985\\) as Mrs Mann (1 episode)\n* *[EastEnders](/wiki/EastEnders \"EastEnders\")* (1985–1993, 1997–2020\\) as [Dot Cotton](/wiki/Dot_Cotton \"Dot Cotton\") (2,884 episodes)\n* *[Gormenghast](/wiki/Gormenghast_%28TV_serial%29 \"Gormenghast (TV serial)\")* (2000\\) as Nannie Slagg (2 episodes)\n* *[Heading Out](/wiki/Heading_Out \"Heading Out\")* (2013\\) as Sozzie (1 episode)\n* *[Would I Lie to You? (game show)](/wiki/Would_I_Lie_to_You%3F_%28British_game_show%29 \"Would I Lie to You? (British game show)\")* (2014\\) as herself (1 episode)\n* *June Brown at 90: A Walford Legend* (2017\\), TV special\n* *100 Years Younger in 21 Days* (2018\\) as herself (documentary series)\n* *Hard to Please OAPS* (2019\\) as herself (documentary series, 6 episodes)\n", "### Radio\n\n* *Missing You* (2021\\) as Margey (1 episode)\n", "Theatre\n-------\n\n* *The Rough and Ready Lot*\n* *Magnolia Street Story*\n* *[An Inspector Calls](/wiki/An_Inspector_Calls \"An Inspector Calls\")*\n* *Nightshade*\n* *[The Lion in Winter](/wiki/The_Lion_in_Winter \"The Lion in Winter\")*\n* *[Hedda Gabler](/wiki/Hedda_Gabler \"Hedda Gabler\")*\n* *A Day Forever*\n* *[Rebecca](/wiki/Rebecca_%28novel%29 \"Rebecca (novel)\")*\n* *Laura*\n* *Absolute Hell*\n* *[Macbeth](/wiki/Macbeth \"Macbeth\")*\n* *[Calendar Girls](/wiki/Calendar_Girls_%28play%29 \"Calendar Girls (play)\")*\n\n### Directed\n\n* *Double D* (play)\n", "### Directed\n\n* *Double D* (play)\n", "Bibliography\n------------\n\n* *Before the Year Dot* (2013\\)\n", "Awards and nominations\n----------------------\n\n| Year | Award | Category | Work | Character | Result |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1999 | [National Television Awards](/wiki/National_Television_Awards \"National Television Awards\") | Most Popular Actress | *EastEnders* | Dot Cotton | |\n| 2000 | |\n| [British Soap Awards](/wiki/British_Soap_Awards \"British Soap Awards\") | [Best Actress](/wiki/British_Soap_Award_for_Best_Actress \"British Soap Award for Best Actress\") | |\n| Best Single Episode – Ethel's Emotional Death | |\n| [Best On\\-Screen Partnership](/wiki/Best_On-Screen_Partnership \"Best On-Screen Partnership\") – shared with [Gretchen Franklin](/wiki/Gretchen_Franklin \"Gretchen Franklin\") | |\n| *[TV Quick](/wiki/TV_Quick \"TV Quick\")* and *[TV Choice](/wiki/TV_Choice \"TV Choice\") Awards* | Best Actress | |\n| 2001 | National Television Awards | Most Popular Actress | |\n| British Soap Awards | Best Actress | |\n| [Best Dramatic Performance](/wiki/British_Soap_Award_for_Best_Dramatic_Performance \"British Soap Award for Best Dramatic Performance\") | |\n| Hero of the Year | |\n| Best Storyline – Dot's Schizophrenia Plot | |\n| [*Inside Soap* Awards](/wiki/Inside_Soap_Awards \"Inside Soap Awards\") | Best Actress | |\n| Best Storyline – Dot's Schizophrenia Plot | |\n| *TV Quick* and *TV Choice Awards* | Best Actress | |\n| 2002 | National Television Awards | Most Popular Actress | |\n| British Soap Awards | Best Actress | |\n| Best On\\-Screen Partnership – shared with [John Bardon](/wiki/John_Bardon \"John Bardon\") | |\n| 2004 | Best Actress | |\n| 2005 | National Television Awards | Most Popular Actress | |\n| British Soap Awards | Best Actress | |\n| Best On\\-Screen Partnership – shared with John Bardon | |\n| [Lifetime Achievement Award](/wiki/British_Soap_Award_for_Outstanding_Achievement \"British Soap Award for Outstanding Achievement\") | |\n| *Inside Soap Awards* | Best Actress | |\n| Best Couple – shared with [John Bardon](/wiki/John_Bardon \"John Bardon\") | |\n| *TV Quick* and *TV Choice Awards* | Best Actress | |\n| Best Soap Storyline – Dot's Cancer | |\n| 2007 | National Television Awards | Most Popular Actress | |\n| 2008 | [TRIC Awards](/wiki/TRIC_Awards \"TRIC Awards\") | Best TV Personality | |\n| 2009 | National Television Awards | Serial Drama Performance | |\n| [BAFTA Television Awards](/wiki/BAFTA_Television_Awards \"BAFTA Television Awards\") | Actress in a Leading Role | |\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [June Brown](https://web.archive.org/web/20160604225557/http://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2ba2e769be) at the [British Film Institute](/wiki/British_Film_Institute \"British Film Institute\")\n* [List of performances](http://www.bris.ac.uk/theatrecollection/search/people_sub_plays_all?forename=June&surname=BROWN&job=Actor&pid=994&image_view=Yesamp;x=19amp;y=17) (Theatre Collection, [University of Bristol](/wiki/University_of_Bristol \"University of Bristol\"))\n[Category:1927 births](/wiki/Category:1927_births \"1927 births\")\n[Category:2022 deaths](/wiki/Category:2022_deaths \"2022 deaths\")\n[Category:20th\\-century English actresses](/wiki/Category:20th-century_English_actresses \"20th-century English actresses\")\n[Category:21st\\-century English actresses](/wiki/Category:21st-century_English_actresses \"21st-century English actresses\")\n[Category:British Soap Award for Outstanding Achievement winners](/wiki/Category:British_Soap_Award_for_Outstanding_Achievement_winners \"British Soap Award for Outstanding Achievement winners\")\n[Category:Conservative Party (UK) people](/wiki/Category:Conservative_Party_%28UK%29_people \"Conservative Party (UK) people\")\n[Category:English Christians](/wiki/Category:English_Christians \"English Christians\")\n[Category:English people of Algerian\\-Jewish descent](/wiki/Category:English_people_of_Algerian-Jewish_descent \"English people of Algerian-Jewish descent\")\n[Category:English people of Dutch\\-Jewish descent](/wiki/Category:English_people_of_Dutch-Jewish_descent \"English people of Dutch-Jewish descent\")\n[Category:English people of Irish descent](/wiki/Category:English_people_of_Irish_descent \"English people of Irish descent\")\n[Category:English people of Italian\\-Jewish descent](/wiki/Category:English_people_of_Italian-Jewish_descent \"English people of Italian-Jewish descent\")\n[Category:English people of Scottish descent](/wiki/Category:English_people_of_Scottish_descent \"English people of Scottish descent\")\n[Category:English soap opera actresses](/wiki/Category:English_soap_opera_actresses \"English soap opera actresses\")\n[Category:English stage actresses](/wiki/Category:English_stage_actresses \"English stage actresses\")\n[Category:English television actresses](/wiki/Category:English_television_actresses \"English television actresses\")\n[Category:Officers of the Order of the British Empire](/wiki/Category:Officers_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire \"Officers of the Order of the British Empire\")\n[Category:People educated at Ipswich High School, Suffolk](/wiki/Category:People_educated_at_Ipswich_High_School%2C_Suffolk \"People educated at Ipswich High School, Suffolk\")\n[Category:People from Needham Market](/wiki/Category:People_from_Needham_Market \"People from Needham Market\")\n[Category:Women's Royal Naval Service ratings](/wiki/Category:Women%27s_Royal_Naval_Service_ratings \"Women's Royal Naval Service ratings\")\n[Category:People of Sephardic\\-Jewish descent](/wiki/Category:People_of_Sephardic-Jewish_descent \"People of Sephardic-Jewish descent\")\n[Category:Military personnel from Suffolk](/wiki/Category:Military_personnel_from_Suffolk \"Military personnel from Suffolk\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 609285 ], "name": [ "Derekbridges" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction" ], "level": [ 1 ], "content": [ "\nTwo vessels of the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\") have borne the name **USS *Pintado***, named in honor of the [pintado](/wiki/Pintado_%28West_Indies_fish%29 \"Pintado (West Indies fish)\").\n\n* was a commissioned in 1944 and struck in 1967\\.\n* was a commissioned in 1971 and struck in 1998\\.\n\n[Category:United States Navy ship names](/wiki/Category:United_States_Navy_ship_names \"United States Navy ship names\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 46426442 ], "name": [ "MoCars" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "First generation (A10/A20/A30/A40; 1974–1981)", "Second generation (A35/A55; 1981–1987)", "References" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\nThe is a [subcompact car](/wiki/Subcompact_car \"Subcompact car\") built by [Daihatsu](/wiki/Daihatsu \"Daihatsu\") of [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\"), based on the [Toyota Corolla](/wiki/Toyota_Corolla \"Toyota Corolla\"). It was succeeded by the [Daihatsu Applause](/wiki/Daihatsu_Applause \"Daihatsu Applause\") two years after Charmant production ended. The Charmant was heavily based on the E20 Toyota Corolla; model changes paralleled those of the Corolla. All Charmants were fitted with Toyota inline\\-four engines, ranging from 1\\.2 to 1\\.6 litres. The word *charmant* is [French](/wiki/French_%28language%29 \"French (language)\") for \"charming.\"\n\nWhen it was introduced, it was the largest Daihatsu sold in Japan, with the [Charade](/wiki/Daihatsu_Charade \"Daihatsu Charade\")/[Consorte](/wiki/Daihatsu_Consorte \"Daihatsu Consorte\") [supermini](/wiki/Supermini \"Supermini\"), and the [Fellow Max](/wiki/Daihatsu_Fellow_Max \"Daihatsu Fellow Max\") *[kei](/wiki/Kei_car \"Kei car\")* class car as the smallest.\n\n\\_\\_TOC\\_\\_\n\n", "First generation (A10/A20/A30/A40; 1974–1981\\)\n----------------------------------------------\n\nFirst presented in November 1974, the first generation Daihatsu Charmant was based on the E20 Corolla platform. Equipped with 1166 cc engines producing 66 PS (SAE) and 1290 cc engines producing 72 PS (SAE) at 5,200 rpm. This type of engines were coded as 3K (1\\.2 L) and 4K (1\\.3 L) Toyota engines and came with a four\\- or five\\-speed manual transmission, as well as a two\\-speed automatic option. The 88 PS (SAE) 1588 cc overhead valve [12T](/wiki/Toyota_T_engine%2312T \"Toyota T engine#12T\") engine was also available from 1978 on; this could also be ordered with a three\\-speed automatic with overdrive. There was also a 1\\.4\\-litre engine available, offering 86 PS (SAE).\n\nIn Japan only the 1\\.2\\- and 1\\.4\\-litre models were originally available, as the A10 and A20\\. These were replaced by the 1\\.3 and the 1\\.6 in April 1978 (A30 and A40\\), along with minor changes to the exterior and interior, including a new grille and dashboard. A protective side strip was also added. The new engines were the 4K\\-U and the 2T\\-U, while the van received the 4K\\-J (while retaining the T\\-J) \\- these engines fulfilled the commercial vehicle emissions specifications. In July an automatic version of the 1\\.6 appeared.\n\nFile:Daihatsu Charmant 1600 Wagon 1980\\.jpg\\|1980 Daihatsu Charmant 1600 wagon (front)\nFile:Daihatsu Charmant 1600 Wagon 1981 (13440301504\\).jpg\\|1981 Daihatsu Charmant 1600 wagon (rear)\nFile:Daihatsu Charmant 1600 1981 (13978853114\\).jpg\\|1981 Daihatsu Charmant 1600 (rear)\n\nUnique to the first generation, a station wagon was also available. This was called \"Van\" in the Japanese domestic market, where it was classed as a commercial vehicle. The Van was introduced in December 1974, a month after the saloons.\n\nThis model was exported to a fair number of countries, mostly markets without their own automobile industry. It was the first Daihatsu to be sold in [Iceland](/wiki/Iceland \"Iceland\"), where a large number of surplus cars from the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\") were brought in the summer of 1979\\. Sold at a very low price, it was one of Iceland's most popular cars that year.\n\n", "Second generation (A35/A55; 1981–1987\\)\n---------------------------------------\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n[Charmant](/wiki/Category:Daihatsu_vehicles \"Daihatsu vehicles\")\n[Category:Cars introduced in 1974](/wiki/Category:Cars_introduced_in_1974 \"Cars introduced in 1974\")\n[Category:Cars discontinued in 1987](/wiki/Category:Cars_discontinued_in_1987 \"Cars discontinued in 1987\")\n[Category:1980s cars](/wiki/Category:1980s_cars \"1980s cars\")\n[Category:Rear\\-wheel\\-drive vehicles](/wiki/Category:Rear-wheel-drive_vehicles \"Rear-wheel-drive vehicles\")\n[Category:Sedans](/wiki/Category:Sedans \"Sedans\")\n[Category:Saloons](/wiki/Category:Saloons \"Saloons\")\n[Category:Station wagons](/wiki/Category:Station_wagons \"Station wagons\")\n[Category:1970s cars](/wiki/Category:1970s_cars \"1970s cars\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 800198 ], "name": [ "Michael Bednarek" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "First performance", "Instrumentation", "Description", "Schoenberg arrangement", "In popular culture", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n\"**Rosen aus dem Süden**\" (\"Roses from the South\"), [Op.](/wiki/Opus_number \"Opus number\") 388, is a [waltz](/wiki/Waltz \"Waltz\") [medley](/wiki/Medley_%28music%29 \"Medley (music)\") composed by [Johann Strauss II](/wiki/Johann_Strauss_II \"Johann Strauss II\") in [1880](/wiki/1880_in_music \"1880 in music\") with its themes drawn from the operetta *[Das Spitzentuch der Königin](/wiki/Das_Spitzentuch_der_K%C3%B6nigin \"Das Spitzentuch der Königin\")* (*The Queen's Lace Handkerchief*). Strauss dedicated the waltz to King [Umberto I of Italy](/wiki/Umberto_I_of_Italy \"Umberto I of Italy\").\n\n", "First performance\n-----------------\n\nThe waltz was first performed at the regular Sunday concerts of the Strauss Orchestra conducted by [Eduard Strauss](/wiki/Eduard_Strauss \"Eduard Strauss\") on 7 November 1880 at the [Musikverein](/wiki/Musikverein \"Musikverein\") in Vienna. Its themes drawn from the operetta are the act 1 \"Trüffel\\-Couplet\" and the act 2 romance \"Wo die wilde Rose erblüht\" (\"Where the Wild Rose Blossoms\"). The act 2 romance inspired the title of the waltz.\n\n", "Instrumentation\n---------------\n\nThe waltz is scored for an orchestra of 2 [flutes](/wiki/Western_concert_flute \"Western concert flute\") (2nd doubling [piccolo](/wiki/Piccolo \"Piccolo\")), 2 [oboes](/wiki/Oboe \"Oboe\"), 2 [clarinets](/wiki/Clarinet \"Clarinet\") in C, 2 [bassoons](/wiki/Bassoon \"Bassoon\"), 4 [French horns](/wiki/French_horn \"French horn\") in F, 2 [trumpets](/wiki/Trumpet \"Trumpet\") in F, 3 [trombones](/wiki/Trombone \"Trombone\"), [timpani](/wiki/Timpani \"Timpani\"), [snare drum](/wiki/Snare_drum \"Snare drum\"), [triangle](/wiki/Triangle_%28musical_instrument%29 \"Triangle (musical instrument)\"), [bass drum](/wiki/Bass_drum \"Bass drum\"), [cymbals](/wiki/Cymbal \"Cymbal\"), [harp](/wiki/Pedal_harp \"Pedal harp\"), and [strings](/wiki/String_section \"String section\").[Score](/wiki/%23Score \"#Score\")\n\n", "Description\n-----------\n\nThe waltz ranks among the \"Waltz King\" 's most notable works and is still regularly performed today at the [Vienna Philharmonic](/wiki/Vienna_Philharmonic \"Vienna Philharmonic\")'s [New Year's Concert](/wiki/Vienna_New_Year%27s_Concert \"Vienna New Year's Concert\"). The general mood of the piece is rather pensive but the final moments of the piece are utter joy and sparkling with Strauss happier tunes. Waltz section 1 is in [F major](/wiki/F_major \"F major\") and is graceful but pensive in mood. Waltz 2A is also in a more reflective mood but waltz 2B is more uplifting. The entire waltz 3 section is in [G major](/wiki/G_major \"G major\") while waltz section 4 is in [E\\-flat major](/wiki/E-flat_major \"E-flat major\") and has the climax with [cymbals](/wiki/Cymbal \"Cymbal\"). A restless\\-sounding [coda](/wiki/Coda_%28music%29 \"Coda (music)\") in E\\-flat is soon replaced with a [reprise](/wiki/Reprise \"Reprise\") of the waltz 3A. Waltz 1A has a brief show at the end before the waltz 4B is introduced, this time in the home key of F major. A series of descending chords marks the end of the waltz, underlined with a [drum roll](/wiki/Drum_roll \"Drum roll\") and final flourish.\n\n", "Schoenberg arrangement\n----------------------\n\n[Arnold Schoenberg](/wiki/Arnold_Schoenberg \"Arnold Schoenberg\") arranged this waltz as part of a special concert for his [Society for Private Musical Performances](/wiki/Society_for_Private_Musical_Performances \"Society for Private Musical Performances\") in 1921\\.[\"Rosen aus dem Süden, Op. 388 (1880\\), Johann Strauss Jr. (1825–1899\\), arranged by Arnold Schoenberg (1874–1951\\) in 1921\"](http://data.instantencore.com/pdf/1039763/Strauss+arr.+by+Schoenberg+Rosen+aus+dem+Suden.pdf), data.instantencore.com\n\n", "In popular culture\n------------------\n\nIn the *[Star Trek](/wiki/Star_Trek:The_Original_Series \"The Original Series\")* episode \"[The Squire of Gothos](/wiki/The_Squire_of_Gothos \"The Squire of Gothos\")\", [Trelane](/wiki/Trelane \"Trelane\") has [Nyota Uhura](/wiki/Nyota_Uhura \"Nyota Uhura\") play this waltz. The piece is also used in the *[Dancing with the Stars](/wiki/Dancing_with_the_Stars_%28video_game%29 \"Dancing with the Stars (video game)\")* video game for the [PlayStation 2](/wiki/PlayStation_2 \"PlayStation 2\") and the 1927 film *[Sunrise: A Song of Two Humans](/wiki/Sunrise:A_Song_of_Two_Humans \"A Song of Two Humans\")* during the carnival sequence.\n\nThe waltz appears uncredited in the dance scene in the 2012 film *[The Dark Knight Rises](/wiki/The_Dark_Knight_Rises \"The Dark Knight Rises\")* starring [Christian Bale](/wiki/Christian_Bale \"Christian Bale\") and [Michael Caine](/wiki/Michael_Caine \"Michael Caine\").\n\nThe waltz appears briefly during Lisle Von Rhuman's party scene in the 1992 film *[Death Becomes Her](/wiki/Death_Becomes_Her \"Death Becomes Her\")*.\n\nA few bars of the waltz are played by Adam Stanton on a piano in the 1949 film *[All the King's Men](/wiki/All_the_King%27s_Men_%281949_film%29 \"All the King's Men (1949 film)\")*.\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* , [Willi Boskovsky](/wiki/Willi_Boskovsky \"Willi Boskovsky\"), [Vienna Philharmonic](/wiki/Vienna_Philharmonic \"Vienna Philharmonic\")\n\n[Category:Waltzes by Johann Strauss II](/wiki/Category:Waltzes_by_Johann_Strauss_II \"Waltzes by Johann Strauss II\")\n[Category:1880 compositions](/wiki/Category:1880_compositions \"1880 compositions\")\n[Category:Music dedicated to nobility or royalty](/wiki/Category:Music_dedicated_to_nobility_or_royalty \"Music dedicated to nobility or royalty\")\n[Category:Music medleys](/wiki/Category:Music_medleys \"Music medleys\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 24198 ], "name": [ "Dimadick" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Parallel passages", "Interpretations", "Early Christian writings", "James Tabor", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**Clopas** (, *Klōpas*; [Hebrew](/wiki/Hebrew \"Hebrew\"): possibly , *Ḥalfi*; [Aramaic](/wiki/Aramaic \"Aramaic\"): חילפאי, *Ḥilfài*) is a figure of [early Christianity](/wiki/Early_Christianity \"Early Christianity\"). The name appears in the [New Testament](/wiki/New_Testament \"New Testament\"), specifically in [John](/wiki/Gospel_of_John \"Gospel of John\") :\n\nHe is often identified with another figure of a similar name, [Cleophas](/wiki/Cleophas \"Cleophas\") (), one of the two disciples who met Christ during the [road to Emmaus appearance](/wiki/Road_to_Emmaus_appearance \"Road to Emmaus appearance\") (). \n \nThere is some variation of the Greek manuscripts of both John 19:25 and [Luke 24](/wiki/Luke_24 \"Luke 24\") as to the spelling , and the John \"Clopas\" is rendered \"Cleophas\" in the [KJV](/wiki/KJV \"KJV\").\n\n", "Parallel passages\n-----------------\n\nThe identity of the other women in the parallel passages in [Matthew 27:56](/wiki/Matthew_27:56 \"56\") and is given as [Mary Magdalene](/wiki/Mary_Magdalene \"Mary Magdalene\"), \"Mary the mother of James and Joses,\" and \"[Salome the mother of Zebedee's children](/wiki/Salome_%28disciple%29 \"Salome (disciple)\")\" (Matthew), \"Salome\" (Mark). Luke does not mention the women watching near the cross. The parallels continue again with accounts of the burial. Matthew 28:1 has \"Mary Magdalene and the other Mary\" with no mention of John's mother Salome, Mark 16:1 has again Mary Magdalene, \"Mary the mother of James\" and Salome. Luke says \"they,\" John mentions only Mary Magdalene.\n\nAs a result of these parallels commentators have identified \"Mary of Clopas\" with [Mary mother of James, son of Alphaeus](/wiki/Mary%2C_mother_of_James \"Mary, mother of James\"). [Alphaeus](/wiki/Alphaeus \"Alphaeus\") (Greek ) was also the name of the father of [Matthew the Apostle](/wiki/Matthew_the_Apostle \"Matthew the Apostle\") (Mark 2:14\\). The Aramaic name Hilfai (חילפאי), or Hebrew name Halfi () have been proposed by a variety of sourcesDavid Francis Bacon (1813\\-1865\\) *Lives of the apostles of Jesus Christ* 1836\\- Page 390 \"Now, both of these differences can, by a reference to the original Hebrew word, be shown to be only the results of the different modes of expressing the same Hebrew letters ; and the words thus expressed may, by the established rules of..\" including [Joseph Henry Thayer](/wiki/Joseph_Henry_Thayer \"Joseph Henry Thayer\") who argued in his Lexicon that dropping the Hebrew *[heth](/wiki/Heth \"Heth\")* ( *ḥ*, which has no corresponding letter in Greek) and rendering the Hebrew *heth* as [kappa](/wiki/Kappa \"Kappa\") (Κ) in Greek were both possible.Thayer *Greek Lexicon* entry Alphaeus Perhaps under the influence of this tradition, [Franz Delitzsch](/wiki/Franz_Delitzsch \"Franz Delitzsch\")'s modern [Hebrew New Testament](/wiki/Bible_translations_into_Hebrew \"Bible translations into Hebrew\") does in fact use the Hebrew name *Yaakov ben Khalfi* () for James son of Alphaeus.[Franz Delitzsch](/wiki/Franz_Delitzsch \"Franz Delitzsch\") Hebrew New Testament[John Cunningham Geikie](/wiki/John_Cunningham_Geikie \"John Cunningham Geikie\") *The life and words of Christ* Volume 1 1884 \"Alphaeus, or Alpheus \\_\\_, and Clopas are different ways of pronouncing in Greek the Hebrew name \\_\\_\\_ (Chal'phai).\" The Aramaic name Halfai is evidenced on Aramaic panels of the period,Seth Schwartz *Imperialism and Jewish society, 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E.* \\- Page 262 \\- 2001 \"(Panel 3, in Aramaic) May Yosi and Azrin and Haziqin sons of Halfai be remembered for good. / Whoever causes faction between men and their fellows, or recounts / slander about his fellow to the nations \\['amemayah], or steals / the ..\" and the name Hilphai in rabbinic literature.Ben\\-Zion Rosenfeld *Torah centers and rabbinic activity in Palestine, 70\\-400 CE* 2010 Page 136 \"A tannaitic sage by the name of Abba Hilphai b. Keruya is referred to in rabbinic literature as a pious person. Rabban Gamliel of Yavneh apparently came to visit him and asked Abba Hilphai to pray for him.\"\n\n", "Interpretations\n---------------\n\nIn the [Gospel of Pseudo\\-Matthew](/wiki/Gospel_of_Pseudo-Matthew \"Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew\"), which was probably written in the seventh century, states that [Mary of Cleophas](/wiki/Mary_of_Cleophas \"Mary of Cleophas\") was daughter of Cleophas and [Anna](/wiki/Saint_Anne \"Saint Anne\"):\n\nThe most common interpretation is that \"of Clopas\" indicates the husband of [this Mary](/wiki/Mary_of_Clopas \"Mary of Clopas\") and subsequently the father of her children, but some see \"of Clopas\" as meaning this Mary's father. In medieval tradition Clopas is the second husband of [Saint Anne](/wiki/Saint_Anne \"Saint Anne\") and the *father* of \"Mary of Clopas\".\n\n[Catholic](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\") and [Eastern Orthodox](/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church \"Eastern Orthodox Church\") traditions believed that Clopas is a brother of [Saint Joseph](/wiki/Saint_Joseph \"Saint Joseph\"), and that he is the same person with [Cleopas](/wiki/Cleopas \"Cleopas\").\n\n", "Early Christian writings\n------------------------\n\nClopas also appears in early Christian writings such as the 2nd century writers [Papias](/wiki/Papias_of_Hierapolis \"Papias of Hierapolis\") and [Hegesippus](/wiki/Hegesippus_%28chronicler%29 \"Hegesippus (chronicler)\") as a brother of [Joseph](/wiki/Saint_Joseph \"Saint Joseph\"), the husband of [Mary, mother of Jesus](/wiki/Mary%2C_mother_of_Jesus \"Mary, mother of Jesus\"), and as the father of [Simeon](/wiki/Simeon_of_Jerusalem \"Simeon of Jerusalem\"), the second bishop of Jerusalem. [Eusebius of Caesarea](/wiki/Eusebius_of_Caesarea \"Eusebius of Caesarea\") relates in his Church History (Book III, ch. 11\\), that after the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD, the Christians of Jerusalem\n\n\"all with one consent pronounced Symeon, the son of Clopas, of whom the Gospel also makes mention; to be worthy of the episcopal throne of that parish. He was a cousin, as they say, of the Saviour. For Hegesippus records that Clopas was a brother of Joseph.\"[Eusebius of Caesarea, Church History, Book III](http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250103.htm), ch. 11\\.\n", "James Tabor\n-----------\n\nA few modern writers identify [Mary of Clopas](/wiki/Mary_of_Clopas \"Mary of Clopas\") with [Jesus' mother](/wiki/Mary_%28mother_of_Jesus%29 \"Mary (mother of Jesus)\"), such as [James Tabor](/wiki/James_Tabor \"James Tabor\") who has postulated that Clopas, whom he accepts as a brother of Joseph, became the second husband of Jesus' mother. Tabor argues that Clopas married Mary according to the [Levirate](/wiki/Levirate \"Levirate\") law, which however would only apply in case of a childless widow \\- though this view is not widely accepted.\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n[Category:People in the canonical gospels](/wiki/Category:People_in_the_canonical_gospels \"People in the canonical gospels\")\n[Category:Gospel of John](/wiki/Category:Gospel_of_John \"Gospel of John\")\n[Category:James, son of Alphaeus](/wiki/Category:James%2C_son_of_Alphaeus \"James, son of Alphaeus\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 37856209 ], "name": [ "SnivyLink2" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "History", "2001-2009", "2010-2017", "Farewell Tour (2018)", "Band name", "Members", "Final lineup", "Touring musicians", "Previous members", "Timeline", "Discography", "Studio albums", "EPs and others", "Remix albums", "Music videos", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**Minus the Bear** was an American [indie rock](/wiki/Indie_rock \"Indie rock\") band formed in [Seattle](/wiki/Seattle \"Seattle\"), [Washington](/wiki/Washington_%28state%29 \"Washington (state)\"), in 2001, and comprising members of [Botch](/wiki/Botch_%28band%29 \"Botch (band)\"), [Kill Sadie](/wiki/Kill_Sadie \"Kill Sadie\"), and [Sharks Keep Moving](/wiki/Sharks_Keep_Moving \"Sharks Keep Moving\"). Their sound was described as \"[Pele](/wiki/Pele_%28American_band%29 \"Pele (American band)\")\\-esque guitar\\-taps and electronics with sophisticated time signature composition.\"\n\nMinus the Bear released six albums and four EPs. The band's final line\\-up consisted of Jake Snider (vocals, guitar), Dave Knudson (guitar), Cory Murchy (bass guitar), and Alex Rose (synthesizers, vocals). On July 17, 2018, the band announced their retirement and accompanying farewell tour. Their final live performance was December 16, 2018, at The Showbox in Seattle.\n\n", "History\n-------\n\n### 2001\\-2009\n\nMinus the Bear formed in 2001, and played its first gig three days after [9/11](/wiki/September_11_attacks \"September 11 attacks\") at the Seattle venue The Paradox. [Suicide Squeeze Records](/wiki/Suicide_Squeeze_Records \"Suicide Squeeze Records\") released their debut full\\-length album *[Highly Refined Pirates](/wiki/Highly_Refined_Pirates \"Highly Refined Pirates\")* on November 19, 2002\\.\n\nOn January 2, 2006, [Matt Bayles](/wiki/Matt_Bayles \"Matt Bayles\"), keyboard player and producer for Minus the Bear, announced that he would be leaving the band to focus all his time on his career as a producer. His last performance with the band was on January 28, 2006\\. He was replaced by Alex Rose, who previously worked as a [sound engineer](/wiki/Sound_engineer \"Sound engineer\") on the band's second full\\-length album, *[Menos el Oso](/wiki/Menos_el_Oso \"Menos el Oso\")*. *[Interpretaciones del Oso](/wiki/Interpretaciones_del_Oso \"Interpretaciones del Oso\")*, an album of remixed songs from their second full\\-length album *Menos el Oso*, was released on February 20, 2007, by Suicide Squeeze Records.\n\nThe band's third full\\-length album, *[Planet of Ice](/wiki/Planet_of_Ice \"Planet of Ice\")*, was released on August 21, 2007, by Suicide Squeeze Records and contains ten tracks. As well as an exclusive [iTunes](/wiki/ITunes \"ITunes\") bonus track titled \"Cat Calls \\& Ill Means\", a bonus CD containing two B\\-sides, \"Electric Rainbow\" and \"Patiently Waiting\", a demo version of \"Ice Monster\", and a remix by [P.O.S](/wiki/P.O.S_%28rapper%29 \"P.O.S (rapper)\"). of the album's first single, \"Knights\", was released with the album's first edition.\n\nIn 2008, the band recorded four tracks live on [Daytrotter](/wiki/Daytrotter \"Daytrotter\") that were released for free with a membership to the website. Later that year, the band also released an acoustic EP, *[Acoustics](/wiki/Acoustics_%28Minus_the_Bear_EP%29 \"Acoustics (Minus the Bear EP)\")*, which contained an unreleased track, \"Guns \\& Ammo\", and acoustic versions of six previously released tracks. On October 27, 2009, the band released a two\\-song single, \"Into The Mirror\", on various digital music outlets; exclusive 7\" vinyl copies were sold on tour.\n\n### 2010\\-2017\n\nOn February 17, 2010, [Dangerbird Records](/wiki/Dangerbird_Records \"Dangerbird Records\") announced that it had signed Minus the Bear and that it would distribute the group's next release. A week later, it was announced that the album was titled *[Omni](/wiki/Omni_%28album%29 \"Omni (album)\")* and that it was scheduled to be released on May 4, 2010\\. On May 8, 2010, Minus the Bear was the first band to be featured on RadioVA and was interviewed by [David Lowery](/wiki/David_Lowery_%28musician%29 \"David Lowery (musician)\"). On August 5, 2010, Minus the Bear opened for fellow Seattle band [Soundgarden](/wiki/Soundgarden \"Soundgarden\") in their pre\\-[Lollapalooza](/wiki/Lollapalooza \"Lollapalooza\") warm up show at [the Vic Theatre](/wiki/The_Vic_Theatre \"The Vic Theatre\") in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\").\n\nOn January 9, 2012, the band began recording a fifth full\\-length album with producer Matt Bayles, their former keyboard player. An announcement on their [Facebook](/wiki/Facebook \"Facebook\") page on April 30, 2012, said that the new album had been recorded and that it had been sent off for mastering. On June 21, 2012, Dangerbird Records announced this album, *[Infinity Overhead](/wiki/Infinity_Overhead \"Infinity Overhead\")*, would be released on August 28, 2012\\. On June 29, 2012, Minus the Bear announced on rollingstone.com the release of the first single from *Infinity Overhead*, entitled \"Lonely Gun\". On July 10, 2012, it was announced that Minus the Bear would be joining the [Big Scary Monsters](/wiki/Big_Scary_Monsters \"Big Scary Monsters\") record label in the UK and that *Infinity Overhead* was to be released on BSM in September 2012\\.\n\nOn July 10, 2013, Minus the Bear announced that they would release *Acoustics II*, a ten\\-track LP with eight acoustic versions of old songs and two new tracks. An acoustic version of \"Hooray\" was given to everyone who pre\\-ordered the album.\n\nTo celebrate the tenth anniversary of the *They Make Beer Commercials Like This* EP, the band played two small shows in the early part of 2014 on the west coast of the US. That summer, the band announced a new full\\-length compilation album entitled *Lost Loves*. The LP was released in both vinyl and CD form and contains music which did not seem to fit in a sequential order appropriate enough, at the time, to be put on a full\\-length release. The tracks \"Invented Memory\" and \"Lucky Ones\" were the only tracks that were unavailable before the release of the compilation. The latter was made available before the album's release through [SoundCloud](/wiki/SoundCloud \"SoundCloud\") and on the band's official web page. The band toured in support of the new EP and continued the celebration of their *Beer Commercials* LP in the second half of 2014\\.\n\nOn January 29, 2015, the band officially announced via its Facebook page that drummer Erin Tate was no longer a member of the band because of \"personal and creative differences\". The band then talked about future tours and continuing to work on the follow\\-up album to *Infinity Overhead*. The band's sixth album, *VOIDS*, was released on March 3, 2017\\.\n\n### Farewell Tour (2018\\)\n\nOn July 17, 2018, the band announced they would be disbanding following a farewell tour that would end on December 14 in their hometown of Seattle, and that they would be releasing a final EP, *Fair Enough*, in October. After tickets sold out in minutes, the band added dates on December 15 and December 16\\. Their final live performance was December 16, 2018 at The Showbox in Seattle.\n\n", "### 2001\\-2009\n\nMinus the Bear formed in 2001, and played its first gig three days after [9/11](/wiki/September_11_attacks \"September 11 attacks\") at the Seattle venue The Paradox. [Suicide Squeeze Records](/wiki/Suicide_Squeeze_Records \"Suicide Squeeze Records\") released their debut full\\-length album *[Highly Refined Pirates](/wiki/Highly_Refined_Pirates \"Highly Refined Pirates\")* on November 19, 2002\\.\n\nOn January 2, 2006, [Matt Bayles](/wiki/Matt_Bayles \"Matt Bayles\"), keyboard player and producer for Minus the Bear, announced that he would be leaving the band to focus all his time on his career as a producer. His last performance with the band was on January 28, 2006\\. He was replaced by Alex Rose, who previously worked as a [sound engineer](/wiki/Sound_engineer \"Sound engineer\") on the band's second full\\-length album, *[Menos el Oso](/wiki/Menos_el_Oso \"Menos el Oso\")*. *[Interpretaciones del Oso](/wiki/Interpretaciones_del_Oso \"Interpretaciones del Oso\")*, an album of remixed songs from their second full\\-length album *Menos el Oso*, was released on February 20, 2007, by Suicide Squeeze Records.\n\nThe band's third full\\-length album, *[Planet of Ice](/wiki/Planet_of_Ice \"Planet of Ice\")*, was released on August 21, 2007, by Suicide Squeeze Records and contains ten tracks. As well as an exclusive [iTunes](/wiki/ITunes \"ITunes\") bonus track titled \"Cat Calls \\& Ill Means\", a bonus CD containing two B\\-sides, \"Electric Rainbow\" and \"Patiently Waiting\", a demo version of \"Ice Monster\", and a remix by [P.O.S](/wiki/P.O.S_%28rapper%29 \"P.O.S (rapper)\"). of the album's first single, \"Knights\", was released with the album's first edition.\n\nIn 2008, the band recorded four tracks live on [Daytrotter](/wiki/Daytrotter \"Daytrotter\") that were released for free with a membership to the website. Later that year, the band also released an acoustic EP, *[Acoustics](/wiki/Acoustics_%28Minus_the_Bear_EP%29 \"Acoustics (Minus the Bear EP)\")*, which contained an unreleased track, \"Guns \\& Ammo\", and acoustic versions of six previously released tracks. On October 27, 2009, the band released a two\\-song single, \"Into The Mirror\", on various digital music outlets; exclusive 7\" vinyl copies were sold on tour.\n\n", "### 2010\\-2017\n\nOn February 17, 2010, [Dangerbird Records](/wiki/Dangerbird_Records \"Dangerbird Records\") announced that it had signed Minus the Bear and that it would distribute the group's next release. A week later, it was announced that the album was titled *[Omni](/wiki/Omni_%28album%29 \"Omni (album)\")* and that it was scheduled to be released on May 4, 2010\\. On May 8, 2010, Minus the Bear was the first band to be featured on RadioVA and was interviewed by [David Lowery](/wiki/David_Lowery_%28musician%29 \"David Lowery (musician)\"). On August 5, 2010, Minus the Bear opened for fellow Seattle band [Soundgarden](/wiki/Soundgarden \"Soundgarden\") in their pre\\-[Lollapalooza](/wiki/Lollapalooza \"Lollapalooza\") warm up show at [the Vic Theatre](/wiki/The_Vic_Theatre \"The Vic Theatre\") in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\").\n\nOn January 9, 2012, the band began recording a fifth full\\-length album with producer Matt Bayles, their former keyboard player. An announcement on their [Facebook](/wiki/Facebook \"Facebook\") page on April 30, 2012, said that the new album had been recorded and that it had been sent off for mastering. On June 21, 2012, Dangerbird Records announced this album, *[Infinity Overhead](/wiki/Infinity_Overhead \"Infinity Overhead\")*, would be released on August 28, 2012\\. On June 29, 2012, Minus the Bear announced on rollingstone.com the release of the first single from *Infinity Overhead*, entitled \"Lonely Gun\". On July 10, 2012, it was announced that Minus the Bear would be joining the [Big Scary Monsters](/wiki/Big_Scary_Monsters \"Big Scary Monsters\") record label in the UK and that *Infinity Overhead* was to be released on BSM in September 2012\\.\n\nOn July 10, 2013, Minus the Bear announced that they would release *Acoustics II*, a ten\\-track LP with eight acoustic versions of old songs and two new tracks. An acoustic version of \"Hooray\" was given to everyone who pre\\-ordered the album.\n\nTo celebrate the tenth anniversary of the *They Make Beer Commercials Like This* EP, the band played two small shows in the early part of 2014 on the west coast of the US. That summer, the band announced a new full\\-length compilation album entitled *Lost Loves*. The LP was released in both vinyl and CD form and contains music which did not seem to fit in a sequential order appropriate enough, at the time, to be put on a full\\-length release. The tracks \"Invented Memory\" and \"Lucky Ones\" were the only tracks that were unavailable before the release of the compilation. The latter was made available before the album's release through [SoundCloud](/wiki/SoundCloud \"SoundCloud\") and on the band's official web page. The band toured in support of the new EP and continued the celebration of their *Beer Commercials* LP in the second half of 2014\\.\n\nOn January 29, 2015, the band officially announced via its Facebook page that drummer Erin Tate was no longer a member of the band because of \"personal and creative differences\". The band then talked about future tours and continuing to work on the follow\\-up album to *Infinity Overhead*. The band's sixth album, *VOIDS*, was released on March 3, 2017\\.\n\n", "### Farewell Tour (2018\\)\n\nOn July 17, 2018, the band announced they would be disbanding following a farewell tour that would end on December 14 in their hometown of Seattle, and that they would be releasing a final EP, *Fair Enough*, in October. After tickets sold out in minutes, the band added dates on December 15 and December 16\\. Their final live performance was December 16, 2018 at The Showbox in Seattle.\n\n", "Band name\n---------\n\nThe name \"Minus the Bear\" comes from an [in\\-joke](/wiki/In-joke \"In-joke\") among the band members, referring to the 1970s television series *[B. J. and the Bear](/wiki/B._J._and_the_Bear \"B. J. and the Bear\")*. \"A friend of the band had gone on a date,\" explained singer\\-guitarist Jake Snider, \"and one of us asked him afterwards how the date went. Our friend said, 'You know that TV show from the '70s, *B. J. and the Bear*? It was like that ... minus the Bear.' That’s the straight truth.\"\n\n", "Members\n-------\n\n### Final lineup\n\n* [Jake Snider](/wiki/Jake_Snider \"Jake Snider\") – lead vocals, rhythm guitar (2001–2018\\)\n* [Dave Knudson](/wiki/Dave_Knudson_%28guitarist%29 \"Dave Knudson (guitarist)\") – lead guitar (2001–2018\\)\n* Cory Murchy – bass guitar (2001–2018\\)\n* Alex Rose – keyboards, backing vocals (2006–2018\\)\n\n### Touring musicians\n\n* Joshua Sparks – drums (2017–2018\\)\n\n### Previous members\n\n* [Matt Bayles](/wiki/Matt_Bayles \"Matt Bayles\") – keyboards (2001–2006\\)\n* [Erin Tate](/wiki/Erin_Tate \"Erin Tate\") – drums (2001–2015\\)\n* Kiefer Matthias – drums (2015–2017\\)\n\n#### Timeline\n\n", "### Final lineup\n\n* [Jake Snider](/wiki/Jake_Snider \"Jake Snider\") – lead vocals, rhythm guitar (2001–2018\\)\n* [Dave Knudson](/wiki/Dave_Knudson_%28guitarist%29 \"Dave Knudson (guitarist)\") – lead guitar (2001–2018\\)\n* Cory Murchy – bass guitar (2001–2018\\)\n* Alex Rose – keyboards, backing vocals (2006–2018\\)\n", "### Touring musicians\n\n* Joshua Sparks – drums (2017–2018\\)\n", "### Previous members\n\n* [Matt Bayles](/wiki/Matt_Bayles \"Matt Bayles\") – keyboards (2001–2006\\)\n* [Erin Tate](/wiki/Erin_Tate \"Erin Tate\") – drums (2001–2015\\)\n* Kiefer Matthias – drums (2015–2017\\)\n\n#### Timeline\n\n", "#### Timeline\n\n", "Discography\n-----------\n\n### Studio albums\n\n| Year\n\n Album details |\n Peak chart positions\n\n| --- |\n| [US Billboard \n200](/wiki/Billboard_200 \"Billboard 200\") \n\n [US \nHeat.](/wiki/Top_Heatseekers \"Top Heatseekers\") \n\n [US \nIndie](/wiki/Independent_Albums \"Independent Albums\") \n\n [US \n Alt.](/wiki/Billboard_charts \"Billboard charts\") \n\n| 2002 | *[Highly Refined Pirates](/wiki/Highly_Refined_Pirates \"Highly Refined Pirates\")* Released: November 12, 2002 Label: [Suicide Squeeze Records](/wiki/Suicide_Squeeze_Records \"Suicide Squeeze Records\") | — | — | — | — |\n| 2005 | *[Menos el Oso](/wiki/Menos_el_Oso \"Menos el Oso\")* Released: August 23, 2005 Label: [Suicide Squeeze Records](/wiki/Suicide_Squeeze_Records \"Suicide Squeeze Records\") | — | 20 | 41 | — |\n| 2007 | *[Planet of Ice](/wiki/Planet_of_Ice \"Planet of Ice\")* Released: August 21, 2007 Label: [Suicide Squeeze Records](/wiki/Suicide_Squeeze_Records \"Suicide Squeeze Records\") | 74 | — | 8 | 22 |\n| 2010 | *[Omni](/wiki/Omni_%28album%29 \"Omni (album)\")* Released: May 4, 2010 Label: [Dangerbird Records](/wiki/Dangerbird_Records \"Dangerbird Records\") | 49 | — | 9 | 8 |\n| 2012 | *[Infinity Overhead](/wiki/Infinity_Overhead \"Infinity Overhead\")* Released: August 28, 2012 Label: [Dangerbird Records](/wiki/Dangerbird_Records \"Dangerbird Records\") | 31 | — | 7 | 7 |\n| 2017 | *[Voids](/wiki/Voids_%28album%29 \"Voids (album)\")* Released: March 3, 2017 Label: [Suicide Squeeze Records](/wiki/Suicide_Squeeze_Records \"Suicide Squeeze Records\") | 109 | — | 7 | 11 |\n\n### EPs and others\n\n| Year | Title | Label | Other information |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 2001 | *[This Is What I Know About Being Gigantic](/wiki/This_Is_What_I_Know_About_Being_Gigantic \"This Is What I Know About Being Gigantic\")* | [Suicide Squeeze Records](/wiki/Suicide_Squeeze_Records \"Suicide Squeeze Records\") | Debut release. |\n| 2002 | *[Bands Like It When You Yell \"Yar!\" at Them](/wiki/Bands_Like_It_When_You_Yell_%22Yar%21%22_at_Them \"Bands Like It When You Yell \")* | Suicide Squeeze Records | Promotional CD for *[Highly Refined Pirates](/wiki/Highly_Refined_Pirates \"Highly Refined Pirates\")*. |\n| 2004 | *[They Make Beer Commercials Like This](/wiki/They_Make_Beer_Commercials_Like_This \"They Make Beer Commercials Like This\")* | [Arena Rock Recording Co.](/wiki/Arena_Rock_Recording_Co. \"Arena Rock Recording Co.\") | Re\\-released in 2008 on Suicide Squeeze Records with \"Houston, We Have Uh\\-Oh\". |\n| 2005 | *Minus the Bear/City on Film* 7\" split | [Polyvinyl Record Co.](/wiki/Polyvinyl_Record_Co. \"Polyvinyl Record Co.\") | Split EP featuring \"This Ain't a Surfin' Movie (IQU Remix)\". |\n| 2008 | *[Acoustics](/wiki/Acoustics_%28Minus_the_Bear_EP%29 \"Acoustics (Minus the Bear EP)\")* | Tigre Blanco Records | Acoustic EP with \"Guns \\& Ammo\" and acoustic versions of six previously released tracks. |\n| 2009 | \"Into the Mirror\" | Tigre Blanco Records | Single from *[Omni](/wiki/Omni_%28album%29 \"Omni (album)\")* with B\\-side, \"Broken China\". |\n| 2011 | \"Hold Me Down\" | [Dangerbird Records](/wiki/Dangerbird_Records \"Dangerbird Records\") | Single from *[Omni](/wiki/Omni_%28album%29 \"Omni (album)\")* with B\\-side, \"Broken China\", including three tracks recorded live at the Dangerbird Records studios and a fan\\-made remix of \"My Time\". |\n| 2012 | \"Your Private Sky\"/\"South Side Life\" | Dangerbird Records | 7\" vinyl released for Record Store Day that includes two *[Omni](/wiki/Omni_%28album%29 \"Omni (album)\")* B\\-sides, \"Your Private Sky\" and \"South Side Life\". |\n| 2012 | \"Steel and Blood\"/\"Surf\\-N\\-Turf\" | [Big Scary Monsters](/wiki/Big_Scary_Monsters_Recording_Company \"Big Scary Monsters Recording Company\") | Limited 7\" vinyl released for the UK leg of their 2012 Infinity Overhead Tour. Each copy is hand numbered and has a die\\-cut cardboard sleeve. Only 300 transparent red records were pressed. |\n| 2013 | *[Acoustics II](/wiki/Acoustics_II_%28Minus_the_Bear_EP%29 \"Acoustics II (Minus the Bear EP)\")* | Dangerbird Records | Acoustic LP with two new songs and acoustic versions of eight previously released tracks. |\n| 2014 | *[Lost Loves](/wiki/Lost_Loves_%28Minus_the_Bear_EP%29 \"Lost Loves (Minus the Bear EP)\")* | Dangerbird Records | Collection of rare and unreleased tracks. |\n| 2018 | *Fair Enough* | Suicide Squeeze Records | \"Fair Enough\", \"Viaduct\", \"Dinosaur\" |\n| 2021 | *Farewell* | Suicide Squeeze Records | Triple LP live album and digital release. |\n\n### Remix albums\n\n| Year | Title | Label | Other information |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 2007 | *[Interpretaciones del Oso](/wiki/Interpretaciones_del_Oso \"Interpretaciones del Oso\")* | Suicide Squeeze Records | *[Menos el Oso](/wiki/Menos_el_Oso \"Menos el Oso\")* remixed |\n\n", "### Studio albums\n\n| Year\n\n Album details |\n Peak chart positions\n\n| --- |\n| [US Billboard \n200](/wiki/Billboard_200 \"Billboard 200\") \n\n [US \nHeat.](/wiki/Top_Heatseekers \"Top Heatseekers\") \n\n [US \nIndie](/wiki/Independent_Albums \"Independent Albums\") \n\n [US \n Alt.](/wiki/Billboard_charts \"Billboard charts\") \n\n| 2002 | *[Highly Refined Pirates](/wiki/Highly_Refined_Pirates \"Highly Refined Pirates\")* Released: November 12, 2002 Label: [Suicide Squeeze Records](/wiki/Suicide_Squeeze_Records \"Suicide Squeeze Records\") | — | — | — | — |\n| 2005 | *[Menos el Oso](/wiki/Menos_el_Oso \"Menos el Oso\")* Released: August 23, 2005 Label: [Suicide Squeeze Records](/wiki/Suicide_Squeeze_Records \"Suicide Squeeze Records\") | — | 20 | 41 | — |\n| 2007 | *[Planet of Ice](/wiki/Planet_of_Ice \"Planet of Ice\")* Released: August 21, 2007 Label: [Suicide Squeeze Records](/wiki/Suicide_Squeeze_Records \"Suicide Squeeze Records\") | 74 | — | 8 | 22 |\n| 2010 | *[Omni](/wiki/Omni_%28album%29 \"Omni (album)\")* Released: May 4, 2010 Label: [Dangerbird Records](/wiki/Dangerbird_Records \"Dangerbird Records\") | 49 | — | 9 | 8 |\n| 2012 | *[Infinity Overhead](/wiki/Infinity_Overhead \"Infinity Overhead\")* Released: August 28, 2012 Label: [Dangerbird Records](/wiki/Dangerbird_Records \"Dangerbird Records\") | 31 | — | 7 | 7 |\n| 2017 | *[Voids](/wiki/Voids_%28album%29 \"Voids (album)\")* Released: March 3, 2017 Label: [Suicide Squeeze Records](/wiki/Suicide_Squeeze_Records \"Suicide Squeeze Records\") | 109 | — | 7 | 11 |\n\n", "### EPs and others\n\n| Year | Title | Label | Other information |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 2001 | *[This Is What I Know About Being Gigantic](/wiki/This_Is_What_I_Know_About_Being_Gigantic \"This Is What I Know About Being Gigantic\")* | [Suicide Squeeze Records](/wiki/Suicide_Squeeze_Records \"Suicide Squeeze Records\") | Debut release. |\n| 2002 | *[Bands Like It When You Yell \"Yar!\" at Them](/wiki/Bands_Like_It_When_You_Yell_%22Yar%21%22_at_Them \"Bands Like It When You Yell \")* | Suicide Squeeze Records | Promotional CD for *[Highly Refined Pirates](/wiki/Highly_Refined_Pirates \"Highly Refined Pirates\")*. |\n| 2004 | *[They Make Beer Commercials Like This](/wiki/They_Make_Beer_Commercials_Like_This \"They Make Beer Commercials Like This\")* | [Arena Rock Recording Co.](/wiki/Arena_Rock_Recording_Co. \"Arena Rock Recording Co.\") | Re\\-released in 2008 on Suicide Squeeze Records with \"Houston, We Have Uh\\-Oh\". |\n| 2005 | *Minus the Bear/City on Film* 7\" split | [Polyvinyl Record Co.](/wiki/Polyvinyl_Record_Co. \"Polyvinyl Record Co.\") | Split EP featuring \"This Ain't a Surfin' Movie (IQU Remix)\". |\n| 2008 | *[Acoustics](/wiki/Acoustics_%28Minus_the_Bear_EP%29 \"Acoustics (Minus the Bear EP)\")* | Tigre Blanco Records | Acoustic EP with \"Guns \\& Ammo\" and acoustic versions of six previously released tracks. |\n| 2009 | \"Into the Mirror\" | Tigre Blanco Records | Single from *[Omni](/wiki/Omni_%28album%29 \"Omni (album)\")* with B\\-side, \"Broken China\". |\n| 2011 | \"Hold Me Down\" | [Dangerbird Records](/wiki/Dangerbird_Records \"Dangerbird Records\") | Single from *[Omni](/wiki/Omni_%28album%29 \"Omni (album)\")* with B\\-side, \"Broken China\", including three tracks recorded live at the Dangerbird Records studios and a fan\\-made remix of \"My Time\". |\n| 2012 | \"Your Private Sky\"/\"South Side Life\" | Dangerbird Records | 7\" vinyl released for Record Store Day that includes two *[Omni](/wiki/Omni_%28album%29 \"Omni (album)\")* B\\-sides, \"Your Private Sky\" and \"South Side Life\". |\n| 2012 | \"Steel and Blood\"/\"Surf\\-N\\-Turf\" | [Big Scary Monsters](/wiki/Big_Scary_Monsters_Recording_Company \"Big Scary Monsters Recording Company\") | Limited 7\" vinyl released for the UK leg of their 2012 Infinity Overhead Tour. Each copy is hand numbered and has a die\\-cut cardboard sleeve. Only 300 transparent red records were pressed. |\n| 2013 | *[Acoustics II](/wiki/Acoustics_II_%28Minus_the_Bear_EP%29 \"Acoustics II (Minus the Bear EP)\")* | Dangerbird Records | Acoustic LP with two new songs and acoustic versions of eight previously released tracks. |\n| 2014 | *[Lost Loves](/wiki/Lost_Loves_%28Minus_the_Bear_EP%29 \"Lost Loves (Minus the Bear EP)\")* | Dangerbird Records | Collection of rare and unreleased tracks. |\n| 2018 | *Fair Enough* | Suicide Squeeze Records | \"Fair Enough\", \"Viaduct\", \"Dinosaur\" |\n| 2021 | *Farewell* | Suicide Squeeze Records | Triple LP live album and digital release. |\n\n", "### Remix albums\n\n| Year | Title | Label | Other information |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 2007 | *[Interpretaciones del Oso](/wiki/Interpretaciones_del_Oso \"Interpretaciones del Oso\")* | Suicide Squeeze Records | *[Menos el Oso](/wiki/Menos_el_Oso \"Menos el Oso\")* remixed |\n\n", "Music videos\n------------\n\n* \"The Game Needed Me\" from *[Menos el Oso](/wiki/Menos_el_Oso \"Menos el Oso\")*\n* \"Pachuca Sunrise\" from *[Menos el Oso](/wiki/Menos_el_Oso \"Menos el Oso\")*\n* \"Knights\" from *[Planet of Ice](/wiki/Planet_of_Ice \"Planet of Ice\")*\n* \"Throwin' Shapes\" from *[Planet of Ice](/wiki/Planet_of_Ice \"Planet of Ice\")*\n* \"My Time\" from *[Omni](/wiki/Omni_%28album%29 \"Omni (album)\")*\n* \"Hold Me Down\" from *[Omni](/wiki/Omni_%28album%29 \"Omni (album)\")*\n* \"Steel and Blood\" from *[Infinity Overhead](/wiki/Infinity_Overhead \"Infinity Overhead\")*\n* \"Listing\" from *[Infinity Overhead](/wiki/Infinity_Overhead \"Infinity Overhead\")*\n* \"Last Kiss\" from *[VOIDS](/wiki/Voids_%28album%29 \"Voids (album)\")*\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n[Category:Alternative rock groups from Washington (state)](/wiki/Category:Alternative_rock_groups_from_Washington_%28state%29 \"Alternative rock groups from Washington (state)\")\n[Category:American musical quintets](/wiki/Category:American_musical_quintets \"American musical quintets\")\n[Category:Arena Rock Recording Company artists](/wiki/Category:Arena_Rock_Recording_Company_artists \"Arena Rock Recording Company artists\")\n[Category:Indie rock musical groups from Washington (state)](/wiki/Category:Indie_rock_musical_groups_from_Washington_%28state%29 \"Indie rock musical groups from Washington (state)\")\n[Category:Musical groups established in 2001](/wiki/Category:Musical_groups_established_in_2001 \"Musical groups established in 2001\")\n[Category:Musical groups disestablished in 2018](/wiki/Category:Musical_groups_disestablished_in_2018 \"Musical groups disestablished in 2018\")\n[Category:Musical groups from Seattle](/wiki/Category:Musical_groups_from_Seattle \"Musical groups from Seattle\")\n[Category:Suicide Squeeze Records artists](/wiki/Category:Suicide_Squeeze_Records_artists \"Suicide Squeeze Records artists\")\n[Category:Dangerbird Records artists](/wiki/Category:Dangerbird_Records_artists \"Dangerbird Records artists\")\n[Category:2001 establishments in Washington (state)](/wiki/Category:2001_establishments_in_Washington_%28state%29 \"2001 establishments in Washington (state)\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 299039 ], "name": [ "Anomalocaris" ] }

{ "title": [ "IAYC" ], "level": [ 1 ], "content": [ "**IAYC** may refer to:\n\n* **I am your child**, parents group (now called [Parents for Children](/wiki/Parents_for_Children \"Parents for Children\"))\n* [I Am Your Conscience](/wiki/I_Am_Your_Conscience \"I Am Your Conscience\"), band\n* \"[I Am Your Conscience](/wiki/I_Am_Your_Conscience \"I Am Your Conscience\")\", song by [Leæther Strip](/wiki/Le%C3%A6ther_Strip \"Leæther Strip\"), a Danish musical project\n* \"[I Am Your Conscience](/wiki/I_Am_Your_Conscience \"I Am Your Conscience\")\", song by [Cherryholmes](/wiki/Cherryholmes \"Cherryholmes\"), an American bluegrass band\n* [International Association of Yiddish Clubs](/wiki/International_Association_of_Yiddish_Clubs \"International Association of Yiddish Clubs\")\n* [International Astronomical Youth Camp](/wiki/International_Astronomical_Youth_Camp \"International Astronomical Youth Camp\"), an annual summer camp for young people\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 33469353 ], "name": [ "Biohistorian15" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Plot", "Production and reception", "Releases", "See also", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n* + - * + - \n\n\"**The Mark of Gideon**\" is the sixteenth episode of the [third season](/wiki/Star_Trek:The_Original_Series_season_3 \"The Original Series season 3\") of the American [science fiction](/wiki/Science_fiction \"Science fiction\") television series *[Star Trek](/wiki/Star_Trek:The_Original_Series \"The Original Series\")*. Written by George F. Slavin and [Stanley Adams](/wiki/Stanley_Adams_%28actor%29 \"Stanley Adams (actor)\") and directed by [Jud Taylor](/wiki/Jud_Taylor \"Jud Taylor\"), it was first broadcast on January 17, 1969\\.\n\nIn the episode, a race of aliens from an [overpopulated](/wiki/Overpopulation_%28biology%29 \"Overpopulation (biology)\") planet abduct Captain [Kirk](/wiki/James_T._Kirk \"James T. Kirk\") to solve their problem.\n\nThe episode was co\\-written by actor Stanley Adams who portrayed [Cyrano Jones](/wiki/Cyrano_Jones \"Cyrano Jones\") in the *Star Trek* episode \"[The Trouble with Tribbles](/wiki/The_Trouble_with_Tribbles \"The Trouble with Tribbles\")\".\n\n", "Plot\n----\n\nThe [Federation](/wiki/United_Federation_of_Planets \"United Federation of Planets\") [starship](/wiki/Starship \"Starship\") *[Enterprise](/wiki/USS_Enterprise_%28NCC-1701%29 \"USS Enterprise (NCC-1701)\")* arrives at the planet Gideon to discuss diplomatic relations. The Gideons will permit only one representative, Captain [Kirk](/wiki/James_T._Kirk \"James T. Kirk\"), to set foot on their planet. Kirk beams down to the coordinates provided, but finds himself apparently still aboard the *Enterprise*, which is now devoid of any crew.\n\nFirst Officer [Spock](/wiki/Spock \"Spock\") is informed that the Captain has not arrived on the planet, but the Gideon Ambassador, Hodin, refuses to allow a search team to investigate. Neither [Starfleet](/wiki/Starfleet \"Starfleet\") Command nor the Federation bureaucracy is of any help, each referring the matter to the other.\n\nMeanwhile, Kirk wanders the deserted corridors and notices a strange bruise on his arm. He eventually encounters a beautiful young woman named Odona. She claims to have no idea how she got there, recalling only that she was in an overcrowded auditorium and struggling to breathe. For the moment, Odona is just relieved to have freedom of movement. Kirk insists that she must be from Gideon, but Odona denies any knowledge of the planet.\n\nKirk learns from Odona that her home planet is severely [overpopulated](/wiki/Overpopulation_%28biology%29 \"Overpopulation (biology)\"), with crowds of people everywhere and no privacy, because death is rare. To her, the privilege of being alone, even for a moment, is a dream come true. Kirk is taken by Odona's beauty, and the two share a passionate kiss. Neither notices the image of two dozen faces appearing on the view screen behind them.\n\nAs Kirk and Odona leave the bridge, Kirk hears a strange sound outside the ship. He goes to a viewport and catches a glimpse of a crowd of people looking in. The scene quickly changes to a normal view of space. Kirk confronts Odona about what is going on, but she denies knowing what is happening. She then complains of a strange feeling and faints into Kirk's arms.\n\nKirk carries her to [sick bay](/wiki/Sick_bay \"Sick bay\"), where he encounters Ambassador Hodin, who informs him that Odona, his daughter, is suffering from [Vegan](/wiki/Vega \"Vega\") [choriomeningitis](/wiki/Meningitis \"Meningitis\"), having been infected with Kirk's blood, which [carries](/wiki/Asymptomatic_carrier \"Asymptomatic carrier\") the virus. Hodin's plan is to infect the Gideon population with the virus, shortening their immense lifespans and relieving the population problem. Kirk is to supply the virus, while Odona's death is to serve as an inspiration for future volunteers. Questioned about alternatives, Hodin explains that the Gideon people's regenerative abilities would foil sterilization attempts, and that other methods of [birth control](/wiki/Birth_control \"Birth control\") would never be accepted.\n\nHaving realized that Hodin has deceived him, Spock goes against Starfleet orders and beams down to Kirk's original coordinates. Once there, he finds the false *Enterprise* that was built to confuse Kirk. He soon reaches Kirk and Odona, and asks Hodin not to interfere as he, Spock, is in enough trouble already. Kirk, Spock, and Odona return to the real *Enterprise*, where Chief Medical Officer [Dr. McCoy](/wiki/Leonard_McCoy \"Leonard McCoy\") treats Odona's condition. Odona now plans to return to Gideon to supply the virus herself. Kirk forgives her for her deception.\n\n", "Production and reception\n------------------------\n\nIn 2017, *[Den of Geek](/wiki/Den_of_Geek \"Den of Geek\")* ranked \"The Mark of Gideon\" as the 14th \"best worst\" *Star Trek* episode of the original series.\n\n", "Releases\n--------\n\nThis episode was released in Japan on December 21, 1993 as part of the complete season 3 LaserDisc set, *Star Trek: Original Series log.3*. A trailer for this and the other episodes was also included, and the episode had English and Japanese audio tracks. The cover script was スター・トレック TVサードシーズン \n\nThis episode was included in TOS Season 3 remastered [DVD](/wiki/DVD \"DVD\") box set, with the remastered version of this episode.\n\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* *[The Marching Morons](/wiki/The_Marching_Morons \"The Marching Morons\")* – 1951 short story with mostly same plot, albeit more crass execution\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [\"The Mark of Gideon\"](http://trekmovie.com/2008/06/01/the-mark-of-gideon-remastered-review-screenshots-video/#more-2027) Review of the remastered version at [TrekMovie.com](/wiki/TrekMovie.com \"TrekMovie.com\")\n* [The Mark of Gideon](http://www.orionpressfanzines.com/articles/mark_of_gideon.htm) story outline dated July 12, 1968; Report and analysis by Dave Eversole\n* [Star Trek Transcripts \\- The Mark of Gideon](http://www.chakoteya.net/StarTrek/72.htm)\n\n[Category:Star Trek: The Original Series season 3 episodes](/wiki/Category:Star_Trek:_The_Original_Series_season_3_episodes \"Star Trek: The Original Series season 3 episodes\")\n[Category:Overpopulation fiction](/wiki/Category:Overpopulation_fiction \"Overpopulation fiction\")\n[Category:1969 American television episodes](/wiki/Category:1969_American_television_episodes \"1969 American television episodes\")\n[Category:Television episodes directed by Jud Taylor](/wiki/Category:Television_episodes_directed_by_Jud_Taylor \"Television episodes directed by Jud Taylor\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 35936988 ], "name": [ "JJMC89 bot III" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "International career", "Coaching career", "Career statistics", "Honours", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**Khaled \"Kiko\" Mouelhi** (born 13 February 1981 in [Tunis](/wiki/Tunis \"Tunis\")) is a retired [Tunisian](/wiki/Tunisia \"Tunisia\") [footballer](/wiki/Football_%28soccer%29 \"Football (soccer)\") and current manager.\n\n", "International career\n--------------------\n\nMouelhi was a member of the [Tunisian](/wiki/Tunisia_national_football_team \"Tunisia national football team\") [2004 Olympic](/wiki/2004_Summer_Olympics \"2004 Summer Olympics\") football team, which exited in the first round. The squad finished third in group C, behind group and gold medal winners [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina \"Argentina\") and runners\\-up [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\").\n\n", "Coaching career\n---------------\n\nOn 2 April 2015, Mouelhi was appointed as the sporting director of [Espérance de Tunis](/wiki/Esp%C3%A9rance_de_Tunis \"Espérance de Tunis\").[Mouelhi nouveau directeur sportif de l’EST](http://www.infosfoot.net/v1_1/mouelhi-nouveau-directeur-sportif-de-lest/), infosfoot.net, 2 April 2015 In the August 2015, he changes position to assistant manager under manager [Ammar Souayah](/wiki/Ammar_Souayah \"Ammar Souayah\").[Présentation du nouveau staff technique](https://e-s-tunis.com/fr/news/2015/08/27/11563-uu-pr%C3%A9sentation-du-nouveau-staff-technique), e\\-s\\-tunis.com, 27 August 2015\n\nOn 30 September 2016, he was then appointed as the manager of [EO Sidi Bouzid](/wiki/EO_Sidi_Bouzid \"EO Sidi Bouzid\").[Officiel: Khaled Mouelhi nouvel entraineur de l'EOSB](https://www.mosaiquefm.net/fr/football-ligue-1-pro-tunisie/27356/officiel-khaled-mouelhi-nouvel-entraineur-de-l-eosb), mosaiquefm.net, 30 September 2016 Already on 10 December 2016, he decided to resign after poor results.[EO SIDI BOUZID : KHALED MOUELHI ANNONCE SON DÉPART](https://www.kawarji.com/actu-35257-eo_sidi_bouzid_khaled_mouelhi_annonce_son_depart.html), kawarji.com, 10 December 2016\n\nOn 7 December 2018, Mouelhi was announced as the manager of [JS Kairouan](/wiki/JS_Kairouan \"JS Kairouan\").[JS Kairouan : Khaled Mouelhi nouvel entraîneur](https://www.jawharafm.net/fr/article/js-kairouan-khaled-mouelhi-nouvel-entraineur/96/66310), jawharafm.net, 7 December 2018 He resigned on 19 February 2019\\.[Hatem Missaoui proche de la JSK](https://www.shemsfm.net/amp/fr/actualites-sport-news/216059/hatem-missaoui-proche-de-la-jsk), shemsfm.net, 19 February 2019\n\n", "Career statistics\n-----------------\n\n|Season\n\nClub\n\nDivision\n\nLeague\n\nCup\n\nTotal\n\n| |\n| Apps | Goals | Apps | Goals | Apps | Goals |\n| [2005](/wiki/2005_in_Norwegian_football \"2005 in Norwegian football\") |[Lillestrøm](/wiki/Lillestr%C3%B8m_SK \"Lillestrøm SK\")\n\n[Tippeligaen](/wiki/Tippeligaen \"Tippeligaen\")\n\n 6 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 8 | 1 |\n| [2006](/wiki/2006_in_Norwegian_football \"2006 in Norwegian football\") | 15 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 17 | 0 |\n| [2007](/wiki/2007_in_Norwegian_football \"2007 in Norwegian football\") | 20 | 3 | 6 | 1 | 26 | 4 |\n| [2008](/wiki/2008_in_Norwegian_football \"2008 in Norwegian football\") | 24 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 26 | 1 |\n| [2009](/wiki/2009_in_Norwegian_football \"2009 in Norwegian football\") | 22 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 23 | 0 |\n| [2010](/wiki/2010_in_Norwegian_football \"2010 in Norwegian football\") | 20 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 22 | 3 |\n| [2010–11](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_Tunisian_Ligue_Professionnelle_1 \"2010–11 Tunisian Ligue Professionnelle 1\") |[Espérance](/wiki/Esp%C3%A9rance_de_Tunis \"Espérance de Tunis\")\n\n[CLP\\-1](/wiki/Tunisian_Ligue_Professionnelle_1 \"Tunisian Ligue Professionnelle 1\")\n\n 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 |\n| [2011–12](/wiki/2011%E2%80%9312_Tunisian_Ligue_Professionnelle_1 \"2011–12 Tunisian Ligue Professionnelle 1\") | 23 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 23 | 4 |\n| [2012–13](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_Tunisian_Ligue_Professionnelle_1 \"2012–13 Tunisian Ligue Professionnelle 1\") | 14 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 14 | 1 |\n| [2013–14](/wiki/2013%E2%80%9314_Tunisian_Ligue_Professionnelle_1 \"2013–14 Tunisian Ligue Professionnelle 1\") | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 |\n|Career Total\n\n 150 | 12 | 15 | 2 | 165 | 14 |\n\n", "Honours\n-------\n\n* Lillestrøm: [2007 Norwegian Football Cup](/wiki/2007_Norwegian_Football_Cup \"2007 Norwegian Football Cup\")\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n[Category:1981 births](/wiki/Category:1981_births \"1981 births\")\n[Category:Living people](/wiki/Category:Living_people \"Living people\")\n[Category:Tunisian men's footballers](/wiki/Category:Tunisian_men%27s_footballers \"Tunisian men's footballers\")\n[Category:Club Africain players](/wiki/Category:Club_Africain_players \"Club Africain players\")\n[Category:Lillestrøm SK players](/wiki/Category:Lillestr%C3%B8m_SK_players \"Lillestrøm SK players\")\n[Category:Espérance Sportive de Tunis players](/wiki/Category:Esp%C3%A9rance_Sportive_de_Tunis_players \"Espérance Sportive de Tunis players\")\n[Category:Footballers at the 2004 Summer Olympics](/wiki/Category:Footballers_at_the_2004_Summer_Olympics \"Footballers at the 2004 Summer Olympics\")\n[Category:Olympic footballers for Tunisia](/wiki/Category:Olympic_footballers_for_Tunisia \"Olympic footballers for Tunisia\")\n[Category:2013 Africa Cup of Nations players](/wiki/Category:2013_Africa_Cup_of_Nations_players \"2013 Africa Cup of Nations players\")\n[Category:Tunisia men's international footballers](/wiki/Category:Tunisia_men%27s_international_footballers \"Tunisia men's international footballers\")\n[Category:Tunisian expatriate men's footballers](/wiki/Category:Tunisian_expatriate_men%27s_footballers \"Tunisian expatriate men's footballers\")\n[Category:Expatriate men's footballers in Norway](/wiki/Category:Expatriate_men%27s_footballers_in_Norway \"Expatriate men's footballers in Norway\")\n[Category:Tunisian expatriate sportspeople in Norway](/wiki/Category:Tunisian_expatriate_sportspeople_in_Norway \"Tunisian expatriate sportspeople in Norway\")\n[Category:Eliteserien players](/wiki/Category:Eliteserien_players \"Eliteserien players\")\n[Category:Men's association football midfielders](/wiki/Category:Men%27s_association_football_midfielders \"Men's association football midfielders\")\n[Category:Tunisian football managers](/wiki/Category:Tunisian_football_managers \"Tunisian football managers\")\n[Category:Olympique Sidi Bouzid managers](/wiki/Category:Olympique_Sidi_Bouzid_managers \"Olympique Sidi Bouzid managers\")\n[Category:JS Kairouan managers](/wiki/Category:JS_Kairouan_managers \"JS Kairouan managers\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 41219559 ], "name": [ "10mmsocket" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "History", "Closure and merger with Heart", "List of former Real Radio stations", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**Real Radio** was a network of five regional [radio stations](/wiki/Radio_broadcasting \"Radio broadcasting\") broadcasting to North East England, North West England, Scotland, Wales and Yorkshire. Each station broadcasts a mix of local and networked programming. On Tuesday 6 May 2014, the stations were merged with the [Heart network](/wiki/Heart_%28radio_network%29 \"Heart (radio network)\").\n\n", "History\n-------\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|Real Radio logo, 2001–2012](/wiki/File:Real_radio.jpg \"Real radio.jpg\")\nSir [Robert Phillis](/wiki/Bob_Phillis \"Bob Phillis\"), the former GMG chief executive, enlisted [John Myers](/wiki/John_Myers_%28radio_executive%29 \"John Myers (radio executive)\") to establish [GMG Radio](/wiki/GMG_Radio \"GMG Radio\"). Myers became the company's managing director in 1999, and won GMG its first licence in South Wales in April 2000\\.[GMG Radio wins Yorkshire radio licence](http://www.broadcastnow.co.uk/gmg-radio-wins-yorkshire-radio-licence/1178681.article) Georgina Lipscomb, Broadcast, 18 July 2001 [Real Radio (Wales)](/wiki/Real_Radio_%28Wales%29 \"Real Radio (Wales)\") launched on Tuesday 3 October 2000\\. Initially serving south and west Wales, the station expanded to north and mid Wales in January 2011, over two years after winning a second licence.\n\nIn June 2001, [Scot FM](/wiki/Scot_FM \"Scot FM\") was acquired from the [Wireless Group](/wiki/Wireless_Group \"Wireless Group\") for £25\\.5 million. Scot FM would become Real Radio's second station at 8am on Tuesday 8 January 2002\\. A bid to expand the service to Aberdeenshire in 2006 proved unsuccessful, losing out to [Original 106](/wiki/Original_106_%28Scotland%29 \"Original 106 (Scotland)\").\n\n[Real Yorkshire](/wiki/Heart_Yorkshire \"Heart Yorkshire\"), the third station, launched on 25 March 2002 and broadcast to South \\& West Yorkshire.[Radio Authority publishes assessment of South and West Yorkshire licence award](http://www.ofcom.org.uk/static/archive/rau/newsroom/news-release/01/pr093.htm) [Ofcom](/wiki/Ofcom \"Ofcom\"), 23 July 2001\n\nIn 2008, John Myers convinced the GMG board to invest £1 million in documentaries, a first for modern\\-day UK commercial radio which would lead to several industry awards. Myers left GMG shortly afterwards.\n\n[Real North East](/wiki/Heart_North_East \"Heart North East\") and [Real North West](/wiki/Heart_North_West \"Heart North West\") were introduced from the [Century Network](/wiki/Century_Network \"Century Network\") on 30 March 2009\\. Both stations were founded by GMG Radio chief executive John Myers, who acquired the two from [GCap Media](/wiki/GCap_Media \"GCap Media\") in October 2006\\.[Guardian buys GCap radio stations](https://www.theguardian.com/media/2006/oct/18/guardianmediagroup.gcapmedia?INTCMP=ILCNETTXT3487) Julia Day, The Guardian, 18 October 2006[GMG Radio purchase Century FM](http://radiotoday.co.uk/2006/10/gmg-radio-purchase-century-fm/) Radio Today, 18 October 2006[Who are Real Radio?](http://www.realradionortheast.co.uk/about/frequently-asked-questions/about-real-radio-gmg-radio/who-are-real-radio/33320) Real Radio North East The *Discover the Real You* strapline was introduced to all stations.[Real Radio launches £2m ad push](https://www.theguardian.com/media/2009/mar/31/real-radio-ad-campaign) Mark Sweeney, [The Guardian](/wiki/The_Guardian \"The Guardian\"), 31 March 2009\n\nIn July 2008, networked programming was introduced across all stations during evening and overnight timeslots,[Galloway to replace Davis for Real](http://radiotoday.co.uk/2008/06/galloway-to-replace-davis-for-real), Radio Today, 27 June 2008 and in November 2012 this was increased to daytime timeslots.[Real Radio introduces networked daytimes](http://radiotoday.co.uk/2012/10/real-radio-introduces-networked-daytimes/) Radio Today 15 October 2012 Most networked programming was broadcast from studios in [Salford Quays](/wiki/Salford_Quays \"Salford Quays\"). Notable presenters included [Chris Tarrant](/wiki/Chris_Tarrant \"Chris Tarrant\") and [Ryan Seacrest](/wiki/Ryan_Seacrest \"Ryan Seacrest\") who fronted a bespoke version of his syndicated US entertainment show *[On Air with Ryan Seacrest](/wiki/On_Air_with_Ryan_Seacrest \"On Air with Ryan Seacrest\")*.\n\nThe most recognised strapline *Real good, feel good radio*, was introduced in March 2012\\.[Real Radio has a rebrand](http://earshotcreative.com/2012/03/real-radio-has-a-real-rebrand/) Jonathan Jacob, Earshot Creative, 17 March 2012\n\nIn August 2012, the two former Century Network stations, in the North East and the North West, were gaining just half the listeners they once had. Both saw a decline in Listening Share In TSA % when comparing Q2 period in 2011 and 2012, from 6\\.30% to 4\\.8%, and 3\\.9% to 3\\.0% respectively. Figures for Scotland also lowered whilst Wales and Yorkshire steadied.[Around the groups and brands in Q2, 2012](http://radiotoday.co.uk/2012/08/around-the-groups-and-brands-in-q2-2012-absolute-radio-capital-and-planet-rock-celebrating-rajar/) Radio Today, 2 August 2012\n\n", "Closure and merger with Heart\n-----------------------------\n\n[thumb\\|right\\|Heart logo, 2014 onwards](/wiki/File:The_Heart_Network_logo.svg \"The Heart Network logo.svg\")\nOn 25 June 2012, [Global Radio](/wiki/Global_Radio \"Global Radio\") (the owner of stations such as [Capital](/wiki/Capital_%28radio_network%29 \"Capital (radio network)\") and [Heart](/wiki/Heart_%28radio_network%29 \"Heart (radio network)\")) announced it had bought [GMG Radio](/wiki/Real_and_Smooth \"Real and Smooth\"),[Global Radio seals £50m purchase of GMG Radio](http://www.mediaweek.co.uk/news/rss/1137874/Global-Radio-seals-50m-purchase-GMG-Radio/) Maisie McCabe, Media Week, 25 June 2012\\. Retrieved 25 June 2012\\. however the GMG radio stations would continue to operate separately until a regulatory review into the sale took place.[GMG Radio sold to Global for £50m](https://www.theguardian.com/media/2012/jun/25/gmg-radio-sold-global-50m?INTCMP=SRCH) Mark Sweeney, [The Guardian](/wiki/The_Guardian \"The Guardian\"), 25 June 2012\\. Retrieved 25 June 2012\\.\n\nSecretary of State [Maria Miller](/wiki/Maria_Miller \"Maria Miller\") announced in October 2012 that the sale would not be investigated on the grounds of plurality.[No plurality issues for Global GMG merger](http://radiotoday.co.uk/2012/10/breaking-news-no-plurality-issues-for-global-gmg-merger/) Radio Today, 11 October 2012 The [Competition Commission](/wiki/Competition_Commission_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Competition Commission (United Kingdom)\") was due to publish its final report on 27 March 2013,[Date set for Global Radio’s CC results](http://radiotoday.co.uk/2012/10/date-set-for-global-radios-competition-commission-results/) Radio Today, 11 October 2012 but delays over the decision left the former GMG stations in a hold separate situation.[CC delays Global GMG takeover decision](http://radiotoday.co.uk/2013/02/cc-delays-global-gmg-takeover-decision/) Radio Today, 21 February 2013 A holding company called [Real and Smooth Limited](/wiki/Real_and_Smooth_Limited \"Real and Smooth Limited\") was formed.\n\nOn 21 May 2013, the Competition Commission ruled Global would have to sell radio stations in seven areas of the UK \\- including all areas served by a Real Radio station.[Global/GMG final report](http://www.competition-commission.org.uk/media-centre/latest-news/2013/May/global-gmg-final-report) [Competition Commission](/wiki/Competition_Commission_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Competition Commission (United Kingdom)\"), 21 May 2013 A subsequent appeal by Global was rejected at a tribunal.[Global Radio appeals against order to sell off GMG Radio stations](https://www.theguardian.com/media/2013/jun/14/global-radio-appeals-sell-off-gmg) Mark Sweney, [The Guardian](/wiki/The_Guardian \"The Guardian\"), 14 June 2013\n\nOn 6 February 2014, Global Radio announced it would be rebranding all Real Radio stations as Heart and be selling Real Radio Yorkshire and the Northern licence of Real Radio Wales to [Communicorp](/wiki/Communicorp \"Communicorp\"). Heart's network programming and brand name will be used under a franchise agreement.\n\nOn 25 March 2014, the stations began a transition period to the Heart branding. The Real Radio branding was phased out on Sunday 20 April 2014 \\- for the time being, all stations are referred to on air as *The Heart of (TSA)*.\n\nThe full launch of the new Heart stations took place at 6am on Tuesday 6 May 2014\\. All local programming is retained with networked output on all stations carried from Global's Leicester Square studios in London, replacing the once networked output from Real Radio's Laser House studios in Salford Quays. Real Radio Wales has now been split into two separate stations following the changes, by providing localised programming from Cardiff and Wrexham respectively.\n\n", "List of former Real Radio stations\n----------------------------------\n\n* [Heart North East](/wiki/Heart_North_East \"Heart North East\")\n* [Heart North and Mid Wales](/wiki/Heart_North_and_Mid_Wales \"Heart North and Mid Wales\")\n* [Heart North West](/wiki/Heart_North_West \"Heart North West\")\n* [Heart South Wales](/wiki/Heart_Wales \"Heart Wales\")\n* [Heart Yorkshire](/wiki/Heart_Yorkshire \"Heart Yorkshire\")\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [Heart](http://www.heart.co.uk/)\n\n[Category:Adult contemporary radio stations in the United Kingdom](/wiki/Category:Adult_contemporary_radio_stations_in_the_United_Kingdom \"Adult contemporary radio stations in the United Kingdom\")\n[Category:Former British radio networks](/wiki/Category:Former_British_radio_networks \"Former British radio networks\")\n[Category:Heart (radio network)](/wiki/Category:Heart_%28radio_network%29 \"Heart (radio network)\")\n[Category:Radio stations established in 2000](/wiki/Category:Radio_stations_established_in_2000 \"Radio stations established in 2000\")\n[Category:Radio stations disestablished in 2014](/wiki/Category:Radio_stations_disestablished_in_2014 \"Radio stations disestablished in 2014\")\n[Category:Defunct radio stations in the United Kingdom](/wiki/Category:Defunct_radio_stations_in_the_United_Kingdom \"Defunct radio stations in the United Kingdom\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 45789152 ], "name": [ "Jlwoodwa" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Early life", "Convention", "Death", "References", "Sources", "Further reading", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**Augustin Bon Joseph de Robespierre** (21 January 1763 – 28 July 1794\\), known as **Robespierre the Younger**, was a [French](/wiki/French_people \"French people\") lawyer, politician and the younger brother of [French Revolutionary](/wiki/French_Revolution \"French Revolution\") leader [Maximilien Robespierre](/wiki/Maximilien_Robespierre \"Maximilien Robespierre\"). His political views were similar to his brother's. When his brother was arrested on [9 Thermidor](/wiki/9_Thermidor \"9 Thermidor\"), Robespierre volunteered to be arrested as well, and he was executed by the [guillotine](/wiki/Guillotine \"Guillotine\") along with Maximilien and 20 of his supporters.\n\n", "Early life\n----------\n\nRobespierre was born in [Arras](/wiki/Arras%2C_France \"Arras, France\"), the youngest of four children of the lawyer Maximilien\\-Barthelemy\\-François de Robespierre and Jacqueline\\-Marguerite Carrault, the daughter of a brewer. His mother died when he was one year old, and his grief\\-stricken father abandoned the family to go to Bavaria, where he died in 1777\\. Augustin was brought up by his grandparents. His brother Maximilien had won a scholarship from the [Abbey of St. Vaast](/wiki/Abbey_of_St._Vaast \"Abbey of St. Vaast\") to pay for his studies at the [Lycée Louis\\-le\\-Grand](/wiki/Lyc%C3%A9e_Louis-le-Grand \"Lycée Louis-le-Grand\") and had been such an outstanding student that when he obtained his degree in law, he asked the Abbot, [Cardinal de Rohan](/wiki/Cardinal_de_Rohan \"Cardinal de Rohan\"), if he would transfer the scholarship to younger brother to allow him to follow the same career. The Cardinal agreed and Augustin Robespierre took up his brother's place studying law.\n\nAlthough his political views were very similar to those of his brother, Robespierre was very different in character. Handsome, he was also fond of good food, gaming and the company of women, and called \"[Bonbon](/wiki/Bonbon \"Bonbon\")\". At the outset of the Revolution, Robespierre was prosecutor\\-syndic of Arras. Together with [Martial Herman](/wiki/Martial_Herman \"Martial Herman\") he founded a political club in the town and wrote to his brother to secure its affiliation with the [Jacobins](/wiki/Jacobins \"Jacobins\") in Paris. In 1791, he was appointed administrator of the *[département](/wiki/Departments_of_France \"Departments of France\")* of [Pas\\-de\\-Calais](/wiki/Pas-de-Calais \"Pas-de-Calais\").\n\n", "Convention\n----------\n\n[thumb\\|Charlotte Robespierre](/wiki/File:Charlotte_Robespierre.jpg \"Charlotte Robespierre.jpg\")\n\nRobespierre stood for election to the new [Legislative Assembly](/wiki/Legislative_Assembly_%28France%29 \"Legislative Assembly (France)\") in Arras in August 1791, but his views were too radical for the town, which elected another young lawyer, [Sixte François Deusy](/wiki/Sixte_Fran%C3%A7ois_Deusy \"Sixte François Deusy\") instead. However, on 16 September 1792, Robespierre was elected to the [National Convention](/wiki/National_Convention \"National Convention\"), 19th out of 24 deputies, with 392 votes out of 700 cast, by the voters of Paris, and he joined his brother in [The Mountain](/wiki/The_Mountain \"The Mountain\") and the [Jacobin Club](/wiki/Jacobin_Club \"Jacobin Club\"). At the Convention he distinguished himself by the vehemence of his attacks on the royal family and on aristocrats. During the [trial of Louis XVI](/wiki/Trial_of_Louis_XVI \"Trial of Louis XVI\") he voted for the death penalty to be applied within 24 hours.\n\nWhen he first came to Paris to take his seat he was accompanied by his sister [Charlotte](/wiki/Charlotte_de_Robespierre \"Charlotte de Robespierre\"), and they both lodged with Maximilien in the house of [Maurice Duplay](/wiki/Maurice_Duplay \"Maurice Duplay\") in the [Rue Saint Honoré](/wiki/Rue_Saint_Honor%C3%A9 \"Rue Saint Honoré\"). Like his brother Maximilien, Augustin refused to marry Duplay's daughter [Éléonore](/wiki/%C3%89l%C3%A9onore_Duplay \"Éléonore Duplay\").[Mémoires de Charlotte Robespierre sur ses deux frères, pp. 90–91](https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5809871j/f1n198.pdf?download=1,) Soon, Charlotte persuaded Maximilien to come with them to a new lodging in the nearby [Rue Saint\\-Florentin](/wiki/Rue_Saint-Florentin%2C_Paris \"Rue Saint-Florentin, Paris\") because of his increased prestige and her tensions with Madame Duplay. However, this arrangement did not last long. \n\nAt the end of July 1793, Robespierre was sent on a mission to [Alpes\\-Maritimes](/wiki/Alpes-Maritimes \"Alpes-Maritimes\") to suppress the [Federalist revolt](/wiki/Federalist_revolts \"Federalist revolts\"), together with another deputy from the convention, [Jean François Ricord](/wiki/Jean_Fran%C3%A7ois_Ricord \"Jean François Ricord\"). Charlotte accompanied him. Much of southeastern France (Midi) was in rebellion against the Republic, and they barely made it alive after an attack by counter\\-revolutionaries in [Manosque](/wiki/Manosque \"Manosque\") on August 12, 1793\\. In September 1793, they arrived in Nice where they felt secure enough to attend the theatre, but on the third occasion they did so, they were pelted with rotten apples. Meanwhile Robespierre discovered a pamphlet entitled *[Le souper de Beaucaire](/wiki/Le_souper_de_Beaucaire \"Le souper de Beaucaire\")* (*The supper at Beaucaire*), written by [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon \"Napoleon\"), and was impressed by the revolutionary context. Napoleon was promoted into the position of senior gunner at [Toulon](/wiki/Siege_of_Toulon_%281793%29 \"Siege of Toulon (1793)\").Dwyer, p. 136\\. On 17 December Augustin stayed in [Ollioules](/wiki/Ollioules \"Ollioules\"). On 19 December 1793 Augustin did not take part in the military action, led by [Dugommier](/wiki/Jacques_Fran%C3%A7ois_Dugommier \"Jacques François Dugommier\") and Napoleon, which retook Toulon from the British. He seems to have left a few hours before or the day after and was not present when [Fréron](/wiki/Louis-Marie_Stanislas_Fr%C3%A9ron \"Louis-Marie Stanislas Fréron\") took revenge on the population. When he returned to Paris, Augustin decided not to move in with Charlotte; they were no longer on speaking terms. In early January Augustin Robespierre was shocked at the changed atmosphere in the Jacobin club. By now the revolutionaries feared one another. Augustin went to live with Ricord and his wife. Maximilien returned to the Duplays' house in February 1794, being sick. \n\nAt the end of January Robespierre was dispatched once again as a [representant en mission](/wiki/Representant_en_mission \"Representant en mission\"), now to the [Army of Italy](/wiki/Army_of_Italy_%28France%29 \"Army of Italy (France)\") in [Haute\\-Saône](/wiki/Haute-Sa%C3%B4ne \"Haute-Saône\"). This time he took with him his mistress, La Saudraye, the creole wife of a literary man. She accompanied him to the local Popular Society in [Besançon](/wiki/Besan%C3%A7on \"Besançon\"), where members reacted indignantly to the active role she took in debates, and to the fact that Robespierre listened to and thought highly of her opinions on politics. He also used his influence while with the Army of Italy to advance Napoleon's career. On his return to Paris he served as a secretary to the convention.\n\n", "Death\n-----\n\n[thumb\\|Proclamation written by Augustin and signed by him, Maximilien Robespierre and Saint\\-Just calling Couthon to come to the townhall in the late evening of [9 Thermidor](/wiki/9_Thermidor \"9 Thermidor\")](/wiki/File:Proclamation_Commune_de_Paris_10_Thermidor_An_II.jpg \"Proclamation Commune de Paris 10 Thermidor An II.jpg\") \n[thumb\\|Augustin Robespierre led up the steps to the guillotine on 28 July 1794](/wiki/File:Execution_robespierre%2C_saint_just....jpg \"Execution robespierre, saint just....jpg\")\n\nRobespierre was in the hall of the Convention on the day of [9 Thermidor II](/wiki/9_Thermidor \"9 Thermidor\") (27 July 1794\\), when the deputies voted for the arrests of Maximilien, [Louis Antoine de Saint\\-Just](/wiki/Louis_Antoine_de_Saint-Just \"Louis Antoine de Saint-Just\") and [Georges Couthon](/wiki/Georges_Couthon \"Georges Couthon\") after a heated discussion. Robespierre then rose from his place on the benches and said, \"I am as guilty as him; I share his virtues, I want to share his fate. I ask also to be charged.\" He was joined by [Philippe\\-François\\-Joseph Le Bas](/wiki/Philippe-Fran%C3%A7ois-Joseph_Le_Bas \"Philippe-François-Joseph Le Bas\"). The five were kept under guard in the rooms of the [Committee of General Security](/wiki/Committee_of_General_Security \"Committee of General Security\"), where they remained until a place could be found for them. Hearing of the arrests, the [Commune of Paris](/wiki/Paris_Commune_%28French_Revolution%29 \"Paris Commune (French Revolution)\") issued orders to all prisons in the city, forbidding them to take any prisoner in, sent by the Convention. Robespierre was refused at [Prison Saint\\-Lazare](/wiki/Prison_Saint-Lazare \"Prison Saint-Lazare\") and taken to the prison of [La Force](/wiki/La_Force_prison \"La Force prison\") while Maximilien was taken to the [Luxembourg](/wiki/Luxembourg_Palace \"Luxembourg Palace\"). Because of the Commune's orders, they were released and made their way to the [Hôtel de Ville](/wiki/H%C3%B4tel_de_Ville%2C_Paris \"Hôtel de Ville, Paris\"). Escorted by two municipal officers, Robespierre was the first to arrive. There they spent the rest of the evening vainly trying to coordinate an insurrection. In the early morning of 10 Thermidor, the forces of the Convention under [Paul Barras](/wiki/Paul_Barras \"Paul Barras\") burst in and succeeded in taking most of them alive, except Le Bas, who had shot himself, and [Jean\\-Baptiste Coffinhal](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Coffinhal \"Jean-Baptiste Coffinhal\"), who succeeded in escaping but turned himself in after a week.\n\nIn order to avoid capture, Robespierre took off his shoes and jumped from a ledge. He landed on the steps, or on some bayonets, resulting in a [pelvic fracture](/wiki/Pelvic_fracture \"Pelvic fracture\") and several serious head contusions. Barras ordered that Robespierre be carried back to the rooms of the Committee of General Security. After a couple of hours the prisoners were taken to the [Conciergerie](/wiki/Conciergerie \"Conciergerie\") prison; four of them were lying on stretchers. After identification at the [Revolutionary Tribunal](/wiki/Revolutionary_Tribunal \"Revolutionary Tribunal\") according to the [Law of 22 Prairial](/wiki/Law_of_22_Prairial \"Law of 22 Prairial\"), the twenty\\-two convicts were sent to the scaffold on Place de la Révolution in the early evening. Couthon was the second of the prisoners to be executed, with Robespierre as the third, [Hanriot](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Hanriot \"François Hanriot\") as the ninth and Maximilien as the tenth.\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n### Sources\n\n", "### Sources\n\n", "Further reading\n---------------\n\n* Alexandre Cousin, *Philippe Lebas et Augustin Robespierre, deux météores dans la Révolution française* (2010\\). \n* Marisa Linton, *Choosing Terror: Virtue, Friendship and Authenticity in the French Revolution* (Oxford University Press, 2013\\).\n* Sergio Luzzatto, *Bonbon Robespierre: la terreur à visage humain* (2010\\). \n* Martial Sicard, *Robespierre jeune dans les Basses\\-Alpes*, Forcalquier, A. Crest (1900\\). \n* Mary Young, *Augustin, the Younger Robespierre* (2011, ).\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [\"L'enfance de Maximilien\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20120326192222/http://www.amrid.net/spip.php?article125), in *L’association Maximilien Robespierre pour l’Idéal Démocratique* bulletin n° 45\\. \n* [\"Augustin, the Younger Robespierre\"](https://hyphen-21.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Mary-Young-Augustin-Robespierre-August-2021.pdf), by Mary Young (in English)\n\n[Category:1763 births](/wiki/Category:1763_births \"1763 births\")\n[Category:1794 deaths](/wiki/Category:1794_deaths \"1794 deaths\")\n[Category:French people executed by guillotine during the French Revolution](/wiki/Category:French_people_executed_by_guillotine_during_the_French_Revolution \"French people executed by guillotine during the French Revolution\")\n[Category:Executed regicides of Louis XVI](/wiki/Category:Executed_regicides_of_Louis_XVI \"Executed regicides of Louis XVI\")\n[Category:People from Arras](/wiki/Category:People_from_Arras \"People from Arras\")\n[Category:Représentants en mission](/wiki/Category:Repr%C3%A9sentants_en_mission \"Représentants en mission\")\n[Category:18th\\-century French lawyers](/wiki/Category:18th-century_French_lawyers \"18th-century French lawyers\")\n[Category:Maximilien Robespierre](/wiki/Category:Maximilien_Robespierre \"Maximilien Robespierre\")\n[Category:Deputies to the French National Convention](/wiki/Category:Deputies_to_the_French_National_Convention \"Deputies to the French National Convention\")\n[Category:People of the French Revolution](/wiki/Category:People_of_the_French_Revolution \"People of the French Revolution\")\n[Category:Regicides of Louis XVI](/wiki/Category:Regicides_of_Louis_XVI \"Regicides of Louis XVI\")\n[Augustin](/wiki/Category:Robespierre_family \"Robespierre family\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 8230836 ], "name": [ "55go" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Career", "Filmography", "Film", "Television", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n \n is a Japanese actress. She played the role of villain in the horror film *[Carved](/wiki/Carved_%28film%29 \"Carved (film)\")* as the [Kuchisake\\-Onna](/wiki/Kuchisake-Onna \"Kuchisake-Onna\") a malevolent [vengeful spirit](/wiki/Vengeful_spirit \"Vengeful spirit\") who killed many children.\n\n", "Career\n------\n\nMizuno starred in Takanori Tsujimoto's action films *Hard Revenge Milly* and *Hard Revenge Milly: Bloody Battle*. She also starred in [Sion Sono](/wiki/Sion_Sono \"Sion Sono\")'s 2011 film *[Guilty of Romance](/wiki/Guilty_of_Romance \"Guilty of Romance\")*.\n\n", "Filmography\n-----------\n\n### Film\n\n* *Kunoichi Ninpocho* (1991\\)\n* *Honban Joyu* (1992\\)\n* *Kunoichi Ninpocho 2: Sei Shojo no Hiho* (1992\\)\n* *Sadistic Mariya* (1992\\)\n* *Shura no Jakushi: Narumi 2* (1993\\)\n* *Nekketsu Golf Club* (1994\\)\n* *Raiden* (1994\\)\n* *Shoot* (1994\\)\n* *Daishitsuren* (1995\\)\n* *[Gamera 2: Attack of Legion](/wiki/Gamera_2:Attack_of_Legion \"Attack of Legion\")* (1996\\), Midori Honami\n* *[Bayside Shakedown: The Movie](/wiki/Bayside_Shakedown:The_Movie \"The Movie\")* (1998\\), Yukino Kashiwagi\n* *Genjitsu no Tsuzuki Yume no Owari* (1999\\)\n* *Senrigan* (2000\\)\n* *[Bayside Shakedown 2](/wiki/Bayside_Shakedown_2 \"Bayside Shakedown 2\")* (2003\\), Yukino Kashiwagi\n* *My Lover Is a Sniper* (2004\\)\n* *Negotiator* (2005\\)\n* *Zukan ni Nottenai Mushi* (2007\\)\n* *[Carved](/wiki/Carved_%28film%29 \"Carved (film)\")* (2007\\)\n* *Wenny Has Wings* (2008\\)\n* *Sasori: Prisoner 701* (2008\\)\n* *Hard Revenge Milly* (2008\\)\n* *Hard Revenge Milly: Bloody Battle* (2009\\)\n* *Castle Under Fiery Skies* (2009\\)\n* *[Waya! Uchuu Ichi no Osekkai Daisakusen](/wiki/Waya%21_Uchuu_Ichi_no_Osekkai_Daisakusen \"Waya! Uchuu Ichi no Osekkai Daisakusen\")* (2011\\)\n* *[Guilty of Romance](/wiki/Guilty_of_Romance \"Guilty of Romance\")* (2011\\)\n* *[Dead Mine](/wiki/Dead_Mine \"Dead Mine\")* (2012\\)\n* *[I'll Give It My All... Tomorrow](/wiki/I%27ll_Give_It_My_All..._Tomorrow \"I'll Give It My All... Tomorrow\")* (2013\\)\n* *[Sweet Bean](/wiki/Sweet_Bean \"Sweet Bean\")* (2015\\)\n* *The Brightest Roof in the Universe* (2020\\)\n* *[To Every You I've Loved Before](/wiki/To_Every_You_I%27ve_Loved_Before_%28film%29 \"To Every You I've Loved Before (film)\")* (2022\\), Shiori's mother (voice)\n* *[To Me, the One Who Loved You](/wiki/To_Me%2C_the_One_Who_Loved_You_%28film%29 \"To Me, the One Who Loved You (film)\")* (2022\\), Shiori's mother (voice)\n\n### Television\n\n* *Itoko Doshi* (1992\\)\n* *Yume Miru Koro o Sugitemo* (1994\\)\n* *Koibito yo* (1995\\)\n* *Natural Ai no Yukue* (1996\\)\n* *Tsubasa o Kudasai!* (1996\\)\n* *Age 35 Koishikute* (1996\\)\n* *Best Partner* (1997\\)\n* *Shokuinshitsu* (1997\\)\n* *[Bayside Shakedown](/wiki/Bayside_Shakedown \"Bayside Shakedown\")* (1997\\), Yukino Kashiwagi\n* *Hotel* (1998\\)\n* *Team* (1999\\)\n* *Kanojotachi no Jidai* (1999\\)\n* *[Salaryman Kintaro](/wiki/Salaryman_Kintaro \"Salaryman Kintaro\")* (1999\\)\n* *Oyaji* (2000\\)\n* *Hanamura Daisuke* (2000\\)\n* *[Beautiful Life](/wiki/Beautiful_Life_%282000_TV_series%29 \"Beautiful Life (2000 TV series)\")* (2000\\)\n* *Koi ga Shitai x3* (2001\\)\n* *Joshiana* (2001\\)\n* *Shiawase no Shippo* (2002\\)\n* *Hatsutaiken* (2002\\)\n* *Koibumi* (2003\\)\n* *[Okaasan to Issho](/wiki/Okaasan_to_Issho \"Okaasan to Issho\")* (2003\\)\n* *Tobosha* (2004\\)\n* *Dream* (2004\\)\n* *Slow Start* (2007\\)\n* *[Galileo](/wiki/Galileo_%28Japanese_TV_series%29 \"Galileo (Japanese TV series)\")* (2007\\)\n* *[Hakui no Namida](/wiki/Hakui_no_Namida \"Hakui no Namida\")* (2013\\)\n* *The Flying PR Room* (2013\\)\n* *Jiken Kyūmeii: Imat no Kiseki* (2013\\)\n* *Umi no Ue no Shinryōjo* Episode 10 (2013\\)\n* *Team Bachisuta 4* (2014\\)\n* *Jiken Kyūmeii2: Imat no Kiseki* (2014\\)\n* *Kazoku Gari* (2014\\)\n* *[Masshiro](/wiki/Masshiro \"Masshiro\")* (2015\\)\n* *I'm Home* (2015\\)\n* *[37\\.5°C no Namida](/wiki/37.5%C2%B0C_no_Namida \"37.5°C no Namida\")* (2015\\)\n* *[Love Song](/wiki/Love_Song_%282016_TV_series%29 \"Love Song (2016 TV series)\")* (2016\\)\n* *[Scarlet](/wiki/Scarlet_%28TV_series%29 \"Scarlet (TV series)\")* (2019–20\\)\n* *[The Way of the Househusband](/wiki/The_Way_of_the_Househusband \"The Way of the Househusband\")* (2020\\)\n* *Unbound* (2025\\), Ine\n", "### Film\n\n* *Kunoichi Ninpocho* (1991\\)\n* *Honban Joyu* (1992\\)\n* *Kunoichi Ninpocho 2: Sei Shojo no Hiho* (1992\\)\n* *Sadistic Mariya* (1992\\)\n* *Shura no Jakushi: Narumi 2* (1993\\)\n* *Nekketsu Golf Club* (1994\\)\n* *Raiden* (1994\\)\n* *Shoot* (1994\\)\n* *Daishitsuren* (1995\\)\n* *[Gamera 2: Attack of Legion](/wiki/Gamera_2:Attack_of_Legion \"Attack of Legion\")* (1996\\), Midori Honami\n* *[Bayside Shakedown: The Movie](/wiki/Bayside_Shakedown:The_Movie \"The Movie\")* (1998\\), Yukino Kashiwagi\n* *Genjitsu no Tsuzuki Yume no Owari* (1999\\)\n* *Senrigan* (2000\\)\n* *[Bayside Shakedown 2](/wiki/Bayside_Shakedown_2 \"Bayside Shakedown 2\")* (2003\\), Yukino Kashiwagi\n* *My Lover Is a Sniper* (2004\\)\n* *Negotiator* (2005\\)\n* *Zukan ni Nottenai Mushi* (2007\\)\n* *[Carved](/wiki/Carved_%28film%29 \"Carved (film)\")* (2007\\)\n* *Wenny Has Wings* (2008\\)\n* *Sasori: Prisoner 701* (2008\\)\n* *Hard Revenge Milly* (2008\\)\n* *Hard Revenge Milly: Bloody Battle* (2009\\)\n* *Castle Under Fiery Skies* (2009\\)\n* *[Waya! Uchuu Ichi no Osekkai Daisakusen](/wiki/Waya%21_Uchuu_Ichi_no_Osekkai_Daisakusen \"Waya! Uchuu Ichi no Osekkai Daisakusen\")* (2011\\)\n* *[Guilty of Romance](/wiki/Guilty_of_Romance \"Guilty of Romance\")* (2011\\)\n* *[Dead Mine](/wiki/Dead_Mine \"Dead Mine\")* (2012\\)\n* *[I'll Give It My All... Tomorrow](/wiki/I%27ll_Give_It_My_All..._Tomorrow \"I'll Give It My All... Tomorrow\")* (2013\\)\n* *[Sweet Bean](/wiki/Sweet_Bean \"Sweet Bean\")* (2015\\)\n* *The Brightest Roof in the Universe* (2020\\)\n* *[To Every You I've Loved Before](/wiki/To_Every_You_I%27ve_Loved_Before_%28film%29 \"To Every You I've Loved Before (film)\")* (2022\\), Shiori's mother (voice)\n* *[To Me, the One Who Loved You](/wiki/To_Me%2C_the_One_Who_Loved_You_%28film%29 \"To Me, the One Who Loved You (film)\")* (2022\\), Shiori's mother (voice)\n", "### Television\n\n* *Itoko Doshi* (1992\\)\n* *Yume Miru Koro o Sugitemo* (1994\\)\n* *Koibito yo* (1995\\)\n* *Natural Ai no Yukue* (1996\\)\n* *Tsubasa o Kudasai!* (1996\\)\n* *Age 35 Koishikute* (1996\\)\n* *Best Partner* (1997\\)\n* *Shokuinshitsu* (1997\\)\n* *[Bayside Shakedown](/wiki/Bayside_Shakedown \"Bayside Shakedown\")* (1997\\), Yukino Kashiwagi\n* *Hotel* (1998\\)\n* *Team* (1999\\)\n* *Kanojotachi no Jidai* (1999\\)\n* *[Salaryman Kintaro](/wiki/Salaryman_Kintaro \"Salaryman Kintaro\")* (1999\\)\n* *Oyaji* (2000\\)\n* *Hanamura Daisuke* (2000\\)\n* *[Beautiful Life](/wiki/Beautiful_Life_%282000_TV_series%29 \"Beautiful Life (2000 TV series)\")* (2000\\)\n* *Koi ga Shitai x3* (2001\\)\n* *Joshiana* (2001\\)\n* *Shiawase no Shippo* (2002\\)\n* *Hatsutaiken* (2002\\)\n* *Koibumi* (2003\\)\n* *[Okaasan to Issho](/wiki/Okaasan_to_Issho \"Okaasan to Issho\")* (2003\\)\n* *Tobosha* (2004\\)\n* *Dream* (2004\\)\n* *Slow Start* (2007\\)\n* *[Galileo](/wiki/Galileo_%28Japanese_TV_series%29 \"Galileo (Japanese TV series)\")* (2007\\)\n* *[Hakui no Namida](/wiki/Hakui_no_Namida \"Hakui no Namida\")* (2013\\)\n* *The Flying PR Room* (2013\\)\n* *Jiken Kyūmeii: Imat no Kiseki* (2013\\)\n* *Umi no Ue no Shinryōjo* Episode 10 (2013\\)\n* *Team Bachisuta 4* (2014\\)\n* *Jiken Kyūmeii2: Imat no Kiseki* (2014\\)\n* *Kazoku Gari* (2014\\)\n* *[Masshiro](/wiki/Masshiro \"Masshiro\")* (2015\\)\n* *I'm Home* (2015\\)\n* *[37\\.5°C no Namida](/wiki/37.5%C2%B0C_no_Namida \"37.5°C no Namida\")* (2015\\)\n* *[Love Song](/wiki/Love_Song_%282016_TV_series%29 \"Love Song (2016 TV series)\")* (2016\\)\n* *[Scarlet](/wiki/Scarlet_%28TV_series%29 \"Scarlet (TV series)\")* (2019–20\\)\n* *[The Way of the Househusband](/wiki/The_Way_of_the_Househusband \"The Way of the Househusband\")* (2020\\)\n* *Unbound* (2025\\), Ine\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n[Category:1974 births](/wiki/Category:1974_births \"1974 births\")\n[Category:Actors from Mie Prefecture](/wiki/Category:Actors_from_Mie_Prefecture \"Actors from Mie Prefecture\")\n[Category:Japanese film actresses](/wiki/Category:Japanese_film_actresses \"Japanese film actresses\")\n[Category:Japanese television actresses](/wiki/Category:Japanese_television_actresses \"Japanese television actresses\")\n[Category:Living people](/wiki/Category:Living_people \"Living people\")\n[Category:People from Yokkaichi](/wiki/Category:People_from_Yokkaichi \"People from Yokkaichi\")\n[Category:20th\\-century Japanese actresses](/wiki/Category:20th-century_Japanese_actresses \"20th-century Japanese actresses\")\n[Category:21st\\-century Japanese actresses](/wiki/Category:21st-century_Japanese_actresses \"21st-century Japanese actresses\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 10009225 ], "name": [ "Phrontis" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "History", "Publications", "Description", "Variants{{anchor|Motorola Tough Talker}}", "Legacy", "Portability", "Accessories", "See also", "References" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n[thumb\\|Electrical engineer [Martin Cooper](/wiki/Martin_Cooper_%28inventor%29 \"Martin Cooper (inventor)\") of Motorola made the first publicized handheld mobile phone call on a prototype DynaTAC model on April 3, 1973\\. This is a reenactment in 2007\\.](/wiki/File:2007Computex_e21Forum-MartinCooper.jpg \"2007Computex e21Forum-MartinCooper.jpg\")\n\nThe **DynaTAC** is a series of [cellular telephones](/wiki/Mobile_phone \"Mobile phone\") manufactured by [Motorola](/wiki/Motorola \"Motorola\") from 1983 to 1994\\. The Motorola DynaTAC 8000X received approval from the U.S. [FCC](/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission \"Federal Communications Commission\") on September 21, 1983\\. A full charge took roughly 10 hours, and it offered 30 minutes of talk time.[\"The History of Mobile Phone Technology\"](http://www.redorbit.com/reference/the-history-of-mobile-phone-technology/). RedOrbit. It also offered an [LED display](/wiki/LED_display \"LED display\") for dialing or recall of one of 30 phone numbers. It was priced at $3,995 in 1984, its commercial release year, equivalent to $ in . DynaTAC was an abbreviation of \"Dynamic Adaptive Total Area Coverage\".\n\nSeveral models followed, starting in 1985 with the 8000s and continuing with periodic updates of increasing frequency until 1993's Classic II. The DynaTAC was replaced in most roles by the much smaller [Motorola MicroTAC](/wiki/Motorola_MicroTAC \"Motorola MicroTAC\") when it was first introduced in 1989, and by the time of the [Motorola StarTAC](/wiki/Motorola_StarTAC \"Motorola StarTAC\")'s release in 1996, it was obsolete.\n\n", "History\n-------\n\nThe first cellular phone was the culmination of efforts begun at [Bell Labs](/wiki/Bell_Labs \"Bell Labs\"), which first proposed the idea of a cellular system in 1947, and continued to petition the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) for channels through the 1950s and 1960s, and research conducted at [Motorola](/wiki/Motorola \"Motorola\"). In 1960, electrical engineer [John F. Mitchell](/wiki/John_Francis_Mitchell \"John Francis Mitchell\")[John F. Mitchell Biography](http://www.brophy.net/PivotX/?p=john-francis-mitchell-biography)[The Top Giants in Telephony](http://www.historyofthecellphone.com/people/john-mitchell.php) [Who invented the cell phone?](http://www.brophy.net/PivotX/?p=john-francis-mitchell-biography#CELLPHONEINVENTOR) became Motorola's chief engineer for its mobile communication products. Mitchell oversaw the development and marketing of the first [pager](/wiki/Pager \"Pager\") to use transistors.\n\nMotorola had long produced [mobile telephones](/wiki/Radiotelephone \"Radiotelephone\") for cars that were large and heavy and consumed too much power to allow their use without the automobile's engine running. Mitchell's team, which included [Martin Cooper](/wiki/Martin_Cooper_%28inventor%29 \"Martin Cooper (inventor)\"), developed portable cellular telephony, and Mitchell was among the Motorola employees granted a [patent](/wiki/Patent \"Patent\") for this work in 1973; the first call on the prototype was completed, reportedly, to a wrong number.\n\nMotorola announced the development of the Dyna\\-Tac in April 1973, saying that it expected to have it fully operational within three years. Motorola said that the Dyna\\-Tac would weigh and would cost between $60 and $100 per month. Motorola predicted that the cost would decrease to $10 or $12 per month in no more than 20 years. Motorola said that, while the Dyna\\-Tac would not use the same network as the existing mobile service network, it anticipated resolving this so that all mobile devices would use the same network by around 1980\\.Corya, Robert (April 5, 1973\\). \"[Portable Phone Here: Motorola](https://www.newspapers.com/image/312584336/)\". *The Indianapolis News* (Indianapolis, Indiana). p. 56\\. By 1975, Motorola's expectations had changed; the Dyna\\-Tac was anticipated to be released to the public by 1985 because of [U.S. Federal Communications Commission](/wiki/U.S._Federal_Communications_Commission \"U.S. Federal Communications Commission\") proceedings.Moeller, Phillip (August 27, 1975\\). \"[Red Tape Holds Up Portable Phones](https://www.newspapers.com/image/)\". *Chicago Sun\\-Times*. The Gazette (Montreal, Quebec). p. 26\\.\n\nWhile Motorola was developing the cellular phone itself, from 1968 to 1983, Bell Labs worked on the system called [AMPS](/wiki/Advanced_Mobile_Phone_System \"Advanced Mobile Phone System\"), while others designed cell phones for that and other cellular systems. Martin Cooper, a former general manager for the systems division at Motorola, led a team that produced the DynaTAC 8000X, the first commercially available cellular phone small enough to be easily carried, and made the first phone call from it. Martin Cooper was the first person to make an analog cellular mobile phone call on a prototype in 1973\\.\n\nThe Motorola DynaTAC 8000X was very large compared to phones today. This first cell phone was very expensive when it was released in the US in 1984\\. The DynaTAC's retail price, $3,995 (about $ in ), ensured that it would not become a mass\\-market item (the minimum wage in the United States was $3\\.35 per hour in 1984, which meant that it required more than 1192 hours of work – more than 7 months at a standard 40 hour work week – just working for the phone, without taxes); by 1998, when Mitchell retired, cellphones and associated services made up two thirds of Motorola's $30billion in revenue.John F. Mitchell, Time Magazine Milestones section, July 6, 2009, p.17\n\nOn October 13, 1983, David D. Meilahn placed the first commercial wireless call on a DynaTAC from his 1983 Mercedes\\-Benz 380SL to Bob Barnett, former president of [Ameritech Mobile Communications](/wiki/Ameritech_Mobile_Communications \"Ameritech Mobile Communications\"), who then placed a call on a DynaTAC from inside a Chrysler convertible to the grandson of [Alexander Graham Bell](/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell \"Alexander Graham Bell\"), who was in Germany for the event. The call, made at [Soldier Field](/wiki/Soldier_Field \"Soldier Field\") in Chicago, is considered to be a major turning point in communications. Later, [Richard H. Frenkiel](/wiki/Richard_H._Frenkiel \"Richard H. Frenkiel\"), the head of system development at Bell Laboratories, said about the DynaTAC: \"It was a real triumph; a great breakthrough.\"\n\n", "Publications\n------------\n\n[U.S. Patent 3,906,166](https://patents.google.com/patent/US3906166A/,), September 16, 1975 for a [Radio Telephone System](/wiki/Radiotelephone \"Radiotelephone\") for the first cell phone was granted by Martin Cooper, Richard W. Dronsurth, Albert J. Leitich, Charles N. Lynk,[Letter to Middle Schooler, granddaughter of Chuck Lynk, co\\-inventor of cell phone](http://www.brophy.net/weblog/images/letter_to_middle_school.jpg), by James J. Mikulski, co\\-inventor of first cell phone April 3, 1973 James J. Mikulski,[Comments by Albert (Jim) Mikulski, *co\\-inventor of first cell phone,* June 6, 2009, Chicago Tribune (a):*\"Mitchell known as a hands on manager\"* (b): (c): (e): (f): (g): *\"willing to give credit to those who worked in the trenches.\"* (c): (d): *\"I remember his delegating his task as...GM to work in the Applied Research Lab and in give and take with the engineers as the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) docket 18262 that would shape Motorola's future...in the 1970s*.\" (h): *Mitchell team member*, (i) *patent holder*](http://www.brophy.net/weblog/images/obit_-_mikulski_heading.jpg) [Discontinuance of Product Line, Business Case Study Cell Phone](http://www.brophy.net/weblog/images/discontinuous_innovation_-_case_study_cell_phone.jpg); John F. Mitchell, Roy A. Richardson, and John H. Sangster.\n\nTwo names were botched in the original filing; Albert Leitich's surname was erroneously omitted, and Dr. Mikulski's first name was omitted. The original document was refiled by Motorola's legal staff, but has not yet been identified.\n\nThe seeds of the idea for a portable cell phone can be traced to Dr. James J. Mikulski, which were rejected by Mitchell for lack of sufficient business justifications. It is rumored that when John Mitchell suddenly recognized during an attempted phone call that his 400 MHz phone had inherent limitations, he immediately reversed his previous decision and championed the portable cell phone concept.\n\n", "Description\n-----------\n\nSeveral prototypes were made between 1973 and 1983\\. The product accepted by the FCC weighed 28 ounces (790 g) and was 10 inches (25 cm) high, not including its flexible \"rubber duck\" [whip antenna](/wiki/Whip_antenna \"Whip antenna\"). In addition to the typical 12\\-key telephone keypad, it had nine additional special keys:\n\n* Rcl (recall)\n* Clr (clear)\n* Snd (send)\n* Sto (store)\n* Fcn (function)\n* End\n* Pwr (power)\n* Lock\n* Vol (volume)\n\nIt employed some of the technology previously used in the [ALOHAnet](/wiki/ALOHAnet \"ALOHAnet\") system, including [metal–oxide–semiconductor](/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93oxide%E2%80%93semiconductor \"Metal–oxide–semiconductor\") (MOS) [transceiver](/wiki/Transceiver \"Transceiver\") and [modem](/wiki/Modem \"Modem\") technology.\n\n### Variants\n\nThe DynaTAC 8 Series, Classic, Classic II, Ultra Classic, and Ultra Classic II had an [LED display](/wiki/LED_display \"LED display\"), with red [LEDs](/wiki/LED \"LED\"); the DynaTAC International Series with green LEDs, and the DynaTAC 6000XL used a [vacuum fluorescent display](/wiki/Vacuum_fluorescent_display \"Vacuum fluorescent display\"). These displays were severely limited in what information they could show. The battery allowed for a call of up to 60 minutes, after which it was necessary to charge the phone up to 10 hours in a [trickle charger](/wiki/Trickle_charging \"Trickle charging\") or one hour in a fast charger, which was a separate accessory. While still retaining the DynaTAC name, the 6000XL was completely unrelated to the DynaTAC 8000 Series, in that it was a transportable phone meant for installation in a vehicle. The 6000XL was later reconfigured as the Motorola Tough Talker, with a ruggedized build intended for construction sites, emergency workers, and special events planners.\n\nThe DynaTAC Series was succeeded by the [MicroTAC Series](/wiki/Motorola_MicroTAC \"Motorola MicroTAC\") in 1989\\.\n\n### Legacy\n\nWith the removal of analog network cells nearly all over the world, the DynaTAC models running on AMPS or other analog networks are mostly obsolete. Thus, they are more collectors' items than usable telephones. The International series, however, will still work, but only on GSM 900 cells.\n\nThe DynaTac 8000X, due to its resemblance in size and weight to a standard clay\\-fired [brick](/wiki/Brick \"Brick\"), was nicknamed the **brick phone** by users,Nellis, Blake (March 2, 2015\\). \"[The Evolution of the Cell Phone](https://www.newspapers.com/image/470110491/)\". *The Technocrat*. The Montana Standard (Butte, Montana). p. T6\\. a term later applied to other brands as a contrast to smaller handsets appearing in the 1990s.\n\n", "### Variants\n\nThe DynaTAC 8 Series, Classic, Classic II, Ultra Classic, and Ultra Classic II had an [LED display](/wiki/LED_display \"LED display\"), with red [LEDs](/wiki/LED \"LED\"); the DynaTAC International Series with green LEDs, and the DynaTAC 6000XL used a [vacuum fluorescent display](/wiki/Vacuum_fluorescent_display \"Vacuum fluorescent display\"). These displays were severely limited in what information they could show. The battery allowed for a call of up to 60 minutes, after which it was necessary to charge the phone up to 10 hours in a [trickle charger](/wiki/Trickle_charging \"Trickle charging\") or one hour in a fast charger, which was a separate accessory. While still retaining the DynaTAC name, the 6000XL was completely unrelated to the DynaTAC 8000 Series, in that it was a transportable phone meant for installation in a vehicle. The 6000XL was later reconfigured as the Motorola Tough Talker, with a ruggedized build intended for construction sites, emergency workers, and special events planners.\n\nThe DynaTAC Series was succeeded by the [MicroTAC Series](/wiki/Motorola_MicroTAC \"Motorola MicroTAC\") in 1989\\.\n\n", "### Legacy\n\nWith the removal of analog network cells nearly all over the world, the DynaTAC models running on AMPS or other analog networks are mostly obsolete. Thus, they are more collectors' items than usable telephones. The International series, however, will still work, but only on GSM 900 cells.\n\nThe DynaTac 8000X, due to its resemblance in size and weight to a standard clay\\-fired [brick](/wiki/Brick \"Brick\"), was nicknamed the **brick phone** by users,Nellis, Blake (March 2, 2015\\). \"[The Evolution of the Cell Phone](https://www.newspapers.com/image/470110491/)\". *The Technocrat*. The Montana Standard (Butte, Montana). p. T6\\. a term later applied to other brands as a contrast to smaller handsets appearing in the 1990s.\n\n", "Portability\n-----------\n\nWhile it might be considered extremely unwieldy by modern standards, at the time it was considered revolutionary because mobile telephones were bulky affairs installed in vehicles or in heavy briefcases. The DynaTAC 8000X was long and weighed .Molina, Brett (April 4, 2013\\). \"[Mobile Phone at 40: One Long Shrinkage Spurt](https://www.newspapers.com/image/266488019/)\". *USA Today*. Honolulu Star\\-Advertiser (Honolulu, Hawaii). p. A6\\. It was truly the first mobile telephone which could connect to the telephone network without the assistance of a mobile operator and could be carried about by the user.\n\n", "Accessories\n-----------\n\nIn certain markets, a brass swivel antenna was one of the aftermarket accessories then available.\n\nMotorola also offered a one\\-hour desktop charger, though the battery could get quite hot while charging at this accelerated rate. In some cases, this could cause major problems with the battery, occasionally short circuiting it and rendering it unusable. Also, charging the battery at a high enough rate to substantially raise its temperature will cause the battery to wear at an accelerated rate, reducing the number of charge\\-discharge cycles that can be performed before the battery will need to be replaced. (However, considering the high cost of the DynaTAC, the cost of battery replacement would not typically be a concern to DynaTAC owners.)\n\nAvailable, too, was a snug\\-fitting zippered leather case which covered the entire body of the phone and had a clear plastic front to make the user interface accessible. It featured a sturdy spring\\-steel belt clip and a small cutaway at the top to allow the antenna to protrude. Charging could still be performed with the cover on, but change of battery required its removal.\n\nDynaTAC relates to US phones used on the DynaTAC system in the US, not phones in use in the UK.\n\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [AMPS](/wiki/Advanced_Mobile_Phone_System \"Advanced Mobile Phone System\")\n* [History of mobile phones](/wiki/History_of_mobile_phones \"History of mobile phones\")\n", "References\n----------\n\n[Category:First generation mobile telecommunications](/wiki/Category:First_generation_mobile_telecommunications \"First generation mobile telecommunications\")\n[DynaTAC](/wiki/Category:Motorola_mobile_phones \"Motorola mobile phones\")\n[Category:Mobile phones introduced in 1984](/wiki/Category:Mobile_phones_introduced_in_1984 \"Mobile phones introduced in 1984\")\n[Category:Computer\\-related introductions in 1984](/wiki/Category:Computer-related_introductions_in_1984 \"Computer-related introductions in 1984\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 35945744 ], "name": [ "Mosesheron" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "[[Thesis]]", "Complexity and zero-sum solutions in human society", "Structure", "Part I: A brief history of Humankind", "Part II: A brief history of Organic Life", "Part III: From Here to Eternity", "Corollaries and criticism", "Wright's response to criticism", "Wright and creationists", "Bibliographical information", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n***Nonzero: The Logic of Human Destiny*** is a 1999 book by [Robert Wright](/wiki/Robert_Wright_%28journalist%29 \"Robert Wright (journalist)\"), in which the author argues that [biological evolution](/wiki/Biological_evolution \"Biological evolution\") and [cultural evolution](/wiki/Cultural_evolution \"Cultural evolution\") are shaped and directed first and foremost by \"non\\-zero\\-sumness\" [i.e.](/wiki/I.e. \"I.e.\"), the prospect of creating new interactions that are not [zero\\-sum](/wiki/Zero-sum \"Zero-sum\").\n\n", "[Thesis](/wiki/Thesis \"Thesis\")\n-------------------------------\n\nThe principal argument of *Nonzero* is to demonstrate that natural selection results in increasing complexity within the world and greater rewards for cooperation. Since, as Wright puts it, the realization of such prospects is dependent upon increased levels of [globalization](/wiki/Globalization \"Globalization\"), communication, cooperation, and trust, what is thought of as human intelligence is really just a long step in an evolutionary process of organisms (as well as their networks and individual parts) getting better at processing information.\n\nThrough this lens, and an overview of [human history](/wiki/Human_history \"Human history\"), Wright typifies the argument against the views of noted paleontologist [Stephen Jay Gould](/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould \"Stephen Jay Gould\"). Gould wrote that \"Humans are here by the luck of the draw.\" Wright acknowledges one aspect of Gould's argument—that the evolutionary process was not such that it would inevitably create humans as we know them today (\"five fingers, five toes, and so on\") but that evolution would almost certainly result in the creation of highly intelligent, communicating organisms, who would in turn develop tools and advanced technologies.\n\nEvidence for natural selection driving improvements in information processing is given throughout, including the case of the [bombardier beetle](/wiki/Bombardier_beetle \"Bombardier beetle\"), an insect that developed the ability to spray its attackers with harsh chemicals. This, in turn, favored predators via natural selection who had techniques to avoid the spray. As Wright puts it, \"complexity breeds complexity.\" This is the often referred to evolutionary phenomenon of the \"[arms race](/wiki/Evolutionary_arms_race \"Evolutionary arms race\"),\" wherein competing organisms stack up their developments in competition with one another.\n\nVia this increasing complexity, according to *Nonzero*, higher intelligence was thus destined to happen, perhaps even \"inevitable\".\n\n", "Complexity and zero\\-sum solutions in human society\n---------------------------------------------------\n\nWright argues that as complexity in human society increases, the ability to reap \"non\\-zero\\-sum gains\" increases. For example, electronic communications enable trade at a global level, and allow various societies to trade in items they could not produce or obtain otherwise, resulting in benefits for everyone: new goods. Similarly, global governments allow global solutions to common problems. Were aliens to attack, or the Arctic glaciers to melt, the world would be able to use its communicative technologies to band societies together and defend itself at large. In fact, this view of the world as an organic entity itself is touched upon in the penultimate chapter of the book, and is similar to that of [Gaia theory](/wiki/Gaia_theory \"Gaia theory\").\n\nOf course, when societies band together to fight a common enemy, that enemy is not always an Arctic glacier, but rather, other human societies. Wright discusses this as well, arguing that war between nations often resulted in technological and cultural evolution. For example, [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") spurred the development of the [Manhattan Project](/wiki/Manhattan_Project \"Manhattan Project\") and, in turn, [nuclear power](/wiki/Nuclear_power \"Nuclear power\") and related research—a technology that may ultimately benefit the world at large. Further, societies with advanced governments were more likely to succeed in war, spreading government systems as a technology in and of itself.\n\n", "Structure\n---------\n\nThe book is composed in three sections, each one more or less independent, but contributing to the development of his overall thesis.\n\n### Part I: A brief history of Humankind\n\nThis section is a sound summary of human cultural development, fairly conventional, except for his references to game theory and the occasional interjection of metaphysical speculation.\n\n### Part II: A brief history of Organic Life\n\nThis section is again a broadly conventional overview of current understanding of the development of life on earth. He argues from game\\-theory that increasing complexity is inevitably going to result from the operation of evolution by natural selection. More controversially, he argues that intelligence, social co\\-operation and cultural development are also bound to emerge sooner or later.\n\n### Part III: From Here to Eternity\n\nThis brief section is the most controversial part of the book, which he admits is speculative and presents with a degree of humility. The main thrust of his argument is that we may be on the threshold of a new phase of development involving the creation of a unified global consciousness, along the lines suggested in the writings of Jesuit [Pierre Teilhard de Chardin](/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin \"Pierre Teilhard de Chardin\").\n\n", "### Part I: A brief history of Humankind\n\nThis section is a sound summary of human cultural development, fairly conventional, except for his references to game theory and the occasional interjection of metaphysical speculation.\n\n", "### Part II: A brief history of Organic Life\n\nThis section is again a broadly conventional overview of current understanding of the development of life on earth. He argues from game\\-theory that increasing complexity is inevitably going to result from the operation of evolution by natural selection. More controversially, he argues that intelligence, social co\\-operation and cultural development are also bound to emerge sooner or later.\n\n", "### Part III: From Here to Eternity\n\nThis brief section is the most controversial part of the book, which he admits is speculative and presents with a degree of humility. The main thrust of his argument is that we may be on the threshold of a new phase of development involving the creation of a unified global consciousness, along the lines suggested in the writings of Jesuit [Pierre Teilhard de Chardin](/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin \"Pierre Teilhard de Chardin\").\n\n", "Corollaries and criticism\n-------------------------\n\nEven the development of weapons systems themselves (and Wright's discussion of their increasing complexity over time) left him open to criticism, put into words by [Steven Pinker](/wiki/Steven_Pinker \"Steven Pinker\"), a linguist/cognitive scientist specializing in [evolutionary psychology](/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology \"Evolutionary psychology\"):\n\n\"Natural selection has the \"goal\" of enhancing replication, period. An increase in complexity and cooperation is just one of many subgoals that help organisms attain that ultimate goal. Other subgoals include increases in size, speed, [motor coordination](/wiki/Motor_coordination \"Motor coordination\"), weaponry, energy efficiency, perceptual acuity, parental care, and so on. All have increased over evolutionary time, but none is the \"natural end\" of the evolutionary process. Would anyone single out lethal weaponry as \"highly likely\" or our \"destiny,\" just because weapons have become more lethal over organic and human history?\" \\-[Steven Pinker](/wiki/Steven_Pinker \"Steven Pinker\"), from [Nonzero, Slate.com](http://www.slate.com/id/2000143/entry/1004510/).\nSimilarly, the idea of greater and greater non\\-zero\\-sum gains benefiting the world at large is also debated, as such technologies allow the injury of ever larger numbers of people. While Wright believes that the goal of natural selection is increasing non\\-zero\\-sum gains, it is also clear that these gains might not benefit everyone. Though this does not in any way invalidate Wright's thesis, it does dampen the optimism Wright appears to hold for non\\-zero\\-sum dynamics. Indeed, in a world of separated, village\\-like units, atrocities within [Joseph Stalin](/wiki/Joseph_Stalin \"Joseph Stalin\")'s Soviet Union or [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler \"Adolf Hitler\")'s [Third Reich](/wiki/Third_Reich \"Third Reich\") could not have occurred. (Of course, life within those village\\-like units had its own inherent problems, and the question of which point in history was better is addressed by arguments within [teleology](/wiki/Teleology \"Teleology\")—whether history has a direction, and thus if history has shown consistent progress.) Wright believes that overall there has been net progress (with some exceptions), and further, that this progress will continue. In response to Wright's assumption that cooperation and communication will continue to increase, Pinker writes:\n\n\"...global cooperation and moral progress will not increase toward some theoretical maximum or Teilhardesque [Omega Point](/wiki/Omega_Point \"Omega Point\"), but will level off at a point where the pleasures resulting from global cooperation (having more stuff than you had before) are balanced by the pleasures resulting from non\\-cooperation (having more stuff than your neighbors, or the warm glow of ethnic chauvinism).\" \\-[Steven Pinker](/wiki/Steven_Pinker \"Steven Pinker\"), from [Nonzero, Slate.com](http://www.slate.com/id/2000143/entry/1004510/).\nPinker also challenges Wright's core thesis, echoing the case made by [Stephen Jay Gould](/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould \"Stephen Jay Gould\"), that human\\-like organisms are no more than a coincidence:\n\n\"A species with humanlike intelligence was no more \"in the cards\" than a species with an elephantlike trunk\\-\\-both are just handy biological gadgets. (Of course, given enough time, humanlike intelligence is near\\-certain to evolve; but given enough time, anything with nonzero probability is near\\-certain to evolve, including an elephantlike trunk.) A brain with the intelligence necessary for cooperation and specialization is metabolically expensive and biomechanically hazardous, and evolves only when the evolutionary precursor and current ecosystem make the benefits exceed the costs. Most lineages (e.g., of plants) never got smart, and all lineages of animals on earth except ours were stuck well beneath the subgenius level.\" \\-[Steven Pinker](/wiki/Steven_Pinker \"Steven Pinker\"), from [Nonzero, Slate.com](http://www.slate.com/id/2000143/entry/1004510/).\n", "Wright's response to criticism\n------------------------------\n\nWright acknowledges several of these criticisms within *Nonzero* itself and in turn responds with his purpose in writing the book—that by acknowledging options to reap non\\-zero\\-sum gains, societies might work to decrease zero\\-sum losses, like the loss of resources used in the pursuit of armed conflict.\n\nIn response to Pinker's comments regarding the inevitability of human\\-like intelligence (as versus to the elephant trunk), Wright replies:\n\nThere is also the question of whether non\\-zero\\-sum gains will—or even should—benefit all members of society under any system of [egalitarianism](/wiki/Egalitarianism \"Egalitarianism\"). Wright does argue that increased levels of communication will inevitably lead to a decrease in enmity between some populations. Still, this does not answer the question of whether some members of society will ever \"catch\\-up\" in terms of technological connectedness, or if some might be barred entirely by some kind of oppressive (but still productive) political system. Wright states on p. 329 of *Nonzero* (Vintage Paperback edition) that \"one can well imagine, as the Internet nurtures more and more communities of interest, true friendships more and more crossing the most dangerous fault lines—boundaries of religion, of nationality, of ethnicity, of culture.\" Wright then states in his endnote to the section, \"a big question is whether boundaries of social class will be so easily crossed — or whether, on the other hand, differences of social class within a society might sharpen as people invest more of their energy in virtual communities consisting of like\\-minded people.\"\n\nThough Wright clearly does not posit an answer to the question of struggles among economic classes—whether they be because of or in spite of natural selection—some argue it is relevant to Wright's treatment of evolution as resulting in greater and greater moral progress, and thus strangely ignored, given that Wright is the author of another book examining human morality *[The Moral Animal](/wiki/The_Moral_Animal \"The Moral Animal\")*.\n\n", "Wright and creationists\n-----------------------\n\nWright argues for the possibility of divine purpose (and thus for the concept of [God](/wiki/God \"God\") as a creating entity) but is against [creationism](/wiki/Creationism \"Creationism\"), and theories on [intelligent design](/wiki/Intelligent_design \"Intelligent design\"). He argued against the concepts in articles related to *Nonzero*.\n\nLike most biologists, Wright firmly rejects the notion of divine biological manipulation. But Wright does leave open the possibility of divine intervention in the case of human consciousness, which he does not see as being easily explained by natural selection. [Consciousness](/wiki/Consciousness \"Consciousness\")—humans' ability to ponder their own existence—seems a strange outgrowth of the evolutionary process for Wright. He describes the alternative as humans that are devoid of consciousness and behave like [zombies](/wiki/Philosophical_zombie \"Philosophical zombie\") that form romantic relationships, eat, sleep, and have discussions only because they are programmed to via cultural and genetic transmission.\n\nWright argues that consciousness is still a mystery in terms of evolutionary purpose, and leaves open the possibility that a divine entity introduced the phenomenon of consciousness. Wright also debates whether or not entities aside from humans possess consciousness.\n\nWright also briefly questions the possibilities regarding what created natural selection, but Wright himself refers to his comments as highly speculative.\n\nWright's idea of *[divinity](/wiki/Divinity \"Divinity\")* is further explored in his follow\\-up book, *The Evolution of God*. He does not argue that an intelligent being is behind it all, but that the existence of a process that could be called *divine* is suggested, much the way the existence of electrons is suggested by the inner workings of a computer (despite no one ever seeing one).\n\n", "Bibliographical information\n---------------------------\n\n*Nonzero: The Logic of Human Destiny*, January 2001 , \n\n*[The Evolution of God](/wiki/The_Evolution_of_God \"The Evolution of God\"),* June 2009 (Hardcover, 1st edition)\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [nonzero.org](http://nonzero.org) A website about the book.\n\n[Category:1999 non\\-fiction books](/wiki/Category:1999_non-fiction_books \"1999 non-fiction books\")\n[Category:Books by Robert Wright (journalist)](/wiki/Category:Books_by_Robert_Wright_%28journalist%29 \"Books by Robert Wright (journalist)\")\n[Category:Works about the theory of history](/wiki/Category:Works_about_the_theory_of_history \"Works about the theory of history\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 7098284 ], "name": [ "Tassedethe" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Career", "Death", "Discography", "References" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**Benjamin \"Buzzy\" Drootin** (April 22, 1920 – May 21, 2000\\) was an American [jazz](/wiki/Jazz \"Jazz\") drummer.\n\n", "Career\n------\n\nDrootin was born near [Kyiv](/wiki/Kyiv \"Kyiv\"), Ukraine, and moved to [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\"), [Massachusetts](/wiki/Massachusetts \"Massachusetts\"), United States, with his family when he was five. His father played the clarinet, and two of his brothers and his nephew were musicians. He began playing drums professionally as a teenager. At age twenty, he toured with the [Jess Stacy](/wiki/Jess_Stacy \"Jess Stacy\") All\\-Stars, a band that included [Lee Wiley](/wiki/Lee_Wiley \"Lee Wiley\").\n\nIn 1940, he also toured with [Ina Ray Hutton](/wiki/Ina_Ray_Hutton \"Ina Ray Hutton\"). He then joined the band of [Wingy Manone](/wiki/Wingy_Manone \"Wingy Manone\"). From 1947 until 1951, he worked as the house drummer at [Eddie Condon's](/wiki/Eddie_Condon%27s \"Eddie Condon's\") night club in New York City. He was a bandleader at [El Morocco](/wiki/El_Morocco \"El Morocco\") club in New York City, and a member of the house band with his brother [Al](/wiki/Al_Drootin \"Al Drootin\") at George Wein's [Storyville](/wiki/Storyville_%28nightclub%29 \"Storyville (nightclub)\") club in Boston. During these years he worked with [Doc Cheatham](/wiki/Doc_Cheatham \"Doc Cheatham\"), [Vic Dickenson](/wiki/Vic_Dickenson \"Vic Dickenson\"), [Bobby Hackett](/wiki/Bobby_Hackett \"Bobby Hackett\"), [Ruby Braff](/wiki/Ruby_Braff \"Ruby Braff\"), [Claude Hopkins](/wiki/Claude_Hopkins \"Claude Hopkins\"), [Jimmy McPartland](/wiki/Jimmy_McPartland \"Jimmy McPartland\"), [Pee Wee Russell](/wiki/Pee_Wee_Russell \"Pee Wee Russell\"), and [Arvell Shaw](/wiki/Arvell_Shaw \"Arvell Shaw\").\n\nDrootin recorded with [Tommy Dorsey](/wiki/Tommy_Dorsey \"Tommy Dorsey\"), Bobby Hackett, [Jack Teagarden](/wiki/Jack_Teagarden \"Jack Teagarden\"), Eddie Condon, Ruby Braff, [Anita O'Day](/wiki/Anita_O%27Day \"Anita O'Day\"), [George Wein](/wiki/George_Wein \"George Wein\"), the Newport All\\-Stars, [Lee Konitz](/wiki/Lee_Konitz \"Lee Konitz\"), [Sidney Bechet](/wiki/Sidney_Bechet \"Sidney Bechet\"), PeeWee Russell and [The Dukes of Dixieland](/wiki/The_Dukes_of_Dixieland \"The Dukes of Dixieland\"). In 1968–69, he toured and recorded with [Wild Bill Davison](/wiki/Wild_Bill_Davison \"Wild Bill Davison\")'s Jazz Giants and then formed Buzzy's Jazz Family, borrowing some of Davison's sidemen ([Herb Hall](/wiki/Herb_Hall_%28musician%29 \"Herb Hall (musician)\"), [Benny Morton](/wiki/Benny_Morton \"Benny Morton\")) and adding [Herman Autrey](/wiki/Herman_Autrey \"Herman Autrey\") on trumpet and his nephew, Sonny Drootin, on piano.\n\nIn 1973, after touring Europe and America, he returned to his hometown of Boston, where he and his brother Al and nephew Sonny formed the Drootin Brothers Band. They played at the [Newport Jazz Festival](/wiki/Newport_Jazz_Festival \"Newport Jazz Festival\"). Drootin played at the first Newport festival and at many festivals after that. He also played at the Los Angeles Classic Jazz Festival in the 1980s.\n\n", "Death\n-----\n\nBuzzy Drootin died from cancer at the age of 80, at the Actors Fund Retirement and Nursing Home in [Englewood, New Jersey](/wiki/Englewood%2C_New_Jersey \"Englewood, New Jersey\").\n\n", "Discography\n-----------\n\n**With [Ruby Braff](/wiki/Ruby_Braff \"Ruby Braff\")**\n* *Braff!!* (Epic, 1956\\)\n* *Ruby Braff* (Jasmine, 1956\\)\n* *Hi\\-Fi Salute to Bunny* (RCA Victor, 1957\\)\n* *[The Ruby Braff Octet with Pee Wee Russell \\& Bobby Henderson at Newport](/wiki/The_Ruby_Braff_Octet_with_Pee_Wee_Russell_%26_Bobby_Henderson_at_Newport \"The Ruby Braff Octet with Pee Wee Russell & Bobby Henderson at Newport\")* (Verve, 1958\\)\n* *Blowing Around the World* (United Artists, 1959\\)\n* *Ruby Braff Goes Girl Crazy* (Warner Bros., 1959\\)\n* *The Ruby Braff\\-Marshall Brown Sextet* (United Artists, 1960\\)\n\n**With [Eddie Condon](/wiki/Eddie_Condon \"Eddie Condon\")**\n* *Midnight in Moscow* (Epic, 1956\\)\n* *Ringside at Condon's Featuring Wild Bill Davison* (Savoy, 1956\\)\n* *Windy City Seven and Jam Sessions at Commodore* (Commodore, 1979\\)\n\n**With others**\n* [Sidney Bechet](/wiki/Sidney_Bechet \"Sidney Bechet\"), *Sidney Bechet at Storyville* (Storyville, 1974\\)\n* [Serge Chaloff](/wiki/Serge_Chaloff \"Serge Chaloff\"), *The Fable of Mabel* (1201 Music, 1999\\)\n* [Wild Bill Davison](/wiki/Wild_Bill_Davison \"Wild Bill Davison\"), Buzzy Drootin, Herb Hall, *The Jazz Giants* (Biograph, 1970\\)\n* Wild Bill Davison, *Wild Bill Davison with Eddie Condon's All Stars* (Storyville, 1977\\)\n* [Vic Dickenson](/wiki/Vic_Dickenson \"Vic Dickenson\"), *Vic's Boston Story* (Storyville, 1957\\)\n* [Dukes of Dixieland](/wiki/Dukes_of_Dixieland \"Dukes of Dixieland\") \\& [Clara Ward](/wiki/Clara_Ward \"Clara Ward\"), *We Gotta Shout!* (CBS, 1963\\)\n* [Bobby Hackett](/wiki/Bobby_Hackett \"Bobby Hackett\"), *Bobby Hackett at the Embers* (Capitol, 1958\\)\n* Bobby Hackett \\& [Jack Teagarden](/wiki/Jack_Teagarden \"Jack Teagarden\"), *Jazz Ultimate* (Capitol, 1958\\)\n* [Herb Hall](/wiki/Herb_Hall_%28musician%29 \"Herb Hall (musician)\"), *Old Tyme Modern* (Biograph, 1969\\)\n* [Max Kaminsky](/wiki/Max_Kaminsky_%28musician%29 \"Max Kaminsky (musician)\") \\& Pee Wee Russell, *Max and Pee Wee at the Copley Terrace* (Jazzology, 1996\\)\n* [Tony Parenti](/wiki/Tony_Parenti \"Tony Parenti\"), *The Final Bar* (Jazzology, 1999\\)\n* [Pee Wee Russell](/wiki/Pee_Wee_Russell \"Pee Wee Russell\"), *We're in the Money* (Storyville, 1956\\)\n* [Ralph Sutton](/wiki/Ralph_Sutton \"Ralph Sutton\"), *Ragtime U.S.A.* (Roulette, 1962\\)\n* [George Wein](/wiki/George_Wein \"George Wein\")'s Dixie\\-Victors, *The Magic Horn* (RCA Victor, 1956\\)\n* George Wein's Newport Jazz Festival All Stars, *George Wein's Newport Jazz Festival All Stars* (Smash, 1963\\)\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n[Category:1920 births](/wiki/Category:1920_births \"1920 births\")\n[Category:2000 deaths](/wiki/Category:2000_deaths \"2000 deaths\")\n[Category:American jazz drummers](/wiki/Category:American_jazz_drummers \"American jazz drummers\")\n[Category:Soviet emigrants to the United States](/wiki/Category:Soviet_emigrants_to_the_United_States \"Soviet emigrants to the United States\")\n[Category:20th\\-century American drummers](/wiki/Category:20th-century_American_drummers \"20th-century American drummers\")\n[Category:American male drummers](/wiki/Category:American_male_drummers \"American male drummers\")\n[Category:20th\\-century American male musicians](/wiki/Category:20th-century_American_male_musicians \"20th-century American male musicians\")\n[Category:American male jazz musicians](/wiki/Category:American_male_jazz_musicians \"American male jazz musicians\")\n[Category:Musicians from Boston](/wiki/Category:Musicians_from_Boston \"Musicians from Boston\")\n[Category:Deaths from cancer in New Jersey](/wiki/Category:Deaths_from_cancer_in_New_Jersey \"Deaths from cancer in New Jersey\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 2278355 ], "name": [ "Keith D" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n**Brampton** is a [hamlet](/wiki/Hamlet_%28place%29%23United_Kingdom \"Hamlet (place)#United Kingdom\") and [civil parish](/wiki/List_of_civil_parishes_in_Lincolnshire \"List of civil parishes in Lincolnshire\") in the [West Lindsey](/wiki/West_Lindsey \"West Lindsey\") district of [Lincolnshire](/wiki/Lincolnshire \"Lincolnshire\"), England. It is situated approximately north\\-west from the city and [county town](/wiki/County_town \"County town\") of [Lincoln](/wiki/Lincoln%2C_England \"Lincoln, England\") and less than north\\-east from [Torksey](/wiki/Torksey \"Torksey\") and [Torksey Castle](/wiki/Torksey_Castle \"Torksey Castle\").\n\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n[Category:Villages in Lincolnshire](/wiki/Category:Villages_in_Lincolnshire \"Villages in Lincolnshire\")\n[Category:Civil parishes in Lincolnshire](/wiki/Category:Civil_parishes_in_Lincolnshire \"Civil parishes in Lincolnshire\")\n[Category:West Lindsey District](/wiki/Category:West_Lindsey_District \"West Lindsey District\")\n\n \n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 8087765 ], "name": [ "Rofraja" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "{{Anchor|IVR|FIVR}}Overview", "Voltage identification", "VRM and overclocking", "See also", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.4\\|Voltage regulator module for an [IBM Netfinity](/wiki/IBM_Netfinity \"IBM Netfinity\") 7000 M10 server running an Intel [Xeon](/wiki/Xeon \"Xeon\") processor](/wiki/File:Voltage_regulator_module_for_an_Intel_Xeon_500_MHz_processor.jpg \"Voltage regulator module for an Intel Xeon 500 MHz processor.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.4\\|Voltage regulator module for a Gigabyte Aorus X570 motherboard running on AMD [Socket AM4](/wiki/Socket_AM4 \"Socket AM4\")](/wiki/File:Voltage_regulator_module_for_a_modern_Gigabyte_Aorus_X570_motherboard_running_on_socket_AM4.jpg \"Voltage regulator module for a modern Gigabyte Aorus X570 motherboard running on socket AM4.jpg\")\n\nA **voltage regulator module** (**VRM**), sometimes called **processor power module** (**PPM**), is a [buck converter](/wiki/Buck_converter \"Buck converter\") that provides the [microprocessor](/wiki/Microprocessor \"Microprocessor\") and [chipset](/wiki/Chipset \"Chipset\") the appropriate supply voltage, converting , or to lower voltages required by the devices, allowing devices with different supply voltages be mounted on the same motherboard. On [personal computer](/wiki/Personal_computer \"Personal computer\") (PC) systems, the VRM is typically made up of [power MOSFET](/wiki/Power_MOSFET \"Power MOSFET\") devices.\n\n", "Overview\n-----------------------------\n\n[thumb\\|left\\|300px\\|[Haswell](/wiki/Haswell_%28microarchitecture%29 \"Haswell (microarchitecture)\") featured a FIVR.](/wiki/File:Fully_Integrated_Voltage_Regulator.svg \"Fully Integrated Voltage Regulator.svg\")\n\nMost voltage regulator module implementations are soldered onto the [motherboard](/wiki/Motherboard \"Motherboard\"). Some processors, such as Intel [Haswell](/wiki/Haswell_%28microarchitecture%29 \"Haswell (microarchitecture)\") and [Ice Lake](/wiki/Ice_Lake_%28microprocessor%29 \"Ice Lake (microprocessor)\") CPUs, feature some voltage regulation components on the same CPU package, reduce the VRM design of the motherboard; such a design brings certain levels of simplification to complex voltage regulation involving numerous CPU supply voltages and dynamic powering up and down of various areas of a CPU. A voltage regulator integrated on\\-package or on\\-die is usually referred to as *fully integrated voltage regulator* (*FIVR*) or simply an *integrated voltage regulator* (*IVR*).\n\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.4\\|Voltage regulator module (parts external to the processor's fully integrated voltage regulator) on a [computer motherboard](/wiki/Computer_motherboard \"Computer motherboard\"), covered with [heat sinks](/wiki/Heat_sink \"Heat sink\")](/wiki/File:Voltage_regulator_module_on_a_computer_motherboard.jpg \"Voltage regulator module on a computer motherboard.jpg\")\n\nMost modern CPUs require less than ,\nBob Dobkin, John Hamburger.\n[\"Analog Circuit Design Volume Three: Design Note Collection\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=iOx9BAAAQBAJ).\nJohn Seago.\nChapter 16: \"2\\-step voltage regulation improves performance and decreases CPU temperature in portable computers.\"\n2014\\.\np. 37\\.\n as [CPU designers](/wiki/CPU_design \"CPU design\") tend to use lower [CPU core voltages](/wiki/CPU_core_voltage \"CPU core voltage\"); lower voltages help in reducing [CPU power dissipation](/wiki/CPU_power_dissipation \"CPU power dissipation\"), which is often specified through [thermal design power](/wiki/Thermal_design_power \"Thermal design power\") (TDP) that serves as the [nominal value](/wiki/Nominal_value \"Nominal value\") for designing CPU cooling systems.\n\nSome voltage regulators provide a fixed supply voltage to the processor, but most of them sense the required supply voltage from the processor, essentially acting as a continuously\\-variable adjustable regulator. In particular, VRMs that are soldered to the motherboard are supposed to do the sensing, according to the [Intel](/wiki/Intel \"Intel\") specification.\n\nModern [video cards](/wiki/Video_card \"Video card\") also use a VRM due to higher power and current requirements. These VRMs may generate a significant amount of heat and require [heat sinks](/wiki/Heat_sink \"Heat sink\") separate from the GPU.\n\n", "Voltage identification\n----------------------\n\nThe correct supply voltage and current is communicated by the microprocessor to the VRM at startup via a number of bits called *VID* (voltage identification definition). In particular, the VRM initially provides a standard supply voltage to the VID logic, which is the part of the processor whose only aim is to then send the VID to the VRM. When the VRM has received the VID identifying the required supply voltage, it starts acting as a [voltage regulator](/wiki/Voltage_regulator \"Voltage regulator\"), providing the required constant voltage and current supply to the processor.\n\nInstead of having a power supply unit generate some fixed voltage, the CPU uses a small set of digital signals, the VID lines, to instruct an on\\-board power converter of the desired voltage level. The switch\\-mode [buck converter](/wiki/Buck_converter \"Buck converter\") then adjusts its output accordingly. The flexibility so obtained makes it possible to use the same power supply unit for CPUs with different nominal supply voltages and to reduce [power consumption](/wiki/Power_consumption \"Power consumption\") during idle periods by lowering the supply voltage.\n\nFor example, a unit with 5\\-bit VID would output one of at most 32 (25) distinct output voltages. These voltages are usually (but not always) evenly spaced within a given range. Some of the [code words](/wiki/Code_word_%28communication%29 \"Code word (communication)\") may be reserved for special functions such as shutting down the unit, hence a 5\\-bit VID unit may have fewer than 32 output voltage levels. How the numerical codes map to supply voltages is typically specified in tables provided by component manufacturers. Since 2008 VID comes in 5\\-, 6\\- and 8\\-bit varieties and is mostly applied to power modules outputting between and .\n\n", "VRM and overclocking\n--------------------\n\nThe VRMs are essential for [overclocking](/wiki/Overclocking \"Overclocking\"). The quality of a VRM directly impacts the motherboard’s overclocking potential. The same overclocked processor can exhibit noticeable performance differences when paired with different VRMs. The reason for this is that a steady power supply is needed for successful overclocking. When a chip is pushed past its factory settings, that increases the power draw, so the VRM needs to match its output accordingly.\n\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [Switched\\-mode power supply applications](/wiki/Switched-mode_power_supply_applications \"Switched-mode power supply applications\") (SMPS) applications\n* [Pulse\\-width modulation](/wiki/Pulse-width_modulation \"Pulse-width modulation\")\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [\"Microprocessor Power Management\"](http://elecdesign.com/Articles/Index.cfm?AD=1&ArticleID=8637)\n\n[Module](/wiki/Category:Voltage_regulation \"Voltage regulation\")\n[Category:Digital electronics](/wiki/Category:Digital_electronics \"Digital electronics\")\n[Category:MOSFETs](/wiki/Category:MOSFETs \"MOSFETs\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ 20836525 ], "name": [ "1234qwer1234qwer4" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Statement", "Frobenius' theorem", "Darboux's theorem for symplectic manifolds", "Comparison with Riemannian geometry", "Darboux's theorem for contact manifolds", "The Darboux-Weinstein theorem", "See also", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 3, 2, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\nIn [differential geometry](/wiki/Differential_geometry \"Differential geometry\"), a field in [mathematics](/wiki/Mathematics \"Mathematics\"), **Darboux's theorem** is a [theorem](/wiki/Theorem \"Theorem\") providing a normal form for special classes of [differential 1\\-forms](/wiki/Differential_forms \"Differential forms\"), partially generalizing the [Frobenius integration theorem](/wiki/Frobenius_integration_theorem \"Frobenius integration theorem\"). It is named after [Jean Gaston Darboux](/wiki/Jean_Gaston_Darboux \"Jean Gaston Darboux\") who established it as the solution of the [Pfaff](/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Pfaff \"Johann Friedrich Pfaff\") problem.\n\nIt is a foundational result in several fields, the chief among them being [symplectic geometry](/wiki/Symplectic_geometry \"Symplectic geometry\"). Indeed, one of its many consequences is that any two [symplectic manifolds](/wiki/Symplectic_manifold \"Symplectic manifold\") of the same dimension are locally [symplectomorphic](/wiki/Symplectomorphism \"Symplectomorphism\") to one another. That is, every 2n \\-dimensional symplectic manifold can be made to look locally like the [linear symplectic space](/wiki/Linear_symplectic_space \"Linear symplectic space\") \\\\mathbb{C}^n with its canonical symplectic form.\n\nThere is also an analogous consequence of the theorem applied to [contact geometry](/wiki/Contact_geometry \"Contact geometry\").\n\n", "Statement\n---------\n\nSuppose that \\\\theta is a differential 1\\-form on an *n* \\-dimensional manifold, such that \\\\mathrm{d} \\\\theta has constant [rank](/wiki/Exterior_algebra%23Rank_of_a_k-vector \"Exterior algebra#Rank of a k-vector\") *p* . Then\n\n* if \\\\theta \\\\wedge \\\\left(\\\\mathrm{d}\\\\theta\\\\right)^p \\= 0 everywhere, then there is a local system of coordinates (x\\_1,\\\\ldots,x\\_{n\\-p},y\\_1,\\\\ldots, y\\_p) in which \\\\theta\\=x\\_1\\\\,\\\\mathrm{d}y\\_1\\+\\\\ldots \\+ x\\_p\\\\,\\\\mathrm{d}y\\_p;\n* if \\\\theta \\\\wedge \\\\left( \\\\mathrm{d} \\\\theta \\\\right)^p \\\\ne 0 everywhere, then there is a local system of coordinates (x\\_1,\\\\ldots,x\\_{n\\-p},y\\_1,\\\\ldots, y\\_p) in which \\\\theta\\=x\\_1\\\\,\\\\mathrm{d}y\\_1\\+\\\\ldots \\+ x\\_p\\\\,\\\\mathrm{d}y\\_p \\+ \\\\mathrm{d}x\\_{p\\+1}.\n\nDarboux's original proof used [induction](/wiki/Mathematical_induction \"Mathematical induction\") on *p* and it can be equivalently presented in terms of [distributions](/wiki/Distribution_%28differential_geometry%29 \"Distribution (differential geometry)\") or of [differential ideals](/wiki/Differential_ideal \"Differential ideal\").\n\n### Frobenius' theorem\n\nDarboux's theorem for *p\\=0* ensures that any 1\\-form *\\\\theta \\\\neq 0* such that *\\\\theta \\\\wedge d\\\\theta \\= 0* can be written as *\\\\theta \\= dx\\_1* in some coordinate system (x\\_1,\\\\ldots,x\\_n) .\n\nThis recovers one of the formulation of [Frobenius theorem](/wiki/Frobenius_theorem_%28differential_topology%29 \"Frobenius theorem (differential topology)\") in terms of differential forms: if \\\\mathcal{I} \\\\subset \\\\Omega^\\*(M) is the differential ideal generated by \\\\theta , then *\\\\theta \\\\wedge d\\\\theta \\= 0* implies the existence of a coordinate system (x\\_1,\\\\ldots,x\\_n) where \\\\mathcal{I} \\\\subset \\\\Omega^\\*(M) is actually generated by d x\\_1 .\n\n", "### Frobenius' theorem\n\nDarboux's theorem for *p\\=0* ensures that any 1\\-form *\\\\theta \\\\neq 0* such that *\\\\theta \\\\wedge d\\\\theta \\= 0* can be written as *\\\\theta \\= dx\\_1* in some coordinate system (x\\_1,\\\\ldots,x\\_n) .\n\nThis recovers one of the formulation of [Frobenius theorem](/wiki/Frobenius_theorem_%28differential_topology%29 \"Frobenius theorem (differential topology)\") in terms of differential forms: if \\\\mathcal{I} \\\\subset \\\\Omega^\\*(M) is the differential ideal generated by \\\\theta , then *\\\\theta \\\\wedge d\\\\theta \\= 0* implies the existence of a coordinate system (x\\_1,\\\\ldots,x\\_n) where \\\\mathcal{I} \\\\subset \\\\Omega^\\*(M) is actually generated by d x\\_1 .\n\n", "Darboux's theorem for symplectic manifolds\n------------------------------------------\n\nSuppose that \\\\omega is a [symplectic 2\\-form](/wiki/Symplectic_form \"Symplectic form\") on an n\\=2m \\-dimensional manifold *M* . In a neighborhood of each point *p* of *M* , by the [Poincaré lemma](/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_lemma \"Poincaré lemma\"), there is a 1\\-form \\\\theta with \\\\mathrm{d} \\\\theta \\= \\\\omega. Moreover, \\\\theta satisfies the first set of hypotheses in Darboux's theorem, and so locally there is a [coordinate chart](/wiki/Coordinate_chart \"Coordinate chart\") *U* near *p* in which \\\\theta\\=x\\_1\\\\,\\\\mathrm{d}y\\_1\\+\\\\ldots \\+ x\\_m\\\\,\\\\mathrm{d}y\\_m. \n\nTaking an [exterior derivative](/wiki/Exterior_derivative \"Exterior derivative\") now shows\n \\\\omega \\= \\\\mathrm{d} \\\\theta \\= \\\\mathrm{d}x\\_1 \\\\wedge \\\\mathrm{d}y\\_1 \\+ \\\\ldots \\+ \\\\mathrm{d}x\\_m \\\\wedge \\\\mathrm{d}y\\_m.\nThe chart *U* is said to be a **Darboux chart** around *p* . The manifold *M* can be [covered](/wiki/Cover_%28topology%29 \"Cover (topology)\") by such charts.\n\nTo state this differently, identify \\\\mathbb{R}^{2m} with \\\\mathbb{C}^{m} by letting z\\_j\\=x\\_j\\+\\\\textit{i}\\\\,y\\_j. If \\\\varphi: U \\\\to \\\\mathbb{C}^n is a Darboux chart, then \\\\omega can be written as the [pullback](/wiki/Pullback_%28differential_geometry%29 \"Pullback (differential geometry)\") of the standard symplectic form \\\\omega\\_0 on \\\\mathbb{C}^{n}:\n\\\\omega \\= \\\\varphi^{\\*}\\\\omega\\_0\\.\\\\,\nA modern proof of this result, without employing Darboux's general statement on 1\\-forms, is done using [Moser's trick](/wiki/Moser%27s_trick \"Moser's trick\").\n\n### Comparison with Riemannian geometry\n\nDarboux's theorem for symplectic manifolds implies that there are no local invariants in symplectic geometry: a [Darboux basis](/wiki/Darboux_frame \"Darboux frame\") can always be taken, valid near any given point. This is in marked contrast to the situation in [Riemannian geometry](/wiki/Riemannian_geometry \"Riemannian geometry\") where the [curvature](/wiki/Curvature_of_Riemannian_manifolds \"Curvature of Riemannian manifolds\") is a local invariant, an obstruction to the [metric](/wiki/Metric_tensor \"Metric tensor\") being locally a sum of squares of coordinate differentials.\n\nThe difference is that Darboux's theorem states that \\\\omega can be made to take the standard form in an *entire neighborhood* around *p* . In Riemannian geometry, the metric can always be made to take the standard form *at* any given point, but not always in a neighborhood around that point.\n\n### Darboux's theorem for contact manifolds\n\nAnother particular case is recovered when n\\=2p\\+1 ; if \\\\theta \\\\wedge \\\\left( \\\\mathrm{d} \\\\theta \\\\right)^p \\\\ne 0 everywhere, then \\\\theta is a [contact form](/wiki/Contact_geometry%23Contact_forms_and_structures \"Contact geometry#Contact forms and structures\"). A simpler proof can be given, as in the case of symplectic structures, by using [Moser's trick](/wiki/Moser%27s_trick \"Moser's trick\").\n\n", "### Comparison with Riemannian geometry\n\nDarboux's theorem for symplectic manifolds implies that there are no local invariants in symplectic geometry: a [Darboux basis](/wiki/Darboux_frame \"Darboux frame\") can always be taken, valid near any given point. This is in marked contrast to the situation in [Riemannian geometry](/wiki/Riemannian_geometry \"Riemannian geometry\") where the [curvature](/wiki/Curvature_of_Riemannian_manifolds \"Curvature of Riemannian manifolds\") is a local invariant, an obstruction to the [metric](/wiki/Metric_tensor \"Metric tensor\") being locally a sum of squares of coordinate differentials.\n\nThe difference is that Darboux's theorem states that \\\\omega can be made to take the standard form in an *entire neighborhood* around *p* . In Riemannian geometry, the metric can always be made to take the standard form *at* any given point, but not always in a neighborhood around that point.\n\n", "### Darboux's theorem for contact manifolds\n\nAnother particular case is recovered when n\\=2p\\+1 ; if \\\\theta \\\\wedge \\\\left( \\\\mathrm{d} \\\\theta \\\\right)^p \\\\ne 0 everywhere, then \\\\theta is a [contact form](/wiki/Contact_geometry%23Contact_forms_and_structures \"Contact geometry#Contact forms and structures\"). A simpler proof can be given, as in the case of symplectic structures, by using [Moser's trick](/wiki/Moser%27s_trick \"Moser's trick\").\n\n", "The Darboux\\-Weinstein theorem\n------------------------------\n\n[Alan Weinstein](/wiki/Alan_Weinstein \"Alan Weinstein\") showed that the Darboux's theorem for sympletic manifolds can be strengthened to hold on a [neighborhood](/wiki/Neighbourhood_%28mathematics%29 \"Neighbourhood (mathematics)\") of a [submanifold](/wiki/Submanifold \"Submanifold\"):\n\n> *Let M be a smooth manifold endowed with two symplectic forms \\\\omega\\_1 and \\\\omega\\_2, and let N \\\\subset M be a closed submanifold. If \\\\left.\\\\omega\\_1\\\\right\\|\\_N \\= \\\\left.\\\\omega\\_2\\\\right\\|\\_N , then there is a neighborhood U of N in M and a diffeomorphism f : U \\\\to U such that f^\\*\\\\omega\\_2 \\= \\\\omega\\_1.*\n\nThe standard Darboux theorem is recovered when N is a point and \\\\omega\\_2 is the standard symplectic structure on a coordinate chart.\n\nThis theorem also holds for infinite\\-dimensional [Banach manifolds](/wiki/Banach_manifold \"Banach manifold\").\n\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [Carathéodory–Jacobi–Lie theorem](/wiki/Carath%C3%A9odory%E2%80%93Jacobi%E2%80%93Lie_theorem \"Carathéodory–Jacobi–Lie theorem\"), a generalization of this theorem.\n* [Moser's trick](/wiki/Moser%27s_trick \"Moser's trick\")\n* [Symplectic basis](/wiki/Symplectic_basis \"Symplectic basis\")\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [G. Darboux, \"On the Pfaff Problem\", transl. by D. H. Delphenich](http://neo-classical-physics.info/uploads/3/0/6/5/3065888/darboux_-_pfaff_problem_i.pdf)\n* [G. Darboux, \"On the Pfaff Problem (cont.)\", transl. by D. H. Delphenich](http://neo-classical-physics.info/uploads/3/0/6/5/3065888/darboux_-_pfaff_problem_ii.pdf)\n\n[Category:Differential systems](/wiki/Category:Differential_systems \"Differential systems\")\n[Category:Symplectic geometry](/wiki/Category:Symplectic_geometry \"Symplectic geometry\")\n[Category:Coordinate systems in differential geometry](/wiki/Category:Coordinate_systems_in_differential_geometry \"Coordinate systems in differential geometry\")\n[Category:Theorems in differential geometry](/wiki/Category:Theorems_in_differential_geometry \"Theorems in differential geometry\")\n[Category:Mathematical physics](/wiki/Category:Mathematical_physics \"Mathematical physics\")\n\n" ] }

{ "id": [ null ], "name": [ "2601:249:187F:A0D0:48:2FA:5065:D86F" ] }

{ "title": [ "Introduction", "Overview", "Rivalry", "Shrines", "Ninomiya", "Sannomiya", "Shinomiya", "Gonomiya", "See also", "References", "External links" ], "level": [ 1, 2, 3, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2 ], "content": [ "\n\n[thumb\\|An engraving at the [Tamura Shrine](/wiki/Tamura_Shrine \"Tamura Shrine\") listing all the Ichimomiya](/wiki/File:Zenkoku-ichinomiya.jpg \"Zenkoku-ichinomiya.jpg\")\n\n is a [Japanese](/wiki/Japanese_language \"Japanese language\") historical term referring to the [Shinto shrines](/wiki/Shinto_shrine \"Shinto shrine\") with the highest rank in a [province](/wiki/Provinces_of_Japan \"Provinces of Japan\"). Shrines of lower rank were designated , , , and so forth. *Encyclopedia of Shinto*, [*Ichi no miya*](http://eos.kokugakuin.ac.jp/modules/xwords/entry.php?entryID=1120); retrieved 2013\\-5\\-14\\.\n\nThe term gave rise to modern place names, such as the city of [Ichinomiya, Aichi](/wiki/Ichinomiya%2C_Aichi \"Ichinomiya, Aichi\"), named after [Masumida Shrine](/wiki/Masumida_Shrine \"Masumida Shrine\") in the former [Owari Province](/wiki/Owari_Province \"Owari Province\").\n\n", "Overview\n--------\n\nThe term \"Ichinomiya\" literally means \"first shrine\" and is popularly regarded as the highest ranking shrine in each [province](/wiki/Provinces_of_Japan \"Provinces of Japan\"). The second ranking shrine is referred to as the \"Ninomiya\" and third ranking shrine as \"Sannomiya\", and so on. However, there is no documentary material stipulating on how the shrines in each province are to be ranked, or even when this ranking system was created. As a general rule, all shrines designated \"Ichinomiya\" are of ancient origin and are listed in the *[Engishiki](/wiki/Engishiki \"Engishiki\")* records completed in 927AD. \n\nHowever, the shrine selected is not necessarily the largest, or oldest, in that province, and is not necessarily one of the \"[Myojin Taisha](/wiki/Myojin_Taisha \"Myojin Taisha\")\", which are regarded as the most important shrines. Rather, per the *[Ritsuryō](/wiki/Ritsury%C5%8D \"Ritsuryō\")* legal and administrative system established in the [Nara period](/wiki/Nara_period \"Nara period\"), [*kokushi*](/wiki/Kokushi_%28official%29 \"Kokushi (official)\") were appointed as imperial governors of each province. When the *kokushi* travelled from [Heian\\-kyo](/wiki/Heian-kyo \"Heian-kyo\") to his local seat at the [provincial capital](/wiki/Kokufu \"Kokufu\"), the first shrine he called upon officially in his province was the \"ichinomiya\". \n\nAs the purpose of this visit was to announce to the local *[kami](/wiki/Kami \"Kami\")* of his appointment to office, it was important that this shrine be dedicated to important local deities and to be located close to the provincial capital. Even after the collapse of the *Ritsuryō* system by the [Kamakura period](/wiki/Kamakura_period \"Kamakura period\"), the *ichinomiya* continued to enjoy a certain prestige, and often after all vestiges of the provincial capital had fallen into ruins and its exact location lost, the term \"Ichinomiya\" was often preserved as a place name. \n\nTachibana Mitsuyoshi, a noted Shinto scholar in the early [Edo Period](/wiki/Edo_Period \"Edo Period\"), visited *ichinomiya* nationwide for 23 years starting 1675, and wrote the record of his travels in a 13 volume account. This began the popularization of pilgrimages by the common populace to these shrines. Under [State Shinto](/wiki/State_Shinto \"State Shinto\"), the *ichinomiya* were not accorded any special status. Many were accorded high ranks under the [Modern system of ranked Shinto shrines](/wiki/Modern_system_of_ranked_Shinto_shrines \"Modern system of ranked Shinto shrines\").\n\n### Rivalry\n\nWhile there can be only one \"first shrine\" in each province, several provinces have various rival candidates for the title. This has arisen for various reasons: relocation of the provincial capital can result in a new *ichinomiya* being appointed. In some cases, the merger of two provinces can result in two *ichinomiya* for the new province. In other cases, due to the ambiguity in the criteria for *ichinomiya* designation and due to conflicting ancient records, rival claimants have arisen.\n\n", "### Rivalry\n\nWhile there can be only one \"first shrine\" in each province, several provinces have various rival candidates for the title. This has arisen for various reasons: relocation of the provincial capital can result in a new *ichinomiya* being appointed. In some cases, the merger of two provinces can result in two *ichinomiya* for the new province. In other cases, due to the ambiguity in the criteria for *ichinomiya* designation and due to conflicting ancient records, rival claimants have arisen.\n\n", "Shrines\n-------\n\n| Region | Province | Shrine | | Location | Shrine ranking | | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Name | [Kanji](/wiki/Kanji \"Kanji\") | [Engishiki](/wiki/Engishiki%23Engishiki_Jinmyocho \"Engishiki#Engishiki Jinmyocho\") | Modern | [Beppyo](/wiki/Beppyo_shrine \"Beppyo shrine\")? |\n| [Kinai](/wiki/Kinai \"Kinai\") | [Yamashiro](/wiki/Yamashiro_Province \"Yamashiro Province\") | [Kamo Shrine](/wiki/Kamo_Shrine \"Kamo Shrine\") | | [Kyoto](/wiki/Kyoto \"Kyoto\"), [Kyoto](/wiki/Kyoto_Prefecture \"Kyoto Prefecture\") | [Myojin Taisha](/wiki/Myojin_Taisha \"Myojin Taisha\") | [Kanpei Taisha](/wiki/Kanpei_Taisha \"Kanpei Taisha\") | Yes |\n| [Yamato](/wiki/Yamato_Province \"Yamato Province\") | [Ōmiwa Shrine](/wiki/%C5%8Cmiwa_Shrine \"Ōmiwa Shrine\") | | [Sakurai](/wiki/Sakurai%2C_Nara \"Sakurai, Nara\"), [Nara](/wiki/Nara_Prefecture \"Nara Prefecture\") | [Myojin Taisha](/wiki/Myojin_Taisha \"Myojin Taisha\") | [Kanpei Taisha](/wiki/Kanpei_Taisha \"Kanpei Taisha\") | Yes |\n| [Kawachi](/wiki/Kawachi_Province \"Kawachi Province\") | [Hiraoka Shrine](/wiki/Hiraoka_Shrine \"Hiraoka Shrine\") | | [Higashiosaka](/wiki/Higashi%C5%8Dsaka%2C_Osaka \"Higashiōsaka, Osaka\"), [Osaka](/wiki/Osaka_Prefecture \"Osaka Prefecture\") | [Myojin Taisha](/wiki/Myojin_Taisha \"Myojin Taisha\") | [Kanpei Taisha](/wiki/Kanpei_Taisha \"Kanpei Taisha\") | Yes |\n| [Izumi](/wiki/Izumi_Province \"Izumi Province\") | [Ōtori taisha](/wiki/%C5%8Ctori_taisha \"Ōtori taisha\") | | [Sakai](/wiki/Sakai \"Sakai\"), Osaka | [Myojin Taisha](/wiki/Myojin_Taisha \"Myojin Taisha\") | [Kanpei Taisha](/wiki/Kanpei_Taisha \"Kanpei Taisha\") | Yes |\n| [Settsu](/wiki/Settsu_Province \"Settsu Province\") | [Sumiyoshi\\-taisha](/wiki/Sumiyoshi-taisha \"Sumiyoshi-taisha\") | | [Osaka](/wiki/%C5%8Csaka%2C_Osaka \"Ōsaka, Osaka\"), Osaka | [Myojin Taisha](/wiki/Myojin_Taisha \"Myojin Taisha\") | [Kanpei Taisha](/wiki/Kanpei_Taisha \"Kanpei Taisha\") | Yes |\n| [Tōkaidō](/wiki/T%C5%8Dkaid%C5%8D_%28region%29 \"Tōkaidō (region)\") | [Iga](/wiki/Iga_Province \"Iga Province\") | [Aekuni Shrine](/wiki/Aekuni_Shrine \"Aekuni Shrine\") | | [Iga](/wiki/Iga%2C_Mie \"Iga, Mie\"), [Mie](/wiki/Mie_Prefecture \"Mie Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Ise](/wiki/Ise_Province \"Ise Province\") | [Tsubaki Grand Shrine](/wiki/Tsubaki_Grand_Shrine \"Tsubaki Grand Shrine\") | | [Suzuka](/wiki/Suzuka%2C_Mie \"Suzuka, Mie\"), Mie | | | |\n| [Tsubaki Shrine / Nakato Shrine](/wiki/Tsubaki_Jinja \"Tsubaki Jinja\") | | Suzuka, Mie | | | No |\n| [Shima](/wiki/Shima_Province \"Shima Province\") | [Izawa\\-no\\-miya](/wiki/Izawa-no-miya \"Izawa-no-miya\") | | [Shima](/wiki/Shima%2C_Mie \"Shima, Mie\"), Mie | | | No |\n| [Izawa Shrine](/wiki/Izawa-jinja \"Izawa-jinja\") | | [Toba](/wiki/Toba%2C_Mie \"Toba, Mie\"), Mie | | | |\n| [Owari](/wiki/Owari_Province \"Owari Province\") | [Masumida Shrine](/wiki/Masumida_Shrine \"Masumida Shrine\") | | [Ichinomiya](/wiki/Ichinomiya%2C_Aichi \"Ichinomiya, Aichi\"), [Aichi](/wiki/Aichi_Prefecture \"Aichi Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Mikawa](/wiki/Mikawa_Province \"Mikawa Province\") | [Toga Shrine](/wiki/Toga_Shrine \"Toga Shrine\") | | [Toyokawa](/wiki/Toyokawa%2C_Aichi \"Toyokawa, Aichi\"), Aichi | | | |\n| [Tōtōmi](/wiki/T%C5%8Dt%C5%8Dmi_Province \"Tōtōmi Province\") | [Kotonomama Hachiman\\-gū](/wiki/Kotonomama_Hachiman-g%C5%AB \"Kotonomama Hachiman-gū\") | | [Kakegawa](/wiki/Kakegawa%2C_Shizuoka \"Kakegawa, Shizuoka\"), [Shizuoka](/wiki/Shizuoka_Prefecture \"Shizuoka Prefecture\") | | | No |\n| [Oguni Shrine](/wiki/Oguni_Jinja \"Oguni Jinja\") | | [Shūchi\\-gun](/wiki/Sh%C5%ABchi_District%2C_Shizuoka \"Shūchi District, Shizuoka\"), Shizuoka | | | |\n| [Suruga](/wiki/Suruga_Province \"Suruga Province\") | [Fujisan Hongū Sengen Taisha](/wiki/Fujisan_Hong%C5%AB_Sengen_Taisha \"Fujisan Hongū Sengen Taisha\") | | [Fujinomiya](/wiki/Fujinomiya \"Fujinomiya\"), Shizuoka | | | |\n| [Izu](/wiki/Izu_Province \"Izu Province\") | [Mishima Taisha](/wiki/Mishima_Taisha \"Mishima Taisha\") | | [Mishima](/wiki/Mishima%2C_Shizuoka \"Mishima, Shizuoka\"), Shizuoka | | | |\n| [Kai](/wiki/Kai_Province \"Kai Province\") | [Ichinomiya Asama Shrine (Fuefuki)](/wiki/Ichinomiya_Asama_Shrine_%28Fuefuki%29 \"Ichinomiya Asama Shrine (Fuefuki)\") | | [Fuefuki](/wiki/Fuefuki \"Fuefuki\"), [Yamanashi](/wiki/Yamanashi_Prefecture \"Yamanashi Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Ichinomiya Sengen Shrine](/wiki/Ichinomiya_Sengen_Shrine \"Ichinomiya Sengen Shrine\") | | [Ichikawamisato](/wiki/Ichikawamisato \"Ichikawamisato\"), [Yamanashi](/wiki/Yamanashi_Prefecture \"Yamanashi Prefecture\") | | | No |\n| [Sagami](/wiki/Sagami_Province \"Sagami Province\") | [Samukawa Shrine](/wiki/Samukawa_Shrine \"Samukawa Shrine\") | | [Kōza\\-gun](/wiki/K%C5%8Dza_District%2C_Kanagawa \"Kōza District, Kanagawa\"), [Kanagawa](/wiki/Kanagawa_Prefecture \"Kanagawa Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Musashi](/wiki/Musashi_Province \"Musashi Province\") | [Hikawa Shrine](/wiki/Hikawa_Shrine_%28Saitama%29 \"Hikawa Shrine (Saitama)\") | | [Ōmiya\\-ku](/wiki/%C5%8Cmiya-ku%2C_Saitama \"Ōmiya-ku, Saitama\"), [Saitama](/wiki/Saitama_Prefecture \"Saitama Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Ono Shrine](/wiki/Ono_Shrine \"Ono Shrine\") | | [Tama](/wiki/Tama%2C_Tokyo \"Tama, Tokyo\"), [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo_Metropolis \"Tokyo Metropolis\") | | | No |\n| [Awa](/wiki/Awa_Province_%28Chiba%29 \"Awa Province (Chiba)\") | [Awa Shrine](/wiki/Awa_Shrine \"Awa Shrine\") | | [Tateyama](/wiki/Tateyama%2C_Chiba \"Tateyama, Chiba\"), [Chiba](/wiki/Chiba_Prefecture \"Chiba Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Susaki Shrine](/wiki/Susaki_Shrine \"Susaki Shrine\") | | [Tateyama](/wiki/Tateyama%2C_Chiba \"Tateyama, Chiba\"), [Chiba](/wiki/Chiba_Prefecture \"Chiba Prefecture\") | | | No |\n| [Kazusa](/wiki/Kazusa_Province \"Kazusa Province\") | [Tamasaki Shrine](/wiki/Tamasaki_Shrine \"Tamasaki Shrine\") | | [Ichinomiya](/wiki/Ichinomiya%2C_Chiba \"Ichinomiya, Chiba\"), [Chōsei\\-gun](/wiki/Ch%C5%8Dsei_District%2C_Chiba \"Chōsei District, Chiba\"), Chiba | | | |\n| [Shimōsa](/wiki/Shim%C5%8Dsa_Province \"Shimōsa Province\") | [Katori Jingū](/wiki/Katori_Shrine \"Katori Shrine\") | | [Katori](/wiki/Katori%2C_Chiba \"Katori, Chiba\"), Chiba | | | |\n| [Hitachi](/wiki/Hitachi_Province \"Hitachi Province\") | [Kashima Jingū](/wiki/Kashima_Shrine \"Kashima Shrine\") | | [Kashima](/wiki/Kashima%2C_Ibaraki \"Kashima, Ibaraki\"), [Ibaraki](/wiki/Ibaraki_Prefecture \"Ibaraki Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Tōsandō](/wiki/T%C5%8Dsand%C5%8D \"Tōsandō\") | [Ōmi](/wiki/%C5%8Cmi_Province \"Ōmi Province\") | [Takebe taisha](/wiki/Takebe_taisha \"Takebe taisha\") | | [Ōtsu](/wiki/%C5%8Ctsu \"Ōtsu\"), [Shiga](/wiki/Shiga_Prefecture \"Shiga Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Mino](/wiki/Mino_Province \"Mino Province\") | [Nangū Taisha](/wiki/Nang%C5%AB_Taisha \"Nangū Taisha\") | | [Fuwa\\-gun](/wiki/Fuwa_District%2C_Gifu \"Fuwa District, Gifu\"), [Gifu](/wiki/Gifu_Prefecture \"Gifu Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Hida](/wiki/Hida_Province \"Hida Province\") | [Minashi Shrine](/wiki/Minashi_Shrine \"Minashi Shrine\") | | [Takayama](/wiki/Takayama%2C_Gifu \"Takayama, Gifu\"), Gifu | | | |\n| [Shinano](/wiki/Shinano_Province \"Shinano Province\") | [Suwa\\-taisha](/wiki/Suwa-taisha \"Suwa-taisha\") | | [Suwa](/wiki/Suwa%2C_Nagano \"Suwa, Nagano\"), [Nagano](/wiki/Nagano_Prefecture \"Nagano Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Kōzuke](/wiki/K%C5%8Dzuke_Province \"Kōzuke Province\") | [Nukisaki Shrine](/wiki/Nukisaki_Shrine \"Nukisaki Shrine\") | | [Tomioka](/wiki/Tomioka%2C_Gunma \"Tomioka, Gunma\"), [Gunma](/wiki/Gunma_Prefecture \"Gunma Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Shimotsuke](/wiki/Shimotsuke_Province \"Shimotsuke Province\") | [Futarasan Shrine](/wiki/Futarasan_jinja \"Futarasan jinja\") | | [Nikkō](/wiki/Nikk%C5%8D%2C_Tochigi \"Nikkō, Tochigi\"), [Tochigi](/wiki/Tochigi_Prefecture \"Tochigi Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Utsunomiya Futarayama Shrine](/wiki/Utsunomiya_Futarayama_Jinja \"Utsunomiya Futarayama Jinja\") | | [Utsunomiya](/wiki/Utsunomiya \"Utsunomiya\"), Tochigi | | | No |\n| [Mutsu](/wiki/Mutsu_Province \"Mutsu Province\") | [Tsutsukowake Shrine](/wiki/Tsutsukowake_Shrine \"Tsutsukowake Shrine\") | | [Higashishirakawa\\-gun](/wiki/Higashishirakawa_District%2C_Fukushima \"Higashishirakawa District, Fukushima\"), [Fukushima](/wiki/Fukushima_Prefecture \"Fukushima Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Shiogama Shrine](/wiki/Shiogama_Jinja \"Shiogama Jinja\") | | [Shiogama](/wiki/Shiogama%2C_Miyagi \"Shiogama, Miyagi\"), [Miyagi](/wiki/Miyagi_Prefecture \"Miyagi Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Dewa](/wiki/Dewa_Province \"Dewa Province\") | [Chōkaisan Ōmonoimi Shrine](/wiki/Ch%C5%8Dkaisan_%C5%8Cmonoimi_Shrine \"Chōkaisan Ōmonoimi Shrine\") | | [Akumi\\-gun](/wiki/Akumi_District%2C_Yamagata \"Akumi District, Yamagata\"), [Yamagata](/wiki/Yamagata_Prefecture \"Yamagata Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Hokurikudō](/wiki/Hokurikud%C5%8D \"Hokurikudō\") | [Wakasa](/wiki/Wakasa_Province \"Wakasa Province\") | [Wakasahiko Shrine](/wiki/Wakasahiko_Shrine \"Wakasahiko Shrine\") | | [Obama](/wiki/Obama%2C_Fukui \"Obama, Fukui\"), [Fukui](/wiki/Fukui_Prefecture \"Fukui Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Echizen](/wiki/Echizen_Province \"Echizen Province\") | [Kehi Shrine](/wiki/Kehi_Shrine \"Kehi Shrine\") | | [Tsuruga](/wiki/Tsuruga \"Tsuruga\"), Fukui | | | |\n| [Kaga](/wiki/Kaga_Province \"Kaga Province\") | [Shirayama Hime Shrine](/wiki/Shirayama_Hime_Shrine \"Shirayama Hime Shrine\") | | [Hakusan](/wiki/Hakusan%2C_Ishikawa \"Hakusan, Ishikawa\"), [Ishikawa](/wiki/Ishikawa_Prefecture \"Ishikawa Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Noto](/wiki/Noto_Province \"Noto Province\") | [Keta Taisha](/wiki/Keta_Taisha \"Keta Taisha\") | | [Hakui](/wiki/Hakui%2C_Ishikawa \"Hakui, Ishikawa\"), Ishikawa | | | |\n| [Etchū](/wiki/Etch%C5%AB_Province \"Etchū Province\") | [Takase Shrine](/wiki/Takase_Shrine \"Takase Shrine\") | | [Nanto](/wiki/Nanto%2C_Toyama \"Nanto, Toyama\"), [Toyama](/wiki/Toyama_Prefecture \"Toyama Prefecture\") | | | Formerly |\n| [Keta Shrine](/wiki/Keta_Jinja \"Keta Jinja\") | | [Takaoka](/wiki/Takaoka%2C_Toyama \"Takaoka, Toyama\"), Toyama | | | No |\n| [Oyama Shrine](/wiki/Oyama_Shrine_%28Tateyama%29 \"Oyama Shrine (Tateyama)\") | | [Nakaniikawa\\-gun](/wiki/Nakaniikawa_District%2C_Toyama \"Nakaniikawa District, Toyama\"), Toyama | | | |\n| [Imizu Shrine](/wiki/Imizu_Jinja \"Imizu Jinja\") | | [Takaoka](/wiki/Takaoka%2C_Toyama \"Takaoka, Toyama\"), Toyama | | | |\n| [Echigo](/wiki/Echigo_Province \"Echigo Province\") | [Yahiko Shrine](/wiki/Yahiko_Shrine \"Yahiko Shrine\") | | [Nishikanbara\\-gun](/wiki/Nishikanbara_District%2C_Niigata \"Nishikanbara District, Niigata\"), [Niigata](/wiki/Niigata_Prefecture \"Niigata Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Kota Shrine](/wiki/Kota_Shrine_%28Niigata%29 \"Kota Shrine (Niigata)\") | | [Jōetsu](/wiki/J%C5%8Detsu%2C_Niigata \"Jōetsu, Niigata\"), Niigata | | | No |\n| [Amatsu Shrine](/wiki/Amatsu_Shrine \"Amatsu Shrine\") | | [Itoigawa](/wiki/Itoigawa \"Itoigawa\"), Niigata | | | No |\n| [Sado](/wiki/Sado_Province \"Sado Province\") | [Watatsu Shrine](/wiki/Watatsu_Shrine \"Watatsu Shrine\") | | [Sado](/wiki/Sado%2C_Niigata \"Sado, Niigata\"), Niigata | | | |\n| [San'indō](/wiki/San%27ind%C5%8D \"San'indō\") | [Tamba](/wiki/Tamba_Province \"Tamba Province\") | [Izumo\\-daijingū](/wiki/Izumo-daijing%C5%AB \"Izumo-daijingū\") | | [Kameoka](/wiki/Kameoka \"Kameoka\"), [Kyōto](/wiki/Ky%C5%8Dto_Prefecture \"Kyōto Prefecture\") | | | Formerly |\n| [Tango](/wiki/Tango_Province \"Tango Province\") | [Kono Shrine](/wiki/Kono_Shrine \"Kono Shrine\") | | [Miyazu](/wiki/Miyazu \"Miyazu\"), Kyōto | | | |\n| [Tajima](/wiki/Tajima_Province \"Tajima Province\") | [Izushi Shrine](/wiki/Izushi_Shrine \"Izushi Shrine\") | | [Toyooka](/wiki/Toyooka \"Toyooka\"), [Hyōgo](/wiki/Hy%C5%8Dgo_Prefecture \"Hyōgo Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Awaga Shrine](/wiki/Awaga-jinja \"Awaga-jinja\") | | [Asago](/wiki/Asago \"Asago\"), Hyōgo | | | No |\n| [Inaba](/wiki/Inaba_Province \"Inaba Province\") | [Ube shrine](/wiki/Ube_shrine \"Ube shrine\") | | [Tottori](/wiki/Tottori_%28city%29 \"Tottori (city)\"), [Tottori](/wiki/Tottori_Prefecture \"Tottori Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Hōki](/wiki/H%C5%8Dki_Province \"Hōki Province\") | [Shitori Shrine](/wiki/Shitori_Shrine_%28Tottori%29 \"Shitori Shrine (Tottori)\") | | [Tottori](/wiki/T%C5%8Dhaku_District%2C_Tottori \"Tōhaku District, Tottori\") | | | |\n| [Izumo](/wiki/Izumo_Province \"Izumo Province\") | [Izumo\\-taisha](/wiki/Izumo-taisha \"Izumo-taisha\") | | [Izumo](/wiki/Izumo%2C_Shimane \"Izumo, Shimane\"), [Shimane](/wiki/Shimane_Prefecture \"Shimane Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Iwami](/wiki/Iwami_Province \"Iwami Province\") | [Mononobe Shrine](/wiki/Mononobe-jinja \"Mononobe-jinja\") | | [Ōda](/wiki/%C5%8Cda%2C_Shimane \"Ōda, Shimane\"), Shimane | | | |\n| [Oki](/wiki/Oki_Province \"Oki Province\") | [Mizuwakasu Shrine](/wiki/Mizuwakasu_Shrine \"Mizuwakasu Shrine\") | | [Oki\\-gun](/wiki/Oki_District%2C_Shimane \"Oki District, Shimane\"), Shimane | | | Yes |\n| | | Oki\\-gun, Shimane | | | No |\n| [San'yōdō](/wiki/San%27y%C5%8Dd%C5%8D \"San'yōdō\") | [Harima](/wiki/Harima_Province \"Harima Province\") | [Iwa Shrine](/wiki/Iwa_Shrine \"Iwa Shrine\") | | [Shisō](/wiki/Shis%C5%8D%2C_Hy%C5%8Dgo \"Shisō, Hyōgo\"), Hyōgo | | | |\n| [Mimasaka](/wiki/Mimasaka_Province \"Mimasaka Province\") | [Nakayama Shrine](/wiki/Nakayama_Shrine \"Nakayama Shrine\") | | [Tsuyama](/wiki/Tsuyama%2C_Okayama \"Tsuyama, Okayama\"), [Okayama](/wiki/Okayama_Prefecture \"Okayama Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Bizen](/wiki/Bizen_Province \"Bizen Province\") | [Kibitsuhiko Shrine](/wiki/Kibitsuhiko_Shrine \"Kibitsuhiko Shrine\") | | [Okayama](/wiki/Okayama%2C_Okayama \"Okayama, Okayama\"), Okayama | | | |\n| [Bitchū](/wiki/Bitch%C5%AB_Province \"Bitchū Province\") | [Kibitsu Shrine](/wiki/Kibitsu_Shrine_%28Bitch%C5%AB%29 \"Kibitsu Shrine (Bitchū)\") | | Okayama, Okayama | | | |\n| [Bingo](/wiki/Bingo_Province \"Bingo Province\") | [Kibitsu Shrine](/wiki/Kibitsu_Shrine_%28Bingo%29 \"Kibitsu Shrine (Bingo)\") | | [Fukuyama](/wiki/Fukuyama%2C_Hiroshima \"Fukuyama, Hiroshima\"), [Hiroshima](/wiki/Hiroshima_Prefecture \"Hiroshima Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Aki](/wiki/Aki_Province \"Aki Province\") | [Itsukushima Shrine](/wiki/Itsukushima_Shrine \"Itsukushima Shrine\") | | [Hatsukaichi](/wiki/Hatsukaichi%2C_Hiroshima \"Hatsukaichi, Hiroshima\"), Hiroshima | | | |\n| [Suō](/wiki/Su%C5%8D_Province \"Suō Province\") | [Tamanooya Shrine](/wiki/Tamanooya_jinja \"Tamanooya jinja\") | | [Hōfu](/wiki/H%C5%8Dfu%2C_Yamaguchi \"Hōfu, Yamaguchi\"), [Yamaguchi](/wiki/Yamaguchi_Prefecture \"Yamaguchi Prefecture\") | | | No |\n| [Nagato](/wiki/Nagato_Province \"Nagato Province\") | [Sumiyoshi Shrine](/wiki/Sumiyoshi-jinja_%28Shimonoseki%29 \"Sumiyoshi-jinja (Shimonoseki)\") | | [Shimonoseki](/wiki/Shimonoseki%2C_Yamaguchi \"Shimonoseki, Yamaguchi\"), Yamaguchi | | | |\n| [Nankaidō](/wiki/Nankaid%C5%8D \"Nankaidō\") | [Kii](/wiki/Kii_Province \"Kii Province\") | [Hinokuma Jingū](/wiki/Hinokuma_Jingu \"Hinokuma Jingu\") | | [Wakayama](/wiki/Wakayama%2C_Wakayama \"Wakayama, Wakayama\"), [Wakayama](/wiki/Wakayama_Prefecture \"Wakayama Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Niutsuhime Shrine](/wiki/Niutsuhime_Shrine \"Niutsuhime Shrine\") | | [Katsuragi](/wiki/Katsuragi%2C_Wakayama \"Katsuragi, Wakayama\"), [Wakayama](/wiki/Wakayama_Prefecture \"Wakayama Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Itakiso Shrine](/wiki/Itakiso_Jinja \"Itakiso Jinja\") | | [Wakayama](/wiki/Wakayama%2C_Wakayama \"Wakayama, Wakayama\"), [Wakayama](/wiki/Wakayama_Prefecture \"Wakayama Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Awaji](/wiki/Awaji_Province \"Awaji Province\") | [Izanagi Jingū](/wiki/Izanagi_Shrine \"Izanagi Shrine\") | | [Awaji](/wiki/Awaji%2C_Hy%C5%8Dgo \"Awaji, Hyōgo\"), Hyōgo | | | |\n| [Awa](/wiki/Awa_Province_%28Tokushima%29 \"Awa Province (Tokushima)\") | [Ōasahiko Shrine](/wiki/%C5%8Casahiko_Shrine \"Ōasahiko Shrine\") | | [Naruto](/wiki/Naruto%2C_Tokushima \"Naruto, Tokushima\"), [Tokushima](/wiki/Tokushima_Prefecture \"Tokushima Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Ichinomiya Shrine](/wiki/Ichinomiya_Shrine_%28Tokushima%29 \"Ichinomiya Shrine (Tokushima)\") | | [Tokushima](/wiki/Tokushima_%28city%29 \"Tokushima (city)\"), [Tokushima](/wiki/Tokushima_Prefecture \"Tokushima Prefecture\") | | | No |\n| [Sanuki](/wiki/Sanuki_Province \"Sanuki Province\") | [Tamura Shrine](/wiki/Tamura_jinja \"Tamura jinja\") | | [Takamatsu](/wiki/Takamatsu%2C_Kagawa \"Takamatsu, Kagawa\"), [Kagawa](/wiki/Kagawa_Prefecture \"Kagawa Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Iyo](/wiki/Iyo_Province \"Iyo Province\") | [Ōyamazumi Shrine](/wiki/%C5%8Cyamazumi_jinja \"Ōyamazumi jinja\") | | [Imabari](/wiki/Imabari%2C_Ehime \"Imabari, Ehime\"), [Ehime](/wiki/Ehime_Prefecture \"Ehime Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Tosa](/wiki/Tosa_Province \"Tosa Province\") | [Tosa Shrine](/wiki/Tosa_jinja \"Tosa jinja\") | | [Kōchi](/wiki/K%C5%8Dchi%2C_K%C5%8Dchi \"Kōchi, Kōchi\"), [Kōchi](/wiki/K%C5%8Dchi_Prefecture \"Kōchi Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Saikaidō](/wiki/Saikaid%C5%8D \"Saikaidō\") | [Chikuzen](/wiki/Chikuzen_Province \"Chikuzen Province\") | [Sumiyoshi Shrine](/wiki/Sumiyoshi_Shrine_%28Fukuoka%29 \"Sumiyoshi Shrine (Fukuoka)\") | | [Fukuoka](/wiki/Fukuoka%2C_Fukuoka \"Fukuoka, Fukuoka\"), [Fukuoka](/wiki/Fukuoka_Prefecture \"Fukuoka Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Hakozaki Shrine](/wiki/Hakozaki_Shrine \"Hakozaki Shrine\") | | Fukuoka, Fukuoka | | | |\n| [Chikugo](/wiki/Chikugo_Province \"Chikugo Province\") | [Kōra taisha](/wiki/K%C5%8Dra_taisha \"Kōra taisha\") | | [Kurume](/wiki/Kurume%2C_Fukuoka \"Kurume, Fukuoka\"), Fukuoka | | | |\n| [Buzen](/wiki/Buzen_Province \"Buzen Province\") | [Usa Jingū](/wiki/Usa_Jing%C5%AB \"Usa Jingū\") | | [Usa](/wiki/Usa%2C_%C5%8Cita \"Usa, Ōita\"), [Ōita](/wiki/%C5%8Cita_Prefecture \"Ōita Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Bungo](/wiki/Bungo_Province \"Bungo Province\") | [Sasamuta Shrine](/wiki/Sasamuta-jinja \"Sasamuta-jinja\") | | [Ōita](/wiki/%C5%8Cita%2C_%C5%8Cita \"Ōita, Ōita\"), Ōita | | | |\n| [Yusuhara Hachiman\\-gū](/wiki/Yusuhara_Hachiman-g%C5%AB \"Yusuhara Hachiman-gū\") | | Ōita, Ōita | | | |\n| [Hizen](/wiki/Hizen_Province \"Hizen Province\") | | | [Saga](/wiki/Saga%2C_Saga \"Saga, Saga\"), [Saga](/wiki/Saga_Prefecture \"Saga Prefecture\") | | | No |\n| [Chikuri Hachiman\\-gū](/wiki/Chiriku_Hachiman_Shrine \"Chiriku Hachiman Shrine\") | | [Miyaki](/wiki/Miyaki%2C_Saga \"Miyaki, Saga\"), Saga | | | |\n| [Higo](/wiki/Higo_Province \"Higo Province\") | [Aso Shrine](/wiki/Aso_Shrine \"Aso Shrine\") | | [Aso](/wiki/Aso%2C_Kumamoto \"Aso, Kumamoto\"), [Kumamoto](/wiki/Kumamoto_Prefecture \"Kumamoto Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Hyūga](/wiki/Hy%C5%ABga_Province \"Hyūga Province\") | [Tsuno Shrine](/wiki/Tsuno_Shrine \"Tsuno Shrine\") | | [Tsuno](/wiki/Tsuno%2C_Miyazaki \"Tsuno, Miyazaki\"), [Miyazaki](/wiki/Miyazaki_Prefecture \"Miyazaki Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Ōsumi](/wiki/%C5%8Csumi_Province \"Ōsumi Province\") | [Kagoshima Shrine](/wiki/Kagoshima_Shrine \"Kagoshima Shrine\") | | [Kirishima](/wiki/Kirishima%2C_Kagoshima \"Kirishima, Kagoshima\"), [Kagoshima](/wiki/Kagoshima_Prefecture \"Kagoshima Prefecture\") | | | |\n| [Satsuma](/wiki/Satsuma_Province \"Satsuma Province\") | [Hirakiki Shrine](/wiki/Hirasaki_Shrine \"Hirasaki Shrine\") | | [Ibusuki](/wiki/Ibusuki%2C_Kagoshima \"Ibusuki, Kagoshima\"), Kagoshima | | | |\n| [Nitta Shrine](/wiki/Nitta_Shrine_%28Satsumasendai_City%29 \"Nitta Shrine (Satsumasendai City)\") | | [Satasumasendai](/wiki/Satsumasendai%2C_Kagoshima \"Satsumasendai, Kagoshima\"), Kagoshima | | | |\n| [Iki](/wiki/Iki_Province \"Iki Province\") | | | [Iki](/wiki/Iki%2C_Nagasaki \"Iki, Nagasaki\"), [Nagasaki](/wiki/Nagasaki_Prefecture \"Nagasaki Prefecture\") | | | No |\n| [Tsushima](/wiki/Tsushima_Province \"Tsushima Province\") | [Kaijin Shrine](/wiki/Kaijin_Shrine \"Kaijin Shrine\") | | [Tsushima](/wiki/Tsushima%2C_Nagasaki \"Tsushima, Nagasaki\"), Nagasaki | | | |\n|\n\n", "Ninomiya\n--------\n\n| Region | Province | Shrine | | Location | Shrine ranking | | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Name | [Kanji](/wiki/Kanji \"Kanji\") | Engishiki | Modern | Beppyo? |\n| [Kinai](/wiki/Kinai \"Kinai\") | [Izumi](/wiki/Izumi_Province \"Izumi Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Tōkaidō](/wiki/T%C5%8Dkaid%C5%8D_%28region%29 \"Tōkaidō (region)\") | [Ise](/wiki/Ise_Province \"Ise Province\") | [Tado Taisha](/wiki/Tado_Taisha \"Tado Taisha\") | | | | | |\n| [Owari](/wiki/Owari_Province \"Owari Province\") | [Ōagata Shrine](/wiki/%C5%8Cagata_Shrine \"Ōagata Shrine\") | | | | | Yes |\n| [Mikawa](/wiki/Mikawa_Province \"Mikawa Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Tōtōmi](/wiki/T%C5%8Dt%C5%8Dmi_Province \"Tōtōmi Province\") | | | | | | |\n| | | | | | |\n| [Suruga](/wiki/Suruga_Province \"Suruga Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Izu](/wiki/Izu_Province \"Izu Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Kai](/wiki/Kai_Province \"Kai Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Sagami](/wiki/Sagami_Province \"Sagami Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Musashi](/wiki/Musashi_Province \"Musashi Province\") | [Kanasana Shrine](/wiki/Kanasana_Shrine \"Kanasana Shrine\") | | | | | |\n| | | | | | |\n| [Kazusa](/wiki/Kazusa_Province \"Kazusa Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Shimōsa](/wiki/Shim%C5%8Dsa_Province \"Shimōsa Province\") | | | | | | |\n| | | | | | |\n| [Hitachi](/wiki/Hitachi_Province \"Hitachi Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Tōsandō](/wiki/T%C5%8Dsand%C5%8D \"Tōsandō\") | [Ōmi](/wiki/%C5%8Cmi_Province \"Ōmi Province\") | [Hiyoshi Taisha](/wiki/Hiyoshi_Taisha \"Hiyoshi Taisha\") | | | | | Yes |\n| [Mino](/wiki/Mino_Province \"Mino Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Shinano](/wiki/Shinano_Province \"Shinano Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Kōzuke](/wiki/K%C5%8Dzuke_Province \"Kōzuke Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Mutsu](/wiki/Mutsu_Province \"Mutsu Province\") | [Isasumi Shrine](/wiki/Isasumi_Shrine \"Isasumi Shrine\") | | | | | |\n| [Dewa](/wiki/Dewa_Province \"Dewa Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Hokurikudō](/wiki/Hokurikud%C5%8D \"Hokurikudō\") | [Echizen](/wiki/Echizen_Province \"Echizen Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Kaga](/wiki/Kaga_Province \"Kaga Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Noto](/wiki/Noto_Province \"Noto Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [San'indō](/wiki/San%27ind%C5%8D \"San'indō\") | [Hōki](/wiki/H%C5%8Dki_Province \"Hōki Province\") | [Ōgamiyama Shrine](/wiki/%C5%8Cgamiyama_Shrine \"Ōgamiyama Shrine\") | | | | | |\n| [Izumo](/wiki/Izumo_Province \"Izumo Province\") | [Sada Shrine](/wiki/Sada_Shrine \"Sada Shrine\") | | | | | |\n| [San'yōdō](/wiki/San%27y%C5%8Dd%C5%8D \"San'yōdō\") | [Aki](/wiki/Aki_Province \"Aki Province\") | [Hayatani Shrine](/wiki/Hayatani_Shrine \"Hayatani Shrine\") | | | | | |\n| [Nankaidō](/wiki/Nankaid%C5%8D \"Nankaidō\") | [Awaji](/wiki/Awaji_Province \"Awaji Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Saikaidō](/wiki/Saikaid%C5%8D \"Saikaidō\") | [Higo](/wiki/Higo_Province \"Higo Province\") | | | | | | |\n\n \n\n### Sannomiya\n\n| Region | Province | Shrine | | Location | Shrine ranking | | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Name | [Kanji](/wiki/Kanji \"Kanji\") | Engishiki | Modern | Beppyo? |\n| [Kinai](/wiki/Kinai \"Kinai\") | [Izumi](/wiki/Izumi_Province \"Izumi Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Tōkaidō](/wiki/T%C5%8Dkaid%C5%8D_%28region%29 \"Tōkaidō (region)\") | [Owari](/wiki/Owari_Province \"Owari Province\") | [Atsuta Jingu](/wiki/Atsuta_Jingu \"Atsuta Jingu\") | | | | | Yes |\n| [Mikawa](/wiki/Mikawa_Province \"Mikawa Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Suruga](/wiki/Suruga_Province \"Suruga Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Izu](/wiki/Izu_Province \"Izu Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Kai](/wiki/Kai_Province \"Kai Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Sagami](/wiki/Sagami_Province \"Sagami Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Hitachi](/wiki/Hitachi_Province \"Hitachi Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Tōsandō](/wiki/T%C5%8Dsand%C5%8D \"Tōsandō\") | [Ōmi](/wiki/%C5%8Cmi_Province \"Ōmi Province\") | [Taga\\-taisha](/wiki/Taga-taisha \"Taga-taisha\") | | | | | Yes |\n| [Mino](/wiki/Mino_Province \"Mino Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Kōzuke](/wiki/K%C5%8Dzuke_Province \"Kōzuke Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Shimotsuke](/wiki/Shimotsuke_Province \"Shimotsuke Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Dewa](/wiki/Dewa_Province \"Dewa Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Hokurikudō](/wiki/Hokurikud%C5%8D \"Hokurikudō\") | [Echigo](/wiki/Echigo_Province \"Echigo Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [San'indō](/wiki/San%27ind%C5%8D \"San'indō\") | [Tajima](/wiki/Tajima_Province \"Tajima Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [San'yōdō](/wiki/San%27y%C5%8Dd%C5%8D \"San'yōdō\") | [Suō](/wiki/Su%C5%8D_Province \"Suō Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Saikaidō](/wiki/Saikaid%C5%8D \"Saikaidō\") | [Hizen](/wiki/Hizen_Province \"Hizen Province\") | | | | | | |\n\n \n\n### Shinomiya\n\n* [Chichibu Shrine](/wiki/Chichibu_Shrine \"Chichibu Shrine\") \\- [Musashi Province](/wiki/Musashi_Province \"Musashi Province\")\n* \\- [Mikawa Province](/wiki/Mikawa_Province \"Mikawa Province\")\n* \\- [Kai Province](/wiki/Kai_Province \"Kai Province\"), also [Soja shrine](/wiki/Soja_shrine \"Soja shrine\") of the province\n* \\- [Sagami Province](/wiki/Sagami_Province \"Sagami Province\")\n* \\- [Izumi Province](/wiki/Izumi_Province \"Izumi Province\")\n\n### Gonomiya\n\n* \\- [Izumi Province](/wiki/Izumi_Province \"Izumi Province\")\n* \\- [Kōzuke Province](/wiki/K%C5%8Dzuke_Province \"Kōzuke Province\")\n", "### Sannomiya\n\n| Region | Province | Shrine | | Location | Shrine ranking | | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Name | [Kanji](/wiki/Kanji \"Kanji\") | Engishiki | Modern | Beppyo? |\n| [Kinai](/wiki/Kinai \"Kinai\") | [Izumi](/wiki/Izumi_Province \"Izumi Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Tōkaidō](/wiki/T%C5%8Dkaid%C5%8D_%28region%29 \"Tōkaidō (region)\") | [Owari](/wiki/Owari_Province \"Owari Province\") | [Atsuta Jingu](/wiki/Atsuta_Jingu \"Atsuta Jingu\") | | | | | Yes |\n| [Mikawa](/wiki/Mikawa_Province \"Mikawa Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Suruga](/wiki/Suruga_Province \"Suruga Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Izu](/wiki/Izu_Province \"Izu Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Kai](/wiki/Kai_Province \"Kai Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Sagami](/wiki/Sagami_Province \"Sagami Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Hitachi](/wiki/Hitachi_Province \"Hitachi Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Tōsandō](/wiki/T%C5%8Dsand%C5%8D \"Tōsandō\") | [Ōmi](/wiki/%C5%8Cmi_Province \"Ōmi Province\") | [Taga\\-taisha](/wiki/Taga-taisha \"Taga-taisha\") | | | | | Yes |\n| [Mino](/wiki/Mino_Province \"Mino Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Kōzuke](/wiki/K%C5%8Dzuke_Province \"Kōzuke Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Shimotsuke](/wiki/Shimotsuke_Province \"Shimotsuke Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Dewa](/wiki/Dewa_Province \"Dewa Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Hokurikudō](/wiki/Hokurikud%C5%8D \"Hokurikudō\") | [Echigo](/wiki/Echigo_Province \"Echigo Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [San'indō](/wiki/San%27ind%C5%8D \"San'indō\") | [Tajima](/wiki/Tajima_Province \"Tajima Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [San'yōdō](/wiki/San%27y%C5%8Dd%C5%8D \"San'yōdō\") | [Suō](/wiki/Su%C5%8D_Province \"Suō Province\") | | | | | | |\n| [Saikaidō](/wiki/Saikaid%C5%8D \"Saikaidō\") | [Hizen](/wiki/Hizen_Province \"Hizen Province\") | | | | | | |\n\n \n\n", "### Shinomiya\n\n* [Chichibu Shrine](/wiki/Chichibu_Shrine \"Chichibu Shrine\") \\- [Musashi Province](/wiki/Musashi_Province \"Musashi Province\")\n* \\- [Mikawa Province](/wiki/Mikawa_Province \"Mikawa Province\")\n* \\- [Kai Province](/wiki/Kai_Province \"Kai Province\"), also [Soja shrine](/wiki/Soja_shrine \"Soja shrine\") of the province\n* \\- [Sagami Province](/wiki/Sagami_Province \"Sagami Province\")\n* \\- [Izumi Province](/wiki/Izumi_Province \"Izumi Province\")\n", "### Gonomiya\n\n* \\- [Izumi Province](/wiki/Izumi_Province \"Izumi Province\")\n* \\- [Kōzuke Province](/wiki/K%C5%8Dzuke_Province \"Kōzuke Province\")\n", "See also\n--------\n\n* [Fuchū](/wiki/Fuch%C5%AB_%28disambiguation%29 \"Fuchū (disambiguation)\")\n* [Kokubunji](/wiki/Provincial_temple \"Provincial temple\")\n* [List of Shinto shrines](/wiki/List_of_Shinto_shrines \"List of Shinto shrines\")\n* [Modern system of ranked Shinto Shrines](/wiki/Modern_system_of_ranked_Shinto_Shrines \"Modern system of ranked Shinto Shrines\")\n* [Sannomiya](/wiki/Sannomiya \"Sannomiya\")\n* [Sōja (Shinto)](/wiki/S%C5%8Dja_%28Shinto%29 \"Sōja (Shinto)\")\n* [Twenty\\-Two Shrines](/wiki/Twenty-Two_Shrines \"Twenty-Two Shrines\")\n", "References\n----------\n\n", "External links\n--------------\n\n* [National Association of Ichinomiya website ](http://www.ichinomiya.gr.jp/)\n\n[Category:Shinto shrines in Japan](/wiki/Category:Shinto_shrines_in_Japan \"Shinto shrines in Japan\")\n[Category:Shinto terminology](/wiki/Category:Shinto_terminology \"Shinto terminology\")\n[Category:Ichinomiya](/wiki/Category:Ichinomiya \"Ichinomiya\")\n[Category:Shinto shrines by ranking](/wiki/Category:Shinto_shrines_by_ranking \"Shinto shrines by ranking\")\n\n" ] }