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8kxme6 | What population density could t-rex realistically have had? | [
{
"answer": "[Here's a paper from a time this was previously asked](_URL_1_). \n\nShort answer seems to be that they don't know. \n\nThere are a number of factors (prey density, metabolism, hunting strategy) that are all pretty speculative, making it difficult to get something approaching a real answer. There's even [some evidence](_URL_0_) of social behaviors - pack hunting remains a possibility. Hard to be very sure of specific animal behaviors from ~~150~~ 66 million years ago.",
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"answer": "You know, I have always been a bit bothered by the ecology in Jurassic Park, especially as it's supposed to contain entire herds of sauropods.\n\nAnyway, your comparison of tigers to dinosaurs is based on the faulty assumption that they have similar metabolisms, and so require similar amounts of food. There is mounting evidence that dinosaurs had a higher metabolic rate and were more active to their reptilian ancestors, but that doesn't necessarily mean they were as active as modern mammals. T. rex is a bit of an odd example, because as Tyrannosaurs evolved and got bigger, rather than extending their growth period, they just grew faster over the same period; which implies that, at least through their adolescence, they had a fairly high metabolism compared to their ancestors. On the other hand, their sheer size at adulthood would have meant that they didn't have to spend as much energy on maintaining their body heat (if anything keeping themselves cool would have been more of an issue).\n\nThere are also several ecological factors that could foul this comparison; the density of potential prey in the region, the amount that varies across the year, the difficulty in taking down the prey, competition from other predators, etc.\n\nAs to finding mates, bear in mind that T. rex had its head pretty far off the ground, which would have made it easy for it to see and hear other individuals at a distance. Such a large animal could probably roar pretty loud if that's how they communicated, and I've read at least one paper suggesting that the need to be seen at a distance played a role in determining theropod cranial anatomy.\n\nSo in terms of your question, I don't really know, and I'm not sure anyone can make a confident estimate without knowing a good deal more about T. rex and its ecosystem.",
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"answer": "You'd think someone has extrapolated this sort of data based on fossil location, rather than theoretical inferences. Not sure if fossils can congregate in a way that misrepresents geographic density?\n\n*deafened by thousands of simultaneous spectacle adjustments/throats clearings*",
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"answer": "I hope it's ok to recommend a science fiction book as a top level comment. \"Bones of the Earth\" by Michael Swanwick actually looks into this issue in a realistic manner. It's not only a fabulous dinosaur fiction book, it's quite possibly the only time travel book that actually makes sense. ",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "There is an assumption here that the Tyrannosaur is a predator. While not nearly as glamorous, there is evidence the animal was a scavenger. Scavengers are more common than predators. Work by paleontologist Jack Horner sheds light on this theory. The animal could not run very quickly, so it is unlikely it chased prey like the dinonychus, etc. It had a huge nasal cavity, like a vulture. Its large body could have intimidated and run off the raptors that did the killing work for it.\n\nJack Horner looked at the population density. He found a lot more Tyrannosaur remains than velociraptor, etc. This is in line with current observations of scavenger/predator population ratios. Don’t take my word for it! Look up Jack!",
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"answer": "To run with your Siberian Tiger idea, the size of their prey was also much larger, so that measurement doesn’t really work. During the period the Tyrannosaurus existed, most fauna was able to grow to greater sizes due to increased oxygen in the atmosphere, so it could be that they had a similar population density to comparable predators today. What’s more, there was also greater density in the flora of that period, which would assumedly lead to an increase in the population of prey items. \n\nAs another poster mentioned, Jack Horner studied the population density of Tyrannosaurus, and it is theorized that they were also a prolific scavenger, in which case their massive size was used more to intimidate/fight off the more agile and smaller predators that did the hunting for them. _URL_0_",
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"answer": "Hey OP. I don’t want to troll through all the biz on this. I just want to say that although the siberian tiger is the world’s current biggest cat, it lives in a relatively ‘poor’ area. In that it’s a nutrient harsh environment, not alot of prey density because not a lot of edible vegetation density for that prey. Not that it minds, it’s evolved and adapted (yeah, look strong word ‘adapted’ because it’s critically endangered atm after human influence) to living in that ‘harsh’ environment. It might be that T. rex lived in a world with greater prey abundance which could mean it didn’t need such a large territory to eat in. It’s dinner might have also been far larger than it, which would put a spin on things too (i.e elephant hunting lions, giraffe eating leopards) rather than a tiger to deer comparison. I liked your question :) I do not know the answer.",
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},
{
"answer": "It's an interesting idea that is actually being played out with wolves and moose. Isle Royale National Park is approximately a half million acres and has been inhabited by upto 50 wolves and 500 moose. The cycle never stabilized and is highly studied.\n\n_URL_0_",
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},
{
"answer": "I don’t have anything of value to add but I just want to thank you for asking about dinosaurs!",
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{
"answer": "In the Siberian tiger comparison, you have to remember that TRex's meat supplies were proportionately bigger. So it's not like they'd need a 10 times bigger area to get 10 times the meat for their 10 times bigger bodies.\n\nThe ecosystem had way more and bigger plants than Siberia, supporting giant herbivores for TRex to tear apart like a fat kid tears into a novelty bag of skittles.",
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"answer": "Wouldn’t another factor be that the size of their prey was also pretty large. All animals were bigger back then due to the high proportion of oxygen in the air so taking their huge size relative to the size of prey available today wouldn’t work. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "47302069",
"title": "Byneskranskop",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "Remains of tortoises at this site and a dig at Die Kelders, have been used to assess a correlation between tortoise size and human population, with a decrease in tortoise sizes as the human population grows.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "973858",
"title": "European hedgehog",
"section": "Section::::Status in Great Britain.:Population size.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "An estimate of 36.5 million by Burton was based on extrapolating up from a density of 2.5 animals/ha (one per acre), but this was based on limited data and is probably an overestimate. A more recent estimate of 1,550,000 in Great Britain (England 1,100,000, Scotland 310,000, Wales 140,000) is more reliable, but still has a high degree of uncertainty as it is based on very limited information about hedgehog density estimates for different habitat types. Given this figure, and more firmly established rates of decline, it is now thought likely that there are fewer than a million hedgehogs in Great Britain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "20205",
"title": "Marsupial",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy.:General and convergences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "Marsupials have adapted to many habitats, reflected in the wide variety in their build. The largest living marsupial, the red kangaroo, grows up to 1.8m (5'11\") in height and in weight, but extinct genera, such as \"Diprotodon\", were significantly larger and heavier. The smallest members of this group are the marsupial mice, which often reach only in body length.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57624",
"title": "Multituberculata",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "Another group of multituberculates, the taeniolabids, were heavier and more massively built, indicating that they lived a fully terrestrial life. The largest specimens weighted probably as much as 100 kg, making them comparable in size to large rodents like \"Castoroides\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46750",
"title": "Virginia opossum",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.:Life span.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 794,
"text": "Opossums, like most marsupials, have unusually short lifespans for their size and metabolic rate. The Virginia opossum has a maximal lifespan in the wild of only about two years. Even in captivity, opossums live only about four years. The rapid senescence of opossums is thought to reflect the fact that they have few defenses against predators; given that they would have little prospect of living very long regardless, they are not under selective pressure to develop biochemical mechanisms to enable a long lifespan. In support of this hypothesis, one population on Sapelo Island, off the coast of Georgia, which has been isolated for thousands of years without natural predators, was found by Dr. Steven Austad to have evolved lifespans up to 50% longer than those of mainland populations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44265743",
"title": "Elpidia minutissima",
"section": "Section::::Ecology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 750,
"text": "\"Elpidia minutissima\" is one of a number of echinoderm species that show great variations in population density. Researchers in one study found that, over a sixteen-year period, two deep sea holothurians, \"E. minutissima\" and \"Peniagone vitrea\", underwent a decline in density of the order of one to two magnitudes. It has been hypothesized that two factors that increase the likelihood of large swings in population are broadcast spawning and the possession of planktotrophic larvae. These factors provide a positive feedback loop so that once populations decline, recovery is very slow. When individual organisms are further apart, broadcast spawning is less likely to result in fertilisation and this means fewer larvae available for recruitment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41365535",
"title": "List of largest reptiles",
"section": "Section::::Lizards and snakes (Squamata).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 748,
"text": "BULLET::::- The most massive living member of this highly diverse reptilian order is the green anaconda (\"Eunectes murinus\") of the neotropical riverways. These may exceed and , although such reports are not fully verified. Rumors of larger anacondas also persist. The reticulated python (\"Python reticulatus\") of Southeast Asia is longer but more slender, and has been reported to measure as much as in length and to weigh up to .Burmese python, a south-east Asian species is known to weight as much 183 kg and is generally the heaviest snake on average modern wild specimens. The fossil of the largest snake ever, the extinct boa \"Titanoboa\" were found in coal mines in Colombia. This snake was estimated to reach a length of and weighed about .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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]
| null |
1hvbyk | why do some people cry during sex? is it biological or psychological? both? are there performance or dysfunction related to crying during intercourse? | [
{
"answer": "If people do actually cry during sex, this would be difficult to explain to a five year old.",
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{
"answer": "do you know about *consent*?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sex is very emotional to some people, but you're five, you don't need to worry about that yet.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've cried and laughed during an orgasm. I couldn't help it. The feelings just overtook me an apparently that was my reaction that time. ",
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{
"answer": "Overwhelming feelings = the release of tears for some people.\n",
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},
{
"answer": "I can only speak for myself, but if I cry during sex, it's because the sex is so overwhelming, both physically and emotionally, that I need a quick, accessible outlet for it. You'd think that an orgasm would be a good outlet, given the circumstance, but that just makes it more overwhelming, and more tearful. For me, I believe it's psychological. Tears are a quick and easy outlet for *any* strong emotion I have. Rage and bliss are the two big ones.\n\nThere is a huge difference between crying during sex because you don't want to be having it and crying during sex because you don't want to ever NOT be having it.",
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"answer": "I've cried only after one orgasm, and that was the best of my life. It took me a few minutes to recover, so my boyfriend just cuddled me in the meantime. I think it occurred because the release of that many endorphins coupled with dopamine and oxytocin, created a huge, confused well of emotions that inadvertently came out as crying. \n\nShit felt awesome ",
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"answer": "My ex girlfriend cried the first 10 or so times we had sex. Very strange to me, as I thought she might have had some kind of sexual abuse when she was younger, but she just ended up being a very emotional girl. ",
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{
"answer": "There's no shame in crymaxing.",
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"answer": "I can't really ELY5 (mostly because I dont have a full enough understanding) but this is taken from this [link](_URL_0_)\n\n\n\"Sex therapists and researchers William Hartman and Marilyn Fithian proposed a physiological explanation for the shedding of tears. They proposed that since an orgasm is triggered by deep stimulation to the uterus and strong uterine contractions, then the involuntary sobbing may be due to the vagus nerve in the brainstem being stimulated. This causes a ripple effect that triggers a cricopharyngeal reflex in the throat.\"\n\n",
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"answer": "Semi-relevant: Why is it that in nearly every porn video involving an Asian female, she looks like she's crying in pain the entire time?",
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{
"answer": "I cry sometimes, though not often. Things are just overwhelming sometimes, especially if I'm \"making love\" and not just fucking. It's emotional, and it feels good, and if it's *very* emotional and it feels *very* good, I cry. It's just because it can be so intense. So unless a person is crying because they have a traumatic memory triggered, or because they're hurt or something, I wouldn't worry about it. Just be supportive and listen and hang on.",
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"answer": "My girlfriend has cried just after sex twice, it was after the best sex we ever had. During would be...strange.",
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"answer": "I posted about laughing and crying during orgasm in /r/sex the other day, but this is basically what I think:\n\n\nFrom what I know of the brain (I'm in training to be a psychologist) I think it relates to the limbic system, which is the reward system of the brain. This involves the amygdala, nucleus accumbens, VTA, and pituitary gland, the last of which releases hormones like endorphins. I think the release of endorphins during orgasm mimics a lot of the same hormones that are released when we laugh or cry for joy. This helps to explain why many people also experience intense emotional reactions during orgasm. \n\n\nI think it is mostly biological. There is some \"wiring\" in the limbic system that gets linked together so that when the endorphins associated with orgasm are released they also trigger laughing or crying. As with any nature/nurture question there is some overlap. The person probably has some personality characteristics that also facilitate it occurring. Perhaps openness to new experiences, lack of inhibitions during sex or feeling comfortable enough to let themselves go during the sexual experience (keep in mind this is speculation as there is very little research to back this up). Also, it depends, if this person experiences crying in conjunction with orgasm it is probably the limbic system cross-wiring thing going on; if they experience it not connected to sensation then there may be something else happening. There could be re-experiencing past trauma, they may not want to be having sex or are feeling pressured, they could be feeling insecure, or there may be some unspoken and unresolved relationship issues that the person is thinking about. You'd have to question the person to find out. \n\n\n**ELI5 version: **Okay little guy, I don't know why you want to know about this...but you know how we have these things in our head called a brain? The brain makes up our whooole word, including how we respond to.. ah ahem...sex. Sometimes stuff in the brain gets confused so when we get that really happy feeling other feelings happen too. People shouldn't feel bad about this..There may be other stuff happening too, so people in love should talk to each other to make sure everyone's on the same page....Now uh go play with your legos, mmmkay? ",
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},
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"answer": "I get tears often when I climax, but not because of emotional reasons. You ever take a bite of food that was so delicious, that you had a visceral reaction to it? Or a piece of music that brought a tear to your eye? When I climax, it feels *so good* that my eyes are watering. It's not crying, it's literally so good, it brings tears to my eyes.",
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{
"answer": "My wife has cried during climax twice in the 8 years we've been together. Not out of sadness or joy, just overwhelming emotion she says. I've always wondered how common it was.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "143803",
"title": "Tears",
"section": "Section::::Social aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 884,
"text": "In nearly all cultures, crying is associated with tears trickling down the cheeks and accompanied by characteristic sobbing sounds. Emotional triggers are most often sadness and grief but crying can also be triggered by anger, happiness, fear, laughter or humor, frustration, remorse, or other strong, intense emotions. Crying is often associated with babies and children. Some cultures consider crying to be undignified and infantile, casting aspersions on those who cry publicly, except if it is due to the death of a close friend or relative. In most Western cultures, it is more socially acceptable for women and children to cry than men, reflecting masculine sex-role stereotypes. In some Latin regions, crying among men is more acceptable. There is evidence for an interpersonal function of crying as tears express a need for help and foster willingness to help in an observer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "143803",
"title": "Tears",
"section": "Section::::Chemicals in tears.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "On a study conducted by the Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovot, Israel, emotional tears from women have been found to reduce sexual arousal in men. Also, emotional tears are made up of a different chemical component than those evoked by eye irritants and can relay chemical messages to others. The change in sex drive could be attributed to a drop in testosterone provoked by the tear chemicals, reducing aggression. In animals other than humans, it has been found that some blind mole rats rub tears all over their bodies as a strategy to keep aggressive mole rats away.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "17389946",
"title": "Crying",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "The question of the function or origin of emotional tears remains open. Theories range from the simple, such as response to inflicted pain, to the more complex, including nonverbal communication in order to elicit altruistic helping behavior from others. Some have also claimed that crying can serve several biochemical purposes, such as relieving stress and clearance of the eyes. Crying is believed to be an outlet or a result of a burst of intense emotional sensations, such as agony, surprise or joy. This theory could explain why people cry during cheerful events, as well as very painful events.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17389946",
"title": "Crying",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "William H. Frey II, a biochemist at the University of Minnesota, proposed that people feel \"better\" after crying due to the elimination of hormones associated with stress, specifically adrenocorticotropic hormone. This, paired with increased mucosal secretion during crying, could lead to a theory that crying is a mechanism developed in humans to dispose of this stress hormone when levels grow too high. However, tears have a limited ability to eliminate chemicals, reducing the likelihood of this theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17389946",
"title": "Crying",
"section": "Section::::Biological response.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
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"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "It can be very difficult to observe biological effects of crying, especially considering many psychologists believe the environment in which a person cries can alter the experience of the crier. However, crying studies in laboratories have shown several physical effects of crying, such as increased heart rate, sweating, and slowed breathing. Although it appears that the type of effects an individual experiences depends largely on the individual, for many it seems that the calming effects of crying, such as slowed breathing, outlast the negative effects, which could explain why people remember crying as being helpful and beneficial.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "73165",
"title": "Infant",
"section": "Section::::Care and feeding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "Infants cry as a form of basic instinctive communication. A crying infant may be trying to express a variety of feelings including hunger, discomfort, overstimulation, boredom, wanting something, or loneliness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "17389946",
"title": "Crying",
"section": "Section::::Biological response.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
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"text": "The most common side effect of crying is feeling a lump in the throat of the crier, otherwise known as a globus sensation. Although many things can cause a globus sensation, the one experienced in crying is a response to the stress experienced by the sympathetic nervous system. When an animal is threatened by some form of danger, the sympathetic nervous system triggers several processes to allow the animal to fight or flee. This includes shutting down unnecessary body functions, such as digestion, and increasing blood flow and oxygen to necessary muscles. When an individual experiences emotions such as sorrow, the sympathetic nervous system still responds in this way. Another function increased by the sympathetic nervous system is breathing, which includes opening the throat in order to increase air flow. This is done by expanding the glottis, which allows more air to pass through. As an individual is undergoing this sympathetic response, eventually the parasympathetic nervous system attempts to undo the response by decreasing high stress activities and increasing recuperative processes, which includes running digestion. This involves swallowing, a process which requires closing the fully expanded glottis to prevent food from entering the larynx. The glottis, however, attempts to remain open as an individual cries. This fight to close the glottis creates a sensation that feels like a lump in the individual's throat.\n",
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| null |
1nbyhw | who owns the united states federal reserve? if it is the government, explain why we need to pay interest on the created money? | [
{
"answer": "The Federal Reserve doesn't really have an owner. The leadership is appointed by the government, but the government doesn't claim any ownership rights over the organization or its stuff. \n\nWhy do we do it this way? Well, the Federal Reserve sets what's known as monetary policy (roughly, the policies regarding how many dollars are around), and it's very important that monetary policy be *stable*. If politicians could just print off a bunch of money to pay for things, it would be hard to trust US currency, because you'd never know when it would be devalued by a new wave of printing. The Federal Reserve makes it clear when and why they will print money, so this doesn't happen, letting US dollars be one of the most commonly used currencies in the world.",
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"answer": "We don't pay interest on the money.\n\nOr rather, we do--the Fed generally gets the money it's created into the economy by buying bonds, and we pay interest on the bonds that the Fed holds--but then the Fed gives (almost) all its profits back to the government. [Last year the Treasury got $75.4 billion of the Fed's $77 billion profit.](_URL_0_) Which is only fair.",
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"answer": "The Fed owns itself. It is a private bank. It has its chairman appointed by the President, and is expected to answer to the economic policy of the government but is in no way obligated to do so.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "26692249",
"title": "Structure of the Federal Reserve System",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "According to the board of governors of the Federal Reserve, \"It is not 'owned' by anyone and is 'not a private, profit-making institution'. Instead, it is an independent entity within the government, having both public purposes and private aspects.\" The U.S. Government does not own shares in the Federal Reserve System or its component banks, but does receive all of the system's annual profits after a statutory dividend of 6% on their capital investment is paid to member banks and a capital account surplus is maintained. The government also exercises some control over the Federal Reserve by appointing and setting the salaries of the system's highest-level employees.\n",
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"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "10819",
"title": "Federal Reserve",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Federal Reserve Banks.:Legal status of regional Federal Reserve Banks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 1013,
"text": "The Federal Reserve Banks have an intermediate legal status, with some features of private corporations and some features of public federal agencies. The United States has an interest in the Federal Reserve Banks as tax-exempt federally created instrumentalities whose profits belong to the federal government, but this interest is not proprietary. In \"Lewis v. United States\", the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit stated that: \"The Reserve Banks are not federal instrumentalities for purposes of the FTCA [the Federal Tort Claims Act], but are independent, privately owned and locally controlled corporations.\" The opinion went on to say, however, that: \"The Reserve Banks have properly been held to be federal instrumentalities for some purposes.\" Another relevant decision is \"Scott v. Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City\", in which the distinction is made between Federal Reserve Banks, which are federally created instrumentalities, and the board of governors, which is a federal agency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "164391",
"title": "Monetary policy of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Money creation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 712,
"text": "BULLET::::4. Every business day, the Federal Reserve System engages in Open market operations. If the Federal Reserve wants to increase the money supply, it will buy securities (such as U.S. Treasury Bonds) anonymously from banks in exchange for dollars. If the Federal Reserve wants to decrease the money supply, it will sell securities to the banks in exchange for dollars, taking those dollars out of circulation. When the Federal Reserve makes a purchase, it credits the seller's reserve account (with the Federal Reserve). The money that it deposits into the seller's account is not transferred from any existing funds, therefore it is at this point that the Federal Reserve has created High-powered money.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "26692249",
"title": "Structure of the Federal Reserve System",
"section": "Section::::Federal Reserve Banks.:Legal status.\n",
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"text": "The Federal Reserve Banks have an intermediate legal status, with some features of private corporations and some features of public federal agencies. The United States has an interest in the Federal Reserve Banks as tax-exempt federally created instrumentalities whose profits belong to the federal government, but this interest is not proprietary. Each member bank (commercial banks in the Federal Reserve district) owns a nonnegotiable share of stock in its regional Federal Reserve Bank. However, holding Federal Reserve Bank stock is unlike owning stock in a publicly traded company. The charter of each Federal Reserve Bank is established by law and cannot be altered by the member banks. Federal Reserve Bank stock cannot be sold or traded, and member banks do not control the Federal Reserve Bank as a result of owning this stock. They do, however, elect six of the nine members of the Federal Reserve Banks' boards of directors. In \"Lewis v. United States\", the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit stated that: \"The Reserve Banks are not federal instrumentalities for purposes of the FTCA [the Federal Tort Claims Act], but are independent, privately owned and locally controlled corporations.\" The opinion went on to say, however, that: \"The Reserve Banks have properly been held to be federal instrumentalities for some purposes.\" Another relevant decision is \"Scott v. Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City\", in which the distinction is made between Federal Reserve Banks, which are federally created instrumentalities, and the Board of Governors, which is a federal agency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18717338",
"title": "United States dollar",
"section": "Section::::Banknotes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "The U.S. Constitution provides that Congress shall have the power to \"borrow money on the credit of the United States\". Congress has exercised that power by authorizing Federal Reserve Banks to issue Federal Reserve Notes. Those notes are \"obligations of the United States\" and \"shall be redeemed in lawful money on demand at the Treasury Department of the United States, in the city of Washington, District of Columbia, or at any Federal Reserve bank\". Federal Reserve Notes are designated by law as \"legal tender\" for the payment of debts. Congress has also authorized the issuance of more than 10 other types of banknotes, including the United States Note and the Federal Reserve Bank Note. The Federal Reserve Note is the only type that remains in circulation since the 1970s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "231378",
"title": "John Birch Society",
"section": "Section::::History.:2009–present.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "The Society has been active in supporting the auditing of, and aims to eventually dismantle, the Federal Reserve System. The JBS holds that the United States Constitution gives only Congress the ability to coin money, and does not permit it to delegate this power, or to transform the dollar into a fiat currency not backed by gold or silver.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "178805",
"title": "Federal Reserve Bank",
"section": "Section::::Legal status.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1414,
"text": "Legal cases involving the Federal Reserve Banks have concluded that they are neither \"private\" nor \"governmental\" as a general rule, but may be treated as either depending on the particular law at issue. In \"United States Shipping Board Emergency Fleet Corporation v. Western Union Telegraph Co.\", the U.S. Supreme Court stated, \"Instrumentalities like the national banks or the federal reserve banks, in which there are private interests, are not departments of the government. They are private corporations in which the government has an interest.\" The United States has an interest in the Federal Reserve Banks as tax-exempt federally created instrumentalities whose profits belong to the federal government, but this interest is not proprietary. In \"Lewis v. United States\", the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit stated that: \"The Reserve Banks are not federal instrumentalities for purposes of the FTCA [the Federal Tort Claims Act], but are independent, privately owned and locally controlled corporations.\" The opinion went on to say, however, that: \"The Reserve Banks have properly been held to be federal instrumentalities for some purposes.\" Another relevant decision is \"Scott v. Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City\", in which the distinction is made between Federal Reserve Banks, which are federally created instrumentalities, and the Board of Governors, which is a federal agency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
sodii | why fight to have student loans forgiven? | [
{
"answer": "For what it's worth, I agree with you, but I'll try to explain the mentality behind it - today's 20-somethings were brought up their whole lives believing that college was the ticket to a bright future. You did decently in high school, went to a respectable college, and got a suitable white collar job that put you squarely in the middle class.\n\nForget for a moment that this mythos isn't and never has been entirely true - an English degree didn't directly lead to a job any more in 1985 than it did in 2005 - but this belief in the merits and inevitability of college has been pounded into everyone's heads over the last 20 years, leading to skyrocketing enrollment rates.\n\n...but also skyrocketing costs. Since the 1980's, college costs have risen 2-3x the pace of inflation, leaving the '00s graduates with a lot more debt burden than previous generations. At the same time, because of the recession, opportunities are much scarcer for college grads at any point in many decades. Yes, it's still more likely you'll be employed if you have a college education than if you don't, but it's also much more likely you'll be underemployed, running a register at Banana Republic instead of working in the field of your degree (that $10/hr doesn't help much when you have 6 figures worth of student loans.)\n\nSo in summary: recent grads have had the desirability of a college education driven into their heads since elementary school. They followed that advice and went to college, taking on more debt than ever before, only to graduate and find that the jobs weren't there. You mention that it's not like they were tricked, but a lot of them feel like they were. I definitely don't think loan forgiveness is the solution, but I can't blame them for being frustrated.",
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"answer": "Let me try and explain it a different way. Remember when Mom and Dad bought a house that cost three times their allowance? Well Mom and Dad (as voters) complained and many plans were created to help them out of the mess they go into. They claimed that the banks lied to them, used deceptive practices, and therefore the people who took out bought houses they couldn't afford were not responsible.\n\nFlash forward to \"student loans.\" Many of the same banks use the same deceptive practices to sell loans to kids that they can't afford. These kids become adults and realize that when they were 17 (too young to vote, too young to buy a house, too young to even have a credit card) they were sold something which they could not afford. \n\nIf you sold a house to a 17 year old, would you be surprised if they regretted it when they were 27? If you were a bank selling houses to 17 year-olds would you take advantage of the situation in order to make more money for yourself?\n\nBut I think the real problem isn't that everyone wants their student loans forgiven. They would simply settle for a middle class job. 30 years ago, there wasn't this same notion of \"paying your dues\" in an unpaid internship. Unpaid internships of 2012 were once called-entry level jobs. These difficult barriers result in students taking on even more loans, and with an ever-increasing amount of kids looking for opportunities at any cost- they're taking the unpaid internships, leaving no incentive for companies to once again hire entry-level employees. \n\nSo you have a generation with huge amount of debt. Highly limited job prospects, no promise of pensions, very little health insurance- they see the deck as stacked against them. So this is why they're asking for student loan forgiveness. Unemployment (and underemployment) among people 30 and under is becoming epidemic.\n\nand I find it confusing that the same people that felt that that government owed them something for taking out their sub-prime mortgage are so confused why young people think that their loans are an unjust burden.\n\n//okay, started LI5, ended on a soap box. But there's an explanation that's a bit different than the other top level comment. ",
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"answer": "It's a combination of a few factors:\n\n* A college education is viewed as compulsory by many people\n* A college education is very expensive, and loans are easy to obtain\n* Student loans are NOT forgiven in the event of bankruptcy\n* Most 18-year-olds are not sufficiently financially savvy to realize the consequences of massive amounts of debt (and overestimate the ease of paying them back)",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Because it's the biggest drag on the housing market right now (huge amount of kids who graduated in the past 5-10 years are living with parents, and not buying homes, mostly because of their student loan debt). Some would argue that means it's the biggest drag on the economy",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "While the government did not trick students into taking out loans, when the government gave out loans so every student would have a chance, every school raised their tuition by the exact amount as the loans",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The same government is providing relief to others like homeowners. Semi-same situation applies: investment in a home vs an investment in your future. Things didn't work out and now you are underwater with no realistic way out. Difference is: homeowners can get government assistance, and worst case, can jump ship and file bankruptcy and start fresh. You can't escape student loans.\n\nMind you, I think it should be impossible to get completely off the hook in either situation, but I do think relief of some kind should be available.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Because many folks believe (with corroborating studies) that it's harder to get a job good enough to pay off your loans now, because of the economy.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "I feel like making the situation more reasonable for students is the right thing to do, but I would be kind of annoyed if there was a mass amnesty of all student debt. I worked hard in high school and college at shitty jobs while saving nearly every penny, went to a public school (it was the best school I got into, but if I had got into Stanford I probably still would have opted to go to my alma mater to save money), accepted crappy living situations and took handouts from my awesome parents and other wealthy family members + 10k in loans. I hustled my ass off to get a good job (that shit doesn't happen automatically with a political science degree) and now I've got everything paid off, and I fee accomplished. I know I started off with a lot of big advantages, but I had a lot of friends in school who were spending loan money on cars and Iphones and concerts and did poorly in school, turned down extra work shifts out of laziness... They shouldn't have to be broke for the rest of their 20's but its not fair to just erase their debt.",
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"answer": "From what I understand there's a combination of things going on that make student loan forgiveness very attractive to freshly graduated, and previously graduated students. First, student loans cannot be dispersed through bankruptcy. That means that when you no longer have any money and are going deeper into debt, owing more and more, you can't get rid of it at all. There are very few things in America that have this kind of protection. \n\nNow let's put this into perspective. Teachers make relatively little money compared to say, engineers, but they fulfill a mandatory part of modern society, in that they educate our youth. The basic skills that they need are taught regularly by people that in many states have to have at least a bacholars or masters level degree to become certified. Then they have to substitute for several years before they can get into a full time position. They are choosing to become teachers. It's a choice, I get that. However, punishing them for fulfilling a necessary role in society doesn't seem appropriate to me. That's why the loan forgiveness programs are important. Without them, people that fulfill a necessarily societal role would not be able to survive under their loan debt. If they can only pay their loans, rent, and utilities, then rely on the community for food, then they're creating, arguably a net loss for the community. \n\nThere's also a mentality of sorts that comes to mind regarding this issue. The \"I got mine\" style of thinking. This can be characterized by looking at the people behind the counter at starbucks. A good friend of mine has passed the bar exam, but is still working as a barista because no one is hiring lawyers. No one can afford to sue. The economy has taken a nose dive and accordingly, the money people would spend on litigating is pretty much gone. Sure lawyer is a high power profession, but you have to work in it to be able to do anything. We could also look at doctors and see the same results. These are people that have several hundred thousand dollars in student loan debt. They're working to save lives, but are forced to carry malpractice insurance in the hundreds of thousands of dollars, pay their student loans, work shit hours, and continue their education. The American dream is viable for them, in maybe twenty years. Yet, as soon as they graduate they're fulfilling a societal necessity. They're helping keep this country running and people working. If even a fifth of their loans are forgiven that's a huge amount of money and potentially hundreds of thousands of dollars that would go back into the community rather than into the hands of a corporate giant somewhere.\n\nAnother part of this is that society right now is more service based than production based. Skilled labor jobs are disappearing. Though, there is some suggestion that manufacturing may be coming back to the US. Without some kind of higher education, technical school, what have you, most people will not be hired for anything more than a minimum wage job. Minimum wage is not enough money to sustain a household on. People that go on public assistance then cost the country a lot more than they would otherwise. This leads to another cycle. People that go on public assistance get propped up, then once they're almost ready to stand on their own the props are removed prematurely. That extra few hundred that would have gone to paying the housing costs is gone leaving the person behind on their rent again. Then once their credit tanks and they lose their job they're back on public assistance. This happens to people with degrees and to those without them. However, if you can remove a portion of the debt through forgiveness it alleviates a lot of the strains. This doesn't necessarily mean that people will be able to get off public assistance, but with a little more help it might be more viable. \n\nBasically, what I'm trying to point out is that these student loans, even when they're paid for and the person has a good job, are bad for the communities as a whole. Money that would have, otherwise, gone to businesses in the local area is being diverted to large corporations that then take the money and invest it in other big corporations. It limits the growth of the community.\n\ntl;dr: It costs more in the long run, both in growth in the community, and to the economy to not forgive the loans.",
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"answer": "Let's think of it this way, I don't have loans from undergrad (I am grateful to the foresight of my family putting away money from my birth to put me in this position) *however* I do have loans for my masters which was necessary to put me on a career track, everyone talks about 100k for a degree in English which is ridiculous, if you are poor enough to need that much aid you will get grants if you are rich enough to not be able to get it you can probably afford it, plus schools that cost that much (USC, Harvard, etc) have huge endowments which allow them to give out their own private grants \n\nI personally owe about 45k for a masters in social work and am making about 53k a year\nCan I make my loan payments? Sure\nCan I pay my rent? Sure\nBut I'm 28 and the prospect of buying a house where I live is not even fathomable to me\nIf I didn't have to pay 500 dollars a month to the government it might be a slightly more realistic dream, but because I work in a particular field, for a county contracted agency, in a low income area of town, and work bilingually so I can apply each year to have 10k forgiven \nI know I signed up for the debt and am paying it dutifully back but they're also willing to look at certain careers (ie social work teaching and some others) and look at the need being fulfilled and help us out a bit",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Bob the banker likes cookies. Bob likes cookies sooo much that he spent his entire allowance on cookie dough! But, Bob has a problem. You see, Bob doesn't know how to make cookies. Do you like cookies?\n\nBob is friends with Betty the Baker. Betty knows how to cook the best cookies in the whole school. But, Betty has a problem too! You see, Betty doesn't have an allowance to buy dough with which to make cookies. Do you have an allowance?\n\nBob and Betty work out a deal with each other. Bob will give Betty enough cookie dough so that she can make ten cookies! In return, he asks for one cookie a day for eleven days. Do you think Betty made a good deal?\n\nThe next day Betty comes to school with ten cookies. She gives Bob a cookie like she promised. She eats one for herself. Because everyone knows Betty is the best baker in school, her friends buy the remaining eight cookies from her. She makes enough money selling her eight cookies to buy dough for ten more cookies. Betty now has a successful business!\n\nNow Bob has one cookie a day, but he wants more. The only other person in school who knows how to bake is Scumbag Steve. Bob doesn't know Steve very well and hasn't tried Steve's cookies before. Betty tells Bob that Steve shouldn't be trusted. Bob is kinda scared, but he really likes cookies and Steve promises that everything will be alright. Bob trusts him and gives him enough dough to make ten cookies. Did Bob make a good deal?\n\nThe next day at school Betty gives Bob a cookie like yesterday but Steve says that he lost the dough and can't give Bob anything. Is Steve a bad person?\n\nBob is angry, and demands his cookie from Steve. Bob tells his Uncle Sam and his uncle also gets mad. Together they go to Steve's house. When Steve opens the door, Sam punches Steve, goes inside, and takes all of the food Steve has. Did Steve deserve to be attacked over a broken promise? ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "No cuts, no fees, education must be free!\n\nIt's down to a difference in beliefs. Education is a human right, just like food, housing, and healthcare. Things like that should all be provided for on the basis of need.\n\nThe reason why we can't do that is because a small number of people are being very selfish. You know how you hate it when the big kids gang up and bully the little ones? That's what a small number of grown-ups do too. Everything is nicer when we work together and share, so when you grow up be nice and don't be selfish!",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Studying music business know and this surprisingly adapts very well. A big concept we learn is \"But Where Do I Sign\", meaning, most artists skip reading the 30+ page contract that looks like gibberish to them. This applies to students. \n\nMost students know alot about what they are signing, yes they can read 12.5%, that's a number and yes they can read they are taking out $40,000...but they don't understand it. Or maybe they don't want to. Maybe it's that hmm well when I graduate I will be able to pay all that off easy since I'll be making way more money than that!\n\nBut uhoh! that small % they didn't realize was monthly...and now they are stuck paying interest on a balance that keeps rising! And what's this? Their position isn't starting at 60k/year or 80k/year....they are starting entry level which was a bitch to get hired to in the first place for anywhere from $10-20/hr. \nNo, noone tricked the students into anything. They just really abuse a situation, but who can blame them. How many graduates are still kids that don't take on the responsibility of paying these off? Someone got fucked. \n\nMaybe a highschool course on HOW TO DEAL WITH THE REAL FUCKING WORLD would be something greatly recommended. \n\nAnd so here is my parting advice:\n\n**TL;DR: Save money for a year or two, get financial aid and grants, and keep loans to a minimum. This will save you a LOT of money, and not fuck over everybody(yourself, the loaner, other people that will take on the burden of supporting you) just because you didn't want to do the maths and just signed for the money.**",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Just a related PSA: \n\nThe Student Loan Forgiveness Act *is not forgiveness of loans as you think of it*. \n\nIf you get federal student loans, there are several plans to pay it back over time. One such plan involves working in the public sector, such as a teaching job, for a minimum number of years and making payments for 10 years, based on your income. After those 10 years, if you've met the requirements the entire time, the remainder of the loan is forgiven. \n\nWhat the law they are trying to pass does is increase the eligibility. You'd *still* have to make payments for 10 years, but more people who have to take a plan that is less per month will qualify. \n\nIn this sense, forgiveness is a bit of a misnomer. People will still have to pay a ton of money towards the loan, and it's 10 years of very little extra money. Some people argue that there's a big chance for fraud, but that'd be true whether the law passed or not. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Because my $20k in student loans isn't shit compared to a $600,000 patriot missile. Either way I'm paying mine back and don't expect anything, but it would be nice if they re-prioritized our spending.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "The economic side of things (which has nothing to do with whether or not loans are a good or bad idea) is that forgiving some student loans would immediately inject cash into the economy. Pay 20% of your take home pay towards student loans? If you didn't have to, you'd see 20 and 30 somethings buying more houses and starting families sooner. More house ownership equals more local government revenue. \n\nI'm not sure I'm in favor of a middle-class bailout (which is what this would amount to), but it's not just about the individual who took out loans. The benefit to the larger economy is what would actually make this happen.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "I don't want my loans forgiven, I just want my interest rates to not exist and to not have a minimum payment be $345. At the end of me paying loans off I will have paid almost double what I took out to begin with.\n\nLike most people are saying here, as 17 year old kids I don't think we realized that with interest that 35k loan would almost double by the time we paid it off. After x amount of years of deferment, forbearances, phone calls, mailing in pay stubs, proof of employment and struggling to pay the \"minimum payment\" of $320 a month having that forgiven would be a burden of so many peoples backs. \n\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "I love how instead of trying to come up with solutions we just go \"well the problem shouldn't have happened and it's not my fault so, uh yeah\"\nas if the problem will somehow go away just because it isn't our fault. \n\n\n\"oh the teens were just irresponsible with taking out loans. Maybe they should have been more responsible. I was responsible. Why weren't they?\". Yeah, OK, we still have a lost generation of underemployeds with thousands of dollars in debt that's just going to get larger and have hurt the economy more if we don't do something about it. People who want student loans forgiven are at least offering a solution.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "The real problem, I think, is the preposterously high interest rates. Right now I have loans that are upwards of 7% - and that is ridiculous. \n\nAlso, having an educated society is good for that society. Education breeds innovation which drives new economies. If we are the only country doing something (like going to space) then we have jobs that CANNOT be outsourced, because no one else can do it. Same thing for when the internet started. So, basically, we want to encourage people to be forward thinkers, and skyrocketing school costs and loan troubles are distinctives, and that's not good for us as a whole.\n\nI say the answer is providing super-low interest rate loans so that recent students can get out from under their debt and contribute to the economy more fully. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Lots of good answers here. You seem to be asking whether student loans are the students' fault. Well, I just want to tell a quick story about incentives. Like a Vonnegut there are no villains in this story, just people.\n\n* **Companies.** Companies want to hire the best workers they can. If you have the choice between someone with a degree and someone without, you don't *know* who will be better. But if you have to pick, you might as well play it safe and pick the one with the degree.\n* **Government.** The government wants to have lots of college grads, because then it has an \"educated workforce\" and is \"competitive\" with other countries. But it's expensive to fund education, and politicians who overspend aren't popular nowadays. So states and feds offer loans even as they cut funding to schools drastically.\n* **Banks.** A college loan historically is a great investment. People generally (used to) graduate, get a job, and pay it back. Banks are (or were) very happy to give out these loans, and they're big loans that get milked out over many years after graduation.\n* **Colleges.** Their #1 priority is to be \"competitive\" and move up the rankings. This means expensive projects, high-profile sports and campus construction and programs; it means adding activities, building student centers, doing anything you can to differentiate yourself. But these things cost. And in a tight economy, state and federal governments aren't funding schools as much as they used to. The result is that you have to keep raising and raising your tuition. And you'll be fine, because there's still lots and lots of kids who need to go to college. So as prices go up, demand doesn't drop. So you have to keep raising those prices.\n* **Parents.** You want to see your kid be successful and get a well-paying, not too strenuous, prestigious white-collar job. That means college, no questions asked. You raise them to go to college as a given.\n* **Kids.** It's simple: do you want a job or not? It doesn't matter how much college costs are increasing or how ridiculous the loans are. There are only so many jobs out there, and for most people, you're still better off with the huge loans and the degree than without either. So what are you going to do? You don't have much of a choice. You'll pay the ridiculous costs and take the loans, cause it's still better than the alternative.\n\nI don't see anyone to particularly \"blame\" in this situation, but I do see the end result: a generation in huge debt and low on jobs. That won't be good for anyone in the next 20ish years. People seem to want to talk about who \"deserves\" what and what's \"fair\". I don't see any villains here, just a bunch of people trying to make the best of a bad situation and an end result where everyone loses, no matter who you blame.\n\nBut the question is, what do we do about this situation?\n\nAnswer: I don't know.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I'm sure this has been touched on, but for me personally I feel like government has pushed to cut funding on education which forces schools to charge more. Then you have the government more than willing to give as much in student loans as possible which in turn leads schools to raise tuition because they know the students will just take out more loans. Then even if you do manage to get out with lower student loans than most you're still not graduating and moving into a stable job market. Also it just blows my mind that someone could work part time and a minimum wage job, and graduate debt free only about 30-40 years ago.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Let's look at this from a macro point of view.\n\nCollege graduates are getting more and more underemployed. Tuition costs are rising. This is a dangerous combination.\n\nDo we want the future kids of our society to start choosing not to go to college? That's bad for the future, that's bad for our economy.\n\nThe fact that we're profiting of off the youth's NEED for education is a terrible thing. No, I don't believe all student loans should be forgiven. However, I do believe that student loan interest should be subsidized by government funding. \n\nIf I borrow $50K to get an education to be a more effective contributor to society, then I should be responsible for paying every cent of it back. However, telling me I need to pay $30K on top of that in interest with a 50% chance that my degree won't land me a job - that's a risk that many kids/families won't be willing to make. We don't want our future kids choosing to be under-educated.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't know if this idea has been put forward by any of the other comments but there is another aspect to this issue that I think may be worth discussing.\n\nWhile many young adults do go to college to get a degree in order to try and secure a job in the future, there are also those who go to college basically for the experience. These are students who undertake studies in communications, anthropology, history or english simply because it's the easiest way for them to BS their way through college.\n\nThese students rack up thousands of dollars to earn a degree in a field that really has nothing to offer them and end up being cycled into lower-income jobs. They may be college educated, but in severe debt for a degree they probably could have done without and for those, I have little sympathy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well when youre 2 years from graduating with a degree and tuition is increasing 20% each year you aren't exactly going to quit. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "forgiving student loans gives an unfair advantage to people who didnt pay for school, people who didn't sacrifice to pay off their own loan. lots of smart kids didn't go to school because they couldnt afford it, making it free after the fact severely fucks those people over. there are a lot more job opportunities for people with degrees, just cause the economy is shit now doesn't mean it always will be, those degrees will be plenty lucrative when the economy bounces back. There are countries where college is free for the qualified the determined and the willing. Italy has a merit based university system i admire, perhaps we should implement that. But to retroactively forgive debt is a big fuckyou to the responsible hardworking people who payed off what they borrowed. It sets a bad precedence and encourages fiscal ridiculousness. Roll back the tuitions to where they were 20 years ago if you want to help students.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "LOL reddit thinks college kids are too immature to handle their finances but thinks the drinking age is absurdly high.\n\nNews flash people: you are an adult and you must deal with the consequences of your actions!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because people always, always, always want something for free.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Thanks a lot for the cliffs OP, appreciated.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Many people are saying that the individuals taking out the loans knew the risks and should therefore be responsible everything they borrowed. This is very true. However, it should be noted that many individuals signed onto something with different expectations. I am a great example of this. I attend a professional/graduate school in Pennsylvania. During my application process we were told numerous times that the PA government provides credits to students that attend professional schools within their home state. $8000/year to be exact. Many state governments offer these to students who attend professional school in their home state. If a state doesn't have that professional school they often give hefty amounts of money for students to travel to other states as long as they come back to their home state and practice for a given period of time. Anyway, that's $32,000 over 4 years, which my degree is. Right after being accepted, we find out that legislation has changed and professional school students will only be receiving $800 dollars for the first year and $0 for every year after that. Meanwhile, students from North Carolina attending the same school are given $12,500/year as long as they go back to NC to practice for I believe 5 years post graduation. \n\nI went into school expecting $32,000 with interest less debt because I attended a school in my home state. Now I pay more than many students coming from out of the state. \n\nI'm fully aware that I'd be paying off loans until I'm in my 50's, but just not the amount it has become. And with tuition rising every year since I have started, the amount of money seems almost insurmountable. I'll take any form of government forgiveness that comes if it means not having to write a check every month for schooling I completed 30+ years ago.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I had to pay all mine back and it substantially limited the other things i could have done with that money for a long time. I think its absurd that people think they can wiggle out of it and make everybody else eat their irresponsibility and inconvenience. Everybody knows what borrowing means. Gotta pay it back. Don't play the dumb weakling who can't do hard things. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "While I'm all for forgiveness, I really believe they should make Student Loans like other debts, so if you do declare bankruptcy because of the job market and your six figure students debt, the loans go away the same way they forgave billions in dept from the housing crisis.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "28275514",
"title": "Higher education bubble in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.:Recommendations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "BULLET::::- The federal government should enact partial or total loan forgiveness for students who have taken out student loans. One advocate for college loan forgiveness has argued that \"Since forgiveness does not require the printing of new dollars (i.e., \"too much money chasing too few goods\"), it is not inflationary.\" Other advocates have argued the same thing from the opposite angle, namely that the \"lack of consumer protections,\" particularly \"removing bankruptcy protections,\" for college loans, has led to inflation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28275514",
"title": "Higher education bubble in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.:Alternatives to bubble theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1872,
"text": "A third theory claims that as a result of federal law that severely restricts the ability of students to discharge their federally guaranteed student loans in bankruptcy, lenders and colleges know that students are on the hook for any amount that they borrow, including late fees and interest (which can be capitalized and increase the principal loan amount), thus removing the incentive to only provide students loans that the students can be reasonably expected to repay. As proof of this theory, it has been shown that returning bankruptcy protections (and other Standard Consumer Protections) to Student Loans would cause lenders to be more cautious, thereby causing a sharp decline in the availability of student loans, which, in turn, would decrease the influx of dollars to colleges and universities, who, in turn, would have to sharply decrease tuition to match the lower availability of funds. Under this theory, if student loans did not have the ability to file for bankruptcy, it would be more profitable for the lender if the student defaulted (due to the increases in the amount of the loan after fees and interest are capitalized), and thus there is no free market pressure-type motive for the lender or the college to help the student avoid default. This is especially true because the government, if it is the lender or guarantor of the loan, has the ability to garnish the borrower's wages, tax return, and Social Security Disability income without a court order. Some have called the Federal Government 'predatory' for making loans which will have such a high default rate, since the default rate for Student Loans is projected to reach 46.3% of all federal dollars disbursed to students at for-profit colleges in 2008 (Budget lifetime default rate, loan default rate only 18.6%, meaning that 18.6% of all loans contain 46.3% of all dollars loaned out).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4585857",
"title": "College tuition in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Causes of tuition increases.:Recommendations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "BULLET::::- Minimize the risk of investment in higher education through loan forgiveness or insurance programs. The federal government should enact partial or total loan forgiveness for students who have taken out student loans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3665312",
"title": "College admissions in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Selection of colleges.:Costs.:Types of financial aid.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "One view is that most colleges award aid using a mix of both. Further, student loans can lessen the immediate difficulty of large tuition bills but can saddle a student with debt after graduation; in contrast, grants and scholarships do not have to be paid back.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10905128",
"title": "Student loans in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "Loans usually must be repaid, in contrast to other forms of financial aid such as scholarships, which never have to be repaid, and grants, which rarely have to be repaid. Research indicates the increased usage of student loans has been a significant factor in college cost increases. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10905128",
"title": "Student loans in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 127,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 127,
"end_character": 961,
"text": "\"It is an outrage that the federal government offers loans to students at low-quality institutions even when we know those schools don’t boost their earnings and that those borrowers won’t be able to repay their loans. It is an outrage that we make parent PLUS loans to the poorest families when we know they almost surely will default and have their wages and social security benefits garnished and their tax refunds confiscated, as $2.8 billion was in 2017. It is an outrage that we saddled several million students with loans to enroll in untested online programs, that seem to have offered no labor market value. It is an outrage that our lending programs encourage schools like USC to charge $107,484 (and students to blithely enroll) for a master’s degree in social work (220 percent more than the equivalent course at UCLA) in a field where the median wage is $47,980. It’s no wonder many borrowers feel their student loans led to economic catastrophe.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5773856",
"title": "Federal Family Education Loan Program",
"section": "Section::::Loan forgiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Because they are private loans, loans granted under the FFEL program are not eligible for the Public Service Loan Forgiveness program. There have been media reports of many FFEL borrowers unaware their loans were ineligible. FFEL borrows can gain access to loan forgiveness by refinancing an existing loan with the Federal Direct Student Loan Program, but payments made before refinancing do not count toward loan forgiveness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1u3rv9 | why does it feel good to sleep in the fetal position decade after being in the womb? | [
{
"answer": "It's a psychological thing; regression. The fetal position inside your mothers womb is a safe, warm time in your life so subconsciously you go back (regress) to that time of safety and so on.\n\nSource: 1 intro class of Psych last semester.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "569846",
"title": "Co-sleeping",
"section": "Section::::Safety and health.:Advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "It has been argued that co-sleeping evolved over five million years, that it alters the infant's sleep experience and the number of maternal inspections of the infant, and that it provides a beginning point for considering possibly unconventional ways of helping reduce the risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31411458",
"title": "Infant sleep training",
"section": "Section::::Good sleep conditions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "Many parents try to understand, once the baby is asleep, how to keep them sleeping through the night. It is thought that it is important to have structure in the way a child is put to sleep so that he or she can establish good sleeping patterns. Dr Sylvia Bell of Johns Hopkins University reported: by the end of the first year individual differences in crying reflect the history of maternal responsiveness rather than constitutional differences in infant irritability. She also notes: consistency and promptness of maternal response is associated with decline in frequency and duration of infant crying. The sleep position is also important to prevent SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "167184",
"title": "Rapid eye movement sleep",
"section": "Section::::Timing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "In the weeks after a human baby is born, as its nervous system matures, neural patterns in sleep begin to show a rhythm of REM and non-REM sleep. (In faster-developing mammals this process occurs in utero.) Infants spend more time in REM sleep than adults. The proportion of REM sleep then decreases significantly in childhood. Older people tend to sleep less overall but sleep in REM for about the same absolute time, and therefore spend a greater proportion of sleep in REM.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "569846",
"title": "Co-sleeping",
"section": "Section::::Safety and health.:Advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "Besides physical developmental advantages, co-sleeping may also promote long-term emotional health. In long-term follow-up studies of infants who slept with their parents and those who slept alone, the children who co-slept were happier, less anxious, had higher self-esteem, were less likely to be afraid of sleep, had fewer behavioral problems, tended to be more comfortable with intimacy, and were generally more independent as adults.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11768884",
"title": "Safe to Sleep",
"section": "Section::::History.:Campaign.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 928,
"text": "This advice was based on the epidemiology of SIDS and physiological evidence which shows that infants who sleep on their back have lower arousal thresholds and less slow-wave sleep (SWS) compared to infants who sleep on their stomachs. In human infants sleep develops rapidly during early development. This development includes an increase in non-rapid eye movement sleep (NREM sleep) which is also called quiet sleep (QS) during the first 12 months of life in association with a decrease in rapid eye movement sleep (REM sleep) which is also known as active sleep (AS). In addition, slow wave sleep (SWS) which consists of stage 3 and stage 4 NREM sleep appears at 2 months of age and it is theorized that some infants have a brain-stem defect which increases their risk of being unable to arouse from SWS (also called deep sleep) and therefore have an increased risk of SIDS due to their decreased ability to arouse from SWS.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53063942",
"title": "Bedside sleeper",
"section": "Section::::Scientific benefits of co-sleeping.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "BULLET::::- Promotes peaceful sleep: Infants who co-sleep were found to rarely cry during the night compared to infants who slept in a separate room, who startled throughout the night and spent four times more minutes crying than co-sleeping infants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31411458",
"title": "Infant sleep training",
"section": "Section::::Other influences on infant sleep.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "Lastly, temperament also seems to yield correlations with sleep patterns. Researchers believe that infants classified as “difficult,” as well as those who are very sensitive to changes in the environment, tend to have a harder time sleeping through the night. Parents whose infants sleep through the night generally rate their infant’s temperaments more favorably than parents whose infant continue to wake; however, it is hard to determine if a given temperament causes sleep problems or if sleep problems promote specific temperaments or behaviors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2kj389 | [Physics] Why can I hit a tennis ball pretty far with minimal effort, but I have to work a lot harder to throw it the same? | [
{
"answer": "2 things going on here. \n\n1. Leverage. The longer the moment arm you use (tennis bat) the more force you can exert on the ball. Ball goes further.\n\n2. Tension. Tension of the strings in the bat make for a small ammount of elasticity which work for you, in terms of transfering forces to the ball more directly. Ball goes further.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "29773",
"title": "Tennis",
"section": "Section::::Shots.:Other shots.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "A difficult shot in tennis is the return of an attempted lob over the backhand side of a player. When the contact point is higher than the reach of a two-handed backhand, most players will try to execute a high slice (under the ball or sideways). Fewer players attempt the backhand sky-hook or smash. Rarely, a player will go for a high topspin backhand, while themselves in the air. A successful execution of any of these alternatives requires balance and timing, with less margin of error than the lower contact point backhands, since this shot is a break in the regular pattern of play.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7532330",
"title": "Volleyball variations",
"section": "Section::::Shooting volleyball.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "Some players also smash the ball with high vertical leaps like Olympic volleyball but there is no setter in team. In this game, the players hit the ball with both hands by punching it with both hands. They try to hit as fast as they can in order to force a mistake from opponent players and try to get rebound as a set ball for any player to smash it with jump, using one hand and if the player standing under the net misses the ball than defender tries to take the ball using the under hand and give maximum height to it. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30589",
"title": "Table tennis",
"section": "Section::::Types of strokes.:Offensive strokes.:Smash.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "A player will typically execute a smash when the opponent has returned a ball that bounces too high or too close to the net. It is nearly always done with a forehand stroke. \"Smashing\" use rapid acceleration to impart as much speed on the ball as possible so that the opponent cannot react in time. The racket is generally perpendicular to the direction of the stroke. Because the speed is the main aim of this shot, the spin on the ball is often minimal, although it can be applied as well. An offensive table tennis player will think of a rally as a build-up to a winning smash. Smash is used more often with penhold grip. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1485978",
"title": "Chinese handball",
"section": "Section::::Game play.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "The purpose of the game is to hit the ball (either a racquetball, or a spaldeen, kick pinkie, tennis ball or soft golf ball) in such a way that the opponent cannot return the shot before its second bounce after hitting the wall. In its simplest form two players can play for points. More players can play an elimination game or Ace-King-Queen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29773",
"title": "Tennis",
"section": "Section::::Shots.:Other shots.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "If an opponent is deep in his court, a player may suddenly employ an unexpected \"drop shot\", by softly tapping the ball just over the net so that the opponent is unable to run in fast enough to retrieve it. Advanced players will often apply back spin to a drop shot, causing the ball to \"skid\" upon landing and bounce sideways, with less forward momentum toward their opponent, or even backwards towards the net, thus making it even more difficult to return.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53600313",
"title": "I-formation (tennis)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "Another key to success with this tactic is understanding the ins and outs of returning a serve, and what is involved when choosing to hit down the line as opposed to a crosscourt return. For example, it is harder to change the direction of the ball when it is travelling quickly. Also, there is a higher margin of error when hitting the ball crosscourt, because the distance between the net and the baseline is longer and the net is lower in the centre where the ball path crosses the net.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1794605",
"title": "Pallone",
"section": "Section::::Forms.:Pallone col bracciale.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 789,
"text": "Balls are struck back and forth with a wooden cylinder, called a \"bracciale\", worn over the forearm: if carelessly played, a broken arm can result because a bracciale weighs 1 to 2 kilograms. Originally the ball was inflated, but now a hard rubber ball is used: this ball has circumference of 39 centimetres and weighs 350 grams (originally 750 grams). Scoring is by fifteens and tens, as in tennis, in this manner: 15 – 30 – 40 – 50 or victory of a game but early was 15 – 30 – 45 – 60; the team which wins 12 games is final winner of the match. A notable feature is that the ball is put into play by a designated server, called the \"mandarino\", who otherwise is not part of the game. The receivers can reject serves at will. Pallone is often played on courts marked out on town streets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
6fvmcj | feeling weak while having a cold. what causes that? | [
{
"answer": "Your body is spending so much energy on fighting the cold that it doesn't spare energy for much else. A proper immune response requires a bit of energy, and fighting infection becomes job 1 (aside from breathing, heart function, etc.). Your immune system is activating chemical and cellular systems that are normally dormant.\n\nAdditionally, a raised temperature means that some regular enzymes may not work as well. Enzymes are picky about temperature. Changing from your body's normal temperature (usually 36.5–37.5 °C or 97.7–99.5 °F) can cause some enzymes to become less active, erratic, or even dysfunctional-- leading to a general feeling of lethargy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "146879",
"title": "Hypothermia",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Paradoxical undressing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "One explanation for the effect is a cold-induced malfunction of the hypothalamus, the part of the brain that regulates body temperature. Another explanation is that the muscles contracting peripheral blood vessels become exhausted (known as a loss of vasomotor tone) and relax, leading to a sudden surge of blood (and heat) to the extremities, causing the person to feel overheated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21754540",
"title": "Herpes labialis",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "The colloquial term for this condition, \"cold sore\" comes from the fact that herpes labialis is often triggered by fever, for example, as may occur during an upper respiratory tract infection (i.e. a cold).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1189582",
"title": "Shivering",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 754,
"text": "Shivering (also called shaking) is a bodily function in response to cold in warm-blooded animals. When the core body temperature drops, the shivering reflex is triggered to maintain homeostasis. Skeletal muscles begin to shake in small movements, creating warmth by expending energy. Shivering can also be a response to a fever, as a person may feel cold. During fever the hypothalamic set point for temperature is raised. The increased set point causes the body temperature to rise (pyrexia), but also makes the patient feel cold until the new set point is reached. Severe chills with violent shivering are called rigors. Rigors occur because the patient's body is shivering in a physiological attempt to increase body temperature to the new set point.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36168126",
"title": "Iranian traditional medicine",
"section": "Section::::Humors.:Phlegm.:Excessive phlegm symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 343,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 343,
"end_character": 728,
"text": "BULLET::::- Feeling heavy specially the eyelids and the head, getting puffy and swollen, feeling cold (in contrast with people with sanguine temperament), breaking into cold sweat, getting sweaty palms, getting pale, not feeling thirsty or feeling false thirst, increased mucus production (getting runny nose or watery eyes), stringy or thick saliva, weakness, weakened muscle, sagging of skin, sleepiness, having trouble waking up especially in dam places or northern cities with high humidity and during cold seasons, memory loss, dizziness, difficulty learning or remembering something, having difficulty digesting food, bloating, frequent urination, sour burp, and diarrhea are the symptoms of excessive phlegm in the body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25735155",
"title": "Knee pain",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Cold temperature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "Knee pain is more common among people working in the cold than in those in normal temperature. Cold-induced knee pain may also be due to tenosynovitis of the tendons around the knee, in which cold exposure has a specific role, either as a causative or a contributing factor. Frank arthritis has been reported in children due to frostbite from extreme cold causing direct chondrocyte injury.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "92693",
"title": "Common cold",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "The typical symptoms of a cold include cough, runny nose, sneezing, nasal congestion, and a sore throat, sometimes accompanied by muscle ache, fatigue, headache, and loss of appetite. A sore throat is present in about 40% of cases and a cough in about 50%, while muscle ache occurs in about half. In adults, a fever is generally not present but it is common in infants and young children. The cough is usually mild compared to that accompanying influenza. While a cough and a fever indicate a higher likelihood of influenza in adults, a great deal of similarity exists between these two conditions. A number of the viruses that cause the common cold may also result in asymptomatic infections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25735155",
"title": "Knee pain",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Cold temperature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "There is also a hereditary disease, familial cold autoinflammatory syndrome (FCAS), which often features knee pain, in addition to hives, fever and pain in other joints, following general exposure to cold.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
628jaa | what causes photos of screens to look so bad? | [
{
"answer": "It's called the moire effect.\n\nCameras have pixels, and those pixels are arranged in symmetric rectangular grids. Displays have pixels, also arranged in symmetric grids. When those grids perfectly align, the image is fine. However, if the grid is off a little then camera pixel A sees display pixel A and a little bit of pixel B. Then camera pixel B sees display pixel B and a little more of pixel C. This small disturbance produces waves of uneven intensity in the image. Since the automatic gain control in the camera looks at the whole image, it can't eliminate the intensity waves. The result is dark bands across the camera image.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Photos of screens look bad because computer screens use pixels to display images. This makes them essentially an array of colored dots in a regular pattern, a grid. Digital cameras also have sensors in a grid. When you take a picture of the screen with a digital camera, it produces a [moiré pattern](_URL_0_) where the grids perfectly line up in some areas and not at all in other areas. Distance and angle of the photo affects this so that's why the pattern changes when you zoom in and out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "1165590",
"title": "Viewing angle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 788,
"text": "The image may seem garbled, poorly saturated, of poor contrast, blurry or too faint outside the stated viewing angle range, the exact mode of \"failure\" depends on the display type in question. For example, some projection screens reflect more light perpendicular to the screen and less light to the sides, making the screen appear much darker (and sometimes colors distorted) if the viewer is not in front of the screen. Many manufacturers of projection screens thus define the viewing angle as the angle at which the luminance of the image is exactly half of the maximum. With LCD screens, some manufacturers have opted to measure the contrast ratio, and report the viewing angle as the angle where the contrast ratio exceeds 5:1 or 10:1, giving minimally acceptable viewing conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3023216",
"title": "Glossy display",
"section": "Section::::Disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "Because of the reflective nature of the display, in most lighting conditions that include direct light sources facing the screen, glossy displays create reflections, which can be distracting to the user of the computer. This can be especially distracting to users working in an environment where the position of lights and windows is fixed, such as in an office, as these create unavoidable reflections on glossy displays.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2238936",
"title": "Projection screen",
"section": "Section::::Image brightness and contrast.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "Highly reflective flat screens tend to suffer from hot spots, when part of the screen seems much more bright than the rest. This is a result of the high directionality (mirror-likeness) of such screens. Screens with high gain also have a narrower usable viewing angle, as the amount of reflected light rapidly decreases as the viewer moves away from front of such screen. Because of the said effect, these screens are also less vulnerable to ambient light coming from the sides of the screen, as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42259842",
"title": "IPhone 6",
"section": "Section::::Hardware issues.:iPhone 6 Plus camera issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "It was reported that the optical image stabilization systems on some iPhone 6 Plus models were faulty, failing to properly stabilize when the phone is being held perfectly still, leading to blurry photos and \"wavy\"-looking videos. The optical image stabilization system was also found to have been affected by accessories that use magnets, such as third-party lens attachments; Apple issued advisories to users and its licensed accessory makers, warning that magnetic or metallic accessories can cause the OIS to malfunction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2160219",
"title": "Native resolution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "Some widescreen LCD monitors optionally display lower resolutions without scaling or stretching an image, so that the image will always be in full sharpness, although it will not occupy the full screen. This is most often recognizable upon close inspection, as there will typically be black edges visible on either side of the panel horizon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29575318",
"title": "Computer-induced medical problems",
"section": "Section::::Common computer-induced medical problems.:Computer Vision Syndrome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "Video screens have a design process for user interface. Video screens can cause eyestrain from prolonged viewing. Cathode ray tubes are what are used to display the information on your computer. These send off radiation. This is a concern that has been taken into account when designing better computer screens for user interface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2648712",
"title": "Eye strain",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "A page or photograph with the same image twice slightly displaced (from a printing mishap, or a camera moving during the shot) can cause eye strain by the brain misinterpreting the image fault as diplopia and trying in vain to adjust the sideways movements of the two eyeballs to fuse the two images into one. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
4686ex | how does the conservation of mass and energy, and the expansion of the universe correlate/allow for the other? | [
{
"answer": "You can have nothing. That's what a vacuum is, the absence of something. While space is not a perfect vacuum, it's pretty close. So as space expands, you get a bigger vacuum.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23885859",
"title": "Vacuum genesis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 1134,
"text": "The critical density of the universe is dependent upon the rate at which the universe is still expanding. The universe is expanding at an accelerated rate, but was originally thought to be slowing down. Furthermore, the rate at which this is changing gives the overall mass density of the universe which is denoted by the Greek letter omega. If omega is less than one, the mass density would be insufficient to stop the universe's expansion and it would go on expanding forever. If omega is more than one, the universe will eventually stop expanding and will thus collapse in on itself to again form another fireball not unlike the one from which it came. If omega is exactly 1, the universe's expansion will continuously slow, but never quite halt. Tryon's theory requires that omega be equal to or less than one. Through calculations it has been found that omega is 1 as far as instruments are able to determine. However, the universe could be so vast that its curvature is undetectable. The universe's rate of expansion is accelerating and is projected to continue accelerating due to dark energy, thus omega must be lower than 1.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "343031",
"title": "Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric",
"section": "Section::::Solutions.:Interpretation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "The second equation states that both the energy density and the pressure cause the expansion rate of the universe formula_33 to decrease, i.e., both cause a deceleration in the expansion of the universe. This is a consequence of gravitation, with pressure playing a similar role to that of energy (or mass) density, according to the principles of general relativity. The cosmological constant, on the other hand, causes an acceleration in the expansion of the universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5378",
"title": "Physical cosmology",
"section": "Section::::Energy of the cosmos.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "There is no clear way to define the total energy in the universe using the most widely accepted theory of gravity, general relativity. Therefore, it remains controversial whether the total energy is conserved in an expanding universe. For instance, each photon that travels through intergalactic space loses energy due to the redshift effect. This energy is not obviously transferred to any other system, so seems to be permanently lost. On the other hand, some cosmologists insist that energy is conserved in some sense; this follows the law of conservation of energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5378",
"title": "Physical cosmology",
"section": "Section::::Energy of the cosmos.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1035,
"text": "As the universe expands, both matter and radiation in it become diluted. However, the energy densities of radiation and matter dilute at different rates. As a particular volume expands, mass energy density is changed only by the increase in volume, but the energy density of radiation is changed both by the increase in volume and by the increase in the wavelength of the photons that make it up. Thus the energy of radiation becomes a smaller part of the universe's total energy than that of matter as it expands. The very early universe is said to have been 'radiation dominated' and radiation controlled the deceleration of expansion. Later, as the average energy per photon becomes roughly 10 eV and lower, matter dictates the rate of deceleration and the universe is said to be 'matter dominated'. The intermediate case is not treated well analytically. As the expansion of the universe continues, matter dilutes even further and the cosmological constant becomes dominant, leading to an acceleration in the universe's expansion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1147994",
"title": "Friedmann equations",
"section": "Section::::Density parameter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "A much greater density comes from the unidentified dark matter; both ordinary and dark matter contribute in favour of contraction of the universe. However, the largest part comes from so-called dark energy, which accounts for the cosmological constant term. Although the total density is equal to the critical density (exactly, up to measurement error), the dark energy does not lead to contraction of the universe but rather may accelerate its expansion. Therefore, the universe will likely expand forever.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "145040",
"title": "Conservation of mass",
"section": "Section::::Generalization.:General relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "In general relativity, the total invariant mass of photons in an expanding volume of space will decrease, due to the red shift of such an expansions. The conservation of both mass and energy therefore depends on various corrections made to energy in the theory, due to the changing gravitational potential energy of such systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "145040",
"title": "Conservation of mass",
"section": "Section::::Generalization.:Special relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "In special relativity, the conservation of mass does not apply if the system is open and energy escapes. However, it does continue to apply to totally closed (isolated) systems. If energy cannot escape a system, its mass cannot decrease. In relativity theory, so long as any type of energy is retained within a system, this energy exhibits mass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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]
| null |
1t4hsz | Are there any examples of a unit or part of an army effectively going rogue and that started doing their own thing? | [
{
"answer": "There are many, many examples of this in Roman civilisation alone. Not to put too fine a point on it, but are you aware of Julius Caesar and [crossing the Rubicon](_URL_0_)?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "594297",
"title": "Rogue Trooper",
"section": "Section::::Plot synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 752,
"text": "In a multi-part story titled \"The Marauders\", Rogue encounters a group of deserters from both Nort and Southern sides, who operate as scavengers from a hidden base and attack both Nort and Southers in order to obtain food, ammunition and supplies. Unknown to Rogue, the commander of The Marauders is the Traitor General he is seeking, but has been burned by a malfunctioning escape pod from the satellite he was stationed on and is unrecognisable. The General later reveals himself to Rogue, then captures and tortures him. Rogue eventually escapes, and with the help of one of the Marauders – a Souther pilot known as 'Player' – defeats the Marauders that pursue him. The Traitor General, however, escapes, destroying the Marauder base as he does so.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "30109815",
"title": "Rogues' Regiment",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 204,
"text": "Rogues' Regiment is a 1948 film noir action film directed by Robert Florey starring Dick Powell, Märta Torén and Vincent Price. It is the first American feature film to be set in the First Indochina War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5697364",
"title": "X-wing Rogue Squadron: Family Ties",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "Rogue Squadron mourns their lost comrades from the Battle of Brentaal, while on a mission of mercy on Corellia. The newly defected Baron Fel's family has been taken hostage, and its up to Rogue Squadron to get them out safely. Along the way the Rogues encounter future allies and enemies in the form of 2 maverick CorSec officers, and an incompetent Imperial Liaison Officer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11284",
"title": "Freikorps",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "Because, with some exceptions, they were seen as undisciplined and less battleworthy, they were used for less onerous guard and garrison duties. In the so-called \"petty wars\", the \"Freikorps\" interdicted enemy supply lines with guerrilla warfare. In the case of capture, their members were at risk of being executed as irregular fighters. In Prussia the \"Freikorps\", which Frederick the Great had despised as \"vermin\", were disbanded. Their soldiers were given no entitlement to pensions or invalidity payments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1299849",
"title": "Irregular military",
"section": "Section::::Effectiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "However, irregulars can excel at many other combat duties besides main-line combat, such as scouting, skirmishing, harassing, pursuing, rear-guard actions, cutting supply, sabotage, raids, ambushes and underground resistance. Experienced irregulars often surpass the regular army in these functions. By avoiding formal battles, irregulars have sometimes harassed high quality armies to destruction. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4347856",
"title": "Hustle (professional wrestling)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "In July 2009, the leader of the Monster Army, Generalissimo Takada was \"killed\" when a new enemy by the name of \"King RIKI\" (played by actor/singer Riki Takeuchi) showed up at the \"HUSTLE AID 2009\" event and repelled one of Takada's lasers, sending it back towards him and wounding him. The following show the Monster Army was disbanded, as the direction of the company started to change.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27710092",
"title": "Knights of Badassdom",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1271,
"text": "The LARP battle of \"Nevermore\" is accidentally started early, and the LARPers begin fighting. Amidst the combat, the LARPers are ambushed by the paintballers from much earlier, who proceed to shoot them, scaring some of them away, while others take a stand against them. To make matters worse, the succubus monster suddenly appears and slaughters many of the LARPers, including Ronnie, and the aforementioned paintballers, with Johnny, one of the assistant game masters being the only survivor, due to Gunther's timely arrival. Joe, Eric, and Gwen arrive to confront the beast, and they manage to pin it in place with the paintballers' truck. Joe, brandishing a mystical gem taken from the spine of the grimoire, sings a spell in a metal style, causing a spectral version of Hung to appear and defeat the monster. Six months later, Joe and Gwen are shown to have started a doom metal band, vowing to never LARP again, and that Joe has \"gotten over\" his breakup with Beth. In light of the monster's rampage, Gunther's belief that he is an actual warrior is reinforced. Ronnie was posthumously recognized as \"game master extraordinaire\", Eric is learning Enochian, having become a \"27 level sorcerer\", and Hung's fight against the monster is now immortalized as legendary.\n",
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| null |
28s8q6 | Rangers in history | [
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"answer": "Well, the archetypal form of those sorts of characters certainly existed. Tolkein, as a professor of English, was very aware of his influences and what he was drawing on. The later horde of fantasy authors ripping him off? Probably less so. \n\nOne of the earliest expressions of what this sort of archetype was the Yeoman introduced in the prologue of Chaucer's *Canterbury Tales*. He is the only attendant accompanying the Knight and Squire on pilgrimage, presumably as their bodyguard since he is well-armed and they are not mentioned to be bearing weapons. Just as the Knight and Squire are idealized representations of their \"types\" ( the Knight is a bold crusader and paragon of chivalry, the Squire is a fresh-faced youth jousting for the hand of a lady), the Yeoman is an idealized image of what yeomen could be. He's very well-armed, carrying his longbow, a sword, a dagger, and a buckler. He has \"a cropped head had he and a sun-browned face,\" from working outdoors and in the forests. The Yeoman's job, in peacetime, was to administer the forests on his lord's lands. This included apprehending poachers, stopping illegal logging or grazing, and watching over the deer population. Chaucer himself was once appointed as a forester, although his position was more administrative than the Yeoman's. It's never mentioned explicitly, but it's very possible that the Yeoman accompanied the Knight on crusade or in some other war. Standard English armies of the day were made up of large archer formations protected by men-at-arms. If the Yeoman did go to war with the Knight, it's possible that he would be a captain or other officer of the archers in the Knight's retinue. From his weapons and other equipment he's carrying (peacock-fletched arrows, a \"gay bracer,\" and a silver medal of St. Christopher), it's clear that the Yeoman is economically well-off and thus the sort of person who might raise a company of archers for service in war. The Yeoman is not mentioned to be mounted, but he could certainly afford a horse if he wanted one. Mounted archers were employed by the English for rapid movement on campaign, raiding, and scouting, although for pitched battles, they would dismount and fight on foot. \n\nSo how does that connect to the ranger archetype of modern fantasy fiction? Well, the \"ranger\" concept is essentially a blending of the roles of a yeoman archer. The peacetime duties of a forester and the wartime duties of an archer are blended into one role. Faramir's rangers^1 are actually a semi-accurate depiction of how yeoman archers fought. In the fight where they are introduced, they seem to have a force of archers deployed behind a screen of infantry. Their strategic purpose, disrupting enemy movement through Ithilien, is somewhat similar to the chevauchées of the Hundred Years War. A real chevauchée would often be focused on looting undefended villages rather than getting into larger fights, but sometimes the English launched large-scale raids for the purpose of forcing the French to come out and face them in pitched battles, which is a little closer to what Faramir seems to be doing. Lacking access to Gondorian accounts of their campaigns in Ithilien, it's hard to say how exactly Faramir was going about it. The only observers are Frodo and Sam, neither of whom had a keen eye for military details. The rangers of the *Ranger's Apprentice* series are a little more fantastical, since they seem to most closely resemble a 14th century CIA than any medieval archers. Fun for telling a YA fantasy story, but not really anything historical.\n\nTo sum up, the ranger archetype in fantasy fiction is an amalgamation of several different roles a yeoman might perform. Men with experience in foresting were considered to be the best source of archer recruits for a campaign, but they wouldn't be sneaking around on the battlefield wearing some kind of medieval camouflage. In a pitched battle, they'd be fighting in formation with the rest of their company. On campaign, they might be called on for raiding and scouting duties, but that wasn't a role exclusive to men with forestry experience. So the ranger archetype has roots in literary traditions and memories of medieval English archers, but isn't really reflective of their historical reality. \n\nEDIT (footnote)\n 1: That is, Faramir's rangers as they are depicted in the book *The Two Towers*. They're pretty much all Robin Hood in the movie. ",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "25885927",
"title": "Colonial American military history",
"section": "Section::::Rangers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Under Church served the father and grandfather of two famous rangers of the eighteenth century: John Lovewell and John Gorham, respectively. Rogers' Rangers was established in 1751 by Major Robert Rogers, who organized nine Ranger companies in the American colonies. These early American light infantry units organized during the French and Indian War were called \"Rangers\" and are often considered to be the spiritual birthplace of the modern Army Rangers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "418106",
"title": "United States Army Rangers",
"section": "Section::::History.:Colonial period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
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"end_paragraph_id": 14,
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"text": "Rogers' Rangers was established in 1751 by Major Robert Rogers, who organized nine Ranger companies in the American colonies. These early American light infantry units, organized during the French and Indian War, bore the name \"Rangers\" and were the forerunners of the modern Army Rangers. Major Rogers drafted the first currently-known set of standard orders for rangers. These rules, Robert Rogers' 28 \"Rules of Ranging\", are still provided to all new Army Rangers upon graduation from training, and served as one of the first modern manuals for asymmetric warfare.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "385000",
"title": "Texas Ranger Division",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The Rangers have taken part in many of the most important events of Texas history, such as stopping the assassination of presidents William Howard Taft and Porfirio Díaz in El Paso, Texas, and in some of the best-known criminal cases in the history of the Old West, such as those of gunfighter John Wesley Hardin, bank robber Sam Bass, and outlaws Bonnie and Clyde. Scores of books have been written about the Rangers, from well-researched works of nonfiction to pulp novels and other such fiction, making the Rangers significant participants in the mythology of the Wild West. The Lone Ranger, perhaps the best-known example of a Texas Ranger–derived fictional character, draws his alias from having once been a Texas Ranger. Other well-known examples include the several Texas Ranger roles portrayed by Chuck Norris.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "15862615",
"title": "Rangers (band)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 336,
"text": "The Rangers or Plavci is a Czech pop folk and country music band formed in 1964 by Milan Dufek and Antonín Hájek. Its classic ensemble consisted of Milan Dufek (1944–2005; tenor), Antonín Hájek (1944–1989; baritone), Miroslav Řihošek, Jan Vančura (countertenor), Jiří Veisser, and Radek Tomášek. The band sold over one million records.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "37819135",
"title": "Gorham's Rangers",
"section": "Section::::Unit Composition.:1744-1749.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
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"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1718,
"text": "Initially the rangers were a sixty-man all-Indian unit led by British colonial officers and non-commissioned officers. The unit was captained by the politically well-connected and ambitious John Gorham III (1709-1751), who, prior to leading the rangers, had been a whaling captain and merchant from Yarmouth, Massachusetts, a small coastal town on Cape Cod. While his family had historically played an important role in colonial New England's military affairs, besides basic militia training in conventional warfare, Gorham had no prior ranger training or experience at frontier warfare. Nor did the company's junior officers, most of whom were his relatives. In the early days of the company's first deployment the officers learned their trade from the many veteran Native American soldiers who made up the company's rank and file. Most of the forty-eight privates were Wampanoag and Nauset Indians from Cape Cod. Some had served in Indian ranger companies twenty years earlier during Governor Dummer's War (1722-1726), a regional conflict the colonies of Massachusetts and New Hampshire fought against the Abenaki and other members of the Wabanaki Confederacy in Maine. Most of these Indian soldiers were also indentured servants who crewed whaleboats in the region's shore whaling industry or had been crew members on early Yankee whaleships. A small contingent of six Pequawket Indians from the Saco River region of Maine also joined the company, several of whom were likewise veteran warriors. These included a man British colonists called \"Captain Sam\" (probably the Pequawket sachem mentioned in French records as Jérôme Atecuando). Captain Sam served as the company's primary guide, translator and negotiator.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "34311135",
"title": "Rangers of Fortune",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 290,
"text": "Rangers of Fortune is a 1940 American Western directed by Sam Wood. The plot revolves around three heroes, played by Fred MacMurray, Albert Dekker, and Gilbert Roland, as they battle a ruthless land baron who is intent on driving out small ranchers and settlers. Patricia Morison co-stars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4216439",
"title": "Rangers of Ithilien",
"section": "Section::::Internal history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
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"text": "The Rangers were first formed at the end of the twenty-ninth century of the Third Age by a decree of the Ruling Steward of Gondor, for Ithilien was frequently subjected to enemies from Mordor and Minas Morgul. One of their chief bases was Henneth Annûn, the Window of the Sunset. \n",
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| null |
ayrbkw | When an animal is born with two fully functioning heads, how do their brains deliberate and balance control over the body? | [
{
"answer": "Tried a quick google for some research but couldn’t find any. I assume it’s different from person to person. It would all depend on how their brains were connected to each other and the rest of the body I would assume",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "3717",
"title": "Brain",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "The function of the brain is to provide coherent control over the actions of an animal. A centralized brain allows groups of muscles to be co-activated in complex patterns; it also allows stimuli impinging on one part of the body to evoke responses in other parts, and it can prevent different parts of the body from acting at cross-purposes to each other.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1209545",
"title": "Head",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "Heads develop in animals by an evolutionary trend known as cephalization. In bilaterally symmetrical animals, nervous tissues concentrate at the anterior region, forming structures responsible for information processing. Through biological evolution, sense organs and feeding structures also concentrate into the anterior region; these collectively form the head.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "2898964",
"title": "Head direction cells",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "Head direction (HD) cells are neurons found in a number of brain regions that increase their firing rates above baseline levels only when the animal's head points in a specific direction. They have been reported in rats, monkeys, mice, chinchillas and bats, but are thought to be common to all mammals, perhaps all vertebrates and perhaps even some invertebrates, and to underlie the \"sense of direction\". When the animal's head is facing in the cell's \"preferred firing direction\" these neurons fire at a steady rate (i.e., they do not show adaptation), but firing decreases back to baseline rates as the animal's head turns away from the preferred direction (usually about 45° away from this direction).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "487910",
"title": "Vestibulo–ocular reflex",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "In other animals, the organs that coordinate balance and motor coordination do not operate independently from the organs that control the eyes. A fish, for instance, moves its eyes by reflex when its tail is moved. Humans have semicircular canals, neck muscle \"stretch\" receptors, and the utricle (gravity organ). Though the semicircular canals cause most of the reflexes which are responsive to acceleration, the maintaining of balance is mediated by the stretch of neck muscles and the pull of gravity on the utricle (otolith organ) of the inner ear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "550504",
"title": "Vestibular system",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 358,
"text": "The brain uses information from the vestibular system in the head and from proprioception throughout the body to enable the animal to understand its body's dynamics and kinematics (including its position and acceleration) from moment to moment. How these two perceptive sources are integrated to provide the underlying structure of the sensorium is unknown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "19827803",
"title": "Nematode",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy.:Nervous system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "At the anterior end of the animal, the nerves branch from a dense, circular nerve (nerve ring) round surrounding the pharynx, and serving as the brain. Smaller nerves run forward from the ring to supply the sensory organs of the head.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "358885",
"title": "Altriciality",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "The two strategies result in different brain sizes of the newborns compared to adults. Precocial animals' brains are large at birth relative to their body size, hence their ability to fend for themselves. However, as adults, their brains are not much bigger or more able. Altricial animals' brains are relatively small at birth, thus their need for care and protection, but their brains continue to grow. As adults, altricial animals end up with comparatively larger brains than their precocial counterparts. Thus the altricial species have a wider skill set at maturity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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}
]
}
]
| null |
dyyww0 | cocaine | [
{
"answer": "Cocaine basically causes loads of a chemical called dopamine to be produced and this chemical is normal produced in small amounts that then produces a signal that is turned into an action the amount of dopamine affects how big the signal is. This over production of dopamine means BIG signals are constantly being made and the nervous system goes into over drive and you feel high.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Fun fact: Cocaine is actually a local anesthetic medically. It is used a lot in facial surgeries to stop or help slow bleeding down in the nose and throat. Pretty effective stuff considering it provides numbness and pretty strong vasoconstriction (blood vessels tighten down reducing flow). The problem is that it ramps everything up and is like snorting adrenaline. It isn't quite that powerful, but same idea mostly. This is a stress response in your body and isn't good to expose yourself to that kind of workload regularly. It also stimulates the part of your brain that is activated when you make money.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "66391",
"title": "Stimulant",
"section": "Section::::Notable stimulants.:Cocaine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 792,
"text": "Cocaine is an SNDRI. Cocaine is made from the leaves of the coca shrub, which grows in the mountain regions of South American countries such as Bolivia, Colombia, and Peru. In Europe, North America, and some parts of Asia, the most common form of cocaine is a white crystalline powder. Cocaine is a stimulant but is not normally prescribed therapeutically for its stimulant properties, although it sees clinical use as a local anesthetic, in particular in ophthalmology. Most cocaine use is recreational and its abuse potential is high (higher than amphetamine), and so its sale and possession are strictly controlled in most jurisdictions. Other tropane derivative drugs related to cocaine are also known such as troparil and lometopane but have not been widely sold or used recreationally.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10534087",
"title": "Serotonin–norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "Cocaine is a naturally occurring SNDRI with a fast onset and short duration (about two hours) that is widely encountered as a drug of abuse. Although their primary mechanisms of action are as NMDA receptor antagonists, ketamine and phencyclidine are also SNDRIs and are similarly encountered as drugs of abuse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19681345",
"title": "Crack cocaine",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Legal status.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "In the United States, cocaine is a Schedule II drug under the Controlled Substances Act, indicating that it has a high abuse potential but also carries a medicinal purpose. Under the Controlled Substances Act, crack and cocaine are considered the same drug.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34688249",
"title": "Drug Trafficking Safe Harbor Elimination Act",
"section": "Section::::Legislation background and cases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime reports that cocaine is typically transported to the United States by water vessels from Colombia to Mexico or Central America. At this time, cocaine from Colombia remains the primary source for Europe and other countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27286021",
"title": "Crime in Kosovo",
"section": "Section::::Drug Crime.:Cocaine seizures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "Cocaine seems to arrive in Kosovo through postal deliveries or couriers from Serbia and/or South American countries, which are traditionally known for their cocaine production. It is first sent to Italy or Greece and usually in small quantities. The price for 1 gram of cocaine varied from EUR 45 to EUR 65 in 2007 and from EUR 50 to EUR 70 in 2008. The table below shows seizures of Cocaine from 2007-2010.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7701",
"title": "Cocaine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "Cocaine, also known as coke, is a strong stimulant mostly used as a recreational drug. It is commonly snorted, inhaled as smoke, or dissolved and injected into a vein. Mental effects may include loss of contact with reality, an intense feeling of happiness, or agitation. Physical symptoms may include a fast heart rate, sweating, and large pupils. High doses can result in very high blood pressure or body temperature. Effects begin within seconds to minutes of use and last between five and ninety minutes. Cocaine has a small number of accepted medical uses such as numbing and decreasing bleeding during nasal surgery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35822485",
"title": "Epigenetics of cocaine addiction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "Cocaine addiction is the compulsive use of cocaine despite adverse consequences. It arises through epigenetic modification (e.g., through HDAC, sirtuin, and G9a) and transcriptional regulation (primarily through ΔFosB's AP-1 complex) of genes in the nucleus accumbens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2nsj3u | why is it that mac operating systems rarely need to be updated yet windows seemingly needs to be updated every few days? | [
{
"answer": "OS X does need to be updated~~graded~~ fairly often. The thing is, Apple makes it a fairly seamless process. Rarely does an update require a restart, for instance, while Windows updates tend to be very intrusive. If you select autoupdate for both systems, you rarely notice an OS X update, while Windows will kick you in the face and force you to submission every time it wants to apply an update.\n\nThat, and the fact that, for many different reasons, OS X tends to be a more stable environment than Windows.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "296881",
"title": "Windows Update",
"section": "Section::::Clients.:Windows Update Agent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "Windows 10 contains major changes to Windows Update Agent operations; it no longer allows the manual, selective installation of updates. All updates, regardless of type (this includes hardware drivers), are downloaded and installed automatically, and users are only given the option to choose whether their system would reboot automatically to install updates when the system is inactive, or be notified to schedule a reboot. Microsoft offers a diagnostic tool that can be used to hide troublesome device drivers and prevent them from being reinstalled, but only after they had been already installed, then uninstalled without rebooting the system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53704618",
"title": "Criticism of Windows 10",
"section": "Section::::General criticism.:Update system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 834,
"text": "Windows 10 Home is permanently set to download all updates automatically, including cumulative updates, security patches, and drivers, and users cannot individually select updates to install or not. Microsoft offers a diagnostic tool that can be used to hide updates and prevent them from being reinstalled, but only after they had been already installed, then uninstalled without rebooting the system. Tom Warren of \"The Verge\" felt that, given web browsers such as Google Chrome had already adopted such an automatic update system, such a requirement would help to keep all Windows10 devices secure, and felt that \"if you're used to family members calling you for technical support because they've failed to upgrade to the latest Windows service pack or some malware disabled Windows Update then those days will hopefully be over.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43989914",
"title": "Windows 10",
"section": "Section::::Reception.:Update system changes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 129,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 129,
"end_character": 834,
"text": "Windows 10 Home is permanently set to download all updates automatically, including cumulative updates, security patches, and drivers, and users cannot individually select updates to install or not. Microsoft offers a diagnostic tool that can be used to hide updates and prevent them from being reinstalled, but only after they had been already installed, then uninstalled without rebooting the system. Tom Warren of \"The Verge\" felt that, given web browsers such as Google Chrome had already adopted such an automatic update system, such a requirement would help to keep all Windows10 devices secure, and felt that \"if you're used to family members calling you for technical support because they've failed to upgrade to the latest Windows service pack or some malware disabled Windows Update then those days will hopefully be over.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2177220",
"title": "Patch Tuesday",
"section": "Section::::Exploit Wednesday.:Windows 10.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "According to Microsoft a \"device needs to install the latest version (feature update) before [the] current version reaches end of service to help keep your device secure and have it remain supported by Microsoft\". As with previous Windows operating systems, any device running such an unsupported version of Windows (which no longer receives security patches) is potentially affected by the \"unfixed vulnerabilities\" issue beginning with the \"end of support\" date. To counter this Microsoft has designed the update system for the Home and Pro editions of Windows 10 so that in most cases if technically possible the latest Windows version is downloaded and installed automatically - this has however drawn criticism due to other problems such forced upgrades can introduce.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38993942",
"title": "Windows 8.1",
"section": "Section::::History.:Update.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 748,
"text": "Microsoft originally announced that users who did not install the update would not receive any other updates after May 13, 2014. However, meeting this deadline proved challenging: The ability to deploy Windows 8.1 Update through Windows Server Update Services (WSUS) was disabled shortly after its release following the discovery of a bug which affects the ability to use WSUS as a whole in certain server configurations. Microsoft later fixed the issue but users continued to report that the update may fail to install. Microsoft's attempt to fix the problem was ineffective, to the point that Microsoft pushed the support deadline further to June 30, 2014. On 16 May, Microsoft released additional updates to fix a problem of BSOD in the update.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43989914",
"title": "Windows 10",
"section": "Section::::Updates and support.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 1151,
"text": "The original RTM release of Windows10 (\"Windows10, released in July 2015\") receives mainstream support for five years after its original release, followed by five years of extended support, but this is subject to conditions. Microsoft's support lifecycle policy for the operating system notes that \"Updates are cumulative, with each update built upon all of the updates that preceded it\", that \"a device needs to install the latest update to remain supported\", and that a device's ability to receive future updates will depend on hardware compatibility, driver availability, and whether the device is within the OEM's \"support period\"a new aspect not accounted for in lifecycle policies for previous versions. This policy was first invoked in 2017 to block Intel Clover Trail devices from receiving the Creators Update, as Microsoft asserts that future updates \"require additional hardware support to provide the best possible experience\", and that Intel no longer provided support or drivers for the platform. Microsoft stated that these devices would no longer receive feature updates, but would still receive security updates through January 2023.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45470892",
"title": "Windows Insider",
"section": "Section::::Supported devices.:Supported Processors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "Because PCs with unsupported processors could not receive new features updates, Microsoft agreed to extend support for these PCs with the bug fixes and security updates for the latest compatible version of Windows 10.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
cms57p | Why are batteries arrays made with cylindrical batteries rather than square prisms so they can pack even better? | [
{
"answer": "First of all, some packs are made with prismatic cells. The pros and cons of cylindrical vs prismatic cells themselves are more important than packing efficiency. Notably, cylindrical manufacturing is more mature, and cylindrical cells tend to be better (in energy density and cost per kWh) at lower capacities, which most packaged battery packs are.\n\nHere's an in-depth article on the cylindrical vs prismatic question: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Mostly historical now.\n\nOriginally many mass-manufactured batteries were made by rolling flat sheets of material, inserting a rod, and filling the space with an electrolyte. It made for a fairly simple method of manufacture and was pretty reliable. By rolling a sheet around a tube you easily got a known size without needing spacers and rods were pretty simple to extrude. You could also cast or extrude the tube pretty easily.\n\nIf you went with two flat sheets you'd need several spacers to make sure the sheet was evenly spaced all around and a flat item is less structurally-sound than a round one. Look at the strength of an arch vs the strength of a square opening. \n\nIn addition, you have the highest ratio of volume to surface area with a round container. But if you go with a sphere you lose a lot of volume when you pack them. It turns out that a great balance of volume to surface area and packing units comes from cylinders instead of spheres or square prisms.\n\nSo most battery manufacturers settled around making cylindrical batteries rather than any other shape. The exception is when you really need to maximize volume, then they go with whatever shape does that best - such as in a cell phone, you'll see that the batteries will often be a flat rectangle which uses every bit of space possible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In my space, cylindricals are better suited to high temps (they don't leak as readily as pouch cells) and they are also less dense so less likely to go into thermal runaway mode when the entire battery assembly is shot or damaged. Prismatics need to be very thin to avoid the issue of thermal runaway (barring any internal chemical safety brakes)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have a similar question about the cylindical vs square batter setups. Is heat dissipation part of the equation when deciding between battery shapes as well? \n\nI'm thinking about larger sized batteries that would be packing multiple batteries in series for something (like in an airplane or a car). Packing them tighter with a square prism format seems like it would be more efficient use of space, but the gaps on the cylindrical batteries would provide more airflow. I recall there were some issues with a model of airplane (early A380s maybe) that had overheating/fire issues from the batteries being packed too tightly.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "This is a complicated question, and the short answer is that cost, safety and efficiency are almost always more important factors than effective use of space.\n\nIt almost always comes down to per-unit manufacturing costs, which includes the tooling and machines to make the product or battery or costs like reject rates.\n\nThe notable exception to this is cell phones or other personal mobile electronics where space is a factor over almost everything else.\n\nOne of the main reasons they make higher capacity and amperage batteries round is entirely due to the manufacturing process.\n\nSo, a battery like a lithium-ion 18650 or similar is really a jelly roll of thin films, gel and metal foils stuffed into a thin metal can - or even just a foil pouch. It is an extremely high precision manufacturing process, so there needs to be an exact amount of tension on the webs of different materials that come together to be wound into the spool that becomes the core of the battery.\n\nToo much tension and you can tear metal foils, squeeze out the electrolyte gel so there's not a large or safe enough gap between electrodes. Too little tension and it doesn't make full contact with itself and won't fit in the metal battery can it's designed to fit inside. (Sometimes lower capacity or cheaply made batteries have empty space in the can!)\n\nAnd in either case if you don't get it right you have a potentially dangerous cell that could fail prematurely or even go into thermal runaway and catch fire or explode.\n\nNext let's look at prismatic lithium ion and lithium polymer batteries. For most cell phone type batteries they're made with a similar wrapping and coiling process using films, gels and metal foils. Those batteries aren't actually square, they're more like squashed circles or ovals when you look at a cross section.\n\nThe machines used to make them need to carefully adjust and maintain wrapping tension as the flat or oblong battery core is wound as the tension needs are different at the ends as opposed to the flat parts.\n\nSince the bend is tighter at the ends this introduces a stress point and point of failure, and the whole wrapping process is much more technically difficult and usually more expensive on a per battery cost.\n\nSo these kinds of oblong mobile electronic batteries tend to have thicker films as a safety feature, and this reduces their capacity.\n\nSo they're usually trading some capacity for that oblong shape and increased safety, which is why round cells can actually have higher energy density per cubic foot or weight than prismatic cells.\n\nBut wait, there's more! Let's look at AA, C, D and similar type cells. This battery format goes back nearly a hundred years at this point, and started with plain old zinc-carbon dry cell batteries. They don't use a roll of films like modern batteries, they use powders or pastes in a metal or even cardboard case.\n\nBut why are they round? Mainly because it's easier and cheaper to punch, draw and make metal shapes that are round than square or prismatic shapes. These cells also are a convenient shape for many consumer devices ranging from flashlights to portable radios.\n\nModern AAA, AA, C, D cells use either cylindrical, hollow pellets of battery chemicals or liquid gels, and using round cans means that they don't have to orient parts to match a square. All the parts in the stack are round and can go right in the can without having to have a complicated machine that lines up, say, square pellets or square seals in square cans.\n\nBut wait, what about other older square/prismatic batteries like the 9V, the 6V and 12V lantern batteries? What about car batteries and lead acid batteries?\n\nIn these cases these batteries were based on older battery chemistries that were actual \"piles\" and this is where originally get the name \"battery\" because it's a battery of plates or piles. Battery meaning a group or array of identical smaller things.\n\nIn these cases they were using many square plates stacked together. In original 9V batteries it was a stack of layers in that can, and similar constructions existed in 6v and 12v lantern batteries.\n\nSide note: today many 9v batteries are actually 6 AAAA sized cells inside a can because it's just easier to make 6 round batteries and stuff them in a box.\n\nIn lead acid batteries found in cars, forklifts or older generation battery banks or backup systems, they use cast lead grid plates and battery chemistry pastes soaking in an acidic liquid or gel electrolyte.\n\nThey also made these batteries square because it was easiest to do for this chemistry and manufacturing process.\n\nSo why not use these kinds of batteries in an electric car or solar home power rig?\n\nWell, they used to, and they still do. You still find them in heavy duty applications where they need a lot of reliable high amperage power where weight is less of an issue, like a forklift or the starter battery of a car.\n\nBut they don't use them in a Tesla because the weight to power ratio is just that much higher in a bank of 18650s or similar round batteries.\n\nThere's also now a lot more economic costs in manufacturing lead chemistry batteries. There's a fuckton of regulation and mandates about battery life and recycling them and so on.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One thing that's not being talked about is the tradeoff between density and cooling. If you simply pack many square prisims together they can't dissipate heat properly and the battery chemistry is destroyed by heat effects. Many lithium battery chemistries are very sensitive to temperature and ideally want to be always around about human body temperature. Too cold and they don't store energy/extract energy properly and too hot and you get long term damage that greatly shortens the lifespan of the battery.\n\nIf you do use prismatic cells you want to run coolant between the thin spaces between each of your packs or use cylindrical cells and run coolant around the batteries in the form of channels.\n\nOne additional factor is the manufacturing cost. It's great if your energy and power density is higher, but if that comes at a higher manufacturing cost then it's completely moot.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hi! Professional battery systems engineer here.\n\nWhat’s inside the battery is a rolled up bunch of stuff, and how much of that stuff you have drives how much energy is within a cell.\n\nNow, there are a few different ways you can roll up this stuff, but you lose some efficiency at corners and where the jelly roll isn’t continuously overlapped. As such, the more continuous the curvature, the more effective the jelly roll is - with cylindrical cells being the best, and pouch cells being slightly behind (due to separator volume to prevent shorting taking up layer space instead of dead space and a few other factors).\n\nWith pouch cells specifically, you also lose the volume where the pouch itself is being sealed, which pretty dramatically reduces best-case system energy density.\n\nIt turns out that a cylindrical cell is very mechanically stable, and also low enough energy that a single-cell failure can be contained. That’s not the case with pouch cells (worst, must be continually pressed flat) or prismatic cells (not quite as good as cylindrical cells, but don’t need to be continually pressed flat), and battery packs also need structure for the various mechanical loads they might see.\n\nThere have been plenty of good battery packs designed around every cell form factor, but once you bake in the additional structure and fire protection pouch cells require for automotive applications, and the slightly-less additional structure for prismatic cells, cylindrical cells end up having slightly better energy density in most applications (read: every battery system I’ve seen).\n\nHowever, pouch cells have a cost advantage for a given amount of energy because they’re easier to manufacture. Prismatics are more expensive than pouches but usually less expensive per unit energy than cylindrical cells. Cylindrical cells will require about an order of magnitude more electrical connections to be made, which adds manufacturing cost as well...\n\nIn short, there are a bunch of different solutions depending on which optimization parameters you care most about. Right now in the industry does not have all of the right answers, which makes it a very good time to be an R & D-focused battery systems engineer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It typically depends on the application. I work as a battery systems engineer for the auto industry. We design and manufacture the lithium ion battery packs for EV, PHEV and hybrid cars. All of our auto cells are prismatic pouches, mostly because they can be engineered into neat, space saving, modules. \n\nThis is very important in cars that are being converted into hybrid and PHEV, as the new battery back must fit within the old design. \n\nTesla uses cylindrical cells because they are easier and faster to manufacture, thus allowing for more overall capacity in a shorter time. \n\nCylindrical cells are typically easier to cool off as well, because their geometry allows them to transfer away more heat. \n\nAll in all though, the same voltages and capacities can be delivered with either prismatic or pouch cells. The capacity of either cell geometry is achieved by connecting many folded cells in parallel to build up the amount of current it can discharge. Those cells are then strong in series to build up voltages. \n\nSo, the main difference between the different shapes is really the context engineering constraints.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Prismatics are more expensive. laminated and film products are all cheaper in cylinders: tin foil, table cloth, textiles... the machine just turns with perfect precision. You need more robots to cut and place squares on top of each other.\n\nThe cylinders are also very strong. batteries require cooling space also. \n\nIf scientists find a non-laminate-film battery, like a solid state sponge/cube, then cylindrical will become more expensive.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2147465",
"title": "Lens hood",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "Correctly made rectangular or square lens hoods are generally more efficient than cylindrical or conical ones because those shapes closely resemble the shape of the photograph. However, rectangular or square lens hoods should not be used with zoom lenses whose front elements rotate as the focal length is changed, as the hood will rotate as well, blocking parts of the angle of view. The same also applies to petal lens hoods. For these types of lenses, only cylindrical or conical lens hoods will work effectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22730221",
"title": "Nanoarchitectures for lithium-ion batteries",
"section": "Section::::Nanostructured architectures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "A significant majority of battery designs are two–dimensional and rely on layered construction. Recent research has taken the electrodes into three-dimensions. This allows for significant improvements in battery capacity; a significant increase in areal capacity occurs between a 2d thick film electrode and a 3d array electrode.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25141332",
"title": "Wedge base",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "A wedge base is a type of electrical connector used as a fitting for small light bulbs. It is similar to the bi-pin connector, except that the two \"pins\" are the same wires that extend into the bulb (rather than being rigid), and the wires are bent up onto the sides of the base, where they make contact with the socket. The wires are usually inserted into a plastic base that the bulb is mounted in, and which is often narrower at the tip than at the bulb, giving it a wedge shape and usually ensuring a tight connection, depending on manufacturing tolerances. Some bulbs have no plastic base, and the wires are simply bent up to the sides of the bulb's glass base.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22730221",
"title": "Nanoarchitectures for lithium-ion batteries",
"section": "Section::::Nanostructured architectures.:Three-dimensional thin–films.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Solid state batteries employ geometry most similar to traditional thin-film batteries. Three-dimensional thin-films use the third dimension to increase the electrochemically active area. Thin film two dimensional batteries are restricted to between 2-5 micrometres, limiting areal capacity to significantly less than that of three-dimensional geometries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9667552",
"title": "Periodic boundary conditions",
"section": "Section::::Unit cell geometries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "PBC requires the unit cell to be a shape that will tile perfectly into a three-dimensional crystal. Thus, a spherical or elliptical droplet cannot be used. A cube or rectangular prism is the most intuitive and common choice, but can be computationally expensive due to unnecessary amounts of solvent molecules in the corners, distant from the central macromolecules. A common alternative that requires less volume is the truncated octahedron.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20963096",
"title": "Low-dispersion glass",
"section": "Section::::Application.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "Low-dispersion glasses are particularly used to reduce chromatic aberration, most often used in achromatic doublets. The positive element is made of a low-dispersion glass, the negative element from a high-dispersion glass. To counteract the effect of the negative lens, the positive lens has to be thicker. Achromatic doublets therefore have higher thickness and weight than the equivalent non-chromatic-corrected single lenses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3449524",
"title": "Ab anbar",
"section": "Section::::Storage tank.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1162,
"text": "A storage space with a rectangular plan is much harder to dome than a circular one. It is not known why architects in particular places chose rectangular or circular layouts, considering that cylindrical spaces were easier to cover, and were deemed more hygienic for water storage due to lack of any corners in the space. Cylindrical tanks also had the advantage of experiencing homogenous forces throughout the walls caused by earth pressures, as opposed to the rectangular designs. Rectangular plans however have the advantage of containing larger volumes of water within rectangular property limits. Examples of ab anbars with a square plan include the Sardar-e Bozorg ab anbar in Qazvin by Sardar Hosein Qoli Khan Qajar and his brother Hasan Khan Qajar Some required columns to be built inside the storage space. The Sardar e Kuchak ab anbar in Qazvin for example, uses a massive column in the center that splits the space up into four 8.5 X 8.5 meter contiguous spaces, each separately domed. The Zananeh Bazaar ab anbar of Qazvin e.g. uses 4 columns inside its storage tank. The Seyed Esmail ab anbar in Tehran for example, is said to have had 40 columns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
5raunu | Were more artillery shells fired in WWII or WWI per capita? | [
{
"answer": "per capita what? Per artilleryman? Per frontline infantryman? Per European population?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "425334",
"title": "Canon de 75 modèle 1897",
"section": "Section::::World War I service.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The total production of 75 mm shells during World War I exceeded 200 million rounds, mostly by private industry. In order to increase shell production from 20,000 rounds per day to 100,000 in 1915, the government turned to civilian contractors, and, as a result, shell quality deteriorated. This led to an epidemic of burst barrels which afflicted 75 mm artillery during 1915. Colonel Sainte-Claire Deville corrected the problem, which was due to microfissures in the bases of the shells, due to shortcuts in manufacturing. Shell quality was restored by September 1915, but never to the full exacting standards of pre-war manufacture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "3053701",
"title": "Iron harvest",
"section": "Section::::Unexploded munitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 495,
"text": "During World War I an estimated one tonne of explosives was fired for every square meter of territory on the Western front. As many as one in every three shells fired did not detonate. In the Ypres Salient, an estimated 300 million projectiles that the British and the German forces fired at each other during World War I were duds, and most of them have not been recovered. In 2013, 160 tonnes of munitions, from bullets to 15 inch naval gun shells, were unearthed from the areas around Ypres.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "10520085",
"title": "Time On Target",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "It had been found during World War I that most of the casualties in an artillery bombardment occur within the first few seconds. During those first few seconds, troops may be in the open and may not be prone. After that, enemy troops have gone prone and/or sought cover. This dramatically lessens the casualties from shrapnel or high explosive blast. World War II Allied artillery units were often trained to fire their guns in a precise order, so that all shells would hit a target at the same time, delivering the maximum possible damage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "3347625",
"title": "BL 15-inch Mk I naval gun",
"section": "Section::::In service employment.:In battle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "In World War II the gun was responsible for the longest range shell-hit ever scored by one battleship on another in combat. At the Battle of Calabria on 9 July 1940, gained a hit on the Italian battleship with her first salvo at . In the Attack on Mers-el-Kébir, when the French fleet was largely neutralised following the fall of France to the Germans, the BL 15-inch Mark I gun (arming , and HMS ) was responsible for the destruction by a magazine explosion of the old battleship , and the disabling and beaching (deliberate running aground in shallow water) of the old battleship and the new battleship . Dunkerque's main 225mm armour belt was twice penetrated by 15-inch shells, which destroyed its fighting and steaming abilities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "7053",
"title": "Cannon",
"section": "Section::::History.:20th and 21st centuries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 824,
"text": "By the early 20th century, infantry weapons had become more powerful, forcing most artillery away from the front lines. Despite the change to indirect fire, cannon proved highly effective during World War I, directly or indirectly causing over 75% of casualties. The onset of trench warfare after the first few months of World War I greatly increased the demand for howitzers, as they were more suited at hitting targets in trenches. Furthermore, their shells carried more explosives than those of guns, and caused considerably less barrel wear. The German army had the advantage here as they began the war with many more howitzers than the French. World War I also saw the use of the Paris Gun, the longest-ranged gun ever fired. This calibre gun was used by the Germans against Paris and could hit targets more than away.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11357697",
"title": "History of cannon",
"section": "Section::::20th and 21st centuries.:Artillery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "By the early 20th century, infantry weapons became more powerful and accurate, forcing most artillery away from the front lines. Despite the change to indirect fire, cannon still proved highly effective during World War I, causing over 75% of casualties. The onset of trench warfare after the first few months of World War I greatly increased the demand for howitzers, as they fired at a steep angle, and were thus better suited than guns at hitting targets in trenches. Furthermore, their shells carried larger amounts of explosives than those of guns, and caused considerably less barrel wear. The German army took advantage of this, beginning the war with many more howitzers than the French. World War I also marked the use of the Paris Gun, the longest-ranged gun ever fired. This caliber gun was used by the Germans to bombard Paris, and was capable of hitting targets more than away.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "11357697",
"title": "History of cannon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Cannon also transformed naval warfare: the Royal Navy, in particular, took advantage of their firepower. As rifling became more commonplace, the accuracy of cannon was significantly improved, and they became deadlier than ever, especially to infantry. In World War I, a considerable majority of all deaths were caused by cannon; they were also used widely in World War II. Most modern cannon are similar to those used in the Second World War, including autocannon—with the exception of naval guns, which are now significantly smaller in caliber.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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| null |
5fr7ox | what causes naturally "good" or "bad" memory retention in a person and why is there a difference? | [
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"answer": "Since you're talking about memory retention, I'm going to skip over short-term memory, which naturally decays.\n\nTo start, the idea of having a *perfect* memory is a bit of a lie. It's totally normal to not remember every little detail. Memory itself is also a bit of a lie: your brain fills in the gaps if it needs to, distorts facts or details along the way, and flat-out jettisons some information. The experience of memory is quite subjective. Someone who believes that they remember things easily, whether that's true or not (since memory is also a bit of a lie), will claim to have a great memory. Someone who is caught up in the normal blank spaces might think that they have a terrible memory, even when there are probably in the normal range. It's normal to remember some things very well, and other things not so well. In reality, most people are more or less on the same playing field.\n\nA lot of memory retention simply comes down to observations and engagement. If you aren't actively engaged in observing things around you, you aren't going to retain those things. If you're sitting in the car, staring at your phone, you aren't going to remember the scenery passing by because you aren't really even looking at it. If you look out the window and really focus on what you see, you'll remember much more of the trip. This is partially why most people remember things more easily when they write information by hand: you are engaged with the information more deeply, so it's easier to recall. There are a million little memory tricks and \"hacks\" out there, and most revolve around making information more meaningful (mnemonics, repetition, connecting details, etc.). \n\nIt's normal to forget where you put your keys (once in a while). It's not normal to forget what keys do. Problems with memory retention and recall can happen when connections in the brain start to break down, when neurotransmitters aren't quite right, when a physical traumatic injury damages the brain, etc. Here are some examples:\n\n- Mental illnesses like depression and anxiety disorders, and psychotic disorders.\n- Drug and alcohol use.\n- Poor sleep.\n- Little or no physical activity.\n- Some vitamin deficiencies.\n- Brain injuries. \n- Some medications, especially things like benzodiazapines.\n- Neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's disease.\n- Other physical illnesses.\n- Aging.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "21312298",
"title": "Autobiographical memory",
"section": "Section::::Emotion.:Negative.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The lack of remembered detail especially affects positive memories; generally people remember positive events with more detail than negative events, but the reverse is seen in those with depression. Negative memories will seem more complex and the time of occurrence will be more easily remembered than positive and neutral events. This may be explained by mood congruence theory, as depressed individuals remember negatively charged memories during frequent negative moods. Depressed adults also tend to actively rehearse negative memories, which increases their retention period and vividness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "21312298",
"title": "Autobiographical memory",
"section": "Section::::Emotion.:Negative.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
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"text": "While it seems adaptive to have negative memories fade faster, sometimes it may not be the case. Remembering negative events can prevent us from acting overconfident or repeating the same mistake, and we can learn from them in order to make better decisions in the future.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "905684",
"title": "Serial-position effect",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
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"text": "Amnesiacs with poor ability to form permanent long-term memories do not show a primacy effect, but do show a recency effect if recall comes immediately after study. People with Alzheimer's disease exhibit a reduced primacy effect but do not produce a recency effect in recall.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "4402098",
"title": "Memory and aging",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 631,
"text": "Memory lapses can be both aggravating and frustrating but they are due to the overwhelming amount of information that is being taken in by the brain. Issues in memory can also be linked to several common physical and psychological causes, such as: anxiety, dehydration, depression, infections, medication side effects, poor nutrition, vitamin B12 deficiency, psychological stress, substance abuse, chronic alcoholism, thyroid imbalances, and blood clots in the brain. Taking care of your body and mind with appropriate medication, doctoral check-ups, and daily mental and physical exercise can prevent some of these memory issues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "548265",
"title": "Peak–end rule",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Recency bias in memory (i.e., why the end is memorable).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
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"text": "People exhibit serial position effects such that they have better memory for \"both\" the beginning and end of sequences, phenomena known as primacy bias and recency bias, respectively. A paper by Garbinsky, Morewedge, and Shiv (2014) found evidence that for extended hedonic experiences, better memory for the end of the experience than the beginning (recency primacy) can be attributed to memory interference effects. As a person eats potato chips, for example, the formation of a new memory of the most recently eaten chip makes it harder for them to recall how the previously eaten chips tasted. Garbinsky and colleagues found that (1) recency effects better predicted recalled enjoyment of a small meal (e.g., eating 5 or 15 chips) than did primacy effects, (2) that people had a worse memory for the first bite of the meal than the last bite of the meal, but (3) providing people with their ratings of the first bite lead them to use their enjoyment of that first bite as much as their enjoyment of the last bite when rating their overall enjoyment of the meal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "548265",
"title": "Peak–end rule",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Memory bias for more emotional events (i.e., why the peak is memorable).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "People exhibit better memory for more intensely emotional events than less intensely emotional events. The precise cause of this is unclear, but it has been demonstrated, for decades, across a wide variety of surveys and experiments. In addition, people do not always recognize that the events that they remember are more emotionally intense than the \"average\" event of its kind. This failure to correct for the atypicality of extreme memories can lead people to believe those extreme moments are representative of the \"set\" being judged. Boston Red Sox fans asked to recall any one game they saw when the Red Sox won, for example, tended to recall the best game they could remember. They only realized this game was unrepresentative of past winning games by the Red Sox if they were explicitly asked to recall the best game they could remember, as evidenced by their subsequent \"affective forecasts\". This bias for more intense emotional experiences is evident in \"nostalgic preferences\". People asked to recall a television show or movie from the past tend to recall the most enjoyable show or movie that they can remember, and use this extreme example to rate all shows from its era unless they are also able to spontaneously recall shows or movies that are worse than the first show or movie they remember.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4476769",
"title": "Hyperthymesia",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Controversies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
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"text": "Cases of hyperthymesia have forced many people to re-evaluate what is meant by \"healthy\" memory: \"it isn't just about retaining the significant stuff. Far more important is being able to forget the rest.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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| null |
2qvrf5 | Why do we have primary colours? | [
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"answer": " > Why can it be split up into distinct colours in a prism?\n\nWhen light crosses a material boundary it is deflected (refracted) by a certain angle depending on its frequency. So different frequencies will be refracted in different angles.\n\n > What makes these frequencies special over any of the other ones?\n\nThere's nothing special about the frequencies. What's special about the *colors* (frequency mixture) is that they consist of only one frequency—namely the one refracted to that particular angle.\n\n > Why are blue, red and green special in the rainbow?\n\nThey aren't. It's our eyes that make them special. We have three different kinds of color sensors in our eyes, and they respond differently to different frequencies. One kind responds most to blue light, another to red, and so on.\n\n > Why only 3? (I know you can make all the colours from them, but I don't understand why).\n\nBecause that's how human vision works (see previous answer). Each color we see depends on the response from the three kinds of sensors. There's nothing particularly special about the number three.\n\n > Is it possible to combine IR or UV with each other, or light, to get light?\n\nNo, light of different frequencies won't interfere with each other. This is due to the linearity of the wave model, or as physicists like to call it: the principle of “superposition.”\n\n > Why do we have distinct primary colours?\n\nI'm not sure I understand. They can't be the same because you lose a dimension of the color space.\n\n > Is it possible to pick 3 different colours as a base for the rest?\n\nSo long as they're linearly independent. E.g. you couldn't choose something like dark red, red and light red. You would only ever be able to make different shades of red.",
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"answer": "We have three different color sensors in our eyes. Each sensor is sensitive to a range of colors, but red light only triggers the first, green light triggers only the middle one, and blue light triggers only the last. So if you mix various amounts of red, green and blue light, you can produce any color.\n\nSo the three primary colors are fixed by the human eye.\n\nEdit: No, you can't mix IR and UV and get visible light. The two wavelengths of light remain separate, even if they are both in the same physical space. ",
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"answer": "Hi. Good questions. The world of science has been thinking about this since Newton. I'll try to answer each one. \n\nCorrect, \"light\" is just a range of EM spectrum (about 380 to 720nm with humans) though x-rays and microwaves are also \"light\" it's just that our receptors are not sensitive to them. \n\nA prism is an optical element that refracts light (bends/slows down light). Refraction is a function of wavelength so different colors (wavelwngths) have a different exit angle. \n\nThe frequencies are \"special\" only because we can see them, as defined by the human luminance response function. \n\nIn the rainbow it's self red, green and blue are not any more special than any other color. But just to get you thinking can you figure out what colors are missing from the rainbow? (I'll get to this later) \n\nThe ability to use three primaries to create all other colors (a false claim actually) is described by the trichromacy theory of human vision. That is we have three types of cones (people with normal color vision) each with their own spectral sensitivity (intensity of response per wavelength). So the stimulation in combination of these three sensors is what allows use to view all the colors we see. So if we create three light sources that each individually excite the cones we can create all the colors within that gamut... I can go into more depth on request \n\nYou can't see IR and UV light directly. But with UV for instance other effects exist. Since UV is a higher energy \"light\" source with higher frequency or shorter wavelength it can drop some of its energy to fall into the visible domain. This is call fluorescence, which you are most familiar with under blacklights. It's also used in fabrics and laundry detergents to make your \"whites whiter than white\". This the rare case where advertising really isn't lying to you. Do to fluorescence and the stokes shift that occurs (dropping to lower energy) there is more visible light coming off of a fluorescent material than is incident upon it. That's why they are so bright and appear to glow... Another interesting fact of mixing brings me back to the question of what color is missing from the rainbow, let me answer that now... Magenta (pink). This is because there isn't a single wavelength that represents the color Magenta it is purely a color made in the mind. It occurs when both your red and blue cones (short and long wavelength cones) are stimulated with little to no response to the green or medium wavelength cone... \n\nYes it is absolutely possible to use three different primaries, but you will suffer from a different gamut, and won't be able to produce all of the colors you would like to. \n\nI also need to step in an separate the difference between additive and subtractive color primaries. Additive primaries are what we have been discussing, things that produce their own light (sunlight, tvs, lasers, etc). Red, green, and blue are the additive primaries and can be mixed to make \"all\" (not really) colors. Subtractive primaries are those that absorb light and don't produce their own (inks, dye, paint). The primaries for these are cyan, Magenta and yellow (not red blue yellow as taught in elementary school). These can be used to produce \"all\" colors in a subtractive system (think printer). \n\nLastly when we talk about red, green, and blue. Remember that these are horribly defined terms. What red, which green? They all must be spectrally defined to be rigorous. \n\nBTW I study Motion Picture Science at university, feel free to have me clarify anything :) ",
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"answer": "You've tagged this as \"physics\" but in my opinion it's mostly a biology/something else question. \n\nThe idea of primary colours makes sense because humans have only three types of light sensitive cones in our eyes, each specialized to a different wavelength, which means we can see a 3-dimensional space of colours (which reduces to a 2-dimensional space when ignoring \"brightness\").\n\nThere is really an infinite-dimensional space of colours, since you can make a colour by mixing together different wavelengths from the spectrum, with an arbitrary magnitude at each point, and there's no way to reconstruct one such arbitrary colour with just three primary colours. \n\nBut since humans only care about a 3d subspace of the colours, then we can accurately reproduce all of the colours we can subjectively see with a \"basis\" of three primary colours. This is analogous to how we can represent any point in space by giving three coordinates in *any* coordinate system. \n\nTo find out how to represent some given colour with some set of three primary colours, you'd need to first work out how each of the three colours stimulates each of your three types of photoreceptor cone, then work out how the \"target\" colour stimulates each of the three types of cone cell, and then perform a \"change of basis\" allowing you to write the desired colour in terms of the \"primary colour\" basis. ",
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"answer": "Do we have primary colours... or do \"we\" have primary colours?\n\nWe have become aware that various creatures perceive portions of the spectrum which we can't. Some beasts detect and discern input in the ultra-violet band; pit vipers definitely detect and act according to infrared signals.\n\nOur primary colours are demarcated by relativistic positioning within such spectrum which we perceive- but what if the spectrum were larger -or were more restrained? \n\nIMO these variations should require a spectral shift in their resultant primaries. No?\n ",
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"answer": "I'd like to answer this myself as I believe I can simplify and expand the subject a bit, as this is a very close subject for me, even though there are a couple of very good answers already.\n\nLike most of us are taught pretty early in school, there are three primary colors: red, green and blue. However, what color actually is, physically, is just light. \nAs we later learn in science classes light is electromagnetic radiation, and just a small section of its spectrum. All the different wavelengths of light in this section are different colors of light. So e.g. light that has a wavelength of 600nm, is somewhat yellow.\n\nSo why some colors are primary? It's our eyes! \n\nHuman eyes have cells that are sensitive to light, the rod cells and the cone cells. There are 3 different types of cone cells and they are sensitive to different wavelengths of light, or color, as said. These colors are the red green and blue, the primary colors! By sensing these three colors, the eyes can then interpolate all other colors without having to sense all the individual infinite wavelengths that enter the eye.\n\nHowever, this is as far as I have ever heard anyone explain this system to me. And it leaves questions. \nWhy can i see yellow if the cone cells only sense red green and blue? \nHow can they interpolate new colors if they never sense the incoming light at all? \n\nSo, an in-depth explanation: \nThe cone cells don't sense only a one wavelength of light, but a small range of wavelengths. But their peak sensitivity is at a certain wavelength. The peaks are at the wavelengths of the primary colors. The three kinds of cone cells' ranges also overlap each other, so that a certain wavelength of light can stimulate more than one type of cone cells.\nE.g. if yellow light enters your eye, both the red and green peaking cone cells react to the yellow light because the range of both of them includes the yellow light wavelength of ~600nm. So when your brain detects that both the \"red\" and the \"green\" cone cells are reacting both with 50-50 intensity, it interprets that sensation as yellow.\nTake a look at this diagram: _URL_0_ It pretty well visualizes how the sensitivity range of different types of cone cells distribute on the spectrum of light.\n\nThat means also that the eye can be fooled. Think about the television. There's only red, green and blue pixels in the screen, because they are the only colors that are needed to give the impression of the full color spectrum to humans. I could make a screen that has also yellow pixels to generate yellow light, but it is not necessary, since if we just shoot red and green light to the eye with the same intensity, we'd just see yellow. We cannot distinguish \"pure\" yellow ~600nm light from light that has just red and green mixed together.\n\nThis also brings me to my favourite subject, the magenta. I started learning about this subject when I realized that there is no color magenta in the rainbow. Why?\nThis is because magenta is actually created in our brain and doesn't exist physically, at all!\nWe see magenta when equal amounts of red and blue enter in the eye. The brain then interpolates a color that is between red and blue. But as the red and blue colours are in the opposite ends of the light spectrum, there is nothing in between them in real life. So the brain makes up a color that really doesn't even exist! Amazing!\n\nTo cap it: there's nothing primary about the wavelengths of red, green and blue, it's just the way the cone cell sensitivity ranges in the human eye are. They could just as well be any wavelengths if we would have evolved differently.",
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"answer": "Primary colors essentially emerge from the frequencies of light that the rod and cone cells in our eyes are sensitive to. Cone cells come in three kinds (S, M, and L) and are sensitive in varying degrees to varying frequencies of light. You can combine the stimulation of each of these types of cells to produce a three dimensional color space, which is often depicted projected into a two-dimensional diagram like the one [here](_URL_0_). The thumb-shaped area represents all the possible combinations of stimuli you might receive. It's shape can be approximated with a triangle, so \"primary\" colors are simply those colors we pick that enclose the largest possible area within it. Not \"all\" colors are produced by combining any particular three primaries, it's just good enough that it seems that way to casual observation.\n\nNote that all of this is highly tuned to the way most people's eyes happen to work. For people who are color-blind, or for animals like mantis shrimp that have a broader spectrum available to them, this whole model would work differently.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "33337534",
"title": "Comparison of color models in computer graphics",
"section": "Section::::Basics of color.:Primary colors and hue.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "First, \"color\" refers to the human brain's subjective interpretation of combinations of a narrow band of wavelengths of light. For this reason, the definition of \"color\" is not based on a strict set of physical phenomena. Therefore, even basic concepts like \"primary colors\" are not clearly defined. For example, traditional \"Painter's Colors\" use red, blue, and yellow as the primary colors, \"Printer's Colors\" use cyan, yellow, and magenta, and \"Light Colors\" use red, green, and blue. \"Light colors\", more formally known as additive colors, are formed by combining red, green, and blue light. This article refers to additive colors and refers to red, green, and blue as the primary colors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "45939",
"title": "Primary color",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Elementary art education materials, dictionaries, and electronic search engines often define primary colors effectively as conceptual colors (generally red, yellow, and blue; or red, green, and blue) that can be used to mix \"all\" other colors and often go further and suggest that these conceptual colors correspond to specific hues and precise wavelengths. Such sources do not present a coherent, consistent definition of primary colors since real primaries cannot be complete.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "19110121",
"title": "Color mixing",
"section": "Section::::Additive mixing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "By convention, the three primary colors in additive mixing are red, green, and blue. In the absence of light of any color, the result is black. If all three primary colors of light are mixed in equal proportions, the result is neutral (gray or white). When the red and green lights mix, the result is yellow. When green and blue lights mix, the result is a cyan. When the blue and red lights mix, the result is magenta. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25825",
"title": "Red",
"section": "Section::::In science and nature.:In color theory and on a computer screen.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 761,
"text": "In modern color theory, also known as the RGB color model, red, green and blue are additive primary colors. Red, green and blue light combined together makes white light, and these three colors, combined in different mixtures, can produce nearly any other color. This is the principle that is used to make all of the colors on your computer screen and your television. For example, magenta on a computer screen is made by a similar formula to that used by Cennino Cennini in the Renaissance to make violet, but using additive colors and light instead of pigment: it is created by combining red and blue light at equal intensity on a black screen. Violet is made on a computer screen in a similar way, but with a greater amount of blue light and less red light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "17025724",
"title": "Ammolite",
"section": "Section::::Gemstone quality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 573,
"text": "BULLET::::- The number of \"primary colors\" : A large array of color is displayed in ammolite, including all the spectral colors found in nature. Red and green are far more common than blue or purple due to the latter's fragility (see properties). There are also certain hues, like crimson or violet or gold, which are derived from a combination of the primary colors, that are the rarest and in highest demand. The most valuable grades have three or more primary colors or 1–2 bright and even colors, with the lowest grades having one comparatively dull color predominant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "28126203",
"title": "Color preferences",
"section": "Section::::Children.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
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"text": "The age when infants begin showing a preference for color is at about 12 weeks old. Generally, children prefer the colors red/pink and blue, and cool colors are preferred over warm colors. Purple is a color favored more by girls than by boys. Color perception of children 3–5 years of age is an indicator of their developmental stage. Color preferences tend to change as people age.\n",
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"title": "Tints and shades",
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"text": "When mixing colored light (additive color models), the achromatic mixture of spectrally balanced red, green, and blue (RGB) is always white, not gray or black. When we mix colorants, such as the pigments in paint mixtures, a color is produced which is always darker and lower in chroma, or saturation, than the parent colors. This moves the mixed color toward a neutral color—a gray or near-black. Lights are made brighter or dimmer by adjusting their brightness, or energy level; in painting, lightness is adjusted through mixture with white, black or a color's complement.\n",
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3kni3n | Back in the days when people believed witchcraft was a real thing and prosecuted people for being witches, how could they on one hand believe in malevolent magic and yet believe they could arrest, imprison and execute a "witch" and the witch would not escape/take revenge with their magic? | [
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"answer": "The answer lies in our conception of magic. To most people in the modern world the first image that comes to mind is Harry Potter making things fly around the room, shooting big, violent spells everywhere. Historically, this is not how witches were seen. \n\nMagic was almost always related to a relationship with the Devil, which made it inherently evil. The witches gained their power by worshipping Satan. By doing his bidding on Earth, he in turn granted them with extraordinary powers. \n\nTheir resulting magic was much more subtle. Most reports from Europe and the Americas allege that a certain person cast some magic upon a cow and killed it or caused some crops to fail. Magic was used to harm others, but not in the direct way that we often see in popular culture. \n\nTake the Salem Witch Trials, perhaps the most famous example in American history. When a few girls started acting in a strange manner, screaming and writhing to draw attention, it was assumed that people had cast spells upon them to make them suffer. The results of this case aren't really important for your question, but this would be an example of a way that people believed magic took a direct and tangible effect.\n\nArresting and executing the witches was simply reasserting God's will on Earth. The witches were under guard and were never expected to bust out riding a broom while breathing fire. The most they could do was, in a rather lengthy time, slowly poison one's soul or cause incremental physical ailments. \n\nSo, since most of the time charges instead focused on abstract allegations of sabotage and rarely human violence, they were not too worried. Most mass-hysteria episodes coincided with difficult times economically, politically, or environmentally, but it was always easier to say, \"My cow died and I hate that girl. She's a witch!\" The girl could take revenge, but it'd be rather difficult for her to find the time to slowly implement her incremental magic if she's constantly under surveillance and then burned to death. \n\nEdit: Sorry for the lack of sources and formatting, I'm a little bit new here. \n\n* Dr. Brian Pavlac's book *Witch Hunts in the Western World: Persecution and Punishment from the Inquisition through the Salem Trials* is a good overview of the topic. If you want a quick version, his website lays it out pretty well with a few FAQs. \n\nFor example, regarding their conception of magic he writes, \"Usually the danger was seen in an organized conspiracy led by the Devil. Or the concern was witches causing harm (maleficia) through spells: raising storms, killing people or livestock, and/or causing bad luck.\" As people became more and more hysterical, the government almost always stepped in to counteract the Devil's influence, so it was very much an institutionalized phenomenon. \n\nHe also briefly comments on why outbreaks occurred in some places more than others. He writes, \"Historians are still trying to explain the reasons for this great variety in witch hunting. Important factors could have been: the power of the central government; the independence of local authorities; tensions created by war, failing economies, or famine; and uncertainties about religious conformity.\" \n\nFor more info on the Salem witch trials... \n\n* The rather famous Cotton Mather left a firsthand account of the trials. He describes how New England culture understood magic and its effects throughout. For example, he wrote the following of the first case that triggered the trials. \n\n > It was not long before one of her Sisters, an two of her Brothers, were seized, in.Order one after another with Affects' like those that molested her. Within a fe weeks, they were all four tortured every where in a manners very grievous, that it would have broke an heart of stone t have seen their Agonies. Skilful Physicians were consulted for their Help, and particularly our worthy and prudent Friend Dr. Thomas Oakes,' who found himself so affronted by the Dist'empers of the children, that he concluded nothing but an hellish Witchcraft could be the Original of these Maladies. \n\nAs you can see they didn't believe witchcraft worked anything like we do today. Because of this their fear of a witch locked up in a jail cell was naturally much different than our's would be. \n\nThere are many more books on the Salem Witch Trials, and it really is fascinating to look at why the entire thing happened. \n\n* I'd recommend *The Salem Witch Trials: A Day-By-Day Chronicle of a Community Under Siege* by Maryilynne K. Roach. It's essentially a timeline of the whole thing with the historical context. It's kind of long, but very informative, and not overly academic. \n\n* For a more scholarly take try *Entertaining Satan: Witchcraft and the Culture of Early New England* by John Demos. \n",
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"answer": "I have to ask a follow-up. Knowing how the \"tests\" for being a witch were tests no one could pass, for example, I have often wondered if those prosecuting witches really believed in it or was that just political rhetoric. Have we any evidence historically that the powers that be really believed in it as much as the townspeople did? Were there any prosecutors who, through their writings, let on in some way that they did not believe but were promoting an agenda of some sort?",
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"answer": "I think it might be interesting to add something to the top answer.\nI'm especially addressing the period of the 16th century in northestern Italy - but many of those consideration can be extended to central Europe during the same period.\n\n\nFor many people, especially in rural communities, the belief in witchcraft was deeply connected with the belief in god; thus the practice of religion, the traditional rites and rituals connected with the passing of the seasons, the cultivation of the fields accordingly to the lunar phases, etc. were deeply blended together. To believe in god, the devil, angels was almost the same to those people as to believe in curses and charms. And practicing this kind of magic was not necessarily in contrast with the belief in god and the church for them. \n\n\nNot only there were persons believed to have those kind of powers but they believed themselves to possess the ability to do those things, at least in certain special periods of the year. You can check [this](_URL_0_) wikipedia article or rather the main source, if you have it available (unfortunately I have it only in italian), which is: \n\nGinzburg, Carlo (1983) [1966]. The Night Battles: Witchcraft and Agrarian Cults in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. John and Anne Tedeschi (translators). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. ISBN 978-0801843860.\n\n\nHere the author mainly focuses on a group of people that called themselves \"Benandanti\" which I might translate with \"the ones who walk in the good\" and claimed to fight the evil doers. Many of them were born with a caul, which was thought of as a good omen. \n\n\nIn the words of one of them (I'm quoting from the wiki page, rather than translating myself from italian, but there are many other interesting testimonies from the book if you can find the engish version):\n\n\n*I am a benandante because I go with the others to fight four times a year, that is during the Ember Days, at night; I go invisibly in spirit and the body remains behind; we go forth in the service of Christ, and the witches of the devil; we fight each other, we with bundles of fennel and they with sorghum stalks.*\n\n\nTherefore you have people testifying they were walking around in spirit to fight against devils - some of them referred to themselves as \"God's hounds\". They admitted to perform charms and to have experienced temptation by the devil in various forms. In fact many trials in the region started with genuine interest from the church into these kind of beliefs, to determine wheter these people were lunatics or really practicing some sort of magic. Anyway those beliefs appear to have been rather common and widespread.\n\n\nThose ideas survived long after the witchcraft trials ended and you can still find traces of it in local folklore. For example in many cities in northern Italy they still celebrate the new year with the burning of a straw figure representing a witch, in order to favour a good reaping season. And in italian you still say that someone is \"nato con la camicia\" i.e. born with the amniotic sac to signify that he is somewhat \"fortunate\" or even \"charmed\". Similar expressions survive in other central euroepan countries.\n\n\nThus people were actually living in a complex net of - sometimes hard to concilate - beliefs, taken in between the church and its desire to establish a moral and material authority and traditions rooted in the pagan folklore. Many tried to concilate those contrasting issues by making up a system of beliefs which included and mixed together a bit of everything. In this context putting witches to trial was a way to prevent famines, fight epidemics, avoid injuries and people percieved and used those trials in a way not much different than taking care of murderers or thieves, for the belief in these kind of supernatural forces was deeply rooted in their society.\n\n\nI hope I didn't wander too far from the original question and this might be of interest to some.",
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"answer": "I've been generally under the impression that often magical activities occur b/c of some form of intoxication. (I don't have any sources, and it's quite possible that I'm talking out my ass.) Is there any validity to this? \n\nFollow-up: have there been significant periods in Western history when magic has been seen as a primarily good or helpful activity, or has it always been vilified?",
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"answer": "For a book that may complicate your understanding of witchcraft, I recommend [The Night Battles](_URL_0_), by Carlo Ginzburg",
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"wikipedia_id": "10899216",
"title": "History of Wicca",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Early modern witch trials.\n",
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"text": "Most scholars agree that the witch trials were the result of isolated incidents of hysteria in remote peasant communities. While many of the accused confessed to various acts of magic and Satanism, all did so under threat of torture, and historians agree that there is no evidence any of the victims of the trials were practicing any real magic or any non-Christian religious or magical practices.\n",
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"title": "Witch-hunt",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early Modern Europe.\n",
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"text": "Once a case was brought to trial, the prosecutors hunted for accomplices. The use of magic was considered wrong, not because it failed, but because it worked effectively for the wrong reasons. Witchcraft was a normal part of everyday life. Witches were often called for, along with religious ministers, to help the ill or deliver a baby. They held positions of spiritual power in their communities. When something went wrong, no one questioned either the ministers or the power of the witchcraft. Instead, they questioned whether the witch intended to inflict harm or not.\n",
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"title": "Malleus Maleficarum",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
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"text": "Witchcraft had long been forbidden by the Church, whose attitude on the subject was explained in the \"Canon Episcopi\" written in about AD 900. It stated that witchcraft and magic were just delusions and that those who believed in such things \"had been seduced by the Devil in dreams and visions\". However, in the same period supernatural intervention was accepted in the form of ordeals that were later also used during witch trials. \n",
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"wikipedia_id": "7209498",
"title": "European witchcraft",
"section": "Section::::\"Witch\" stock character.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
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"text": "The \"Malleus Maleficarum\" (1486) declared that the four essential points of witchcraft were renunciation of the Catholic faith, devotion of body and soul to evil, offering up unbaptized children to the Devil, and engaging in orgies that included intercourse with the Devil; in addition, witches were accused of shifting their shapes, flying through the air, abusing Christian sacraments, and confecting magical ointments.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "58929",
"title": "Witch-hunt",
"section": "Section::::Modern cases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
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"text": "Witch-hunts still occur today in societies where belief in magic is prevalent. In most cases, these are instances of lynching and burnings, reported with some regularity from much of Sub-Saharan Africa, from rural North India and from Papua New Guinea. In addition, there are some countries that have legislation against the practice of sorcery. The only country where witchcraft remains legally punishable by death is Saudi Arabia.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "33959",
"title": "Witchcraft",
"section": "Section::::By region.:Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 145,
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"text": "The Protestant Christian explanation for witchcraft, such as those typified in the confessions of the Pendle witches, commonly involves a diabolical pact or at least an appeal to the intervention of the spirits of evil. The witches or wizards engaged in such practices were alleged to reject Jesus and the sacraments; observe \"the witches' sabbath\" (performing infernal rites that often parodied the Mass or other sacraments of the Church); pay Divine honour to the Prince of Darkness; and, in return, receive from him preternatural powers. It was a folkloric belief that a Devil's Mark, like the brand on cattle, was placed upon a witch's skin by the devil to signify that this pact had been made. \n",
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"wikipedia_id": "11355262",
"title": "Geske",
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"text": "It was not until the reform witch law of 1608 that witch trials in Sweden were conducted in the manner of the continent, were all magic practices were associated with the Devil and resulted in executions regardless of how the magic had been used.\n",
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1luxq8 | how do they decide, during sports broadcasts that vary in length, which ads to play? | [
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"answer": "They buy ads based on when they show in the game, not for a specific time. So I may set up a deal with them for an ad at the end of the first and third quarters, plus a commercial for halftime. \n\n",
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"answer": "First of all as stated by the other person ad placement is all based on point in time based on the game, not a specific slot of time during the time allotted for the game. Second if an ad is not aired the contract for that airing is nullified and no money is paid to the channel or broadcast contracts, this is because you cannot predict when ads can be aired or exactly how many ads will be aired during that 3 hour window given to the game broadcast.",
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"wikipedia_id": "5480680",
"title": "MLB on Five",
"section": "Section::::Regular features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
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"text": "A number of segments appear before the game or in between innings. In addition to entertaining the audience, these exist because UK broadcasting standards effectively prevent Five from running commercials every time the US broadcasters do so.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "3571486",
"title": "Radio advertisement",
"section": "Section::::Research and rates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
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"text": "The numbers can show who is listening to a particular station, the most popular times of day for listeners in that group, and the percentage of the total listening audience that can be reached with a particular schedule of advertisements. The numbers also show exactly how many people are listening at each hour of the day. This allows an advertiser to select the strongest stations in the market with specificity and tells them what times of day will be the best times to run their ads.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "58416132",
"title": "TV advertisements by country",
"section": "Section::::Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
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"text": "In many European countries, television advertisements appear in longer, but less frequent advertising breaks. For example, instead of 3 minutes every 8 minutes, there might be around 6 minutes every half-hour. European Union legislation limits the time taken by commercial breaks to 12 minutes per hour (20%), with a minimum segment length of 20 or 30 minutes, depending on the programme content. Live imported telecasts with shorter segments, such as U.S. sporting events, replace the original ads with promotional material. Advertising broadcast time can vary within the EU and other countries and between networks depending on local policy. Unlike in the United States, in Europe the advertising agency name may appear at the beginning or at the end of the advert.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "31480597",
"title": "Promo (media)",
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"text": "The airdate and time of the program's broadcast as well as the name and/or logo of the station or network that the program will be broadcast on are displayed either at the end of or throughout the promo (in the latter case, the airtime and network/station may be displayed before it is mentioned verbally by the announcer). Until the mid-1980s on broadcast television stations, the text showing the date and time, along with the station logo were displayed on the bottom of the screen (unlike with broadcast and cable television, airtime information is not pre-displayed on promos for syndicated programs as syndicated programs are typically aired at different times depending on the market, and are instead inserted by the station itself); however, stations now posterize graphics over the tail end of a syndicated program promos where the program's logo is shown (many stations use this treatment on promos for programs airing on networks that the station maintains an affiliation, such as Fox and The CW) or show the latter portion of the promo within a box surrounded by the graphic.\n",
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"title": "Promo (media)",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
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"text": "Promos typically run from 15 to 60 seconds, with 30-second spots being the most common, although some occasionally last run as little as five seconds or as long as 90 seconds. Most promos show select video or audio clips of scenes or segments from an upcoming program (such as a television or radio series, film or special). Some television promos (particularly for an upcoming television series) utilize a monologue format in which a star or host of the program breaks the fourth wall, which is often done in a humorous and/or parodical manner. Most radio promos utilize this format as well, with a host of the program discussing the show itself, though some feature audio clips from past editions of the radio broadcast. Broadcast television stations promote upcoming newscasts by featuring teases of select story packages to be featured in the broadcast, such as an investigative report or a special-interest feature segment.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "1662121",
"title": "Sports commentator",
"section": "",
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"text": "In sports broadcasting, a sports commentator (also known as sports announcer, sportscaster or play-by-play announcer) gives a running commentary of a game or event in real time, usually during a live broadcast, traditionally delivered in the historical present tense. Radio was the first medium for sports broadcasts, and radio commentators must describe all aspects of the action to listeners who cannot see it for themselves. In the case of televised sports coverage, commentators are usually presented as a voiceover, with images of the contest shown on viewers' screens and sounds of the action and spectators heard in the background. Television commentators are rarely shown on screen during an event, though some networks choose to feature their announcers on camera either before or after the contest or briefly during breaks in the action.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "7039104",
"title": "Television timeout",
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"text": "Programs making use of timeouts are usually live-action sporting events. However, other live programs occasionally make use of timeouts for advertising purposes, such as the Academy Awards and the Eurovision Song Contest.\n",
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bk6z5l | Did medieval knights lift? | [
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"answer": "I highly recommend [this thread](_URL_1_) by /u/knight117 and [this one](_URL_0_) by /u/kardlonoc which both deal with the question you ask. \n\n & #x200B;\n\nThe TL;DR is \"sort of\". They trained but primarily in a more functional sense. Weapons practice, horsemanship, hunting, exercises in armor etc are all demanding activites. Added to this there seems to have been a relatively widespread focus on more general fitness among knights-to-be which involved things like lifting or throwing rocks, wrestling, climbing, jumping and running.",
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"answer": "I will chime in again to sort of summarize the previous topic that was nearly four years ago as /u/superplaner linked. It is a excellent source and discussion. \n\nThe source of this is this article:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nTo answer your question, yes they did. There are pictures of knights and fencers lifting stones and throwing stones as part of their practice. However lifting wasn't 'dedicated' as it is today.\n\nTo explain a good comparison is a modern day boxer, fighter or Olympic fencer to be more on point. These athletes spend a majority of their time training, a ton of time in the doing what they do and practicing but also a good amount of time on general fitness such as running, lifting, stretching and whatever else they need to do. Boxers sometimes spend more time running in training than they do boxing just to amp up their endurance. \n\nAnother good comparison is soldiers which knights were. Soldiers don't spend all their time lifting, but rather training that allows them to be well organized at all times as a group in whatever they do with some practice into shooting and CQC. \n\nTo understand that, that while there was lifting, the act of practicing swordsmanship was generally strength training enough for them and the most effective. The article points out that new soldiers would often start off with weapons that were double the weight of the normal weapons and then would switch to normal weapons for real fights. \n\nBut do understand strength wasn't the only goal but obviously to use the sword to the best of your ability. To that regard, modern day weightlifters would be stronger than most knights...in terms of lifting weights\n\nBut as cheesy as it sounds strength wasn't pure back then, strength came from wielding a weapon of some kind, be it a sword or a bow that needed to be pulled and all the techniques that came with that. \n\nWhat knights did was not pure strength training as we know it but it was done to increase the physical strength of knights to a certain degree.",
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"wikipedia_id": "318378",
"title": "Crane (machine)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Middle Ages.:Mechanics and operation.\n",
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"text": "In contrast to modern cranes, medieval cranes and hoists – much like their counterparts in Greece and Rome – were primarily capable of a vertical lift, and not used to move loads for a considerable distance horizontally as well. Accordingly, lifting work was organized at the workplace in a different way than today. In building construction, for example, it is assumed that the crane lifted the stone blocks either from the bottom directly into place, or from a place opposite the centre of the wall from where it could deliver the blocks for two teams working at each end of the wall. Additionally, the crane master who usually gave orders at the treadwheel workers from outside the crane was able to manipulate the movement laterally by a small rope attached to the load. Slewing cranes which allowed a rotation of the load and were thus particularly suited for dockside work appeared as early as 1340. While ashlar blocks were directly lifted by sling, lewis or devil's clamp (German \"Teufelskralle\"), other objects were placed before in containers like pallets, baskets, wooden boxes or barrels.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "24864939",
"title": "Treadwheel crane",
"section": "Section::::History.:Middle Ages.:Mechanics and operation.\n",
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"text": "In contrast to modern cranes, medieval cranes and hoists - much like their counterparts in Greece and Rome - were primarily capable of a vertical lift, and not used to move loads for a considerable distance horizontally as well. Accordingly, lifting work was organized at the workplace in a different way than today. In building construction, for example, it is assumed that the crane lifted the stone blocks either from the bottom directly into place, or from a place opposite the centre of the wall from where it could deliver the blocks for two teams working at each end of the wall. Additionally, the crane master who usually gave orders at the treadwheel workers from outside the crane was able to manipulate the movement laterally by a small rope attached to the load. Slewing cranes which allowed a rotation of the load and were thus particularly suited for dockside work appeared as early as 1340. While ashlar blocks were directly lifted by sling, lewis or devil's clamp (German \"Teufelskralle\"), other objects were placed before in containers like pallets, baskets, wooden boxes or barrels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "16897",
"title": "Knight",
"section": "Section::::Knightly culture in the Middle Ages.:Chivalric code.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
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"text": "Knights were expected, above all, to fight bravely and to display military professionalism and courtesy. When knights were taken as prisoners of war, they were customarily held for ransom in somewhat comfortable surroundings. This same standard of conduct did not apply to non-knights (archers, peasants, foot-soldiers, etc.) who were often slaughtered after capture, and who were viewed during battle as mere impediments to knights' getting to other knights to fight them.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "33392723",
"title": "Chivalry: Medieval Warfare",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Classes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
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"text": "Knight: Knights are the heaviest of all classes. They use large, two-handed weapons, such as the longsword and battleaxe. They can also use bigger shields than the other classes. Sacrificing speed for armor, they are the slowest class in the game, as they move very slowly and their attacks leave them open for longer periods of time than other classes. The unique skill of the Knight allows him to wield a main sword (but not the axes or hammers) in a single hand, use a shield, or increase his speed at the expense of base damage.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "43160143",
"title": "God Speed (painting)",
"section": "Section::::Composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
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"text": "The woman ties a red sash around the knight's arm, which he is meant to return, a medieval custom which assured both parties that they would be reunited, alive and well. A griffin on the newel post of the stairs is a symbol of strength and military courage. The knight departs through a castle gate with portcullis; others can be seen leaving through the gate.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "318378",
"title": "Crane (machine)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Roman Empire.\n",
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"text": "It is assumed that Roman engineers lifted these extraordinary weights by two measures (see picture below for comparable Renaissance technique): First, as suggested by Heron, a lifting tower was set up, whose four masts were arranged in the shape of a quadrangle with parallel sides, not unlike a siege tower, but with the column in the middle of the structure (\"Mechanica\" 3.5). Second, a multitude of capstans were placed on the ground around the tower, for, although having a lower leverage ratio than treadwheels, capstans could be set up in higher numbers and run by more men (and, moreover, by draught animals). This use of multiple capstans is also described by Ammianus Marcellinus (17.4.15) in connection with the lifting of the Lateranense obelisk in the Circus Maximus (c. 357 AD). The maximum lifting capability of a single capstan can be established by the number of lewis iron holes bored into the monolith. In case of the Baalbek architrave blocks, which weigh between 55 and 60 tons, eight extant holes suggest an allowance of 7.5 ton per lewis iron, that is per capstan. Lifting such heavy weights in a concerted action required a great amount of coordination between the work groups applying the force to the capstans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14945290",
"title": "Age of Chivalry",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Classes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "BULLET::::- Knights are slow, heavily armoured fighters that have a single-handed flail as well as a heater shield. This class has a unique 360° swing rather than a stab, theoretically making it good for fights against larger groups of enemies. Like the crusaders, knights can use throwing knives to deal damage at range.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
3jyrmd | what mass an object should have so objects start orbiting it? | [
{
"answer": "Any object that has mass has a gravitational field. You have a gravitational field. A feather has a gravitational field. Those fields are, however, extremely weak.\n\nYou could in theory, have an object orbiting around you, but in order to do this you'd have to be very far from any larger gravitational fields (such as that of Earth) that would disrupt it. The radius within which an object can orbit a body that is itself orbiting a larger body is called the [Hill sphere](_URL_0_). It depends on both the mass of the two bodies and the distance between them. For example, Earth has a Hill radius of about 1.5 million km. Objects within that radius can form a stable orbit around the Earth. Outside that radius, the orbit would quickly destabilize and the object would end up orbiting the Sun instead.\n\nIf the Hill sphere is smaller than the size of the object (as is the case for most spacecraft in Earth orbit), then that object cannot have a satellite - the gravitational field is dominated by the mass of the heavier body.\n\nThe other constraint is the shape of the object - a spherical bodies of constant density have a gravitational field that turns out to be equivalent to a point mass. All orbits around such a body are stable. If the object is irregularly shaped, or it's mass is not distributed evenly, then orbits may not be stable, and the satellite may end up crashing into the body.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To answer your other questions:\n\n1. Yes, it will move forever, because there is no resistance from air or something.\n\n2. Yes, the speed of radio waves is slightly different. Radio waves are just a form of light, so radio waves move with the speed of light. As with any wave, the speed of that wave depends on the stuff it moves thru. So light thru air moves slower then light thru vacuum (= space).\n\n3. A normal internal combustion engine (as in a car) doesn't work in space because it needs the oxygen in the air. And since there is no air in space the engine doesn't work. But, if you could supply it with oxygen, from a tank or something, it will work. \n\nEdit: spelling is difficult",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14476384",
"title": "Mass versus weight",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "While the \"weight\" of an object varies in proportion to the strength of the gravitational field, its \"mass\" is constant, as long as no energy or matter is added to the object. For example, although a satellite in orbit (essentially a free-fall) is \"weightless\", it still retains its mass and inertia. Accordingly, even in orbit, an astronaut trying to accelerate the satellite in any direction is still required to exert force, and needs to exert ten times as much force to accelerate a 10ton satellite at the same rate as one with a mass of only 1 ton.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44163394",
"title": "(486958) 2014 MU69",
"section": "Section::::Mass and density.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 854,
"text": "The mass and density of is unknown. A definite mass and density estimate cannot be given as the two lobes of are in contact rather than orbiting each other. Although a possible natural satellite orbiting could help determine its mass, no satellites were found orbiting . Under the assumption that both lobes of are bound by self-gravity, the object is measured to have a very low density similar to that of comets, with the minimum estimate of . With this minimum density estimate, the mutual gravity of the two lobes would overcome centrifugal forces that would otherwise separate the lobes, indicating that the neck region between the two lobes is compressed by their mutual gravity. Under an alternative comet-like density of around , the lobes would separate due to centrifugal forces if the entire object had a rotation period of at least 12 hours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1039777",
"title": "Vis-viva equation",
"section": "Section::::Practical applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "Given the total mass and the scalars \"r\" and \"v\" at a single point of the orbit, one can compute the specific orbital energy formula_23, allowing an object orbiting a larger object to be classified as having not enough energy to remain in orbit, hence being \"suborbital\" (a ballistic missile, for example), having enough energy to be \"orbital\", but without the possibility to complete a full orbit anyway because it eventually collides with the other body, or having enough energy to come from and/or go to infinity (as a meteor, for example).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "996910",
"title": "Hyperbolic trajectory",
"section": "Section::::Parameters describing a hyperbolic trajectory.:Impact parameter and the distance of closest approach.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "If the mass of the central body is not known, its standard gravitational parameter, and hence its mass, can be determined by the deflection of the smaller body together with the impact parameter and approach speed. Because typically all these variables can be determined accurately, a spacecraft flyby will provide a good estimate of a body's mass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16619",
"title": "Kilogram",
"section": "Section::::Mass and weight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "While the weight of an object is dependent on the strength of the local gravitational field, the mass of an object is independent of gravity, as mass is a measure of the quantity of matter. Accordingly, for astronauts in microgravity, no effort is required to hold objects off the cabin floor; they are \"weightless\". However, since objects in microgravity still retain their mass and inertia, an astronaut must exert ten times as much force to accelerate a 10kilogram object at the same rate as a 1kilogram object.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24479046",
"title": "Planetary mass",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "BULLET::::- If the planet has natural satellites, its mass can be calculated using Newton's law of universal gravitation to derive a generalization of Kepler's third law that includes the mass of the planet and its moon. This permitted an early measurement of Jupiter's mass, as measured in units of the solar mass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "859234",
"title": "Mechanical energy",
"section": "Section::::Conservation of mechanical energy.:Satellite.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "A satellite of mass formula_4 at a distance formula_5 from the centre of Earth possesses both kinetic energy, formula_6, (by virtue of its motion) and gravitational potential energy, formula_7, (by virtue of its position within the Earth’s gravitational field; Earth's mass is formula_8).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
54vs81 | why are all cells considered to be living structures? | [
{
"answer": "The cells have all the traits we associate with living things. They eat food, they procreate etc. The cells in the human body isn't all that different from the cells of single cell organisms.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3588722",
"title": "Cellular component",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "Cellular components are the complex biomolecules and structures of which cells, and thus living organisms, are composed. Cells are the structural and functional units of life. The smallest organisms are single cells, while the largest organisms are assemblages of trillions of cells. DNA is found in nearly all living cells; each cell carries chromosome(s) having a distinctive DNA sequence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4230",
"title": "Cell (biology)",
"section": "Section::::Structures outside the cell membrane.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "Many cells also have structures which exist wholly or partially outside the cell membrane. These structures are notable because they are not protected from the external environment by the semipermeable cell membrane. In order to assemble these structures, their components must be carried across the cell membrane by export processes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4230",
"title": "Cell (biology)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "Cells consist of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane, which contains many biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids. Organisms can be classified as unicellular (consisting of a single cell; including bacteria) or multicellular (including plants and animals). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18393",
"title": "Life",
"section": "Section::::Cells.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Cells are the basic unit of structure in every living thing, and all cells arise from pre-existing cells by division. Cell theory was formulated by Henri Dutrochet, Theodor Schwann, Rudolf Virchow and others during the early nineteenth century, and subsequently became widely accepted. The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of its cells, with energy flow occurring within and between them. Cells contain hereditary information that is carried forward as a genetic code during cell division.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2530148",
"title": "Wetware computer",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Cells as a Model of Wetware.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1231,
"text": "Cells in many ways can be seen as their own form of naturally occurring wetware, similar to the concept that the human brain is the preexisting model system for complex wetware. In his book \"Wetware: A Computer in Every Living Cell\" (2009) Dennis Bray explains his theory that cells, which are the most basic form of life, are just a highly complex computational structure, like a computer. To simplify one of his arguments a cell can be seen as a type of computer, utilizing its own structured architecture. In this architecture, much like a traditional computer many smaller components operate in tandem to receive input, process the information, and compute an output. In an overly simplified, and non-technical analysis cellular function can be broken into the following components. Information and instructions for execution are stored as DNA in the cell, RNA acts as a source for distinctly encoded input which processed by ribosomes and other transcription factors to access and process the DNA and to output a protein. Bray's argument in favor of viewing cells and cellular structures as models of natural computational devices is important when considering the more applied theories of wetware in relation to biorobotics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4230",
"title": "Cell (biology)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "Cells were discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, who named them for their resemblance to cells inhabited by Christian monks in a monastery. Cell theory, first developed in 1839 by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells, that cells are the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms, and that all cells come from pre-existing cells. Cells emerged on Earth at least 3.5 billion years ago.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6339",
"title": "Cell biology",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1566,
"text": "Cells, which were once invisible to the naked eye, were first seen in 17th century Europe with the invention of the compound microscope. Robert Hooke was the first person to term the building block of all living organisms as \"cells\" after looking at cork. The cell theory states that all living things are made up of cells. The theory also states that both plants and animals are composed of cells which was confirmed by plant scientist, Matthias Schleiden and animal scientist, Theodor Schwann in 1839. 19 years later, Rudolf Virchow contributed to the cell theory, arguing that all cells come from the division of preexisting cells. In recent years, there have been many studies which question the cell theory. Scientists have struggled to decide whether viruses are alive or not. Viruses lack common characteristics of a living cell, such as membranes, cell organelles, and the ability to reproduce by themselves. Viruses range from 0.005 to 0.03 micrometers in size whereas bacteria range from 1-5 micrometers. Modern day cell biology research looks at different ways to culture and manipulate cells outside of a living body to further research in human anatomy and physiology, to derive treatments and other medications, etc. The techniques by which cells are studied have evolved. Advancement in microscopic techniques and technology such as fluorescence microscopy, phase-contrast microscopy, dark field microscopy, confocal microscopy, cytometry, transmission electron microscopy, etc. have allowed scientists to get a better idea of the structure of cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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| null |
1ubluu | what happens to people in colorado who were already convicted of marijuana - related offenses? | [
{
"answer": "You serve the remainder of your sentence. The change in law does not make something retroactively legal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nothing. \n\nThey were convicted of a crime. That fact that it is legal now doesn't mean it was any more legal then. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You can't change a law and have it apply retroactively in the US. The convictions still stand as the actions constituted a crime at the time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "regret is what happens",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well technically it's still illegal to buy marijuana from certain shady individuals so their convictions are valid regardless. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Related to this question though is the recent grant of clemency to crack cocaine sentences by the president. Could these people seek to be pardoned/granted clemency?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For all you ex post facto people who say they committed the crime so they still have to do time:\n\n\"Ex Post Facto clauses \"forbid the application of any new punitive measure to a crime already consumated, to the detriment or material disadvantage of the wrongdoer.\" (Lindsey v. Washington (1937), Calder v. Bull (1798)) There is, however, no constitutional limitation on retroactive application of criminal legislation which mollifies criminal sanctions.\"\n\n_URL_0_\n\nThe Colorado Legislature decided not to include retroactive ameliorative relief in the new law. That's the only reason it's not retroactive.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you know something isn't allowed and you still do it, there are consequences for that. Now that marijuana is legal, it doesn't mean those people didn't commit crimes",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Several counties here (I'm in Colorado) dropped all the cases on the books when the vote passed (even before it was law), some of the more... conservative counties did not. So it was a mixed bag.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well since marijuana is only legal through certain vendors who are licensed, one would think that people selling it illegally would still be punished.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nothing. They broke the law. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They are in prison for violating the law, not for posession of marijuana. They *still* violated the law, so they still have to serve out their sentence.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "51164336",
"title": "Cannabis in Texas",
"section": "Section::::Reforms.:County and municipal level.:Dallas County limited enforcement, diversion (2019).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "In April 2019, Dallas County District Attorney John Creuzot announced that individuals caught possessing misdemeanor amounts of cannabis would no longer be prosecuted for first-time offenses. Individuals who commit subsequent offenses would be offered diversionary courses to avoid a criminal conviction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25069021",
"title": "Cannabis in Colorado",
"section": "Section::::History.:Prosecution (1917-Present).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "In 1975, during a decade-long wave of increased penalties and prosecutions in the country, including dramatic increases in the length of prison sentences, a 53% increase in drug arrests, a 188% increase in the number of people arrested for marijuana offenses, and a 52% increase in the number of people in state prisons for drug offenses, Colorado continued to prosecute people and incarcerate individuals for marijuana possession. The War On Marijuana: In Black And White\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53088096",
"title": "Legal history of cannabis in Canada",
"section": "Section::::Preliminary steps to legalization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "Since that time, some people with minor convictions for cannabis possession are asking whether the Government of Canada plans to give them pardons that would allow them to travel to the United States and to get employment in certain fields. As of 22 December 2015, a decision had not yet been made in this regard. Wilson-Raybould said that conversations with various levels of government will be required before making a decision on this issue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53088096",
"title": "Legal history of cannabis in Canada",
"section": "Section::::Developments since 2001.:Cannabis refugees in Canada.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "There are cases of users of medical cannabis in the United States who, on being persecuted in their own country, have fled across the border to Canada as \"cannabis refugees\", where they have sought asylum under the United Nations refugee convention. This began occurring in the early part of the 2000s when the U.S. Attorney General, John Ashcroft, ordered a clampdown on the use of medical cannabis in the United States. Some of those who have fled are wanted by the U.S. federal government on charges related to their use of cannabis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50280155",
"title": "Pike County shootings",
"section": "Section::::Investigation.:Discovery of cannabis and cockfighting operations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Cannabis problems are a common occurrence in Pike County: in 2010, 22,000 cannabis plants were seized by authorities in Latham, west of Piketon; and a major cannabis growth site was discovered by police in August 2012, with about 1,200 cannabis plants being destroyed by investigators. In both cases, police suspected connections to Mexican drug cartels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37926289",
"title": "Expungement in the United States",
"section": "Section::::State.:Colorado.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "Colorado law has recently been changed via Colorado HB 11-1167, which allows drug conviction to be sealed. This requires strict conditions to be met concerning the original violation and the time and behavior since the conviction. This is part of a greater movement by the Colorado Criminal Justic Reform Coalition (ccjrc.org) to create a way for forgiveness and redemption for people who have been convicted based on past drug convictions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25069021",
"title": "Cannabis in Colorado",
"section": "Section::::Regulation.:Impaired driving.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 589,
"text": "Like other states, driving while impaired by any drug is illegal in Colorado, though it took the legislature six attempts and three years to pass marijuana intoxication measures. Ultimately the legislators decided on a nanogram limit in the bloodstream, though the number they picked was scoffed at by activists. Today Colorado law states that juries may convict a person of marijuana intoxication if they have five or more nanograms of THC per milliliter of blood, but defendants are allowed to argue that they were not intoxicated despite having such levels of THC in their bloodstream.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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| null |
9e1vxu | this siphon water experiment | [
{
"answer": "The force causing the movement of the water is pressure and gravity. \n\nwhen you suck on a straw, you are creating a low pressure area in your mouth, this causes whatever you are trying to drink to flow through that straw, because the air pressure on the surface of the liquid is pushing down on it, and you sucking on your straw is giving it a place to go.\n\nOK, about the video:\n\nThe water in the bottle is there to start the process. It's high up, and gravity causes it to start flowing into the lower cup. As it does this, it is making more room in the bottle than it had to start. It is effectively sucking water out of the bottle. It's creating low pressure, a vacuum. This \"sucking force\" then continues to \"suck\" the water from the higher cup. This happens because of the air pressure pushing on the higher cup's water is high enough vs the low pressure in the bottle to push the higher cups water up a bit, so you get that fountain effect. Then, the water in the bottle just continues to go down the blue straw, which continuous to \"suck\" the bottle and thus the higher cups water.\n\nIf there was no water in the bottle to start with, then you really just have a straw in a cup. A weird straw with a bottle on it, but just a straw. There's no difference in pressure, so the higher cups water has no where to go.\n\nActually you CAN start with no water in the bottle, but then you have to suck on the blue straw to start the process. Get the water to hit the blue straw, then the process will become self sustaining until the water is all, or mostly all, in the lower cup.\n\nEDIT: if you got 20 min to kill, here's [cody's lab building and testing a mercury vacuum pump like in the olden days](_URL_0_). It's uses some of the same principles.\n",
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"answer": "So you understand that it's a siphon. You could siphon between the two glasses if there was just a single tube.\n\nThe bottle doesn't actually change anything - it could just as easily be a rubber hose connecting the two straws. When the water drops out of the bottle, it creates a vacuum, sucking water into the bottle from the upper glass. The only reason you start with water in the bottle is because you need to have the siphon primed (full of water) in order to get it going.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44489146",
"title": "December 1966",
"section": "Section::::December 7, 1966 (Wednesday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "BULLET::::- David James, a 28-year old graduate student in chemistry at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in Pasadena, demonstrated his discovery of a solution made by combining one part polyethylene oxide to 199 parts of water that could cause water to flow upward, in what he described as a \"tubeless siphon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47488",
"title": "Barometer",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 801,
"text": "Four accounts of Berti's experiment exist, but a simple model of his experiment consisted of filling with water a long tube that had both ends plugged, then standing the tube in a basin already full of water. The bottom end of the tube was opened, and water that had been inside of it poured out into the basin. However, only part of the water in the tube flowed out, and the level of the water inside the tube stayed at an exact level, which happened to be , the same height Baliani and Galileo had observed that was limited by the siphon. What was most important about this experiment was that the lowering water had left a space above it in the tube which had no intermediate contact with air to fill it up. This seemed to suggest the possibility of a vacuum existing in the space above the water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4549327",
"title": "Siphon tubes",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "The simplest siphon tubes are operated by simply filling the tube with water (by immersion in the canal, or other means), keeping one end in the canal and with the other end sealed, placing it in the area to be irrigated. The seal can then be removed and the water will siphon transferring the water from the submerged higher end to the lower end.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "491221",
"title": "Electrowetting",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "Microfluidic manipulation of liquids by electrowetting was demonstrated first with mercury droplets in water and later with water in air and water in oil. Manipulation of droplets on a two-dimensional path was demonstrated later.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3487818",
"title": "Hand pump",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Siphon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 817,
"text": "A siphon (or syphon) at its simplest is a bent tube, with one end placed in the water to be moved, and the other end into the vessel to receive the water. The receiving vessel must be at a lower level than the supplying vessel. Water will always try to find its lowest level. Using this principle, very simple pumps with plastic or rubber bulb with flap valve at each end are used for emptying fuel or water cans into tanks. Once the bulb is full, the fluid will flow without further effort from the higher to the lower container. Many hand pumps will allow the passage of fluid through them in the direction of flow and diaphragm pumps are particularly good at this. Thus where the levels are correct large volumes of liquid such as swimming pools can be emptied with very little effort and no expensive energy use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "459163",
"title": "Siphon",
"section": "Section::::Theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "Once started, a siphon requires no additional energy to keep the liquid flowing up and out of the reservoir. The siphon will draw liquid out of the reservoir until the level falls below the intake, allowing air or other surrounding gas to break the siphon, or until the outlet of the siphon equals the level of the reservoir, whichever comes first.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "238601",
"title": "Quiet PC",
"section": "Section::::Individual components in a quiet PC.:Cooling systems.:Watercooling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
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"text": "Watercooling is a method of heat-dissipation by transferring the heat through a conductive material which is in contact with a liquid, such as demineralised water with an additive to prevent bacterial growth. This water travels in a loop that usually contains a reservoir, radiator and pump. Modern 12 V DC pump technologies allow extremely powerful and quiet designs.\n",
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| null |
2h2tim | what is the definition of life? | [
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"answer": "All known life has a few things in common, organisms (things that are alive) have these in common: they're composed of a cell or cells, undergo metabolism, maintain homeostasis, grow, respond to stimuli, and reproduce. There are a few things that seem to do a few but not all of these processes, like viruses, which is why they're classified as nonlife or as some kind of intermediate gray area between life and nonlife.\n\nWe don't necessarily \"know\" nonlife mutated into life sometime in the past, but we view it as the most likely scenario because we do know that the Earth once had no life, and now, today, it does have life, and also because we know the processes it would have to undergo are theoretically possible. ",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "558685",
"title": "Natural environment",
"section": "Section::::Life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
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"text": "Although there is no universal agreement on the definition of life, scientists generally accept that the biological manifestation of life is characterized by organization, metabolism, growth, adaptation, response to stimuli and reproduction. Life may also be said to be simply the characteristic state of organisms. In biology, the science of living organisms, \"life\" is the condition which distinguishes active organisms from inorganic matter, including the capacity for growth, functional activity and the continual change preceding death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "18393",
"title": "Life",
"section": "Section::::Definitions.:Biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
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"text": "Since there is no unequivocal definition of life, most current definitions in biology are descriptive. Life is considered a characteristic of something that preserves, furthers or reinforces its existence in the given environment. This characteristic exhibits all or most of the following traits:\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "18393",
"title": "Life",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
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"text": "There is currently no consensus regarding the definition of life. One popular definition is that organisms are open systems that maintain homeostasis, are composed of cells, have a life cycle, undergo metabolism, can grow, adapt to their environment, respond to stimuli, reproduce and evolve. However, several other definitions have been proposed, and there are some borderline cases of life, such as viruses or viroids.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "21830",
"title": "Nature",
"section": "Section::::Life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "Although there is no universal agreement on the definition of life, scientists generally accept that the biological manifestation of life is characterized by organization, metabolism, growth, adaptation, response to stimuli, and reproduction. Life may also be said to be simply the characteristic state of organisms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "18393",
"title": "Life",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Life is a characteristic that distinguishes physical entities that have biological processes, such as signaling and self-sustaining processes, from those that do not, either because such functions have ceased (they have died), or because they never had such functions and are classified as inanimate. Various forms of life exist, such as plants, animals, fungi, protists, archaea, and bacteria. The criteria can at times be ambiguous and may or may not define viruses, viroids, or potential synthetic life as \"living\". Biology is the science concerned with the study of life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "20347",
"title": "Meaning of life",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
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"text": "The meaning of life as we perceive it is derived from philosophical and religious contemplation of, and scientific inquiries about existence, social ties, consciousness, and happiness. Many other issues are also involved, such as symbolic meaning, ontology, value, purpose, ethics, good and evil, free will, the existence of one or multiple gods, conceptions of God, the soul, and the afterlife. Scientific contributions focus primarily on describing related empirical facts about the universe, exploring the context and parameters concerning the \"how\" of life. Science also studies and can provide recommendations for the pursuit of well-being and a related conception of morality. An alternative, humanistic approach poses the question, \"What is the meaning of \"my\" life?\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37826297",
"title": "Biotic ethics",
"section": "Section::::Science-based arguments for biotic ethics.:The special place of life in nature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "Biology depends on the precise coincidence of the laws of nuclear physics, gravity, electro-magnetic forces and thermodynamics that allow stars, habitable planets, chemistry and biology to exist. Further, life has an effective purpose, self-propagation. Therefore a universe that contains life, contains purpose. In these respects the universe came to a unique point in life.\n",
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| null |
pe9h9 | category theory. | [
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"answer": "First, let's start with a couple of examples of what math subjects are like.\n\nIn Real Analysis, we start with some set of Real numbers and first we learn some stuff about them. After we know some of their properties, we then look at functions from real numbers to other real numbers, and we begin to ask questions about these functions. For example, are these functions continuous? Differentiable? Do two functions, *f* and *g*, behave nicely under operations like pointwise addition (*f*+*g*), pointwise multiplication(*fg*) and composition (*f*(*g*(x))). Basically, the study of functions on real numbers.\n\nIn Calculus, we begin with a bunch of (usually continuous, but they need not be) functions and learn a bit about them. Then we look at these two operators d/dx and ∫*f*dx that send differentiable functions to continuous functions and vice versa. (Someone could probably point out some technicalities in that Riemann integrals can operate on piecewise continuous functions and Lebesgue integrals can even work on functions with up to a countably infinite number of discontinuities, but they would be a nerd for pointing out such petty details) Then we begin to ask questions about whether multiple derivatives make sense, whether these processes are invertible, and how the set of functions changes on each apllication(ie the set of continuous functions is larger than the set of differentiable functions, which is smaller than the set of twice differentiable functions) and so on. Basically, the study of derivatives and integrals on functions.\n\nIn linear algebra, we begin by looking at some things called vectors that live in a vector field. After learning some of the ways they interact with each other through addition and scalar multiplication, we then ask questions about linear operators that relate some vectors to other vectors so that these structures are preserved. For example, are these operators bounded? Compact? How do they behave under composition? Basically, the study of linear operators on vectors\n\nNow, if we ignore the jargon terms then all the above paragraphs are essentially the same. \n\nCategory theory then is basically doing this same process abstractly on potentially unknown objects. That is, it is the study of morphisms(a fancy word for functions) acting on objects(which live in some category, hence the name). The goal, in some sense, is to work out the least number of properties we need to know about the category to know something about the morphisms. \n\nIn turn, we might then be able to sum up many branches of math at once, and say that since both the real numbers and vectors have property A, the morphisms on these categories, functions and linear operators must have property B, and this might save us work if a new branch of math was to open up. More mathematically, it also helps highlight the similarities and differences between various branches of math, and show us deep symmetries that we didn't notice before.",
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"wikipedia_id": "53759",
"title": "Category (mathematics)",
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"text": "\"Category theory\" is a branch of mathematics that seeks to generalize all of mathematics in terms of categories, independent of what their objects and arrows represent. Virtually every branch of modern mathematics can be described in terms of categories, and doing so often reveals deep insights and similarities between seemingly different areas of mathematics. As such, category theory provides an alternative foundation for mathematics to set theory and other proposed axiomatic foundations. In general, the objects and arrows may be abstract entities of any kind, and the notion of category provides a fundamental and abstract way to describe mathematical entities and their relationships. \n",
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"wikipedia_id": "16868392",
"title": "List of types of functions",
"section": "Section::::Relation to category theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
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"text": "Category theory is a branch of mathematics that formalizes the notion of a special function via arrows or morphisms. A category is an algebraic object that (abstractly) consists of a class of \"objects\", and for every pair of objects, a set of \"morphisms\". A partial (equiv. dependently typed) binary operation called composition is provided on morphisms, every object has one special morphism from it to itself called the identity on that object, and composition and identities are required to obey certain relations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "5869",
"title": "Category theory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Category theory formalizes mathematical structure and its concepts in terms of a labeled directed graph called a \"category\", whose nodes are called \"objects\", and whose labelled directed edges are called \"arrows\" (or morphisms). A category has two basic properties: the ability to compose the arrows associatively, and the existence of an identity arrow for each object. The language of category theory has been used to formalize concepts of other high-level abstractions such as sets, rings, and groups. Informally, category theory is a general theory of functions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "186023",
"title": "Unifying theories in mathematics",
"section": "Section::::Category theory as a rival.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Category theory is a unifying theory of mathematics that was initially developed in the second half of the 20th century. In this respect it is an alternative and complement to set theory. A key theme from the \"categorical\" point of view is that mathematics requires not only certain kinds of objects (Lie groups, Banach spaces, etc.) but also mappings between them that preserve their structure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "61324337",
"title": "Applied category theory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Applied category theory is an academic discipline in which methods from category theory are used to study other fields including but not limited to computer science, physics (in particular quantum mechanics), control theory, natural language processing, probability theory and causality. The application of category theory in these domains can take different forms. In some cases the formalization of the domain into the language of category theory is the goal, the idea here being that this would elucidate the important structure and properties of the domain. In other cases the formalization is used to leverage the power of abstraction in order to prove new results about the field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "33017072",
"title": "Outline of formal science",
"section": "Section::::Branches of formal science.:Mathematics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "BULLET::::- Category theory – area of study in mathematics that examines in an abstract way the properties of particular mathematical concepts, by formalising them as collections of objects and arrows (also called morphisms, although this term also has a specific, non-category-theoretical sense), where these collections satisfy some basic conditions\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "53759",
"title": "Category (mathematics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "In mathematics, a category (sometimes called an abstract category to distinguish it from a concrete category) is a collection of \"objects\" that are linked by \"arrows\". A category has two basic properties: the ability to compose the arrows associatively and the existence of an identity arrow for each object. A simple example is the category of sets, whose objects are sets and whose arrows are functions. \n",
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| null |
2lr27z | what is/are the difference/s between the arabic, turkish and persian people? | [
{
"answer": "All of them have a different language.\n\nArabic and Persians are very much oriental people, Turks are more \"western\".\n\nArabic and Persians ancestors always seems to be in the place they live now.Turkish people ancestors are from Middle Asia.\n\nYou can find more \"sub-races\" or basically races in Turkey(so much different appeareances, like some brunette people like Arabic or some Turks like from Scandinav)\n\nAbout social in Saudi Arabia and Iran have some rules because of Islamic goverment. Womens Sexual things etc. (the mysterious ninja womens!) In Turkey this is not a rule thanks to being a secular country(this is looking to be end in few years)\n\nAbout Empires, Ottoman Empire was \"Turkish-based\"(thats not a thing after 400+ years because of the mom of the kings. they was from other races)And the Empire was ruled these people for more than +500 years.\n\n\n\nPS:I tried to explain something with a bad english pls dont mind some mistakes :)\n\nEdit:I'm from Turkey.\n",
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"answer": "Turks came from the Central Asian steppe as nomadic horsemen in late 1st/early 2nd millennium, taking over what had been the Byzantine, or Eastern Roman, Empire completely by the 15th century. The first Turks were Seljuk Turks; later came the Ottomans who created an empire that ruled much of the Middle East until WW1. They spread into South-Eastern Europe also. The Ottomans and Seljuks were Muslim; earlier Turks had been pagan or Christian even. They have their own Turkish language. Turkic peoples still live in Central Asia, notably in Turkmenistan. Azeris are also Turkic culturally, speaking a Turkic language, albeit including an admixture of Persian and Caucasian elements in their ethnic make-up.\n\nThe Arabs came from Arabia, where they existed as tribes that were not unified to spread their influence until the arrival of Islam with Muhammad in the 8th century. Arab armies then spread as far as Central Asia, conquering and converting all in their path very rapidly. This empire was later fragmented and lost; however they remained a largely Muslim people. Prior to Islam they were pagans, Christians or Jews. Like Jews they are a Semitic race and consider themselves children of Abraham. The Romans had extensive dealings with them as did the Persians and everybody since. They currently occupy Arabia and large swathes of Asia Minor outside Iran and Turkey as well as North Africa. They have their own Arabic language.\n\nThe Persians's recorded history goes back much further than either the Turks or the Arabs. They are an Indo-Aryan race that originates in what is now Iran and their culture dates back to early-Classical times, when they are famous for fighting with the Greeks. At times the dominant group, and hence the name of their empire, has been the Persians, Medes or Parthians, although all groups are now merged into the Iranian people. Other Persian empires have been named after the ruling family, as per the Ottoman/Seljuk Turkish Empires, including the Sassanid and Achaemenid Empires (which were many centuries apart.) the Persians were mainly Zoroastrian until they converted to Islam. As Muslims they are mainly Shia. They too have their own Persian language. The Kurds are a Persian people, although culturally distinct from modern Persian Iranians.\n\nThere are many cultural similarities between all three cultures due to the shifting boundaries of their Empires over thousands of years and shared Muslim faith.\n\nI could go on and on, but hopefully this gives you some insight and a fairly simple précis to aid further research of your own. It's a fascinating region and set of cultures!\n\nEdit: added that Seljuk Turks were also Muslim for clarity... Turkish people were originally pagan pre-Muslim era and some Turks living in Anatolia under Byzantine rule were Christian; however, both the Seljuks and Ottomans were definitely Muslims (although this did not prevent the Seljuks from enjoying very good relations and close alliances with the Christian Byzantines at various points, in between the times they fought...) \n\nAlso added a little information about other Turkic peoples, although having done so I notice that /u/HannasAnarion has done so in greater detail below rendering my edit somewhat superfluous :)",
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"wikipedia_id": "3054366",
"title": "Replacement of loanwords in Turkish",
"section": "Section::::Lists of replaced loanwords.:Loanwords of Persian origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Most of the original Persian words are still widely used in modern Turkish. In fact, there are over 1,500 Persian words in Turkish. However, for many of the Persian words (unlike Arabic words), there is no TDK-prescribed equivalent. TDK did not put as much effort into replacing Persian words as it did for Arabic words, largely because the Persian words were better assimilated into the language. Arabic language and culture is general perceived by Turks to be more \"foreign\" than Persian language and culture, which had a native presence in Anatolia since the time of the Achaemenids, and was patronised for millennia afterwards by other dynasties with a presence in Anatolia such as the Sasanians, Seleucids, Seljuks, Sultanate of Rum, and lastly, the Ottomans, amongst others.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "11600",
"title": "Persian language",
"section": "Section::::Vocabulary.:Influences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
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"text": "The inclusion of Mongolic and Turkic elements in the Persian language should also be mentioned, not only because of the political role a succession of Turkic dynasties played in Iranian history, but also because of the immense prestige Persian language and literature enjoyed in the wider (non-Arab) Islamic world, which was often ruled by sultans and emirs with a Turkic background. The Turkish and Mongolian vocabulary in Persian is minor in comparison to that of Arabic and these words were mainly confined to military, pastoral terms and political sector (titles, administration, etc.). New military and political titles were coined based partially on Middle Persian (e.g. \"arteš\" for \"army\", instead of the Uzbek \"qoʻshin\"; \"sarlaškar\"; \"daryābān\"; etc.) in the 20th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "2611270",
"title": "Persian and Urdu",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "Modern Persian has three major variants: Western Persian (spoken primarily in Iran, known by its native speakers as \"Farsi\", the literal Persian word for itself), Dari (spoken as a lingua franca by a large majority of Afghans) and Tajik (spoken by the Tajiks of Tajikistan). These variants are almost entirely mutually intelligible with one another.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "11600",
"title": "Persian language",
"section": "Section::::Vocabulary.:Influences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
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"text": "While having a lesser influence on Arabic and other languages of Mesopotamia and its core vocabulary being of Middle Persian origin, New Persian contains a considerable amount of Arabic lexical items, which were Persianized and often took a different meaning and usage than the Arabic original. Persian loanwords of Arabic origin especially include Islamic terms. The Arabic vocabulary in other Iranian, Turkic and Indic languages is generally understood to have been copied from New Persian, not from Arabic itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1908716",
"title": "Persian Arab",
"section": "Section::::Self-identification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "The term Persian Arab is rarely used as a self-appellation. Most tend to identify more strongly as either Persian or Arab and consider themselves to be members primarily of one ethnic group, but at the same time being aware of their mixed background. For many the most important factor determining their identity is the sovereign state in which they live or from which their recent ancestors came from.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "11600",
"title": "Persian language",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
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"text": "Persian has left a considerable influence on its neighboring languages, including other Iranian languages, the Turkic languages, Armenian, Georgian and the Indo-Aryan languages (especially Urdu). It also exerted some influence on Arabic, particularly Bahrani Arabic, while borrowing much vocabulary from it under medieval Arab rule.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "370878",
"title": "Dialect continuum",
"section": "Section::::Middle East.:Persian.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "The Persian language in its various varieties (Tajiki and Dari), is representative of a dialect continuum. The divergence of Tajik was accelerated by the shift from the Perso-Arabic alphabet to a Cyrillic one under the Soviets. Western dialects of Persian show greater influence from Arabic and Oghuz Turkic languages, but Dari and Tajik tend to preserve many classical features in grammar and vocabulary.\n",
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| null |
3m8w7q | Would we really have made more scientific progress today if it where not for the decline of the roman empire and the dark ages? | [
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"answer": "For one, the Roman Empire was actually not a very innovative entity. There are a few pieces of advanced technology like concrete which would not be re-discovered until after the renaissance but for the most part the Empire was simply good at achieving the economy of scale through mass deployment of capital to accomplish public works projects (i.e roads, Coliseum) using existing technology.\n\nSecond of all the Medieval era had a -higher- rate of technological advancements than the Roman period. The medieval period saw significant advances in agricultural techniques (i.e the two fields/three fields system), equipment (i.e the heavy plow, better shipping) and machinery (i.e the windmill and the mechanical clock). While they \"looked\" less impressive than the Coliseum those are in fact more important in enhancing productivity and building up the basis for industrialization (i.e the first mechanical looms in the 18th century).\n\nThe other big thing is that people have a tendency to emphasis hardware (i.e steam engines, concrete) but it was really \"software\" (i.e commercial institutions which allows capital to be routed towards industrialization) which was probably the more important factor in industrialization. \n\nLast of all it should noted that the eastern half of the Empire (Byzantium) actually did survive for another 1000 years and did not industrialize. The idea that Rome was a lost technological paradise when compare to the Medieval era doesn't hold water upon closer examination.",
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"wikipedia_id": "14901914",
"title": "Roman technology",
"section": "Section::::Roman military technology.:Other innovations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
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"text": "In summary, Rome contributed numerous advances in technology to the Ancient World. However, it is also viewed that \"the ancient world under the domination of Rome [in fact] reached a kind of climax in the technological field [as] many technologies had advanced as far as possible with the equipment then available\". This concept of perfecting the unperfected was a theme that governed Roman technological supremacy throughout its 1,470 year reign. Ideas that had already been invented or designed: like the pontoon bridge, aqueduct, and military surgery, were constructed or utilized to perfection by Roman innovators. It's the innovation of technology that contributed to Rome's military success.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "118450",
"title": "Innovation",
"section": "Section::::Measures.:Future.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
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"end_character": 629,
"text": "In 2005 Jonathan Huebner, a physicist working at the Pentagon's Naval Air Warfare Center, argued on the basis of both U.S. patents and world technological breakthroughs, per capita, that the rate of human technological innovation peaked in 1873 and has been slowing ever since. In his article, he asked \"Will the level of technology reach a maximum and then decline as in the Dark Ages?\" In later comments to \"New Scientist\" magazine, Huebner clarified that while he believed that we will reach a rate of innovation in 2024 equivalent to that of the Dark Ages, he was not predicting the reoccurrence of the Dark Ages themselves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "14901914",
"title": "Roman technology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
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"text": "The Roman Empire was one of the most technologically advanced civilizations of antiquity, with some of the more advanced concepts and inventions forgotten during the turbulent eras of Late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages. Gradually, some of the technological feats of the Romans were rediscovered and/or improved upon during the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Modern Era; with some in areas such as civil engineering, construction materials, transport technology, and certain inventions such as the mechanical reaper, not improved upon until the 19th century. The Romans achieved high levels of technology in large part because they borrowed technologies from the Greeks, Etruscans, Celts, and others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "22290735",
"title": "Legacy of the Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Inventions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
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"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "This combination of new methodologies, technical innovation, and creative invention in the military gave Rome the edge against its adversaries for half a millennium, and with it, the ability to create an empire that even today, more than 2000 years later, continues to leave its legacy in many areas of modern life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "6258",
"title": "Civilization",
"section": "Section::::Fall of civilizations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 345,
"text": "BULLET::::- Joseph Tainter in \"The Collapse of Complex Societies\" suggested that there were diminishing returns to complexity, due to which, as states achieved a maximum permissible complexity, they would decline when further increases actually produced a negative return. Tainter suggested that Rome achieved this figure in the 2nd century CE.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "22290735",
"title": "Legacy of the Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Inventions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
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"text": "That said, the Romans also developed a huge array of new technologies and innovations. Many came from common themes but were vastly superior to what had come before, whilst others were totally new inventions developed by and for the needs of Empire and the Roman way of life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "2293952",
"title": "Ancient technology",
"section": "Section::::Ancient civilizations.:Roman.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "Roman technology supported Roman civilization and made the expansion of Roman commerce and Roman military possible over nearly a thousand years. The Roman Empire had an advanced set of technology for their time. Some of the Roman technology in Europe may have been lost during the turbulent eras of Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. Roman technological feats in many different areas like: civil engineering, construction materials, transport technology, and some inventions such as the mechanical reaper went unmatched until the 19th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1iyf4t | why are black holes not infinitely bright? | [
{
"answer": "If the photon is permanently caught, it cannot make it to your eye.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'll try to clarify what I think is the main point of confusion:\n\nPhotons are not bright in the sense that you can see one flying past you. The **only** way to see a photon is for it to collide with your retina, thus adding energy to specific molecules in your cone or rod cells, causing them to change shape and trigger an electrical impulse to your brain. Objects that look bright do so because they emit lots of photons that enter your eyes and hit your retina.\n\nThis plays into another common ELI5 question of \"could you see a laser in space\". The answer to that is no, not unless the laser hits something and some of the photons bounce off that something and into your eyes.\n\nLikewise, you could not see photons in orbit around a black hole unless they left that orbit and hit your eyes.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "67227",
"title": "A Brief History of Time",
"section": "Section::::Summary.:Chapter 6: Black Holes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "Black holes are difficult to find because they do not let out any light. They can be found when black holes suck in other stars. When black holes suck in other stars, the black hole lets out X-rays, which can be seen by telescopes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "24467573",
"title": "Black star (semiclassical gravity)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "A black star with a radius slightly greater than the predicted event horizon for an equivalent-mass black hole will appear very dark, because almost all light produced will be drawn back to the star, and any escaping light will be severely gravitationally redshifted. It will appear almost exactly like a black hole. It will feature Hawking radiation, as virtual particle pairs created in its vicinity may still be split, with one particle escaping and the other being trapped. Additionally, it will create thermal Planckian radiation that will closely resemble the expected Hawking radiation of an equivalent black hole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "23922614",
"title": "Primordial black hole",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "Primordial black holes belong to the class of massive compact halo objects (MACHOs). They are naturally a good dark matter candidate: they are (nearly) collision-less and stable (if sufficiently massive), they have non-relativistic velocities, and they form very early in the history of the Universe (typically less than one second after the Big Bang). Nevertheless, tight limits on their abundance have been set up from various astrophysical and cosmological observations, so that it is now excluded that they contribute significantly to dark matter over most of the plausible mass range.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "67227",
"title": "A Brief History of Time",
"section": "Section::::Summary.:Chapter 6: Black Holes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Black holes are talked about in this chapter. Black holes are stars that have collapsed into one very small point. This small point is called a \"singularity\". Black holes suck things into their center because they have very strong gravity. Some of the things it can suck in are light and stars. Only very large stars, called \"super-giants\", are big enough to become a black hole. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "240972",
"title": "White hole",
"section": "Section::::1980s–present.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "A view of black holes first proposed in the late 1980s might be interpreted as shedding some light on the nature of classical white holes. Some researchers have proposed that when a black hole forms, a Big Bang may occur at the core, which would create a new universe that expands outside of the parent universe. See also Fecund universes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "25776254",
"title": "American Astronomical Society 215th meeting",
"section": "Section::::Black hole update.:Intermediate mass black hole.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 819,
"text": "In a globular cluster 65 million light years from Earth evidence is accumulating that a black hole, one thousand times more massive than the sun, has caused the destruction of a white dwarf star. It appears that the white dwarf is heating up as it falls toward the black hole. This event creates an intense stellar astrophysical X-ray source, called an ultraluminous X-ray source. The indication of this type of strong X-ray source means that it is more luminous than any known stellar X-ray source, but less luminous than the X-ray intensity of supermassive black holes, which places it in the range of theorized intermediate black holes. Their exact nature of ULXs has remained a mystery, but one suggestion is that some ULXs are black holes with masses between about a hundred and a thousands times that of the Sun.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5595777",
"title": "Luminous infrared galaxy",
"section": "Section::::ELIRG.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1010,
"text": "There are three reasons the black holes in the ELIRGs could be massive. First, the embryonic black holes might be bigger than thought possible. Second, the Eddington limit was exceeded. When a black hole feeds, gas falls in and heats, emitting light. The pressure of the emitted light forces the gas outward, creating a limit to how fast the black hole can continuously absorb matter. If a black hole broke this limit, it could theoretically increase in size at a fast rate. Black holes have previously been observed breaking this limit; the black hole in the study would have had to repeatedly break the limit to grow this large. Third, the black holes might just be bending this limit, absorbing gas faster than thought possible, if the black hole is not spinning fast. If a black hole spins slowly, it will not repel its gas absorption as much. A slow-spinning black hole can absorb more matter than a fast-spinning black hole. The massive black holes in ELIRGs could be absorbing matter for a longer time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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| null |
6xeuh3 | How much does drinking a cold drink really affect your body temperature? | [
{
"answer": "We can do a very(!) rough back of the envelope calculation.\n\nAssume a 100kg person (I like round numbers). Assume that they're all water, so we have 100 litres. Assume that they're at body temperature, so about 310 Kelvin.\n\nNow you drink 0.2 liters of ice cold water, 273 Kelvin.\n\nSince both are water, they'll have the same heat capacity and the end temperature will be just a simple weighted average:\n\nT = (100 * 310 + 0.2 * 273) / (100 + 0.2) = 309.93\n\nso it's almost negligible, like a 0.07 degree drop.\n\nIf you wanted to be more accurate, you could use the average specific heat capacity of the human body. I can find it via google, but that would take the fun out of computing it. You'd use a weighted average of the capacity of water (60% of human body is water) and of things like proteins, fat, bones.\n\nIt wouldn't _drastically_ alter the equation though, the fact that the drop in temperature would be small will remain. \n\nLike, let's use the factor 0.5:\n\n(50 * 310 + 0.2 * 273) / (50 + 0.2) = 309.85, so now we're looking at a .15 degree drop. Still negligibly small.",
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"answer": "Your body is an active machine programmed to keep a constant body temperature.\n\nIf I throw you into a pool of cold water your body will start sacrificing blood flow to limbs in order to maintain your core temperature. Therefore any change is actively counter balanced.\n\nIf you are asking about the ACTUAL change in temperature and expecting a difference you are SOL. If you are asking how much a fews cups of cold water have on a large blob of warm water that is easy. ",
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"answer": "I'm an anesthesiologist. We monitor body temperature during surgery because anesthesia inhibits your ability to autoregulate temperature. Essentially you are turned into a poikilotherm like a snake, and lose heat to the cold operating room. An inability to contract your muscles prevents you from generating heat. We have a rule of thumb that 1 liter of room temperature intravenous fluids will reduce a patient's body temperature by 0.25 degrees Celsius. We used forced air warming blankets and heated IV fluids to maintain a normal body temperature, which helps the body to metabolize medications predictably and the blood to clot properly. \n\nAfter reading comments I want to add that the reason I brought up anesthesia here is that only when you remove the body's ability to generate heat can you actually measure a reduction in temperature, unless you infuse the fluid very quickly. When we drink cold fluids, the body generates heat to correct the drop in temperature before an appreciable difference can be measured. \n\nFurthermore, there are some interesting studies out there on this. Many involve rapidly administering cold IV fluids in attempt to show that hypothermia is protective against neurologic injury in situations such as cardiac arrest. \n\nHere is one study: \n\nAnn Emerg Med. 2008 Feb;51(2):153-9. Epub 2007 Nov 28.\n\nThey infuse cold and room temperature fluids rapidly in non anesthetized patients and measure a temperature change before compensatory mechanisms (shivering) can restore the body to normal temp. This is better than my rule of thumb as it uses weight-based dosing for IV fluids. Interesting, 30ml/kg of room temp fluid reduced the body core temp by 0.5 Celsius degrees. That would be 3 liters of fluid for a 100kg (220lb) person. Cold fluid reduced the body temp by a full degree Celsius. ",
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"answer": "IIRC blood temperature is \"measured\" by the hypothalamus as part of thermal homeostasis. While a cold drink won't do much to cool the whole body's water content down you do have a good blood supply to the stomach and digestive system. I'd think that the the heat exchange between blood and cold drink in there would drop the blood temperature in the short term and con the brain into thinking the overall body temperature has dropped. \n\nYou can get a similar effect by sticking ice or a cold can on your neck near the returning blood supply to the brain. You feel cooler. \n\nCourse that's like blowing cold air on the thermostat in your house. Doesn't cool the house down. Just makes the HVAC think it's not needed.",
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"answer": "You can check this article on popsci: _URL_0_\n\nLong story in short: There are some heat receptors in stomach helping your body determine sweating and drinking hot beverages may freshen you since you sweat more (and if the place is windy so that your sweat would vaporize, unless you just feel hotter) and drinking cold beverages lessen your sweating after an instant cooling so it depends on the environment. If the place is chilly/windy like in front of a fan, hot drinks better. But most of the time cool beverages are the best.",
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"answer": "You may have also heard that drinking cold water burns calories as that water needs to be heated to body temperature after consumption. That is objectively true. The numbers are pretty underwhelming however. It costs your body approximately 8 calories (Kcal actually) to heat 1 glass of ice water to body temperature.",
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"answer": "If you drink 1000mL of 2.6°C water, your body will raise it's temperature to body temp 37.6°C or +35°C. A small-c calorie is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1mL of water by 1°C, so your body will burn 35000 small-c calories to raise the water temperature (plus some extra for muscle/brain/blood stuff).\n\nThere are 1000 small-c calories in a big-c Calorie, or food Calorie. So you burn at least 35 Calories by drinking a cold liter of water. Go ahead and splurge on that [extra plain rice cake](_URL_0_) buddy, you earned it.",
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"answer": "Assume beverage is 500 ml at 0 degrees C and a core body temp of 37 C and a body mass of 70 kg, 18.5 kcal will be absorbed. Assuming uniform distribution of heat with a specific heat of water, temp will drop by 0.26 centigrade degrees.",
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"answer": "The body autoregulates it's temperature through the hypothalamus, so when you're hot, your body tries to cool itself off. Conversely, if you're cold (or drink something cold), the body warms itself. This happens very rapidly. \n\nI work as a provider in an ER. We see staff tell parents to take off blankets and excess clothing of children that come in with fever, with the idea being it will help cool them off. However, there are recent studies demonstrating that there was no significant difference in body temperature changes between a group that did remove excess layers vs a group that did not; the idea being that the body is purposefully heating itself to fight an infection, thus protecting itself, and does not \"want\" to cool down. ",
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"answer": "probably less than 5 calories (not kilocalories) and less than 0.1 degrees change in temperatures \n\nyou have a 70kg person at 36.5 degrees celcius, even 1L of ice cold water at 0 degrees is not going to make a big difference",
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"answer": "This is my fault and I'm sorry. \n\nI started the entire rumour about drinking ice-temperature water would let you lose eight pounds in a year. In the year 2000, I was a second-year engineering student and my now-ex-wife asked me the question about whether drinking ice water would let you lose weight. \n\nSo I assumed the human body was adiabatic, that the water was 0C, and that the energy required to convert that water to 37C was all provided by food energy. So m*c*deltaT, - > 4.2 * 250 * 37 = 38, 850 ~= 9 dieter's calories.\n\n365 days in a year, that's 3285 calories in a year for one glass of ice water, which is more-or-less a pound. Every glass of ice water was a pound a year, thus 8 glasses of ice water would net you a loss of 8 pounds a year. \n\nThe problem was the initial assumptions were totally flawed; I didn't know about how much waste heat the human body provides. You wouldn't lose any weight from drinking ice water because you would just emit a little less heat into the environment. ",
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"answer": "Not in any way you're going to notice. Your body works hard to keep your temperature the same. If you were to drink enough cold water to change your body temperature noticeably it would be extremely uncomfortable.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If mean body temperature is 35 degrees Celsius and body mass is 75 kg, drinking 0.5 kg of cold water at 5 degrees Celsius will decrease the final temperature of the combined mass of 75.5 kg by about 0.2 degrees.\n\nNote that mean body temperature is not the same as core temperature (the temperature within your torso where the internal organs are); the temperature of body extremities and skin is usually lower than the core temperature.\n\nHowever this is not really realistic way to look at things because human body produces heat and the cold liquid does not and cannot immediately change the overall temperature of the body, regardless of how good a heat conductor living tissue (water) might be.\n\nA more sensible way to look at the situation is to estimate the amount of energy required to bring the cold fluid up to core temperature of ~37 degrees Celsius, which of course is exactly what happens after you drink it - the body around the cool liquid initially cools down while the water is warming, but instead of reaching a thermal equilibrium at some lower temperature, the body's thermoregulation kicks in and your body produces some extra heat to bring itself back up to normal temperature. So, the actual answer to your question is that drinking a cold drink *doesn't* really affect your body temperature, because the body keeps its own temperature at what it should be.\n\nInstead you could ask, what does the body have to do to maintain its temperature after drinking a cold drink?\n\nSo, if you drink 0.5 kilograms of water at 5 degrees Celsius and it needs to be heated to 37 degrees Celsius, the change of temperature is +32 Kelvins, specific heat of water is 4.178 kJ/(kg K), so the total energy expenditure of heating the water is 66.848 kJ, which rounds up to about 67 kJ.\n\nThis is about 16 kcal, in nutrition energy terms, so by drinking half a litre of fairly cold water you spend about that many kilocalories. Not really a big shift of balance either way.\n\nOf course, if you're drinking something else than water, the energy expenditure usually gets obliterated by the energy content of whatever you're drinking. Beer, for example can contain as much as 200 kJ per 100 ml, so a 500 ml can of beer (not quite a full pint but close enough) can contain as much as 1,000 kJ of energy, or 240 kcal if you prefer. By comparison, classic Coca-Cola contains 176 kJ / 100ml, so 880 kJ for half a litre drink.",
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"answer": "Not a whole lot. For instance when donating blood or plasma you are advised not to drink anything too hot or cold before they take your temp. It will never lower it more than .5 degrees but that can make a difference.",
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"answer": "I lived most my life in the South where it gets plenty hot. Drinking a liter of cold water always feels good. It keeps you hydrated, obviously. But you can feel it cooling the blood coursing through your body. So maybe not an overall temperature decrease, but a temporary cooling sensation? What say you Science?",
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"answer": "Well it should be really simple. We're made of mostly water. Drinks are made of mostly water. If we're 70kg, and standing out in the sun all day so our body temperature is 39 degrees instead of 37, and we quaff 1L of ice water, an approximate calculation is simple to do.\n\n70kg@39C + 1kg@0C = (39/70) degree reduction in your temperature. You would expect to be about 38.5 degrees afterward.",
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"answer": "What about drinking something cold causing other things to happen, for example diarrhea. I live and work in China and everyone always says drinking cold water will give you diarrhea and make you sick. I have always assumed it wouldn't be able to lower your body temperature that much and that cold water would only give you diarrhea if it was from a stream or lake and bacteria was present in the water. Is there any scientific evidence to suggest that drinking cold water would cause diarrhea? I've been arguing about this with my friends for years and would love some scientific evidence to prove either side",
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},
{
"answer": "Thermodynamics is not my strong suit but I would assume the cold liquid would take the energy from the system (in this case, the body) and homeostasis would kick in and expend energy to bring the temperature up to normal.\n\nFor example; drink 1L of water at 7 degrees Celsius the body would expend roughly 30,000 calories (or 30 kCal) bringing the temperature of the water to body temperature (yes, I know the water is technically leeching heat from the body until they both reach an equilibrium temperature then the body expends energy bringing itself up to 37C).",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "\"When we encounter cold air or water, the lacy network of blood vessels in the skin constricts, and blood is hastily shunted to the interior. ... It's not a total gain, though, because exercise also increases blood flow to the skin, so some body heat escapes.\"\n\n_URL_2_\n\n\"Drink room temperature water for digestion, detox, and pain relief. When you drink cold water, your blood vessels shrink, and this restricts your digestion. Warm water helps break down food, aids constipation, and even helps you lose weight while improving your blood circulation.\"\n\n_URL_1_\n\n\"When you drink cold beverages your blood vessels shrink, your digestion becomes restricted and hydration is hindered.....\"\n\n_URL_0_",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8331759",
"title": "Human body temperature",
"section": "Section::::Variations.:Variations due to outside factors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "Temperature is increased after eating or drinking anything with calories. Caloric restriction, as for a weight-loss diet, decreases overall body temperature. Drinking alcohol decreases the amount of daily change, slightly lowering daytime temperatures and noticeably raising nighttime temperatures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146879",
"title": "Hypothermia",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Fluids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "For people who are alert and able to swallow, drinking warm sweetened liquids can help raise the temperature. Many recommend alcohol and caffeinated drinks be avoided. As most people are moderately dehydrated due to cold-induced diuresis, warmed intravenous fluids to a temperature of are often recommended.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "321956",
"title": "List of common misconceptions",
"section": "Section::::Science and technology.:Human body and health.:Nutrition, food, and drink.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 188,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 188,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "BULLET::::- Alcoholic beverages do not make the entire body warmer. The reason that alcoholic drinks create the sensation of warmth is that they cause blood vessels to dilate and stimulate nerve endings near the surface of the skin with an influx of warm blood. This can actually result in making the core body temperature lower, as it allows for easier heat exchange with a cold external environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "337566",
"title": "Long-term effects of alcohol consumption",
"section": "Section::::Immune system.:Common cold.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "A study on the common cold found that \"Greater numbers of alcoholic drinks (up to three or four per day) were associated with decreased risk for developing colds because drinking was associated with decreased illness following infection. However, the benefits of drinking occurred only among nonsmokers. [...] Although alcohol consumption did not influence risk of clinical illness for smokers, moderate alcohol consumption was associated with decreased risk for nonsmokers.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "34663305",
"title": "Three Legs Cooling Water",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "The drink is said to be effective in preventing or alleviating common ailments such as ulcer, fever or toothache which can occur as a result of too much \"heatiness\" within the body. Other general symptoms indicating heatiness include red eyes, profuse sweating, irritability, loss of concentration, and fatigue. A diet with too much fried or spicy food, consumption of alcohol, stress, smoking, late nights and a humid weather are also some factors that can easily upset the body and cause the condition of \"heatiness\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "78209",
"title": "Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi",
"section": "Section::::Contributions to medicine.:Books and articles on medicine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "He criticized moreover Galen's theory that the body possessed four separate \"humors\" (liquid substances), whose balance are the key to health and a natural body-temperature. A sure way to upset such a system was to insert a liquid with a different temperature into the body resulting in an increase or decrease of bodily heat, which resembled the temperature of that particular fluid. Razi noted that a warm drink would heat up the body to a degree much higher than its own natural temperature. Thus the drink would trigger a response from the body, rather than transferring only its own warmth or coldness to it. (\"Cf.\" I. E. Goodman)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146879",
"title": "Hypothermia",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Alcohol.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "Alcohol consumption increases the risk of hypothermia in two ways: vasodilation and temperature controlling systems in the brain. Vasodilation increases blood flow to the skin, resulting in heat being lost to the environment. This produces the effect of an individual \"feeling\" warm, when they are actually losing heat. Alcohol also affects the temperature-regulating system in the brain, decreasing the body's ability to shiver and use energy that would normally aid the body in generating heat. The overall effects of alcohol lead to a decrease in body temperature and a decreased ability to generate body heat in response to cold environments. Alcohol is a common risk factor for death due to hypothermia. Between 33% and 73% of hypothermia cases are complicated by alcohol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
h2lqn | Is it possible to develop astigmatism over time? | [
{
"answer": "My optometrist has informed me that in more serious cases of myopia, astigmatism usually develops. I myself are about -10 and -11 for myopia, and has astigmatism (although I forgot the axes figures).\n\nThe cause of either disease has never been made clear to me, and I'd be interested to hear from a professional the reasons for it.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "43592",
"title": "John Herschel",
"section": "Section::::Early life and work on astronomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "Herschel correctly considered astigmatism to be due to irregularity of the cornea and theorised that vision could be improved by the application of some animal jelly contained in a capsule of glass against the cornea. His views were published in an article entitled Light in 1828 and the \"Encyclopædia Metropolitana\" in 1845.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "585614",
"title": "Astigmatism (optical systems)",
"section": "Section::::Forms of astigmatism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "The second form of astigmatism occurs when the optical system is not symmetric about the optical axis. This may be by design (as in the case of a cylindrical lens), or due to manufacturing error in the surfaces of the components or misalignment of the components. In this case, astigmatism is observed even for rays from on-axis object points. This form of astigmatism is extremely important in vision science and eye care, since the human eye often exhibits this aberration due to imperfections in the shape of the cornea or the lens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4688195",
"title": "Astigmatism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "The cause of astigmatism is unclear. It is believed to be partly related to genetic factors. The underlying mechanism involves an irregular curvature of the cornea or abnormalities in the lens of the eye. Diagnosis is by an eye exam.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "417929",
"title": "LASIK",
"section": "Section::::Wavefront-guided.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "The \"leftover\" astigmatism after a purely surface-guided laser correction can be calculated beforehand, and is called ocular residual astigmatism (ORA). ORA is a calculation of astigmatism due to the noncorneal surface (internal) optics. The purely refraction-based approach represented by wavefront analysis actually conflicts with corneal surgical experience developed over many years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "727245",
"title": "Pseudomorph",
"section": "Section::::In other fields.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "In philosophy, the concept of pseudomorphosis was used by the German philosopher Oswald Spengler to describe how the forms of an older, more widely dispersed culture condition the expression forms of a younger, emerging culture, leading the latter to develop into forms that are fundamentally alien to its own world-feeling, and thereby preventing it from fully developing its own self-consciousness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "585614",
"title": "Astigmatism (optical systems)",
"section": "Section::::Forms of astigmatism.:Astigmatism in systems that are not rotationally symmetric.:Ophthalmic astigmatism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
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"text": "Astigmatism is quite common. Studies have shown that about one in three people suffers from it. The prevalence of astigmatism increases with age. Although a person may not notice mild astigmatism, higher amounts of astigmatism may cause blurry vision, squinting, asthenopia, fatigue, or headaches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1695286",
"title": "Intermetamorphosis",
"section": "Section::::Etiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Explanations for the occurrence of intermetamorphosis were first given by psychodynamic theorists. These theories typically involve a psychotic resolution towards an individual’s feelings of intense ambivalence about the misidentified object. These theories may also involve the egos and identity-forming, as well as defense mechanisms involving splitting the negative and positive aspects of the self. Despite their initial popularity, there is not much empirical support for these psychodynamic explanations.\n",
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| null |
mos2i | Can you recommend resources that can be used to teach the Enlightenment to high school students? | [
{
"answer": "It depends on how far you wish to go with the ideas. The ideas of Francis Bacon certainly weren't new to Europe, and he really didn't have any breakthrough with science. He didn't make calculus or describe the motions of the stars. Roger Bacon said everything he did many years before; and even he was influenced by Middle Eastern scientists.\n\nThough Diderot was of importance, he is greatly overshadowed by Rousseau and Montesquieu.\n\nLocke v Hegel is incomplete, as Hobbes was greatly against everything Locke stood for, and that's not even mentioning Hume.\n\nRussell's \"History of Western Philosophy\" is a great text on Western Philosophy, and there's quite a few sections on Enlightenment era philosophy in it that are in detail without being boring. Drawing on that should help quite a bit",
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"answer": "I am posting this so I come back later but one of the best things for this, depending on your students, could be a French Revolution simulation. I will come back with more when I have not been awake for 20 hours.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "As a student, I found this progression logical and chronological: starting with astronomy (we covered the Ptolemaic system first for background, then Copernicus, then Kepler and Galileo), using Newton as a bridge, then logic (compare/contrast Bacon and Decartes), then covering the social aspects (talking about various philosophes).\n\nWe read excerpts from Descartes' Discourse on the Method, Bacon's Novum Organum, and Newton's Principia. In small sections they are manageable.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "It depends on how far you wish to go with the ideas. The ideas of Francis Bacon certainly weren't new to Europe, and he really didn't have any breakthrough with science. He didn't make calculus or describe the motions of the stars. Roger Bacon said everything he did many years before; and even he was influenced by Middle Eastern scientists.\n\nThough Diderot was of importance, he is greatly overshadowed by Rousseau and Montesquieu.\n\nLocke v Hegel is incomplete, as Hobbes was greatly against everything Locke stood for, and that's not even mentioning Hume.\n\nRussell's \"History of Western Philosophy\" is a great text on Western Philosophy, and there's quite a few sections on Enlightenment era philosophy in it that are in detail without being boring. Drawing on that should help quite a bit",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "I am posting this so I come back later but one of the best things for this, depending on your students, could be a French Revolution simulation. I will come back with more when I have not been awake for 20 hours.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a student, I found this progression logical and chronological: starting with astronomy (we covered the Ptolemaic system first for background, then Copernicus, then Kepler and Galileo), using Newton as a bridge, then logic (compare/contrast Bacon and Decartes), then covering the social aspects (talking about various philosophes).\n\nWe read excerpts from Descartes' Discourse on the Method, Bacon's Novum Organum, and Newton's Principia. In small sections they are manageable.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "26850149",
"title": "Deism in England and France in the 18th century",
"section": "Section::::Contemporary historiography.:Jonathan Israel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
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"text": "In \"Radical Enlightenment\", Jonathan Israel presents a history of the European Enlightenment in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries considering philosophical, political, and geographical complexity. The large-scale thesis of the work concerns the scope of the Enlightenment. The most traditional way of looking at the movement is to see it primarily as a French or English\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "79969",
"title": "Enlightenment (software)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Enlightenment includes functions to provide a graphical shell, and it can be used in conjunction with programs written for GNOME or KDE. When used together with the Enlightenment Foundation Libraries (EFL), Enlightenment can refer to an entire desktop environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "13854",
"title": "History of France",
"section": "Section::::Early Modern France (1453–1789).:French Enlightenment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 185,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 185,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "The philosopher Denis Diderot was editor in chief of the famous Enlightenment accomplishment, the 72,000-article \"Encyclopédie\" (1751–72). It sparked a revolution in learning throughout the enlightened world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "13473037",
"title": "The Power of Now",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 243,
"text": "The Power of Now: A Guide to Spiritual Enlightenment is a book by Eckhart Tolle. The book is intended to be a guide for day-to-day living and stresses the importance of living in the present moment and avoiding thoughts of the past or future.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "2405374",
"title": "Association for Research and Enlightenment",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "The Association for Research and Enlightenment (A.R.E.), also known as Edgar Cayce's A.R.E., was founded by Edgar Cayce (1877–1945) in 1931 to research and explore subjects such as holistic health, ancient mysteries, personal spirituality, dreams and dream interpretation, intuition, philosophy and reincarnation. A.R.E.'s stated mission is to help people change their lives for the better through the ideas and information found in the Edgar Cayce readings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "56601272",
"title": "Enlightenment Now",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 516,
"text": "Enlightenment Now: The Case for Reason, Science, Humanism, and Progress is a 2018 book written by Canadian-American cognitive scientist Steven Pinker. It argues that the Enlightenment values of reason, science, and humanism have brought progress; shows our progress with data that health, prosperity, safety, peace, and happiness have tended to rise worldwide; and explains the cognitive science of why this progress should be appreciated. It is a follow-up to Pinker's 2011 book, \"The Better Angels of Our Nature.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11328597",
"title": "Delphian Society",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "In 1913, the Delphian Society published the Delphian Course of Reading: \"A systematic plan of education, embracing the world's progress and development of the liberal arts.\" This ten volume course covers \"history, literature, philosophy, poetry, fiction, drama, art, ethics, music,\" however, \"Mathematics, being in its higher forms essential to few, has been omitted; languages, requiring the aid of a teacher, and such sciences as make laboratories necessary, are not included.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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| null |
4sgdae | When hate crime laws are passed do they actually reduce the occurrence of that type of crime, or have virtually zero effect on the suspect's motivation to commit the crime? | [
{
"answer": "I think it just affects the punishment mostly, which in turn would affect the occurrences. \n\n It's not only to deter hate crimes, but that a hate crime is punished differently and perceived differently. They've found that hate crimes, or biased crimes, affect the community a lot more that non-binary crimes because they are motivated by different emotions. Hate crime laws protect minorities in that they KNOW that the bias was acknowledged and punished. It's essentially a specific case of assault/homicide/murder based on motivation. \n\nExample: \n\nan assault is usually categorized as a misdemeanor. In Alabama, a misdemeanor assault can be punished up to one year in jail along with fines etc. But if that misdemeanor assault charge was found to be a hate crime (motivated by race, religion, etc). There is a MINIMUM of 3 months in jail.\n\nIn Georgia, a felony assault charge is 1-20 years in jail. But a felony hate crime must be punished more severely that an assault of the same level, and the person HAS to serve at least 90% of their time before being released.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "3510770",
"title": "LGBT rights in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Federally granted rights and protections.:Anti-discrimination laws.:Hate crime laws.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "Hate crime laws (also known as \"bias crimes laws\") protect against crimes motivated by feelings of enmity against a protected class. Until 2009, a 1969 federal law defined hate crimes committed on the basis of a person's race, color, religion, or nation origin when engaging in a federally protected activity. In October 2009, Congress passed the Matthew Shepard Act, which expanded the definition of hate crimes to include gender, sexual orientation, gender-identity, and disability. It removed the requirement that the victim of a hate crime be engaged in a federally protected activity. President Obama signed the legislation on October 28, 2009.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "13547",
"title": "Hate crime",
"section": "Section::::Laws.:North America.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 147,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 515,
"text": "Defined in the 1999 National Crime Victim Survey, \"A hate crime is a criminal offence. In the United States, federal prosecution is possible for hate crimes committed on the basis of a person's race, religion, or nation origin when engaging in a federally protected activity.\" In 2009, the Matthew Shepard Act added actual or perceived gender, gender identity, sexual orientation, and disability to the federal definition, and dropped the prerequisite that the victim be engaging in a federally protected activity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "6833714",
"title": "Hate crime laws in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Federal prosecution of hate crimes.:Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act (1994).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
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"text": "The Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act, enacted in note Sec. 280003, requires the United States Sentencing Commission to increase the penalties for hate crimes committed on the basis of the actual or perceived race, color, religion, national origin, ethnicity, or gender of any person. In 1995, the Sentencing Commission implemented these guidelines, which only apply to federal crimes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43797",
"title": "Violence against LGBT people",
"section": "Section::::Criminal assault.:Legislation against homophobic hate crimes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "Legal and police response to these types of hate crimes is hard to gauge, however. Lack of reporting by authorities on the statistics of these crimes and under-reporting by the victims themselves are factors for this difficulty. Often a victim will not report a crime as it will shed unwelcome light on their orientation and invite more victimization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "6833714",
"title": "Hate crime laws in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Hate crime laws debate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 347,
"text": "Penalty-enhancement hate crime laws are traditionally justified on the grounds that, in Chief Justice Rehnquist's words, \"this conduct is thought to inflict greater individual and societal harm... bias-motivated crimes are more likely to provoke retaliatory crimes, inflict distinct emotional harms on their victims, and incite community unrest.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2829677",
"title": "Stand-your-ground law",
"section": "Section::::Jurisdictions.:United States.:Effects on crime.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 573,
"text": "In a 2007 National District Attorneys Association symposium, numerous concerns were voiced that the law could increase crime. This included criminals using the law as a defense for their crimes, more people carrying guns, and that people would not feel safe if they felt that anyone could use deadly force in a conflict. The report also noted that the misinterpretation of clues could result in use of deadly force when there was, in fact, no danger. The report specifically notes that racial and ethnic minorities could be at greater risk because of negative stereotypes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6833714",
"title": "Hate crime laws in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "Hate crime laws in the United States are state and federal laws intended to protect against hate crimes (also known as \"bias crimes\") motivated by enmity or animus against a protected class of persons. Although state laws vary, current statutes permit federal prosecution of hate crimes committed on the basis of a person's protected characteristics of race, religion, ethnicity, nationality, gender, sexual orientation, gender identity, and disability. The U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ)/FBI, as well as campus security authorities, are required to collect and publish hate crime statistics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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| null |
1yddbe | I'm a young Macedonian man in the Hellenic period. Why would I follow Alexander the Great to the edge of the known world knowing that death was certain? What was life like for me during Alexander's conquests? | [
{
"answer": "This is a great question and a fascinating one. It's always difficult to tell what the average person's life was like in antiquity. If you ever study Alexander's life in depth, you'll run into many unanswered questions and conflicting accounts. If a figure as famous as Alexander remains mired in ambiguity, imagine how tough it is to pinpoint the life of this \"average man\".\n\nFirst, it's reasonable to conclude that the average soldier didn't know they were going to the edge of the known world. The most they knew was that, after the Greeks were suppressed, they were headed for Asia Minor. Alexander probably didn't even know he was going to end up in India.\n\nIt's also important to note that these weren't people randomly joining up. Alexander's father, Phillip II, handed him \"the most perfectly organized, trained, and equipped army of ancient times\", according to JFC Fuller (maybe hyperbole/exaggeration but it illustrates the point well.) \n\nSecond, death was not \"certain\" any more than death is \"certain\" in any military campaign. Why does anyone do anything? Because it's a job; because there's treasure abroad; because there's honor in battle; because your culture and society expects you to fight; because you've been raised as a warrior since birth; because they were conscripted during the campaign; because they fought as allies for political reasons or as mercenaries for monetary gain.\n\nThere's thousands of reasons why someone would fight. With the dearth of primary sources (e.g. \"Dear diary, I am joining Alexander's army because XYZ\") it's difficult to pinpoint what the average soldier lived like, much less what ambiguous concepts and paradigms drove them to pick up a spear and go kill people in Asia Minor.\n\nThe primary sources we do have are often Alexander's top lieutenants talking about the man himself, troop movements in the aggregate, grand strategy, and so on. When they do address the troops, it's usually as brief as \"the troops were happy because we won\" or \"the troops were pissed for lots of reasons. Then Alexander gave a great speech that everyone loved.\"\n\nYour third question is a little easier. We know a fair amount about what life was like. For instance, Alexander had this group of elite soldiers called the Heitairoi, or the \"Companion Cavalry\". We know that they loved to do two things: Drink and hunt. Alexander himself got some pretty serious alcohol poisoning during a big party with the Hetairoi a few weeks before he died. It's hard to tell from the sources, but they certainly seem related.\n\nWikipedia is a pretty good source on the Hetairoi. This article seems moderately well sourced and accurate: _URL_0_\n\nWe know plenty aout the more technical details; equipment, logistics, and so on. The average soldier's load, for instance, was thirty pounds. Most were on foot, but the wealthier soldiers were on horseback. Most of the gear was carried by troops, rather than servants or pack animals, which meant the army was mobile and flexible (but that also means the every individual dude was humping his own gear for thousands of miles on foot). There are lots of sources about this and they're easy to find; some of my info comes from here: _URL_2_\n\nMany of these young soldiers found wives in Asia Minor, following the \"conquering\" of the Persian Empire. Some accounts suggest Alexander encouraged this.\n\nPeter Sommer's writings are highly interesting. He's not really a historian, but he replicated Alexander's journey on foot. There's a documentary on YouTube where he makes a bunch of observations about what it must've been like. You can read more here: _URL_1_\n\nUltimately, the best place to look to is the sources. The original accounts of Alexander's lieutenants have been lost, but we have five main surviving accounts based on those lost accounts: Arrian, Curtius, and Diodorus Siculus (also Justin and Plutarch but those wouldn't help answer your question at all). These are fairly cheap. They are also probably available on google scholar, perseus or some other database.",
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"answer": "First of all, there have been a lot of people recently on this sub using the term \"Hellenic Period.\" There is no such thing as the Hellenic Period. Greek history in antiquity is divided into the Dark Ages, the Archaic Period, the Classical Period, and the Hellenistic Period. The Roman Period is also referred to, and the Mycenaean and Minoan Periods are often referred to, although the technically correct thing to do is to refer to them by their Helladic Bronze Age labels.\n\nOkay, got that through with. I once had a professor who explained the purpose behind war and joining an army in the ancient world with a single sentence: booty. Obviously it's more involved than simply grabbing plunder, but for an ordinary man, even for a king the spoils of war from plunder alone are incredibly vast. The study of ancient economies has shown generally that warfare was one of, if not the singlemost, important economic activity for most ancient societies at a certain level, and even past that level of development it is still of enormous importance. The promises of sharing in the spoils of war would be incredibly important for an ordinary soldier, something that is clear again and again in accounts of armies from Hannibal to Caesar and even to Xerxes. With regards to Alexander, remember that the troops of the Phalanx probably weren't paid, unlike the mercenaries in the army, until towards the end of the campaign, when they demanded from Alexander what they were due.\n\nBut I said it was more complicated than that. Well, yes, it is. But it varies greatly from place to place. The feeling of necessity to follow a strong leader in antiquity is a pretty strong one, often descending from rituals and the traditions of ancestors, i.e. you follow your leader because it's the thing to do. Members of ancient societies don't really follow the same thought processes that we might, particularly in weighing the pros and cons of a decision like this. They'd just do it because it's considered necessary. \n\nSo I said that it varies. What about Macedon? The kingdom of Macedon was extremely backward compared to the rest of the Greek world. So backward, in fact, that it preserved social customs that had been lost *in the Dark Age* or even before. Yeah, that old. That archaic. In particular, scholars often stress the degree to which the Macedonian society which Philip took over resembled that of Homeric Greece. It's an analogy that can easily be taken too far, but in many ways it's very true. Macedonian society was grounded in a highly hierarchical system of barons, lords, and vassals, and while the individual man wasn't really a serf the way he might be in the Middle Ages, he still owed direct allegiance to his lord. The Macedonians of Alexander's army serving in the Phalanx would've thought of their service more or less along the same lines as the faceless masses of men standing behind the champions in Homer. They were there because their lords had gone to war and they owed their lords a duty. \n\nThat of course isn't the only reason. Human beings are complicated, and Philip's levies were taking place at a time when he was trying to restructure Macedonian society (or at least the aristocracy) in a revolutionary way. But they're certainly very important reasons and ones that would've been foremost in the minds of the soldiers. I think the most important objection that can be made to all of this is the mutiny of the soldiers. If Macedonian society was so rigid that troops would allow themselves to be conscripted (remember that these guys aren't going voluntarily, but because their lords have conscripted them) why would they revolt? For one thing, it didn't even occur to them to revolt for years, despite all the hardships they faced. Many scholars see it as an indication of just how hard these men were pushed by the end that it finally broke out in revolt, not only against their king, but against their lords as well. It's also an indication of just how rapidly Macedonian society changed during that time.\n\nNow, I haven't really answered the question satisfactorily, and I'm aware of that. The difficulties in ascertaining a person's motives without any direct evidence are of course immense, but I what I've tried to do is steer you towards the right path in understanding the cultural and social stimuli that would've been driving these men. The best thing to do is to really acquaint yourself with the social and cultural idiosyncrasies of Macedonian society to really get a handle on the way these people thought. I recommend taking a look at Hammond--he's somewhat out of date, but his work on Macedonian society and how it influenced Alexander is quite important. ",
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"wikipedia_id": "637630",
"title": "Wars of the Diadochi",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "On June 10, 323 BCE Alexander the Great died leaving behind a huge empire streching from Greece and Macedon in Europe to the Indus valley in India. His death left the Macedonians in a very difficult position. The ruthlessness of Philip and Alexander toward possible rivals had left the Empire without a clear and competent successor. The Argead family was reduced to Alexander's mentally defective half-brother Arrhidaeus, his yet unborn son Alexander IV, and his reputed illegitimate son Heracles, a mere child, and the women of the family, his mother Olympias, his sister Cleopatra, and his half-sisters Thessalonice and Cynane.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "783",
"title": "Alexander the Great",
"section": "Section::::Death and succession.:Division of the empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
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"text": "Alexander's death was so sudden that when reports of his death reached Greece, they were not immediately believed. Alexander had no obvious or legitimate heir, his son Alexander IV by Roxane being born after Alexander's death. According to Diodorus, Alexander's companions asked him on his deathbed to whom he bequeathed his kingdom; his laconic reply was \"tôi kratistôi\"—\"to the strongest\". Another theory is that his successors willfully or erroneously misheard \"tôi Kraterôi\"—\"to Craterus\", the general leading his Macedonian troops home and newly entrusted with the regency of Macedonia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "947807",
"title": "Lamian War",
"section": "Section::::Outbreak of war.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
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"text": "The death of Alexander in 323 BC left Macedon in the midst of a succession crisis, with no universally accepted successor to the throne. While awaiting the birth of the child of Alexander, a regency headed by Perdiccas was formed for the yet unborn child and the mentally deficient brother of Alexander, Philip III. News of his death was considered by the Athenians as an opportunity to shatter the Macedonian hegemony. After vigorous debate in the ecclesia, it was determined – despite the opposition of prominent individuals such as Demades and Phocion – that Athens would wage war against Macedon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "1014314",
"title": "Pauravas",
"section": "Section::::Porus as Pauravas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "Alexander would die on his way back from India. The instability that ensued after Alexanders death resulted in a power struggle and dramatic changes in governance. Porus was soon assassinated by the Macedonia general Eudemus. By 315 BC, the Macedonian entity was conquered by Chandragupta Maurya, a young adventurer, who later conquered the Nanda Empire and founded the Indian Maurya Empire. After engaging and winning the Seleucid–Mauryan war for supremacy over the Indus Valley, Chandragupta gained controlled of modern-day Punjab and Afghanistan. This set the foundations of the Mauryan Empire, which would become the largest empire in the Indian subcontinent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "783",
"title": "Alexander the Great",
"section": "Section::::Character.:Personal relationships.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 126,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 126,
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"text": "Alexander also had a close relationship with his friend, general, and bodyguard Hephaestion, the son of a Macedonian noble. Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander. This event may have contributed to Alexander's failing health and detached mental state during his final months.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "4364925",
"title": "History of Anatolia",
"section": "Section::::Classical Antiquity.:Hellenistic period.:Wars of the Diadochi and division of Alexander's empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "In June 323 BCE, Alexander died suddenly, leaving a power vacuum in Macedon, putting all he had worked for at risk. Being that his half-brother Arrhidaeus was unable to rule effectively due to a serious disability, a succession of wars over the rights to his conquests were fought known as the Wars of the Diadochi. Perdiccas, a high-ranking officer of the cavalry, and later Antigonus, the Phrygian satrap, prevailed over the other contenders of Alexander's empire in Asia for a time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "1870643",
"title": "Alexander the Great (1956 film)",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "Alexander takes his status to heart, his arrogance and paranoia increasing to unstable proportions, but the bold young leader's conquests come to an end after he kills his close friend, Cleitus, with his spear following a drunken argument. Grief-stricken and humbled, Alexander returns to Babylon from India, losing many of his men in the process. He marries Roxane at Susa, but falls ill soon after. When asked upon his deathbed to whom he will leave his empire, Alexander whispers, \"To the strongest.\"\n",
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| null |
2vshz3 | how is my brain able to go into this zoned-out "auto-pilot" state while i'm driving, yet i get to my destination safety with no real recollection of the trip? | [
{
"answer": "It's not something you need to focus on any more than you need to focus on walking. Your brain is good at internalizing things and deciding not to remember unimportant things, so you can usually split your focus while walking biking or driving because you've had so much experience doing it that you don't need a conscious effort to keep balance when walking or follow cues from signs while driving or whatever.",
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"answer": "Mostly habit and behavioral memory. You've spent a lot of time driving, so your brain knows what to expect from the experience. When what you experience matches those expectations (normal driving conditions, for instance), your brain accesses that experience and carries out whatever task you've associated with it. \n\nSo, your brain sees that you're on the road and knows you need to stay between the lines, travel at a certain speed, etc. Combine this with the muscle memory used for the physical act of driving (how you know how to keep the gas at a certain level to maintain speed without actually checking the dash), and it results in the \"autopilot\" state. \n\nWhen something *doesn't* match those expectations, like the car in front of you stopping abruptly, you'll often \"snap\" back, and your brain will need to problem-solve in real time rather than drawing on habitual behavior. \n\nI'm not a psychologist, so others please correct me if necessary. Some good discussion on this subject (if a lot more technical), [here](_URL_0_)",
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"answer": "Psychologist here. This happens for essentially the same reason that you Can \"zone out\" while you're walking around, not stumbling or colliding with things. These tasks are called \"steriotypic repetitious movements\" and they are actually controlled by a different part of the brain after you've fully learned the skill! When you start to learn any skill, like riding a bike, your cortex is the part of the brain doing the work of figuring out how to coordinate your muscles appropriately. Its complicated at first, and it involves your full attention, just like when you learned to walk. However, over time your cortex figures out exactly which muscles need to coordinate in exactly the right way, and it basically \"saves\" that motion in memory. When you go to do that action again after its already been learned (or saved) a cool thing happens, the cortex isn't nearly as involved anymore, now it's more subcortical (aka below the cortex, so deeper in the brain) regions that control the movement. The result? Now you perform an action while your cortex is free to think (or not think and \"zone out\") and forget you're actually doing anything complicated at all. \n\nEDIT. Thanks for the Gold :) ",
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"answer": "Look up reticular activating system. once the trip is known to you, your brain processes it without shoving every detail in front of your conscious mind, instead you only get signals for the 'dangerous' stuff. You RAS processes the minute-by-minute stuff and just dumps the not-interesting stuff instead of giving you a signal on it. (this is the same reason you don't hear all conversations in a crowded room, but DO hear when your name is said... you're RAS always alerts you when it thinks it's heard your name.)\n\nIf the conditions are unsafe of you've been startled, your RAS will suddenly become more paranoid and post signals all the way along because you're conscious mind has decided to pay attention because something is dangerous out there.\n\nOn the other hand, when you start out with a positive thought for the day and intention to have a better day, you program your RAS to look for links and associations and that's why positive mantras work to make your life better.\n\n",
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"answer": "I think it's mostly that the brain discards uneventful memories. You have in all likelihood been driving safely and attentively but your brain doesn't see the need to retain the detail of yet another uneventful commute.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Your brain works in a hierarchical way, where visual stimulus is processed by the lower level, patterns are formed, and compared against expectations. For instance, if you see nothing but the dotted line and trees moving, those are all predictable stimuli that can be handled by the lower levels. But if something a bit unexpected happens (like a lane merge or a turn), it forms its own patterns and gets processed by a bit of a higher level. If you've seen a million lane merges, then you can still process this without it running too high up the hierarchy. \n\nIf you saw something completely unexpected at all levels, like a car coming toward you on the highway, it wouldn't be expected at any level, so no level would be able to handle it, and you would have to get consciously involved - this is when you're snapped to attention.\n\nThink of your brain like a big company, and your consciousness is the CEO. When everything's running smoothly, the cashiers and stockers can handle everything without any issue. If an issue arises, a manager or branch manager might have to get involved. But when something happens that no level of authority can handle, it gets escalated and escalated until the CEO has to get involved. \n\n",
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"answer": "Consciousness it's a trick of memory. You are skilled enough in it that you don't require memory processing anymore, so you are effectively unconscious during the trip. We do not need consciousness for most activities we do.. It's just a trick our mind plays on us.",
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"answer": "Your subconscious does 99% of everything for you once you've learned how to do it.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Ok, going to post something scary but it seemed this was the most appropriate place for it.\n\nI drive a lot. I'm not a truck driver, OTR or anything like that, but I travel for my work. Different states, different countries. I have driven on both the left and right sides of the road (where appropriate) equally well.\n\nI do the 'black-out' thing quite frequently. Long trips, or slowly sorting through traffic, etc. I drive well, I drive safely, I anticipate other drivers and have avoided numerous potential accidents due to other drivers. I have led coworkers and other drivers who can attest to my safe driving.\n\nHowever, I frequently do not remember my trips...at all. I frequently find myself at the end of a long drive, tucked into a parking space, or somewhere safe, as if I intentionally parked there. But yet I have no recollection of any of it. I may have driven past my exit, my street, or my house...or sometimes taken an earlier exit and 'camped out' somewhere. Only to wake a few hours later wondering what happened.\n\nThis seems a little more than just \"highway hypnosis\" and not just blind luck. So is there a deeper level to this RAS or what?",
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"answer": "I deliver pizza but I don't go into zone out stage when working probably because it's always a different road. When driving to school and work I'm always zoning out but driving fine was actually going to post an ELI5 like this other day. So thanks OP aha",
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"answer": "The autopilot feeling does not come from \"not being aware\" that you are driving. In fact you are perfectly capable driver. The difference is that your brain will not register the trip in the memory. You still see all the things that happen and can react to them - it's just that it's the same stuff again and again. Your brain does not need to encode it. ",
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"answer": "I often do this, but I assume that if there was something out of the ordinary, something that caught my conscious attention, I would remember it.\n ",
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"answer": "Imagine spending all your time focused on every activity you do through out the day. You would have no time to yourself and your brain would be exhausted. We naively feel like we genuinely put all of our brain power into all of our thoughts or actions when the reality is much different. Our brains prefer to be spending time thinking about other things than the action we're doing day in and day out, driving is no different.\n\nThe reason it seems so weird is a combination of two things, one is the idea that we think we have this ever present control over our thoughts and we like to we think about everything we do in detail. We don't, not in detail at least. The other is that fucking up while driving has some potentially shitty ramifications, so we value the action of driving safely and catching ourself not thinking about driving seems scary. When you realize you have probably auto-piloted to most of the places familiar to you, you begin to no longer associate day dreaming with bad driving.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "OK I know the actual answer:\n\nThe brain, being an electro-chemical organ operates at different frequencies that induce certain states of mind. Alpha, Beta, Theta, Delta (and maybe a new one called Gamma). \n\nThese different brainwaves are responsible for different the types of consciousness that we encounter. Beta is the most common state, normal waking consciousness, where you brain is encountering something stimulating. Alpha is that point when you just begin to let go and zone out. Delta is when you are in a deep sleep and is the slowest frequency. \n\nAnd then there is Theta: \n\n > This frequency range is normally between 5 and 8 cycles a second. A person who has taken time off from a task and begins to daydream is often in a theta brainwave state. A person who is driving on a freeway, and discovers that they can't recall the last five miles, is often in a theta state--induced by the process of freeway driving. The repetitious nature of that form of driving compared to a country road would differentiate a theta state and a beta state in order to perform the driving task safely.\n\n > Individuals who do a lot of freeway driving often get good ideas during those periods when they are in theta. Individuals who run outdoors often are in the state of mental relaxation that is slower than alpha and when in theta, they are prone to a flow of ideas. This can also occur in the shower or tub or even while shaving or brushing your hair. It is a state where tasks become so automatic that you can mentally disengage from them. The ideation that can take place during the theta state is often free flow and occurs without censorship or guilt. It is typically a very positive mental state. \n\n_URL_0_",
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"answer": "This shit actually scared me when I used to drive. I'd get to the school parking lot and all and as I open the car door I realize \"Holy shit I just spent the last half hour thinking about anime I could've died.\"",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "As someone living in LA, what is this auto-pilot mode you speak of?",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Sometimes when I pull up into my driveway, I have to think if I ran any red lights or stop signs. The fact that a cop hasn't pulled me over means I'm good. ",
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"answer": "An essential part of this function is managed by the Reticular Activating System, which is a primitive (like right near the brain stem) part of the brain that manages sleep/wake cycles and stuff. Rather than me typing how it works in detail I will provide you [this unofficial link.](_URL_0_)",
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"answer": "I have no answer here. Just a fellow redditor who experiences this and it scares the shit out of me. For me, I can feel when I'm about to go into this \"zoning out\" mode. Its not like sleep, or hurt or any thing, its this feeling I can't describe. Whenever I feel this, I pull over and slap the shit out of myself. Other drivers don't deserve my zoned out driving.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "No idea. I just wish I knew why I keep finding blood stains on my car after I go for a drive. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Is it unhealthy that I am like this a lot of the time at all? I feel this way at the end of most days. It worries me. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "I don't understand the people that get so sanctimonious over posts like this. Everyone knows and can relate to what the OP is talking about. Why people feel the need to get all \"well if you're driving without counting all possible dangers, you're an irresponsible idiot\"...I don't understand. I appreciate some people have experienced an accident at the hands of ACTUAL reckless driving, but that's not what we're talking about. The pedantic opportunist levels are too damn high sometimes. ",
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"answer": "There is this book called - The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicamaral Brain. It's an interesting book. He talks about what you bring up. I think his argument is that mostly we *aren't* conscious when doing stuff like driving, or much of our daily life.\n\nHe takes this idea and goes off on it. Like I said, interesting book. Have no idea how accurate it is scientifically..",
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"answer": "When you were a toddler you had to THINK about placing each step. Then you learned to navigate without thinking. If a cat ran out in front if you you tripped. Now that you're more practiced at walking you can chew gun and think about other things at the same time as walking AND if a cat walks out WHILE you're chewing gumwalking you navigate without harming kitty or yourself or others.\nSame as driving.",
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"answer": "While the real answer is from /u/tellcastr101, I just wanted to say that good driving habits (being a good driver in general) is also a factor here. If you were a crappy driver that didn't pay attention to the road when not 'zoning out', you'd probably be in an accident by now. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "It's called complacency. You get so used to driving the same road every day, you start relaxing and not worrying about it and allow your brain to wander. It's so routine, you don't feel like you have to really focus on it. And it's not you doing it, but the brain is designed to automate repetitive behavior, so it happens without you even realizing. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "245926",
"title": "Self-driving car",
"section": "Section::::Human factor challenges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Self-driving cars are already exploring the difficulties of determining the intentions of pedestrians, bicyclists, and animals, and models of behavior must be programmed into driving algorithms. Human road users also have the challenge of determining the intentions of autonomous vehicles, where there is no driver with which to make eye contact or exchange hand signals. Drive.ai is testing a solution to this problem that involves LED signs mounted on the outside of the vehicle, announcing status such as \"going now, don't cross\" vs. \"waiting for you to cross\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "47188915",
"title": "Mercedes-Benz E-Class (W213)",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.:Autonomous driving.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "The next level of Drive Pilot (code-named Intelligent Drive) featured on the 2017 E-Class enables the car to negotiate bends on the motorway, while maintaining a safe distance from slower moving vehicles in front at up to speeds of . The system is not a hands free operation and an audible alert will prompt the driver into regaining control if the car detects their attention has wandered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "29196883",
"title": "Distracted driving",
"section": "Section::::Effects on the brain.:Driving ability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "The areas of the brain that have decreased activation during a moment of multitasking are areas of spatial processing and spatial attention. Because of this, it is important for drivers to focus on only the task at hand, driving. Even though driving becomes a primary cognitive function, when drivers are distracted (e.g.on their cell phones, talking to passengers, or fiddling with the radio), the areas of the brain that need to be activated to safely operate the vehicle are not.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "32578637",
"title": "The Nature of Mind",
"section": "Section::::Structure and arguments.:The Problem of Consciousness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "Armstrong now addresses what he calls 'the problem of consciousness': how can the personal experience of consciousness be explained by his Materialist theory of the mind? Armstrong considers times when the brain goes on 'auto-pilot' - during long drives without breaks, one might suddenly 'come to' and realize that while one has stayed on the road, stopped at red lights and operated the clutch, one was completely unaware of doing so. This shows that it is possible for mental processes to take place without conscious experience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "245926",
"title": "Self-driving car",
"section": "Section::::Definitions.:Classification.:Levels of driving automation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 435,
"text": "BULLET::::- Level 4 (\"mind off\"): As level 3, but no driver attention is ever required for safety, e.g. the driver may safely go to sleep or leave the driver's seat. Self-driving is supported only in limited spatial areas (geofenced) or under special circumstances, like traffic jams. Outside of these areas or circumstances, the vehicle must be able to safely abort the trip, e.g. park the car, if the driver does not retake control.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "38462516",
"title": "Automated driving system",
"section": "Section::::Levels of automation according to SAE.:Level 3 – Conditional automation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "The system is in complete control of vehicle functions such as speed, steering, and monitoring the environment under specific conditions. Such specific conditions may be fulfilled while on fenced-off highway with no intersections, limited driving speed, boxed-in driving situation etc. A human driver must be ready to intervene when requested by the system to do so. If the driver does not respond within a predefined time or if a failure occurs in the system, the system needs to do a safety stop in ego lane (no lane change allowed) . The driver is only allowed to be partially distracted, such as checking text messages, but taking a nap is not allowed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38462516",
"title": "Automated driving system",
"section": "Section::::Levels of automation according to SAE.:Level 2 – Partial automation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "The driver must be able to control the vehicle if corrections are needed, but the driver is no longer in control of the speed and steering of the vehicle. Parking assistance is an example of a system that falls into this category along with Tesla's autopilot feature. A system that falls into this category is the DISTRONIC PLUS system created by Mercedes-Benz. It is important to note the driver must not be distracted in Level 0 to Level 2 modes. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
6hnp9r | why isn't herbalife illegal company | [
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"answer": "Because it actually offers real products for sale whereas, pyramid schemes do not according to the US FTC (Federal Trade Commission). Therefore, it is categorized in the MLM (multi-level marketing) organizational category, which is a legal business and not a pyramid which is illegal.\n\nAlso, MLMs make money by enrolling people into their organization + selling products to those people rather than a pyramid which just makes money from enrolling people (no product to sell).\n\nThe fact that MLMs are legal though baffles me as they just take advantage of lesser people by selling them false hopes and setting them up to fail and burn bridges in their personal lives.\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "753338",
"title": "Herbalife Nutrition",
"section": "Section::::Pyramid scheme allegations.:FTC investigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "The lawsuit alleged that Herbalife deceived consumers into believing they could earn substantial income from the business opportunity or big money from the retail sale of the company's products. In addition, the complaint charged that one of the fundamental principles of Herbalife's business model—incentivizing distributors to buy products and to recruit others to join and buy products so they could advance in the company's marketing program, rather than in response to actual consumer demand—is an unfair practice in violation of the FTC Act.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "753338",
"title": "Herbalife Nutrition",
"section": "Section::::Business model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "Prior to the changes, critics of the company's structure contended that it was operated as a pyramid scheme. Critics also argue that the company does not make enough effort to curb abuses by individual distributors, though Herbalife has consistently denied such allegations. Herbalife is a member of the Direct Selling Association in most countries in which it operates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "753338",
"title": "Herbalife Nutrition",
"section": "Section::::Business model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 813,
"text": "Herbalife is a multi-level marketing company. As a result of the 2016 FTC settlement, the company is required to prove that at least 80 percent of its sales are made to individuals outside of its distributor network. Distributors are responsible for providing receipts for sales and proving they have legitimate customers. The settlement also required that distributors are only able to earn two-thirds of their rewards based on retail sales of Herbalife products. The company is also required to show a differentiation between individuals who join as a distributor to buy discounted products and those seeking a business opportunity. Discount buyers are unable to earn rewards or sell products. Herbalife is also required to have its practices monitored by an outside party for seven years to ensure compliance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "753338",
"title": "Herbalife Nutrition",
"section": "Section::::Pyramid scheme allegations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "In November 2011, the Commercial Court in Brussels, Belgium ruled that Herbalife was an illegal pyramid scheme. The company filed an appeal on March 8, 2012. On December 3, 2013, a Belgian appeals court found for Herbalife, reversing the lower court's finding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "753338",
"title": "Herbalife Nutrition",
"section": "Section::::Pyramid scheme allegations.:Short sales.:Bill Ackman.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "In March 2015, federal prosecutors and the FBI revealed that they were investigating whether or not individuals paid by Ackman and otherwise had made false statements about Herbalife's business model to regulators and others in order to lower the company's stock price and influence authorities to conduct an investigation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "439973",
"title": "Herbal medicine",
"section": "Section::::Modern herbal medicine.:Government regulations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "Some herbs, such as cannabis and coca, are outright banned in most countries though coca is legal in most of the South American countries where it is grown. The \"Cannabis\" plant is used as an herbal medicine, and as such is legal in some parts of the world. Since 2004, the sales of ephedra as a dietary supplement is prohibited in the United States by the FDA, and subject to Schedule III restrictions in the United Kingdom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "753338",
"title": "Herbalife Nutrition",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
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"text": "The company has been criticized by, among others, hedge fund manager Bill Ackman of Pershing Square Capital, who claimed that Herbalife operates a \"sophisticated pyramid scheme\" after taking a $1 billion short position in Herbalife stock. Herbalife agreed to \"fundamentally restructure\" its business and pay a $200 million fine as part of a 2016 settlement with the U.S. Federal Trade Commission (FTC) following accusations of it being a pyramid scheme. The FTC said in a press release about the settlement \"it's virtually impossible to make money selling Herbalife products.\" In November 2017, Ackman's hedge fund closed out its short position in Herbalife.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
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| null |
59fyyi | How does the temperature of colder planets core relate to warmer planets core closer to closer to the sun? | [
{
"answer": "The temperature of the core of a planet will depend on several factors: leftover heat from formation of the planet, heat generated through mechanisms like friction and radioactive decay, mass of the planet, ratio of mass to surface area, etc.\n\nSo I don't fully understand what you're trying to ask, but mercury is small and has relatively little geological activity. Any heat from formation would have already been dissipated. It's estimated core temp is only around 4000 °F.\n\nVenus, the second and hottest planet, should have a much warmer core, around 10,000 °F.\n\nJupiter, the largest planet, probably has the hottest core. It emits more heat than it absorbs from the sun, and it's core temp is estimated around 50,000 °F.\n\nI don't know if that answers your question, but hopefully it illustrates that distance from the sun is not the primary factor that determines the core temperature.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "The proximitty of the sun is not important for the core temperature. \nThe importance is the left over heat from the formation, a little bit of radioactive decay and very importantly tidal heating. The moon for example does not only affect the tides on the surface but also the earths core. This gives heates up the Earth due to friction induced by this tidal force. The same goes for other planets with moons as well. \nAll the gas and ice giants they have some internal heat source as well. This could be the continued separation of Helium and Hydrogen. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "First of all would point out that the outer planets are not necessarily cool and that many processes come into play resulting in no particular relationship between a planet's distance from the sun and it's core temperature. Having said this, a large factor of a planets temperature is the residual heat from formation, which is linked to distance from the sun. This heat is a result of accretional heating; potential energy of matter converts into kinetic energy as it 'falls' into the planet during formation. \n\nIn the protoplanetary nebula, before planetary formation, the solar wind erodes the inner gas cloud near to the sun. This means that inner planets are rocky and small, due to this absence of gas when they are formed, and gas giants are found farther away from the sun where the nebula wasn't blown away. \n\nThis means that inner planets tend to have less heating due to accretion as they are smaller with less matter. For example Mars has radiated it's primordial heat. Outer planets on the other hand have huge amount of primordial heat. In addition the large gas giants have a lower surface are to volume ratio, so will radiate their heat slower.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "961349",
"title": "Hot Jupiter",
"section": "Section::::Puffy planets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "Even when taking surface heating from the star into account, many transiting hot Jupiters have a larger radius than expected. This could be caused by the interaction between atmospheric winds and the planet's magnetosphere creating an electric current through the planet that heats it up, causing it to expand. The hotter the planet, the greater the atmospheric ionization, and thus the greater the magnitude of the interaction and the larger the electric current, leading to more heating and expansion of the planet. This theory matches the observation that planetary temperature is correlated with inflated planetary radii.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "48527490",
"title": "Gliese 1132 b",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The planet receives 19 times more stellar radiation than Earth. The temperature of the top of its atmosphere is estimated at . The planet is estimated to be hotter than Venus, as higher temperatures may prevail near the surface. \"(cf. Atmosphere of Venus, Colonization of Venus)\" It is possible that one side of the planet is cooler, because it is presumed to be tidally locked due to its proximity to its star; however, under most circumstances where an atmosphere is thick, it would be able to transfer heat to the far side.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "30873277",
"title": "Atmosphere of Jupiter",
"section": "Section::::Dynamics.:Internal heat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 705,
"text": "The internal heat may be important for the dynamics of the Jovian atmosphere. While Jupiter has a small obliquity of about 3°, and its poles receive much less solar radiation than its equator, the tropospheric temperatures do not change appreciably from the equator to poles. One explanation is that Jupiter's convective interior acts like a thermostat, releasing more heat near the poles than in the equatorial region. This leads to a uniform temperature in the troposphere. While heat is transported from the equator to the poles mainly via the atmosphere on Earth, on Jupiter deep convection equilibrates heat. The convection in the Jovian interior is thought to be driven mainly by the internal heat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "864017",
"title": "Planetary core",
"section": "Section::::Dynamics.:Core Heat Source.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 679,
"text": "A planetary core acts as a heat source for the outer layers of a planet. In the Earth, the heat flux over the core mantle boundary is 12 terawatts. This value is calculated from a variety of factors: secular cooling, differentiation of light elements, Coriolis forces, radioactive decay, and latent heat of crystallization. All planetary bodies have a primordial heat value, or the amount of energy from accretion. Cooling from this initial temperature is called secular cooling, and in the Earth the secular cooling of the core transfers heat into an insulating silicate mantle. As the inner core grows, the latent heat of crystallization adds to the heat flux into the mantle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "24873453",
"title": "Season",
"section": "Section::::Causes and effects.:Elliptical Earth orbit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "Orbital eccentricity can influence temperatures, but on Earth, this effect is small and is more than counteracted by other factors; research shows that the Earth as a whole is actually slightly warmer when \"farther\" from the sun. This is because the Northern Hemisphere has more land than the Southern, and land warms more readily than sea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9763",
"title": "Exoplanet",
"section": "Section::::General features.:Magnetic field.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "Hot Jupiters have been observed to have a larger radius than expected. This could be caused by the interaction between the stellar wind and the planet's magnetosphere creating an electric current through the planet that heats it up causing it to expand. The more magnetically active a star is the greater the stellar wind and the larger the electric current leading to more heating and expansion of the planet. This theory matches the observation that stellar activity is correlated with inflated planetary radii.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26751",
"title": "Sun",
"section": "Section::::Structure and fusion.:Core.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 786,
"text": "The core of the Sun extends from the center to about 20–25% of the solar radius. It has a density of up to (about 150 times the density of water) and a temperature of close to 15.7 million kelvins (K). By contrast, the Sun's surface temperature is approximately 5,800 K. Recent analysis of SOHO mission data favors a faster rotation rate in the core than in the radiative zone above. Through most of the Sun's life, energy has been produced by nuclear fusion in the core region through a series of nuclear reactions called the p–p (proton–proton) chain; this process converts hydrogen into helium. Only 0.8% of the energy generated in the Sun comes from another sequence of fusion reactions called the CNO cycle, though this proportion is expected to increase as the Sun becomes older.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
3jqfjx | the difference between the german chancellor and the president of germany | [
{
"answer": "The President is the head of state; the chancellor is the head of the government. The head of state refers to a largely ceremonial role -- that's the person who meets other countries' diplomats and royalty, attends non-policy-related diplomatic events, and ceremonially enacts laws by signing them (without the power to veto). The head of the government is the chancellor. They have real power to enact policy, propose laws, and control the bureaucracy and administrative state.\n\nIn the US, these are unified (the President does both roles), but most countries have separated them. In England the Queen is the head of state while the Prime Minister is the head of the government; same in Japan. In Russia they have a President and a Prime Minister, with the President as head of state.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "214175",
"title": "Chancellor",
"section": "Section::::Head of government.:Germany.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 816,
"text": "The Chancellor of Germany or ' (official German title which means \"Federal Chancellor\") is the title for the head of government in Germany. ' is the exclusively feminine form. In German politics, the ' position is equivalent to that of a prime minister and is elected by the ' (\"Federal Diet\", the directly elected federal parliament) every four years on the beginning of the electoral period after general elections. Between general elections, the Federal Chancellor (together with the whole cabinet) can only be removed from office by a ' (\"constructive motion of no confidence\"), which consists in the candidacy of an opposition candidate for the office of Chancellor in the '. If this candidate gets a majority of the entire membership of the \", he or she will be sworn in immediately as new Federal Chancellor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60567",
"title": "President of Germany",
"section": "Section::::Duties and functions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "Therefore, the president also receives the chancellor regularly for talks on current policy issues. German presidents also hold talks with individual Federal Ministers and other senior officials at their own discretion. The \"Head of the Office of the President\" represents the will and views of the president in the meetings of the Federal Cabinet and reports back to the president.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11935",
"title": "Politics of Germany",
"section": "Section::::Executive.:Head of state.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "The German head of state is the Federal President. As in Germany's parliamentary system of government, the Federal Chancellor runs the government and day-to-day politics, the role of the Federal President is mostly ceremonial. The Federal President, by their actions and public appearances, represents the state itself, its existence, its legitimacy, and unity. Their office involves an integrative role. Nearly all actions of the Federal President become valid only after a countersignature of a government member.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16240042",
"title": "List of chancellors of Germany",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "The chancellor of Germany is the political leader of Germany and the head of the federal government. The office holder is responsible for selecting all other members of the government and chairing cabinet meetings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "214175",
"title": "Chancellor",
"section": "Section::::Head of government.:Germany.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "The former German Empire, the Weimar Republic and Nazi Germany had the equivalent position of ' (\"Chancellor of the Reich\") as the head of the executive. Between 1871 and 1918, the Chancellor was appointed by the German Emperor. During the Weimar Republic (1919-1933), the Chancellor was chosen by the \"Reichspräsident\" and stood under his authority. This continued (formally) during the first two years of the Nazi regime until the death of President Paul von Hindenburg in 1934. Between 1934 and 1945, Adolf Hitler, the dictatorial head of state \"and\" government of Nazi Germany, was officially called \"'\" (literally \"Leader and Chancellor of the Reich\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "196150",
"title": "Presidency",
"section": "Section::::Vice presidency.:German vice chancellor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "The Vice Chancellor of Germany does not assume the position of chancellor, but rather the president chooses a minister to succeed the chancellor position. The vice chancellor is usually a member of the cabinet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60567",
"title": "President of Germany",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "Germany has a parliamentary system of government in which the chancellor (same rights and duties as a Prime Minister) is the head of government. The president has far-reaching ceremonial obligations, but also the right and duty to act politically. What is more, he can give direction to general political and societal debates and has some important \"reserve powers\" in case of political instability (such as those provided for by Article 81 of the Basic Law). The German presidents, who can be elected to two consecutive five-year terms, have wide discretion about how they exercise their official duties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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| null |
d7nap7 | why can't we live just off of sunlight energy? | [
{
"answer": "Biologically? Even plants can't live off sunlight alone, and they sit around all day. They still need essential nutrients and water from the soil, despite the fact that they don't move.\n\nCold-blooded animals (like reptiles) move little and do get some energy from UV light. That's why you might see lizards sitting under a big blue lightbulb in pet stores. However they still need extra sustenance to thrive and grow.\n\nWarm-blooded animals like us humans use a lot of energy. We're constantly heating our bodies, and we move around all the time. We simply need more energy than can be collected from sunlight alone.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "ELI5: Your body needs food, and sunlight isn’t food. Sunlight just gives plants a little help making their own food, and then we eat those things as our own food. \n\nELI’mInCollege: (Also, if someone ends up reading this that knows more about this subject than I do, please correct me). My understanding of why we can’t do it comes down to the cellular level, and the production of a substance called Adenosine Triphophsate, or ATP for short. \n\nIn very simple terms that is glossing over a LOT of other steps, your body runs on ATP, and that’s where your “energy” really comes from. Each cell produces ATP, but you have an astoundingly small amount of it in your body at any given moment - I think something like half a gram - that is also used nearly as quickly as you produce it. The average human will actually go through close to 80 lbs of it per day, but most of that weight is actually cycled in and out of your body through cellular respiration. Without ATP, you die very quickly, which is why poisons like cyanide kill you within seconds; it stops ATP production (or something). \n\nThe cellular respiration is where your question comes into play. In a normal situation, your body needs (all sorts of stuff really) to function properly, but without Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen, or carbohydrates, your body can’t produce ATP. And then you die. And while sunlight is essentially the purest form of energy we can access, we can’t actually live without other stuff. \n\nIt’s a really big, really complex subject that absolutely rocks your world the more you learn about just how precarious and precise life really is.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2747470",
"title": "Biological thermodynamics",
"section": "Section::::The focus of thermodynamics in biology.:Energy transformation in biological systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "The sun is the primary source of energy for living organisms. Some living organisms like plants need sunlight directly while other organisms like humans can acquire energy from the sun indirectly. There is however evidence that some bacteria can thrive in harsh environments like Antarctica as evidence by the blue-green algae beneath thick layers of ice in the lakes. No matter what the type of living species, all living organisms must capture, transduce, store, and use energy to live.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53574209",
"title": "Kamal Public Sr. Secondary School",
"section": "Section::::Infrastructure/Features Of The School.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "Solar energy has more positive impacts on the environment compared to any other energy source. It is obtained from the sun’s radiation and it can be converted to electricity or heat. It is freely available and thanks to advances in technology, we have installed more of solar energy plants to conserve electricity in a better way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27979",
"title": "Sunlight",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "Sunlight is a key factor in photosynthesis, the process used by plants and other autotrophic organisms to convert light energy, normally from the Sun, into chemical energy that can be used to synthesize carbohydrates and to fuel the organisms' activities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17964574",
"title": "List of ecoregions in North America (CEC)",
"section": "Section::::North American Deserts.:Natural resources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 541,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 541,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "Sunlight is one of the deserts most important resource as it is renewable and has sustainable exploitations. Deserts within North America tend to have fields of solar panels, so they can reuse the sun as energy. Areas such as New Mexico, Texas, Arizona, and the Great Basin area, put up fields for green energy. We monitored how the sun provides energy for resources such as plants and animals; we decided to make solar panels to produce energy for us. Water is also a resource found in the desert that can be reused and has sustainable exploitations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1055890",
"title": "Sustainable energy",
"section": "Section::::Renewable energy sources.:Solar heating.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "Energy received from the sun by the earth is that of electromagnetic radiation. Light ranges of visible, infrared, ultraviolet, x-rays, and radio waves received by the earth through solar energy. The highest power of radiation comes from visible light. Solar power is complicated due to changes in seasons and from day to night. Cloud cover can also add to complications of solar energy, and not all radiation from the sun reaches earth because it is absorbed and dispersed due to clouds and gases within the earth's atmospheres.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39833813",
"title": "Icebreaker Life",
"section": "Section::::Science.:Habitability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "While sunlight is a powerful energy source for life, it is unlikely to be biologically useful on present Mars because it requires life to be at the surface exposed to the extremely lethal radiation and to dry conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9649",
"title": "Energy",
"section": "Section::::Scientific use.:Earth sciences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 600,
"text": "Sunlight may be stored as gravitational potential energy after it strikes the Earth, as (for example) water evaporates from oceans and is deposited upon mountains (where, after being released at a hydroelectric dam, it can be used to drive turbines or generators to produce electricity). Sunlight also drives many weather phenomena, save those generated by volcanic events. An example of a solar-mediated weather event is a hurricane, which occurs when large unstable areas of warm ocean, heated over months, give up some of their thermal energy suddenly to power a few days of violent air movement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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| null |
4e1eow | What are the factors affecting pressure in a pipe? | [
{
"answer": "So is this like a high school (college) project? \n\nFlow rate you can easily measure using a bucket and a stop watch; just wait a certain amount of time (60 seconds or whatever), then weigh the water that you've collected (or determine its volume).\n\nPressure, the two gauges will probably be fine. Maybe you could put them onto the straight piece of pipe so that you could try the experiment with different elbow pieces (45 degree, 90 degree, 180 degree). \n\n_URL_2_\n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_3_\n\n_URL_1_\n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22521321",
"title": "Tubular-pneumatic action",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "In the pressure system, the air in the tube and the pneumatic are normally at atmospheric pressure. Depressing a key increases the pressure in the tube, inflating the pneumatic, which opens the pipe's valve.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35830396",
"title": "Compressor characteristic",
"section": "Section::::Surging.:Surge process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "On the characteristic curve at the flow rates below ṁS provides lower pressure as seen in the fig. at D and E. But now the pipe pressures due to further reduction of flow by valve (let at point D) will be higher than the pressure at D and E. This unbalance between the pipe pressure and the compressor delivery pressure only exist for a very short time. This is because there is higher pressure in the pipe than the gas pressure produced by the compressor and due to this reversing of the flow takes place and it leads to a complete break-down of the normal steady flow from the compressor to the pipe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "221669",
"title": "Darcy–Weisbach equation",
"section": "Section::::Derivation by dimensional analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "Pressure has dimensions of energy per unit volume, therefore the pressure drop between two points must be proportional to , which has the same dimensions as it resembles (see below) the expression for the kinetic energy per unit volume. We also know that pressure must be proportional to the length of the pipe between the two points as the pressure drop per unit length is a constant. To turn the relationship into a proportionality coefficient of dimensionless quantity, we can divide by the hydraulic diameter of the pipe, , which is also constant along the pipe. Therefore,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19951",
"title": "Pressure measurement",
"section": "Section::::Static and dynamic pressure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "While static gauge pressure is of primary importance to determining net loads on pipe walls, dynamic pressure is used to measure flow rates and airspeed. Dynamic pressure can be measured by taking the differential pressure between instruments parallel and perpendicular to the flow. Pitot-static tubes, for example perform this measurement on airplanes to determine airspeed. The presence of the measuring instrument inevitably acts to divert flow and create turbulence, so its shape is critical to accuracy and the calibration curves are often non-linear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "2380765",
"title": "Discharge pressure",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Discharge pressure (also called high side pressure or head pressure) is the pressure generated on the output side of a gas compressor in a refrigeration or air conditioning system. The discharge pressure is affected by several factors: size and speed of the condenser fan, condition and cleanliness of the condenser coil, and the size of the discharge line. An extremely high discharge pressure coupled with an extremely low suction pressure is an indicator of a refrigerant restriction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6014225",
"title": "Pressure drop",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 929,
"text": "A pressure drop occurs when frictional forces, caused by the resistance to flow, act on a fluid as it flows through the tube. The main determinants of resistance to fluid flow are fluid velocity through the pipe and fluid viscosity. Pressure drop increases proportionally to the frictional shear forces within the piping network. A piping network containing a high relative roughness rating as well as many pipe fittings and joints, tube convergence, divergence, turns, surface roughness, and other physical properties will affect the pressure drop. High flow velocities and/or high fluid viscosities result in a larger pressure drop across a section of pipe or a valve or elbow. Low velocity will result in lower or no pressure drop. The fluid may also be biphasic as in pneumatic conveying with a gas and a solid, in this case, the friction of the solid must also be taken into consideration for calculating the pressure drop \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23089179",
"title": "Spin crossover",
"section": "Section::::Perturbation Examples.:Pressure Perturbation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "The increase in pressure will decrease the volume of the unit cell of the Fe(phen)(SCN) and increase the T of the system. Figure 16 shows a linear relationship between T and pressure for the Fe(phen)(SCN), where the slope of the line is math\\frac{\\partial \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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}
]
| null |
f2bhbh | the way i understand aging, is that cells make a slightly less perfect copy of its predecessor each time until its eventually “no good” and we just fall apart and die, if we could find a way to make cells reproduce or clone perfectly, would we be able to live forever? | [
{
"answer": "That's just part of it. Aging is a complicated process with several factors at play. The ends of each chromsome, called telomeres, gets degraded progressively each time the cell divides. Eventually the degradation gets to the actual sequence you care about and the cell is no longer viable. This is a very basic biological clock for the life of a cell. But aging affects the whole organism. Cells get damaged due to all sorts of reasons, like UV from sunlight and oxidative stress from metabolism alone. And when damaged a cell often commits suicide. We don't have an infinite reservoir of cells, some specialized cells have only a limited number of stem cells. And when the we run out, renewal runs out. Besides that, you have many many processes that affect us gradually at the big picture level. Like nephrons (filtering units in the kidney) get less and less over a life time. These are relatively big structures made of many many cells so if they're gone they're really gone. Then you have things like atherosclerosis, plaques accumulating in your vessels, hardening them and narrowing them. You get strokes and ischemia and die from heart or brain issues. Or you may get proteins aggregating just due to random chance of misfolding, this happens in the brain and almost everywhere else. And we're horribly bad at dealing with aggregates so they end up killing cells and you eventually. Then you got random mutations that are bound to once hit critical genes that then cause cancer. I barely even scratched the surface here, fixing a cell by allowing it to renew its telomeres has been investigated before. But the risk of cancer is too high. And even if it wasn't, we got a million other things that are bound to go south over a lifetime. We're simply not built to forever, if you want to be immortal you have to change your body altogether.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "44531850",
"title": "Permanent cell",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 985,
"text": "Permanent cells are cells that are incapable of regeneration. These cells are considered to be terminally differentiated and non proliferative in postnatal life. This includes brain cells, neurons, heart cells, skeletal muscle cells, and red blood cells. Although these cells are considered permanent in that they neither reproduce nor transform into other cells, this does not mean that the body can not create new versions of these cells. For instance, structures in the bone marrow produce new red blood cells constantly, while skeletal muscle damage can be repaired by underlying satellite cells which fuse to become a new skeletal muscle cell. Disease and virology studies can use permanent cells to maintain cell count and accurately quantify the effects of vaccines. Some embryology studies also use permanent cells to avoid harvesting embryonic cells from pregnant animals; since the cells are permanent, they may be harvested at a later age when an animal is fully developed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "25279860",
"title": "Stem cell theory of aging",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 847,
"text": "The stem cell theory of aging postulates that the aging process is the result of the inability of various types of stem cells to continue to replenish the tissues of an organism with functional differentiated cells capable of maintaining that tissue's (or organ's) original function. Damage and error accumulation in genetic material is always a problem for systems regardless of the age. The number of stem cells in young people is very much higher than older people and thus creates a better and more efficient replacement mechanism in the young contrary to the old. In other words, aging is not a matter of the increase in damage, but a matter of failure to replace it due to a decreased number of stem cells. Stem cells decrease in number and tend to lose the ability to differentiate into progenies or lymphoid lineages and myeloid lineages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "25279860",
"title": "Stem cell theory of aging",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 482,
"text": "There are also several challenges when it comes to therapeutic use of stem cells and their ability to replenish organs and tissues. First, different cells may have different lifespans even though they originate from the same stem cells (\"See\" T-cells and erythrocytes), meaning that aging can occur differently in cells that have longer lifespans as opposed to the ones with shorter lifespans. Also, continual effort to replace the somatic cells may cause exhaustion of stem cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3778551",
"title": "Petite mutation",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 728,
"text": "\"S. cerevisiae\" has since become a useful model for aging. It has been shown that as yeast ages, it loses functional mitochondrial DNA, which leads to replicative senescence, or the inability to further replicate. It has been suggested that there is a link between mitochondrial DNA loss and replicative life span (RLS), or the number of times a cell can reproduce before it dies, as it has been found that an increase in RLS is established with the same changes in the genome that enhance the propagation of cells that do not contain mitochondrial DNA. Genetic screens for replicative life span associated genes and pathways could be made easier and quicker by selecting genetic suppressors of the petite negative mutants. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1364342",
"title": "Strategies for Engineered Negligible Senescence",
"section": "Section::::Types of aging damage and treatment schemes.:Cell loss and atrophy—RepleniSENS.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "Some of the cells in our bodies cannot be replaced, or can be only replaced very slowly—more slowly than they die. This decrease in cell number affects some of the most important tissues of the body. Muscle cells are lost in skeletal muscles and the heart, causing them to become frailer with age. Loss of neurons in the substantia nigra causes Parkinson's disease, while loss of immune cells impairs the immune system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "17259468",
"title": "Clone (cell biology)",
"section": "Section::::Basis of clonal proliferation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "Most other cells cannot divide indefinitely as after a few cycles of cell division the cells stop expressing an enzyme telomerase. The genetic material, in the form of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), continues to shorten with each cell division, and cells eventually stop dividing when they sense that their DNA is critically shortened. However, this enzyme in \"youthful\" cells replaces these lost bits (nucleotides) of DNA, thus making almost unlimited cycles of cell division possible. It is believed that the above-mentioned tissues have a constitutional elevated expression of telomerase. When ultimately many cells are produced by a single cell, \"clonal expansion\" is said to have taken place.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "324812",
"title": "Henrietta Lacks",
"section": "Section::::Medical and scientific research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "George Otto Gey, the first researcher to study Lacks's cancerous cells, observed that her cells were unique in that they reproduced at a very high rate and could be kept alive long enough to allow more in-depth examination. Until then, cells cultured for laboratory studies survived for only a few days at most, which wasn't long enough to perform a variety of different tests on the same sample. Lacks's cells were the first to be observed that could be divided multiple times without dying, which is why they became known as \"immortal.\" After Lacks' death, Gey had Mary Kubicek, his lab assistant, take further HeLa samples while Henrietta's body was at Johns Hopkins' autopsy facility. The roller-tube technique was the method used to culture the cells obtained from the samples that Kubicek collected. Gey was able to start a cell line from Lacks's sample by isolating one specific cell and repeatedly dividing it, meaning that the same cell could then be used for conducting many experiments. They became known as HeLa cells, because Gey's standard method for labeling samples was to use the first two letters of the patient's first and last names.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
69emit | What impact does a tsunami have on ships at sea? | [
{
"answer": "they wouldnt even notice it (they'd notice it, but not as a threat). \n\na tsunami does not really \"present\" itself as a wave until the water depth is about < 1.3x the height of the wave itself. the drag on the bottom of the ocean slows the flow and the top moves ahead and creates the circulation we see.\n\nWhen you look at a regular ocean, it looks pretty calm, but when it gets to shore, things become more violent.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They would see a sea swell of about a meter over several minutes fowled by a dip. Note that this is very much a slow swell. A carrier wouldn't actively notice any change. A smaller class ship such as an Arleigh Burke class destroyer would hardly notice such a change depending on the sea state. Maybe if the water was glass, but most of the time it's too choppy for such a thing. \nSource: Was mariner in SOPAC during march of 2011. \n\n Further reading: check out rogue waves. I don't know much about those, but they would probably interest you. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "As some other comments have said, it depends on the ship's location relative to both the coast and the depth of the ocean beneath it. Far out to sea and you wouldn't really notice, but if the ship is close to the harbor, depending on the size of the quake and the degree of uplift generated, you'd absolutely notice.\n\nFor reference, [here's a video from a Japanese Coast Guard vessel recording the Tohoku Tsunami approaching shore](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Tsunamis have speed and amplitude. Assuming the energy of the wave stays constant, a drop in speed results in an increase of amplitude, or wave height. Tsunami speed = sqrt(gravity x water depth). So as you get to shallower waters, the speed of the tsunami will decrease, leading to the height of the wave increasing. In deep waters, the speed of the wave could be as high as 700km/h with a height of less than a meter, but can reach ~~hundreds~~ tens of meters in height when that speed is transferred into height.\n\nreference: _URL_0_\n\nedit: It would be entirely dependent on the depth of the sea at the location of the boat. Deeper than 300m depth, you probably wouldn't notice it. 50m depth, you'd get jostled around. 10m depth, good luck.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "When the tsunami hit Japan a while ago a buddy of mine was out at sea doing research in the area. When he got back he told me about how there were these 2 massive swells of water that hit them but they didn't really think much of it until they got back to shore later that day and saw the mass destruction that the tsunami had caused. ",
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"answer": "One way to think about it is that a typical wave in the ocean is generated by wind and only effects the top few meters. That can move along with the water underneath undisturbed until it hits land. Once the depth on shore is less than the wave it builds up and breaks (oversimplified here but stay with me).\n\nA tsunami involves the bottom shifting so you get the entire depth of the ocean to shift up say one meter. \n\nBig deal, a one meter wave in the mid ocean. The problem is that this wave will not stay put and now will travel at hundreds of kms per hour. Also it is not really a wave but a whole block of water from the surface to the bottom (say 2500 m) that was moved. \n\nAt smaller depths, this becomes a problem as the water wants to be 2500 m deep. All the displacement energy of the water at full depth must be absorbed so we end up with a much higher, wider wave in shallow water. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "I was on a WWII aircraft carrier (US) and felt significant wave action on the outskirts of a hurricane. Of course, it all depends on the position of the ship to the angle of the wave. I know Poseidon Adventure (1970s) movie was science fiction, but most ships probably will capsize if the wave hits the ship 🚢 broadside, depending on the size of both. If the ship hits the wave head on, depending on what part of the wave hits the ship, then the ship could tear apart, sink, or again, capsize. A liquid can almost be considered a moving, amorphous solid that cannot be compressed and if the wave hits fast enough, it will feel like a brick wall! ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Tsunamis aren't rogue waves out at sea, it's only what they approach shorelines that they grow to be vertical monsters, because that hold a great deal of energy but the energy is condensed as the depth becomes shallow.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the middle of the ocean, they would barely notice it. You hit bigger swells in storms. Now, if you were in port, the water level would drop and potentially beach the ship. I know the carrier that was in Yokosuka during the 3/11 tsunami experience an immediate drop in water level by several feet and came close to dragging the ground. Had they not been protected by the bulk of the tsunami by the Chiba peninsula, they would have likely fared much worse. ",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "I heartily recommend the movie, The Wave, that is currently on Canadian Netflix. (Don't know if elsewhere). While your question states \"at sea\" I think that a tsunami caused by a rock slide would cause waves that are much less easily navigated by boats because of their intensity. There is also a great description of survivors of the Alaskan tsunami caused by landslide here _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nHere is the 2011 Japanese tsunami passing under a coastguard ship. I thin k it must have been pretty close to shore for the wave to have been that prominent. Further out from the shore they probably would never have noticed the tsunami at all. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Everyone who is saying that the ship would not notice it is wrong. There might be situations where a ship does not notice anything, but there are times they do. \n\nThis is a Japanese ship hitting the tsunami a couple years back:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nThere is a very clear wall of water that was obvious enough that they started filming. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the original novel for the Poseidon Adventure. The author describe an undersea earthquake that caused a large amount of water to be displaced underneath a cruise liner. And that the ship simply fell into a giant void where water had been. I wonder how that would look like.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It depends on where you are. I have a close family friend who was a US Navy ship Captain in WWII. Near the end of the war his ship went over a tidal wave. He said it was no more than a minor swell due to the fact they were way out at sea.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "At sea the tsunami is a dark line about 40 meters wide racing along at 800 km/hr, does not show on radar. Think of it as a ripple in a bullwhip until it goes into shallow water and slows down and the energy becomes waves.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "While everyone is basically correct regarding the height of a wave in deep ocean it's also worth noting a seaworthy vessel won't capsize because of any nonbreaking wave. A kodiak going up against the physically largest nonbreaking wave will stay afloat. \n\nOnce you get into the shoals or high windspeeds generate whitecaps all bets are off. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The further from shore they are (or rather, the deeper the water is, and not linearly, a complex fluid-dynamic relationship between these two factors for which \"distance from shore\" is a pretty effective heuristic), the less of a deal it is. The bigger the vessel is, the less of a deal it is (in this case, not even a heuristic, but a direct, almost-linear relationship). These are pretty direct, mathematically sound relationships. From them it is easy to infer that a Nimitz class aircraft carrier would barely register a tsunami thousands or even hundreds of miles from shore.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Tsunami literally translates to harbor wave. This came from fisherman who would return from an otherwise uneventful day at sea to find their town completely destroyed. Hence the idea that the wave was confined to the harbor. Obviously we know better now, but this gives you an idea of how relatively imperceptible tsunamis are while you're in the open ocean.\n\nIf you have time there is an interesting documentary about the Indian Ocean tsunami a few years ago that includes stories from people who were diving that day. They thought the currents were really strong but had no idea the reason until they returned to their resort towns to find them flattened. I can find the name if someone is interested, but I'm currently on mobile.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Wave seismologist here. Tsunami waves in the middle of the ocean would be detectable, however, they will not endanger any boats because they have no pitch to them. Only once they begin approaching a shoreline will they begin to pitch upwards and create a face wall. This is caused by the shallowing of the ocean bottom. The kinetic energy built up by the approaching tsunami has only 3 directions to go. Forwards, to the sides and upwards. \n\nA tsunami is caused by a massive underwater earthquake and only when the ocean floor is violently and abruptly pushed upwards. The amount of ocean floor upheaval translates directly to the force behind the tsunami. It's not the vertical height of a tsunami that causes the damage but the amount of force behind the mass of water. It's the difference between getting punched by your little sister versus Mike Tyson.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18842323",
"title": "Sea",
"section": "Section::::Physical science.:Tsunami.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 938,
"text": "A tsunami is an unusual form of wave caused by an infrequent powerful event such as an underwater earthquake or landslide, a meteorite impact, a volcanic eruption or a collapse of land into the sea. These events can temporarily lift or lower the surface of the sea in the affected area, usually by a few feet. The potential energy of the displaced seawater is turned into kinetic energy, creating a shallow wave, a tsunami, radiating outwards at a velocity proportional to the square root of the depth of the water and which therefore travels much faster in the open ocean than on a continental shelf. In the deep open sea, tsunamis have wavelengths of around , travel at speeds of over 600 miles per hour (970 km/hr) and usually have a height of less than three feet, so they often pass unnoticed at this stage. In contrast, ocean surface waves caused by winds have wavelengths of a few hundred feet, travel at up to and are up to high.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "238246",
"title": "Megatsunami",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Normal tsunamis generated at sea result from movement of the sea floor. They have a small wave height offshore, are very long (often hundreds of kilometres), and generally pass unnoticed at sea, forming only a slight swell usually of the order of above the normal sea surface. When they reach land, the wave height increases dramatically as the base of the wave pushes the water column above it upwards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31546082",
"title": "Coastal flooding",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Tsunami.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "Coastal areas can be significantly flooded as the result of tsunami waves which propagate through the ocean as the result of the displacement of a significant body of water through earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions and glacier calvings. There is also evidence to suggest that significant tsunami have been caused in the past by meteor impact into the ocean. Tsunami waves are so destructive due to the velocity of the approaching waves, the height of the waves when they reach land and the debris the water entrains as it flows over land can cause further damage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10106",
"title": "Earthquake",
"section": "Section::::Effects of earthquakes.:Tsunami.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "Tsunamis are long-wavelength, long-period sea waves produced by the sudden or abrupt movement of large volumes of water—including when an earthquake occurs at sea. In the open ocean the distance between wave crests can surpass , and the wave periods can vary from five minutes to one hour. Such tsunamis travel 600–800 kilometers per hour (373–497 miles per hour), depending on water depth. Large waves produced by an earthquake or a submarine landslide can overrun nearby coastal areas in a matter of minutes. Tsunamis can also travel thousands of kilometers across open ocean and wreak destruction on far shores hours after the earthquake that generated them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43443101",
"title": "Tsunami Warning, Education, and Research Act of 2014",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 776,
"text": "Tsunami waves do not resemble normal sea waves, because their wavelength is far longer. Rather than appearing as a breaking wave, a tsunami may instead initially resemble a rapidly rising tide, and for this reason they are often referred to as \"tidal waves\". Tsunamis generally consist of a series of waves with periods ranging from minutes to hours, arriving in a so-called \"wave train\". Wave heights of tens of metres can be generated by large events. Although the impact of tsunamis is limited to coastal areas, their destructive power can be enormous and they can affect entire ocean basins; the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami was among the deadliest natural disasters in human history with at least 290,000 people killed or missing in 14 countries bordering the Indian Ocean.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31161",
"title": "Tsunami",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Tsunamis cause damage by two mechanisms: the smashing force of a wall of water travelling at high speed, and the destructive power of a large volume of water draining off the land and carrying a large amount of debris with it, even with waves that do not appear to be large.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31161",
"title": "Tsunami",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Seismicity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "Tsunamis have a small wave height offshore, and a very long wavelength (often hundreds of kilometres long, whereas normal ocean waves have a wavelength of only 30 or 40 metres), which is why they generally pass unnoticed at sea, forming only a slight swell usually about above the normal sea surface. They grow in height when they reach shallower water, in a wave shoaling process described below. A tsunami can occur in any tidal state and even at low tide can still inundate coastal areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
ch7r9y | is there a radio frequency camera? | [
{
"answer": "Yes, a radiotelescope is such a device.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, but the resolution is limited by the wavelength. Radio telescopes use multiple dishes and interferometry for increasing resolution, but they need to scan just like single dish telescopes. \n\n[Micro bolometer focal plane arrays](_URL_0_) are becoming used for radio astronomy, but are limited to short wavelengths. Other multi-sensors like the 21cm Multibeam Receiver at Parkes have only 13 sensors which are the equivalent of pixels.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5100704",
"title": "W band",
"section": "Section::::Radar.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "A number of passive millimeter-wave cameras for concealed weapons detection operate at 94 GHz. A frequency around 77 GHz is used for automotive cruise control radar. The atmospheric radio window at 94 GHz is used for imaging millimeter-wave radar applications in astronomy, defense, and security applications. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7070301",
"title": "Telescope",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Radio telescopes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Unlike an optical telescope, which produces a magnified image of the patch of sky being observed, a traditional radio telescope dish contains a single receiver and records a single time-varying signal characteristic of the observed region; this signal may be sampled at various frequencies. In some newer radio telescope designs, a single dish contains an array of several receivers; this is known as a focal-plane array.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1607203",
"title": "FM broadcasting",
"section": "Section::::Small-scale use of the FM broadcast band.:Consumer use of FM transmitters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "The FM broadcast band is also used by some inexpensive wireless microphones sold as toys for karaoke or similar purposes, allowing the user to use an FM radio as an output rather than a dedicated amplifier and speaker. Professional-grade wireless microphones generally use bands in the UHF region so they can run on dedicated equipment without broadcast interference.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5106877",
"title": "AN/TRC-97",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "The AN/TRC-97 Radio Set, or TRC-97, is a radio set that has 12 multiplex channels and 16 telegraph channels connected to an analog radio. The radio set is a mobile terminal that can transmit up to 40 miles straight line-of-sight at up to 1 watt, using a traveling wave tube amplifier, or 96 miles in tropospheric scatter at up to 1 kilowatt, using a tunable klystron amplifier, at a frequency range of 4.4 to 5 gigahertz and 1.2 to 2.2 gigahertz. The set has been manufactured by RCA, Camden, N.J.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1607203",
"title": "FM broadcasting",
"section": "Section::::Small-scale use of the FM broadcast band.:Clandestine use of FM transmitters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "FM transmitters have been used to construct miniature wireless microphones for espionage and surveillance purposes (covert listening devices or so-called \"bugs\"); the advantage to using the FM broadcast band for such operations is that the receiving equipment would not be considered particularly suspect. Common practice is to tune the bug's transmitter off the ends of the broadcast band, into what in the United States would be TV channel 6 (87.9 MHz) or aviation navigation frequencies (107.9 MHz); most FM radios with analog tuners have sufficient overcoverage to pick up these slightly-beyond-outermost frequencies, although many digitally tuned radios have not.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1607203",
"title": "FM broadcasting",
"section": "Section::::Small-scale use of the FM broadcast band.:Consumer use of FM transmitters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "In some countries, small-scale (Part 15 in United States terms) transmitters are available that can transmit a signal from an audio device (usually an MP3 player or similar) to a standard FM radio receiver; such devices range from small units built to carry audio to a car radio with no audio-in capability (often formerly provided by special adapters for audio cassette decks, which are becoming less common on car radio designs) up to full-sized, near-professional-grade broadcasting systems that can be used to transmit audio throughout a property. Most such units transmit in full stereo, though some models designed for beginner hobbyists might not. Similar transmitters are often included in satellite radio receivers and some toys.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "491851",
"title": "Radio receiver",
"section": "Section::::Other applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Radio telescope\" - specialized antenna and radio receiver used as a scientific instrument to study weak radio waves from astronomical radio sources in space like stars, nebulas and galaxies in radio astronomy. They are the most sensitive radio receivers that exist, having large parabolic (dish) antennas up to 500 meters in diameter, and extremely sensitive radio circuits. The RF front end of the receiver is often cryogenically cooled by liquid nitrogen to reduce radio noise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
8tlxuy | Can microbes ever become UV Resistant? Why or why not? | [
{
"answer": "It’s very possible over time the microbes in question will evolve to be more UV-resilient by upregulating enzymes associated with repairing UV-induced damage (for example, base excision repair). But there’s a limit to even the most efficient repair mechanisms. UV intensity will eventually overwhelm the defenses. So, at least imo, no. More resilient but never entirely resistant. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21025499",
"title": "Martian soil",
"section": "Section::::Toxicity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "There is evidence that some bacterial lifeforms are able to overcome perchlorates and even live off them. However, the added effect of the high levels of UV reaching the surface of Mars breaks the molecular bonds, creating even more dangerous chemicals which in lab tests on Earth were shown to be more lethal to bacteria than the perchlorates alone. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2339577",
"title": "Evidence of common descent",
"section": "Section::::Evidence from selection.:Microbes.:Antimicrobial resistance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 207,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 207,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "All classes of microbes develop resistance: including fungi (antifungal resistance), viruses (antiviral resistance), protozoa (antiprotozoal resistance), and bacteria (antibiotic resistance). This is to be expected when considering that all life exhibits universal genetic code and is therefore subject to the process of evolution through its various mechanisms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38894374",
"title": "List of Legionnaires' disease outbreaks",
"section": "Section::::Governmental controls to prevent outbreaks.:Eliminating breeding grounds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "\"Legionella\" bacteria themselves can be inactivated by UV light. However, \"Legionella\" bacteria that grow and reproduce in amoebae or that are sheltered in corrosion particles cannot be killed by UV light alone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6907585",
"title": "Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation",
"section": "Section::::Effectiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "In many systems, redundancy in exposing microorganisms to UV is achieved by circulating the air or water repeatedly. This ensures multiple passes so that the UV is effective against the highest number of microorganisms and will irradiate resistant microorganisms more than once to break them down.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12767994",
"title": "Triclocarban",
"section": "Section::::Antibacterial properties.:Resistance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "Exposure of organisms like fish, algae, and humans to low levels of triclocarban and other antibacterial chemicals kills weak microbes and allows the stronger, resistant strains to proliferate. As microbes share genes, an increase in resistant strains increases the probability that weak microbes acquire these resistance genes. The consequence is a new colony of drug resistant microbes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6907585",
"title": "Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Water disinfection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 718,
"text": "It used to be thought that UV disinfection was more effective for bacteria and viruses, which have more-exposed genetic material, than for larger pathogens that have outer coatings or that form cyst states (e.g., Giardia) that shield their DNA from UV light. However, it was recently discovered that ultraviolet radiation can be somewhat effective for treating the microorganism Cryptosporidium. The findings resulted in the use of UV radiation as a viable method to treat drinking water. Giardia in turn has been shown to be very susceptible to UV-C when the tests were based on infectivity rather than excystation. It has been found that protists are able to survive high UV-C doses but are sterilized at low doses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35490713",
"title": "Physical factors affecting microbial life",
"section": "Section::::Ozone.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "Microorganisms suffer a reduction in viability on contact with ozone which compromises the integrity of their cell walls. Gram-negative bacteria are more vulnerable to ozone than gram-positive organisms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
6sm2a8 | why college football schools needs that large stadiums (90k+ attendance)? | [
{
"answer": "Because each of those games brings in a ridiculous amount of money, and there aren't very many costs associated with the stadiums when they're not in use. They're mostly outdoors, so electricity usage is pretty low, and it's not like they have to pay the staff year-round.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Those large stadiums also generate tons of money... they build 90k seat stadiums because they can fill them up with fans paying money for tickets, buying nachos and soda inside, etc. And often the stadiums are paid for, or substantially paid for, by donations from alumni, etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's a cultural event and an instinctual human need. The school, the football team, and the fans are all willing to pay for the stadium to sit there during the empty months because of how big an event it is. People want to be around each other, and 90+ thousand fans want to be there for the games.\n\nThere are even more extravagant examples: the Texas Formula 1 track was built for a single, once-a-year event (though it hosts smaller events when it can). There's also the Olympics where countries spend enormous amounts of money to build stadiums that will only get used once at their max capacity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For a major university with a 90k+ stadium they sell tickets for 100+ a seat. Increasing your size from 60k to 90k can increase your ticket revenue by 18 million a year, maybe even more, despite the fact that a 60k stadium and a 90k stadium sit on a piece of land that's roughly the same size. If your school is capable of filling a 90k stadium they'd be fools not to have one.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The supply (90,000+ capacity stadia) exists because the demand exists. Some universities lose money on their football programs, but the big name ones--Alabama, Florida, Southern Cal, Ohio State, Michigan, LSU, Georgia, Texas, Oklahoma--make tons of money. Tickets sell out years in advance, for $100 per ticket in some cases. They also make tons on media deals. Most D1 colleges also have huge student bodies--30,000 or more--which means they need to give a big section to the students at a discounted rate. So they need an extra 60,000 seats to sell to alumni and the general public to make their money. \n\nYour average college football stadium is pretty old, too. The stadium at my alma mater was built in the 1920s and has been expanded since then. They're nowhere near as nice as what you'd find for an NFL or MLB team, pretty much just concrete, stairs, and some walkways with concession stands. They're almost all outdoors--I can't think of a major blueblood or semi-blueblood team that has an indoors one, in fact. So upkeep is loads cheaper than an indoor one with HVAC systems and all that jazz. ",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6771",
"title": "College football",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 943,
"text": "Although the college game has a much larger margin for talent than its pro counterpart, the sheer number of fans following major colleges provides a financial equalizer for the game, with Division I programs — the highest level — playing in huge stadiums, six of which have seating capacity exceeding 100,000 people. In many cases, college stadiums employ bench-style seating, as opposed to individual seats with backs and arm rests (although many stadiums do have a small number of chairback seats in addition to the bench seating). This allows them to seat more fans in a given amount of space than the typical professional stadium, which tends to have more features and comforts for fans. (Only three stadiums owned by U.S. colleges or universities — Cardinal Stadium at the University of Louisville, Georgia State Stadium at Georgia State University and FAU Stadium at Florida Atlantic University — consist entirely of chairback seating).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10814816",
"title": "List of current National Football League stadiums",
"section": "Section::::Stadium characteristics.:Seating.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1676,
"text": "In their normal configurations, 29 of the league's 31 stadiums have a seating capacity of at least 60,000 spectators; of those, a majority (16) have less than 70,000 seats, while eight have between 70,000 and 80,000 and five can seat 80,000 or more. In contrast to college football stadiums, the largest of which can and regularly do accommodate over 100,000 spectators, no stadium in the league currently has a listed seating capacity of more than 82,500. Teams rarely build their stadiums far beyond the 80,000 seat threshold (and even then, only in the largest markets) because of the league's blackout policy, which prohibited the televising of any NFL game within 75 miles of its home market if a game does not sell all of its non-premium seating. For this reason, until the blackout was suspended in 2015, the Los Angeles Rams cap capacity at the 93,607-seat Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum to 80,000 seats for most games. Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum, the stadium that hosts the Oakland Raiders, has over 60,000 seats, but the team has restricted capacity to under 57,000 in more recent seasons. In the opposite direction, the league has a firm minimum on the number of seats an NFL stadium should have; since 1971 the league has not allowed any stadium under 50,000 seats to host a full-time NFL team (not counting Dignity Health Sports Park; there have been two exceptions to this: 45,000-seat Metropolitan Stadium in Minnesota was not replaced until 1982, and 40,000-seat Vanderbilt Stadium hosted the Tennessee Oilers for one season in 1998 after a planned two-year residency in Memphis was cut in half). In normal circumstances, all NFL stadiums are all-seaters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10361287",
"title": "List of American football stadiums by capacity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "The following is an incomplete list of current American football stadiums ranked by capacity. The list contains the home stadiums of all 32 professional teams playing in the NFL as well as the largest stadiums used by college football teams in the NCAA. The largest stadium used by a professional team falls at number 9 on the list. Not included are several large stadiums used by teams in the now-defunct NFL Europa, as these were all built for and used mainly for association football, or Rogers Centre, located in Canada (although it does host occasional American football games). Currently all football stadiums with a capacity of 30,000 or more are included.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "453767",
"title": "AFL–NFL merger",
"section": "Section::::The merger agreement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 1647,
"text": "BULLET::::- Stadiums seating less than 50,000 were declared to be inadequate for professional football's needs, thus compelling teams in stadiums with capacities under that number to expand their current stadiums (most notably the expansion of the Denver Broncos' Mile High Stadium in 1968) or move to newer, larger homes—most notably the Chicago Bears' move from Wrigley Field to Soldier Field in 1971, and the opening of new stadiums for the New England Patriots (Schaefer Stadium in 1971), Kansas City Chiefs (Arrowhead Stadium in 1972), and Buffalo Bills (Rich Stadium in 1973). (The Minnesota Vikings stayed at Metropolitan Stadium, the only sub-50,000 capacity stadium after the merger, until the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome opened in 1982.) It was this stadium issue that prevented Seattle and Tampa Bay from receiving their expansion teams until 1976; both cities were recruiting the Bills and Patriots to relocate to their cities (in defiance of Rozelle's promise) should they not be able to build a compliant stadium in their home market, and only after those stadiums were built and relocation of existing teams ruled out that the league could issue expansion teams to Seattle and Tampa Bay. Since the 1970's, the league has only played occasionally in sub-50,000 seat stadiums. Exceptions include the 1998 NFL season when the Tennessee Oilers played one season at 40,550 seat Vanderbilt Stadium and also from 2017 to present when the Chargers returned to Los Angeles and temporarily moved into the 27,000 seat Dignity Health Sports Park (known as StubHub Center before 2019) until Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park opens in 2020.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9897546",
"title": "List of NCAA Division I FBS football stadiums",
"section": "Section::::Current stadiums.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 359,
"text": " – Largest football crowd. Larger attendance records may exist for other configurations of the stadium. Also, a few stadiums now have lower football capacity than in the past; one example is California Memorial Stadium, whose capacity dropped by more than 9,000 in its most recent renovation.br – Year of most recent completed stadium expansion/major upgrade\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2748329",
"title": "State Farm Stadium",
"section": "Section::::Facility information and history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "The stadium seating capacity can be expanded by 8,800 for \"mega-events\" such as college bowls, NFL Super Bowls, the NFC Championship Game, and the Final Four by adding risers and ganged, portable \"X-frame\" folding seats. The endzone area on the side of the facility where the field tray rolls in and out of the facility can be expanded to accommodate the additional seats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "185604",
"title": "Stadium",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "Most of the stadiums with a capacity of at least 10,000 are used for association football. Other popular stadium sports include gridiron football, baseball, cricket, the various codes of rugby, field lacrosse, bandy, and bullfighting. A large number of large sports venues are also used for concerts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
8e4cfj | why do sound deviations from “normal sounds” like those used in horror movies and games cause a fear response in us? | [
{
"answer": "Do you notice how they’re always minor?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think i read an evolutional theory about this a long time ago. Something about sounds outside of normal background noise, especially high pitched ones, indicating a nearby predator. Sound from the predator itself or from other prey animals fleeing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I watched a program on TV that said before scary scenes they use a sound below human hearing range. You can't hear it but it causes a feeling of dread for people listening to it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Another factor not mentioned in the comments is that some music is different and dissonant on purpose, not fitting into the rhythm or the harmony of the normal music, making you feel a sense of unease. They feel different and wrong, like it doesn't belong there. This appears in classical music as well, but it's usually used as a passage, with complementary notes played straight after. Meanwhile, using such notes gets you ready for complementary notes that are not going to come, if that makes any sense. It's the heart and soul of horror: suspense. It the same as when in a horror movie a protag explores a dark and creepy place and you expect a jumpscare and never get one, anticipating it more and more.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Humans love patterns. When the Sayo-Nara scene happens, your mind is primed for the pattern of the song that's been playing for hours up to that point. But instead, the song breaks the \"rules\" for nice-sounding music that just about every song follows, such as sticking to a key, keeping a consistent timing, and playing in tune. This creates an unsettling effect. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How bout those creepy clicking noises and sound effects used in Sinister, huh? I thought whoever developed the sound effects/soundtrack in those movies did a great job (with creeping people out)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3452725",
"title": "Anempathetic sound",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "Anempathetic sound in a film is the opposite of empathetic sound: it consists of music or sound effects that exhibit an indifference to the current tone, emotion, or plot-point of the film. This type of sound can thereby enhance a sense of tragic apathy and insignificance, as when a radio continues to play a happy tune when a character dies, or in Hitchcock's \"Psycho\" the continued sound of the shower running after Marion Crane has been killed, as if nothing has happened. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36507313",
"title": "Daniel T. Blumstein",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Inspired by the screams of a baby marmot, he conducted a study, published in Biology Letters, investigating nonlinearities in sound and their effect on response. The report found that the addition of non-linear elements produced stronger responses and valence, which implies that nonlinearities in sounds make them more frightening.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33898394",
"title": "Saccular acoustic sensitivity",
"section": "Section::::Stimulation.:Negative Stimulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "While each individual is sensitive to different sounds, there are some nearly universal saccular acoustical stimulants. For example, the sound of fingernails scratching a blackboard will stimulate negative emotions along with chills in the majority of the population. Trevor J. Cox, of the University of Salford, was fascinated by this fact and conducted an online study to identify the \"most horrible sound\" in the world. Participants were asked to listen to recordings of various \"bad\" noises and rate them by their horribleness. \"Vomiting\" was selected as the most horrible sound by a wide margin. Surprisingly, \"nails on a blackboard\" was only ranked 16.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33898394",
"title": "Saccular acoustic sensitivity",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Mental/Emotional Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "Certain sounds, such as fingernails drawn down a blackboard, cause strong feelings of aversion or even fear in most humans. A 2004 study claimed that the blackboard sound was very similar to the warning cry of Siamang gibbons and hypothesized that a vestigial reflex is what causes the fight or flight reaction in humans. Other sounds, such as a person coughing or vomiting, provoke responses of disgust. These emotional reactions are thought to be caused by the body's natural tendency to avoid disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "356304",
"title": "Psychological horror",
"section": "Section::::Films.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1298,
"text": "Psychological horror films generally differ from the traditional horror film, where the source of the fear is typically something material, such as grotesque or horrifying creatures, monsters, serial killers, or aliens, as well as the splatter film, which derives its frightening effects from gore and graphic violence, in that tension in psychological horror films is more frequently built through atmosphere, eerie sounds and exploitation of the viewer's and the character's psychological fears. Psychological horror films sometimes frighten or unsettle by relying on the viewer's or character's own imagination or the anticipation of a threat rather than an actual threat or a material source of fear portrayed onscreen. However, some psychological horror films may in fact contain a material or overt threat or a physical source of fear, as well as scenes of graphic gore or violence, yet still rely or focus mainly on atmosphere and the psychological, mental, and emotional states of the characters and viewers to frighten or disturb. For instance, some psychological horror films may portray psychotic murderers and scenes of graphic violence while still maintaining an atmosphere that focuses on either the villain's, protagonist's, or audience's psychological, mental, or emotional status.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1789064",
"title": "Resident Evil (1996 video game)",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 1331,
"text": "A reviewer for \"Next Generation\" said it \"manages to be as genuinely scary as a good horror film - no small achievement. There are a lot of things that work around games being this frightening ... In this case, however, the fine character work, creepy and well-executed sound effects, and just the right music in just the right places all have a subtle, cumulative effect ...\" While criticizing the \"laughable\" dialogue and voice acting, he felt they were overridden by the game's positive aspects. He pointed out that the lack of genuinely confounding puzzles allows the game to move at a good pace, and the use of prerendered backgrounds allowed the PlayStation to handle much more detailed characters. Yasuhiro Hunter of \"Maximum\" stated that \"The game has the greatest atmosphere of any other game in existence - naming a game that makes you jump as much as when encountering your first pair of Cereberos in this title would be very difficult.\" He also praised the heavy difficulty of the puzzles, the great care required in combat, the 3D graphics, and the exceptionally high replay value. \"Computer Gaming World\" gave a more mixed review for the Windows version, explaining that they \"tried to hate it with its graphic violence, rampant sexism, poor voice acting and use of every horror cliché, however...it's actually fun.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3519389",
"title": "Empathetic sound",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "Empathetic sound in a film is sound—music or sound effects—whose mood matches the mood of the present action or scene, such as a sad song playing during a depressing or upsetting scene. The opposite of empathetic sound is anempathetic sound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
6shlmz | the psychological reason people can still not believe an argument when presented with evidence. | [
{
"answer": "It's because one person's irrefutable evidence, is total bullshit to someone else. Evidence is subjective. When you say something is a fact, how often is it that you do not really know that for a fact. You are relying on \"studies\", \"statistics\", lots of things you don't really know to be true yourself, but have accepted as \"the truth\". \n\nWell if you get into an argument with someone that does not accept the word of all of those people, or their electron microscopes that allegedly show what things look like at very small scales, or other things you consider scientific fact, than they are going to be unmoved by your argument, as you are unmoved by the things they believe the truth to be. \n\nIn short, there is no universal truth.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's because they believe in something else more than the validity of the argument. The argument might have flaws, after all. \n\nLet's say you think wine causes lung cancer and they think cigarettes do. If they are 99.99% sure that cigarettes cause cancer and your argument that it's caused by wine has only a 95% chance of being valid, they should rightfully (given their beliefs) ignore it. And in this case, they ARE right!\n\nSince people can have irrational beliefs that they are near-certain of, no amount of argument can change those beliefs - they always think it's more likely that the argument is wrong rather than their belief.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9518",
"title": "Edmund Husserl",
"section": "Section::::Husserl and psychologism.:Husserl's criticism of psychologism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "3. Judgments can be true or not true. Psychologists argue that judgments are true because they become \"evidently\" true to us. This evidence, a psychological process that \"guarantees\" truth, is indeed a psychological process. Husserl responds by saying that truth itself, as well as logical laws, always remain valid regardless of psychological \"evidence\" that they are true. No psychological process can explain the \"a priori\" objectivity of these logical truths.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "526636",
"title": "False consensus effect",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 728,
"text": "Additionally, when confronted with evidence that a consensus does not exist, people often assume that those who do not agree with them are defective in some way. There is no single cause for this cognitive bias; the availability heuristic, self-serving bias, and naïve realism have been suggested as at least partial underlying factors. Maintenance of this cognitive bias may be related to the tendency to make decisions with relatively little information. When faced with uncertainty and a limited sample from which to make decisions, people often \"project\" themselves onto the situation. When this personal knowledge is used as input to make generalizations, it often results in the false sense of being part of the majority.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1678145",
"title": "Underdetermination",
"section": "Section::::Arguments involving underdetermination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Arguments involving underdetermination attempt to show that there is no reason to believe some conclusion because it is underdetermined by the evidence. Then, if the evidence available at a particular time can be equally well explained by at least one other hypothesis, there is no reason to believe it rather than the equally supported rival, which can be considered observationally equivalent (although many other hypotheses may still be eliminated).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2267234",
"title": "Objective approach",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "That is, they will select out those views and facts which agree with their own (cf. confirmation bias). However this view fails to explain why, for example, people will do things which are not in their self-interest, based on what they believe to be an objective approach.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17313159",
"title": "Argument from reason",
"section": "Section::::Criticisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 1000,
"text": "Other critics have objected that Lewis's argument from reason fails because the causal origins of beliefs are often irrelevant to whether those beliefs are rational, justified, warranted, etc. Anscombe, for example, argues that \"if a man has reasons, and they are good reasons, and they are genuinely his reasons, for thinking something—then his thought is rational, whatever causal statements we make about him\" (Anscombe 1981: 229). On many widely accepted theories of knowledge and justification, questions of how beliefs were ultimately caused (e.g., at the level of brain neurochemistry) are viewed as irrelevant to whether those beliefs are rational or justified. Some defenders of Lewis claim that this objection misses the mark, because his argument is directed at what he calls the \"veridicalness\" of acts of reasoning (i.e., whether reasoning connects us with objective reality or truth), rather than with whether any inferred beliefs can be rational or justified in a materialistic world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10837",
"title": "Faith and rationality",
"section": "Section::::Reformed epistemology.:Faith as underlying rationality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 885,
"text": "The view that faith underlies all rationality holds that rationality is dependent on faith for its coherence. Under this view, there is no way to comprehensively \"prove\" that we are actually seeing what we appear to be seeing, that what we remember actually happened, or that the laws of logic and mathematics are actually real. Instead, all beliefs depend for their coherence on \"faith\" in our senses, memory, and reason, because the foundations of rationalism cannot be proven by evidence or reason. Rationally, you can not prove anything you see is real, but you can prove that you yourself are real, and rationalist belief would be that you can believe that the world is consistent until something demonstrates inconsistency. This differs from faith based belief, where you believe that your world view is consistent no matter what inconsistencies the world has with your beliefs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47278",
"title": "Cognitive bias",
"section": "Section::::Criticisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "There are criticisms against theories of cognitive biases based on the fact that both sides in a debate often claim each other's thoughts to be in human nature and the result of cognitive bias, while claiming their own viewpoint as being the correct way to \"overcome\" cognitive bias. This is not due simply to debate misconduct but is a more fundamental problem that stems from psychology's making up of multiple opposed cognitive bias theories that can be non-falsifiably used to explain away any viewpoint.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
7op85x | why is seafood much more fragrant/smelly than land based animals? | [
{
"answer": "Trimethylamine oxide. It's odorless, but after you kill the fish bacteria break it down into ammonia. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "41758901",
"title": "Odorigui",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "\"Odorigui\" refers to the consumption of live seafood while it is still moving, or the consumption of moving animal parts. Animals usually consumed in odorigui style include octopus, squids, ice gobies, and other similar animals. Consumption of live seafood without remarkable movements, such as sea urchins, is usually not included in \"odorigui.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234121",
"title": "European storm petrel",
"section": "Section::::Behaviour.:Feeding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "Petrels can be attracted to boats with \"chum\", a malodorous mixture typically containing fish heads, bones and offal, with added fish oil and popcorn to aid flotation. An apparently empty ocean will soon fill with hundreds of birds attracted by the smell. The attraction of the fishy odour is sometimes enhanced by the addition of dimethylsulphide (DMS) a chemical also naturally produced by some planktonic organisms, although there are doubts about the safety of this possible carcinogen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "516020",
"title": "Ziziphus",
"section": "Section::::Ecology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "The differences are ecological adaptations to different environments over a relatively dry-wet climate. Species in less humid environment are smaller or less robust, with less abundant and thinner foliage and have oleifera cells that produce trees with a more fragrant aroma.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37063005",
"title": "Effects of global warming on human health",
"section": "Section::::Oceans and human health.:Food safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 1345,
"text": "Our insatiable appetite for seafood of all types has led to overfishing and has already significantly strained marine food stocks to the point of collapse in many cases. With seafood being a major protein source for so much of the population, there are inherent health risks associated with global warming. As mentioned above increased agricultural runoff and warmer water temperature allows for eutrophication of ocean waters. This increased growth of algae and phytoplankton in turn can have dire consequences. These algal blooms can emit toxic substances that can be harmful to humans if consumed. Organisms, such as shellfish, marine crustaceans and even fish, feed on or near these infected blooms, ingest the toxins and can be consumed unknowingly by humans. One of these toxin producing algae is Pseudo-nitzschia fraudulenta. This species produces a substance called domoic acid which is responsible for amnesic shellfish poisoning. The toxicity of this species has been shown to increase with greater concentrations associated with ocean acidification. Some of the more common illnesses reported from harmful algal blooms include; Ciguatera fish poisoning, paralytic shellfish poisoning, azaspiracid shellfish poisoning, diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, neurotoxic shellfish poisoning and the above-mentioned amnesic shellfish poisoning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26866",
"title": "Seafood",
"section": "Section::::Texture and taste.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 1257,
"text": "Over 33,000 species of fish and many more marine invertebrate species have been described. Bromophenols, which are produced by marine algae, gives marine animals an odor and taste that is absent from freshwater fish and invertebrates. Also, a chemical substance called dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) that is found in red and green algae is transferred to animals in the marine food chain. When broken down, dimethyl sulfide (DMS) is produced, and is often released during food preparation when fresh fish and shellfish are heated. In small quantities it creates a specific smell one associates with the ocean, but which in larger quantities gives the impression of rotten seaweed and old fish. Another molecule known as TMAO occurs in fishes and give them a distinct smell. It also exists in freshwater species, but becomes more numerous in the cells of an animal the deeper it lives, so that fish from the deeper parts of the ocean has a stronger taste than species who lives in shallow water. Eggs from seaweed contains sex pheromones called dictyopterenes, which are meant to attract the sperm. These pheromones are also found in edible seaweeds, which contributes to their aroma. However, only a small number of species are commonly eaten by humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "151806",
"title": "St Kilda, Scotland",
"section": "Section::::History.:Way of life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "This feature of island life came at a price. When Henry Brougham visited in 1799, he noted that \"the air is infected by a stench almost insupportable – a compound of rotten fish, filth of all sorts and stinking seafowl\". An excavation of the \"Taigh an t-Sithiche\" (the \"house of the faeries\" – see below) in 1877 by Sands unearthed the remains of gannet, sheep, cattle and limpets amidst various stone tools. The building is between 1,700 and 2,500 years old, which suggests that the St Kildan diet had changed little over the millennia. Indeed, the tools were recognised by the St Kildans, who could put names to them as similar devices were still in use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5236",
"title": "Coast",
"section": "Section::::Wildlife.:Animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "Some of the animals live along a typical coast. There are animals like puffins, sea turtles and rockhopper penguins. Sea snails and various kinds of barnacles live on the coast and scavenge on food deposited by the sea. Most coastal animals are used to humans in developed areas, such as dolphins and seagulls who eat food thrown for them by tourists. Since the coastal areas are all part of the littoral zone, there is a profusion of marine life found just off-coast.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
3gc1u6 | why does faraway smoke look like it's staying still? | [
{
"answer": "The same reason airplanes look very slow. A plane flying 400 mph looks like its crawling along because its so far away. Smoke rising a mile away is only going, I dunno, ten miles per hour, so it looks completely still because of the same principle.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's a phenomena named parallax, u might google it to find visual examples along with explanations (far more effective than a simple explanation)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "12501554",
"title": "Backwoods Smokes",
"section": "Section::::Advertising.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "Backwoods Smokes were advertised heavily throughout the 1970s and 1980s, with virtually no changes being made to their target group during this time. An example advertisement from 1983 shows a man climbing the side of a snowy mountain, with the phrase \"If you ever wanted to climb Mt. Rainier, you're a natural Backwoods man\" in large print. In the foreground, a hand is holding up a pack of Backwoods Smokes that says \"Wild 'N Mild Smokes, All Natural Tobacco\". In a sidebar, the advertisement also reads:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "637198",
"title": "Great Smoky Mountains",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "The name \"Smoky\" comes from the natural fog that often hangs over the range and presents as large smoke plumes from a distance. This fog is caused by the vegetation exhaling volatile organic compounds, chemicals that have a high vapor pressure and easily form vapors at normal temperature and pressure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "26297162",
"title": "Security smoke",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "Security smoke is a thermally generated white fog, aimed at inhibiting intruders from accessing items to steal, much used in the storage of high-value goods, and recommended by police and insurers. It consists of glycol or glycerine mixed with distilled water, which vaporises and then condenses in the air.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "33647322",
"title": "2011 M5 motorway crash",
"section": "Section::::Investigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "On 13 March 2012, following media reports that interim findings from the investigation showed fog rather than drifting smoke was to blame, police issued a statement to clarify that they had not published any conclusions to the investigation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "14471697",
"title": "Smoking Hills",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "The Smoking Hills are located on the east coast of Cape Bathurst in Canada's Northwest Territories, next to the Arctic Ocean and a small group of lakes. The cliffs were named by explorer John Franklin, who was the first European to see them on his 1826 expeditions. They contain strata of hydrocarbons (oil shales), which have been burning continuously for centuries. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "9933726",
"title": "Uglies series",
"section": "Section::::The Smoke.:The Old Smoke.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "The Old Smoke was established by Maddy and Az (David's parents) in a remote location in the wilderness near railroad tracks and a forest. Maddy and Az created it because they found out a secret about the operation. The Old Smoke was destroyed at the end of the first book Uglies, by Special Circumstances. Tally Youngblood accidentally alerted Special Circumstances when she threw her tracker pendant into a fire, as a show of trust and caring for David and The Smoke.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28131739",
"title": "Nicknames of Vancouver",
"section": "Section::::Industry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Big Smoke – Vancouver's heavy fogs in combination with the many sawmill burners and other industrial pollution produced thick smog. Common as slang and in casual usage. It is also used outside of BC for Toronto, London, Sydney and other places. Very common in use within BC, especially in the BC Interior, when both Vancouver and the Lower Mainland in general.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
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]
| null |
1s2e95 | What are the earliest accounts of 'roleplaying'? I assume children always played pretend but what did adults have any kind of pseudo-D & D in the past? When did these hobbies start to become 'a thing', basically? | [
{
"answer": "Having asked my colleagues at #Twitterstorians, they suggested the following piece, which should answer your question.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "War reenactment was an early sort of 'roleplaying', where people dress in the uniforms of armies and reenact battles\n\nThere was a reenactment of the battle of Gettysburg at the \"Great Reunion\" in 1913.\n\nSource: _URL_0_\n\nIn England, the \"Sealed Knot Society\" was created in 1968 to reenact battles from the English Civil War.\n\nSource: _URL_1_\n\nMilitary reenactment as a form of \"roleplaying\" probably predates roleplaying games. \n\nOf course, participating in stage plays with an historical setting is a form of 'roleplaying' which probably predates all others.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7940",
"title": "Dungeons & Dragons",
"section": "Section::::Game history.:Acclaim and influence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "\"Dungeons & Dragons\" was the first modern role-playing game and it established many of the conventions that have dominated the genre. Particularly notable are the use of dice as a game mechanic, character record sheets, use of numerical attributes and gamemaster-centered group dynamics. Within months of \"Dungeons & Dragons\"'s release, new role-playing game writers and publishers began releasing their own role-playing games, with most of these being in the fantasy genre. Some of the earliest other role-playing games inspired by \"D&D\" include \"Tunnels & Trolls\" (1975), \"Empire of the Petal Throne\" (1975), and \"Chivalry & Sorcery\" (1976).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17674526",
"title": "Lolita Syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "Prior to creating its well-known series of role playing games which include \"Dragon Quest\" and \"Star Ocean\", Enix was a niche game publisher which became involved in the creation of pornographic games during the 1980s. \"Lolita Syndrome\" was the winning game of the second Hobby Program Contest sponsored by Enix.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "4915",
"title": "Bunnies & Burrows",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "\"Bunnies & Burrows\" was the first role-playing game to allow for non-humanoid play. In addition, it was also the first role-playing game to have detailed martial arts rules (known as \"\"Bun Fu\"\") and the first attempt at a skill system. For its time, the game was considered \"light years\" ahead of the Original \"Dungeons & Dragons\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23534170",
"title": "Fantasy",
"section": "Section::::Media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Fantasy role-playing games cross several different media. \"Dungeons & Dragons\" was the first tabletop role-playing game and remains the most successful and influential. According to a 1999 survey in the United States, 6% of 12- to 35-year-olds have played role-playing games. Of those who play regularly, two thirds play \"D&D\". Products branded \"Dungeons & Dragons\" made up over fifty percent of the RPG products sold in 2005.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25630880",
"title": "Tabletop role-playing game",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 651,
"text": "The assumption of roles was a central theme in some early 20th century activities such as the game \"Jury Box\", mock trials, model legislatures, and \"Theatre Games\". In the 1960s, historical reenactment groups such as The Sealed Knot and the Society for Creative Anachronism began to perform \"creative history\" reenactments introducing fantasy elements, and in the 1970s fantasy wargames were developed, inspired by sword and sorcery fiction, in which each player controlled only a single unit, or \"character\". The earlier role-playing tradition was combined with the wargames' rule-based character representation to form the first role-playing games.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4746249",
"title": "History of live action role-playing games",
"section": "Section::::Early history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "In the 1920s, Model League of Nations clubs formed around the United States, creating a style of live-action role playing that was not thought of as a game per se but was thought of as a recreational pastime. There is some evidence that Assassin-style LARP games may have been played in New York City by adults in the early 20th century as well. The 1920s also saw the beginning of role playing used for psychotherapeutic purposes, often called \"psychodrama.\" It was championed in the US by Jacob L. Moreno It was not thought of as a game, but the psychodrama tradition probably influenced LARP games as they later developed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "12848",
"title": "Gary Gygax",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "Ernest Gary Gygax ( ; July 27, 1938 – March 4, 2008) was an American game designer and author best known for co-creating the pioneering role-playing game \"Dungeons & Dragons\" (\"D&D\") with Dave Arneson.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
6ode2m | how do it departments handle frequent cyber attacks? | [
{
"answer": "Almost any publically accessible IP address is constantly bombarded by various attacks and scans. At home your router most likely protects you from a direct assault on your home computers by forbidding direct connections unless you've explicitly set up your router to allow it. \n\nSame is true in the corporate world. Depending on your organization's IT department, budget and policies they may have one more of the following\n\n* Firewalling routers that block desirable internet traffic.\n\n* Application level proxies, that check internet traffic, inspect it for undesirable content and relay it on to the actual application. \n\n* regular updating of software and applications and virus scanning\n\n* various intrusion detection systems that monitor what applications are running on various servers, a fingerprint of various files on the servers and what type of network traffic patterns those servers typically have. \n\n* Maybe even a honey pot system which can mimic vulnerable targets that appear to be easy targets. Once an attack on a honeypot is detected, steps can be implemented to block them. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3113279",
"title": "University of Texas at San Antonio College of Engineering",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Electrical engineering.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 702,
"text": "The department is also working extensively in the areas of cyber security and homeland defense. Reliable and secure voice and data communications are important in mission success and in providing assurances to the public. Electromagnetic wave analysis regarding fallout may become necessary after a physical attack. Computer information security, high-speed intrusion detection, problem identification, reliable high-speed network design and redundancy are all important for cyber attack prevention; computer engineering faculty work with the Center for Infrastructure Assurance and Security in these efforts. Target analysis and radar signature identification help identify and track friends or foes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3696371",
"title": "Cisco certifications",
"section": "Section::::Primary Certifications.:Associate Certifications.:CCNA CyberOps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "Today's organizations are challenged with rapidly detecting cybersecurity breaches and effectively responding to security incidents. Teams of people in Security Operations Centers (SOC’s) keep a vigilant eye on security systems, protecting their organizations by detecting and responding to cybersecurity threats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "47671202",
"title": "Cyber threat intelligence",
"section": "Section::::Attribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "Cyber threats involve the use of computers, software and networks. During or after a cyber attack technical information about the network and computers between the attacker and the victim can be collected. However, identifying the person(s) behind an attack, their motivations, or the ultimate sponsor of the attack, is difficult. Recent efforts in threat intelligence emphasize understanding adversary TTPs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33927215",
"title": "U.S. Department of Defense Strategy for Operating in Cyberspace",
"section": "Section::::Cyber Threats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 849,
"text": "The DoD begins discussion of current cyber threats by focusing on threats to DoD daily operations, with a progressively expanding scope to encompass broader national security concerns. The DoD is aware of the potential for adversaries to use small scale-technology, such as widely available hacking tools, to cause a disproportionate impact and pose a significant threat to U.S. national security. The DoD is concerned with external threat actors, insider threats, supply chain vulnerabilities, and threats to the DoDʼs operational ability. Additionally, the document mentions the DoDʼs need to address “the concerted efforts of both state and non-state actors to gain unauthorized access to its networks and systems.” The DoD strategy cites the rapidly evolving threat landscape as a complex and vital challenge for national and economic security.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31567052",
"title": "International cybercrime",
"section": "Section::::Case analysis.:U.S..:Legal and regulatory measures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "A number of agencies have been set up in the U.S. to fight against cybercrime, including the FBI, National Infrastructure Protection Center, National White Collar Crime Center, Internet Fraud Complaint Center, Computer Crime and Intellectual Property Section of the Department of Justice (DoJ), Computer Hacking and Intellectual Property Unit of the DoJ, and Computer Emergency Readiness Team/Coordination Center (CERT/CC) at Carnegie-Mellon, and so on.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "10819266",
"title": "CSI (franchise)",
"section": "Section::::Differences between series.:Washington, D.C..\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "The FBI Cyber Crime Division investigates cyber-based terrorism, internet-related murders, espionage, computer intrusions, major cyber-fraud, cyber-theft, hacking, sex offenses, blackmail, and any other crime deemed to be cyber-related within the FBI's jurisdiction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "771174",
"title": "Cyberterrorism",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Defining cyberterrorism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "The FBI, another United States agency, defines \"cyber terrorism\" as “premeditated, politically motivated attack against information, computer systems, computer programs, and data which results in violence against non-combatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents”.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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| null |
3aj7el | Does special relativity apply to circular velocity? | [
{
"answer": "I misread your question, there is not a time dilation effect between the Earth's pole and equator. While pure circular motion should induce such dilation, the special relativistic and general relativistic contributions cancel out because the Earth buldges from centrifugal effects. Here's a more detailed overview I found from searching around: \n_URL_0_\n\n-------\n\nBelow is a discussion between the differences of say circular motion in special relativity and circular motion from gravity:\n\nYes. The math is more complicated as there is an acceleration involved. Now since we're considering orbital motion due to gravity, there is general relativistic effects as well which come with even more complicated math.\n\nSo even in situations without significant gravity, like a clock in a centrifuge, special relativity will affect clocks and distances. Most famously we have Ehrenfest paradox which shows that spinning objects cannot be rigid: \n_URL_1_",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Yes. But you have to be more careful with the interpretation and allow for curved spacetime. \n\nImagine you are flying along the circumference of a circle with radius r. If you are slow, you will measure a circumference of 2pi * r per round. If you are fast, Lorentz contraction will kick in and you will measure a circumference of less than 2pi * r - or even zero 0, if you are a photon. But the distance to the center is perpendicular to your movement at any time, so it will be unchanged and still look like r to you. The only way to reconcile these two observations is to conclude that spacetime is curved (in your reference frame).\n\nNote: This is not full general relativity yet, since this curvature is not 'real', and it can be transformed away into a perfectly flat spacetime if you choose the center of the circle as reference frame. When there is a gravity field, there is also a 'true' curvature, in the sense that spacetime looks distorted regardless of the reference frame. \n\nAnd yes, time runs different on the equator versus the poles. First, because of the different velocity and second gravity is weaker. A related experiment was [done](_URL_0_) in the 70s. Two planes were sent around the earth in opposite directions and compared to a stationary ground clock. As expected all three measured a slightly different elapsed time.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1207070",
"title": "Biquaternion",
"section": "Section::::Associated terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "Many of the concepts of special relativity are illustrated through the biquaternion structures laid out. The subspace corresponds to Minkowski space, with the four coordinates giving the time and space locations of events in a resting frame of reference. Any hyperbolic versor corresponds to a velocity in direction of speed where is the velocity of light. The inertial frame of reference of this velocity can be made the resting frame by applying the Lorentz boost given by since then formula_45 so that formula_46\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "19768186",
"title": "Mechanics of planar particle motion",
"section": "Section::::Fictitious forces in a local coordinate system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 878,
"text": "The angular velocity of this frame is the angular velocity of the particle about the center of curvature at time \"t\". The centripetal force of the inertial frame is interpreted in the non-inertial frame where the body is at rest as a force necessary to overcome the centrifugal force. Likewise, the force causing any acceleration of speed along the path seen in the inertial frame becomes the force necessary to overcome the Euler force in the non-inertial frame where the particle is at rest. There is zero Coriolis force in the frame, because the particle has zero velocity in this frame. For a pilot in an airplane, for example, these fictitious forces are a matter of direct experience. However, these fictitious forces cannot be related to a simple observational frame of reference other than the particle itself, unless it is in a particularly simple path, like a circle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "20491903",
"title": "Velocity",
"section": "Section::::Polar coordinates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "In polar coordinates, a two-dimensional velocity is described by a radial velocity, defined as the component of velocity away from or toward the origin (also known as \"velocity made good\"), and an angular velocity, which is the rate of rotation about the origin (with positive quantities representing counter-clockwise rotation and negative quantities representing clockwise rotation, in a right-handed coordinate system).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11439",
"title": "Faster-than-light",
"section": "Section::::Superluminal travel of non-information.:Closing speeds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "Special relativity does not prohibit this. It tells us that it is wrong to use Galilean relativity to compute the velocity of one of the particles, as would be measured by an observer traveling alongside the other particle. That is, special relativity gives the correct velocity-addition formula for computing such relative velocity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "52920749",
"title": "Acceleration (special relativity)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 751,
"text": "Accelerations in special relativity (SR) follow, as in Newtonian Mechanics, by differentiation of velocity with respect to time. Because of the Lorentz transformation and time dilation, the concepts of time and distance become more complex, which also leads to more complex definitions of \"acceleration\". SR as the theory of flat Minkowski spacetime remains valid in the presence of accelerations, because general relativity (GR) is only required when there is curvature of spacetime caused by the energy-momentum tensor (which is mainly determined by mass). However, since the amount of spacetime curvature is not particularly high on Earth or its vicinity, SR remains valid for most practical purposes, such as experiments in particle accelerators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2870161",
"title": "Bell's spaceship paradox",
"section": "Section::::Relativistic solution of the problem.:Constant proper acceleration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "Instead of instantaneous changes of direction, special relativity also allows to describe the more realistic scenario of constant proper acceleration, i.e. the acceleration indicated by a comoving accelerometer. This leads to hyperbolic motion, in which the observer continuously changes momentary inertial frames\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "15314901",
"title": "Proper velocity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "In relativity, proper velocity, also known as celerity, is an alternative to velocity for measuring motion. Whereas velocity relative to an observer is distance per unit time where both distance and time are measured by the observer, proper velocity relative to an observer divides observer-measured distance by the time elapsed on the clocks of the traveling object. Proper velocity equals velocity at low speeds. Proper velocity at high speeds, moreover, retains many of the properties that velocity loses in relativity compared with Newtonian theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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| null |
7x15fv | shouldnt we burn a lot of calories when eating ice cream because our body works to raise the temperature of the ice cream? | [
{
"answer": "We do burn calories when eating cold food - it takes energy to keep the body warm, and to counteract the effects of cold food - but it doesn't take that to heat up a few scoops of ice cream, especially compared to the calories you take in by eating it.\n\nFor one thing, ice cream really isn't that cold - a freezer is typically between -10 and -20 C, a fridge between 0 and 10 degrees. So compared to something out of the fridge, you don't net more than 30 degrees, and probably less, since it's warming up from the air. It will also largely melt in your mouth, which has a lot more exposure to the outside air, and it's not only your metabolism warming it back up.\n\nSecond, a single food calorie - kilocalories - is enough to raise 1 kg of water by 1 degree. Presumably, you're not eating a 1kg of ice cream at a time (if so, mazel), but let's say you've got a hearty serving of 100g. Each Calorie raises that by 10 degrees, and you're only going up 50 degrees or so. So, that's no more than six calories, tops: which you'd replenish with a gram and a half of sugar.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "46820054",
"title": "Boba ice cream bar",
"section": "Section::::Health concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "Asides from risk of illness, eating too much ice cream can lead to high blood cholesterol levels, due to its high milkfat content of at least 10%, which in turn can increase ones risk for heart disease or stroke.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1207268",
"title": "Ice cream maker",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "An ice cream maker has to simultaneously freeze the mixture while churning it so as to aerate the mixture and keep the ice crystals small (less than 50 μm). As a result, most ice creams are ready to consume immediately. However, those containing alcohol must often be chilled further to attain a firm consistency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "12967446",
"title": "Heat cramps",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "In order to prevent them, one may drink electrolyte solutions such as sports drinks during exercise or strenuous work or eat potassium-rich foods like bananas and apples. When heat cramps occur, the affected person should avoid strenuous work and exercise for several hours to allow for recovery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1186042",
"title": "Dondurma",
"section": "Section::::Consumption and culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "Some Turks believe that cold foods, such as ice cream, will cause illnesses – such as sore throats and the common cold; it is held that consumption of warm liquid while consuming ice cream will counteract these effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "985329",
"title": "Ezaki Glico",
"section": "Section::::Products.:Ice-cream products.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "BULLET::::- Calorie Control Ice Cream series, which uses lower-calorie sweetening agents maltitol and sucralose in place of sugar and starch syrup often used in ice cream. Tofu is also used to replace dairy products to lower the amount of calories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29806816",
"title": "William Wilson Talcott",
"section": "Section::::Ice cream business.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "HARDEN YOURSELF TO ENDURE COLD -- EAT PLENTY OF ICE CREAMbrICE CREAM IS A GREAT HARDENER -- EAT IT OFTEN ALL WINTERbrICE CREAM FOR LUNCH ON SCHOOL DAYS WILL ENABLE YOUR CHILDREN TO ENJOY THESE RUGGED, WINTRY DAYSbrFIGHT COLD WITH COLD -- EAT ICE CREAMbrTHE BLASTS OF WINTER HAVE LITTLE EFFECT ON CHILDREN THAT EAT ICE CREAM\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48212",
"title": "Ice cream",
"section": "Section::::History.:Expansion in popularity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "Technological innovations such as these have introduced various food additives into ice cream, most notably the stabilizing agent gluten, to which some people have an intolerance. Recent awareness of this issue has prompted a number of manufacturers to start producing gluten-free ice cream.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1rlfaw | the moral and ethical implications of genetically modifying people | [
{
"answer": "Glad there are some people out there who care. In my undergraduate degree in Biochemistry & Molecular Biology there was no bioethics course taught. We spent only one lecture in my course on Proteins touching on this subject. The reality is that we are not far from a day where we will be able to screen and prevent many diseases, as well as provide a unique map of every individual's genetic makeup which could be used to both identify and discriminate. Phenotypic variation (due to underlying heritable genetic variation) is a fundamental prerequisite for evolution by natural selection, so we should at least ask ourselves if it is a good idea to manipulate it like humans like to do to everything so much.",
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},
{
"answer": "I could be all nerdy and shit and direct you to Gundam Seed, but that would waste too much of your time. Imagine this:\n\nYour friend James is perfect in every sense. He won the genetic lottery - Blue eyes, blond hair, 6'4, face to die for, amazingly healthy, and has a 12\" dick just to top it off. Not to mention, he has Einstein's IQ. \n\nJames becomes an astro scientist and builds spaceships with lasers, forcefields and warp drives on them before anyone else does. Also, he cures cancer. Go figure.\n\nOne day, some sleazy two bit journalist makes an amazing discovery; James was genetically modified at birth. All undesirable traits and genetics were removed so he could become the perfect human being. \n\nSuddenly, James's achievements are meaningless to the general population. He still produces amazing works and breakthroughs, but he is no longer one of us. He's something else. \n\nReligious people will try to kill him. He is not a product of God. He is Satan incarnate brought forth by evil scientists to disrespect God. \n\nAthiests will be jealous. Why weren't they lucky enough to be genetically modified at birth? Why couldn't they be born for greatness? Just living and dying. It's bullshit! Why should he get to be so great?\n\nYour average person won't entirely understand the issue, but get that genetically modifying anything is bad (Vegans), people aren't experiments (Right's activists), Male Privilege can now be sold in a test-tube (Feminism), We need more people like this to go fight our wars (Military). Whatever the reason, or what kind of person you are, everyone is unified in the same idea: This person should not exist. \n\nEveryone begins to hate James. He couldn't have done any of this if he wasn't grown in a lab. He's an adbomination. He must be destroyed! KILL HIM!\n\nYou, finally find out James is genetically modified to be great. You form your own decisions on the matter. \n\nOne things lead to another, James is killed by extremists. Everyone like James is killed. The people like James try to fight back.\n\n > In the end, no one wants to admit being born inferior to anyone else, but we can come up with a billion reasons as to why we're all \"equal\". When we start genetically modifying humans, we are no longer equal to each other. Equality is the social contracts that we all sign to live in peace with one another. When we start making **better** humans, that inferiority and jealousy takes over. What's the point of your own sad, pathetic existence when James over there was literally born to be better than you, and always will be, and will enjoy the success that comes easily to him, that you will NEVER obtain no matter how hard you try. \n\nThat's why. Maybe when humans are actually capable of accepting one another, we can move on as a species. Right now, it'd just end as a blood bath.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25210824",
"title": "Genetically modified sperm",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "Genetic modification in humans is a contested issue due to the variety of social and ethical issues it raises. One such controversy is the ability to modify the genes of future offspring to decrease the likelihood for certain diseases or modify the expression of chosen traits. In a recent case, an American teenager successfully sued a sperm bank, because she had been born with fragile X syndrome. Some also cite the promotion of eugenics through certain applications of genetic modification, justifying the moratorium on research and funding in human trials in many countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3877892",
"title": "Human enhancement",
"section": "Section::::Ethics.:Effects on Identity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1049,
"text": "Human enhancement technologies can impact human identity by affecting one's self-conception. The argument does not necessarily come from the idea of improving the individual but rather changing who they are and becoming someone new. Altering an individual identity affects their personal story, development and mental capabilities. The basis of this argument comes from two main points : the charge of inauthenticity and the charge of violating an individual's core characteristics. Gene therapy has the ability to alter one mental capacity and through this argument, has the ability to affect their narrative identity. An individual's core characteristics may include internal psychological style, personality, general intelligence, necessity to sleep, normal aging, gender and being \"homo sapiens\". Technologies threaten to alter the self fundamentally to the point where the result is a different person. For example, extreme changes in personality may affect the individual's relationships because others can no longer relate to the new person.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57880",
"title": "In vitro fertilisation",
"section": "Section::::Ethics.:Preimplantation genetic diagnosis or screening.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 149,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 149,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "These examples raise ethical issues because of the morality of eugenics. It becomes frowned upon because of the advantage of being able to eliminate unwanted traits and selecting desired traits. By using preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) or preimplantation genetic screening, individuals are given the opportunity to create a human life unethically and rely on science and not by natural selection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7230444",
"title": "Bioconservatism",
"section": "Section::::Philosophical arguments for bioconservatism.:Jürgen Habermas's arguments.:Asymmetrical relationships.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 1042,
"text": "Habermas suggested that genetic human enhancements would create asymmetric relationships that endanger democracy, which is premised on the idea of moral equality. He claims that regardless of the scope of the modifications, the very knowledge of enhancement obstructs symmetrical relationships between parents and their children. The child’s genome was interfered with nonconsensually, making predecessors responsible for the traits in question. Unlike for thinkers like Fukuyama, Habermas' point is not that these traits might produce different ‘types of humans’. Rather, he placed the emphasis on how \"others\" are responsible in choosing these traits. This is the fundamental difference between natural traits and human enhancement, and it is what bears decisive weight for Habermas: the child’s autonomy as self-determination is violated. However, Habermas does acknowledge that, for example, making one's son very tall in the hope that they will become a basketball player does not automatically determine that he will choose this path. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7230444",
"title": "Bioconservatism",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.:Nick Bostrom on posthuman dignity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 1009,
"text": "According to Bostrom, the way that bioconservatives justify banning certain human enhancements while not others, reveal the double standard that is present in this line of thought. For him, a misleading conception of human dignity is to blame for this. We mistakenly take for granted that human nature is an intrinsic, unmodifiable set of properties. This problem, he argues, is overcome when human nature is conceived as 'dynamic, partially human-made, and improvable'. If we acknowledge that social and technological factors influence our nature, then dignity 'consists in what we are and what we have the potential to become, not in our pedigree or social origin'. It can be seen, then, than improved capabilities does not affect moral status, and that we should sustain an inclusive view that recognize our enhanced descendants as possessors of dignity. For transhumanists 'there is no need to behave as if there were deep moral difference between technological and other means of enhancing human lives'.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7230444",
"title": "Bioconservatism",
"section": "Section::::Philosophical arguments for bioconservatism.:Michael Sandel's arguments.:Humility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "I do not think the main problem with enhancement and genetic engineering is that they undermine effort and erode human agency. The deeper danger is that they represent a kind of hyperagency—a Promethean aspiration to remake nature, including human nature, to serve our purposes and satisfy our desires\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27007275",
"title": "Eugenics in the United States",
"section": "Section::::History.:Eugenics After World War II.:Genetic engineering.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "However, genetic engineering also further enables the practice of eliminating \"undesirable traits\" within humans. For example, with current genetic tests, parents are able to test a fetus for any life-threatening diseases that may impact the child's life and then choose to abort the baby. Some fear that this will could lead to ethnic cleansing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
392cds | why are untruthful political ads still protected under the first amendment while ads that lie about consumer products are not? | [
{
"answer": "Most political ads are misleading, not fraudulent. They are careful not to say things which are demonstratively and objectively untrue. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, both are protected by the First Amendment, just to varying degrees, and both only until they do--or rather, say--something that makes them *un*protected speech. \n\nPolitical speech, historically, has been given a very, very wide berth of protection by the First. The reason? A free society needs to be able to be critical of the government, those currently *in* it, and those *wanting* to be in it.\n\nHowever, patently false, injurious claims can be slanderous and libelous, and are decidedly *not* free speech. So, how do the two coexist? \n\nActual malice. \n\nThe Supreme Court ruled, in the landmark *New York Times Co. v. Sullivan* that speech becomes its unprotected forms of slander or libel when the *public figure* about whom false claims are made can prove the claims were made with *actual malice*. \"Malice\" in this context doesn't mean \"I wish to hurt you\", instead it has to do with whether the publisher of the claims either knew the claims to be false, or acted with reckless disregard for the truth. If either of those can be proven, the published claims (in this case of a political nature) are *not* protected by the First, and damages can be awarded or other penalties enacted. \n\nSo, for those \"untruthful\" political ads, the bar is set rather high for whether the statements they make cross into \"unprotected\" territory, as the need to be able to openly discuss and criticize political goings on is essential to liberty, and thus more important than the reputation of those in government, up to a point.\n\nCommercial speech (advertising) is similar: it is \"protected\" by the First so long as it doesn't cross an abstract boundary, though in this case the Supreme Court decided that the bar should be much lower.\n\nIn *Central Hudson Gas & Electric Corp. v. Public Service Commission*, the Supreme Court decided that \"commercial speech\" isn't protected by the First (i.e. governmental regulation of the speech isn't unconstitutional) when it fails what is now referred to as the *Hudson Test*, the first \"prong\" of which reads: \n\n > At the outset, we must determine whether the expression is protected by the First Amendment. For commercial speech to come within that provision, it at least must concern lawful activity and not be misleading.\n\nSo, if an advertisement is \"misleading\", it is not protected by the First, and is opened up to regulation at the Federal or State level. This boundary is quite a bit more abstract than the *Sullivan* actual malice standard for defamation of a public figure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4520082",
"title": "Virginia State Pharmacy Board v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council",
"section": "Section::::Stewart's concurrence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 826,
"text": "Justice Stewart wrote a concurrence explaining how the holding of this did not limit the states’ ability to restrict deceptive or false advertising. He cited various libel cases to demonstrate that while the press cannot be harshly restricted for fear that journalists may occasionally get their facts wrong, an advertiser is much more likely to know whether or not the material he was publishing was true. Thus, states should have greater latitude in regulating the content of advertisements for the veracity of their content. Even though commercial advertising and ideological expression are clearly different, advertisements which convey truthful information are worthy of First Amendment protection, and the elimination of deceptive claims serves to further the goal of the free flow of accurate and reliable information.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9057820",
"title": "Fine print",
"section": "Section::::Fighting fine print.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "Many consumer advocates are active in lobbying for laws to limit the rights of an advertiser to use fine print to hide the truth, and to expand rights to consumers who fall victim to fine print. Due to free speech that is granted to advertisers, passing such laws in the United States has proven to be difficult.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15584252",
"title": "Florida Bar v. Went For It, Inc.",
"section": "Section::::Analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "Advertising by lawyers is commercial speech protected by the First Amendment. The First Amendment allows states to ban commercial speech that is false or misleading. If the speech is not false or misleading, then a state may only regulate or ban the speech if it asserts a substantial interest in support of its regulation, demonstrates that the restriction directly and materially advances that interest, and shows that the regulation is narrowly drawn.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36131311",
"title": "Hoffman Estates v. The Flipside, Hoffman Estates, Inc.",
"section": "Section::::Before the Court.:Hoffman Estates' oral argument.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "By avoiding any regulation of actual advertising, as had occurred in other cases, the board felt it had steered clear of all First Amendment issues, Williams continued. \"[E]ven if their argument on display could be free expression, it fails because it is advocating use with illegal substances,\" he said in answer to a question about the distinction between advertising and marketing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57781024",
"title": "Zauderer v. Office of Disciplinary Counsel of Supreme Court of Ohio",
"section": "Section::::Supreme Court.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 867,
"text": "The State has attempted only to prescribe what shall be orthodox in commercial advertising, and its prescription has taken the form of a requirement that appellant include in his advertising purely factual and uncontroversial information about the terms under which his services will be available. Because the extension of First Amendment protection to commercial speech is justified principally by the value to consumers of the information such speech provides, appellant's constitutionally protected interest in not providing any particular factual information in his advertising is minimal. . . . [B]ecause disclosure requirements trench much more narrowly on an advertiser's interests than do flat prohibitions on speech, “warning[s] or disclaimer[s] might be appropriately required . . . in order to dissipate the possibility of consumer confusion or deception.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2861",
"title": "Advertising",
"section": "Section::::Regulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "There have been increasing efforts to protect the public interest by regulating the content and the influence of advertising. Some examples include restrictions for advertising alcohol, tobacco or gambling imposed in many countries, as well as the bans around advertising to children, which exist in parts of Europe. Advertising regulation focuses heavily on the veracity of the claims and as such, there are often tighter restrictions placed around advertisements for food and healthcare products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24018678",
"title": "TV Vest and Rogaland Pensioners Party v. Norway",
"section": "Section::::Judgment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "The Court found that the ban on political advertising itself did not constitute a violation of Article 10, since its target were to avoid large parties with large funding from achieving more airtime than other parties who lacked funds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2je13o | in the wolf of wall street, what did they do involving the steve madden stock that was illegal and how did it make them so much money? | [
{
"answer": "It was a \"pump and dump\" scheme. Buy up a company that is doing terribly, talk it up like it is doing wonderfully along with faking your income reports, then sell off some shares while everyone thinks it is hot stuff. Then vanish with your gains before people discover it was all smoke and mirrors.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "368118",
"title": "Madden NFL",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:1980s: Creation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "During this period, Madden turned down the opportunity to buy an \"unlimited\" number of options for EA stock in its initial public offering, a decision he later called \"the dumbest thing I ever did in my life\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23600566",
"title": "Stern Hu",
"section": "Section::::Arrest in China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "Data found stored on Hu’s personal laptop allegedly contained confidential business information of several dozen major business partners of Rio Tinto, including storage levels and sales plans deemed much too specific and precise to have been acquired legitimately. Hu was accused of having obtained such information through bribery and other illegal means for massive corporate and personal benefits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "501539",
"title": "Robert Evans",
"section": "Section::::Personal life.:Cocaine trafficking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "Evans was convicted of cocaine trafficking in 1980. He entered a guilty plea to a misdemeanor in federal court after being arrested after engineering a large cocaine buy with his brother Charles. As part of his plea bargain, he filmed an anti-drug TV commercial. The alleged drug dealing, which Evans continues to deny (the misdemeanor was later wiped from his record), came out of his own involvement with the drug. He told the \"Philadelphia Inquirer\" in a 1994 interview, \"Bob 'Cocaine' Evans is how I'll be known to my grave\". He argues that he never should have been convicted of federal selling and distribution charges, as he was only a user.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1316537",
"title": "Sean Jones (defensive end)",
"section": "Section::::Post NFL career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "In December 2003, arbitrator Roger Kaplan ruled that Jones violated National Football League Players Association regulations in his financial dealings with NFL player Ebenezer Ekuban. Jones received a two-year suspension, prohibiting him from representing NFL players until February 26, 2005. Jones later sued Ekuban and his attorney for slander and libel leading to Ekuban declaring bankruptcy in 2003. Former player Cris Dishman won a US$396,000 judgment against Jones involving a bad investment. Jones later counter sued Cris Dishman and his former wife Karen Dishman, the previous matter was declared settled and Jones received a money judgment against both Cris and Karen Dishman in 2006 for their part in illegally trying to extort more money from Jones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5323543",
"title": "Gary Evans (serial killer)",
"section": "Section::::1990s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "In 1993, Evans stole over 800 antiques from a group shop in Quechee, Vermont. Evans used an engine crane to steal a thousand-pound bench out of an Albany cemetery, but he was arrested when his fence became nervous and turned him in. In early 1994, Evans agreed to assist the authorities by obtaining information on Jeffrey Williams, who was implicated in the high-profile murder of Karolyn Lonczak. When Williams was found guilty, Evans was released on February 12, 1994, with police still unaware that Evans himself had killed at least four people at that point.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3346606",
"title": "Troy Hambrick",
"section": "Section::::Professional career.:Oakland Raiders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "On May 17, 2004, the Oakland Raiders signed him as a free agent, but within a month he was traded to the Arizona Cardinals along with defensive end Peppi Zellner, in exchange for a sixth round draft choice (#182-Cedric Houston) in the 2005 NFL Draft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58470226",
"title": "Deccan Chargers in 2011",
"section": "Section::::Player Acquisition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "The Deccan Chargers retained none of the players from the previous season. They have bought 27 players including 14 players from the auction and still had $1.47million left in their purse in the end out of their allotted $9 million.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1su3td | why are some colour combinations painful to look at when placed alongside each other (eg. red and green?) | [
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nThis kicks me right in the eye-nuts.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40338786",
"title": "Matching colors",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "Matching colors or (in British English) colours usually refers to complementary colors, pairs or triplets of colors that harmonize well together. It is an effect of human trichromacy, the use of three color receptors in the human eye, and varies somewhat in other animals. Its effects are studied as a part of color psychology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5183604",
"title": "Sweater design",
"section": "Section::::Choosing colors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "Contrasting colors may be chosen in various ways. A common choice is to take a complementary colors from one of the several color wheels (e.g., blue and orange, green and red), or to choose a pairing that occurs in nature, e.g., yellow and red.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2304328",
"title": "Opponent-process theory",
"section": "Section::::Visual perception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "The colors in each pair oppose each other. Red-green receptors cannot send messages about both colors at the same time. This theory also explains negative afterimages; once a stimulus of a certain color is presented, the opponent color is perceived after the stimulus is removed because the anabolic and catabolic processes are reversed. For example, red creates a positive (or excitatory) response while green creates a negative (or inhibitory) response. These responses are controlled by opponent neurons, which are neurons that have an excitatory response to some wavelengths and an inhibitory response to wavelengths in the opponent part of the spectrum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "971922",
"title": "Contrast effect",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "Simultaneous contrast identified by Michel Eugène Chevreul refers to the manner in which the colors of two different objects affect each other. The effect is more noticeable when shared between objects of complementary color.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32258905",
"title": "Immune repertoire",
"section": "Section::::Measuring immune repertoire..:the general problem.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "Where there are only a few colours—say 4—it's easy. You just keep examining balls, one at a time, until you are happy you've seen all the colours. The same old ones keep coming up time and time again. And you just count the different types.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26248376",
"title": "Color psychology",
"section": "Section::::Brand meaning.:Specific color meaning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "Different colors are perceived to mean different things. For example, tones of red lead to feelings of arousal while blue tones are often associated with feelings of relaxation. Both of these emotions are pleasant, so therefore, the colors themselves can procure positive feelings in advertisements. The chart below gives perceived meanings of different colors in the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1389391",
"title": "Opponent process",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "Johann Wolfgang von Goethe first studied the physiological effect of opposed colors in his \"Theory of Colours\" in 1810. Goethe arranged his color wheel symmetrically \"for the colours diametrically opposed to each other in this diagram are those which reciprocally evoke each other in the eye. Thus, yellow demands purple; orange, blue; red, green; and vice versa: Thus again all intermediate gradations reciprocally evoke each other.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
31ixlh | how does a knife work on a molecular level? | [
{
"answer": "It doesn't. Knives work on the micrometer level, either tearing out tiny chunks of the material, like a saw, or forcing themselves into, and then forcing open, gaps in it, like a wedge.\n\nThose chunks that are torn out, or those gaps that are opened, are the size of hundreds of millions of molecules, which get on with their molecular lives, so to speak, without any real relation to the bigger picture, with its knives and tomatoes.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "it doesn't. knife works on a microscopic but non molecular level. a knife is just a wedge that's very thin. it seperates material due to force applied on a very small area.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "33933664",
"title": "Batoning",
"section": "Section::::Technique.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "The basic method involves repeatedly striking the spine of the knife to force the middle of the blade into the wood. The tip is then struck, to continue forcing the blade deeper, until a split is achieved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "2685821",
"title": "Sharpening",
"section": "Section::::Implements with essentially straight edges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Sharpening these implements can be expressed as the creation of two intersecting planes which produce an edge that is sharp enough to cut through the target material. For example, the blade of a steel knife is ground to a bevel so that the two sides of the blade meet. This edge is then refined by honing until the blade is capable of cutting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "27013415",
"title": "List of blade materials",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "The blade of a knife can be made from a variety of materials, the most common being carbon steel, stainless steel, tool steel and alloy steel. Other less-common materials used in knife blades include: cobalt and titanium alloys, ceramics, obsidian, and plastic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "40780",
"title": "Beam diameter",
"section": "Section::::Width definitions.:Fusing knife-edge technology with imaging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "The main drawback of the knife-edge technique is that the measured value is displayed only on the scanning direction, minimizing the amount of relevant beam information. To overcome this drawback, an innovative technology offered commercially allows multiple directions beam scanning to create an image like beam representation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "9125699",
"title": "KM2000",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 486,
"text": "The knife is produced according to NATO regulations by the German company Eickhorn-Solingen Ltd. The assembly consists of three components: the laser cut 172 mm Black Kalgard coated, forged X55CrMo14 or 1.4110 (440A) stainless steel Westernized tanto blade, the ergonomic ambidextrous polyamide handle and screw. The entire knife weighs approximately . The sheath for the KM2000 is turnable, and includes an adapter to allow it to be mounted onto the MOLLE/PALS load bearing system(s).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1513277",
"title": "Microtome",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Rotary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "This instrument is a common microtome design. This device operates with a staged rotary action such that the actual cutting is part of the rotary motion. In a rotary microtome, the knife is typically fixed in a horizontal position.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "4021459",
"title": "Air knife",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "An industrial air knife is a pressurized air plenum containing a series of holes or continuous slots through which pressurized air exits in a laminar flow pattern. The exit air velocity then creates an impact air velocity onto the surface of whatever object the air is directed. This impact air velocity can range from a gentle breeze to greater than Mach 0.6 (40,000 ft/min) to alter the surface of a product without mechanical contact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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| null |
1uc1xc | How did "...berg" and "...stein" become Jewish last name suffixes? It seems like they should be universal names for Eastern Europeans. | [
{
"answer": "Jewish names can be patronymic, matronymic , occupation or place names, or even chosen for their cadence! for example:\n\n**Patronymic**\nson or sohn, eg *Mendelssohn* - son (yiddish)\nwich or witz, eg *Stanowitz* -Son (slavic origin)\n**Matronymic and Craft**\nMan, eg *Goldman* - Gold from Golde, Man Meaning Husband of.\nMan is also used in occupation and craft names, eg **WASSER** (Water)man , meaning water carrier or **ACKER** (plow) man.\n\n**Place of Origin**\nNames ending in Y/ Ski can often be denoting place of origin, eg, *Berliny* or *Goranski*.\n\n**Common name composites and their meanings**\n\n**Stein** - Stone ,\n**Berg** - Mountain ,\n**Bloom** - Flower ,\n**Fein** -Fine ,\n**Baum** - Tree ,\n**Rosen **- Rose ,\n**Blatt **- Leaf ,\n**Zweig** - Branch ,\n**Tal **- Valley ,\n**Schmidt** - Smith.\n\nHope this is helpful. My own family name is a place name, a Y being added to their place of origin.\n\n",
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"answer": "I think you're falling victim to a bit of a logical fallacy here. The \"-berg\" and \"-stein\" names have become stereotypically Jewish in the Anglophone world because many Jews have them, but by no means were these names exclusive to Jews in Europe. Fair warning, I'm not Jewish myself, but:\n\nJews did not really even have traditional surnames in Europe (again, we're discussing Ashkenazi Jews here, which is only one branch) until around the 19th Century. This started under Emperor Joseph II of Austria-Hungary, who issued something called [The Edict of Tolerance](_URL_0_) in 1782. This recognized, to some extent, religious freedom for Jews, but five years later, the Emperor also [compelled them to adopt German surnames](_URL_1_). Prussia did the same thing not long after. Then, when Napoleon took over most of Europe, he also compelled Jews in various regions to adopt surnames. \n\nThe reason many of these surnames have suffixes like -berg, and -stein isn't totally clear. Some may be because Jews adopted the surnames of the local lord of their region, many of whom had names ending like this. Others may be because Jews often were given toponymic names, because this was the most obvious option. Jewish names like Deutsch and Frank, for example, are general toponyms, but you might also get more specific like von Mises or Krakauer. Sephardic names, also, are almost entirely locality based: Silva, Navarro, etc. \n\nSince -berg often ended places that were near or associated with mountains, this is a possible origin of the commonality with Jewish names. It's also possible that since Jews were picking these out, that some of them were artificially created and just based on town or locality names, like Rosenberg or Birnbaum. \n\nSome Jews paid lots of money to have nice names, which is why you have a lot of association with gold and silver and diamonds and such. Others got new names when they immigrated from Europe to America or elsewhere and were compelled to give names at the immigration office -- this would explain names like Greenberg, an amalgamation of English and German. \n\nAlso, like anyone else, Jews sometimes took or were given names associated with their professions. So names like \"stein\" or \"Steiner\" being associated with Jews might have been because they were jewelers or stonecutters. This is also why names like Kaufmann and Marchant are popular with Jews, along with Schumacher, Gerber, Spielmann, etc. Even names like Banks. None of which, I might add, are considered at all exclusive to Jews.\n\nAnyway, I'm digressing. The simple answer to your question is that those types of endings are just stereotypically associated with Jews in the Anglophone world, probably due to so many Jews with names of that nature being prominent in show business (among other areas). But those names are also common to many non-Jewish Europeans: Stefan Edberg is not Jewish, for example, nor was [Baron vom Stein](_URL_2_), for another.",
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"answer": "This might be divergent enough for a whole other thread, but what about Russified German-Jewish last names: Shteyngart (Steinhart), Vayner (Wiener), et al? Did the migration of Ashkenazi eastward actually happen after this point?",
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"answer": "When the Jews were forced to take German surnames, many chose to carry their Jewish history with them in the form of cryptic alludes to the Jewish culture/religion. There are many examples with many names. Some took names that sounded similar to Jewish names and tribes.\n\n* Meier/Meyer (\"dairy farmer\"): One of the most common German names also became a common Jewish name because of it's closeness to *Meir*. An illustration is Golda Meir who was Golda Meyerson before she \"re-hebrewed\" her name.\n\n* Rubin (\"ruby\"): Similar to Ruben.\n* Selig/Seligmann (\"blessed\") for *baruch*\n* Zucker (\"sugar\") for Zacharias\n\nOthers alluded to fruits of the holy land or biblical figures\n\n* Baum (\"tree\") for Abraham, the founder of the Jewish family tree.\n\n* Teitelmann (\"Figman\")\n\n* Stammler (\"stutterer\") for Moses \n\nColors and animals were used in names according to their symbolization of Jewish tribes\n\n* Roth (\"red\") for Ruben\n* Löwe/Löw/Loeb (\"lion\") for Juda\n* Grün (\"green\") for Simeon\n\nAnd some were downright obscure, like\n\n* Maus (\"Mouse\") for Moses\n* Apfel/Epi (\"Apple\") for Ephraim\n* Oppermann/Opfermann (\"Sacrifice man\") for Cohen\n* -burg or -berg for *baruch*\n \nThe tl;dr is really: The distinct sound of German-Jewish surnames exists because many Jews tried to bring a little piece of their own culture and religion into those new, forced names.\n\n[Source.](_URL_0_)",
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{
"answer": "Just saw this on /r/linguistics and thought of you, OP!\n\n[An interesting Slate piece on Jewish surnames.](_URL_0_)",
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{
"answer": "I found this to be relevant to the discussion: _URL_0_",
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1276354",
"title": "Joshua Falk",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Note on the name \"Joshua Falk\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1176,
"text": "Until the early 19th century, the names of most Central European Jews consisted of a Hebrew first name, a German second name, the patronymic \"ben ... \" (son of ...) and, if an upper one, the class - HaCohen (or \"Katz\") or HaLevy. The German name was chosen to fit the Hebrew one: thus \"Zvi\" or \"Naftali\" went with \"Hirsch\", and \"Zev\" or \"Binjamin\" with \"Wolf\". Those whose given name was Yehoshua, Josua, or Joshua had the second name of Falk, Valk, Walk, Wallik or Wallich. (One theory is that \"Falk\", here, derives from the German for falcon: just as a falcon circles its prey, so Joshua circled and explored the Holy Land before swooping down on it. Some derive \"Valk\" from an acronym of Leviticus 19:18: \"\"ve'ahavta lere'akha kamokha\"\" - \"Love thy neighbor as thyself\"). The name Falk was thus not a family name until the 19th century, when it was adopted by those whose immediate ancestors had \"Falk\" as a second name. Encyclopedias will therefore have several entries under \"Falk\", where \"Falk\", strictly, is not a surname. References to Rabbi Falk are therefore often via \"Yehoshua Falk ben Alexander HaCohen\" or \"Joshua Falk ben Alexander Katz\" or \"Joshua Falk Katz\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "72243",
"title": "Surname",
"section": "Section::::Common surnames by ethnic group.:Jewish.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 142,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 142,
"end_character": 990,
"text": "Jewish names have historically varied, encompassing throughout the centuries several different traditions. The most usual last name for those of the priest tribe is \"Cohen\"/\"Kahen\"/\"Kogan\"/\"Kohen\"/\"Katz\" (a Hebrew acronym of Kohen Tzedek, or righteous Kohen) and for those of the Levites, \"Levi\"/\"Levine\". Those who came from Central or Eastern Europe usually have \"Rosen\"(\"rose\"), \"Spiel\", \"Gold\", and other German words as their names' prefixes, and \"man\", \"wyn\"/\"wein\"(\"wine\"), \"berg\"(\"mountain\"), and other German words as their names' suffixes. Many Sephardic Jews adopted Spanish or Arabic names, like “Toledo”, “Bejarano”, \"Azizi\" (\"you're [someones] love\"), \"Hassan\" or added words to their original names, like Beizaee( \"Iza\", God is perfection), \"Kohenzadeh\" (\"[she] bore a Kohen\"). Names like \"Johnson\" and \"Peterson\" may be used in Jewish tradition as they too used the father's name as identification. So \"Johnson\" in Hebrew is \"Ben Yochanon\", meaning \"Yochanon (John)'s son\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "33449632",
"title": "Cowan (surname)",
"section": "Section::::As a Jewish surname.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 709,
"text": "A great many variants of the name are documented all over the world. In many cases Cohen was transformed into vernacular-sounding names. This enabled Jews in the Diaspora both to maintain their Jewish tradition, as well as to become part of their host society. Among the forms frequent in the Mediterranean region are Kahin, Al-Kuhen, El-Kohen, Kouihen, Choen, Xohen and Cof(f)en. Variants documented in Europe include: Cowen and Cowan (England); Cohn, Conn, Kahn, Kohn(e) and Kohner (Germany and Austria); Cahn, Cahen, Cahon, Caen and Cain (France); Coen (Italy); Cahan, Cahona, Kahana, Kahano, Kahane, Kon, Koihen, Kagan, Kogan, Kaplan, Kohnowsky, Koganovitch, Kahanow, Kahansky, Konstamm (Eastern Europe).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "476441",
"title": "German name",
"section": "Section::::Surnames.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "The surnames of the German Jews are a special case, as they were introduced later, in the late 18th to early 19th century, per \"fiat\". The Prussian authorities imposed made-up and sometimes derogatory names. For instance, the name \"Waldlieferant\" (lit.: forest supplier) was \"created\" to ridicule a Jewish timber trader. Even way more offensive expressions (\"Afterduft\"; lit.: anus odor) were in use. This is by no means the rule, though; on the contrary, those surnames most quickly recognized as probably Jewish in origin are distinctly poetical ones, probably as they were made-up choices by the people themselves (e.g. \"Rosenzweig\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "7740735",
"title": "Spiegel (surname)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 758,
"text": "There are also a significant number of Jewish people with the surname, and it is said that this name originated from a house sign in the Frankfurt am Main (\"Judengasse\") picturing a mirror. The form \"Spiegel\" is documented in Frankfurt am Main since the 16th century. Variants are \"Szpiegel, Schpiegel, Shpi(e)gel, Şpighel\", etc. Family lore, as told by the family of Joseph Spiegel scion of the Spiegel Family of catalogue fame, says that the family name in Germany had been Meyer. Big Meyer, bought a large mirror for the house. When he got it home, it was too big to fit. So, it was leaned against a nearby tree. When people came into the valley, the sun reflected off the mirror. The house became known as the Spiegel house. The family adopted the name.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "24719169",
"title": "David Benedictus",
"section": "Section::::Life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "He published an autobiography, \"Dropping Names\", in 2005. According to an interview Benedictus gave to the Israeli newspaper Yediot Aharonot in 2009, he said that a cousin had done research into his surname and found out that it was actually \"Baruch\" (ברוך - having the same meaning as \"Benedictus\" in Hebrew), as well as research into how his ancestors emigrated to Britain, which revealed that they have Ashkenazi Jewish heritage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "14156356",
"title": "Jewish surname",
"section": "Section::::Official names and nicknames.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 797,
"text": "Turning to the next great source from which have been derived the Jewish and German-Jewish surnames used in ordinary nomenclature—trades and occupations—such names as Kaufmann and Marchant (\"merchant\") become prominent. Others of the same kind are: Banks, Brauer, Breyer, and Brower (\"brewer\"); Spielmann (\"musician\"); Gerber (tanner); Steinschneider (\"stonecutter\"); Graveur (\"engraver\"); Shoemark or Schumacher (\"shoemaker\"); Schuster (\"cobbler\"); Schneider, Schneiders, and Snyders (\"tailor\"; in Hebrew חייט, Chait/Khait (and at times Hyatt)); Wechsler (\"money-changer\"). Related, and likewise generically German, names are derived metonymically for a common object or tool of a profession: e.g., Hammer for a blacksmith, Feder (\"quill\") for a scribe, and Lein (\"linen\") for a dealer in cloth.\n",
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2y51o6 | traditionally, why do conservatives support israel while liberals do not support israel? | [
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"answer": "Both parties in the US support israel. At this moment, however, we've got political gamesmanship. The GOP invited a foreign leader to speak to Congress in an unprecedented move, because they want to undermine the POTUS and Sec. of State's negotiating power so that they have an election item to sqwauk about. Similarly, the POTUS administration when it heard the foreign leader was coming and had set up the appointment to speak, decided to snub him because it was the other party doing the inviting.\n\nBoth Liberals and Conservatives have supported israel and the middle east peace process, back to Jimmy Carter. ",
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"answer": "Traditionally in American politics there has been broad support of Israel by both Democratic and Republican politicians. The current situation is more that American conservatives and Israeli Likudniks have become very, very closely aligned, to the exclusion of some American liberal support Likud ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "'Neoconservatism' is a branch of conservatism which deals with the creation and maintenance of popular social myths.\n\nDeveloped in response to the perceived failure of the civil rights movement to bring racial unity, the American Neoconservative movement promoted the myth of the Cowboy - that America was a heroic nation which rides in to save the day when the bad guys are all around. This myth was dependent on the existence of an enemy - the soviet union.\n\nBack in the 1970s, Donald Rumsfeld (later to be Bush's secretary of defense) sat on a special intelligence task force known as [Team B](_URL_0_). Among their findings were that the soviets had an underwater laser sensor net and directed energy weapons (eg laser beams). The later collapse of the soviet union necessitated a new lie - the idea that there is a War on Terror where America is Freedom and Terrorism is Tyranny.\n\nWhat makes these myths dangerous is that they're mostly-truths. The US does intervene positively in international affairs, and Terrorism is scary. But when we believe these things on a mythological level, where they evoke emotions in us, we can make terrible errors, invading the wrong country or escalating tensions when there could be peace.\n\nThe current leader of Israel is a neoconservative. He is facing increasing division at home due to the many disparate cultures that his people come from, and is attempting to promote the myth of the 'Bastion of Democracy', that Israel stands with barbarians at the gate under a constant siege.\n\nThe danger of this myth is that it blinds us to opportunity. Israel does have enemies beyond it's border, but when we believe on a mythological level (eg, one that makes us feel an emotion) that Israel is under siege, then we fail to notice chances to improve the situation. A permanent peace with Iran is a good example of an idea like that - Mossad has made it clear, both publicly and via wikileaks, that Iran does not have weapons of mass destruction and is not presently trying to acquire any. The peace under the current terms poses no risk.\n\nLiberals are often seen as opposing Israel because they do not support the neoconservative fantasy of the Bastion of Democracy. We believe that Israel is best served by increasing it's integration with other regional powers through bilateral trade agreements and avoiding insulting rhetoric.\n\nThere is also the ongoing humanitarian crisis in the West Bank that defies solution. The present administration in Israel has done nothing to halt the expansion of political radicals from Israel into the west bank, leading to increased violence and deteriorating chances for peace.\n\nIn short, everyone in the west supports Israel as a nation, but many believe that Benjamin Netanyahu is little more than an Israeli George Bush, crying for war on false pretenses with little regard for the innocents he destroys in the process.",
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"answer": "Liberals and conservatives tend to have a very different perception of violence. Liberals tend to view violence emotionally, as a negative part of life. Conservative tend to view violent neutrally, as a regrettable part of life.\n\nYou see this manifesting in everything from foreign policy to law enforcement to gun control. In terms of Israel, what liberals see is the powerful Israelis beating up on the weak Palestinians. What conservatives see is the civilized Israelis defending themselves from the barbaric Palestinians.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "On top of what's been said already, you may also want to look at things like this : Israel is a pretty conservative country, and since 2001 has been mostly governed by conservative parties. So it's only natural that conservatives love them while liberals don't so much. Liberals would probably love Israel if it was left-leaning. I think Clinton had a pretty good relationship with the Israeli government in the late 90s / early 2000.\n\nAlso, the conservatives are very much in an \"us vs them\" view of the situation : Israel is part of \"us\" (they're white, they're non-muslim, they have a \"western\" culture) and its neighbours are part of \"them\" (they're less white, they're muslim, they have a different culture, they're not democracies...)",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "334027",
"title": "Michael Medved",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Talk radio and political commentary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "He has argued that voters in the American Jewish community do not necessarily embrace candidates based on their support for the state of Israel as much as they passionately oppose candidates based on their identification with Christianity, especially the Christian Right. Medved also states that the Orthodox community, which he states as less than ten percent of the American Jewish population, \"gives nearly as disproportionate support to Republicans as their Reform, Conservative, and secular Jewish neighbors give to Democrats\" and argues that this is because \"The Orthodox feel no instinctive horror at political alliances with others who make faith the center of their lives.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "5104141",
"title": "Criticism of Judaism",
"section": "Section::::Inter-branch criticisms.:Criticism of Conservative Judaism from other branches.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "Conservative Judaism is criticized by some leaders of Orthodox Judaism for not properly following Halakha (Jewish religious law). It is also criticized by some leaders of Reform Judaism for being at odds with the principles of its young adult members on issues such as intermarriage, patrilineal descent, and the ordination of homosexuals — all issues that Conservative Judaism opposes and Reform Judaism supports. (The Conservative movement has since moved in the direction of allowing for gay rabbis and the \"\"celebration of same-sex commitment ceremonies\"\".)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "60226",
"title": "Relationships between Jewish religious movements",
"section": "Section::::Conservative views.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "The Conservative movement, however, has clashed with Orthodoxy over its refusal to recognize the Conservative and Reform movements as legitimate, and in February 1997, Rabbi Ismar Schorsch, the Chancellor of the Jewish Theological Seminary, claimed that Orthodox organizations in Israel politically discriminate against non-Orthodox Jews, and called on Reform and Conservative Jews, as well as the Jewish Federations throughout the United States, to stop funding Orthodox organizations and institutions that disagree with the Conservative view of pluralism. Several weeks later, at the movement's annual Rabbinical Assembly conference in Boston, he called for the disintegration of Israel's chief rabbinate and its network of courts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "19698503",
"title": "Anti-Zionism",
"section": "Section::::Outside the Jewish community.:Secular Arab.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "Most Arab citizens of Israel do not have strong anti-Zionist views. A poll of 507 Arab-Israelis conducted by the Israeli Democracy Institute in 2007 found that 75 percent profess support for Israel's status as a Jewish and democratic state that guarantees equal rights for minorities. Israeli Arab support for a constitution in general was 88 percent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "25634112",
"title": "Jewish views and involvement in U.S. politics",
"section": "Section::::International affairs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 879,
"text": "Because of the emotional connection many Jews have for Israel, the issue has generated strong passions among both left-wing and right-wing Jews. There is a significant Jewish presence in the disparate political movement known as the \"liberal hawks\" or the pro-war Left, which, while strongly committed to liberal or leftist social domestic policy, also supports a liberal interventionist, hawkish or right-wing pro-Israel foreign policy for the United States. (Examples include Joe Lieberman, Christopher Hitchens, many of the contributors to \"Dissent\" magazine, and many of the signatories of the Euston Manifesto.) At the same time, there is a significant Jewish presence in the pro-Palestinian movement seeking a two-state solution, including Norman Finkelstein, Noam Chomsky, Judith Butler, and key UK advocates of an academic boycott of Israel like Stephen and Hilary Rose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "1164072",
"title": "Debbie Wasserman Schultz",
"section": "Section::::Political positions.:Middle East conflict.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 787,
"text": "I would stack up the Democratic caucus's position on the support for Israel against the Republican caucus's any day of the week and be much more confident—and the Jewish community should be much more confident—in the Democrats' stewardship of Israel than the Republicans, especially if you compare the underlying reasons for both groups' support for Israel. The very far right group of Republicans' interest in Israel is not because they are so supportive of there being a Jewish state and making sure that Jews have a place that we can call home. It has references to Armageddon and biblical references that are more their interest. So I would encourage members of the Jewish community to put their faith in Democrats, because our support for Israel is generally for the right reasons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "8931878",
"title": "Criticism of Conservative Judaism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "Criticism of Conservative Judaism is widespread in the Orthodox Jewish community, although the movement also has its critics in Reform Judaism and in other streams of Judaism. While the Conservative movement professes fidelity to Jewish tradition, it considers \"Halakha\" (Jewish religious law) to be a dynamic process that needs reinterpreting in modern times. The criticism by Orthodox Jews and traditionalists within the movement itself revolves around the following: \n",
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]
| null |
2bpzr8 | flat personal tax/consumption tax. | [
{
"answer": "A flat tax is inherently regressive, and puts more of a burden on the people who can least afford it.\n\nA consumption tax is even worse, because the people who can most afford to be taxed also spend the lowest percentage of their income on essentials.\n\nA progressive income tax solves these problems, but is complex to implement.\n\nThus, we have a progressive, but complex, tax system.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1913132",
"title": "Consumption tax",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Expenditure tax.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "A direct, personal consumption tax may take the form of an expenditure tax, that is, an income tax that deducts savings and investments, such as the Hall–Rabushka flat tax. A direct consumption tax may be called an expenditure tax, a cash-flow tax, or a consumed-income tax and can be flat or progressive. Expenditure taxes have been briefly implemented in the past in India and Sri Lanka.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4236011",
"title": "Taxation in the Netherlands",
"section": "Section::::Income tax.:Box 2: financial interest in a company.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "A flat tax rate of 25% applies to income from substantial interest in a company. A substantial interest in a company is defined as owning at least 5% of its shares, options or profit-sharing certificates; either by the taxpayer themselves or together with their tax partner.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1913132",
"title": "Consumption tax",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "A consumption tax is a tax levied on consumption spending on goods and services. The tax base of such a tax is the money spent on consumption. Consumption taxes are usually indirect, such as a sales tax or a value-added tax. However, a consumption tax can also be structured as a form of direct, personal taxation, such as the Hall–Rabushka flat tax.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "802415",
"title": "Income tax in the Netherlands",
"section": "Section::::Flat tax on savings and investments (box 3).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "There is a flat tax on the total value of the savings and investments of 1.2% per year. It is nominally part of the income tax, as a 30% tax on a fixed assumed yield of 4% of the value of the assets (this is regardless of the actual income from the assets). EUR 21,139 (2012; higher for 65+ with a low income) of the value of the assets is exempted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56553748",
"title": "Volatility tax",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "Quantitatively, the volatility tax is the difference between the arithmetic and geometric average (or “ensemble average” and “time average”) returns of an asset or portfolio. It thus represents the degree of “non-ergodicity” of the geometric average.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30297",
"title": "Tax",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Descriptive labels.:Consumption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "Consumption tax refers to any tax on non-investment spending, and can be implemented by means of a sales tax, consumer value added tax, or by modifying an income tax to allow for unlimited deductions for investment or savings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4418111",
"title": "Personal allowance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 867,
"text": "In the UK tax system, personal allowance is the threshold above which income tax is levied on an individual's income. A person who receives less than their own personal allowance in taxable income (such as earnings and some benefits) in a given tax year does not pay income tax; otherwise, tax must be paid according to how much is earned above this level. Certain residents are entitled to a larger personal allowance than others. Such groups include: the over-65s (followed by a further increased allowance for over-75s), blind people, and married couples where at least one person in the marriage (or civil partnership) was born before 6 April 1935. People earning over £100,000 a year have a smaller personal allowance. For every £2 earned above £100,000, £1 of the personal allowance is lost; meaning that incomes high enough will not have a personal allowance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
5ekwie | why is audio/voice quality so bad between crucial communication lines (soldiers/police/pilots etc.) | [
{
"answer": "Oftentimes the audio quality is fine, but when they record it, they use a very low bitrate, which makes it sound junky. They do that to save space, obviously. And for 99.99999% of the time, that recording is archived and never heard again, so it makes sense to save as much room as possible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Main reason is bandwidth - I'm not talking about the amount of data you use a month, but the range of frequencies a radio signal takes up. Soldiers, police, pilots, truckers, taxi drivers, firefighters, and lots of other businesses and professionals all want their own radio frequencies so they can communicate. \n\nAs a rule of thumb, the more bandwidth, the better the sound quality. But the more bandwidth, the fewer frequencies can be assigned to different groups within a given range of frequencies. So if the government let people have super high quality radio signals, they wouldn't be able to assign them to everyone that needed it. Instead, just enough bandwidth so they get usable quality. As the technology improves to get better sounding audio in a narrower bandwidth, regulatory bodies would rather that they fit more \"acceptable\" quality channels in a frequency range, rather than letting people have great quality channels at the expense of others who need a new channel.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The requirements for military or first responders (fire, police, ambulance) or for aviation are drastically different than for cell phone wireless. \n\nCall quality is based on data rates which has _some_ impact by frequency; higher frequency usually = higher data rates. Call quality is less important than other features: no call drops, much larger range (lower frequency = more range), the ability for peers to communicate directly in the absence of infrastructure (towers), ability for radio to penetrate into buildings through concrete and a bit underground (within limits). You need to have encryption and security so people/bad guys can't listen in, you need to be able to re-organize subscriber units or even your transmit/receive infrastructure on the fly. Add to all these other non-call quality requirements the fact that the amount of testing required is an order of magnitude higher - if a network switch in a GSM network gets a poorly tested firmware update and brings down a few cells, well probably not the end of the world. If a trunked radio cell used by fire/police/ambulance is out, people's lives could be at risk. If a military radio can be temporarily messed by someone's microwave, someone can't call in the evac helo or call in the cavalry. \n\nSo long as the call/transmission is clear enough to be understood, that's all that is required. Other requirements are more important.\n\nsource: used to work in emergency radios and telecomms.. a long time ago. An amusing story that sort of illustrates my point - I asked a senior design guy once \"hey, my $60 flip phone can get three days of normal usage out of this tiny battery AND it can play Tetris. How come cops still like lugging around these two pound bricks? Certainly we can make a radio that slips into a pocket?\" and he said essentially that there's a reassurance knowing that the two pound brick on your belt will _always_ be able to reach dispatch or talk to a partner... through concrete or across miles; a solid brick lends to that. Its big, you know that in a pinch if you're trapped you have a while before you have to start worry about how many bars of power you still have. John McClane didn't have to worry once about plugging in his radio. If he'd had a small cell phone sized radio, he would have had to plug it in at least once before Hans fell off the Nakatomi Tower. Also, if a cop has to take out their gun or their nightstick they have to fill out all this boring paperwork. They don't however have to fill out paperwork to take their radio off their belt. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Also, going out on a limb here, they don't update their systems with the frequency that say a cellphone is updated. \n\nThey can use the old units and integrate New without having to overhaul everything provided you can make out what's being said. It's designed for brute force ugly functionality. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3969529",
"title": "Sound level meter",
"section": "Section::::Standardization.:Military standards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "Combatants in every branch of the United States’ military are at risk for auditory impairments from steady state or impulse noises. While applying double hearing protection helps prevent auditory damage, it may compromise effectiveness by isolating the user from his or her environment. With hearing protection on, a soldier is less likely to be aware of his or her movements, alerting the enemy to their presence. Hearing protection devices (HPD) could also require higher volume levels for communication, negating their purpose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57869905",
"title": "Auditory Hazard Assessment Algorithm for Humans",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "Combatants in every branch of the United States’ military are at risk for auditory impairments from steady state or impulse noises. While applying double hearing protection helps prevent auditory damage, the user is isolated from the environment and the ability to detect, identify and localize important environmental cues is impaired. With hearing protection on, a soldier is less likely to be aware of his or her movements, alerting the enemy to their presence. Hearing protection devices (HPD) could also require higher volume levels for communication, negating their purpose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1520484",
"title": "M. H. Abrams",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "During World War II, he served at the Psycho-Acoustics Laboratory at Harvard. He describes his work as solving the problem of voice communications in a noisy military environment by establishing military codes that are highly audible and inventing selection tests for personnel who had a superior ability to recognize sound in a noisy background.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49604",
"title": "Hearing loss",
"section": "Section::::Sign language.:Government policies.:Health care.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 246,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 246,
"end_character": 1206,
"text": "This lack of or poor communication could also lead to other issues such as misdiagnosis, poor assessments, mistreatment, and even possibly harm to patients. Poor communication in this setting is often the result of health care providers having the misconception that all people who are deaf or hard of hearing have the same type of hearing loss, and require the same type of communication methods. In reality, there are many different types and range of hearing loss, and in order to communicate effectively a health care provider needs to understand that each individual with hearing loss has unique needs. This affects how individuals have been educated to communicate, as some communication methods work better depending on an individual’s severity of hearing loss. For example, assuming every deaf or hard of hearing patient knows American Sign Language would be incorrect because there are different types of sign language, each varying in signs and meanings. A patient could have been educated to use cued speech which is entirely different from ASL. Therefore, in order to communicate effectively, a health care provider needs to understand that each individual has unique needs when communicating.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "494866",
"title": "Diver communications",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "Communication is most critical in an emergency, where high stress levels make effective communication more difficult, and the circumstances of the emergency may make the communication physically more difficult. Voice communication is natural and effective where it is practicable, and most people rely on it for fast and accurate communication in most circumstances. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57497882",
"title": "Recruitment (medicine)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "What sounds normal for someone with normal hearing may be too soft for someone with recruitment, and what is too loud for someone with normal hearing is also too loud for the patient with recruitment. In effect, the range of sound intensity that a patient with recruitment can tolerate is much narrower. Further adding to the difficulty, recruitment is observed in those frequencies that are most impaired—in the high frequencies, which also carry critical information for speech understanding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45286360",
"title": "Military Family Voices",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "Military Family Voices, MFV, makes it possible for present and former Military Members and their families to use these sound recordings for comfort, whenever they need reassurance from those familiar voices of those they love. Soldiers carry these recordings with them downrange. Families cherish the recordings as helpful memory triggers, and people's lives are captured in small audio snapshots of their voices, as for instance while children grow up and their voices change month-to-month and year-to-year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
24dgze | what is a high functioning alcoholic and what is the problem with that? | [
{
"answer": "(1) They are doing a lot of damage to their liver and physical health in general - which is entirely their choice and right.\n(2) They may have underlying psychological issues which they are very good at masking, but may turn out to be a problem in the long-term (e.g. PTSD)\n(3) They may not be a High Functioning Alcoholic forever. They could get better, they could get much, much worse. Addressing the problem while they are still high-functioning is a much better option than crashing and burning.\n\n(I don't necessarily think that all heavy drinkers are high-functioning alcoholics, or that high-functioning alcoholics are in desperate need of treatment, just presenting some counter-arguments).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > How can one be professional, liked, respected and have no outward signs of problems and still be alcoholic? If one is an alcoholic, but has no outward issues, what is the actual problem they have that needs to be solved?\n\nBecause they're still dependent upon alcohol and thus liable to have some kind of crisis at any moment. This could be because for whatever reason they don't get their drink that afternoon. Or it could be because today is the day that they stopped being able to hold it together. They're a ticking time bomb.\n\nThe \"actual problem\" is not precisely something that they've done something bad or screwed something up, but the fact that they are at significantly increased *risk* of doing something bad or screwing something up precisely because they're drinking too much. \n\nIn essence, a \"high functioning alcoholic\" is a lucky alcoholic. They haven't had any overtly negative consequences from their drinking *yet*. But they're still drinking more than is good for them, and they are almost certain to face some negative consequences for that sooner or later.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Also, they are drunk when they do everything. It's a huge liability, and can be dangerous. My friend's mother was a high functioning alcoholic for many years. You know what she did? She was a registered nurse. Would you want a nurse running an IV into you with her breath reeking of vodka?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43903922",
"title": "Alcohol-related brain damage",
"section": "Section::::Neurological deficits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "Alcoholics can typically be divided into two categories, uncomplicated and complicated. Uncomplicated alcoholics do not have nutritional deficiency states or liver disease, but have a reduction in overall brain volume due to white matter cerebral atrophy. The severity of atrophy sustained from alcohol consumption is proportional to the rate and amount of alcohol consumed during a person's life. Complicated alcoholics may have liver damage that impacts brain structure and function and nutritional deficiencies “that can cause severe brain damage and dysfunction”.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18505697",
"title": "Alcoholism in family systems",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Adults from alcoholic families experience higher levels of state and trait anxiety and lower levels of differentiation of self than adults raised in non-alcoholic families. Additionally, adult children of alcoholics have lower self-esteem, excessive feelings of responsibility, difficulties reaching out, higher incidence of depression, and increased likelihood of becoming alcoholics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1205821",
"title": "Alcoholic polyneuropathy",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "Frequently alcoholics have disrupted social links in their lives and have an irregular lifestyle. This may cause an alcoholic to change their eating habits including more missed meals and a poor dietary balance. Alcoholism may also result in loss of appetite, alcoholic gastritis, and vomiting, which decrease food intake. Alcohol abuse damages the lining of the gastrointestinal system and reduces absorption of nutrients that are taken in. The combination of all of them may result in a nutritional deficiency that is linked to the development of alcoholic polyneuropathy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28541467",
"title": "High-functioning alcoholic",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "Many HFAs are not viewed as alcoholics by society because they do not fit the common alcoholic stereotype. Unlike the stereotypical alcoholic, HFAs have either succeeded or over-achieved throughout their lifetimes. This can lead to denial of alcoholism by the HFA, co-workers, family members, and friends. Functional alcoholics account for 19.5 percent of total U.S. alcoholics, with 50 percent also being smokers and 33 percent having a multigenerational family history of alcoholism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16694307",
"title": "Family caregivers",
"section": "Section::::Caregiving versus Caretaking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "In many dysfunctional groups, there is one person who ends up being the over responsible caretaker who gets their self-esteem from caring for other members. They do too much for others and not enough for themselves. What it means in recovery circles is that the person is doing for others what they can and should be doing for themselves. In the alcoholic work place, people cover for the worker who routinely misses deadlines, comes in late, or gets sick too often. In the alcoholic home, it's the person who cleans up, covers up, calls in sick for another person, or does everything they can to make the home life look normal when it isn't. That is unhealthy caretaking and a learned behavior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "337566",
"title": "Long-term effects of alcohol consumption",
"section": "Section::::Nervous system.:Mental health effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "Social skills are significantly impaired in people suffering from alcoholism due to the neurotoxic effects of alcohol on the brain, especially the prefrontal cortex area of the brain. The social skills that are impaired by alcohol abuse include impairments in perceiving facial emotions, prosody perception problems and theory of mind deficits; the ability to understand humour is also impaired in alcohol abusers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26685784",
"title": "Effects of alcohol on memory",
"section": "Section::::Effects on working memory.:In the long term.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1126,
"text": "Alcohol has been shown to have just \"some\" long-term effects on working memory. Findings have shown that in order for working memory to be substantially affected, long-term heavy drinking must be sustained over a long period of time, as up to one drink per day does not impair any cognitive function and may actually decrease the risk of a cognitive decline. Furthermore, chronic alcoholism is associated with the impairment in both sustained attention and visual working memory. As a result, alcoholics have reduced ability, but not necessarily \"inability\", to perform these executive tasks. This is assumed to be subserved by regions of the prefrontal cortex. While it may not serve as a surprise that chronic alcoholism is linked to any decreased cognitive function such as working memory, one surprising finding is not only that even moderate levels of alcohol consumption during pregnancy were shown to have an adverse effect on the child's working memory when tested at 7.5 years of age, but also that working memory may be the most important aspect of attention that is adversely affected by prenatal alcohol exposure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
49q2ua | what causes that feeling a split second before your realize you're about to have a very big accident? | [
{
"answer": "Its your fight or flight response.\n\nWhen you sense that you are in danger, your body releases a bunch of chemicals that prepare you to either fight the threat or run away from it. Your get more alert, stronger, faster and more coordinated to facilitate either action.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2382995",
"title": "Bodacious (bull)",
"section": "Section::::Professional bucking career.:1995 season.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 875,
"text": "Hedeman lasted four seconds. Looking back at the ride, Hedeman feels he was \"overconfident and underprepared\". \"When I nodded for him, the first jump felt fine,\" he said. \"Then, all of a sudden, whack! When I hit the ground, I felt numb.\" What Hedeman could not see was how his face really looked; how much blood was on it. \"When I was walking out of the arena I bit down and my teeth didn't come together, so I figured my jaw was broken,\" Hedeman recalled. \"I didn't realize my whole face was smashed. But when I looked at people looking at me, they looked like they'd seen the devil.\" At the hospital, doctors diagnosed Hedeman and said every major bone in his face was broken. Hedeman went through two surgeries which installed six titanium plates and totaled 13 hours. On discharge, the swelling of his face was so extreme that his own young son could not recognize him.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "215391",
"title": "Concurrence",
"section": "Section::::The problem.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 756,
"text": "Not all events are limited to a particular moment in time. The normal physical rules of cause and effect may see a series of interlocking circumstances conspire to cause a particular injury. If the facts of the example above are slightly changed so that the accident occurs at night at a sharp bend on a very quiet country road. When the driver sees the victim lying in the road he simply leaves the unconscious person where he fell. Some hours later, when a second car innocently comes around the corner and kills the victim, the first driver is happily asleep in his bed. Thus, he argues that, at the time of the death, he had no \"mens rea\" and so cannot be guilty of homicide. This argument fails because of the so-called \"Single Transaction Principle\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18499038",
"title": "Falling (sensation)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1041,
"text": "A sensation of falling occurs when the labyrinth or \"vestibular apparatus\", a system of fluid-filled passages in the inner ear, detects changes in acceleration. This sensation can occur when a person begins to fall, which in terms of mechanics amounts to a sudden acceleration increase from zero to roughly 9.8 m/s. If the body is in free fall (for example, during skydiving) with no other momenta (rotation, etc.) there is no falling sensation. This almost never occurs in real-life falling situations because when the faller leaves their support there are usually very significant quantities of residual momenta such as rotation and these momenta continue as the person falls, causing a sensation of dysphoria. The faller doesn't fall straight down but spins, flips, etc. due to these residual momenta and also due to the asymmetric forces of air resistance on their asymmetric body. While velocity continues to increase, the downward acceleration due to gravity remains constant. Increasing drag force may even cause a feeling of ascent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45325955",
"title": "Snapping: America's Epidemic of Sudden Personality Change",
"section": "Section::::Concept.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "an experience that is unmistakably traumatic ... Sudden change comes in a moment of intense experience that is not so much a peak as a precipice, an unforeseen break in the continuity of awareness that may leave them detached, withdrawn, disoriented – and utterly confused.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5222425",
"title": "1995 Indianapolis 500",
"section": "Section::::Race recap.:Finish.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "Scott Goodyear was visibly upset in an interview as he said to reporters: \"\"Disbelief is the best word to describe how I feel. I feel like I won this race. The pace-car was going too slow. ... I almost hit it. Scott Pruett almost hit it, Villeneuve almost hit it. He wasn't on the gas and I saw the green lights turn on and that meant go. That's all I can say. I stayed out because in my eyes it was perfect ... and if I came in and later found I didn't make a mistake then what are you going to do? It would have been too late and you won't get it back.\"\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "650825",
"title": "Myoclonus",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "Myoclonic seizure can be described as \"jumps\" or \"jolts\" experienced in a single or even the entire body. The feeling experienced by the individual is described as uncontrollable jolts common to receiving a mild electric shock. The sudden jerks and twitching of the body can often be so severe that it can cause a small child to fall.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47115212",
"title": "2015 Coke Zero 400",
"section": "Section::::Race.:Post-race.:Driver comments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 1158,
"text": "\"It was very vicious,\" Dillon said of the crash. \"It's twisting you around in there, and the belts are loosening with each hit, so the hits are getting more and more violent. By the fourth hit, you've separated enough so that the fourth one is going to hurt more than others. I held on to the steering wheel as hard as I could. I'm sure I'm going to find more bumps and bruises during the week, but right now I feel all right. It was just crazy. It's part of this racing. Everybody is pushing as hard as they can — pushing in a tight pack. I was pushing the 24 (Jeff Gordon) and the people behind are pushing me, It was just a wad right there at the end. At these speedway races, you're just praying and hoping that you get through it. I thought the wreck was over and I was sliding on the roof. I thought, 'We made it. We made it.' And then there was a big bang. I think it was the 2 car (Keselowski) that ran into me. Literally I had just got done stopping and crew members were everywhere. I thought that was really cool and special. It was comforting to me. They got to me pretty quick. I just wanted to get out of there and let the fans know I was OK.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
22axk7 | why is air less dense at higher altitudes? | [
{
"answer": "Imagine you stacked 100 cardboard boxes on top of each other. The one on the bottom would be crushed due to the weight of the other boxes on top of it. It being compressed would cause it to become denser than the other boxes above it. \n\nReplace the cardboard boxes with air and magnify the effect. That is why the air is less dense at higher altitudes. \n",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59211",
"title": "Altitude",
"section": "Section::::In atmospheric studies.:High altitude and low pressure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
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"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "At high altitude, atmospheric pressure is lower than that at sea level. This is due to two competing physical effects: gravity, which causes the air to be as close as possible to the ground; and the heat content of the air, which causes the molecules to bounce off each other and expand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6338482",
"title": "High-altitude research",
"section": "Section::::High-altitude medical research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 779,
"text": "Although the shortage of air contributes to the effects on the human body, research has found that most altitude sicknesses can be linked to the lack of atmospheric pressure. At low elevation, the pressure is higher because the molecules of air are compressed from the weight of the air above them. However, at higher elevations, the pressure is lower and the molecules are more dispersed. The percentage of oxygen in the air at sea level is the same at high altitudes. But because the air molecules are more spread out at higher altitudes, each breath takes in less oxygen to the body. With this in mind, the lungs take in as much air as possible, but because the atmospheric pressure is lower the molecules are more dispersed, resulting in a lower amount of oxygen per breath.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2336592",
"title": "Flight envelope",
"section": "Section::::Velocity vs. load factor chart.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "At higher temperatures, air is less dense and planes must fly faster to generate the same amount of lift. High heat may reduce the amount of cargo a plane can carry, increase the length of runway a plane needs to take off,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10630682",
"title": "Coffin corner (aerodynamics)",
"section": "Section::::Aerodynamic basis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "At higher altitudes, the air density is lower than at sea level. Because of the progressive reduction in air density, as the aircraft's altitude increases its true airspeed is progressively greater than its indicated airspeed. For example, the indicated airspeed at which an aircraft stalls can be considered constant, but the true airspeed at which it stalls increases with altitude.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4902127",
"title": "Convective instability",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "Conversely, if the adiabatic lapse rate is \"higher\" than the ambient lapse rate, an air mass displaced upward cools \"more\" rapidly than the air in which it is moving. Hence, such an airmass becomes \"cooler\" relative to the atmosphere. As cooler air is more dense, the rise of such an airmass would tend to be resisted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14564979",
"title": "Hypersonic flight",
"section": "Section::::Physics.:Low Density Flow.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "At standard sea-level condition for air, the mean free path of air molecules is about formula_1. Low density air is much thinner. At an altitude of 342,000 feet or 104 km the mean free path is formula_2. Because of this large free mean path aerodynamic concepts, equations, and results based on the assumption of a continuum begin to break down, therefore aerodynamics must be considered from kinetic theory. This regime of aerodynamics is called low-density flow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59211",
"title": "Altitude",
"section": "Section::::Effects on organisms.:Other organisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "There is also a general trend of smaller body sizes and lower species richness at high altitudes, likely due to lower oxygen partial pressures. These factors may decrease productivity in high altitude habitats, meaning there will be less energy available for consumption, growth, and activity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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}
]
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]
| null |
5xq62n | Why does North Korea have such few allies? | [
{
"answer": "North and South Korea both claim to be the one true Korea with the other one being an illegitimate government. Historically, both sides have legitimate claims with Pyongyang and Kaeseong both being major capital cities of former dynasties during Korea's 5000 year history.\n\nAfter the Korean War, both sides attempted to claim legitimacy on the international stage through diplomacy. They would sign deals with other nations usually with the caveat that those nations not recognize the other Korea. Naturally, the Cold War participants and their allies aligned with the respective Korea's with the Third World being the toss-up countries.\n\nSouth Korea had much more recognition during the 50's and 60's due to the fact that the UN backed the South during the Korean War. In the early 1970's, North and South Korea began to talk and with that came more recognition for the North. By 1991, both Koreas wanted into the UN and were only allowed in on the condition that both of them were allowed in as separate, recognized countries.\n\nAs to why they have so few *allies*, that has to do with the collapse of communism. North Korea has mutual defense treaties with China and Russia. Previously, the Russia deal was with the USSR. At the DMZ, the northern neutral observers were from Poland and Czechoslovakia, two (now three) countries that have been part of NATO for the past 15-20 years. With the collapse of the Warsaw Pact, Soviet allies fell away leaving only Russia and China.\n\nWhy don't they get more allies? Who would want to be their ally? In the 1980's, the North attempted to assassinate the South's president in Rangoon, killing multiple people in the attempt, they blew up a Korean Air flight, and they kidnapped Japanese and South Korean civilians. In the 90's, they pulled out of the Non-Proliferation treaty and began pursuing nuclear weapons. You can look at what they've done in the last 20 years (VX nerve agent assassination in a major international airport?!?!) and draw your own conclusions as to why no one is rushing to jump on the North Korean bandwagon these days.",
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21259",
"title": "Politics of North Korea",
"section": "Section::::Political developments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 630,
"text": "For much of its history, North Korean politics have been dominated by its adversarial relationship with South Korea. During the Cold War, North Korea aligned with the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China. The North Korean government invested heavily in its military, hoping to develop the capability to reunify Korea by force if possible and also preparing to repel any attack by South Korea or the United States. Following the doctrine of \"Juche\", North Korea aimed for a high degree of economic independence and the mobilization of all the resources of the nation to defend Korean sovereignty against foreign powers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39039428",
"title": "Quasi alliance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Japan-Korea relations may be referred to as a quasi alliance, as the two states remain unallied, but share a common threat, North Korea, and a common ally, the United States. The two states remain unallied mainly due to historical animosity rooting from the period of Japanese colonialism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21263",
"title": "Korean People's Army",
"section": "Section::::Capabilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 1012,
"text": "After the Korean War, North Korea maintained a powerful, but smaller military force than that of South Korea. In 1967 the KPA forces of about 345,000 were much smaller than the South Korean ground forces of about 585,000. North Korea's relative isolation and economic plight starting from the 1980s has now tipped the balance of military power into the hands of the better-equipped South Korean military. In response to this predicament, North Korea relies on asymmetric warfare techniques and unconventional weaponry to achieve parity against high-tech enemy forces. North Korea is reported to have developed a wide range of technologies towards this end, such as stealth paint to conceal ground targets, midget submarines and human torpedoes, blinding laser weapons, and probably has a chemical weapons program and is likely to possess a stockpile of chemical weapons. The Korean People's Army operates ZM-87 anti-personnel lasers, which are banned under the United Nations Protocol on Blinding Laser Weapons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39057612",
"title": "Canada in the Korean War",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 769,
"text": "Although both rival factions tried initially to diplomatically reunite the divided nation, the Northern faction eventually tried to do so with military force. The North hoped that they would be able to unify the peninsula via insurgency, but the success of South Korea (Republic of Korea: ROK) in suppressing insurgency brought about the realization for the North that they would require military force. North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea: DPRK) had expanded their army and Korean volunteers fighting in Manchuria in the Chinese Civil War had given their troops battle experience. The North expected to win with the war in a matter of days. Troops from North's Korean People's Army (KPA) crossed the 38th parallel on 25 June 1950 beginning a civil war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "106427",
"title": "North Korea–United States relations",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "North Korea–United States relations refers to international relations between North Korea and the United States. The political and diplomatic relations between North Korea and the United States have been historically hostile, developing primarily during the Korean War. In recent years relations have been largely defined by North Korea's nuclear program – six tests of nuclear weapons, its development of long-range missiles capable of striking targets thousands of miles away, and its ongoing threats to strike the United States and South Korea with nuclear weapons and conventional forces. During his presidency, George W. Bush referred to North Korea as part of \"the Axis of Evil\" because of the threat of its nuclear capabilities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19233165",
"title": "Politics and sports",
"section": "Section::::Countries.:North Korea.:World Cup.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
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"text": "North Korea's relationships with the international community, especially South Korea, have sometimes been shaped by sports diplomacy. In the 1966 World Cup, North Korea defeated the heavily favored Italian team. Kim Jong-il believed that successful athletics increases the strength of a country, promoted its ideology, brought a country great honor and increased its international reputation. For this reason, this victory has become propaganda used by the North Korean regime to present a reputable country to not only their citizens, but also to the international community as a whole. Although North Korea has not had much success since this victory, North Korea participated in the 2010 World Cup. In addition, North Korea was surrounded by controversy during 2006 World Cup qualifying. Fan violence in Pyongyang after a match with Iran led to North Korea playing a home game in Thailand without any fans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19233165",
"title": "Politics and sports",
"section": "Section::::Countries.:North Korea.:1988 Seoul Olympics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 742,
"text": "During this time, North Korea's major allies were China, the USSR, and Cuba. While Fidel Castro and Cuba staunchly defended North Korea, both the USSR and China agreed to participate in the games. This major decision strained relationships that were vital to the North Korean economic system. Throughout the history of North Korea, North Korea relied heavily on the foreign aid. The countries that gave the most aid were the USSR and China. For that reason, the strained relationships had a major effect on North Korea. This played a major role in the North Korean isolationist policies of the 1990s. In addition, as a result of the undeniable success of the Seoul Games, the growing gap between these two nations was further put on display.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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]
| null |
2mbrvd | Can there be an object of sufficient mass that light would orbit the object due to gravitional lensing? | [
{
"answer": "Yes. If an object with mass M has a radius less than 3GM/c^(2), [light can circle entirely around the object](_URL_0_). The density required for this is pretty extreme; it's limited mostly to black holes.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6753860",
"title": "Gravitational mirage",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
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"text": "The possibility of gravitational lensing was suggested in 1924 and clarified by Albert Einstein in 1936. In 1937, Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky (1898 - 1974), working at the Mount Wilson Observatory in California, realized that galaxies and galaxy clusters far out in space may be sufficiently compact and massive to observably bend the light from even more distant objects through gravitational lensing. His ideas were confirmed in 1979, when the first example of a cosmic mirage was discovered, the Twin Quasar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "17833105",
"title": "Weak gravitational lensing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "While the presence of any mass bends the path of light passing near it, this effect rarely produces the giant arcs and multiple images associated with strong gravitational lensing. Most lines of sight in the universe are thoroughly in the weak lensing regime, in which the deflection is impossible to detect in a single background source. However, even in these cases, the presence of the foreground mass can be detected, by way of a systematic alignment of background sources around the lensing mass. Weak gravitational lensing is thus an intrinsically statistical measurement, but it provides a way to measure the masses of astronomical objects without requiring assumptions about their composition or dynamical state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "31652273",
"title": "Syzygy (astronomy)",
"section": "Section::::Einstein ring.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "As electromagnetic rays are somewhat bent by gravitation, when they pass by a heavy mass they are bent. Thus, the heavy mass acts as a form of gravitational lens. If the light source, the diffracting mass and the observer stand in a line, one sees what is termed as an Einstein ring.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "48824",
"title": "Gravitational lens",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
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"text": "Unlike an optical lens, a gravitational lens produces a maximum deflection of light that passes closest to its center, and a minimum deflection of light that travels furthest from its center. Consequently, a gravitational lens has no single focal point, but a focal line. The term \"lens\" in the context of gravitational light deflection was first used by O.J. Lodge, who remarked that it is \"not permissible to say that the solar gravitational field acts like a lens, for it has no focal length\". If the (light) source, the massive lensing object, and the observer lie in a straight line, the original light source will appear as a ring around the massive lensing object. If there is any misalignment, the observer will see an arc segment instead. This phenomenon was first mentioned in 1924 by the St. Petersburg physicist Orest Chwolson, and quantified by Albert Einstein in 1936. It is usually referred to in the literature as an Einstein ring, since Chwolson did not concern himself with the flux or radius of the ring image. More commonly, where the lensing mass is complex (such as a galaxy group or cluster) and does not cause a spherical distortion of space–time, the source will resemble partial arcs scattered around the lens. The observer may then see multiple distorted images of the same source; the number and shape of these depending upon the relative positions of the source, lens, and observer, and the shape of the gravitational well of the lensing object.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48824",
"title": "Gravitational lens",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "Gravitational lenses act equally on all kinds of electromagnetic radiation, not just visible light. Weak lensing effects are being studied for the cosmic microwave background as well as galaxy surveys. Strong lenses have been observed in radio and x-ray regimes as well. If a strong lens produces multiple images, there will be a relative time delay between two paths: that is, in one image the lensed object will be observed before the other image.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25696980",
"title": "MicroFUN",
"section": "Section::::Microlensing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "Gravitational lensing is an effect of Einstein's general relativity, which says that all matter bends light that passes by it. Strong gravitational lensing drastically alters the shape of an object on the sky; weak gravitational lensing slightly alters the shape of the object; and gravitational microlensing alters only the brightness of the object, instead of its shape. Gravitational lensing in general, and especially microlensing, has had a vast impact on astronomy, specifically in the search for extrasolar planets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18117469",
"title": "Strong gravitational lensing",
"section": "Section::::Astrophysical applications.:Mass profiles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Since gravitational lensing is an effect only depending on gravitational potential, it can be used to constrain the mass model of lenses. With the constraints from multiple images or arcs, a proposed mass model can be optimized to fit to the observables. The subgalactic structures currently interests lensing astronomers are the central mass distribution and dark matter halos.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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| null |
5nas3e | Why do European monarchs almost always have adjectives applied to their names? (i.e. Louis "the Pious" of France) | [
{
"answer": "For both Louis the Pious and his son Charles the Bald, these were both names by which they were known during their lifetimes. As for Charles' opinions on his nickname, we've no record of how he felt about it, but he might well have like it and found it funny, since it's possible that it was ironic, and that he was in fact an unusually hairy man - given that we know the name was used during his lifetime and any contemporary depiction of him has a full head of hair.\n\nAs for the why, I'm not sure I can answer that one. It does help to distinguish between kings with the same name who ruled around the same time (like all the later Louis' in French history), but given that Louis the Pious was also Louis I, that doesn't really hold up. I've never read an explanation of it, to be honest - sorry!",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "47770697",
"title": "List of heads of state of France",
"section": "Section::::Historical background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "With the House of Bonaparte and the Bourbon Restoration, additional \"Kings of the French\" and \"Emperors of the French\" ruled in 19th century France, between 1814 and 1870. All rulers to have held the title \"King of the Franks\", \"King of France\", \"King of the French\" or \"Emperor of the French\" are listed below and excludes other Frankish monarchs. In addition to the monarchs listed below, the Kings of England and Great Britain from 1340 to 1360 and again from 1369 to 1801 also claimed the title of King of France.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "17732253",
"title": "Henry (given name)",
"section": "Section::::Masculine variants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "In the High Middle Ages, the name was Latinized as \"Henricus\". It was a royal name in Germany, France and England throughout the high medieval period (Henry I of Germany, Henry I of England, Henry I of France) and widely used as a given name; as a consequence, many regional variants developed in the languages of Western and Central Europe:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "18553",
"title": "Louis XIV of France",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:Reputation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 204,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 204,
"end_character": 709,
"text": "Nonetheless, Louis has also received praise. The anti-Bourbon Napoleon described him not only as \"a great king\", but also as \"the only King of France worthy of the name\". Leibniz, the German Protestant philosopher, commended him as \"one of the greatest kings that ever was\". And Lord Acton admired him as \"by far the ablest man who was born in modern times on the steps of a throne\". The historian and philosopher Voltaire wrote: \"His name can never be pronounced without respect and without summoning the image of an eternally memorable age\". Voltaire's history, \"The Age of Louis XIV\", named Louis' reign as not only one of the four great ages in which reason and culture flourished, but the greatest ever.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "62114",
"title": "Louis XVIII of France",
"section": "Section::::Youth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "The name of \"Louis\" was bestowed because it was typical of a prince of France; Stanislas was chosen to honour his great-grandfather King Stanisław I of Poland; and Xavier was chosen for Saint Francis Xavier, whom his mother's family held as one of their patron saints.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36579",
"title": "Clovis I",
"section": "Section::::Name.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "His name is Germanic, composed of the elements \"hlod\" (\"fame\") and \"wig\" (\"combat\"), and is the origin of the later French given name \"Louis\", borne by 18 kings of France. In Dutch, the most closely related modern language to Frankish, the name is currently rendered as \"Lodewijk\", in Middle Dutch the form was \"Lodewijch\". In modern German the name became Ludwig (although the emperor himself is named Chlodwig in German); in Spanish, Luis; in Italian, Luigi; and in English, Lewis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "196475",
"title": "Margrave",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "By the 19th century, the sovereigns in Germany, Italy and Austria had all adopted \"higher\" titles, and not a single sovereign margraviate remained. Although the title remained part of the official style of such monarchs as the German Emperors, Kings of Saxony and Grand Dukes of Baden, it fell into desuetude as the primary title of members of any reigning family.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "5526041",
"title": "Louis (given name)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Louis is the French form of the Old Frankish given name Chlodowig and one of two English forms, the other being Lewis (). The Frankish name is composed of the words for \"fame\" (\"hlōd\") and \"warrior\" (\"wīg\") which may be translated to \"famous warrior\" or \"famous in battle\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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| null |
5ggx16 | why does american culture put so much emphasis on "moving out of the house" and being independent from one's family, when other cultures (e.g. asian and spanish) live with their extended family under the same roof throughout their lifetimes? | [
{
"answer": "In this culture, It is viewed as \"the bird leaving the nest\". In a sense it reflects on the parents and how well they did preparing their children for the world. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Being self sufficient is a major part of they American Mythos and cultural identity. It is the same reason that we are resistant to socialized health care and welfare programs. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because that's how you keep housing inflation and construction up. Can't have lazy kids living with mom in the basement because then our consumer based economy suffers. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Those old world civilizations don't quite have the same surplus of property that we do in America. And so from the colonial days, the aspiration (or expectation in many cases) is that you become self sufficient and move out because thats what a strong individual is capable of. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "At some point an individual could support themselves on a single job... Now a days you need two people working full time jobs to stay above debt... \n\nIts unfortunately the same where I live in Canada too... ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "In cultures where the family lives together, think of the family as an individual. This is where we misunderstand these cultures in things like honor killings -- it's akin to amputating a gangrenous arm for someone who lives in an individual-focused society. It's like metric, and standard societal units, where one is the individual, and one is the family. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "I'm spanish and that's not true. We also get out of the house when we become auto-sustainable in economic terms.\n\nEdit: by spanish I mean SPAIN, EUROPE, yeah that spot between africa and france. ",
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"answer": "Some aspects of American culture are that you can strive to be/do anything you want. Another aspect to that is going out and doing it. There's a very 'can do' attitude that doesn't always fit with staying at home and perpetuating the family unit. \n\nPeople don't live in the same area (let alone the same house) their whole lives, they move to new places, explore new opportunities, and build the life *they want* for themselves. Not necessarily the life their parents (and grandparents) have laid out for them. ",
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"answer": "Rugged Individualism. It's the concept Americans have hard wired in our brains. The mark of being an adult is going out on your own and providing for yourself. It's a sense of pride and accomplishment to leave the safety of your parents house and pave your own road to success. This mindset has its advantages, as well as some disadvantages. Moving out is an extension of the mentioned \"rugged individualism\" but there are several faucets to this concept. \n\n_URL_0_",
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{
"answer": "As an American I know what you are saying. I am a country manager of oil and gas companies in the middle east. My guys buy houses to move their parents in with them. I honestly ask them WTF but that is they way they think. We GTFO as soon as we can, I joined the damn USMC!\nThis is a good question though.\nPlease ELI5",
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"answer": "Isn't it (also) to do with individualist vs collectivist societies? Ie. One society views an individuals needs as most important, while the other society believes your job is to maintain a strong community.",
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"answer": "Because it stimulates the economy. If everyone lived at home, that's so fewer houses, cars, kitchen gadgets, etc that would have to be sold. \n\nConvincing the populace they must be independent is how corporations sell more goods.",
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"answer": "This was present in Anglo Saxon culture since the 7th century but the kids would move into a house pretty much next door so it wasn't really about independence, probably because English women had a lot of say compared to other cultures they refused to have their mother in law living in the house with them and telling them how to raise their kids (which is still pretty much what happens in many Mediterranean families). ",
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"answer": "Mainly because I could never ever bring a girl to my parents house.\n\nThey would either cockblock the fuck outta me or imply that we are both sinners and going to hell before informing me that they will not tolerate that evil in their house and that if it ever happens again they'll kick me out.\n\nSo I'm basically stuck with no dating prospects until I can get out. But I guarantee they'll be nagging me before too long about why they dont have grandkids.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Because Asian culture benefits/ profits/ gets a sick pleasure out of enslaving and forcing their own family to do things for them\n\nEg: Carry on generations of lineage, heirlooms, superstitions, religious beliefs. Also making children follow in their footsteps due to harsh circumstances (like the economy or business ethics) or simply out of fear (God will smite them and send them to hell)\n\nYes, even wax the windows or dropping the jacket and picking it back up...\n\nAm Filipino. Can confirm",
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"answer": "Because by living by yourself, you have more bills to pay, thus need to put in more hours at your job or jobs to pay for them, and get additional expenses such as hiring a babysitter for the children, or things of that nature. All of this directly benefits capitalists.",
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"answer": "Canada is similar. I think it's because we have so much space and are a nation of immigrants. We're descended from people that moved far away from their families in many cases, so it makes sense that that idea is carried down a bit. ",
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"answer": "Idk why but then they all complain about not having money and not being able to afford rent, bills, college debt, etc. You save thousands of dollars a month by not moving out. More people should try it (that is not moving out immediately after high school/college, not living with your parents til your 30)",
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{
"answer": "Because we're a country of people that values self reliance, independence and individualism (often at the expense of others and the greater good..)",
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{
"answer": "One reason among many is because it's much easier than other countries. Income is generally higher and the land space is proportionally cheaper.",
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"answer": "I have spanish family - that's simply false - most people I know from Spain move out as soon as they can.",
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{
"answer": "I'm actually in the middle of moving out of my parents house today and this is very interesting to see the different responses. I'm leaving because I just want to be out on my own. I make plenty of money to take care of myself and I just wanna do my own thing. ",
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"answer": "Singaporean here, thought I wanted to share a bit about the Asian perspective on this. \n\nFYI, we're a multiracial country, Chinese, Malay, Indian and Eurasians. I'm a Singaporean Chinese (we form the majority of the population), so I can try to speak for my demographic, although some values are shared across races. \n\nWe usually stay with our parents sometimes even after we're married for a few reasons. We're only reasonably expected to move out after marriage. \n\nFirstly, houses in Singapore don't come cheap, because land space is super limited. And if you want to get government housing (from the Housing Development Board), you have to apply for that and wait years before you get the keys to your house (also you only can purchase HDB apartments if you're married). Even then, housing's still not cheap. We have financial schemes like the Central Provident Fund to help us out, but there are other issues, too. Basically, it's ~not easy~ impossible to find a house when you're a youngish adult unless your family's shitting money. \n\nSecondly, Asians value filial piety a lot (something something Confucianism). Living with your parents means you care for them. Moving out before marriage is kind of a stigma, like you're trying to get away from your parents - that sort of thing. Again, unless family is super rich and has different ideals and values, this would be different, but I'm talking in generals. Around 18 is still a very young age for us, too. As long as we're studying (and even during our first years in our first jobs), we're still our parent's children. With Singapore's focus on education, more and more of us are studying for longer periods, and slower to find jobs, especially in the current economy. Plus, all guys have mandatory national service so that's another extra 2 years staying with the parents. \n\n\nI think the main difference between my Asian culture and an American one is 1, land space and 2, different values on life. \n\nMore land space = more (financially accessible) houses. Purchasing more houses = better economy. \n\nAlso I think I saw in a few other comments about individualism. I obviously can't speak for Americans, but it is clear that Asian and American values are very different. Moving out means being financially capable and growing out of your own. It may even be filial piety in a Western sense - no longer living off your parents and being a responsible human. It seems like an important moment of being/becoming an adult. \n\nEdit: found out that you can purchase a HDB apartment if you're over 35 or your parents have passed on. Basically some other conditions to ensure that everyone has a roof over their heads regardless of financial/social disposition. And grammar.",
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"answer": "In American culture it's considered a weakness to live with family above a certain age. It's really an illogical cultural conformity. Just one more thing implanted into the minds to fuel the materialistic consumerism society. However, the recent economic decline, among other things, seems to be changing such views.",
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"answer": "That´s one thing i cannot understand. I am mexican, I will be living with my mother until I get married, and...\n\n\nI began providing money for the house since I was 7. Nobody can tell me I live with my mom just because a fear of independence, I lived 5 years alone and still sent money. \n\n\nI am anxious to see the answers this gets.",
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},
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"answer": "As with rugged individualism, it's a sense of ownership and permission to use mutual spaces.\n\nI've been living with my parents for 4 years, as I'm married and have 2 kids, it's getting harder and harder to find acceptable times and uses for these common areas. It makes us feel like we are unable to invite school friends over, because we don't know what mood/events my parents have going on in the common rooms.\n\n9 and 6 is where my kids are, and it's increasingly difficult to find activities that you can do in public places that still cultivate a relationship with classmates ",
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"answer": "There's a lot of comments here about Old World vs New World attitudes. It's not explicitly an American thing and Most of Western Europe does also emphasise leaving home.\n\n[Here's a map](_URL_0_) showing how actually a lot of European youth does actually move out of their parents'.",
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},
{
"answer": "I think you overestimate and misunderstand how people live with their family in other cultures. The idea is that you leave the house when you become an adult, go out and make your way in the world, and then you come back and take over your parents' household or you get your own place and they join you. There's a difference between you living with them and them living with you.\n\nOn the other hand, a house being tied to a family is more prevalent in \"Old World\" cultures, since that was the way things were up until urbanization skyrocketed in the early 20th century.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Americans can afford it. People in less prosperous countries would like to move out and live in their own home as well, but they lack the means to do so.\n\nThere's a saying in Brazil that goes \"quem casa quer casa\". People who marry want a home. That's a word play between the verb \"casar\" meaning \"to marry\" and the noun \"casa\", meaning \"house\".\n\n",
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"answer": "There are many things that have shaped that aspect of American culture; I would go so far as to say that it is a relic of the quasi-religious basis for Manifest Destiny (which in fact, shaped Rugged Individualism). When the expanse of the American western frontier seemed to stretch forever ahead of mostly WASPs, the Old Testament mandate \"Be Fruitful and Multiply\" became a life goal for couples - the large family was actually useful when running a homestead. Reactively, the most significant social rite of passage was creating a new family. While today it would, at most, be considered only slightly shameful to start a new family without being able to provide (this attitude varies with age/community/location/etc - I experienced it a lot as a child in a very religious, rural part of West Virginia), at the peak of westward expansion it would likely mean death. \n\nAdditionally, there have been a variety of religious (again, mostly Protestant variations on a theme, from what I can gather) attitudes influencing the push for new couples to carry out their mating in a house other than that of the parents.\n\nSo, while I don't see these motivations as being prevalent or conscious at present, I believe they have established a pattern and a set of \"norms\" that are outdated and slowly changing.\n\nI would also add that a common \"rite of passage\" for many young adults is a complete rejection of the ideals of their parents - at least for awhile. During that period, it is good to have them out of the house :-)",
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{
"answer": "I'll offer an explanation that is a bit more historically oriented.\n\nThe grand ol' USA is a very new country. With the exception of a few old East Coast cities, the USA is a land that was found, developed and lived in during a time of plenty. The US is basically a product of a civilization formed during industrialism, and also in the context of having an enormous amount of square feet of land per capita.\n\nThe US therefore \"grew into\" the land and the historical context that it developed into. Contrast this with anywhere in Europe or Asia, where all the nice places have towns or cities that have existed for a very very long time, and were developed with the constraints of non industrial agrarianism. Not only is the physical infrastructure there already, but the culture is ingrained.\n\nOnly a very wealthy people can have most people move out when they turn 18, and the US is fabulously wealthy when you compare it to the historical norm of the human race. ",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "50229776",
"title": "Jenna Ortega",
"section": "Section::::Personal life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "“It’s important to embrace your culture today because there are so many different ethnicities in America. At the end of the day, you are you. You’ve got to stay true to yourself, and you can’t change yourself in order to fit in or to make someone else feel comfortable.” \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13510799",
"title": "Ethnic succession theory",
"section": "Section::::Explanations.:Immigration and environment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1034,
"text": "Because of the United States' continued attraction for immigrants, its cities have been sources of study for scholars of urban development and ethnic succession. Ethnic groups often settle together in urban neighborhoods as part of a \"chain of immigration\" to a new country, or migration to a new region, to keep personal networks, languages, foods, religions and cultures alive. They may be viewed by the dominant racial or cultural group as undesirable neighbors because of prejudice against a new culture's dominating a neighborhood. People with entry-level skills and/or limited language skills often have settled in older areas, where they can afford the housing and entry-level jobs. Over time, the incoming group members find work, and members are able to establish themselves economically. The group rises in status with its economic achievements. The first, more established group tends to move out in the face of new arrivals, as it tends to have the economic resources to do so. The neighborhood takes on new demographics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "373963",
"title": "Owner-occupancy",
"section": "Section::::Pros and cons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "Traditionally home-ownership has been encouraged by governments in Western countries (especially English-speaking countries) because it was thought to help people acquire wealth, to encourage savings, and promote civic engagement. However the housing market crash of 2008 in most of the English-speaking world has caused academic and policy-makers to question this logic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35304479",
"title": "Inequality within immigrant families in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Generation.:Degree of assimilation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "Among many immigrant families, members of the younger generation tend to assimilate to American culture at a faster rate than members of older generations. This can create divides along generational lines. Members of the older generation may dislike the influence that American culture has on the younger generation, particularly shifts from communal values to a more individualistic mindset. On the other hand, members of the younger generation may view their elders as too set in their ways and out of touch with American society. Such sentiments can lead to conflict between family members. Points of contention include clothing, speech, displaying respect for elders, and dating practices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5062003",
"title": "Counterurbanization",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "According to Hall, people have been influenced to move because of factors like climate, jobs, and tax rates. Hall also found that people who are not a part of a more stable family will tend to move more. People choosing to live in rural areas have found it more beneficial because of cleaner air, peace and quiet, and lots of space. Smaller towns have also been proven to be convenient for the inhabitants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13515710",
"title": "Transnational marriage",
"section": "Section::::Third culture kids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Immigrants may also take their families with them, meaning that their children grow up in different lands, learning a different culture and language often feeling more at home in the host country than their \"home\" country. These children, called third culture kids, often tend to feel affinity to those who have also lived in more than one country and culture, and tend to marry people of diverse backgrounds, regardless of nationality and citizenship.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35304479",
"title": "Inequality within immigrant families in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Generation.:Degree of assimilation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "Family members who identify more with the culture of their home country may experience frustration when they attempt to instill their cultural values into younger family members. Popular media, schools, and peers act as powerful socializing agents and members of the older generation may feel that they cannot compete with these pervasive cultural and social forces. Parents may blame television and magazines for the unwanted change they see in their children and if they decide to act by cracking down on their children's access to popular media, this may lead to further generational schisms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
3ce0ew | how comic distribution works? | [
{
"answer": "Most American comics are produced on a monthly basis, about 22 pages per month. These comics are published by a publisher (DC, Marvel, Dark Horse, Etc.) and then distributed by a company called Diamond, who pretty much have a monopoly on comic distribution. These individual issues are pretty much only sold in comic book stores, though, some book stores carry some.\n\nMonths later, these comics may be recollected into \"trade paperbacks\" which will have 4-12 issues all together. Even more issues might also be recollected into even bigger collections- the biggest I've ever heard of in a single volume is The Invisibles Omnibus, which is 59 issues in a single book.\n\nBack issues you generally have to hunt down in comic book stores or at comic conventions. Rarity is sort of pointless to track, but in short, certain first-editions of first-issues become popular collectors items. Finding non-first-editions of these first issues is pretty easy, but they aren't considered rare or valuable.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2214904",
"title": "American comic book tropes",
"section": "Section::::Technical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "American comic books can be sold through the direct market. Formats include single issues, trade paperback, and graphic novels. Graphic novels may also be known as \"prestige format\" comics for single issues. Issues may be published as one shots or periodically.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "293273",
"title": "Syndicate",
"section": "Section::::Media syndicates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "Print syndication distributes news articles, columns, comic strips, and other features to newspapers, magazines and websites. They offer reprint rights and grant permissions to other parties for republishing content of which they own/represent copyrights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "327788",
"title": "Print syndication",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "Print syndication distributes news articles, columns, political cartoons, comic strips and other features to newspapers, magazines and websites. The syndicates offer reprint rights and grant permissions to other parties for republishing content of which they own and/or represent copyrights. Other terms for the service include a newspaper syndicate, a press syndicate, and a feature syndicate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34543784",
"title": "Urban freight distribution",
"section": "Section::::Components.:Warehouses and distribution centers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "A distribution center is a warehouse or other specialized building that receives, stores, and distributes goods to a variety of destinations such as retail stores, businesses, consumers, manufacturing facilities, or other distribution centers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5704",
"title": "Comic strip",
"section": "Section::::Newspapers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "Most newspaper comic strips are syndicated; a syndicate hires people to write and draw a strip and then distributes it to many newspapers for a fee. Some newspaper strips begin or remain exclusive to one newspaper. For example, the \"Pogo\" comic strip by Walt Kelly originally appeared only in the \"New York Star\" in 1948 and was not picked up for syndication until the following year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "660940",
"title": "American comic book",
"section": "Section::::Making comics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "The creative team, the writers and artists, may work with a comic book publisher for help with marketing, advertising, and other logistics. A distributor like Diamond Comic Distributors, the largest in the U.S., helps to distribute the finished product to retailers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "843158",
"title": "San Diego Comic-Con",
"section": "Section::::Events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "Like most comic book conventions, Comic-Con features a large floorspace for exhibitors. These include media companies such as movie studios and TV networks, as well as comic-book dealers and collectibles merchants. And like most comics conventions, Comic-Con includes an autograph area, as well as the Artists' Alley where comics artists can sign autographs and sell or do free sketches. Despite the name, artists' alleys can include writers and even models.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
at3p9k | what causes the urge to move around after hurting yourself? | [
{
"answer": "You gotta run the pain off. For real, in the wild, if you get hurt, there's probably someone or something that hurt you and your body wants to get away from them asap so you don't sustain any more injuries. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "150374",
"title": "Self-harm",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 711,
"text": "Many people who self-harm state that it allows them to \"go away\" or dissociate, separating the mind from feelings that are causing anguish. This may be achieved by tricking the mind into believing that the present suffering being felt is caused by the self-harm instead of the issues they were facing previously: the physical pain therefore acts as a distraction from the original emotional pain. To complement this theory, one can consider the need to \"stop\" feeling emotional pain and mental agitation. \"A person may be hyper-sensitive and overwhelmed; a great many thoughts may be revolving within their mind, and they may either become triggered or could make a decision to stop the overwhelming feelings.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21738234",
"title": "Body-focused repetitive behavior",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "Research has suggested that the urge to repetitive self-injury is similar to a body-focused repetitive behavior but others have argued that for some the condition is more akin to a substance abuse disorder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8084306",
"title": "Self-destructive behavior",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "Aside from this, a need for attention or a feel good sensation can ultimately cause this behavior. A prime example of this would be addiction to drugs or alcohol. In the beginning stages, people have the tendency to ease their way into these unhealthy behaviors because it gives them a pleasurable sensation. However, as time goes on, it becomes a habit that they can not stop and they begin to lose these great feeling easily. When these feelings stop, self-destructive behavior enhances because they aren't able to provide themselves with that feeling that makes mental or physical pain go away. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42112603",
"title": "Perpetrator trauma",
"section": "Section::::Cycles of violence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "Several of the symptoms are capable of causing or allowing for renewed acts of violence. The outbursts of anger can have an impact in domestic violence and street crime. The sense of emotional numbing, detachment and estrangement from other people can also contribute to these, along with contributing to participation in further battle activities or to apathetic reactions when violence is done by others. Associated substance abuse may also have connections to acts of violence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "445201",
"title": "Anger management",
"section": "Section::::Potential causes for development of problems.:Medical causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 784,
"text": "Drug addiction, alcoholism, a mental disability, biochemical changes and PTSD can all lead to a person committing an aggressive act against another person. Not having sufficient skills on how to handle oneself when faced with aggression can lead to very undesirable outcomes. These factors are typically associated with a heightened chance of anger, but there are other, less-known factors that can lead to people acting in a negative way. Prolonged or intense anger and frustration contributes to physical conditions such as headaches, digestive problems, high blood pressure and heart disease. Problems dealing with angry feelings may be linked to psychological disorders such as anxiety or depression. Angry outbursts can be a way of trying to cope with unhappiness or depression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "150374",
"title": "Self-harm",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "Alternatively, self-harm may be a means of feeling \"something\", even if the sensation is unpleasant and painful. Those who self-harm sometimes describe feelings of emptiness or numbness (anhedonia), and physical pain may be a relief from these feelings. \"A person may be detached from themselves, detached from life, numb and unfeeling. They may then recognise the need to function more, or have a desire to feel real again, and a decision is made to create sensation and 'wake up'.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1781075",
"title": "Applied behavior analysis",
"section": "Section::::Functional analysis (psychology).:Functions of behavior.:Escape/avoid undesirable events (negative reinforcement).:Escape/avoid specific stimulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "The individual engages in the behavior because it produces a decrease in aversive stimulation. Put another way, something aversive is occurring in some location on the organism's body, and engaging in the behavior decreases the level of discomfort. For example, a child bangs their head against the wall to decrease the pain experienced from a toothache. Another example includes a child scratching their arm to decrease the level of itchiness experienced from a bug bite. Common forms of aversive stimulation abated by engaging in specific behaviors include sinus pain, itching, hunger, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
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| null |
8gw1g2 | When the mars rover went to mars were they able to remove all bacteria and small life from it? If not could any of the bacteria be able to live in the harsh conditions of mars? And how do they obtain soil samples looking for bacteria if it could possibly be from the rover itself? | [
{
"answer": "Anything that is sent to Mars is thoroughly inspected, cleaned, and sanitized {[_URL_1_](https://_URL_1_/msl/mission/technology/insituexploration/planetaryprotection/)}. There are some microorganisms that can still survive a trip to Mars, such as a well-known [Tardigrade (Wiki)](_URL_0_). That's the main reason rovers avoid parts of the planet that contain water or ice - they can still carry Earth's life and contaminate it {[_URL_4_](_URL_2_)}.\n\nSo far all life-detecting tests done by rovers are interpreted as negative. If we find a sign of life on Mars, we will make sure it's not brought by us from Earth.\n\n**Edit: Answering a few questions that keep repeating.**\n\n > *Why do we refrain from contaminating Mars? Wouldn't that be an interesting experiment?*\n\nIt would be, but before we do that, we want to make sure there is no native life on Mars that we might accidentally destroy (as we often do). If we find micro-organisms there, it would be nice to study them without our own organisms getting in the way wherever we go.\n\n > *Wouldn't a manned mission contaminate Mars?*\n\nIt will. Before we can send humans to Mars we will have to modify the rules of the Outer Space Treaty. Hopefully we can find life there before we send humans. If not, hopefully the first humans will find life. If we don't, it's pretty clear there is no life there. But we will not be colonizing and terraforming Mars until this question is answered.\n\n > *Shouldn't we search for life in water-rich zones, instead of the opposite?*\n\nYeah, ideally we should, but because our rovers are not 100% clean, letting invasive life forms flourish in Mars's potentially already living waters, before we have a chance to at least send a few of them back to us, is just not worth it. On top of that, we don't need to check water contents to determine if Mars has life - the atmosphere and soil can give us enough clues to answer that.\n\n > *Don't we have the technology to sterilize things to 100%? Or are we that neglectful?*\n\nWe do have the technology, and we can use it with ease. The problem is that if you want to sterilize a circuit board, you end up frying it. One proposed idea is to build a rover on Mars with 3D printers, and sterilize all the necessary materials separately.",
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"answer": "I would have to search and dig out links, sorry for that....but I remember to to read that with some of the recent Mars probes, some worker (?) broke protocol and contaminated the probe in some way, so bacteria/microorganisms made it on their way to Mars.\n\nA bit more googling brings up several articles where some argue that it's possible we already contaminated Mars, simply because it is impossible to 100% sterilize a probe before launch, only to a certain extent. Whether microbes survived, made it to Mars and are now surviving even on Mars on the probes...opinions differ. But it's possible.",
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"answer": "Also, might it be a good idea to just go ahead and introduce the tardigrade and other microscopic life to mars on purpose? Assuming of course that we’re conclusively sure there’s no native life there. Life expansion might be worth it. Especially if we keep destroying the planet we live on, why not seed another? Millions (more likely billions) of years after us idiots are extinct there could be complex life on Mars. If the general point of life is propagation and survival I don’t see a downside in “accidentally” bringing microscopic life to Mars. Especially considering that the microscopic organisms that might be attached to whatever spacecraft gets sent there will be killed anyway in the disinfection process. So we’re not killing anything we wouldn’t be killing anyway. Thoughts?\n\nEdit: grammar ",
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"answer": "I actually wrote my thesis along these lines\n I was studying Antarctic yeast species, which live in cold, dry environments and are exposed to incredible amounts of uv radiation. In other words, very similar conditions to space. Numerous studies have found that they in fact can survive in space, so it's entirely possible that other microbes could survive the trip to Mars. The yeast I studied ate rocks, do they may even be able to reproduce on Mars as well. We try to sanitize most stuff that gets sent to space, because on the off chance there is native alien life ( bacteria and what not) we don't want to accidently kill it off with an invasive species",
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"answer": "When I was taking Microbiology a few years ago, I recall my prof talking about viral endospores that were able to survive space, essentially because viruses are dead and don't begin reproducing until they find a host. He went on to mention this could have attributed to developing some sort of basic life or foundation for life. No idea in the truth or evidence of this claim, but it's a fun idea to entertain. \n\nEdit: The theory he was speaking of is known as Panspermia, here's a link if you wanna to read up on it! _URL_0_",
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"answer": "The thing that always bothered me: is the bacteria flat out removed, or are they just hoping 'killed' bacteria and small life won't factor into anything.\n\nKilled bacteria can't just break physics- it retains some mass or existence right? I mean it's why even after washing your hands you still wear sanitary gloves when bacteria is a factor that could influence something...\n\nUgh- Not quite sure I worded all that correctly.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "This is the job of the planetary protection officer at NASA. Forward contamination, which is what you are describing, is taken into consideration during mission planning and steps are taken to mitigate it. Here is a good Wikipedia link - > _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Everyone is giving great answers to your question but I just wanted to point out that saying \"the\" Mars Rover is a little unspecific. To my knowledge there have been four rovers that have successfully landed on Mars, two of which are still in active service.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "This is actually one of the issue nasa is facing with respect to any kind of interplanetary research i.e. how to make sure not to contaminate a planet but still study it.\n\nThere are some solutions like cleaning the rovers very carefully but even those are not 100 & #37; accurate. But there will still be some left.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I want to add to some of the other answers. NASA has a Planetary Protection Officer, yes. But if you ask the current one if there is life on Mars she says yes, because we put it there. The sterilization process wasn't always as good or as thorough as it is now, and even now its possible some gets through.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Unfortunately contamination of Mars is imminent (as well as Earth with Martian life if it exists) if we are serious about colonization. Though it will be simple to distinguish the two apart genetically.\n\nAnd it's very possible that Mars still harbors microbes if life existed there before. Earth has microbes that live miles below the surface, so the only way to sterilize this planet would be to liquify the crust. It is very difficult to sterilize an entire planet.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "NASA has a department called \"Planetary protection\" that deals with the removal of life from a spacecraft.\n\n_URL_1_\n\nThere are different levels based on where the spaceship is going. For instance, a Mars mission requires more attention than a pure space mission.\n\n_URL_0_",
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"answer": "I attended a special lecture held by a microbiologist employed by NASA. His job is to sample clean rooms and stuff to be sent off world for microbes, sequence their genome, and then catalog it. \n\n1. NASA doesn't remove it all. But they write down what they didn't remove along with the genetic sequence. (See quitegonegenie's post)\n\n3. NASA checks sequences of extraterrestrial samples to the catalog of sequences created prelaunch\n\nThe problem is: if we find life, but the genome is similar to what we've catalogued, how will we know?",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "**When the mars rover went to mars were they able to remove all bacteria and small life from it?**\n\nSimply put, no. It is almost impossible to remove every single cell/spore from rovers.\n\nRovers are assembled in clean rooms \\(where the air is filtered\\), human contact is limited, surfaces are cleaned with alcohol and other harsh chemicals. Heat tolerant parts are heated to 110C \\(230F\\) and electronics are sealed. Surfaces are also regularly tested to determine bioburden levels [\\(1\\)](_URL_16_)[\\(2\\)](_URL_11_). Despite all the protocols, clean rooms are filthy \\(biologically speaking\\) and contain their own unique microbiological communities[\\(3\\)](_URL_12_)[\\(4\\)](_URL_3_). \n\nEarth life is pretty tough. Its for this reason that Martian rovers are not allowed to explore certain regions, why Cassini had to plunge into Saturn \\(To protect Enceladus and Titan\\), and why Juno has to plunge into Jupiter at the end of its mission \\(To protect Europa\\). There is always a risk that contamination may reach these planets\n\nThis idea forms the guiding principle of [Planetary Protection Protocols](_URL_15_) . This is the idea that any interplanetary missions should do everything possible to prevent contamination. Scientists spend a **long** time calculating risk of contamination into excruciating detail. NASA set a minimum risk of contamination below 0.001 & #37; and missions have to plan for 50 years after a mission ends.\n\nThe more we learn about microbes the crazier things gets and there is a lot of ongoing research into extremophiles. Microbes are really good at [stowing away](_URL_23_) on space craft. When microbes are stressed they can produce endospores\\*\\*,\\*\\* that allow them to survive the extreme conditions of space \\(massive temperature fluxes, low pressure, low nutrients, high radiation\\). We also know microbes survive on the [outside](_URL_22_) of the space station. Also, microbes from Earth have been deliberately left on the outside and have [survived for up to 553 days !](_URL_19_). So space isn't as deadly as we imagine it to be, [at least for microbes.](_URL_7_)\n\nFor the most recent Mars arrival, the Mars Trace Gas Orbiter \\(And Schiaparelli lander\\), there's a lot of info on how they minimised contamination [here](_URL_17_).\n\nSo yes, it is possible that cells may reach these planets\n\n**If not could any of the bacteria be able to live in the harsh conditions of mars?**\n\nSee [here](_URL_9_) for modern Martian habitability. This is one of the fundamental questions of Astrobiological research.\n\nThere isn't an obvious answer to this one as there are many factors.\n\nYour question is referring to **Forward Contamination**, meaning the risk of missions taking Earth Microbes to Mars. Despite the super strict cleaning protocols and rigorous mission design, there is still a risk that a microbe may reach the surface of Mars. However, once its there its problems have only just begun. Conditions on Mars are pretty tough. The main problem for microbes is the [UV radiation](_URL_6_). Simulation studies have shown that 99.9 & #37; of populations would be inactivated within a few seconds on Mars, and that within 1 day surfaces will be completely sterile\\([6](_URL_18_),[7](_URL_2_)\\).\n\nHaving said that, we know microbes are tough and there is always a risk that we don't know enough about the survivability of microbes to be sure we wont contaminate Mars. If microbes were to enter the soil, it is likely that they may be preserved from the sterilising UV radiation, \\(below the top few mm\\), and many simulation studies show microbes may survive within the soil \\([7](_URL_21_), [8](_URL_24_), [9](_URL_5_)\\).\n\nPotentially habitable regions of Mars are called **Special regions** and missions are currently prohibited from going near these regions. These regions include environments where liquid water exists and may have existed within the last 500 years [\\(10\\)](_URL_1_).\n\nIf microbes piggy backed on a rover to Mars, it is likely that the contamination would be localised to the rover and the rover would be sterilised pretty soon after landing. Sending microbes to Mars, in itself, isn't a bad thing. We just need to be sure they dont make it to the areas we know are habitable.\n\nSome may survive, but to actually be active they require habitable conditions and need to be removed from the harsh radiation environment.\n\n**And how do they obtain soil samples looking for bacteria if it could possibly be from the rover itself?**\n\nSo this is why its vitally important we do not forward contaminate Mars. An important thing to note is the majority of science is aimed at looking at evidence for past life. We know Mars was wet, warmer and had an atmosphere in its past and its much easier to identify biosignatures \\(whifs of life\\) than it is to identify something that is living, at least if we are doing it remotely.\n\nThe real question \\(as you have highlighted\\) would be is it definitely **not** Earth life. This is much harder and requires a rigorous methodology.\n\nOne way would be to identify [isotopic signatures](_URL_10_) \\(different 'versions' of the same element\\) that we find in preserved material or in potentially living materials. For example, say that we have a bunch of cells, we could see what the isotopic signature of the biomass was. This biomass would be built of either Martian elements or Earth elements \\- which each have different isotopic signatures. However, to be accurate, we would need to analyse it on Earth.\n\nIn my mind, the simplest way would be to get genetic info on the microbe. If we managed to get genetic info on the Martian microbe, it would be pretty easy to tell whether it was related to Earth life or not. However there are complications. It is probable that Earth life may be quite similar to Martian life as Earth and Mars have exchanged material over their histories'\\([11](_URL_8_)\\).\n\nUltimately all the questions you are asking are the questions that hundreds of scientists are asking themselves daily, and ultimately there is more that we **don't know** than we know. So we need to be careful. Answering the most fundamental question of 'are we alone?' requires a rigorous methodology so that we can be sure of the answer and this means preventing any form of contamination.\n\n**Extra reading \\(Some behind paywalls\\):**\n\nAstrobiology Primer V2.0 \\- [_URL_14_](_URL_14_)\n\nPlanetary Protection \\- [_URL_16_](_URL_16_)\n\nNasa Office for Planetary Protection \\- [_URL_4_](_URL_13_)\n\nHabitability on Mars from a Microbial Point of View \\- [_URL_20_](_URL_20_)\n\nTrajectories of Martian Habitability \\- [_URL_0_](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Am I the only one that thinks it would be way cooler to throw a \"bacteria bomb\" of stuff we think might survive there, and see what happened in a few decades? \n\nYea proof of life blah blah, I just think it would be neat.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "I want to add to some of the other answers. NASA has a Planetary Protection Officer, yes. But if you ask the current one if there is life on Mars she says yes, because we put it there. The sterilization process wasn't always as good or as thorough as it is now, and even now its possible some gets through.\n\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "11589575",
"title": "Mars landing",
"section": "Section::::Unmanned landings.:Mars Exploration Rovers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "Towards the end of July 2005, it was reported by the \"Sunday Times\" that the rovers may have carried the bacteria \"Bacillus safensis\" to Mars. According to one NASA microbiologist, this bacteria could survive both the trip and conditions on Mars. A book containing this claim, \"Out of Eden\" by Alan Burdick, is due to be published in the United Kingdom. Despite efforts to sterilise both landers, neither could be assured to be completely sterile.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "37615833",
"title": "2013 in science",
"section": "Section::::Events, discoveries and inventions.:March.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 180,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 180,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "BULLET::::- NASA's \"Curiosity\" rover finds evidence that conditions on Mars were once suitable for microbial life after analyzing the first drilled sample of Martian rock, \"John Klein\" rock at Yellowknife Bay in Gale Crater. The rover detected water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, chloromethane and dichloromethane. Related tests found results consistent with the presence of smectite clay minerals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "2787",
"title": "Astrobiology",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "In November 2011, NASA launched the Mars Science Laboratory mission carrying the \"Curiosity\" rover, which landed on Mars at Gale Crater in August 2012. The \"Curiosity\" rover is currently probing the environment for past and present planetary habitability of microbial life on Mars. On 9 December 2013, NASA reported that, based on evidence from \"Curiosity\" studying Aeolis Palus, Gale Crater contained an ancient freshwater lake which could have been a hospitable environment for microbial life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "34253810",
"title": "2012 in science",
"section": "Section::::Events, discoveries and inventions.:April.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 198,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 198,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "BULLET::::- Scientists report that complexity analysis studies of the Labeled Release experiments of the 1976 Viking mission to Mars may suggest the detection of \"extant microbial life on Mars.\" (Discovery News) (\"Intern. J. Aeronaut. Space Sci.\")\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "1072959",
"title": "Viking lander biological experiments",
"section": "Section::::The experiments.:Labeled release.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1696,
"text": "A CNN article from 2000 noted that \"Though most of his peers concluded otherwise, Levin still holds that the robot tests he coordinated on the 1976 Viking lander indicated the presence of living organisms on Mars.\" A 2006 astrobiology textbook noted that \"With unsterilized Terrestrial samples, though, the addition of more nutrients after the initial incubation would then produce still more radioactive gas as the dormant bacteria sprang into action to consume the new dose of food. This was not true of the Martian soil; on Mars, the second and third nutrient injections did not produce any further release of labeled gas.\" The 2011 edition of the same textbook noted that \"Albet Yen of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory has shown that, under extremely cold and dry conditions and in a carbon dioxide atmosphere, ultraviolet light (remember: Mars lacks an ozone layer, so the surface is bathed in ultraviolet) can cause carbon dioxide to react with soils to produce various oxidizers, including highly reactive superoxides (salts containing O) When mixed with small organic molecules, superoxidizers readily oxidize them to carbon dioxide, which may account for the LR result. Superoxide chemistry can also account for the puzzling results seen when more nutrients were added to the soil in the LR experiment; because life multiplies, the amount of gas should have increased when a second or third batch of nutrients was added, but if the effect was due to a chemical being consumed in the first reaction, no new gas would be expected. Lastly, many superoxides are relatively unstable and are destroyed at elevated temperatures, also accounting for the \"sterilization\" seen in the LR experiment.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "38082",
"title": "Viking program",
"section": "Section::::Viking landers.:Biological experiments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "The question of microbial life on Mars remains unresolved. Nonetheless, on April 12, 2012, an international team of scientists reported studies, based on mathematical speculation through complexity analysis of the Labeled Release experiments of the 1976 Viking Mission, that may suggest the detection of \"extant microbial life on Mars.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36645032",
"title": "Curiosity (rover)",
"section": "Section::::Goals and objectives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "About one year into the surface mission, and having assessed that ancient Mars could have been hospitable to microbial life, the MSL mission objectives evolved to developing predictive models for the preservation process of organic compounds and biomolecules; a branch of paleontology called taphonomy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2lirdu | how is it the island of java can support it's 140+ million people in area the size of north carolina? | [
{
"answer": "by depending on trade for food and other resources, and coping up with less personal space. there's still some farms and forests, but yeah its hard to get away from other people.\n\nthe total north carolina population is about 10 million? heck, Jakarta (the largest city in Java) alone has 20 million people...\nsource: i live there.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The answer here is slums. Slums allow a very large amount of people to live in a very small piece of land. Jakarta and other cities around Java have very large slums. Also, Indonesian mothers have families that are typically large as a result of cultural circumstances and they end up cramming one another into very small living quarters. Multiply this millions of times and you have Java. The fact is that 140 million Indonesians would not fit in Java if they decided to live like Americans, Canadians, or Australians. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "69336",
"title": "Java",
"section": "Section::::Demography.:Population development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "With a combined population of 145 million in the 2015 census (including Madura's 3.7 million), which is estimated for 2014 at 143.1 million (including 3.7 million for Madura), Java is the most populous island in the world and is home to 57% of Indonesia's population. At over 1,100 people per km² in 2014, it is also one of the most densely populated parts of the world, on par with Bangladesh. Every region of the island has numerous volcanoes, with the people left to share the remaining flatter land. Because of this, many coasts are heavily populated and cities ring around the valleys surrounding volcanic peaks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "70959",
"title": "Maui",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 893,
"text": "The island of Maui (; Hawaiian: ) is the second-largest of the Hawaiian Islands at 727.2 square miles (1,883 km) and is the 17th largest island in the United States. Maui is part of the State of Hawaii and is the largest of Maui County's four islands, which include Molokai, Lānai, and unpopulated Kahoolawe. In 2010, Maui had a population of 144,444, third-highest of the Hawaiian Islands, behind that of Oahu and Hawaii Island. Kahului is the largest census-designated place (CDP) on the island with a population of 26,337 and is the commercial and financial hub of the island. Wailuku is the seat of Maui County and is the third-largest CDP . Other significant places include Kīhei (including Wailea and Makena in the Kihei Town CDP, the island's second-most-populated CDP), Lahaina (including Kāanapali and Kapalua in the Lahaina Town CDP), Makawao, Pukalani, Pāia, Kula, Haikū, and Hāna.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55466840",
"title": "Masakambing Island",
"section": "Section::::Geography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "The island is located in the middle of the Java Sea approximately halfway between Java (more precisely Madura) and Borneo. It is about 9 km north of the slightly larger, more populated island of Masalembu. It measures around 4 km north-south and 3 km west-east, with a published land area of 7.79 square kilometers. Due to its small size, there is little prominent features on the island which is largely flat with a peak elevation of just 8 meters above sea level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "69336",
"title": "Java",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 793,
"text": "Formed mostly as the result of volcanic eruptions from geologic subduction between Sunda Plate and Australian Plate, Java is the 13th largest island in the world and the fifth largest in Indonesia by landmass at about . A chain of volcanic mountains forms an east–west spine along the island. Three main languages are spoken on the island: Javanese, Sundanese, and Madurese, where Javanese is the most spoken; it is the native language of about 60 million Javanese people in Indonesia, most of whom live on Java. Furthermore, most residents are bilingual, speaking Indonesian (the official language of Indonesia) as their first or second language. While the majority of the people of Java are Muslim, Java's population comprises people of diverse religious beliefs, ethnicities, and cultures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "69336",
"title": "Java",
"section": "Section::::Geography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "Java lies between Sumatra to the west and Bali to the east. Borneo lies to the north and Christmas Island is to the south. It is the world's 13th largest island. Java is surrounded by the Java Sea to the north, Sunda Strait to the west, the Indian Ocean to the south and Bali Strait and Madura Strait in the east.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10255670",
"title": "Christianity in Indonesia",
"section": "Section::::Distribution.:Java.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "East Java's population of 37.5 million includes 900,000 Christians (70% of which are Protestant). As with the rest of Java, this population is concentrated in the cities, with Surabaya's 2.8 million citizens more than 10% Christian, and Christian populations of around 8% in Mojokerto, Madiun, Kediri, Blitar and Malang.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "69336",
"title": "Java",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 957,
"text": "Java (Indonesian: \"Jawa\"; Javanese: ꦗꦮ; Sundanese: ) is an island of Indonesia, bordered by the Indian Ocean on the south and the Java Sea on the north. With a population of over 141 million (Java only) or 145 million (including the inhabitants of its surrounding islands), Java is the home to 56.7 percent of the Indonesian population and is the world's most populous island. The Indonesian capital city, Jakarta, is located on its northwestern coast. Much of Indonesian history took place on Java. It was the centre of powerful Hindu-Buddhist empires, the Islamic sultanates, and the core of the colonial Dutch East Indies. Java was also the center of the Indonesian struggle for independence during the 1930s and 1940s. Java dominates Indonesia politically, economically and culturally. Four of Indonesia's eight UNESCO world heritage sites are located in Java: Ujung Kulon National Park, Borobudur Temple, Prambanan Temple, and Sangiran Early Man Site.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
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| null |
5gl112 | Treatment of French colonies | [
{
"answer": "Hey there, AskHistorians allows homework questions, but other people can't do the work for you - for the way HW questions are treated on here see [the rules](_URL_0_) and [this roundtable discussion](_URL_1_). To boil it down, you have to show that you've done some work yourself and specify the question - where do you hit the wall when using your sources? Are you looking for better ones/ones specific to a certain angle? Is there one part of your research of which you'd like to know more about? Say what you know, try to narrow down your inquiry and someone knowledgeable might help you with that. Good luck!",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "58936955",
"title": "Interwar France",
"section": "Section::::Overseas empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "A hallmark of the French colonial project from the late 19th century to the post-World War Two era was the civilising mission (\"mission civilisatrice\"). The principle was that it was France's duty to bring civilisation to benighted peoples. As such, colonial officials undertook a policy of Franco-Europeanisation in French colonies, most notably French West Africa and Madagascar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "216862",
"title": "French colonial empire",
"section": "Section::::Civilising mission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 1683,
"text": "A hallmark of the French colonial project in the late 19th century and early 20th century was the civilising mission (\"mission civilisatrice\"), the principle that it was Europe's duty to bring civilisation to benighted peoples. As such, colonial officials undertook a policy of Franco-Europeanisation in French colonies, most notably French West Africa and Madagascar. During the 19th century, French citizenship along with the right to elect a deputy to the French Chamber of Deputies was granted to the four old colonies of Guadeloupe, Martinique, Guyanne and Réunion as well as to the residents of the \"Four Communes\" in Senegal. In most cases, the elected deputies were white Frenchmen, although there were some blacks, such as the Senegalese Blaise Diagne, who was elected in 1914. Elsewhere, in the largest and most populous colonies, a strict separation between \"sujets français\" (all the natives) and \"citoyens français\" (all males of European extraction) with different rights and duties was maintained until 1946. As was pointed out in a 1927 treatise on French colonial law, the granting of French citizenship to natives \"was not a right, but rather a privilege\". Two 1912 decrees dealing with French West Africa and French Equatorial Africa enumerated the conditions that a native had to meet in order to be granted French citizenship (they included speaking and writing French, earning a decent living and displaying good moral standards). From 1830 to 1946, only between 3,000 and 6,000 native Algerians were granted French citizenship. In French West Africa, outside of the Four Communes, there were 2,500 \"citoyens indigènes\" out of a total population of 15 million.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "3374721",
"title": "Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa (NGK)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Origins in the Cape Colony.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 759,
"text": "During the Napoleonic Wars, the British occupied the Cape Colony in 1795 to prevent the French from doing so. The French had occupied the Netherlands, and so the link between the church in the colony and the Amsterdam classis was broken. The first British occupation was temporary, but in 1806 a long-term occupation was undertaken. For the next century, the colony would be under British control. Ministers from the Netherlands were not as willing to serve in what was now for them a foreign country, and the British authorities were not keen to have them. Presbyterian ministers from Scotland were encouraged to serve the needs of the Dutch Reformed Church in the Cape. The church was semi-established, and the government helped with stipends of ministers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37006572",
"title": "Société des Peintres Orientalistes Français",
"section": "Section::::Formation and early history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "Its activities in the French colonies were soon challenged by a rival society, more focussed on educational and cultural activities in the French colonies, the Société Coloniale des Artistes Français, founded by Louis Dumoulin in 1908.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22443031",
"title": "Diplomacy in the American Revolutionary War",
"section": "Section::::Colonial diplomacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "Before the Revolutionary war, extra-colonial relations were handled in London. The colonies had agents in the United Kingdom, and established inter-colonial conferences. The colonies were subject to European peace settlements, settlements with Indian tribes, and inter-colony (between colonies) agreements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61313146",
"title": "History of U.S. foreign policy, 1776–1801",
"section": "Section::::Background: Colonial Diplomacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "Before the Revolutionary war, extra-colonial relations were handled in London. The colonies had agents in the United Kingdom, and established inter-colonial conferences. The colonies were subject to European peace settlements, settlements with Indian tribes, and inter-colony (between colonies) agreements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6387898",
"title": "Alexandre Francois Auguste de Grasse",
"section": "Section::::Life.:Military career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "In 1793 the Haitian Revolution was underway, and Great Britain attempted to intervene, hoping to get a toehold in the rich French colony. The Royal Navy defeated the French fleet at Saint-Domingue, and its commanders allowed French military officers to leave the island after they resigned their commissions. French forces and thousands of colonists left Saint-Domingue because of the violence of the Haitian Revolution. De Grasse lost all his property there, including the slaves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
64b3r5 | why is chemotherapy used the way it is? | [
{
"answer": "I think that is what radiotherapy is. Radiotherapy focuses on one spot but chemo kills cancer cells which are trying to spread. I could be wrong tho.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Chemo attempts to stop cells from dividing. Ideally the cells that stop dividing are targeted (hence the plethora of drugs for various cancers; different drugs = different targets) but because the chemistry is nowhere near an exact science, lots of other fast-dividing cells get hit too (hair, muscles, skin, white/red blood cells, etc). \n\nThe logic is that the cancer itself is a mutant, and won't survive more than 'a little while' without constantly dividing and replicating, so if you can specifically poison the body, stop cellular division for a while, and otherwise keep the person alive, the cancer will die off while (most of) the rest of the person stays alive.\n\nThink of it like having a castle full of people, and there was one group of particularly troublesome monks inside you wanted to kill off. The monks only ate apples, but your intel was shitty and you knew only that the monks ate sweet foods. You siege the castle and prevent anything sweet from getting in, sugar, fruits, plants...anything that contained or could become sugar. Many people develop scurvy and other malnutrition related problems and die off, but the monks all die too. You celebrate that the monks are dead, and get on living with whatever is left alive in the castle as the population slowly recovers.\n\nThe monks are cancer, the people are the healthy cells in the body, and everything else is the process of treating and living with the aftermath of cancer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Chemotherapy can be given locally, this is sometimes done for example in the bladder for bladder cancer and by intra-arterial chemotherapy (TACE) for liver metastasis. However many times metastases are not in one place and you want to treat every metastasis, even if it is too small to be detected, and therefore systemic administration is more beneficial.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cancer is particularly nasty because of its ability to metastasize. If you remove a cancerous tumor from someone there's no guarantee that you got all of the cancerous cells. Some may have escaped in to circulation and set up residence elsewhere in the body. Chemotherapy targets rapidly proliferating cells, as others have mentioned, and so it is useful to \"mop up\" these rogue cells.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25350412",
"title": "Childhood leukemia",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "Chemotherapy is a treatment that uses chemicals to interfere with the cancer cells ability to grow and reproduce. Chemotherapy can be used alone or in combination with other therapies. Chemotherapy can be given either as a pill to swallow orally, an injection into the fat or muscle, through an IV directly into the bloodstream or directly into the spinal column.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60330200",
"title": "CNS tumour",
"section": "Section::::Treatment and chances of cure.:Chemotherapy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "Chemotherapy is a treatment that injects a drug into a vein (IV) or that is given via the mouth to prevent the growth of cancer cells by stopping them from dividing. It is often used after surgery or as the first line of treatment. The drug injected flows through the bloodstream and destroys cancer cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "105219",
"title": "Cancer",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Chemotherapy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 141,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 141,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "Chemotherapy is the treatment of cancer with one or more cytotoxic anti-neoplastic drugs (chemotherapeutic agents) as part of a standardized regimen. The term encompasses a variety of drugs, which are divided into broad categories such as alkylating agents and antimetabolites. Traditional chemotherapeutic agents act by killing cells that divide rapidly, a critical property of most cancer cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25081142",
"title": "Treatment of cancer",
"section": "Section::::Types of treatments.:Chemotherapy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 877,
"text": "Chemotherapy is the treatment of cancer with drugs (\"anticancer drugs\") that can destroy cancer cells. In current usage, the term \"chemotherapy\" usually refers to \"cytotoxic\" drugs which affect rapidly dividing cells in general, in contrast with \"targeted therapy\" (see below). Chemotherapy drugs interfere with cell division in various possible ways, e.g. with the duplication of DNA or the separation of newly formed chromosomes. Most forms of chemotherapy target all rapidly dividing cells and are not specific to cancer cells, although some degree of specificity may come from the inability of many cancer cells to repair DNA damage, while normal cells generally can. Hence, chemotherapy has the potential to harm healthy tissue, especially those tissues that have a high replacement rate (e.g. intestinal lining). These cells usually repair themselves after chemotherapy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8553095",
"title": "Urethral cancer",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "Chemotherapy is sometimes used to destroy urethral cancer cells. It is a systemic urethral cancer treatment (i.e., destroys urethral cancer cells throughout the body) that is administered orally or intravenously. Medications are often used in combination to destroy urethral cancer that has metastasized. Commonly used drugs include cisplatin, vincristine, and methotrexate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13705018",
"title": "Breast cancer management",
"section": "Section::::Systemic therapy.:Chemotherapy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "Chemotherapy (drug treatment for cancer) may be used before surgery, after surgery, or instead of surgery for those cases in which surgery is considered unsuitable. Chemotherapy is justified for cancers whose prognosis after surgery is poor without additional intervention.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60385615",
"title": "Paranasal Sinus and Nasal Cavity Cancer",
"section": "Section::::Treatment and prevention.:Chemotherapy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 928,
"text": "Lastly, the chemotherapy can be defined as a treatment towards the cancer by using the medication to destroy the malignant cells. The chemotherapy is usually used before the surgery and radiation therapy or after the treatment of surgery and radiation therapy. The chemotherapy can be implemented by using the drugs to stop the spread of paranasal sinus and nasal cavity cancer. The chemotherapy could make contribution to destroy the cancer cells or stop them from division. The chemotherapy could have effect on the cancer cell of the whole body by injecting into vein or taken by patient. The chemotherapy could influence a specific area by placing it into a specific area. Evidence shows that the chemotherapy could make also contribution to the treatment of sinonasal cancer which is a sub-branch of the paranasal sinus and nasal cavity cancer. Infection, loss of hair might occur after the implementation of chemotherapy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
3iho7w | Where does the church's money come from? | [
{
"answer": "This goes well within the 20 year rule, you may want to ask this on a religious oriented sub, such as /r/Catholicism or /r/Christianity.\n\nAs an aside, the church can have jobs outside just being a priest. I know my local pastor is also a successful doctor, and a local brotherhood prints and publishes books, though they still use lots of donations.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25664219",
"title": "Properties and finances of the Church of England",
"section": "Section::::Church Commissioners.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "Meanwhile, the church moved the majority of its income-generating assets (which in the past included a great deal of land, but today mostly take the form of financial stocks and bonds) out of the hands of individual clergy and bishops to the care of a body called the Church Commissioners, which uses these funds to pay a range of non-parish expenses, including clergy pensions and the expenses of cathedrals and bishops' houses. These funds amount to around £8 billion and generate income of around £260 million each year (), around a fifth of the church's overall income.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10575919",
"title": "Finances of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints",
"section": "Section::::Current source of funding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "Most of the LDS Church's revenues comes in the form of tithes and fast offerings contributed by church members. Tithing donations are used to support operations of the church, including construction and maintenance of buildings and other facilities, and are transferred from local units directly to church headquarters in Salt Lake City, where the funds are centrally managed. It is estimated that about ten percent of its funding also comes from income on its investments, mostly direct investments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1038380",
"title": "Benefice",
"section": "Section::::Roman Catholic Church.:The Catholic Church in the Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "The church's revenue streams came from, amongst other things, rents and profits arising from assets gifted to the church, its endowment, given by believers, be they monarch, lord of the manor or vassal, and later also upon tithes calculated on the sale of the product of the people's personal labour in the entire parish such as cloth or shoes and the people's profits from specific forms of likewise God-given, natural increase such as crops and in livestock.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17755621",
"title": "Beliefs and practices of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints",
"section": "Section::::Structure and practices.:Finances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "Church funds are used to construct and maintain buildings and other facilities; provide for the administrative needs of local church units; provide social welfare and relief; and to support missionary, educational, and other church-sponsored programs. The church has also invested in business and real estate ventures such as Bonneville International, Deseret Book Company, and cattle ranches in Utah, Florida, and Canada.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24069452",
"title": "Evangelical Missionary Church of Besançon",
"section": "Section::::Organization and finances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1517,
"text": "The church has been criticized for its wealth, as monthly or quarterly donations were encouraged in the second article of the statutes of the Federation of Evangelical Missionary. According to the CCMM, property acquisition was evidence of significant income. The 1999 parliamentary report considered the church a \"small cult\" (a cult whose annual income is less than five million francs), which provided \"relatively accurate information\" to the Parliamentary Commission. The annual budget of the church was estimated between 2.4 and 3.1 million francs (the total of donations in 1998 and 1995 respectively), mainly from Sunday offerings, donations, loans, financial products and property income. In 1999, the commission estimated the church's property at about 15 million francs. As of 31 December 1998, the church's net active wealth (composed of real estate and stock) reached 7.3 million francs. Concerning its finances, the church said it applies five major principles: economy, recovery, devotion, voluntary work and solidarity. Money comes from Sunday collections, sometimes from personal loans and from donations intended for a particular use; there is no external financial support. Accounts are published at the annual general assembly of the church, by the financial commission of the Federation and by Social Security. Trainee pastors work outside the church; permanent pastors receive a low salary, and are affiliated with the \"Caisse d'assurance vieillesse, invalidité et maladie des cultes\" (CAVIMAC).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5955",
"title": "Church of England",
"section": "Section::::Financial situation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "Although an established church, the Church of England does not receive any direct government support. Donations comprise its largest source of income, and it also relies heavily on the income from its various historic endowments. In 2005, the Church of England had estimated total outgoings of around £900 million.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5935",
"title": "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints",
"section": "Section::::Organization and structure.:Finances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "The church receives significant funds from tithes and fast offerings. According to the church, tithing and fast offering money collected are devoted to ecclesiastical purposes and not used in for-profit ventures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
6dp3y9 | what causes the cloud rings to form around and above a nuclear or thermonuclear bomb? | [
{
"answer": "The immense force of the blast creates a wave of high pressure in the air, traveling outwards from the centre.\n\nFollowing this high pressure is an area of extreme low pressure, this low pressure causes a drastic temperature drop.\n\nDropping temperature results in water in the air condensing, causing the ring of \"cloud\" that you see.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "263209",
"title": "Mushroom cloud",
"section": "Section::::Physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "Mushroom clouds are formed by many sorts of large explosions under earth's gravity, but they are best known for their appearance after nuclear detonations. Without gravity, the explosive's by-product gases would remain spherical. Nuclear weapons are usually detonated above the ground (not upon impact, because some of the energy would be dissipated by the ground motions), to maximize the effect of their spherically expanding fireball and blast wave. Immediately after the detonation, the fireball begins to rise into the air, acting on the same principle as a hot-air balloon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "263209",
"title": "Mushroom cloud",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "A mushroom cloud is a distinctive pyrocumulus mushroom-shaped cloud of debris/smoke and usually condensed water vapor resulting from a large explosion. The effect is most commonly associated with a nuclear explosion, but any sufficiently energetic detonation or deflagration will produce the same effect. They can be caused by powerful conventional weapons, like thermobaric weapons, including the ATBIP and GBU-43/B Massive Ordnance Air Blast. Some volcanic eruptions and impact events can produce natural mushroom clouds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21757046",
"title": "Hydrodynamic stability",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Rayleigh–Taylor instability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "This phenomenon can be seen in interstellar gas, such as the Crab Nebula. It is pushed out of the Galactic plane by magnetic fields and cosmic rays and then becomes Rayleigh–Taylor unstable if it is pushed past its normal scale height. This instability also explains the mushroom cloud which forms in processes such as volcanic eruptions and atomic bombs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "263209",
"title": "Mushroom cloud",
"section": "Section::::Nuclear mushroom clouds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Nuclear detonations produced high above the ground might not create mushroom clouds with a stem. The heads of the clouds themselves consist of highly radioactive particles, primarily the fission products and other weapon debris aerosols, and are usually dispersed by the wind, though weather patterns (especially rain) can produce problematic nuclear fallout.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3737244",
"title": "NGC 7129",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "The much cooler molecular cloud outside the bubble is mostly invisible to Spitzer. However, three very young stars near the center of the nebula are sending jets of supersonic gas into the cloud. The collision of these jets heats carbon monoxide molecules in the nebula. This produces the complex nebulosity that appears like a stem of a rosebud.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "263209",
"title": "Mushroom cloud",
"section": "Section::::Nuclear mushroom clouds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 833,
"text": "Detonations significantly below ground level or deep below the water (for instance, nuclear depth charges) also do not produce mushroom clouds, as the explosion causes the vaporization of a huge amount of earth and water in these instances, creating a bubble which then collapses in on itself; in the case of a less deep underground explosion, this produces a subsidence crater. Detonations underwater but near the surface produce a pillar of water, which, in collapsing, forms a cauliflower-like shape, which is easily mistaken for a mushroom cloud (such as in the well-known pictures of the \"Crossroads Baker\" test). Underground detonations at low depth produce a mushroom cloud and a base surge, two different distinct clouds. The amount of radiation vented into the atmosphere decreases rapidly with increasing detonation depth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22669",
"title": "Open cluster",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Young open clusters may be contained within the molecular cloud from which they formed, illuminating it to create an H II region. Over time, radiation pressure from the cluster will disperse the molecular cloud. Typically, about 10% of the mass of a gas cloud will coalesce into stars before radiation pressure drives the rest of the gas away.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1nreak | How did "x" become the conventional, go-to variable? | [
{
"answer": " > You'll find details on this point (and precise references) in Cajori's History mathematical notations, 340. He credits Descartes in his La Géometrie for the introduction of x, y and z (and more generally, usefully and interestingly, for the use of the first letters of the alphabet for known quantities and the last letters for the unknown quantities) He notes that Descartes used the notation considerably earlier: the book was published in 1637, yet in 1629 he was already using x as an unknown (although in the same place y is a known quantity...); also, he used the notation in manuscripts dated earlier than the book by years.\n\n_URL_3_\n\nThe book\n_URL_2_\n\nAlso check out\n _URL_4_ Earliest Uses of Various Mathematical Symbols\n\nParticularly\n_URL_0_ \n Earliest Uses of Symbols for Variables\n\n\nAnd _URL_1_\nEarliest Known Uses of\nSome of the Words of Mathematics\n\n\nSorry if answer is brief/badly formatted, I'm on my phone. ",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "34142",
"title": "X",
"section": "Section::::Other uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "In mathematics, \"x\" is commonly used as the name for an independent variable or unknown value. The modern tradition of using \"x\" to represent an unknown was introduced by René Descartes in \"La Géométrie\" (1637). As a result of its use in algebra, X is often used to represent unknowns in other circumstances (e.g. X-rays, Generation X, \"The X-Files\", and \"The Man from Planet X\"; see also Malcolm X).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "628486",
"title": "X (manga)",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "The title of \"X\" was chosen because it has no fixed meaning. In mathematics, it is a common variable. Beyond mathematics, \"X\" is a generic placeholder whose value is secret or unknown. \"X\" is also a cruciform, an allusion to Christian mythos, and the representation of death and rebirth in Kabbalah.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "154163",
"title": "Curry's paradox",
"section": "Section::::Resolution.:Resolution in unrestricted languages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "The existence of the variable x was implicit in the natural language. The variable x is created when the natural language is translated into mathematics. This allows us to use natural language, with natural semantics, while maintaining mathematical integrity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11973",
"title": "Generation X",
"section": "Section::::Origin of term.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "Author William Strauss noted that around the time Coupland's 1991 novel was published the symbol \"X\" was prominent in popular culture, as the film \"Malcolm X\" was released in 1992, and that the name \"Generation X\" ended up sticking. The \"X\" refers to an unknown variable or to a desire not to be defined.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5944768",
"title": "Differential (infinitesimal)",
"section": "Section::::History and usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 939,
"text": "In Leibniz's notation, if \"x\" is a variable quantity, then \"dx\" denotes an infinitesimal change in the variable \"x\". Thus, if \"y\" is a function of \"x\", then the derivative of \"y\" with respect to \"x\" is often denoted \"dy\"/\"dx\", which would otherwise be denoted (in the notation of Newton or Lagrange) \"ẏ\" or \"y\". The use of differentials in this form attracted much criticism, for instance in the famous pamphlet The Analyst by Bishop Berkeley. Nevertheless, the notation has remained popular because it suggests strongly the idea that the derivative of \"y\" at \"x\" is its instantaneous rate of change (the slope of the graph's tangent line), which may be obtained by taking the limit of the ratio Δ\"y\"/Δ\"x\" of the change in \"y\" over the change in \"x\", as the change in \"x\" becomes arbitrarily small. Differentials are also compatible with dimensional analysis, where a differential such as \"dx\" has the same dimensions as the variable \"x\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34147",
"title": "X Window System",
"section": "Section::::History.:Predecessors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "X derives its name as a successor to a pre-1983 window system called W (the letter preceding X in the English alphabet). W ran under the V operating system. W used a network protocol supporting terminal and graphics windows, the server maintaining display lists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7044662",
"title": "Fiducial inference",
"section": "Section::::The fiducial distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "In this latter statement, ω is now regarded as variable and \"X\" is fixed, whereas previously it was the other way round. This distribution of ω is the \"fiducial distribution\" which may be used to form fiducial intervals that represent degrees of belief.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
qr5s2 | Question about tooth decay and evolution. | [
{
"answer": "Yes, we got cavities. Go google image some pics of old skulls.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't have the study in front of me, but I remember learning in college that the native Ohio river valley people had a much lower incidence of cavities during their lives as hunter-gatherers, however once they began agriculture the researchers found an enormous jump in the number of cavities due to the increase in starch and sugars in their diet.\n\nYou also have to remember the life expectancy of someone back in those days was early 40's - so a life time without brushing isn't that long compared to today.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I agree with Jedu. I have always wondered about this myself, but now i realize that our modern diet is most definitely the cause of cavities. Like Sid says, there probably where instances of cavities, but the advent of agriculture greatly increased their occurrence. Oh, a comment on the way you phrased your question. Be careful when you use the word designed. Evolutionary, nothing is designed. Evolution is not a linear progressive process like many people might believe. Some times we trick ourselves into thinking how great and awesome the human body is, but the reality of it is that we are not perfect.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19159857",
"title": "Remineralisation of teeth",
"section": "Section::::Tooth decay process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Tooth decay can be managed by modifying behavior and controlling its causative factors, i.e. reducing the intake frequency of fermentable carbohydrates from food. This will reduce the chance of the dental biofilm developing into cariogenic biofilm. The bacteria in cariogenic biofilm produce organic acids when carbohydrates, especially sugar, are eaten. When enough acid is produced so that the pH goes below 5.5, the acid dissolves carbonated hydroxyapatite, the main component of tooth enamel, in a process known as \"demineralisation\". After the sugar is gone, the mineral loss can be recovered—or \"remineralised\"—from ions dissolved in the saliva. Cavities result when the rate of demineralisation exceeds the rate of remineralisation and the latticework is destroyed, typically in a process that requires many months or years.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "414350",
"title": "Tooth decay",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
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"text": "Tooth decay is caused by biofilm (dental plaque) lying on the teeth and maturing to become cariogenic (causing decay). Certain bacteria in the biofilm produce acid in the presence of fermentable carbohydrates such as sucrose, fructose, and glucose.\n",
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"title": "Tooth decay",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 118,
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"text": "Archaeological evidence shows that tooth decay is an ancient disease dating far into prehistory. Skulls dating from a million years ago through the neolithic period show signs of caries, including those from the Paleolithic and Mesolithic ages. The increase of caries during the neolithic period may be attributed to the increased consumption of plant foods containing carbohydrates. The beginning of rice cultivation in South Asia is also believed to have caused an increase in caries especially for women, although there is also some evidence from sites in Thailand, such as Khok Phanom Di, that shows a decrease in overall percentage of dental caries with the increase in dependence on rice agriculture.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "22022246",
"title": "Minimal intervention dentistry",
"section": "Section::::Approach to restorative dentistry.:Restoration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
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"text": "Decay is the process or result of \"demineralisation\" (softening) of an area of dental tissue, creating a decayed \"lesion\" on the tooth. The process of restoring decay begins with an analysis of the decayed lesions together with their location and severity, with particular regard to the state of reversibility. Where decay is reversible, it is referred to as \"non-cavitated\" decay, where healing is possible by the hardening process of \"remineralisation\". Where a \"cavity\" has formed from excessive demineralisation, the decay has reached the point of no return where the tooth structure has been lost and the decay is permanent and non-reversible. In this situation of \"cavitated\" decay, the cavity will have to be filled to restore the tooth. Minimal intervention dentistry is focused on filling only cavitated regions, leaving non-cavitated decay to be remineralised, thus restoring the tooth while removing as little of the tooth structure as possible, enhancing the strength and aesthetics of the restoration. Classifications of the location and severity of decay are made in order to establish guidelines for suitable treatment methods.\n",
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"title": "Tooth decay",
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"text": "Tooth decay, also known as dental caries or cavities, is a breakdown of teeth due to acids made by bacteria. The cavities may be a number of different colors from yellow to black. Symptoms may include pain and difficulty with eating. Complications may include inflammation of the tissue around the tooth, tooth loss, and infection or abscess formation.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "68756",
"title": "Human tooth",
"section": "Section::::Tooth decay.:Caries (cavities).\n",
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"text": "Tooth decay is caused by certain types of acid-producing bacteria which cause the most damage in the presence of fermentable carbohydrates such as sucrose, fructose, and glucose. The resulting acidic levels in the mouth affect teeth because a tooth's special mineral content causes it to be sensitive to low pH. Depending on the extent of tooth destruction, various treatments can be used to restore teeth to proper form, function, and aesthetics, but there is no known method to regenerate large amounts of tooth structure. Instead, dental health organizations advocate preventative and prophylactic measures, such as regular oral hygiene and dietary modifications, to avoid dental caries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "8005",
"title": "Dentistry",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
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"text": "Tooth decay was low in pre-agricultural societies, but the advent of farming society about 10,000 years ago correlated with an increase in tooth decay (cavities). An infected tooth from Italy partially cleaned with flint tools, between 13,820 and 14,160 years old, represents the oldest known dentistry, although a 2017 study suggests that 130,000 years ago the Neanderthals already used rudimentary dentistry tools. The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) has yielded evidence of dentistry being practised as far back as 7000 BC. An IVC site in Mehrgarh indicates that this form of dentistry involved curing tooth related disorders with bow drills operated, perhaps, by skilled bead crafters. The reconstruction of this ancient form of dentistry showed that the methods used were reliable and effective. The earliest dental filling, made of beeswax, was discovered in Slovenia and dates from 6500 years ago. Dentistry was practiced in prehistoric Malta, as evidenced by a skull which had an abscess lanced from the root of a tooth dating back to around 2500 BC.\n",
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2qjyz2 | (Math) Do we know everything there is to know about math? Or are there new discoveries being made in mathematics? | [
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"answer": "No, we don't know everything there is to know.\n\nOne good way of getting a quick view of recent advancements in mathematics is to read the list of winners of the [Fields Medal](_URL_1_) and the [Abel Prize](_URL_4_), paying attention to the citations. In general, though, recent advancements in mathematics are very difficult to understand for the layman, and I can't possibly hope to go into every one of them for you (for lack of both time and knowledge).\n\nSome very famous recent proofs of statements that are not so difficult to understand (although the proofs certainly are) were those of [Fermat's last theorem](_URL_3_), the [Poincaré conjecture](_URL_0_) and recent work on the [Twin prime conjecture](_URL_2_).",
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"answer": "Wikipedia has a list of unsolved math problems. The Millennium prize was instituted in 2000--it offers a million US dollars to anyone solving any one of 7 longstanding problems identified by the Clay institute. Only one of the 7 has been solved since the prize was instituted. The following list from Wikipedia includes those as well as many others that mathematicians are trying to solve. \n\nNew problems arise as new developments in math and physics open up new directions to explore.\n\n_URL_0_",
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"answer": "One problem yet to be solved is finding a rapid way to factor a large semiprime number. \n\nTwo prime numbers multiplied together makes a semiprime number. Multiplying two large primes is an easy task for a computer. Doing the reverse--taking an unknown large semiprime and figuring out what the prime numbers are--takes a very, very, VERY long time. \n\nFiguring out how to factor a large semiprimes quickly would play havoc with many forms of computer cryptography that depend on semiprime numbers being difficult to factor.\n\nEdit: used 'semiprimes' where I meant 'primes'",
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"answer": "We absolutely don't know everything there is to know about math. There are still many great mysteries, and progress is being done on them all the time.\n\nWikipedia keeps some (fairly up-to-date) lists of major unsolved mathematical problems here:\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_0_\n\nJust a few days ago, it was announced that a new theorem had been found about the spacing of prime numbers:\n\n_URL_2_",
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"answer": "I think this question tickles the argument whether math is something to be discovered or invented. \n\nIf you're like me and believe it to be an invention, a tool humans develop to explain the universe around them, then math will continue to grow, to be invented, as long as there is still more to know about the universe.",
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"answer": " > Do we know everything there is to know about math?\n\nMy goodness, no.\n\n > Or are there new discoveries being made in mathematics?\n\nHundreds of new discoveries, every day.\n\nThose math professors we all had in college generally have, as part of their job, doing research. That means they publish a couple of papers (or more) each year in research journals. The great majority of such papers are discussions of new discoveries. Multiply that by the number of math professors in the world, and then add the researchers employed by businesses (e.g., [Microsoft Research](_URL_2_)) and governments (e.g., the [NSA](_URL_1_)), along with people who just like to do math, and you get an awful lot of activity.\n\nNow, the vast majority of those new discoveries are both relatively minor and very difficult for someone outside the speciality to understand (even other mathematicians). So you won't be hearing about them.\n\nBut advances that have a noticeable impact on everyday life do come now & then. An obvious example is the encryption used on the Internet, without which sites like _URL_0_ would be impossible. This is based on mathematics that was unknown before the 1970s.\n\nIt's mostly behind-the-scenes stuff, though. For example, there is a lot of work being done in large-scale mathematical modelling. This is what makes possible modern airplanes, bridges, etc., which are all extensively modeled on computers before any physical object is built.",
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"answer": "One reason people think that mathematics is \"done\" is because they aren't really exposed to much mathematics in high school that was developed later than the 1700s (if they even took calculus; if not, most of the arithmetic and geometry you learn is from no later than the 1500s). There are some exceptions to this, like matrices, but it's mostly true, especially compared to the amount of semi-recent (19th-20th century) chemistry, physics, and biology we're exposed to in high school. Think about how much science and technology have advanced since the 1700s. Mathematics has been advancing at exactly the same accelerating rate along with them. ",
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"answer": " To piggyback off the OP...\n\nIs there a chance that a new branch of mathematics ever being developed like Calculus was? Or has there been new ones, but they are just so out there that the layperson would never remotely have a chance to encounter them? ",
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"answer": "We know so incomprehensibly little about mathematics. We exist in a tiny island of light surrounded by a vast, dark sea of ignorance. Even a little intellectual exploration quickly uncovers problems that are far beyond our scope of reasoning.\n\nFor example, we do not know how many games of solitaire are winnable. We can use computer simulation to establish an upper and lower bound but we don't have close to the analytical tools necessary to even begin to approach an exact answer. It's been dubbed [\" one of the embarrassments of applied mathematics that we cannot determine the odds\nof winning the common game of solitaire\"](_URL_0_).\n\nSimilar, trivial examples exist all around us.",
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"answer": "This is one of the most common misconceptions about math, that everything has already been discovered. Not by a long shot. The most painful example of this error to me was when a coworker, discovering I was a math major, asked, \"So what do you research? Like, a million times a million?\". > . < ",
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"answer": "That is what being a mathematician is, a person who sits at the boundary of the world's knowledge and the unknown and spends their lives trying to take on the unknown. Whenever you see an academic paper in math published that is the authors implying, \"I found something that I think the rest of you haven't thought about yet.\" These papers are being published at an alarmingly high accelerating rate over the last decades. \n\nNot only do we not know everything about math, but math is so diverse and vast that even undergraduates pursuing degrees in math are publishing results. For example, even in my undergrad I spent a summer doing research under a professor in a branch of math called Combinatorics and I am one of the people published in these [collection of articles.](_URL_0_)",
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"answer": "A lot of the posts here a referring to major discoveries. I just wanted to throw in some of the day to day advancements. There are rapid advancements in subfields of mathematics. Topology and nonlinear dynamics are the two I am most familiar with. In biology, modeling protein structures based on chemical properties is a major challenge. It's not just about computing power, it's about how sub structures can be pieced together. In nonlinear dynamics (my field) we're looking for better ways to find order in seemingly chaotic systems. My focus is how proteins carry messages from outside the cell to the genes and back again. We're working with old equations and anyone that can come up with better ones is going to make curing genetic diseases lots more likely.",
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"answer": "If we knew everything there is to know about math (which is impossible), then nobody would be getting PhDs in math. This would be bad for me, since that's what I'm aiming to do right now.\n\nSo little math is exposed to the average person, most people associate math with arithmetic (adding and subtracting) and maybe a little elementary algebra (solve for x), and have no idea that math is an incredibly expansive and diverse field. Much of it unrecognizable to Joe Average as even being math.",
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"answer": "One important thing to bear in mind is that the boundary between maths and physics is incredibly blurred, and has been for a very long time. Important developments in maths will have consequences in physics, and vice versa. I'm doing a PhD in a maths department doing pen and paper msths (as opposed to simulation), but my work is all motivated by problems in materials science, to the point I've attended conferences where all the speakers are experimental scientists. So if all of maths were to be completely understood then our understanding of the physical world would be far more complete than it is now.",
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"answer": "Not only are there things we don't know, but there are also things we can't know. Whitehead & Russell set out to enumerate all possible mathematical proofs with their Principia Mathematica, and the response to it by Godel (the Incompleteness Theorem) conclusively proved that their efforts would be in vain.\n\nIntereresting side note: the fall-out from Godel's theorem eventually lead to the formal development of Computer Science (itself an offshoot branch of mathematics) by Church and Turing.",
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"answer": "There are plenty of new things being done all the time! And there are still plenty of things that remain unknown, or unsolved. Look into the millennium problems. They are a series of problems in mathematics that remain unproven/unsolved but are so important that there is a million dollar prize for anyone who can solve them! \n\nMathematics is so rich. Its an artform, with active research and new questions being asked every day. Its sad, because so many think that math is just the manipulation of numbers, and that problem comes from how math is taught to us at a young age. We are taught that math is a strict rigid process, which leads us to believe that math must be complete. But this isn't true. Math is the ultimate medium of art and creativity. There is so much math that humans have mastered, so much that It would take more than a life time to learn it all... but there is still so much that is left unanswered. And that is the thrill of it all. I mean the millennium problems is a great place to look, because its a pretty good representation of the kinds of stuff we don't know... but there is far more to it than that. \n\nI'm a bit of a math nerd (Mathematical Physics major)... so if youve got any further questions I'd be happy to help! ",
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"answer": "In the words of David Hilbert (one of the greatest mathematicians of the last century):\n\n\"The supply of problems in mathematics is inexhaustible, and as soon as one problem is solved numerous others come forth in its place.\"\n\nNot only have we not learnt all there is to know, we never will. It's not like physics where you could have a theory of everything.",
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"answer": "I prescribe to the idea that math is not an entity but a language, so technically its whole exists in the realms of human knowledge, but it is continuously growing with human knowledge. So basically we know everything that is math right now, but not everything it could be, similar to how we know every play, novel, song, ect. that is in our libraries, but will never know every literary work that was or will ever be created or could be created. ",
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"answer": "The guy who made Futurama literally created a new theorem just for the plot of an episode. It is real and checks out. It is called the Futurama Theorem. That should answer your question. Think long and hard enough and you could probably write your own theorem too if you have a master's degree in in math, or just really like math.",
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"answer": "I think the best answer (if you're still watching this thread) is this [interview of John Conway](_URL_0_).\n\nThis gives the impression that mathematics usually progresses slowly, and of course that can be backed up with examples (some of which are included in the video).",
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"answer": "No, we do not know everything there is to know about math. \n\nMathematics is an infinite landscape, and presently we have only mapped out a finite portion of this landscape. There are still infinitely many discoveries to be made, presuming humanity does not self-destruct.\n\nTo give you a few examples, let me focus on two popular areas where large progress has been made in recent years: Number Theory and Mathematical Physics\n\nNumber Theory: This subject concerns the study of the prime numbers, i.e., 2,3,5,7,11, ... these numbers cannot be divided into smaller units. They are the integers which act as the atoms in mathematics. The twin prime conjecture, which is currently not known to be true or false, states that there will be infinitely many pairs of primes that differ only by two. Except for one example (2 and 3) it is not possible for a pair of distinct prime numbers to be any closer than two apart. Here are some twin prime pairs: (3,5), (5,7), (11,13). Thus, the twin prime conjecture stipulates that there are an infinite number of these prime pairs that are very close together. We do not currently know whether this conjecture is true or false. Many people believe it to be true, but for no good reason (just a guess, I believe). But, very recently, based on work of a a mathematician named Yitang Zhang, we now know that there are infinitely many prime pairs which are at most 246 apart. You might call these \"prime cousins\", because they aren't quite as close together as twins, but still...they're pretty close. And we know these pairs are infinite in number.\n\n\nMathematical Physics: A famous problem in Fluid Mechanics concerns the Navier-Stokes (NS) equations, which are classical mechanics equations that govern the dynamics of incompressible fluids such as water (or liquid hydrogen, say). These equations describe how a fluid will move, given knowledge of its initial velocity. That means, based on these equations, you can completely predict the future behavior of a fluid, as long as you know the velocity of each individual water particle at the initial time when you start the experiment. Now the question for the NS equations is whether it is possible for a mathematical fluid to BLOW UP in finite time. Such a fluid would behave very strangely. The fluid would start out moving about in a very smooth way. At some later time, though, it would start to accelerate and rotate about itself very fast forming a vortex, similar to what is seen when you flush the toilet. This vortex would rotate faster and faster, eventually attaining an infinite velocity near its center, after a finite amount of time has passed. This hypothetical behavior is called a BLOW UP solution. No living person has ever designed a fluid with this behavior and it is a major open problem to prove or disprove that such a behavior is possible. Basically, if such fluids can be constructed, then we would know in some sense that the equations that govern fluids are not the correct equations to model nature, because such BLOW-UP behavior is not natural. We would need to start over and look for a more accurate set of equations to model nature. Now, unlike with the primes problem described above, most mathematicians have NO IDEA whether the NS equations can blow up. But, in a very interesting recent preprint, Terence Tao (a Fields medalist) has shown that one can build a sort of \"computer\" using water. This \"computer\" transmits information using water and water alone, and has a preliminary form of Random Access memory. We believe that this \"water computer\" might be useful for constructing a blow-up scenario. Roughly speaking one might somehow \"program\" the water to cause itself to self-destruct. This line of research is at a very preliminary stage, so it's hard to say anything definitive. But this new idea sounds cool to say the least and it gives some sense of what mathematicians think about.\n\nEdit: Updated the recent partial work on \"twin primes\" to give the more accurate number 246 for the best known gap.\n\nEdit 2: Updated a bit of the description of the NS equations.\n\nEdit 3: Another small update to NS equations. Fixed some typos too.",
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"answer": "Many of the security and crypto algorithms are built on fact we dont have a simple solution to simple mathematical problems. ex: prime numbers, computation of prime factors of very large numbers (used in RSA). Solving some of these problems would mean there is requirement of advancement in computer engineering aswell which would outdate a lot of existing technologies depending on these.",
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"answer": "I feel that asking this question is akin to asking a little tiny fish if it has seen the entire ocean. Assuming of course fish could talk.\n\nOur concept of what we know and what we don't know is never whole. I believe that the discoveries in math and science will keep coming until our species dies out and even then we might not scratch the surface. And yet, what we know is so immensely vast already how can we not already be scratching the surface.\n\nAs long as there are questions unanswered in math or science, there will be new discoveries. As for what they are?\n\nI'm sure someone else could give you a more specific answer but they aren't discoveries for nothing. The possibilities are probably endless. I mean, they are called discoveries after all, how can we know until they are discovered and published.",
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"answer": "It is *impossible* to prove everything there is to know about mathematics and the strangest part is the fact that this has been proven by the theorems that were proven by Kurt Gödel.\n\nBasically it comes down to this is layman's terms:\n\n1.). Assume you can come up with a consistent set of rules (axioms) from which you could derive all of mathatics. If yoy have such a set of rules, there is ALWAYS going to exist a statement that exists from which you could derive from your rules that IS TRUE, but can never be proven to be true. Furthermore, if you try to add another rule into your set of axioms to prove the statement true that you can't prove to be true (but which you know is true), youll just end up creating another set of axioms from which you could derive another statement that is true and unprovable. Examples of such statements many mathaticians believe may fall into this category are extremely hard proofs like goldbachs conjecture which is pretty much believed to be true by everyone but can't be proven.\n\n.2). Assume you have a system of axioms such that all statements that could be derived would be provable. Kurt Gödel proved that such a set of rules would always be inconsistent. For example you could always derive a set of statements in math that would be the equivalent of \"the following statement is true. The preceding sentence is false.\"\n\n\nIn summary, it is impossible to know everything about math, because if you do, there are statements that are true *which cannot be proven to be true*, itll literally require a leap of faith, OR you can prove everything to be true but your rules will have bugs in them which will make them inconsistent, mea ing there exists no perfect set of rules from which you can derive mathematical truths. \n\n\nSome philosphers will argue that Gödel's theorems prove that AI would be impossible, but generally just realize that the lines between truth, math, and philosophy start to blur big time the deeper down the rabbit hole you go.\n\n",
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"answer": "probably a little late to the punch, bit this is just something to think about: math is the language of the universe. your answer can be found in coalesce with the answer to this question: have we discovered the entire universe? obviously, no. we haven't even discovered our entire planet yet, and there is math to be found even in that. beyond our planet, our knowledge of physics is still limited. there are anomalies like dark matter, dark energy, black holes, and likely many errors within our current theories as well. we would have to be in a very privileged position in human history to even be able to assume that we knew everything about it (a point in history that would come in the very distant future), and even if we did have such a wealth of mathematic knowledge, that doesn't stop the fact that life is always changing, and there is math that comes with the challenges life creates. ",
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"answer": "A lot of people have a very limited idea about what mathematics is: usually the notions about math don't go beyond arithmetic. But math is this sprawling enterprise and we can create new systems of math and logic at will, to explore what sorts of relationships hold and what applications may spring forth. In short, we are still actively researching math; additionally, there is no way of knowing whether math is ever \"finished.\" ",
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"answer": "Not only are there things we don't know, we know that there will always be things that we don't know. Godel's incompleteness theorem proves that for any non contradictory set of axioms that is sufficiently powerful, there will be some true statements that are not provable. ",
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"answer": "Not at all. Look at Fermat's Last Theorem or research Mercene primes to see how esoteric of a field it is. Only problem is that *relatively* there's not as much applications, so you don't hear about it as much as engineering. Basically most of the mathematics people are exposed to is barely the 1500s discoveries",
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"answer": "I just want to comment, as has been commented elsewhere here, that every reference made to Godel's Incompleteness Theorem in this thread misunderstands the theorem. Godel's Incompleteness Theorem is about finitely axiomatizable theories of Arithmetic, which are not identical to human knowledge or all of Mathematics. ",
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"title": "Mathematics and the Search for Knowledge",
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"text": "Mathematics and the Search for Knowledge is a book by Morris Kline on the developing mathematics ideas, which are partially overlap with his previous book \"\", as a source of human knowledge about the physical world, starting from astronomical theories of Ancient Greek to the modern theories.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "21653957",
"title": "Definitions of mathematics",
"section": "Section::::Playful, metaphorical, and poetic definitions.\n",
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"text": "What is mathematics? What is it for? What are mathematicians doing nowadays? Wasn't it all finished long ago? How many new numbers can you invent anyway? Is today's mathematics just a matter of huge calculations, with the mathematician as a kind of zookeeper, making sure the precious computers are fed and watered? If it's not, what is it other than the incomprehensible outpourings of superpowered brainboxes with their heads in the clouds and their feet dangling from the lofty balconies of their ivory towers? Mathematics is all of these, and none. Mostly, it's just different. It's not what you expect it to be, you turn your back for a moment and it's changed. It's certainly not just a fixed body of knowledge, its growth is not confined to inventing new numbers, and its hidden tendrils pervade every aspect of modern life. \n",
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"wikipedia_id": "373299",
"title": "Language of mathematics",
"section": "Section::::The meanings of mathematics.\n",
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"text": "BULLET::::- Mathematics describes the real world: many areas of mathematics originated with attempts to describe and solve real world phenomena - from measuring farms (geometry) to falling apples (calculus) to gambling (probability). Mathematics is widely used in modern physics and engineering, and has been hugely successful in helping us to understand more about the universe around us from its largest scales (physical cosmology) to its smallest (quantum mechanics). Indeed, the very success of mathematics in this respect has been a source of puzzlement for some philosophers (see The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences by Eugene Wigner).\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "527369",
"title": "Lists of mathematics topics",
"section": "Section::::About mathematics.:Mathematicians.\n",
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"text": "Mathematicians study and research in all the different areas of mathematics. The publication of new discoveries in mathematics continues at an immense rate in hundreds of scientific journals, many of them devoted to mathematics and many devoted to subjects to which mathematics is applied (such as theoretical computer science and theoretical physics).\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "18831",
"title": "Mathematics",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
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"text": "Mathematics has since been greatly extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of both. Mathematical discoveries continue to be made today. According to Mikhail B. Sevryuk, in the January 2006 issue of the \"Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society\", \"The number of papers and books included in the \"Mathematical Reviews\" database since 1940 (the first year of operation of MR) is now more than 1.9 million, and more than 75 thousand items are added to the database each year. The overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical theorems and their proofs.\"\n",
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"end_character": 650,
"text": "The area of study known as the history of mathematics is primarily an investigation into the origin of discoveries in mathematics and, to a lesser extent, an investigation into the mathematical methods and notation of the past. Before the modern age and the worldwide spread of knowledge, written examples of new mathematical developments have come to light only in a few locales. From 3000 BC the Mesopotamian states of Sumer, Akkad and Assyria, together with Ancient Egypt and Ebla began using arithmetic, algebra and geometry for purposes of taxation, commerce, trade and also in the field of astronomy and to formulate calendars and record time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18831",
"title": "Mathematics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "Mathematics is essential in many fields, including natural science, engineering, medicine, finance, and the social sciences. Applied mathematics has led to entirely new mathematical disciplines, such as statistics and game theory. Mathematicians engage in pure mathematics (mathematics for its own sake) without having any application in mind, but practical applications for what began as pure mathematics are often discovered later.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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| null |
fqn0o | Does every neuron contain every neurotransmitter? | [
{
"answer": "I can answer the following question: \"Does every neuron have the genetic capability to *create* every neurotransmitter?\" **Yes** (short answer). The two main excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters are glutamate and GABA, which are both derived from Amino acids. In fact, almost all neurotransmitters are either derivatives of amino acids, chains of amino acids, or products created by biological enzymes (which are, themselves, created from long chains of amino acids). Cells use DNA as a template for *which* amino acids they produce, in *what quantity* those AA's are produced, and in *what order* those AA's are combined. \n\nBut that does't mean that every neuron *does* contain every neurotransmitter. Neurons are effected in myriad ways by the outside environment, and these environmental interactions influence which genes are expressed by which cells. This mechanism is what allows different cells of the developing body to specialize—into skin cells, neurons, etc. Different neurons have different ways of expressing genes, so they act differently. Therefore, I'm pretty sure that different neurons (and especially different neuron *types*) have different concentrations of neurotransmitters. It all depends on gene expression.\n\nThat was the short answer. The long answer involves a more precise definition of what a \"neurotransmitter\" is, as opposed to a neuromodulator. But short answer, **no**. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Different areas of the brain create different neurotransmitters. For example, serotonin and glutamic acid are released in the hippocamus, the center of your brain responsible for converting short term memory to long term.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Typically one \"classic neurotrasnmitter\" is made per cell type but [not always](_URL_0_). Neurons frequently also make neuropeptides that are released into the synapse but exert their effects in more persistent, subtle ways rather than by changing membrane potential instantaneously.\n\nYou can vastly oversimplify the mammalian brain in a very general way:\n\n* Most neurons are glutamatergic and exert an excitatory effect on neurons that synapse with them.\n\n* Additionally there are GABAergic inhibitory neurons that inhibit other neurons. These are less common.\n\n* Then there's everything else such as the catecholamine and monoamine systems. \n\nAs it turns out, many of these \"everything else\" neurons are made exclusively in one organ of the brain or just a few.\n\n=====\n\n**Going further:**\n\nWhile there is more complexity and detail to everything I've said above, you can build an approximation of the architecture of the brain with this: Glutamine- and GABAergic neurons make up microcircuits, these circuits frequently operate together to integrate information. These circuits in turn regulate each other and are in part governed by modulations from additional systems.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21944",
"title": "Nervous system",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Neurons and synapses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 1082,
"text": "There are literally hundreds of different types of synapses. In fact, there are over a hundred known neurotransmitters, and many of them have multiple types of receptors. Many synapses use more than one neurotransmitter—a common arrangement is for a synapse to use one fast-acting small-molecule neurotransmitter such as glutamate or GABA, along with one or more peptide neurotransmitters that play slower-acting modulatory roles. Molecular neuroscientists generally divide receptors into two broad groups: chemically gated ion channels and second messenger systems. When a chemically gated ion channel is activated, it forms a passage that allows specific types of ions to flow across the membrane. Depending on the type of ion, the effect on the target cell may be excitatory or inhibitory. When a second messenger system is activated, it starts a cascade of molecular interactions inside the target cell, which may ultimately produce a wide variety of complex effects, such as increasing or decreasing the sensitivity of the cell to stimuli, or even altering gene transcription.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "62812",
"title": "Neuropil",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "Neuropil (or \"neuropile\") is any area in the nervous system composed of mostly unmyelinated axons, dendrites and glial cell processes that forms a synaptically dense region containing a relatively low number of cell bodies. The most prevalent anatomical region of neuropil is the brain which, although not completely composed of neuropil, does have the largest and highest synaptically-concentrated areas of neuropil in the body. For example, the neocortex and olfactory bulb both contain neuropil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21120",
"title": "Neuron",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "A neuron, also known as a neurone (British spelling) or nerve cell, is an electrically excitable cell that communicates with other cells via specialized connections called synapses. It is the main component of nervous tissue. All animals except sponges and placozoans have neurons, but other multicellular organisms such as plants do not.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21944",
"title": "Nervous system",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Neurons and synapses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 1250,
"text": "According to a rule called Dale's principle, which has only a few known exceptions, a neuron releases the same neurotransmitters at all of its synapses. This does not mean, though, that a neuron exerts the same effect on all of its targets, because the effect of a synapse depends not on the neurotransmitter, but on the receptors that it activates. Because different targets can (and frequently do) use different types of receptors, it is possible for a neuron to have excitatory effects on one set of target cells, inhibitory effects on others, and complex modulatory effects on others still. Nevertheless, it happens that the two most widely used neurotransmitters, glutamate and GABA, each have largely consistent effects. Glutamate has several widely occurring types of receptors, but all of them are excitatory or modulatory. Similarly, GABA has several widely occurring receptor types, but all of them are inhibitory. Because of this consistency, glutamatergic cells are frequently referred to as \"excitatory neurons\", and GABAergic cells as \"inhibitory neurons\". Strictly speaking, this is an abuse of terminology—it is the receptors that are excitatory and inhibitory, not the neurons—but it is commonly seen even in scholarly publications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1939870",
"title": "Dale's principle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1063,
"text": "With only two transmitter chemicals known to exist at the time, the possibility of a neuron releasing more than one transmitter at a single synapse did not enter anybody's mind, and so no care was taken to frame hypotheses in a way that took this possibility into account. The resulting ambiguity in the initial statements led to some confusion in the literature about the precise meaning of the principle. Nicoll and Malenka, for example, understood it to state that a neuron always releases one and only one neurotransmitter at all of its synapses. In this form it is certainly false. Many neurons release more than one neurotransmitter, in what is called \"cotransmission\". Although there were earlier hints, the first formal proposal of this discovery did not come until 1976. Most neurons release several different chemical messengers. In modern neuroscience, neurons are often classified by their neurotransmitter and most important cotransmitter, for example striatal GABA neurons utilize either opioid peptides or substance P as the primary cotransmitter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4458810",
"title": "Neuromodulation",
"section": "Section::::Volume transmission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "Neurotransmitter systems are systems of neurons in the brain expressing certain types of neurotransmitters, and thus form distinct systems. Activation of the system causes effects in large volumes of the brain, called \"volume transmission\". Volume transmission is the diffusion of neurotransmitters through the brain extracellular fluid released at points that may be remote from the target cells with the resulting activation of extrasynaptic receptors, and with a longer time course than for transmission at a single synapse. Such prolonged transmitter action is called tonic transmission, in contrast to the phasic transmission that occurs rapidly at single synapses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33547203",
"title": "Sparse distributed memory",
"section": "Section::::Definition.:As neural network.:Neuron model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "An idealized description of neuron is as follows: a neuron has a cell body with two kinds of branches: \"dendrites\" and an \"axon\". It receives input signals from other neurons via dendrites, integrates (sums) them and generates its own (electric) output signal which is sent to outside neurons via axon. The points of electric contact between neurons are called \"synapses\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
9m0xgn | Would a plant/crop grow faster if it had artificial sunlight and perfect conditions all the time? | [
{
"answer": "It is not so much 'growing faster' but 'just growing with minimum light'. \n\nA(not very satisfactory) explanation is [airmass](_URL_0_), if a plant grows during spring in the Nordic countries with (due to airmass) only 15% of available light, then on the same area in Southern countries you have enough sunlight for 6-7 stacked layers. \n\nIndoors means better control over humidity/pest-control, day/night-percentage, change between the blue and red percentages to favour leaf or flower growth, and probably temperature changes at the end of the growth cycle to modify sugar content. \n \n\n\n ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Depends on the plant or crop. Many species require dark and/or cold periods (i.e. night, winter) to regulate their growth cycles: they won't bloom unless day length varies throughout the year, and thus can't produce fruit or seeds.\n\nThat can be bred out, though. Modern marijuana cultivars actually *need* 24-hour daylight: they've been so heavily selected for high resin and THC production that they crank it out as if they're always in ideal light and water conditions. If they don't get enough light, either their drug production suffers or they do.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5906",
"title": "Carbon dioxide",
"section": "Section::::Biological role.:Photosynthesis and carbon fixation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 117,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 117,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "Plants can grow as much as 50 percent faster in concentrations of 1,000 ppm when compared with ambient conditions, though this assumes no change in climate and no limitation on other nutrients. Elevated levels cause increased growth reflected in the harvestable yield of crops, with wheat, rice and soybean all showing increases in yield of 12–14% under elevated in FACE experiments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50872423",
"title": "Human uses of plants",
"section": "Section::::Practical uses.:In science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "Scientific advances in genetic engineering led to developments in crops. Genetically modified crops introduce new traits to plants which they do not have naturally. These can bring benefits such as a decrease in the use of harmful pesticides, by building in qualities such as insect resistance and herbicide tolerance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13885392",
"title": "Crop coefficient",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "Even in agricultural crops, where ideal conditions are approximated as much as is practical, plants are not always growing (and therefore transpiring) at their theoretical potential. Plants have growth stages and states of health induced by a variety of environmental conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2899597",
"title": "History of agriculture",
"section": "Section::::Modern agriculture.:Green Revolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "Although the Green Revolution significantly increased rice yields in Asia, yield increases have not occurred in the past 15–20 years. The genetic \"yield potential\" has increased for wheat, but the yield potential for rice has not increased since 1966, and the yield potential for maize has \"barely increased in 35 years\". It takes only a decade or two for herbicide-resistant weeds to emerge, and insects become resistant to insecticides within about a decade, delayed somewhat by crop rotation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61910",
"title": "Climate change and agriculture",
"section": "Section::::Impact of climate change on agriculture.:Temperature potential effect on growing period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "Duration of crop growth cycles are above all, related to temperature. An increase in temperature will speed up development. In the case of an annual crop, the duration between sowing and harvesting will shorten (for example, the duration in order to harvest corn could shorten between one and four weeks). The shortening of such a cycle could have an adverse effect on productivity because senescence would occur sooner.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14697873",
"title": "Natural stress",
"section": "Section::::Conclusion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "Genetically modified plants can be implemented to slow down the effects of the abiotic stressors. This allows more crops to be grown on a smaller amount of land. Less need for farmland allows some of it to be set aside for natural wildlife habitat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14697873",
"title": "Natural stress",
"section": "Section::::Cold.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "Humans have planned the planting of our crops around the seasons. Even though the seasons are fairly predictable, there are always unexpected storms, heat waves, or cold snaps that can ruin our growing seasons.(Suzuki & Mittler, 2006)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
g3pjxv | what does hormones actually do to our brains, how it makes us think, and if we extract all the hormone and hormone producing glands will the person be dead or lose his ability to think and feel? | [
{
"answer": "Hormones is a functional name for dozens of chemicals that serve as messengers between organs, and mediate physiological processes. They basically change what cells/tissues/organs do by changing the chemical environment in which said cells are. If you removed all glands, yes a person would die, probably in a diabetic coma from lack of insuline.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "903152",
"title": "Endocrine disruptor",
"section": "Section::::Endocrine system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "Hormones work at very small doses (part per billion ranges). Endocrine disruption can thereby also occur from low-dose exposure to exogenous hormones or hormonally active chemicals such as bisphenol A. These chemical can bind to receptors for other hormonally mediated processes. Furthermore, since endogenous hormones are already present in the body in biologically active concentrations, additional exposure to relatively small amounts of exogenous hormonally active substances can disrupt the proper functioning of the body's endocrine system. Thus, an endocrine disruptor can elicit adverse effects at much lower doses than a toxicity, acting through a different mechanism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9312",
"title": "Endocrine system",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Hormones.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "Hormones are used to communicate between organs and tissues for physiological regulation and behavioral activities, such as digestion, metabolism, respiration, tissue function, sensory perception, sleep, excretion, lactation, stress, growth and development, movement, reproduction, and mood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6380202",
"title": "Head and neck anatomy",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Endocrine glands.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "The pituitary gland secretes hormones that directly impact the body as well as hormones that indirectly control body functions because they activate other endocrine glands, such as the adrenal cortex (ACTH) and the thyroid gland (TSH). These two glands when stimulated by pituitary hormones then release their own hormones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47181909",
"title": "Pulsatile secretion",
"section": "Section::::Neuroendocrine Pulatility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 858,
"text": "Nervous system control over hormone release is based in the hypothalamus, from which the neurons that populate the pariventricular and arcuate nuclei originate. These neurons project to the pituitary gland via the hypophysial portal system, and dictate endocrine function via the four Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Glandular axes. Recent studies have begun to offer evidence that many pituitary hormones which have been observed to be released episodically are preceded by pulsatile secretion of its associated releasing hormone from the hypothalamus in a similar pulastile fashion. Novel research into the cellular mechanisms associated with pituitary hormone pulsatility, such as that observed for Leutinizing Hormone (LH) and Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) have indicated similar pulses into the hypophesial vessels of Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4109042",
"title": "Cell signaling",
"section": "Section::::In multicellular organisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "BULLET::::- Hormones are the major signaling molecules of the endocrine system, though they often regulate each other's secretion via local signaling (e.g. islet of Langerhans cells), and most are also expressed in tissues for local purposes (e.g. angiotensin) or failing that, structurally related molecules are (e.g. PTHrP).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45621",
"title": "Psychopharmacology",
"section": "Section::::Chemical signaling.:Hormones.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 733,
"text": "The other central method through which drugs act is by affecting communications between cells through hormones. Neurotransmitters can usually only travel a microscopic distance before reaching their target at the other side of the synaptic cleft, while hormones can travel long distances before reaching target cells anywhere in the body. Thus, the endocrine system is a critical focus of psychopharmacology because 1) drugs can alter the secretion of many hormones; 2) hormones may alter the behavioral responses to drugs; 3) hormones themselves sometimes have psychoactive properties; and 4) the secretion of some hormones, especially those dependent on the pituitary gland, is controlled by neurotransmitter systems in the brain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2467818",
"title": "Neuroendocrinology",
"section": "Section::::Neuroendocrine system.:Hypothalamus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "The endocrine system consists of numerous glands throughout the body that produce and secrete hormones of diverse chemical structure, including peptides, steroids, and neuroamines. Collectively, hormones regulate many physiological processes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
apx17e | could an organism living in the ocean at a pressure of 5 tons/in^2 survive a hit from a sledge hammer? | [
{
"answer": "It would die. Constant even pressure from all sides is not the same as non-uniform pressure hitting you from one direction, which would splatter the poor thing in the other direction.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You have to remember that organisms living at the bottom of the ocean are filled with water. They aren't resisting 5 tons of pressure like a submarine would. The water inside their bodies is at the same pressure as the water outside their body. So, they don't feel the pressure at all.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3749918",
"title": "Deep sea",
"section": "Section::::Environmental characteristics.:Pressure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "Because pressure in the ocean increases by about 1 atmosphere for every 10 meters of depth, the amount of pressure experienced by many marine organisms is extreme. Until recent years, the scientific community lacked detailed information about the effects of pressure on most deep sea organisms because the specimens encountered arrived at the surface dead or dying and weren't observable at the pressures at which they lived. With the advent of traps that incorporate a special pressure-maintaining chamber, undamaged larger metazoan animals have been retrieved from the deep sea in good condition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21393008",
"title": "Deep sea creature",
"section": "Section::::Deep sea research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "The extreme difference in pressure between the sea floor and the surface makes the creature's survival on the surface near impossible; this makes in-depth research difficult because most useful information can only be found while the creatures are alive. Recent developments have allowed scientists to look at these creatures more closely, and for a longer time. A marine biologist, Jeffery Drazen, has explored a solution, a pressurized fish trap. This captures a deep-water creature, and adjusts its internal pressure slowly to surface level as the creature is brought to the surface, in the hope that the creature can adjust.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60359",
"title": "Benthos",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "Many organisms adapted to deep-water pressure cannot survive in the upperparts of the water column. The pressure difference can be very significant (approximately one atmosphere for each 10 metres of water depth).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21183492",
"title": "Deep sea community",
"section": "Section::::Environment.:Hyperbaricity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "These animals have evolved to survive the extreme pressure of the sub-photic zones. The pressure increases by about one atmosphere every ten meters. To cope with the pressure, many fish are rather small, usually not exceeding 25 cm in length. Also, scientists have discovered that the deeper these creatures live, the more gelatinous their flesh and more minimal their skeletal structure. These creatures have also eliminated all excess cavities that would collapse under the pressure, such as swim bladders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28910089",
"title": "Pascalization",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "Anurag Sharma, a geochemist, James Scott, a microbiologist, and others at the Carnegie Institution of Washington directly observed microbial activity at pressures in excess of 1 gigapascal. The experiments were performed up to 1.6 GPa (232,000 psi) of pressure, which is more than 16,000 times normal air pressure, or about 14 times the pressure in the deepest ocean trench.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21183492",
"title": "Deep sea community",
"section": "Section::::Environment.:Hyperbaricity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 807,
"text": "Pressure is the greatest environmental factor acting on deep-sea organisms. In the deep sea, although most of the deep sea is under pressures between 200 and 600 atm, the range of pressure is from 20 to 1,000 atm. Pressure exhibits a great role in the distribution of deep sea organisms. Until recently, people lacked detailed information on the direct effects of pressure on most deep-sea organisms, because virtually all organisms trawled from the deep sea arrived at the surface dead or dying. With the advent of traps that incorporate a special pressure-maintaining chamber, undamaged larger metazoan animals have been retrieved from the deep sea in good condition. Some of these have been maintained for experimental purposes, and we are obtaining more knowledge of the biological effects of pressure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24575087",
"title": "Project Nekton",
"section": "Section::::Operations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "While on the bottom, Piccard and Walsh reported they observed a number of small sole and flounder swimming away, indicating that at least some vertebrate life might withstand the extremes of pressure in any of the Earth's oceans. They noted that the floor of the Challenger Deep consisted of \"diatomaceous ooze\". The ascent to surface took three hours, fifteen minutes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
31xmlg | how do united states defence contractors make money when they are not needed? | [
{
"answer": "Many still have personnel overseas re-building infrastructure, training foreign and US troops, and cleaning up everything afterwards. Weapons and equipment are still used and destroyed in training (things wear out or break), even in peace time. Some of them sell to foreign governments. A few do environmental cleanups, demolish unused military sites, and return polluted parcels of land to other uses. Most, if not all, are diversified enough that they still make money in seemingly unrelated things. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Congressman: Looks like this war is wrapping up, we can probably wind down that airplane contract.\nContractor: This war is almost over and you're still fighting with last war's planes, surely you don't want to fight the next war with the same planes too...we'd be happy to continue work on development of the next generation of fighter jet.\nConcerned Citizen: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "General Dynamics, Lockheed Martin and other contractors have several business units. Some build planes or tanks or misses but others are for IT, Intelligence or other administrative services. They diversify across multiple contract vehicles so that there is a steady revenue stream. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16402743",
"title": "Defense Base Act",
"section": "Section::::Who is covered under the DBA.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "Work on contracts approved and funded by the U.S. under the Foreign Assistance Act, which among other things provides for cash sale of military equipment, materials, and services to its allies, if the contract is performed outside of the United States;\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1545368",
"title": "United States Senate Appropriations Subcommittee on Defense",
"section": "Section::::Jurisdiction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Some defense agencies are the responsibility of separate subcommittees. Funding for military construction activities, such as military personnel housing and infrastructure, and veterans issues are handled by the Subcommittee on Military Construction, Veterans Affairs, and Related Agencies. Funding for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is handled by the Subcommittee on Energy and Water Development.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "378088",
"title": "List of defense contractors",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 749,
"text": "Defense contracting has expanded dramatically over the last decade, particularly in the United States, where in the last fiscal year the Department of Defense spent nearly $316 billion on contracts. Contractors have also assumed a much larger on-the-ground presence during recent American conflicts: during the 1991 Gulf War the ratio of uniformed military to contractors was about 50 to 1, while during the first four years of the Iraq War the U.S. hired over 190,000 contractors, surpassing the total American military presence even during the 2007 Iraq surge and 23 times greater than other allied military personnel numbers. In Afghanistan, the presence of almost 100,000 contractors has resulted in a near 1 to 1 ratio with military personnel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22011936",
"title": "Cockerham bribery case",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "Just prior to and during the Iraq War, US Army contracting officers were stationed in Kuwait and Iraq and were charged with contracting for services to support the Army's operations in theater. Contracts for food, water, shelter, and other living essentials, and gravel and chain link fencing were made with numerous US and international companies. By 2007, the US Army had spent $30 billion on support contracts to support operations in Iraq.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "73374",
"title": "Mercenary",
"section": "Section::::Laws of war.:National laws.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "The contract, worth about $400 million, calls for a private company to provide intelligence services to the U.S. Army and security for the Army Corps of Engineers on reconstruction work in Iraq. The case, which is being heard by the U.S. Court of Federal Claims, puts on trial one of the most controversial and least understood aspects of the Iraq war: the outsourcing of military security to an estimated 20,000 armed contractors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "378088",
"title": "List of defense contractors",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "A defense contractor (or security contractor) is a business organization or individual that provides products or services to a military or intelligence department of a government. Products typically include military or civilian aircraft, ships, vehicles, weaponry, \"and\" electronic systems. Services can include logistics, technical support \"and\" training, communications support, \"and\" engineering support in cooperation with the government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "304899",
"title": "War profiteering",
"section": "Section::::Contemporary Manufacturing.:International arms dealers.:Civilian contractors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "Private military contractors, including civilian contractors, are businesses that supply weapons and training to the military, and also handle logistics and base management. While private military contractors may seem similar to mercenaries, the difference is that mercenaries operate illegally. More recently, companies involved with supplying the coalition forces in the Iraq War, such as Bechtel, KBR, Academi (formerly known as Blackwater) and Halliburton, have come under fire for allegedly overcharging for their services. The modern private military company is also offered as an example of sanctioned war profiteering. On the opposing side, companies like Huawei Technologies, which upgraded Saddam's air-defense system between the two Gulf Wars, face such accusations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2s981m | Is there a 4 dimensional analog to a sphere like a tesseract is for a cube? | [
{
"answer": "Yes, the sphere *S*^(3), which is the *three-dimensional* sphere (embedded in Euclidean four-dimensional space), is the set of points (*x**_1_*, *x**_2_*, *x**_3_*, *x**_4_*) such that\n\n*x**_1_*^2 + *x**_2_*^2 + *x**_3_*^2 + *x**_4_*^2 = 1\n\nSimilarly for higher number of dimensions.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1018257",
"title": "3-manifold",
"section": "Section::::Important examples of 3-manifolds.:3-sphere.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "A 3-sphere is a higher-dimensional analogue of a sphere. It consists of the set of points equidistant from a fixed central point in 4-dimensional Euclidean space. Just as an ordinary sphere (or 2-sphere) is a two-dimensional surface that forms the boundary of a ball in three dimensions, a 3-sphere is an object with three dimensions that forms the boundary of a ball in four dimensions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25546470",
"title": "Seven-dimensional space",
"section": "Section::::Geometry.:6-sphere.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "The 6-sphere or hypersphere in seven-dimensional Euclidean space is the six-dimensional surface equidistant from a point, e.g. the origin. It has symbol , with formal definition for the 6-sphere with radius \"r\" of\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "39792",
"title": "3-sphere",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "In mathematics, a 3-sphere, or glome, is a higher-dimensional analogue of a sphere. It may be embedded in 4-dimensional Euclidean space as the set of points equidistant from a fixed central point. Analogously to how the boundary of a ball in three dimensions is an ordinary sphere (or 2-sphere, a two-dimensional surface), the boundary of a ball in four dimensions is a 3-sphere (an object with three dimensions). A 3-sphere is an example of a 3-manifold and an n-sphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "27033090",
"title": "Unit sphere",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "For example, a one-dimensional sphere is the surface of what is commonly called a \"circle\", while such a circle's interior and surface together are the two-dimensional ball. Similarly, a two-dimensional sphere is the surface of the Euclidean solid known colloquially as a \"sphere\", while the interior and surface together are the three-dimensional ball.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39792",
"title": "3-sphere",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Geometric properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "Much of the interesting geometry of the 3-sphere stems from the fact that the 3-sphere has a natural Lie group structure given by quaternion multiplication (see the section below on group structure). The only other spheres with such a structure are the 0-sphere and the 1-sphere (see circle group).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "27859",
"title": "Sphere",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "A sphere (from Greek —, \"globe, ball\") is a perfectly round geometrical object in three-dimensional space that is the surface of a completely round ball (viz., analogous to the circular objects in two dimensions, where a \"circle\" circumscribes its \"disk\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "12267953",
"title": "6-sphere coordinates",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "In mathematics, 6-sphere coordinates are a coordinate system for three-dimensional space obtained by inverting the 3D Cartesian coordinates across the unit 2-sphere formula_1. They are so named because the loci where one coordinate is constant form spheres tangent to the origin from one of six sides (depending on which coordinate is held constant and whether its value is positive or negative). They have nothing whatsoever to do with the 6-sphere, which is an object of considerable interest in its own right.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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}
]
| null |
t1u3v | As an international programmer, how do you deal with using computer science in languages from different countries? | [
{
"answer": "I am an American working for a Japanese astronomical observatory in Hawaii.\n\nAll code is in English (mostly C, Python, Java, some C++ and some Objective C). Documentation around the code may be in english or japanese. Stand-alone documentation is often in japanese only (depending on the author).",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1094802",
"title": "Foreign language",
"section": "Section::::Foreign language education and ability.:Instruments for foreign language learning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "In recent years, computer-assisted language learning has been integrated into foreign language education and computer programs with varying levels of interactional relationship between computer and the language learner have been developed. Language learning aids such as foreign language writing aid and foreign language reading aid, targeted at the specific language skills of foreign language learners, are also alternative instruments available for foreign language learners.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5452205",
"title": "Trading zones",
"section": "Section::::Areas of Application.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "BULLET::::- Computer science education requires development of trading zones between experts in the social and learning sciences and computer scientists (Fincher & Petre, 2004). Each of these communities uses different methods and speaks a different language, hence the need for a creole and also for interactional experts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18740459",
"title": "Technical translation",
"section": "Section::::English as a \"lingua franca\".:English effect on translation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 2755,
"text": "Technical translation is the medium through which language, discourse and communication can exist in a global world. As technology creates easier and faster means of communication and the world moves toward becoming a global community, the need to communicate with people from multiple language backgrounds also grows. Rather than working with multiple languages, some have proposed the idea of using English as the primary language for global communication, making English the lingua franca—or a common world language. However, English as a lingua franca has various implications for the field of technical communication. Particularly for technical translators who are native speakers of English, there is the tendency to assume a unilateral stance on translation. In other words, the technical translator's objective is to translate to and from English, with the English message being the main focus. While English is a language of global communication, it is not the only language being used for communication, highlighting the importance of moving away from \"singular perspective\" of only communicating in English. The concept of maintaining technical communication in languages other than English is of particular significance in countries with high volumes of multilingual speakers. For example, research has shown that the English-speaking bias, due to the language's position as the lingua franca, within technical translation and communication has negatively affected native Spanish speakers in the United States. Lacking both in quality and quantity, user manuals for various electronic devices exemplified sub-par translations into Spanish, demonstrating the limited accessibility of certain technical documents to speakers of languages other than English, perhaps partly as a result of English as the lingua franca. Finally, when discussing English as a lingua franca it is noteworthy to mention what some researchers call \"untranslatable\" words and what that means for technical translation. Such words or phrases are composed of concepts that are not easily translated from one language to another. A word is considered \"untranslatable\" when there is either no direct corresponding word in the target language, requiring the word to be described or when important cultural connotations from the source language are not properly communicated through the target word. For example, a common example in English of an untranslatable word is the German word \"schadenfreude\", which means to exhibit joy as a result of someone else's misfortune. This word exemplifies untranslatability due to the lack of a corresponding word; however words can be untranslatable due to a lack of a corresponding word, loss of cultural meaning, or for both reasons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "33017072",
"title": "Outline of formal science",
"section": "Section::::Branches of formal science.:Computer science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 203,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 203,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "BULLET::::- Natural language processing – field of computer science, artificial intelligence (also called machine learning), and linguistics concerned with the interactions between computers and human (natural) languages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5213",
"title": "Computing",
"section": "Section::::Computer.:Computer programming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 979,
"text": "Computer programming in general is the process of writing, testing, debugging, and maintaining the source code and documentation of computer programs. This source code is written in a programming language, which is an artificial language often more restrictive or demanding than natural languages, but easily translated by the computer. The purpose of programming is to invoke the desired behavior (customization) from the machine. The process of writing high quality source code requires knowledge of both the application's domain \"and\" the computer science domain. The highest-quality software is thus developed by a team of various domain experts, each person a specialist in some area of development. But the term \"programmer\" may apply to a range of program quality, from hacker to open source contributor to professional. And a single programmer could do most or all of the computer programming needed to generate the proof of concept to launch a new \"killer\" application.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "20324399",
"title": "Artificial language",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "Artificial languages are languages of a typically very limited size which emerge either in computer simulations between artificial agents, robot interactions or controlled psychological experiments with humans. They are different from both constructed languages and formal languages in that they have been consciously devised by an individual or group but are the result of (distributed) conventionalisation processes, much like natural languages. Opposed to the idea of a central \"designer\", the field of artificial language evolution in which artificial languages are studied can be regarded as a sub-part of the more general cultural evolution studies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "773853",
"title": "Game programming",
"section": "Section::::Tools.:Programming languages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 764,
"text": "For personal computers, the language selected may be little more than a matter of preference. Language bindings for popular libraries such as SDL and Allegro are widespread, and the performance gap between idiomatic code written in modern compiled languages is negligible. The most popular languages are usually procedural/object-oriented and implemented via compilers; for example, C, C++, and Java. However, developers may take into account domain-specific features, such as interfacing with the operating system, and resilience to reverse engineering for online video games. Many games are not written in one language exclusively, and may combine two or more languages; For example, Unity, a popular game engine, has different pieces written in C, C++, and C#.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
317u8h | What would a gas giant look like from within? | [
{
"answer": "\"About 500 kilometers over the dense cloud cover, we enter Jupiter’s troposphere, and keep diving. This “haze” area is filled with all kinds of odd compounds, most interestingly hydrazine and the increasingly important polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons created by UV-blasting of methane that circulates out too far from cloud-cover. Visibility drops off dramatically until we begin to descend into the clouds themselves — then it’s basically zero.\"\n\nFrom _URL_0_\n\nAlso,\n_URL_1_\n\nIf you're into this kind of stuff, you should read Sagan's *Cosmos*.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "3451267",
"title": "HD 28185 b",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "Given the planet's high mass, it is most likely to be a gas giant with no solid surface. Since the planet has only been detected indirectly through observations of the star, properties such as its radius, composition, and temperature are unknown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "362748",
"title": "Bespin",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "The planet is a gas giant that is about in diameter. Like most gas giants, it has a solid core that consists of metal followed by layers of metallic gases. Many of the layers of gas are poisonous, and the pressure and temperature are far above what a human could tolerate. But from approximately down from outer space, there is a habitable layer known as the Bespin Life Zone. This layer has an oxygen atmosphere with the temperature and pressure that makes it ideal for human life. It is in this layer that Cloud City is located.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "34661457",
"title": "Planetary surface",
"section": "Section::::Surface of gas giants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "Normally, gas giants are considered to not have a surface, although they might have a solid core of rock or various types of ice, or a liquid core of metallic hydrogen. However, the core, if it exists, does not include enough of the planet's mass to be actually considered a surface. Some scientists consider the point at which the atmospheric pressure is equal to 1 bar, equivalent to the atmospheric pressure at Earth’s surface, to be the surface of the planet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "44687845",
"title": "Gas giant",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1026,
"text": "The term \"gas giant\" was coined in 1952 by the science fiction writer James Blish and was originally used to refer to all giant planets. It is, arguably, something of a misnomer because throughout most of the volume of all giant planets, the pressure is so high that matter is not in gaseous form. Other than solids in the core and the upper layers of the atmosphere, all matter is above the , where there is no distinction between liquids and gases. The term has nevertheless caught on, because planetary scientists typically use \"rock\", \"gas\", and \"ice\" as shorthands for classes of elements and compounds commonly found as planetary constituents, irrespective of what phase the matter may appear in. In the outer Solar System, hydrogen and helium are referred to as \"gases\"; water, methane, and ammonia as \"ices\"; and silicates and metals as \"rock\". Because Uranus and Neptune are primarily composed of, in this terminology, ices, not gas, they are increasingly referred to as ice giants and separated from the gas giants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "23967022",
"title": "WASP-17b",
"section": "Section::::Discovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "A team of researchers led by David Anderson of Keele University in Staffordshire, England, discovered the gas giant, which is about 1,000 light years (300 parsecs) from Earth, by observing it in transit its host star WASP-17. Such photometric observations also reveal the planet's size. The discovery was made with a telescope array at the South African Astronomical Observatory. Due to the involvement of the \"Wide Angle Search for Planets\" SuperWASP consortium of universities, the exoplanet, as the 17th found to date by this group, was given its present name.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12733",
"title": "Giant planet",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 967,
"text": "The term \"gas giant\" was coined in 1952 by the science fiction writer James Blish and was originally used to refer to all giant planets. Arguably it is something of a misnomer, because throughout most of the volume of these planets the pressure is so high that matter is not in gaseous form. Other than the upper layers of the atmosphere and solids in the core, all matter is above the , where there is no distinction between liquids and gases. \"Fluid planet\" would be a more accurate term. Jupiter also has metallic hydrogen near its center, but much of its volume is hydrogen, helium, and traces of other gases above their critical points. The observable atmospheres of all these planets (at less than unit optical depth) are quite thin compared to their radii, only extending perhaps one percent of the way to the center. Thus the observable portions are gaseous (in contrast to Mars and Earth, which have gaseous atmospheres through which the crust can be seen).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "864017",
"title": "Planetary core",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 467,
"text": "Gas giants also have cores, though the composition of these are still a matter of debate and range in possible composition from traditional stony/iron, to ice or to fluid metallic hydrogen. Gas giant cores are proportionally much smaller than those of terrestrial planets, though theirs can be considerably larger than the Earth's nevertheless; Jupiter has one 10–30 times heavier than Earth, and exoplanet HD149026 b may have a core 100 times the mass of the Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
}
]
| null |
45sbv3 | are the black panthers a racist hate group? | [
{
"answer": "That's gonna be a touchy subject and one just asking for a Reddit War. However, here is the wiki on them _URL_0_ and you make your own conclusions. Remember that when they were active it was a very different time for African Americans and they were quick to be demonized. For the record, I have no opinion on them either way.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Black Panthers started as a community activist group meant to protect the Black community. You gotta remember that during that time period, law enforcement's idea of \"due process\" in a lot of places consisted of rounding up the nearest black guy and beating him until he confessed to whatever you needed. So, the BP formed to protect the black community from abuse. This protection often included armed patrols in black communities that were needed to protect innocent black folk from police. In their early days, they did a lot of positive organizing, including many social programs such as community health clinics.\n\nOver time, the group became more radical, more isolated, and several leaders turned to criminal activities to fund their activities or just line their own pockets. \n\nSo, it depends on what you're remembering. Most people who aren't black remember the crime, the corruption, and the violence. But many who are black remember that, at a time when law enforcement and many in the government were committed to victimizing the community, the Black Panthers were ready to stand up and fight back. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "The easiest way to describe it is that the KKK is an anti-black group, with its primary goal being the punishment of black people. The Black Panthers weren't anti-white, they were pro-black. They worked to protect and help black communities suffering from racism. They used the threat of violence to make it clear that attacking black people was no longer acceptable. But their primary actions included ensuring that poor black families were fed, serving as neighborhood watch, they protested. \n\nBut they were armed black men, and that scared people. And yes, the Black Panthers did attack white people on occasion. But it wasn't their primary goal. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "1419464",
"title": "Black Panthers (Israel)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The Black Panthers (, translit. \"HaPanterim HaShhorim\") were an Israeli protest movement of second-generation Jewish immigrants from North Africa and Middle Eastern countries. It was one of the first organizations in Israel with the mission of working for social justice for Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews, drawing inspiration and borrowing the name from the African-American organization Black Panther Party. It is also sometimes referred to as the Israeli Black Panthers to distinguish them from the original American group.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "182440",
"title": "Huey P. Newton",
"section": "Section::::Founding of the Black Panther Party.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 573,
"text": "The Black Panther Party was an African-American left-wing organization working for the right of self-defense for African Americans in the United States. Newton said that the Black Panther Party's beliefs were greatly influenced by Malcolm X: \"Therefore, the words on this page cannot convey the effect that Malcolm has had on the Black Panther Party, although, as far as I am concerned, the testament to his life work.\" The Party achieved national and international renown through their deep involvement in the Black Power movement and the politics of the 1960s and 1970s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11630863",
"title": "Postcolonial anarchism",
"section": "Section::::Black anarchism or \"Panther\" anarchism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "Black anarchists have criticized both the hierarchical organization of the Black Panther Party, and the anarchist movement, on the grounds that it has traditionally been Eurocentric and/or white supremacist. They oppose the anti-racist conception, based on the universalism of the Enlightenment, which is proposed by the anarchist workers' tradition, arguing that it is not adequate enough to struggle against racism and that it disguises real inequalities by proclaiming a \"de jure\" equality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "230811",
"title": "New Black Panther Party",
"section": "Section::::Controversies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "King Samir Shabazz, a former Nation of Islam member and head of the New Black Panther Party's Philadelphia chapter, has a long history of confrontational racist behavior. He advocated racial separation and made incendiary racial statements while promoting anti-police messages in the media and on the streets of Philadelphia. He publicly announced, \"I hate white people. All of them.\" He also suggested the killing of white babies. Shabazz was arrested in June 2013 for carrying a loaded, unlicensed weapon. The party has claimed his arrest is part of an \"onslaught of attacks against the New Black Panther Party.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "80408",
"title": "Gang",
"section": "Section::::Gang violence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "There have been reports of racially motivated attacks against African Americans. Members of the Azusa 13 gang, associated with the Mexican Mafia, were indicted in 2011 for harassing and intimidating black people in Southern California.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23278339",
"title": "Black Panther Party",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath and legacy.:New Black Panther Party.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 227,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 227,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "The Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Center include the New Black Panthers on their lists of designated hate groups. The Huey Newton Foundation, former chairman and co-founder Bobby Seale, and members of the original Black Panther Party have insisted that this New Black Panther Party is illegitimate and they have strongly objected to it by stating that there \"is no new Black Panther Party\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36600862",
"title": "Mark Comfort",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 838,
"text": "The Black Panther Party for Self-Defense calls upon the American people in general and the Black People in particular to take careful note of the racist California Legislature now considering legislation aiming at keeping black people disarmed and powerless at the very time that racist police agencies throughout the country intensify the terror, brutality, murder and repression of Black People. As the aggression of the racist American Government escalates in Vietnam, the police agencies of America escalate the repression of Black People throughout the ghettos of America. Vicious police dogs, cattle prods, and increased patrols have become familiar sights in Black communities ... The Black Panther Party for Self-Defense believes that the time has come for Black people to arm themselves against this terror before it's too late.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
l2jh9 | nominalism | [
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"answer": "4 upvotes and no comments, wtf?!?!?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "4 upvotes and no comments, wtf?!?!?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21176",
"title": "Nominalism",
"section": "Section::::Varieties.:Analytic philosophy and mathematics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "In the foundations of mathematics, nominalism has come to mean doing mathematics without assuming that sets in the mathematical sense exist. In practice, this means that quantified variables may range over universes of numbers, points, primitive ordered pairs, and other abstract ontological primitives, but not over sets whose members are such individuals. To date, only a small fraction of the corpus of modern mathematics can be rederived in a nominalistic fashion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "444789",
"title": "Plural quantification",
"section": "Section::::Background and motivation.:Nominalism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "Broadly speaking, nominalism denies the existence of universals (abstract entities), like sets, classes, relations, properties, etc. Thus the plural logic(s) were developed as an attempt to formalize reasoning about plurals, such as those involved in multigrade predicates, apparently without resorting to notions that nominalists deny, e.g. sets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21176",
"title": "Nominalism",
"section": "Section::::History.:Medieval philosophy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 2020,
"text": "In medieval philosophy, the French philosopher and theologian Roscellinus (c. 1050 – c. 1125) was an early, prominent proponent of nominalism. Nominalist ideas can be found in the work of Peter Abelard and reached their flowering in William of Ockham, who was the most influential and thorough nominalist. Abelard's and Ockham's version of nominalism is sometimes called conceptualism, which presents itself as a middle way between nominalism and realism, asserting that there \"is\" something in common among like individuals, but that it is a concept in the mind, rather than a real entity existing independently of the mind. Ockham argued that only individuals existed and that universals were only mental ways of referring to sets of individuals. \"I maintain\", he wrote, \"that a universal is not something real that exists in a subject... but that it has a being only as a thought-object in the mind [objectivum in anima]\". As a general rule, Ockham argued against assuming any entities that were not necessary for explanations. Accordingly, he wrote, there is no reason to believe that there is an entity called \"humanity\" that resides inside, say, Socrates, and nothing further is explained by making this claim. This is in accord with the analytical method that has since come to be called Ockham's razor, the principle that the explanation of any phenomenon should make as few assumptions as possible. Critics argue that conceptualist approaches only answer the psychological question of universals. If the same concept is \"correctly\" and non-arbitrarily applied to two individuals, there must be some resemblance or shared property between the two individuals that justifies their falling under the same concept and that is just the metaphysical problem that universals were brought in to address, the starting-point of the whole problem (MacLeod & Rubenstein, 2006, §3d). If resemblances between individuals are asserted, conceptualism becomes moderate realism; if they are denied, it collapses into nominalism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23474",
"title": "Problem of universals",
"section": "Section::::Positions.:Nominalism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "Nominalists assert that only individuals or particulars exist and deny that universals are real (i.e. that they exist as entities or beings; \"universalia post res\"). The term \"nominalism\" comes from the Latin \"nomen\" (\"name\"). Four major forms of nominalism are predicate nominalism, resemblance nominalism, trope nominalism, and conceptualism. One with a nominalist view claims that we predicate the same property of/to multiple entities, but argues that the entities only share a name and not have a real quality in common. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21176",
"title": "Nominalism",
"section": "Section::::The problem of universals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "Nominalism arose in reaction to the problem of universals, specifically accounting for the fact that some things are of the same type. For example, Fluffy and Kitzler are both cats, or, the fact that certain properties are repeatable, such as: the grass, the shirt, and Kermit the Frog are green. One wants to know by virtue of \"what\" are Fluffy and Kitzler both cats, and \"what\" makes the grass, the shirt, and Kermit green.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "966158",
"title": "Richard M. Weaver",
"section": "Section::::Anti-nominalism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "In \"Ideas Have Consequences\", Weaver analyzed William of Occam's 14th century notions of nominalist philosophy. In broad terms, nominalism is the idea that \"universals are not real, only particulars\". Nominalism deprives people of a measure of universal truth, so that each man becomes his own \"priest and ethics professor\". Weaver deplored this relativism, and believed that modern men were \"moral idiots, ... incapable of distinguishing between better and worse\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21176",
"title": "Nominalism",
"section": "Section::::Criticisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 718,
"text": "As a category of late medieval thought, the concept of 'nominalism' has been increasingly queried. Traditionally, the fourteenth century has been regarded as the heyday of nominalism, with figures such as John Buridan and William of Ockham viewed as founding figures. However, the concept of 'nominalism' as a movement (generally contrasted with 'realism'), first emerged only in the late fourteenth century, and only gradually became widespread during the fifteenth century. The notion of two distinct ways, a \"via antiqua\", associated with realism, and a \"via moderna\", associated with nominalism, became widespread only in the later fifteenth century – a dispute which eventually dried up in the sixteenth century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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]
| null |
ngcdz | Is it correct (Scientifically) to refer to Humans as Omnivores? | [
{
"answer": "We are omnivores by design, even if we arent all by habit. Same way that someone with backwards sleep habits would not put our status as diurnal as any different.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Evolutionarily speaking, we are omnivores. Biochemically, we have the means of obtaining nutrients from both plant and animal matter. Culturally, or by habit as IamPolaris_247 says, it doesn't means we HAVE to eat both, but we certainly are capable of it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We are omnivores by design, even if we arent all by habit. Same way that someone with backwards sleep habits would not put our status as diurnal as any different.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Evolutionarily speaking, we are omnivores. Biochemically, we have the means of obtaining nutrients from both plant and animal matter. Culturally, or by habit as IamPolaris_247 says, it doesn't means we HAVE to eat both, but we certainly are capable of it. ",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23974535",
"title": "Omnivore",
"section": "Section::::Etymology and definitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 659,
"text": "The word \"omnivore\" derives from the Latin \"omnis\" (all), and \"vora\", from vorare, (to eat or devour), having been coined by the French and later adopted by the English in the 1800s. Traditionally the definition for omnivory was entirely behavioral by means of simply \"including both animal and vegetable tissue in the diet.\" In more recent times, with the advent of advanced technological capabilities in fields like gastroenterology, biologists have formulated a standardized variation of omnivore used for labeling a species' actual ability to obtain energy and nutrients from materials. This has subsequently conditioned two context specific definitions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23974535",
"title": "Omnivore",
"section": "Section::::Omnivorous species.:Omnivorous mammals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "Various mammals are omnivorous in the wild, such as species of pigs, badgers, bears, coatis, civets, hedgehogs, opossums, skunks, sloths, squirrels, raccoons, chipmunks, mice, and rats. The hominidae, including humans, chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans are also omnivores.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23974535",
"title": "Omnivore",
"section": "Section::::Etymology and definitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "The taxonomic utility of omnivore's traditional and behavioral definition is limited, since the diet, behavior, and phylogeny of one omnivorous species might be very different from that of another: for instance, an omnivorous pig digging for roots and scavenging for fruit and carrion is taxonomically and ecologically quite distinct from an omnivorous chameleon that eats leaves and insects. The term \"omnivory\" is also not always comprehensive because it does not deal with mineral foods such as salt licks and the consumption of plant and animal material for medical purposes which would not otherwise be consumed (i.e. zoopharmacognosy) within non-omnivores.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23974535",
"title": "Omnivore",
"section": "Section::::Omnivorous species.:General.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 708,
"text": "Although cases exist of herbivores eating meat and carnivores eating plant matter, the classification \"omnivore\" refers to the adaptations and main food source of the species in general, so these exceptions do not make either individual animals or the species as a whole omnivorous. For the concept of \"omnivore\" to be regarded as a scientific classification, some clear set of measurable and relevant criteria would need to be considered to differentiate between an \"omnivore\" and other categories, e.g. faunivore, folivore, and scavenger. Some researchers argue that evolution of any species from herbivory to carnivory or carnivory to herbivory would be rare except via an intermediate stage of omnivory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "846148",
"title": "Plant-based diet",
"section": "Section::::History.:Humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "Humans are omnivorous, capable of consuming diverse plant and animal foods. Fossil evidence from wear patterns on teeth indicates the possibility that early hominids like robust australopithecines and Homo habilis were opportunistic omnivores, generally subsisting on a plant-based diet, but supplementing with meat when possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "23974535",
"title": "Omnivore",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 703,
"text": "Omnivores come from diverse backgrounds that often independently evolved sophisticated consumption capabilities. For instance, dogs evolved from primarily carnivorous organisms (Carnivora) while pigs evolved from primarily herbivorous organisms (Artiodactyla). What this means is that physical characteristics are often not reliable indicators of whether an animal has the ability to obtain energy and nutrients from both plant and animal matter. Owing to the wide range of entirely unrelated organisms independently evolving the capability to obtain energy and nutrients from both plant and animal materials, no generalizations about the anatomical features of all omnivores can realistically be made.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "19446188",
"title": "Brain as food",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "The brain, like most other internal organs, or offal, can serve as nourishment. Brains used for nourishment include those of pigs, squirrels, rabbits, horses, cattle, monkeys, chickens, fish, lamb and goats. In many cultures, different types of brain are considered a delicacy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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| null |
6mm2ny | What are these straight line formations in the middle of Australia and what caused them? | [
{
"answer": "**EDIT:** It appears, as pointed out by /u/eliminate1337, these are related to linear dunes in the Simpson Desert [(e.g. this paper discussing the formation and migration of said dunes)](_URL_1_). I've (1) seen so many similar questions about 'weird straight rivers' in various subs and (2) encountered this error in flow routing so many times processing my own data I defaulted to that as the reason. I've left my original answer for posterity as virtually any other time you encounter a similar map of colored river basins and wonder why there are odd linear features, either below is the answer or it's likely related to ['trellis drainage' patterns](_URL_0_) that result from the interaction of a river network with areas of deformed units with contrasting erodibilities.\n\nIt's a data artifact. This (and the myriad of similar maps that periodically appear on subs like /r/MapPorn or /r/dataisbeautiful) is not a map of actual rivers, but rather the result of running a flow routing algorithm on an elevation dataset (i.e. for any given pixel in a gridded dataset determining which pixel(s) are downstream of that pixel), then accumulating 'flow' (i.e. for any given pixel, summing the number of pixels that would contribute water to that pixel), and then thresholding that accumulation map (i.e. defining that any pixel that receives flow from greater than X number of pixels is a river). There are lots of different flow routing algorithms, the most common is [D8](_URL_2_) which contributes all flow from a pixel to the pixel in the 8-connected neighborhood around that pixel that has the steepest descent (i.e. is the lowest with respect to the pixel in question). Flow routing algorithms (and this is especially true for D8) do weird things in flat areas that don't actually have any clear path of steepest descent. This is often further exacerbated by a pre-processing step that happens usually referred to as 'sink filling', basically identifying local little pits that would trap flow and filling them up to the average elevation of the pixels surrounding it. Because these algorithms are also imposing hydrological connectivity (i.e. pixels that are not on the edge of the dataset or explicitly defined as the end of a flow network have to flow into another pixel) when it tries to figure out what is upstream or downstream in a totally flat area, it produces straight lines between areas that are actually channelized / actually have a path of steepest descent. What you usually want to do is mask out (i.e. set the pixels to something identifiable like 'NaN') areas of internal drainage (e.g. lakes, salt flats, etc etc) to avoid producing these artifacts. Sure enough, if you look at an [elevation map of Australia](_URL_3_), the location of the weird straight lines it the super flat Simpson desert.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I believe the other answer is incorrect. The algorithm is getting it right. [Simpson Desert](_URL_0_), the location of the straight lines, has very long parallel sand dunes up to 200 km long. They're up to 30 m tall, so a detailed elevation map is likely to have captured them.\n\nThe algorithm is showing where water would be flowing if there was any to speak of. It would flow through the valleys between the sand dunes. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9670893",
"title": "Priddy Circles",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1167,
"text": "The circles are numbered in sequence 1 to 4, with number 1 being the most southerly of the group. Circle 1 is in diameter, with a surviving ditch up to wide and deep. It has several gaps, but the one to the north-north-east was a causewayed entrance feature. Circle 2 is in diameter, with a bank up to 6 m wide and high, and the ditch is up to deep. There are three gaps present in this earthwork, and the one to the north-north-east is possibly an original feature. Within circle 2 is a possible ovoid barrow mound measuring , and high. Circle 3 is up to across, with a bank up to 1 m high and wide, and ditch up to 1 m deep and wide. There are four gaps in this circle, the one to the south-south-west is considered an original entrance feature because it directly faces the north-north-west entrance of circle 2. Circle 4 has a diameter of up to 190 m but only two-thirds of the earthwork is present. Boreholes made in the 1950s suggested that the missing western section was never finished, possibly due to subsidence in the area. Associated with circle 4 is a group of mounds interpreted as barrows, one outside the circle to the west, and possibly four inside.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25244184",
"title": "Straight Cliffs Formation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "The Straight Cliffs Formation is a stratigraphic unit in the Kaiparowits Plateau of south central Utah. It is Late Cretaceous (latest Turonian – early Campanian) in age and contains fluvial (river systems), paralic (swamps and lagoons), and marginal marine (shoreline) siliciclastic strata. It is well exposed around the margin of the Kaiparowits Plateau in the Grand Staircase – Escalante National Monument in south central Utah. The formation is named after the Straight Cliffs, a long band of cliffs creating the topographic feature Fiftymile Mountain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28967",
"title": "Simpson Desert",
"section": "Section::::Dunefields.:Morphology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 728,
"text": "The sand ridges have a trend of SSE-NNW and continue parallel for kilometres. This pattern is seen throughout the deserts of Australia. Some of the ridges continue unbroken for up to 200 km. The height and the spacing between the ridges are directly related. Where there are 5-6 ridges in a kilometre, the height is around 15 metres but when there is one or two ridges per kilometre the height jumps to 35–38 metres. In cross section, the lee side is the eastern slope with an incline of 34-38 degrees, while the stoss side is the western slope with an incline of only 10-20 degrees. In cross section, the cross beds are planar with foresets alternating between east and west. The foresets have incline angles of 10-30 degrees.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "516173",
"title": "Lake Makgadikgadi",
"section": "Section::::Origin and history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Northern Botswana has a series of deep, underlying fault lines running beneath its sands. These faults are thought to be the southernmost extensions of the same system of parallel fault lines that are pulling away from each other and have formed East Africa's Great Rift Valley. Parts of the courses of both the Linyanti River and Chobe River, mark the lie of these faults today .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1592410",
"title": "Willandra Lakes Region",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Vegetation and Geomorphological Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "The area is representative of south-east Australian lunettes or dry lake beds with wind blown dunes on their eastern margins and flat floors, formerly lake bottoms. A lunette is a crescentic dune ridge commonly found on the eastern (lee) margin of shallow lake basins in eastern Australia, developed under the influence of dominant westerly winds. The lunettes provide the area with a special scenic quality. Stabilised dunes, crescent shaped, edgethe lakes and where erosion has occurred, deep gullying has created miniature grand canyons of great beauty, as at the Walls of China, where the multicoloured strata of the lunette of Lake Mungo is exposed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3097643",
"title": "Pacific Cordillera (Canada)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "The Cordillera mountains were formed by the collision of tectonic plates and stray islands from the far East coast, causing the crust to buckle forming the mountains that we know today. This is the youngest of the three primary geographic regions of Canada, the others being the Canadian Shield and Great Plains. This designation is peculiar to Canada because the country's intramontane plateaus are narrow and may be considered together with adjoining ranges.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9670893",
"title": "Priddy Circles",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "The four circles each consist of a flat circular area surrounded by a bank and external ditch enclosure with more than one entrance. Excavations carried out between 1956 and 1959 by members of the University of Bristol Spelæological Society showed that the banks had stone cores with post and stake holes on either side. Geophysical surveys in 1995 and a magnetometer survey in 2006 are exploring further the make up of the circles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1me92i | what exactly is a time share? | [
{
"answer": "It's partial ownership in a property. In a simple example, you and 25 other people would get together to buy something very expensive, like a condo that would cost millions of dollars. Then you all agree to each spend two weeks per year in the condo.\n\nThe problem with timeshares is they are almost always run by predatory management companies who have no interest but to squeeze as much money out of the tenants as possible. The industry is rife with scam artists.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15024",
"title": "ISO 8601",
"section": "Section::::Time intervals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "A time interval is the intervening time between two time points. The amount of intervening time is expressed by a duration (as described in the previous section). The two time points (start and end) are expressed by either a combined date and time representation or just a date representation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23205337",
"title": "Half time (physics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "The 'half time' is the time taken by a quantity to reach one half of its extremal value, where the rate of change is proportional to the difference between the present value and the extremal value (i.e. in exponential decay processes). It is synonymous with half-life, but used in slightly different contexts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30958",
"title": "Time-sharing",
"section": "Section::::History.:Security.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "Time-sharing was the first time that multiple processes, owned by different users, were running on a single machine, and these processes could interfere with one another. For example, one process might alter shared resources which another process relied on, such as a variable stored in memory. When only one user was using the system, this would result in possibly wrong output - but with multiple users, this might mean that other users got to see information they were not meant to see.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13856089",
"title": "History of IBM mainframe operating systems",
"section": "Section::::Technical notes.:Time-sharing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 117,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 117,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "Time-sharing (or timesharing) is based on the idea that computers are much faster than humans, so while one human user is reading what a computer has just displayed on a screen the computer can do some useful work for another user. Large time-sharing systems can have hundreds or even thousands of simultaneous users, and the memory required by their programs and data generally adds up to much more than the physical memory attached to the computer. Time-sharing systems solve this problem by various combinations of:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19022",
"title": "Measurement",
"section": "Section::::Units and systems.:Time.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "Time is an abstract measurement of elemental changes over a non spatial continuum. It is denoted by numbers and/or named periods such as hours, days, weeks, months and years. It is an apparently irreversible series of occurrences within this non spatial continuum. It is also used to denote an interval between two relative points on this continuum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2662359",
"title": "Decimal time",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "This property also makes it straightforward to represent a timestamp as a fractional day, so that .534 can be interpreted as five decimal hours and 34 decimal minutes after the start of that day, or 0.534 (53.4%) through that day. It also adjusts well to digital time representation using epochs, in that the internal time representation can be used directly both for computation and for user-facing display.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56192528",
"title": "Time's Up (movement)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "Time's Up is a movement against sexual harassment and was founded on January 1, 2018, by Hollywood celebrities in response to the Weinstein effect and #MeToo. , it has raised more than $22 million for its legal defense fund, and gathered nearly 800 volunteer lawyers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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| null |
1lhg87 | If dreams are memory solidification processes; What are nightmares? | [
{
"answer": " > From what I understand, dreams are the loose association process needed for short term memory from the day to turn into long term memory.\n\nThis is not known to be true. Right now, we don't know what dreams are, nor what is the benefit in having them, if any.\n\nWe know that there are a number of important cognitive and physiological processes going on in the brain during sleep, including \n\n* [consolidation of particular memories](_URL_1_)\n\n* [incorporation of new memories and ideas into a broader conceptual understanding](_URL_4_)\n\n* [processing of emotional experiences](_URL_0_)\n\n* [pruning of synapses](_URL_2_)\n\n* [restoration of neuronal ATP stores](_URL_3_)\n\nThe best hypothesis we have at the moment is that dreams are probably just a conscious playback of the sleep-related tasks the brain is conducting. \n\nDreams are particularly vivid and particularly common in REM sleep, during which time brain activity is quite similar to wakefulness. It has therefore been suggested that REM sleep (and potentially the associated dreams) may represent an offline simulation of a wake-like state, allowing the brain to possibly explore new scenarios or ideas. You should note the number of qualifiers I used in that sentence. It is easy to come up with plausible-sounding hypotheses on this topic, but extremely difficult to test any of them in any meaningful way.\n\nThere is some experimental evidence that REM and NREM sleep may have different individual roles in the processing and consolidation of memories. However, that evidence is not yet strong, for the simple reason that it is difficult to experimentally manipulate the specific stages of sleep without having other effects. \n\nIt is easy to perform experiments in which people either sleep, don't sleep at all, or don't sleep enough, and these consistently show that sleep has an important role in memory processing. But it is almost impossible to perform an experiment in which you selectively manipulate just the amount of REM or NREM sleep somebody gets, because these stages usually occur in stereotypical sequence. If you mess with one stage, you necessarily mess with the entire architecture of sleep, and then it is no longer clear what aspect of the experimental manipulation caused the effect.\n\nMost studies that have linked REM sleep or NREM sleep to specific types of memory processing in humans have therefore been correlational. By that I mean they study a group of participants, and find that say those with more REM sleep on the study night performed better the next day than those with less REM sleep on the study night. That does not prove a causal link.\n\nMoreover, NREM sleep and the slow waves that occur in the brain during NREM sleep have been found to play very important roles in memory processing and consolidation during sleep, despite the fact that dreams are most commonly associated with REM sleep. Dreams do occur in NREM sleep, but they are less common and typically less vivid. It is therefore a gross error to simply equate dreams to the memory consolidation processes that occur during sleep.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "36563803",
"title": "Neuroscience of sleep",
"section": "Section::::Dreaming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "From an evolutionary standpoint, dreams might simulate and rehearse threatening events, that were common in the organism's ancestral environment, hence increasing a persons ability to tackle everyday problems and challenges in the present. For this reason these threatening events may have been passed on in the form of genetic memories. This theory accords well with the claim that REM sleep is an evolutionary transformation of a well-known defensive mechanism, the tonic immobility reflex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "13773716",
"title": "Michael Katz (psychologist)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "The lucid dream experience, which may arise as a by-product of Rigpa awareness or spontaneously due to karmic causes, assists in understanding the unreality of phenomena, which otherwise, during dream or the death experience, might be overwhelming. In the same way, we believe a nightmare to be real, but if we were to watch a similar scene within a movie, we would not necessarily be frightened.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41599726",
"title": "Garden, Ashes",
"section": "Section::::Themes and symbols.:Dreams.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "Žarko Martinović argues that Andi's nightmares are best classified as traumatic dreams. Sufferers of posttraumatic stress disorder often experience these types of dreams. Andi suppresses his nightmares by lucid dreaming. Kiš wrote \"Garden, Ashes\" long before lucid dreaming became a well-researched field of study.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "689982",
"title": "Nightmare disorder",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 900,
"text": "Research has been undertaken to investigate if sufferers of nightmares could benefit from the ability to be aware that they are indeed dreaming, a process known as lucid dreaming. The Lucid Dreaming Therapy is a specific method of the Imagery Rehearsal Therapy. The dreamer is conscious during his dream and can modulate it. Consequently, anxiety decreases, controllability increases, expectations change, which will impact the frequency of nightmares. Several studies have shown significant results with the lucid dreaming therapy. Two studies indicate a decrease of the nightmare frequency after only 12 weeks and one study shows, in 80% of the cases, a total disappearance of the nightmares after one year. Although these studies showed the efficacy of this therapy in the reduction of nightmare frequency on patients from the general population, so far evidence for this treatment is still weak.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25196457",
"title": "Cognitive neuroscience of dreams",
"section": "Section::::Neuroanatomy of dreaming.:Perceptual processing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 1358,
"text": "Another area thought to be involved in the generation of dreams is the Parieto-Occipito-Temporal junction (PTO). This is an area of grey cortex towards the back of the brain involved in the highest levels of perceptual processing. It is here that perceptions are converted into abstract thoughts and memories. The PTO is also vital for mental imagery. Damage specifically to this area results in complete loss of dreaming, however damage to lower levels of perceptual processing merely results in reduced aspects of dream imagery. This is the basis for the suggestion that dreaming involves a reversed sequence of perceptual events. Instead of bottom-up it is top-down (higher levels activating lower levels instead lower to higher). Activation of the motivational mechanisms in the brain would normally be directed toward goal-oriented actions. However, during sleep access to the motor system is blocked (by inactivation of the dorsolateral frontal convexity). As a result, activation moves backwards toward the perceptual areas. This is why the dreamer doesn't engage in motivated behaviours but imagines them. Furthermore, there is inactivation of the reflective system in the limbic brain which leads the dreamer to mistake the dream for reality. Damage to this area also results in the inability to distinguish dreams from reality during waking state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44785",
"title": "Dream",
"section": "Section::::Neurobiology.:REM versus non-REM sleep dreaming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "Distinct types of dreams have been identified for REM and non-REM sleep stages. The vivid bizarre dreams that are commonly remembered upon waking up are primarily associated with REM sleep. Deep (stage 3 and 4) slow-wave sleep (NREM sleep) is commonly associated with more static, thought-like dreams. These dreams are primarily driven by the hippocampus in the process of long-term memory consolidation and predominantly include memories of events “as they happened” without the random novel combination of objects seen in REM sleep dreams. The rest of the article focuses on REM sleep dreaming, thereafter simply referred as dreaming.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44785",
"title": "Dream",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Neurological theories.:Role in strengthening semantic memories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "This was revised in 1983 by Crick and Mitchison's \"reverse learning\" theory, which states that dreams are like the cleaning-up operations of computers when they are off-line, removing (suppressing) parasitic nodes and other \"junk\" from the mind during sleep. However, the opposite view that dreaming has an information handling, memory-consolidating function (Hennevin and Leconte, 1971) is also common.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2gomha | How often do electrons move energy levels? | [
{
"answer": "This is actually quite complicated. In short, it depends on the specific atom and how its electronic structure is. It is not possible to further understand this from Bohr's model which just considers the different energy levels n=1,2,3... as you described it.\n\nTo go into a little more detail: If you calculate the possible energy levels of electrons around an atomic nucleus using quantum mechanics, you end up with an incredibly high number. You can sort those levels using not only n, but also the three additional quantum numbers l, m and s. Each of these solutions is a possible wavefunction for an electron to have. The probability that an electron will \"jump\" from energy level x to level y depends on the overlap of these two wavefunctions. The greater the overlap, the more likely is the transition (absorption and emission have equal probabilities). There are many transitions that are not possible (\"forbidden\"), most often because there is a change in angular momentum greater than a single photon can carry or some other quantity is not preserved. The fancy term for these probabilities is Clebsch-Gordan coefficients, whether a transition is allowed is determined through so-called selection rules.\n\nIt's maybe worth noting that it's impossible to calculate the transition probabilities exactly for atoms that are not hydrogen, for all other atoms we have to use numerical methods and approximations.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is determined by so-called [selection rules](_URL_0_) on electronic transitions. The idea is that when a transition occurs, the emitted photon carries some unit of angular momentum away from the atom/molecule. Since the total momentum must be conserved, the resulting momentum of the atom/molecule after the transition is simply the original value minus the photon's momentum. There are further details to this, but essentially this poses an additional constraint that needs to be satisfied for any given transition, because each state has a specific energy as well as angular momentum quantum numbers.\n\nUsually the constraints are first-order and are not strictly satisfied. The \"forbidden\" transitions can still occur but are highly improbably. This means that they'll occur at a much lower rate, so the other, more favorable transitions respecting the selection rules will dominate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4831",
"title": "Bohr model",
"section": "Section::::Electron energy levels.:Derivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "The actual energy levels cannot be solved analytically for more than one electron (see \"n\"-body problem) because the electrons are not only affected by the nucleus but also interact with each other via the Coulomb Force.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28469",
"title": "Stimulated emission",
"section": "Section::::Mathematical model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "At the same time, there will be a process of atomic absorption which \"removes\" energy from the field while raising electrons from the lower state to the upper state. Its rate is given by an essentially identical equation,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "902",
"title": "Atom",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Energy levels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 1060,
"text": "The potential energy of an electron in an atom is negative, its dependence of its position reaches the minimum (the most absolute value) inside the nucleus, and vanishes when the distance from the nucleus goes to infinity, roughly in an inverse proportion to the distance. In the quantum-mechanical model, a bound electron can only occupy a set of states centered on the nucleus, and each state corresponds to a specific energy level; see time-independent Schrödinger equation for theoretical explanation. An energy level can be measured by the amount of energy needed to unbind the electron from the atom, and is usually given in units of electronvolts (eV). The lowest energy state of a bound electron is called the ground state, i.e. stationary state, while an electron transition to a higher level results in an excited state. The electron's energy raises when \"n\" increases because the (average) distance to the nucleus increases. Dependence of the energy on is caused not by electrostatic potential of the nucleus, but by interaction between electrons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20198857",
"title": "Thomas–Fermi model",
"section": "Section::::Kinetic energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "This result shows that the total kinetic energy of the electrons can be expressed in terms of only the spatially varying electron density formula_18 according to the Thomas–Fermi model. As such, they were able to calculate the energy of an atom using this expression for the kinetic energy combined with the classical expressions for the nuclear-electron and electron-electron interactions (which can both also be represented in terms of the electron density).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "613257",
"title": "Advanced Photon Source",
"section": "Section::::How APS works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "Electrons are produced by a hot cathode that is heated to about . The electrons are accelerated to relativistic speeds (99.999+% of the speed of light) with an energy of 450 MeV in a linear accelerator. From the linear accelerator, the electrons are injected into the booster synchrotron. Here, the electrons are sent around an oval racetrack of electromagnets, providing further acceleration. Within one-half second, the electrons reach 7 GeV of energy. Upon reaching that energy, the electrons are injected into the storage ring, a circumference ring of more than 1,000 electromagnets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5871160",
"title": "Electron-cloud effect",
"section": "Section::::Exacerbating factors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "The effect is most pronounced for electrons with around 300eV of kinetic energy - with a steep drop-off of the effect at less than that energy, and a gradual drop-off at higher energies, which occurs because electrons \"bury\" themselves deep inside the walls of the accelerator tube, making it difficult for secondary electrons to escape into the tube.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3195803",
"title": "Nearly free electron model",
"section": "Section::::Introduction - a heuristic argument.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "in which formula_6 is the kinetic and formula_7 is the potential energy. From this expression the energy expectation value, or the statistical average, of the energy of the electron can be calculated with\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
4w5ev1 | in the restaurant industry, why do prices increase from breakfast through lunch and into dinner? | [
{
"answer": "I'm not sure about breakfast, but my first guess would be that most breakfast ingredients are cheaper. \nAs for lunch to dinner, the basic answer is portion sizes. Even ordering the exact same entree, if you order from the lunch menu, your potion will be smaller than if you order during dinner hours. I've worked in kitchens/restaurants since I was 15, and this is what I've always found. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's a combination of higher cost of dinner ingredients, and supply and demand. Unless it's a niche restaurant that primarily serves breakfast, restaurants generally bring in more customers during the evening hours when dinner is served. In order to take advantage of this increase in customers, as well as to avoid depleting resources, prices are generally increased. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Pricing is part of marketing. Prices are lower during hours where the restaurant wants to attract more customers.\n\nSource: I am not from the restaurant industry but I do marketing for my company.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8786058",
"title": "Dynamic pricing",
"section": "Section::::Dynamic pricing methods.:Time-based retail pricing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "Many industries change prices depending on the time of day, especially online retailers, whose customers usually shop the most in during weekly office hours between 9AM-5PM. Raising prices during the morning and afternoon and lowering prices during the evening is a common practice with dynamic pricing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6559221",
"title": "Casa particular",
"section": "Section::::Services and facilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "In keeping with the similarity to B&Bs, breakfast is usually included in the price, although one should ask first. Dinner is often also served, but not included in the price. However, if it becomes clear that one plans to generally eat out, the price may go up because this is an important second source of income. The owners will usually offer extra services like laundry service, breakfast & meals or even cigars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4136591",
"title": "Service à la russe",
"section": "Section::::A multi-course dinner served \"à la russe\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "As a matter of fact, the marked shortening of the menu is in informal dinners and at the home table of the well-to-do. Formal dinners have been as short as the above schedule for twenty-five years. [c.1900.] A dinner interlarded with a row of extra entrées, Roman punch, and hot dessert is unknown except at a public dinner, or in the dining-room of a parvenu. About thirty-five years ago [c.1890] such dinners are said to have been in fashion!\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26437",
"title": "Restaurant",
"section": "Section::::Economics.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 852,
"text": "Dining in restaurants has become increasingly popular, with the proportion of meals consumed outside the home in restaurants or institutions rising from 25% in 1950 to 46% in 1990. This is caused by factors such as the growing numbers of older people, who are often unable or unwilling to cook their meals at home and the growing number of single-parent households. It is also caused by the convenience that restaurants can afford people; the growth of restaurant popularity is also correlated with the growing length of the work day in the US, as well as the growing number of single parent households. Eating in restaurants has also become more popular with the growth of higher income households. At the same time, less expensive establishments such as fast food establishments can be quite inexpensive, making restaurant eating accessible to many.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "80018",
"title": "Outline of meals",
"section": "Section::::Types of meals.:Types of meals, in the order served throughout the day.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 733,
"text": "BULLET::::- Dinner – most significant and important meal of the day, which can replace either lunch, high tea, or supper. However, the term \"dinner\" can have many different meanings depending on the culture; it may mean a meal of any size eaten at any time of day. Historically, in British culture, dinner was taken at midday for children and manual workers; in the early evening for office workers; and in the late evening by the wealthier elements of society. During the latter half of the 20th century there has been a cultural shift towards everyone having the main meal in the late evening. The meaning as the evening meal, now generally the largest of the day, is becoming standard in most parts of the English-speaking world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "488597",
"title": "Danish cuisine",
"section": "Section::::Main meals.:Dinner.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "Confusingly, the evening meal is sometimes called \"middag\" (midday) because hot meals were formerly served in the middle of the day. The variety of evening meals has developed as a result of the increasing availability of foods from supermarkets as well as the development and growth of the local food industry. As a result of American influence, there is now considerable interest in barbecues, salad buffets and ready-to-serve dishes. Italian-inspired preparations including pizza and pasta have also become common options. Meat is increasingly popular, pork still remaining the most frequently served. Cuts are often prepared in the frying pan and accompanied by brown gravy and potatoes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18589377",
"title": "Lunch",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "During the late 17th and 18th centuries, this meal was gradually pushed back into the evening, creating a greater time gap between breakfast and dinner. A meal called \"lunch\" came to fill the gap. The late evening meal, called supper, became squeezed out as dinner advanced into the evening, and often became a snack. But formal \"supper parties\", artificially lit by candles, sometimes with entertainment, persisted as late as the Regency era, and a ball normally included supper, often served very late.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
5ync4i | how is exercise an anti-inflammatory? | [
{
"answer": "Think of inflammation as coming in two different flavors. \n\nAcute inflammation is temporary and strong. It breaks down your body in a temporary way and when your body is done repairing itself, you just made it stronger and better than it was before.\n\nChronic inflammation is a different beast. It's asymptomatic. You don't know you have it and you can't feel it. It's little but it sticks around and quietly, slowly just breaks down your body. Without it getting stronger at all. It happens so slowly your body doesn't really react. It makes it weaker over time and harms your body.\n\nThey aren't 100% sure why, but exposing yourself to acute inflammation *consistently* over time, reduces your levels of chronic inflammation. There are a lot of theories for why that is, involving stress reduction and various hormone levels. But study after study shows that it is true. \n\n ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "432986",
"title": "Physical fitness",
"section": "Section::::Fitness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "Developing research has demonstrated that many of the benefits of exercise are mediated through the role of skeletal muscle as an endocrine organ. That is, contracting muscles release multiple substances known as myokines, which promote the growth of new tissue, tissue repair, and various anti-inflammatory functions, which in turn reduce the risk of developing various inflammatory diseases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1240348",
"title": "Strength training",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:For the pleasure of the activity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "Developing research has demonstrated that many of the benefits of exercise are mediated through the role of skeletal muscle as an endocrine organ. That is, contracting muscles release multiple substances known as myokines which promote the growth of new tissue, tissue repair, and various anti-inflammatory functions, which in turn reduce the risk of developing various inflammatory diseases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "726241",
"title": "Anti-inflammatory",
"section": "Section::::Exercise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "Developing research has demonstrated that many of the benefits of exercise are mediated through the role of skeletal muscle as an endocrine organ. That is, contracting muscles release multiple substances known as myokines which promote the growth of new tissue, tissue repair, and various anti-inflammatory functions, which in turn reduce the risk of developing various inflammatory diseases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41120962",
"title": "Neuroinflammation",
"section": "Section::::Role as a therapeutic target.:Exercise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Exercise is a promising mechanism of prevention and treatment for various diseases characterized by neuroinflammation. Aerobic exercise is used widely to reduce inflammation in the periphery. Exercise has been shown to decreases proliferation of microglia in the brain, decrease hippocampal expression of immune-related genes, and reduce expression of inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "307837",
"title": "Shoulder problem",
"section": "Section::::Tendinitis, bursitis, impingement syndrome, and rotator cuff tears.:Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 807,
"text": "Anti-inflammatory medicines such as aspirin, naproxen or ibuprofen among others can be taken to help with pain. In some cases the physical therapist will use ultrasound and electrical stimulation, as well as manipulation. Gentle stretching and strengthening exercises are added gradually. If there is no improvement, the doctor may inject a corticosteroid medicine into the space under the acromion. However, recent level one evidence showed limited efficacy of corticosteroid injections for pain relief. While steroid injections are a common treatment, they must be used with caution because they may lead to tendon rupture. If there is still no improvement after six to 12 months, the doctor may perform either arthroscopic or open surgery to repair damage and relieve pressure on the tendons and bursae.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "70425",
"title": "Inflammation",
"section": "Section::::Exercise and inflammation.:Post-inflammatory muscle growth and repair.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 181,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 181,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "Developing research has demonstrated that many of the benefits of exercise are mediated through the role of skeletal muscle as an endocrine organ. That is, contracting muscles release multiple substances known as myokines, including but not limited to those cited in the above description, which promote the growth of new tissue, tissue repair, and various anti-inflammatory functions, which in turn reduce the risk of developing various inflammatory diseases. The new view that muscle is an endocrine organ is transforming our understanding of exercise physiology and with it, of the role of inflammation in adaptation to stress.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2010013",
"title": "Navicular syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Treatment and prognosis.:Medication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Anti-inflammatory drugs are used to treat the pain, and can help the lameness resolve sometimes if shoeing and training changes are made. Include Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), corticosteroids, and other joint medications. The use of intramuscular glycosaminoglycans has been shown to decrease pain in horses with navicular disease, but this effect wanes after discontinuation of therapy. Oral glycosaminoglycans may have a similar effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
n52ae | What is going on inside a battery to establish the potential difference that causes electric current to flow? | [
{
"answer": "The difference in potential for molecules to donate/receive electrons. Some molecules are great proton donors, while others are great proton acceptors. When put in two different cells bridged by a salt bridge, the electrons will flow from the Anode (-), to the Cathode (+) end.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "See [galvanic cells](_URL_1_).\n\nBasically, you have two [half cells](_URL_0_) that, when put together, undergoes a spontaneous reaction. Instead of letting that happen, you insert your load in between the electrodes such that in order for the spontaneous reaction to occur, the electrons must flow through the path that _you_ want, converting the chemical potential into useful work.\n\nIt's similar to an internal combustion engine - you a combustion reaction that is spontaneous, and it will just go its merry way. Instead we have to put some sort of obstacle - a piston - such that the expansion of gases is harvested as useful work.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are better explanations on here, but hopefully this is a quick and dirty summary:\n\nRedox reaction = reaction where electrons are transferred.\n\nHere's the one commonly found in alkaline batteries:\n\n(Zn + 2OH- → ZnO + H2O+ 2e-)\n(2MnO2 + H2O + 2e- →Mn2O3 + 2OH-)\n\nSee how it's in two halves? That's because they're separated by a membrane, usually just a special kind of paper.\n\nNotice what's common between the two reactions?\n\n(Zn + **2OH-** → ZnO + H2O + **2e-**)\n\n\n(2MnO2 + H2O + **2e-** →Mn2O3 + **2OH-**)\n\n\nSo we have one reaction (Zinc oxidizing) that eats hydroxide and produces electrons. The other reaction (Manganese reducing) eats electrons and produces hydroxide.\n\nInside the battery, these two half-reactions cannot continue without the products of the other. They feed each other. There's one last part:\n\nRemember that paper membrane? It's preventing the two halves from touching each other. (The zinc is a plug in the center, wrapped in paper, then smeared with a manganese paste)\n\n\nWhen you touch a wire from the positive to negative sides, you allow those electrons to finally touch each other, so the reaction can progress.\n\nBUT WAIT! How do they swap hydroxides without touching? Here's the brilliant part: both halves are doused in KOH, a strong base. (Hence the name \"alkaline battery\") What do strong bases have? HYDROXIDE.\n\nSo the paper prevents the halves of the battery from short-circuiting, but the hydroxide easily moves through the paper and transfers the other half of the reaction.\n\nTada! Ain't it beautiful?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here's more like an ELI5 version:\n\nMetals will dissolve almost instantly in water, as easily as salt or sugar crystals. Weird, eh? Usually textbooks don't stress this simple fact. But there's more to it...\n\nMetals are composed of positive metal atoms (pos. ions) immersed in a \"[fluid sea](_URL_2_)\" of movable electrons. Whenever metals dissolve, the water attacks the surface and drags metal atoms out into the liquid. These atoms leave their outer electrons behind in the \"electron sea\" of the metal. Positive metal ions diffuse out into the water. Positives are leaving, and this means that the metal surface becomes strongly negative. And this means that the corrosion process halts almost instantly, since positive metal ions can't break the attraction of the rapidly increasing negative charge on the metal surface. Metals *would* dissolve as easily as salt or sugar crystals, but only if the rapidly increasing negative charge wasn't sucking all the positive ions back in.\n\nThe upshot: if metal touches water, the water becomes strongly charged positive, and the metal becomes equally charged negative. The opposite charges are mostly found in a nano-thin \"[Helmholtz double layer](_URL_0_)\" where the water is touching the metal. The voltage between the water and metal, called the [Absolute potential](_URL_1_), is around three to five volts, and is different for different metals. If anything should cause this voltage to reduce, then the metal surface will rapidly dissolve. And if something should increase the voltage, then the solid metal will attract dissolved metal ions and grow larger (electroplating.)\n\nWhat's a battery? It's two different metals touching the same body of water. A water electrode touching a metal electrode is called a \"half cell.\" If two pieces of different kinds of metal are contacting water, two half-cells are present, but with a common water electrode. Their voltages won't be the same with respect to the water. And if they ever touch each other, a very large flow of charges will begin. Try connecting those two hunks of metal with a wire, and one will rapidly dissolve, since its usual strong charge has been lowered, and the water can again attack it and dissolve the surface. What drives the process? Water. H2O molecules physically surround each metal atom and violently yank it out into the water, producing an outward flow of both atoms and a flow of positive charge as well. Water dissolves metal, but it also carries away a current of positive charges away from the metal. Batteries are powered by the same nano-level electrical forces in water which tear salt or sugar to pieces: a polar solvent attacking an ionic crystal, plus thermally-driven diffusion where a dense concentration of atoms in solution will spread outwards. All these phenomena and events can be collected under the notation of balanced reaction equations. But to really grasp what's going on, it's better to think in terms of dissolving, highly charged conductor surfaces, and metal chunks which mysteriously become electrically charged every time they touch water.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The difference in potential for molecules to donate/receive electrons. Some molecules are great proton donors, while others are great proton acceptors. When put in two different cells bridged by a salt bridge, the electrons will flow from the Anode (-), to the Cathode (+) end.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "See [galvanic cells](_URL_1_).\n\nBasically, you have two [half cells](_URL_0_) that, when put together, undergoes a spontaneous reaction. Instead of letting that happen, you insert your load in between the electrodes such that in order for the spontaneous reaction to occur, the electrons must flow through the path that _you_ want, converting the chemical potential into useful work.\n\nIt's similar to an internal combustion engine - you a combustion reaction that is spontaneous, and it will just go its merry way. Instead we have to put some sort of obstacle - a piston - such that the expansion of gases is harvested as useful work.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are better explanations on here, but hopefully this is a quick and dirty summary:\n\nRedox reaction = reaction where electrons are transferred.\n\nHere's the one commonly found in alkaline batteries:\n\n(Zn + 2OH- → ZnO + H2O+ 2e-)\n(2MnO2 + H2O + 2e- →Mn2O3 + 2OH-)\n\nSee how it's in two halves? That's because they're separated by a membrane, usually just a special kind of paper.\n\nNotice what's common between the two reactions?\n\n(Zn + **2OH-** → ZnO + H2O + **2e-**)\n\n\n(2MnO2 + H2O + **2e-** →Mn2O3 + **2OH-**)\n\n\nSo we have one reaction (Zinc oxidizing) that eats hydroxide and produces electrons. The other reaction (Manganese reducing) eats electrons and produces hydroxide.\n\nInside the battery, these two half-reactions cannot continue without the products of the other. They feed each other. There's one last part:\n\nRemember that paper membrane? It's preventing the two halves from touching each other. (The zinc is a plug in the center, wrapped in paper, then smeared with a manganese paste)\n\n\nWhen you touch a wire from the positive to negative sides, you allow those electrons to finally touch each other, so the reaction can progress.\n\nBUT WAIT! How do they swap hydroxides without touching? Here's the brilliant part: both halves are doused in KOH, a strong base. (Hence the name \"alkaline battery\") What do strong bases have? HYDROXIDE.\n\nSo the paper prevents the halves of the battery from short-circuiting, but the hydroxide easily moves through the paper and transfers the other half of the reaction.\n\nTada! Ain't it beautiful?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here's more like an ELI5 version:\n\nMetals will dissolve almost instantly in water, as easily as salt or sugar crystals. Weird, eh? Usually textbooks don't stress this simple fact. But there's more to it...\n\nMetals are composed of positive metal atoms (pos. ions) immersed in a \"[fluid sea](_URL_2_)\" of movable electrons. Whenever metals dissolve, the water attacks the surface and drags metal atoms out into the liquid. These atoms leave their outer electrons behind in the \"electron sea\" of the metal. Positive metal ions diffuse out into the water. Positives are leaving, and this means that the metal surface becomes strongly negative. And this means that the corrosion process halts almost instantly, since positive metal ions can't break the attraction of the rapidly increasing negative charge on the metal surface. Metals *would* dissolve as easily as salt or sugar crystals, but only if the rapidly increasing negative charge wasn't sucking all the positive ions back in.\n\nThe upshot: if metal touches water, the water becomes strongly charged positive, and the metal becomes equally charged negative. The opposite charges are mostly found in a nano-thin \"[Helmholtz double layer](_URL_0_)\" where the water is touching the metal. The voltage between the water and metal, called the [Absolute potential](_URL_1_), is around three to five volts, and is different for different metals. If anything should cause this voltage to reduce, then the metal surface will rapidly dissolve. And if something should increase the voltage, then the solid metal will attract dissolved metal ions and grow larger (electroplating.)\n\nWhat's a battery? It's two different metals touching the same body of water. A water electrode touching a metal electrode is called a \"half cell.\" If two pieces of different kinds of metal are contacting water, two half-cells are present, but with a common water electrode. Their voltages won't be the same with respect to the water. And if they ever touch each other, a very large flow of charges will begin. Try connecting those two hunks of metal with a wire, and one will rapidly dissolve, since its usual strong charge has been lowered, and the water can again attack it and dissolve the surface. What drives the process? Water. H2O molecules physically surround each metal atom and violently yank it out into the water, producing an outward flow of both atoms and a flow of positive charge as well. Water dissolves metal, but it also carries away a current of positive charges away from the metal. Batteries are powered by the same nano-level electrical forces in water which tear salt or sugar to pieces: a polar solvent attacking an ionic crystal, plus thermally-driven diffusion where a dense concentration of atoms in solution will spread outwards. All these phenomena and events can be collected under the notation of balanced reaction equations. But to really grasp what's going on, it's better to think in terms of dissolving, highly charged conductor surfaces, and metal chunks which mysteriously become electrically charged every time they touch water.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6944",
"title": "Cathode",
"section": "Section::::Charge flow.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "A battery or galvanic cell in use has a cathode that is the positive terminal since that is where the current flows out of the device. This outward current is carried internally by positive ions moving from the electrolyte to the positive cathode (chemical energy is responsible for this \"uphill\" motion). It is continued externally by electrons moving into the battery which constitutes positive current flowing outwards. For example, the Daniell galvanic cell's copper electrode is the positive terminal and the cathode.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36890786",
"title": "Capillary electrochromatography",
"section": "Section::::Principle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "When an electric field is applied to the fluid (usually via electrodes placed at inlets and outlets), the net charge in the electrical double layer is induced to move by the resulting Coulomb force. The resulting flow is termed electroosmotic flow. In CEC positive ions of the electrolyte added along with the analyte accumulate in the electrical double layer of the particles of the column packing on application of an electric field they move towards the cathode and drag the liquid mobile phase with them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "349654",
"title": "Electro-osmosis",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "Electroosmotic flow is caused by the Coulomb force induced by an electric field on net mobile electric charge in a solution. Because the chemical equilibrium between a solid surface and an electrolyte solution typically leads to the interface acquiring a net fixed electrical charge, a layer of mobile ions, known as an electrical double layer or Debye layer, forms in the region near the interface. When an electric field is applied to the fluid (usually via electrodes placed at inlets and outlets), the net charge in the electrical double layer is induced to move by the resulting Coulomb force. The resulting flow is termed electroosmotic flow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "706106",
"title": "Electrostatic induction",
"section": "Section::::The voltage throughout a conductive object is constant.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 759,
"text": "The electrostatic potential or voltage between two points is defined as the energy (work) required to move a small charge through an electric field between the two points, divided by the size of the charge. If there is an electric field directed from point formula_1 to point formula_2 then it will exert a force on a charge moving from formula_2 to formula_1. Work will have to be done on the charge by a force to make it move to formula_1 against the opposing force of the electric field. Thus the electrostatic potential energy of the charge will increase. So the potential at point formula_1 is higher than at point formula_2. The electric field formula_8 at any point is the negative gradient (rate of change) of the electrostatic potential formula_9 : \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1643583",
"title": "Hydraulic analogy",
"section": "Section::::Hydraulic analogy with horizontal water flow.:Voltage, current, and charge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "In general, electric potential is equivalent to hydraulic head. This model assumes that the water is flowing horizontally, so that the force of gravity can be ignored. In this case electric potential is equivalent to pressure. The voltage (or voltage drop or \"potential difference\") is a difference in pressure between two points. Electric potential and voltage are usually measured in volts. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6944",
"title": "Cathode",
"section": "Section::::Charge flow.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "Conventional current flow is from cathode to anode outside of the cell or device (with electrons moving in the opposite direction), regardless of the cell or device type and operating mode. The cathode in the solid-state battery is important because it supplies the battery with the necessary ions during charging and vice versa during discharging. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65894",
"title": "Electromotive force",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "In the case of a battery, the charge separation that gives rise to a voltage difference between the terminals is accomplished by chemical reactions at the electrodes that convert chemical potential energy into electromagnetic potential energy. A voltaic cell can be thought of as having a \"charge pump\" of atomic dimensions at each electrode, that is:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1a9uld | What causes the dark coloration around anuses? Poop? Friction? Is it just the same process that darkens genitals and nipples in puberty? | [
{
"answer": "Similar threads - [1](_URL_0_), [2](_URL_1_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "439380",
"title": "Flushing (physiology)",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Sex flush.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "During the female sex flush, pinkish spots develop under the breasts, then spread to the breasts, torso, face, hands, soles of the feet, and possibly over the entire body. Vasocongestion is also responsible for the darkening of the clitoris and the walls of the vagina during sexual arousal. During the male sex flush, the coloration of the skin develops less consistently than in the female, but typically starts with the epigastrium (upper abdomen), spreads across the chest, then continues to the neck, face, forehead, back, and sometimes, shoulders and forearms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "702635",
"title": "Human sexual response cycle",
"section": "Section::::Excitement phase.:Excitement in both sexes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 803,
"text": "During the female sex flush, pinkish spots develop under the breasts, then spread to the breasts, torso, face, hands, soles of the feet, and possibly over the entire body. Vasocongestion is also responsible for the darkening of the clitoris and the walls of the vagina during sexual arousal. During the male sex flush, the coloration of the skin develops less consistently than in the female, but typically starts with the epigastrium (upper abdomen), spreads across the chest, then continues to the neck, face, forehead, back, and sometimes, shoulders and forearms. The sex flush typically disappears soon after orgasm occurs, but this may take up to two hours or so and, sometimes, intense sweating will occur simultaneously. The flush usually diminishes in reverse of the order in which it appeared.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28359444",
"title": "Andricus grossulariae",
"section": "Section::::Galls.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "The sexual phase appears on catkins as rounded structures (6 mm × 3–4 mm) possessing a characteristic point, and when young are covered with fine hairs. The galls, shiny and hard, turn red in colour and then black or dark purple.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48171880",
"title": "Pediatric gynaecology",
"section": "Section::::Puberty.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "During puberty, the vaginal mucosa becomes estrogenized and becomes a dull pink color and gains moisture. Secondary sex characteristics develop under the influence of estrogen on the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, typically between the ages of 8 and 13. These characteristics include breast buds, pubic hair, and accelerated growth. Higher body mass index is correlated with earlier puberty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2076669",
"title": "Leukorrhea",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "Leukorrhea or (leucorrhoea British English) is a thick, whitish or yellowish vaginal discharge. There are many causes of leukorrhea, the usual one being estrogen imbalance. The amount of discharge may increase due to vaginal infection, and it may disappear and reappear from time to time. This discharge can keep occurring for years, in which case it becomes more yellow and foul-smelling. It is usually a non-pathological symptom secondary to inflammatory conditions of vagina or cervix.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25439126",
"title": "Vulva",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Pregnancy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "In pregnancy the vulva and vagina take on a bluish colouring due to venous congestion. This appears between the eighth and twelfth week and continues to darken as the pregnancy continues. Estrogen is produced in large quantities during pregnancy and this causes the external genitals to become enlarged. The vaginal opening and the vagina are also enlarged. After childbirth a vaginal discharge known as lochia is produced and continues for about ten days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "808256",
"title": "Urticating hair",
"section": "Section::::In tarantulas.:Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "Urticating hairs do not appear at birth but form with each consecutive molt, widening from molt to molt and outwardly presenting themselves around areas of more dark hairs on the upper back part of the abdomen of juveniles. In elder ages their coloration shifts to match the main tone of abdomen. Despite this shift, urticating hairs nonetheless retain unique characteristics that render them visually distinct from abdominal hairs, such as their tendency to cover only a portion instead of the entirety of the opisthosoma.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
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