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7d6woz | when scientific research uses mice for experiments, for trying to find cures for conditions such as cancer, how do they 'give' them the illnesses being reviewed? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"Mice are low cost, low food/care cost, and not cute (which reduces PR headaches). Some mice are genetically bred to be likely toget a disease. Others have things like mouse cancer cells injected into them."
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7d7da4 | How do scam organizations work? Who decides to work in a contact centre for phone/email scammers? | Other | explainlikeimfive | {
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"> Who decides to work in a contact centre for phone/email scammers? People who are at the point where any work is better than no work. They are probably promised some sort of incentive to pull in people."
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7d7px9 | How do CRT displays have the ability to display video below the maximum resolution without the use of interpolation? | I hear that the old CRT displays can operate at different resolutions without the use of any upscaling methods. The flat panel displays can only operate at the maximum resolution format. That means digital video upscaling is required to match the maximum resolution of the display. It is hard to find a good explanation on this. | Technology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"Digital displays have a fixed number of pixels, which is what is called the \"native\" resolution of the display. Because of this fixed number, any resolution that tries to display less pixels than what are physically present requires interpolation if you want the image to fill the entire screen (display scaling). If you turn off display scaling, you get a sharper image at lower resolutions at the cost of the image not filling the entire display (black bars). & nbsp; CRTs on the other hand, shoot electrons at a screen which excites material on the back of the glass display, and creates an image. CRTs being analog, you have a theoretically infinite number of resolution possibilities without needing any interpolating, because there are no fixed number of pixels on the display. This gets into the differences between digital and analog in general. Hope this helps."
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7d82l1 | what is data mining | Technology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"Data mining is finding patterns in massively large amounts of data. There's no universal definition of what constitutes \"big data\", but a general rule of thumb is that if it fits in RAM on a single computer, it's not big data. Today you can get a standard-sized tower desktop computer with 128GB of RAM for under $10,000. [One example from HP]( URL_0 ) - so for sure if you have less than 128 GB of data, it's not big data. Some would even say if you can fit it on a single hard drive it's not big data. So even a few terabytes wouldn't be \"big data\". Good examples of big data: * Every Google search ever performed * Every SMS sent from a Verizon user * Every show watched by Comcast digital cable subscribers * Every \"Like\" clicked on by Facebook users * The compute human genome for all individuals who have had their whole genome sequenced Each of these data sets is trillions and trillions of data points, too much to just look for simple patterns. Data mining is the practice of looking for previously unknown patterns in this data, and coming up with ways to better understand all of the data. It relies on techniques like statistical analysis and machine learning. A good example of data mining is anomaly detection. What are data points that stand out as different, unique, or unusual? In what *ways* are they unusual? Because of the massive size of these databases, it's not practical to predefine what it means for a data point to be unusual, or manually look through the data to figure out what to look for. A better technique might be to come up with a Naive Bayes model to predict the likelihood of each data point, then extract the top 1% most unlikely data points and then use k-means to cluster them and then extract prototypical examples of each type of anomaly."
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7d8i64 | Why are human eye colours restricted to brown, blue, green, and in extremely rare cases, red, as opposed to other colours? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"Great question. Eye doctor here. Eye color is in the Iris, and the Iris has two layers, a back layer that's always fully pigmented, and a thicker front layer. The pigment is melanin, same that makes our skin different colors. Now when the front layer is densely pigmented, it appears dark, like brown or even black (though shine a bright enough light and you'll see black eyes are just very dark brown). If it's not pigmented, it appears light blue. Why? Same reason the sky's blue, light scatters in it. Light scattering is a different topic, but basically short wavelengths (ie blue) bounce differently in the fluffy front layer without pigment. What about in between? Well it turns out if there's pigment but it's not super dense, it's a bit of a lighter brown or dark orange. We call these amber eyes. If it's between amber and blue, then it's like a cross between light orange and blue. That's how you get green eyes. So that's how you get the spectrum: from blue to green to amber to brown to black. So what about \"red\" or \"violet\" eyes? Turns out I lied in the beginning; that back layer I mentioned that's always pigmented isn't in a medical condition: Albinism. These folks unfortunately have a defect in producing melanin pigment, which is why they all have fair skin and light hair and such. So why red? It's the same reason you can get red eyes in flash photography; the red is the color of the retina in the back of the eye. Flash photography causes you to accidentally image peoples retinas. Now without the pigment in the back layer of the iris, the iris almost functionally becomes like Saran Wrap; it's clear and doesn't block out light anymore. So when you see red (or violet) eyes, you're seeing retina through their Iris. Side note: this is one reason why folks with albinism have poor vision. The purpose of the iris is to act like a camera aperature. Without pigment, it can't block out light like an aperature, removing a whole element of the focusing system of the eye. Disclaimer: this is a bit of an oversimplification of how eye colors work, but it's fundamentally not too far off. The genetics that go into eye color get very complex, don't think it's some single gene thing; I know this explanation makes it seem like there's just one toggle, but that's not how the genetic part of it works. Edit: Thank you for the many responses. Unfortunately I cannot give anything out resembling medical advice, nor answer the volume of questions here. I'll try to answer what I can in a general sense where it looks like there's been multiple questions later today.",
"Although it's already been mentioned that there are some rarer variations of colors outside of brown, blue and green, I think what you meant is \"Why can't human eyes be all colors of the rainbow?\". First we need to look at why human eyes have any color. There's a layer in your eye that contains pigment. The most common pigment is melanin. Melanin itself is dark brown. Melanin is also found in hair and skin - people with more melanin in their skin have darker skin, and those with less melanin are more fair. Those who have very little melanin have blue eyes. Why is this? There isn't a \"blue\" pigment that's in blue eyes. I'm not well equipped to explain this but it's the same reason why the sky appears blue. It has to do with blue light waves (there's all sorts of different color wavelengths) bouncing off oxygen and nitrogen particles in the air. The blue ones are realllly good at this, which is why we see blue. The Tyndall effect is what best fits why eyes with low/no melanin are blue. Light enters, long wavelengths (aka non-blue wavelengths) are long enough to reach the back of the eye. The back of our eyes have the ability to absorb light. So basically all the long wavelengths get absorbed! However, blue is a SHORT wavelength and doesn't reach the back very well. It bounces around and ultimately gets reflected back out. That's why we see some people's eyes as blue. Remember, we see what is reflected, NOT absorbed. For example, a tomato appears red because it absorbed all other light wavelengths except red. The red wavelength is reflected - it's what we see. It's actually pretty interesting, there's a laser that's still being approved that destroys the pigment in the iris to reveal blue eyes. Technically we all would have blue eyes if it weren't for pigment. Originally, everyone had brown eyes, blue eyes were a gene mutation that popped up after a while. But what about grey eyes? They're...kinda blue, right? Well, there's an idea that this difference is due to some people having more collagen (just a type of building block for stuff like skin and tissue!) in their eyes than other people. This can affect the whole light reflection stuff and give variation. This, along with eye shape (the angle you reflect the light is involved in the 'clearness' of the color) could also explain why some people have eye colors that really kind of \"glow\" and \"pop\" while others with similar eye colors don't have very attention-drawing eyes. Ultimately, we still don't have a truly clear answer as to why some people have bright blue eyes while others might have blue eyes on the duller, grey side. They both have low levels of melanin in their eyes but there's a lot of other factors at play. Now getting back to the other colors. Really dark brown eyes have a lot of melanin. Sometimes they even look black, but if you took a light to them you would see that it's really just a deep brown color. More pigment = more absorbed wavelengths. So unlike blue eyes, light wavelengths coming in aren't really getting out. You're actually seeing melanin (that brown colored pigment mentioned earlier). Those with really high levels of it will have dark brown eyes, while those with more moderate amounts of it might have light brown eyes. Okay...but what about GREEN? There's a green pigment, right? Well, no. We need to look at what the differences and similarities to hazel and green eyes are to further understand. Hazel eyes involve having both the blue eye effects yet enough pigment to where the color seen isn't blue. So there's little enough melanin to still get some of those blue wavelengths to bounce around and get reflected out again, but there's enough melanin to where you're still seeing brown. Together, you get kind of a brownish green. There's a lot of variations of this of course - hazel eyes are going to look different from person to person due to amounts of melanin and those other possible factors we mentioned in the gray vs blue eyes. True green is actually quite rare. This is why: You have the same stuff as hazel eyes going on (low-ish melanin, blue light reflection) but you also have a decent amount of a different type of pigment called lipochrome. Lipochrome isn't found as often in humans as other mammals like dogs, cats, etc. Melanin is BROWN, but lipochrome is YELLOW. Low-ish amounts of melanin, plus a good amount of lipochrome is what gives people green eyes. The \"greenest\" looking eyes would likely be ones with very very small amounts of melanin, but moderate amounts of lipochrome. The more melanin mixed in, the more brown-green (closer to hazel) you get instead of blue-green. Those with a lot of lipochrome and melanin might have closer to amber-colored eyes. Even blue eyed people can have \"flecks of gold\" - this would likely be due to some bits of lipochrome in their eyes. Other animals like birds can have a wider, more vivid range of colors than humans because they actually have a wider variety of pigments in their eyes. You'll never see a human with the eye color of a great horned owl because we don't produce a yellow pigment in our eyes that vibrant and bold. Lipochrome's yellowness just doesn't compare to some of those bright yellow pigments birds have! EDIT: Thanks for the gold kind stranger!! EDIT: Thanks for the second gold!! I'm glad this post was informative and helpful to folks. Sorry if I don't reply to everyone who has asked a question. Also to some of the concerns over light perception and light physics stuff: I definitely oversimplified, decided not to bring in refraction because I didn't want to get tooooo much into detail to keep the answer on point and ELI5. To those asking more info about the laser tech, I link some stuff in my post here: URL_0 . Unfortunately there's not a whole lot of information on it.",
"There’s more than just those colors, as people can also have gray, violet, hazel, and amber. Eye color is also a spectrum of shades, often containing flecks or streaks of different colors as well. Edit: Here’s an article on violet eyes, also truly green eyes are “rarer” : URL_0",
"That is actually a lot of colors. There is actually only one pigement that creates all the eye colors for humans that melanin. Eye color varies because of how much pigment there is, brown is the most blue no pigment in the iris or ocular fluid, but there is some in the stoma. Red eyes comes from albinism, and comes from the blood vessel.",
"Follow up question: What's with eyes where the color appears to change depending on lighting? Mine can be bluish, green, or even grey in different lights.",
"Here's a follow on question - I am asian and my eyes are black. In asia, everybody agrees they're black. There's no way anybody can mistake them for brown yet everybody in North America insists they are brown. Is this a cultural thing? And...why? Edit: OK, I looked at my eyes closely with the aid of a flashlight and they are dark, dark brown. But without the use of a flashlight - black.",
"Without any pigment, everyone's eyes would appear blue—it's structural coloration due to the [Tyndall effect]( URL_0 ), basically just the way the light bounces around in your eyes scatters more of the short-wavelength stuff outward, same way skim milk or smoke have a vaguely bluish tinge to them.",
"There are actually only 2 kinds of pigments that make up the colors of all of our eyes. No one is born with DNA for blue or green eyes, only two shades of brown: the rich super dark brown (melanin), and a more yellowy amber (lipochrome) The interesting part is that the eye actually has two layers which contain these pigments, and strangely enough, this allows for our eyes to APPEAR like there is a huge diversity in color. All eyes contain melanin, but Blue and gray eyes contain very small amounts of melanin. They refract the light in such a way as to appear blue. The light hits the eye, bounces around, rays go a-scattering, and the dominant wave length to make it through the great hurdle is the blue wave lengths. Eyes with lipochrome on the back layer of the eye may read more green, as the yellowy tones of the lipochrome mix with the refracted light on the first layer creating the appearance of green. This is why green eyes tend to shift a lot from blue to green to sometimes hazel, because our eyes interpret color based on the colors we see around it and the color of the light shining on it. Been crying a lot? The redness of your face will probably make your eyes APPEAR greener. Sitting in direct sunlight may make your eyes look more intensely blue or green. So quick recap: eye color is produced by only two pigments, one amber/yellow and one brown. The layers upon which these pigments sit as well as the density of the pigments determine the appearance of our eye colors. Refracted light and color relativity allow for our eyes to read eyes as blue, green, gray, or red when they are actually not. Source: fell down a rabbit hole about eye color when my doctor told me my eyes weren't green and pissed me off.",
"Elizabeth Taylor was said to have had purple irises. I had a baby sitter as a kid who had one blue iris and one golden yellow iris. What's left, orange?",
"I have brown eyes, but when I'm dehydrated there are more hues of yellow (and only I notice). I've always been insecure about my brown eyes because my boyfriend has blue-green soulful eyes.",
"I’m going to take a different tack than everybody else. Everybody seems to be explaining how the colours are produced, not *why* we are restricted. Fundamentally, the *”why”* is an evolutionary question. There is no physical reason why we couldn’t have a whole spectrum of vibrant colours. In fact, other animals (birds come to mind, like [here]( URL_3 ), [here]( URL_4 ), [here]( URL_2 ) and [here]( URL_0 ) ) already have some of these. Heck, some animals have [multiple colours]( URL_1 ). However, the adaptations required to produce the various pigments, materials, or physical properties necessary are complex and slow to develop. Furthermore, there would have to be strong selective pressure to select for those extremes. Superficial animals like birds that are looking for a visually superior mate are far more likely to develop such fancy colours. Humans could do so... but over a huge number of generations, and we would have to care a lot about eye colour. So, we are only really restricted by time, mutations and selective pressure. But it could totally happen.",
"\"extremely rare cases\" lol almost every adult in North America has a beautiful shade of bloodshot red eyes.",
"I have a question, I have mostly blue eyes, although around my pupil there's a kind of predominant yellow ring, someone once tried to tell me I'm dehydrated??"
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7d8ibn | How is it so difficult for video game publishers to detect cheating on PC? | Doesn't their code have digital signatures? Don't they have third party cheat drivers running concurrently? How are PC players able to defeat this and continue to ruin multiplayer games? Is their no practical way to prevent players from cheating in multiplayer? I could care less what folks do in single player but I'm having a hard time understanding how the information coming from a multiplayer client cannot be authenticated and validated and that the client runtime environment has not been currupted. | Technology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"The fundamental problem is that the user has physical control over their own PC and the only information the game manufacturer gets is whatever their PC sends. > Doesn't their code have digital signatures? Sure, and those can always be defeated someone with enough time and perseverance. Let's say the code is running on my PC. The first thing the code does is check to see if it's been modified, and refuse to run if its code doesn't match the signature. No problem, I just modify the code that detects whether it's been modified or not. The code uses the code's signature to encrypt all messages to the server? No problem, I just modify it so that there's another *unmodified* copy of the game installed and it encrypts messages using that signature instead. Basically any checks on the client side can be bypassed by a programmer who knows how to disassemble. It's only a matter of how long it will take or how tricky it will be.",
"Former game dev here, This is a bit out of my knowledge and experience, but I do know a couple bits that can explain how some of the cheating is happening. Multiplayer games are predictive - that is to say, when I start moving across your screen, it's because I issued commands from my client that I am moving. This goes to the server and is disseminated to all other clients. I start moving on my screen before the server even acknowledges it got the message. So your client knows who and where I am, and then it receives the command that I started moving forward. Your client will move my character forward indefinitely until it receives and update about my attitude - maybe I stopped or changed direction. The client will then apply this new command and make corrections to make sure it's consistent with the game world on the server. This is all very telling and an important insight. You can do things, and things can be done, out of sync of the server, authority isn't exclusive to the server, and consistency is a carrot dangled at the end of a stick. This sacrifice is made for performance. Games used to be made where the server was the ultimate authority and clients were only slaves, but latency was intractable. So because your client knows of the other players, who, where, and how they are, this information can be stolen from the running client. This would give a player an unfair advantage, a radar of where everyone else is. They know you're coming or where to find you. Hackers can also take advantage of the render pipeline and modify it. It could be as simple as set a surface to 100% transparency, or it may involve a sort of man in the middle attack where the API calls to the driver are intercepted and modified, allowing the hacker to see on the game screen any information about you available to him, such as player, position, and orientation. Needless to say, effort goes into preventing these sorts of hacks, but it's always a losers game. Any attempt to thwart these style hacks are on the hackers own machine, which they have ultimate control over. A persistent hacker will eventually subvert these defenses. Something like an MMO conserves computation and bandwidth by not transmitting to you the game state of the whole world, which is typically why players will suddenly appear from the ether in the far field. They didn't exist in your world until then. So at least there's that. And any logic where the client is the authority can be exploited. For example, in normal gameplay, if there's a latency hiccup, your client might inform the server you are somewhere else than it expected you to be - you turned when it thought you went straight, so the correction takes place on the server. This sort of logic can be exploited to bump you to all over a map. This sort of thing is going to be very game specific. Needless to say, we try to minimize how much of an authority a client is, where the server should always be the ultimate authority, but certain compromises may have to be made for performance. This sort of logic has undergone quite a bit of evolution and was not my expertise, I'm curious where it's at today. Some people are pathetic. They care about the hollow masturbatory sensation up in their taint of winning over noobs more than the challenge and excitement of the game, or the satisfaction of hard earning victory and advancement. They are boring, under developed, selfish, and anti-social individuals and a waste of the effort they put into their cheating, typically the type of guy who at 24 still can't grow a beard. And all you can do is jump servers to find someone worth playing with. And because that is your only solution, these twats bounce across servers and ruin the experience for as many people as possible. I, for one, cannot be bothered, and avoid multi-play with random strangers at all cost.",
"I actually used to write memory editing based hacks for games like First Person Shooters, and a few MMOs. I've created aimbots, wallhacks, no spread, no recoil hacks, shooting people through walls, and many other interesting things. For some MMO's, I've created speed movement hacks, teleportation hacks, super jump hacks, walk up walls/hills, etc. In one MMO, what was easily done was to tell the game you were \"swimming\" when outside of water. This essentially would turn off gravity and would allow you to \"swim\" through the air. It doesn't have that significant of an advantage, but I have used it to \"fly\"/swim over bosses to the ends of high level instances to unlock treasure chests and such, without actually having to fight the bosses. I've also used the swim hack to gain access to unreleased/new areas, and fly over otherwise dangerous places. Disclaimer: In no instances have I sold any such programs for money, nor broken any laws. Broken Terms of Services, sure, but laws, no. I'll try to focus strictly on the client-side of things. There are server side mechanisms in place, but often are not super robust, because it is very resource intense to track everything about a player, such as where they are aiming at any given second and regulate that. At the end of the day, the client handles a significant majority of the player info, depending on the type of game, and the server is trusting the client to send it accurate information. A lot of games do incorporate various client side mechanisms to detect unnatural memory changes, and in some cases it is effective, but usually only at a rudimentary level. It is impossible to give you a conclusive answer on how exactly certain mechanisms are circumvented, because it is totally situational and dependent upon the developer. A server side example: in many MMOs similar to WoW, in attempts to prevent movement hacks, the server may check your location every 5-10 seconds, sometimes longer, and check to see if you were able to move the distance that you did naturally. If it detected you moved unnaturally far in a period, it may switch you back to your previous location, and in many cases disconnect you. This for instance isn't fool proof as the server must account for lag and other subtle variations. In some cases, I have found myself able to get away with a 15% speed increase without the server detecting it. Sometimes higher, and have used this to outrun and solo bosses very easily. It's not perfect, but some advantage can come from it if done right. When a hack is being written, all the programmer is doing is spending time trying to understand how the game is handling and dealing with certain memory addresses. This frequently requires an understanding of assembly language, and an understanding of how to follow various instructions and changes through the assembly. In other words, it can be extremely complicated in some cases. As an example: some games may not have any mechanisms in place to prevent you from simply editing your coordinates and teleporting across the map. Whereas, some games may crash if you directly edit the coordinates, and instead may require you to edit the instruction that passes the number to the coordinate memory address. In some cases a hacker might have to completely rewrite the function which controls the players movement, which in doing so he can incorporate all sorts of nifty features, like controlling how fast he moves, passing through walls, jumping very high, etc. These are just examples. Technically speaking, pretty much ALL client side anti-cheat mechanisms can be circumvented if the hacker is willing to spend enough time studying how it works and how to get around it. A game developer might make modifying a certain aspect of the memory super difficult, and it might deter the hacker enough so that they don't even bother.... but if the hacker does manage to get around it, the game developer has to figure out what they did, and then block that means. In many cases, once the hacker has figured out the primary anti-cheat mechanism surrounding certain memory regions, it can be trivial for them to get around any updates made to counter them. The only way to make the hacker truly have to start over, is to completely change that anti-cheat mechanism... which if you're starting to catch on, can get VERY expensive for game developers. In many cases for hackers, it's simply a whole lot of trial and error, game crashing, game rebooting, etc. Sleepless nights screwing around with memory addresses for fun seeing what sort of interesting things you can make the game do without crashing it. Many hackers do this for fun in their spare time, and game developers frequently have to spend tons of money to counteract it. It's a never ending cycle. I used to just do it for fun. I would download games I didn't even care about just to see what sort of fun stuff I could do with the memory. In the most general sense, all a hacker is, is someone who studies a mechanism enough to the point where they can manipulate it for their own purposes. It's an engineering mindset. Most career hackers also typically have a somewhat advanced understanding of mid-high level mathematics as it is generally required for hacks such as aimbots and other related hacks."
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7d8ik0 | What is it about cyanide that kills you within seconds on oral contact? What are other compounds more potent than this? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"I don't know where you got the impression that cyanide poisoning will kill you in seconds on oral contact. It can kill you quickly when inhaled, but that's common to many poisons. It takes at least a few minutes for symptoms to appear when ingested. Cyanide is a pretty effective toxin because it disrupts the ability of your cells to make ATP, which is their fundamental fuel. The symptoms are very similar, then, to deprivation of oxygen. There are many other toxins that are far more potent than cyanide. Some of them that are notable include several synthetic opioids including fentanyl and carfentanyl; a number of mercury compounds including dimethylmercury (which notably [killed a scientist working with it when a single drop passed through her glove]( URL_0 )); and a number of nerve agents including VX and other organophosphates.",
"So you've probably heard about hemoglobin right? No? Well, if not, hemoglobin is a protein floating through your blood that carries oxygen throughout your body. Cyanide can mimic the shape of oxygen, a little bit too well, and it swoops in and takes over the oxygen carrying hemoglobin and never wants to let it go. So what happens? Well, no oxygen on hemoglobin means no oxygen in your blood, which means no oxygen through your body, so that's a problem. Now why is it really a big problem though? What does oxygen even do? Well, in our cells, we have little structures called mitochondria, which, as high school biology will tell you, is the powerhouse of the cell. Mitochondria need oxygen to work their magic, which is to create ATP ready to pump into the cell. ATP are the molecular units of energy, and our cells need it to do a lot of the really important things that cells do, like replicate. So blocking oxygen to mitochondria? That's a big problem Now, you probably think \"oh that's awful!\". Well, it gets worse. In mitochondria is a special protein we call cytochrome c oxidase, necessary for the ATP producing process to work efficiently. Cyanide can also bind to this, and block it from doing it's job. So first of all, cyanide binds to hemoglobin, blocking oxygen transfer. But if you do get oxygen into the cell, cyanide can still block cyt c oxidase, making the oxygen worthless anyways"
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7d8kw2 | Whats with the crazy head jerking movements with chickens and some other types of birds when they walk? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"[Chickens, and many other birds, stabilize their heads so that they can keep looking at the same thing.]( URL_0 ) Practically all animals have some method of doing this; typically eye movements, head movements, or both, are involved. In humans, gaze fixation (keeping your eye on the ball, so to speak) is often accomplished more through eye movements - hence why you can read text while bobbing your head up and down or side to side. Many birds have limited freedom to move their eyes, so they keep their heads in the same spot to the maximum extent possible. When they're walking around, this looks like head bobbing, because they keep their head fixed in space for as long as they can before rapidly moving it to a new place."
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7d8ola | Vision goes black after rubbing eyes | Sometimes when I rub my eyes or press down hard for a bit, my vision in that eye good away and comes back. What causes this? Edit: I don't think I was specific enough. This has only happened once or twice. This isn't a chronic issue, just some in the shower curiosity. | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
"dpvzcbi",
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"text": [
"The retina is very dependent on good blood supply and the pressure on eye interrupts this.",
"I'm curious about this too. Not to hijack the thread, but I had Lasik and when I rub an eye the right way it can stay blurry for up to a minute. Then goes back to normal. I don't remember that being the case before the surgery. Not a big deal though. Otherwise very happy with the results."
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7d8ruu | Is it possible for a very wealthy person (for example: Bill Gates) to cause inflation on whichever country he will go to? | Economics | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
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"No, having a lot more money than you and me isn't the same thing as having a significant fraction of the nation's economy.",
"He could, if he started giving out large bills for minor services. The US Army had that problem in Iraq. [(Read the first half of #1, which is at the bottom of the page.)]( URL_0 )",
"Inflation caused by increased spending (known as demand-pull inflation) is associated with greater demand in an economy resulting in a rising price level. This spending can be seen as a country’s real GDP. Even the country with the lowest yearly GDP in the world still exceeds Gates’ net worth by a factor of over tens of thousands. Given that, and the fact that much of Gates’ net worth is not immediately available to him (much of it is tied up in other assets), he would barely cause a dent in a country’s price level by any outrageous spending. This also takes into account any multiplier effect (essentially spending by others induced by Gates’ spending: he buys a soft drink and the grocer spends some of that money on a toy for his children, and the chain continues) his spending might have on the economy."
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7d8yx1 | Do nutrients that are awaiting evacuation from our bladders, ever get reabsorbed? | I’ve always heard that when we intake too much vitamin C or other things our body needs, the extra just gets “peed out.” Does our body ever decide it needs some of that back and reabsorb it? For example: if you take vitamin C before bed at some point through the night your body might decide it could use some more, can your body take back any of the excess that was placed in the bladder? Thanks | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"That's actually the job of the kidneys, not the bladder. Your kidneys don't just filter your blood and send everything you don't need to your bladder. Your kidneys reserve extra nutrients, mostly electrolytes, that they remove from your blood when you have too much and will release it back when you need more. Once it's in your bladder it's ready to leave. Your kidneys can only hold so much, and they don't need to hold all that much. If you've taken in more potassium than you need, some of it will stay in your kidneys until you need it. But if you've taken in way too much potassium, your kidneys just eliminate it. That being said, vitamins and nutrients can be toxic. If you take in more than your kidneys can process it can lead to intoxication. And not the fun alcohol intoxication, the I feel like I'm dying kind of intoxication. You can even take in too much water, but your kidneys don't save water. They just eliminate excess water. So in a way, yes because it's all the same system, but not really because your bladder's job is really to just hold urine until it's full. Your kidneys do the part of maintaining the nutrient and PH balance of your blood.",
"Nope, once it becomes a waste product it is expelled from the body, when it mixes with the urine there's no getting it back because it would be a waste to store it or try and process it, and urine is mostly toxic so once its in, its out."
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7d994m | Why is it easier to look at the Sun with one eye than it is with two? | I have my reasons for looking at the Sun. Just curious. | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
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"the total amount of light your brain says is safe to take in is averaged across both eyes. closing one reduces the perceived light intake to ~1/2 and said brain says, \"it's cool fam you can look and not damage your retina.\" but your poor retina still gets the same amount of light and damage anyway. if you do look at the sun your retina will be like, \"dude, you just burned me and now I won't work as good. you're a dumb ass.\""
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7d9b3p | why our eyes create pink visual stains after we look at strong light? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"There are multiple ways that our eyes adapt to different light conditions. One of the ways this automatically occurs is due to the way the light receptors in the back of the eye work. In each light receptor cells are molecules called retinal (with an A, not retinol), which are the ones that react with light and eventually cause a signal to be sent to your brain. The act of being hit with a photon of light and activating the signal makes the retinal molecule inactive, and it needs to be reactivated by an enzyme before it can work again. In intense light, all the retinal molecules quickly become inactivated, and very few are available to pick up new light signals. When you return to dark conditions, it takes a while for the retinal molecules to become reactivated, which is why you are somewhat blind for a while until your eyes adjust. The second reason you see stains is because of the way your brain processes visual signals. It quickly adjusts to different light conditions as the new \"normal\" and picks up contrasting signals as if there is something there, even though it's just the absence of light. When you look at a strong light, then away, it looks like there is a dark spot of the same shape until your brain figures out the new \"normal\"."
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7d9dit | What determines what type of battery and how many of them a device takes, as opposed to just using less of a larger battery? | Technology | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"These days anything you think of as a “large” battery is just a whole bunch of 18650 batteries wired together. You just wire it to make the voltage you want, and the rest are there to supply more mAh, which equals more runtime.",
"Batteries are spec'd based on the particular application. How long do they need to last, what run-time is needed, what power output is needed, how fast should you be able to charge them, how much can they weight, and how much can you spend on them? These are some questions that will help determine the battery chemistry and package. A \"battery\" is actually a collection of cells but we often call single-cell applications batteries as well. Most lithium cells today come in two flavors, lithium polymer cells and 18650 cells which look a lot like a large AA battery. There are several different lithium chemistries, the most common being \"lithium-ion\" which is itself a broad term that can refer to many other specific chemistries. Lithium-cobalt is the most common type of lithium-ion chemistry. Lithium polymer are the kind of batteries used in mobile phones and ultra-thin laptops. They have an aluminum foil type outer package and are usually pretty thin and flat. (They can also burst into flames if punctured.) Lithium batteries have a much higher energy density than traditional sealed lead acid or alkaline batteries which means they can store more energy per cubic volume. They typically have a cell voltage of 3.7-4.2 volts per cell. For applications needing 12v, you simply connect 3 or 4 cells in series to reach the desired voltage and use a voltage regulator on the input of the device to achieve the desired voltage. We'll call this a bank of cells. You can connect multiple banks of cells in parallel to increase the capacity, or mAh, to give you a longer run-time between charges. The specific chemistry and quality of the cells will dictate how many times the battery can be recharged. Seal-lead-acid = cheap and heavy, few recharge cycles Lithium = expensive and light, many recharge cycles It all goes much deeper than this, but this should give you a general idea."
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7d9ep9 | How do bubble boy people with defective immune systems stay alive long enough to get into a bubble without getting sick? | How are these patients identified and protected before a bubble is ready? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
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"Obviously the defective immune systems vary to a degree so the \"bubble boy\" is only the most direst of cases. They may have limited access to places but the short answer is that they rely on something called \"herd immunity.\" In the worst diseases, they are either globally rare or we usually have a vaccine for the bug. Statistically, the lower you keep the total proportion of the population with the disease, the lower the risks of eventual flare ups or mutations, like the difference in danger of wildfire between lighting a match and a campfire in a forest. This is why anti-vaxxers are the worst. They're saying I'm willing to weaken the herd immunity for my own unscientific reasons at the cost of those who truly have no choice to refuse vaccination because they actual have defective immune systems. The average bubble boy gets protected from the disease because we've prevented some the worst afflictions through vaccines such that the literal bubble boy doesn't truly need to exist."
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7d9nv6 | Why do some pimples seem to take weeks to fully develop and come to a head, while others appear within a matter of a couple hours? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"It depends on the layer of skin that is affected. The deeper the pimple is, the longer it takes to reach the surface."
],
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7d9unc | Are captchas actually effected against bots? If so, how does to stop them? If not, why hasn't there been a change? | Technology | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"captchas are only about 50% about preventing bots. There are many more effective ways to prevent bots - captchas are used when preventing bots is at least a favorable outcome but is not of a real dire security concern. the other 50% of their purpose is to actually teach bots (AI) *(If a bot puts a picture and 90% of users answer the question about that picture a certain way - then the bot (the AI) learns what to look for in pictures such as that.....AI is learning from the user)",
"Bots used to be bad at image recognition, so asking to recognize a picture or skewed text tests if your a human. However Captchas themselves are changing that. One of the true purposes of a captcha is to train ai to recognize pictures . For example, you are asked to select the pictures with a train in it, or to write letters you see. There is sometimes no right answer, but a acceptable answer. If 1000 ppl say pictures 1,2,3 have trains in them, some minor variation is allowed, for example you could say pictures 1,2,3,4 have trains and it would accept your answer. Its about the group collective answer. That way, ai are informed which pictures have trains and add it to its dataset in learning what a train is. A non finite number of pictures can be pulled from google street view and displayed this way in all sorts of combinations"
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7d9v6f | How "cancer cells" appear? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"Normally cells get divided to multpily, live through a specific time and die which is called apoptosis. Cancer cells appear when cells cant die naturally from apoptosis and keep dividing.",
"Could you be more specific? If you mean, what do they look like, they typically look thinner and somewhat distorted under a microscope compared to normal cells. If you mean, how do they arise, that's more complicated. Our cells have a number of mechanisms to limit cell growth, and to self-destruct if something goes wrong. For a cancerous cell to arise, some of the genes regulating cell growth and self-destruction are \"wrong\" in some way, either because you've got a defective copy of the gene, there has been DNA damage due to things like radiation or dangerous chemicals, the cells have been dividing extensively due to inflammation increasing the risk of mutation, or some combination of the above. Cancerous cells begin dividing out of control, and over time can develop further mutations that allow them to spread (metastasize) and form new growths in other parts of your body. Your immune system isn't great at recognizing cancer cells because it's built to defend against outside infections, so the cancerous cells run wild and start screwing up your body, eventually killing you."
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7da5i8 | Hawking Radiation | Other | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"What happens when an unstoppable force meets an immovable object? Black holes have very strong gravitational fields. The closer something gets, the faster it has to be traveling away to escape the gravitational pull. At the event horizon distance, not even light can escape. Also, there is this amazing phenomenon called vacuum energy. It turns out space isn't totally empty. In the vacuum of space there are virtual particles that appear out of nowhere. They don't violate conservation of energy though because they appear in pairs of matter and antimatter. Then they almost immediately interact with each other and anhialate back into nothingness. But what happens if these virtual particles wink into existence near the event horizon? The impossible happens. One of the pair of particles falls in and the other wanders off as a free charged particle. The result is a tiny constant stream of radiation of virtual particles coming off of black holes. *** A more than ELI5 version In reality, particles and antiparticles are really just a form of energetic quantum tunneling. In a black hole, sometimes particles pop from one side of the event horizon to the other side via tunneling. This results in a photon leaving the black hole and the black hole mass decreasing slightly."
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7da8f9 | Why can we skip the contraceptive pill for 7 days straight after the end of the pack and still stay safe, but it's not safe to miss one pill in the middle of the pack? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"Missing pills at the end causes menstruation. Missing one too soon causes ovulation -- exactly what you're trying to avoid.",
"Because those last 7 days are basically placebo pills which gives your body time to have your period and flush everything out (since the chances of pregnancy on your period are incredibly tiny). Then when you start the actual medicated pills again and your period ends, you're protected.",
"The last 7 pills are placebo and what happens is not actually a true period, but something called withdrawal bleeding. It was added because women were said to have felt better if they bled once a month to reassure themselves they weren't pregnant and/or were functioning normally. You do not need to take those placebo (sometimes they're iron) pills. Many doctors prescribe continuous cycles of birth control to help hormone mediated diseases. The reason why it is making such a difference if you miss a mid-pill pack is that it is trying to suppress ovulation and if you do not take medication consistently to suppress that activity while your body is trying to ovulate. If you miss a dose, you're short on medication in your system."
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7dafkf | How do we know that trees and plants do not experience pain when we cut them? | Do they? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"text": [
"No, plants don't feel pain. Science hasn't found any evidence that plants feel pain, as they lack brains and a nervous system. It's agreed upon that you need those things for the more complicated sensations, such as pain. Some plants do respond to stuff, like Venus flytraps catching flies, but it's not the same thing. Plants are simple things, pain is too complicated of a response.",
"Mammals use pain to avoid danger, by making the creature not want to experience that feeling. But plants however, are incapable of moving, and do not have brains, so they have no use for pain."
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7dahol | Reusing blood during surgery | Hi reddit, first post here! I was watching a surgery where someone was bleeding out and required 10 blood transfusions (on House of course!). I'm wondering what makes the blood suctioned out of the chest/stomach area (but really most body areas, not like in the liver with bile...) unfit for reuse. Meaning, why can't they just use 5 units of new blood and reuse 5 units of blood that's being suctioned out of the bleeding cavity? Is the blood somehow dirty when it leaves the vein or artery? What makes it unfit to be reused? Thanks! | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"Blood can be reused, but it's a rather complicated and expensive process. When blood leaves the body, it starts to clot and is at a high risk of contamination if it's just pouring into the body cavity. In order for blood to be reused, anticoagulants are mixed to keep the blood from clotting before it is filtered. It's a regulated process often put in use for liver surgery, because high blood loss is expected, so preparations can be made. It's also not quite as effective as just making a withdrawal from the blood bank. During emergency surgeries, it's likely cheaper and easier to match types and transfuse than go through the salvage process. Edit: Grammar"
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7dai3y | For their size and oxygen needs, how are whales able to hold their breath for so long? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"Basically they have special blood that can carry more oxygen and allow a higher amount of oxygen to flow through it. They also change their metabolism, slowing their heart, shutting off blood flow to non-essential organs. increasing blood flow to essential ones, etc. > The ability to dive underwater for extended periods is a specialized feat marine and aquatic mammals have evolved over millions of years. Diving mammals will slow their heart rate, stop their breathing, and shunt blood flow from their extremities to the brain, heart, and muscles when starting a dive. > A study published June 13 in the journal Science reports that diving mammals—including whales, seals, otters, and even beavers and muskrats—have positively charged oxygen-binding proteins, called myoglobin, in their muscles. > This positive characteristic allows the animals to pack much more myoglobin into their bodies than other mammals, such as humans—and enables diving mammals to keep a larger store of oxygen on which to draw while underwater. [National Geographic 2013]( URL_1 ) Regarding the myoglobin, [here is the non ELI5 paper]( URL_0 )"
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7db4dy | What is the factual difference between Hamiltonian mechanics and classical Newton mechanics? Why is Hamilton mechanics useful? Aren't Lagrangians the way to go? | Physics | explainlikeimfive | {
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"text": [
"Newtonian, Lagrangian, and Hamiltonian mechanics are all complementary methods which make identical predictions in systems where they can be applied. They each have their own benefits and drawbacks. Hamiltonian and Lagrangian mechanics give you an easy and systematic way to derive equations of motion for any system where the forces can be described in terms of a potential energy. However if you're working with forces which can't be written as a potential energy, you may have to use Newtonian mechanics, or some other method. Lagrangians are very nice because they make it easy to treat relativistic systems in a way that works in any frame of reference. Hamiltonians are nice because rather than giving you a single second-order differential equation for each coordinate, they give you two first-order differential equations for each conjugate coordinate/momentum pair. First-order differential equations can be easier to solve than second-order differential equations."
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7db9t0 | Why are there so many deaths in boxing, while there are zero deaths in MMA? Especially since MMA appears to be more violent and bloody? | Other | explainlikeimfive | {
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"There's several deaths in MMA, mostly due to dangerous weight cutting and drugs. The amateur circuits have a couple due to injury. To answer your question though: The gloves. Boxing gloves are larger and naturally force the boxer's swing into a harder hitting punch than would be delivered bare handed. This causes more internal injuries. Back when boxing was done bare knuckle though, there was less risk of death, but a far greater risk of injury. There's records of fights needing to be stopped temporarily while they put boxer's eyes back into their sockets, and relocate jaws.",
"MMA is actually a lot less brutal. MMA has a lot of paths to victory. Boxing is mostly wearing down your opponent and then hitting them in the head until they fall down. (This is a very simple explanation, don't get your panties in a knot you boxing fans)",
"Another safety concern that no one has mentioned is that in boxing, a blow that would finish the fight by the fighter going down, and not being able to defend himself. The fight will get stopped. With boxing you take a hard blow and go down. You can take a few seconds to get back to your feet and try to recover. That's not good for your brain."
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7dbzwo | Why does insulin injection cause bumps of insulin, is it not delivering correctly? | Been diabetic for 4 years now and I know that skin can become tough and resistant to insulin and that’s why it’s important to rotate injection spots which I do. I’ve noticed recently that when I inject; more commonly In my arms and stomach; there will be a little bubble near the injection spot post injection. I’m assuming this is insulin 1) why does this happen? 2) is my insulin delivering correctly? Or should I be worried Thank you | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"Medical advice is best gained from speaking with your doctor, or your diabetes specialist nurse in this case. In this case it sounds to me like you're not depositing the insulin into the fat layer, but between it and the skin or even within the skin itself. Or are these bubbles basically a little bit of fluid leaking out? That could be interstitial fluid or the drug, or most likely a mix of the two. However, I can't really pass judgement because I'm not a diabetes specialist and I haven't seen you inject or what these bumps look like. The most important thing is- how is your glycemic control? If it's fine, and you're not having spikes in your blood sugar (or lows, for that matter) then it doesn't sound like it's causing too many issues. But I'd still make an appointment to speak with someone about it. Far safer than taking medical advice off a random person on Reddit."
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7dc5lj | How was wolf taming in it's earliest stage? | How would the very first attempts at wolf domestication have gone? Is it likely they stole cubs, or tempted them and built trust by feeding them? And how useful could a wolf even have been in their wildest state? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"First, understand that normal wolves are very skittish around people and will generally stay well clear of them. Now, imagine that there's some sort of small human settlement. It might be fairly temporary, it might be somewhat permanent. In either event, the people generate a reasonable amount of food waste that's potentially desirable to a wolf. Maybe it's some undesirable bits of an animal they killed: intestines, brains, marrow bones, etc. Probably some semi-spoiled vegetables, miscellaneous other stuff. It all goes in a trash-heap next to the settlement. So some wolves hang out outside the settlement and, at night, when the humans are largely asleep or sitting by the fire, the wolves dig through the trash heap and eat the leftovers. Now, some of the wolves are too wary of humans to get this close to the rubbish heap, and so they don't get any of this valuable food source. Other wolves are a little bit less wary of humans, and they get more food. After a few generations, the less-wary wolves have been better fed and cranking out more puppies than the wary wolves, and the local wolf population is now mostly descendent from the less-wary wolves. However, the wolves are still not totally comfortably with humans, and so when a person walks by the rubbish heap, they tend to all scatter. Later, if things remain quiet, they'll sneak back in. Some of the wolves are even less-wary than the average, and they only run away for a few minutes before coming back, and some of the wolves take a few hours. The wolves who are even-less-wary tend to get first dibs on the food in the rubbish heap, and so are better fed and have more puppies. After several generations, most of the wolves are even-less-wary. Now the wolves are becoming less wary of humans, more willing to be close to humans. This still doesn't mean they are tame. Some of the wolves are more likely to be aggressive towards humans, some of the wolves less likely to be aggressive. The more aggressive wolves are more likely to attack a human from time to time, and thus are more likely to be killed in retaliatory attacks from the humans, who are themselves skilled hunters. It is thus the less aggressive wolves who tend to survive longer and have more puppies. As generations pass, the population of wolves become even-less-wary of human as well as less aggressive towards humans. It probably basically started like this. By hanging around human settlements, wolves would have access to a valuable source of food: human refuse and food waste. This placed selective pressure upon these groups of wolves to be willing and able to peacefully coexist in close proximity to humans. Once this process had proceeded far enough, groups of wolves existed who had a genetic, instinctive tolerance for humans and decreased aggression towards humans. Now, wolves are pack animals and so have an instinctive understanding of the social hierarchy of a wolf-pack, and how to play a role in that pack. At some point, these wolves began to not only have the ability to peacefully live in proximity to humans, not just to consider humans as not just another type of animal that is useful to live near, but to actually consider humans to be fellow pack members. At this point, they're going to start doing social pack behaviors with humans, things like exhibiting affection to form social bonds, defend the young and the injured from threats, exhibiting subservience to a dominant animal to preserve the peace, etc. At that point, they're well on their way to being dogs.",
"I'm not 100% sure what you're asking, OP. I *think* you're asking about how humans domesticated dogs. This happened many tens of thousands of years ago, so we can never be sure, but prevailing theory says that it was the wolves that figured out that being near humans was beneficial and started moving closer, and closer, and eventually the two species started working together. Even in their wildest state, a wolf staying close to humans (but not attacking) would learn that Humans = Easy Access To Food, and would alert humans to other dangers because they'd sense and react to it before humans did."
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7dc7s0 | Why does food taste differently depending on its temperature? | I have experienced that with food and drinks especially high in acid like berries and wine, tastes more acidic if its really cold vs after it has been heated. How come? Is it our perception of it that changes or is it on a molecular level of some kind? Thank you! | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
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7dcb3i | What are the financial benefits for a buyer, when purchasing iconic artwork, such as Leonardo da Vinci's Salvator Mundi, which sold for $400million USD? | So, a 500-year-old painting of Christ believed to have been painted by Leonardo da Vinci was sold in New York for a record $450m (£341m) [BBC article]( URL_0 ). How does the buyer monetize a purchase of $400 million ($450 million after fees) of this piece of art? Or are they just buying it... just because they want it? | Economics | explainlikeimfive | {
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"Art is a very useful investment for the ultra wealthy (people rich enough to not need their assets to generate regular income to spend) because it's very easy to move relative to anything else worth similar amounts. How many other ways can you move $600 million across national borders in something the size of a large book? Further it not only doesn't generate any taxes while it appreciates, appreciated art can be used to offset taxes via donation. Further art appraisal is very difficult, so it's very hard for the IRS to prove the art one donated wasn't worth the value you claimed.",
"They are buying it because they want it. Art is a terrible investment because the market fluctuates so much. Anyone spending that mucj is doing so because they want to own it.",
"The benefit is not financial, it's social and ego. This person wants to impress his/her associates with this amazing possession, and to feel like a big shot by owning (rather than just viewing) this amazingly rare item.",
"There is the hope that it will increase in value... maybe 20 years from now when they want to sell, it'll be worth $500 million. Or they can donate it to a museum and take a tax deduction for the value as part of estate planning. Or it's simply the ego of having the money to throw around and have this one single version of something nobody else can have."
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7dcbmc | Why do we start to imitate how other people speak the longer we spend time with them? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"Because we want to be understod. We want the recipient to be able to percieve our message as we want them to. The better we match the language of those we speak to (like the accent/dialect, slang) the easier it is for both members of the conversation to understand each other. If you travel to another location where the majority speaks different than you, you are encouraged to adapt their way of talking, because it is easier to adapt to the culture than to make the culture adapt to you. The better you are at adapting your language to fit the recipients language, the better they will be able to percieve it the way you meant for it to be percieved.",
"It seems to be an evolutionary way of blending in with other groups to not seem like an outsider. Because back in our Hunter geathering days if you were an outsider, you were much more likely to die. Here is an interesting article I found on the topic that can explain better then I can. URL_0",
"To fit in with your surroundings. It's why we do a lot of things that don't make sense. Group mentality and also emulating someone you idolize or generally look up to. Ever seen a gaggle of girls all wearing the same outfit, have the same phone, talk the same way? One of them is the pack leader, the rest are emulating her to please her and fit in with the group. Guys do it to, \"jocks\" all wearing letterman jackets, skaters all wearing skinny jeans. Most people just want to fit in and be accepted."
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7dcmod | Why is it that some people can sleep through a thunderstorm and yet be woken up by a simple flick of a switch or a bug flying around? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"Absolutely not an expert, but I believe that the brain reacts to specific noises rather than sheer volume when it instructs the body to wake on hearing a noise. For example, a baby's cry is specifically designed to wake a mother from sleep, which is why it generally works. You can also make your own associations, such as your alarm clock or phone ringtone. Obviously, like all traits we evolved in this manner, it will vary from person to person. But it's about type of noise, not volume. I had a friend who could quite easily sleep through the sound of two loud angry nerds playing WoW in his room and absolutely NOT keeping the volume down. We go out for a smoke and come back in and he wakes up like Rip Van Winkle and asks \"Did you smoke in here?\" just from the fact he could smell it on us. Again, not an expert, but I seem to recall hearing this explantion from someone trustworthy. Don't take my word on it."
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7dco1l | With the growing world recognition of climate change, and the push to switch to renewable energy, why aren't most countries looking at Nuclear Power as the way forward? | Surely Neuclear Power would be the most effective, cleanest form of producing large amounts of power, correct? | Technology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"Nuclear power is an extremely expensive commitment. It takes a lot of capital up front to get it up and running. You are making a bet about how competitive it is going to be against other sources for the next 30-40 years, if you require it to at least break even, much less if you think it needs to compete against other sources in a competitive marketplace. This has been a problem not just in capitalist countries but socialist ones as well. It is a general issue with nuclear and not a new one (nuclear power construction was already dipping in the US prior to the accidents). There are also political difficulties regarding things like accidents, waste, etc. Nuclear enthusiasts (and Redditors) like to wave these away as irrational, but they are serious enough that private insurance agencies won't cover nuclear power plants for disasters because even though the risk of accident is low, it is not zero, and the cost of dealing with accidents is very high. There are certainly many irrational fears in this domain (as in most domains of unfamiliar science/technology), but there are also tricky problems at the core of the issue. Many very non-irrational people have concluded that nuclear is a hard sell on this front, that things like truly long-term waste depositories are actually difficult technical issues on top of being difficult political issues. Separately, there are difficulties in using nuclear to help with climate change. There are reports that estimate how much nuclear you'd need to put in place, and how much fossil fuels you'd need to displace, to make a dent in the degree of warming. It is a phenomenal amount — a massive increase in new nuclear plant orders (and replacement of the very old fleet of plants that are gradually being shut down). This does not mean it is impossible, it just means that the political will necessary would need to be _massive_. Even separate from the people who don't support nuclear power (rationally or irrationally), other than the true-boosters there is nobody really clamoring for it. Whereas the enthusiasm for new fossil fuel sources is abundant and well-financed. So it is unlikely to matter on the climate front anytime soon. If fossil fuels were heavily taxed, and nuclear technology heavily subsidized (more than it already is), one could imagine nuclear gaining more industrial support. As it is, outside of basically France it is considered a \"boutique\" power source that can augment a grid but does not dominate it. I would just note: I am not particularly for or against nuclear (I am for it if it is well-regulated and kept safe, against it if it is not — this seems a fair position though I acknowledge that experts and industry advocates will disagree on what \"well-regulated and kept safe\" means). I am well aware of the problems with fossil fuels (as one colleague of mine put it, if nuclear power was implicated in 1/100th of the deaths that coal power is implicated in, there would be no nuclear power), and I am not someone who is terribly optimistic about going full-renewable either (the base load availability problem seems very difficult). I think nuclear should be part of the conversation about energy and climate change, but I am not optimistic that it — _or anything else_ — is going to get us out of the problem we've made for ourselves. I think pro-nuclear people find it easy to imagine that the only problems of nuclear power are the fears in the minds of ignorant people, but there are more difficulties than that, for better or worse.",
"Politics People are scared of nuclear power, despite any engineering merits it may have people just don't want it because they're afraid of \"nuclear\" and \"radiation\". Facts are irrelevant because you can't reason someone out of a position they didn't reason themselves into, so fight the battle you can win and push for wind and solar and batteries",
"Much of the general public have qualms about it, whether it's through being uninformed or just stubbornness to change. There's a lot of fears that come with the word \"nuclear\" like the radiation, what happens if there's a melt down (like Fukushima and Chernobyl [even though Chernobyl was literally their fault]( URL_1 )). That fact is Nuclear Power Plants are some of the safest facilities there are with multiple redundancies to prevent a disaster. The only real problem I've seen so far is dealing with the nuclear waste, since the only solution is literally just [burying it in a mountain]( URL_0 ). Finally it's very political with the \"Save the Coal\" and \"Save the Oil\"."
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7dctrg | How much do musicians ACTUALLY earn from streaming services? | I am absolutely baffled by the amount of money some artists can rake in, and I need someone to explain this to me. Let's take a song like Post Malone's "rockstar" It's got around 400.000 million streams on spotify, does this mean that he makes (0.0055 * 400.000.000) = 2.200.000 $ Spotify and other services pay MILLIONS in royalty fees? It doesn't make sense to me. An artist like Drake, he must have made like 8-10 million $ off "One Dance" alone? It's one damn song! Is this accurate, or is it not this ridiculous? Enlighten me! | Economics | explainlikeimfive | {
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"Yes, they pay millions in royalty fees. It's easier to understand how when you see how much they charge for ads. They charge about $0.005-$0.03 per ad play, and best I can tell Spotify actually pays the artist about $0.004/stream. Thus they do make money if they do maybe one or two songs per ad, maybe a bit more if they play the more expensive ads.",
"Spotify pays out to the artist's label. Typically label contracts give less than 20% to the artist. In your example PM might have gotten a few hundred thousand dollars. Though this again isn't his cut as he has to pay the producers, mixers, for studio time, his crew out of his cut. While it may sound easy to earn a lot on Spotify, these large artists you mentioned are the exception. For those who can't get 400 million plays streaming payouts are miniscule.",
"There was an article about this: URL_0 Adjusting for those numbers Post would've made $1.52 Million. Of course there's a bit more complexity in terms of how the payout are calculated Paying customer stream vs add supported streams, demographics of listeners etc. CGP grey does a pretty god job of breaking down some of this complexity. URL_1"
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7dcvgd | Why do human males have foreskin on their penises? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"That's how the male body has naturally evolved: with the foreskin, the head of the penis is sensitive and sexual enjoyment is enhanced. Remove it, it the head hardens and sensitivity is reduced.",
"The foreskin provides lubrication, not only to keep the penis moist and free of debris but also to aid in successful sexual encounters. It's a useful bit of skin, but not an absolutely necessary one.",
"Human penises are...odd. Most mammal penises are kept inside the body and are only exposed when a male is aroused and ready to mate. You may have seen a sheathe, for instance, on your male pet dog. Male humans and our closest evolutionary relatives have nearly fully exposed penises just hanging all out, but the foreskin idea is the same as the sheathe skin protecting your dog: keep the head of the penis moist, lubricated, and protected from damage."
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7dd8sd | how do non wealthy people who get sued for millions or billions able to pay all of that money?? | Like I'm guessing there would be some sort of monthly amount they would pay but what happens if they die before paying the amount? I mean, if I was to get sued for millions how do both parties come to an agreement of how much to pay for how long? | Other | explainlikeimfive | {
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"They aren't able to pay all of that money. There is a saying about such cases: You can't get blood from a stone.",
"Often they simply don't. Typically home owners insurance, auto insurance, etc. have liability coverage that will pay out substantial sums in case of lawsuits (depending on source of suit), so they may settle for that amount... ie. you get sued for causing a car accident and your insurance will cover $500k so the plaintiff was accept that.",
"They don't. Sometimes people will try to make themselves \"judgment proof\" by transferring their assets to things like trust funds for their spouse and children. Many judgments do persist through bankruptcy, so creditors could hound someone for their rest of their lives. If you died, all of your estates would go towards paying off that debt, and the creditors would be out the rest."
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7dda4w | How come one power strip with 12 plugs is okay, but linking two power strips that each have 6 plugs is dangerous? | Currently in class and there is a power strip that allows 12 things to be plugged in. How come it's safe for that power strip to have so many plugs in it; yet having two power strips (first one in the outlet, the second plugged to the first) is dangerous? | Technology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"It's not inherently dangerous, but having too many things running off of one circult can overheat the wiring and either trip the circuit breaker or start a fire. A 20 amp circuit breaker can handle 2400 watts of power. You just need to use 12 gauge (or thicker) wiring to handle that much power. However, some power strips might have 14 or 16 gauge wiring in the cord, which is thinner. So as long as you are careful and don't overload anything, you could theoretically have twenty power strips all daisy chained together and not have a problem. Most people aren't that conscientious and so laws are written to protect everyone from that one stupid guy among us who just can't use any common sense. If you want to know whether what you are doing with the power strip is safe, simply hold on to the cord, near the plug. If you are overloading the cord, it will be very hot, so hot you can't hold onto it for more than a few seconds. If it's warm, that's fine, but even a warm one you should keep a close eye on.",
"Because plugging the second 6-plug into the first means the *entirety* of the second 6-plug's power is being fed through a single outlet of the first 6-plug strip. This can easily overload the output and cause a fire."
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7ddan7 | Why are brains in the vulnerable head rather than in the thorax with the other vital organs? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"Is it vulnerable? There's a strong ass skull around it. Rest if the organs just have mushy meat surrounding them.",
"It's all about bandwidth. The eyes need to be on the outside to be effective, and on a rotating structure to see around us. Unfortunately, vision requires a ton more neural bandwidth that moving your fingers. The fingers can be connected by long nerves because they are a low bandwidth user of the brain. Eyes, on the other hand, have to be on super short nerves to maintain good vision. That's why eyes and brains are almost always in the same small structure for creatures with good vision.",
"Evolution isn't a great long term planner. Our distant, distant, distant, distant, suuuuuuuuuuper distant ancestors (I'm talking, early complex organisms) developed a preferred direction of travel. This essentially became the 'front' of the organism. Because that is the direction we tended to be heading, a lot of the more complicated sensory devices developed there, along with any associated structures to process that information. The better to see where we were going. As these grew in complexity, they became what we recognize as brains. Our bodies have subsequently hardened that location (like our nice, tough, skull), but haven't made major planning changes, like saying \"Boy that ribcage is nice and protective,\" instead building on the past.",
"Follow up question. What about the neck ? It is actually thin and fragile. But contains the most important nerves, veins and the pipelines. Wouldn't it be more safe/efficient to have air and food intake directly on thorax ?",
"All your senses - other than damage detecting touch in body and fine touch in hands, are contained in the head. Taste, oral touch, smell, hearing, sight, its all in an elevated sensor package that can see over most obstructions. The closer your brain is to that sensor package the faster the responses will be to data it detects. On top of that, as others point out, the head is the strongest part of your body and typically the kinds of things that could cause significant brain injuries would be fatal in nature for the damage they did to our sensor systems. Lose your vision in nature and you are dead, lose your hearing and you are dead, lose your sense of taste or smell and you are in serious trouble. I would also point out that the vast majority of head injuries people get today are caused by unnatural changes to our environment. We were not designed to travel at 60 miles per hour - period. We were not designed to walk around on cement floors all the time. We were not designed to box professionally (having a fist fight was supposed to be a very rare occurrence in nature). Skiing? Don't even get me started."
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7ddqq1 | why do scuba divers need to continually breath out when the take the regulator out of their moths but free divers do not | When I was taking my diver training (I’m extremely new to this) my instructor told us that if for whatever reason you need to take the regulator out of your mouth you should exhale slowly. If this is actually necessary how do free divers not need to do the same? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"Because the air going in your lungs is compressed when diving. If you ascend, it can theoretically expand past your lung capacity and damage them. A free diver only has the air he started with on the surface, so it cannot expand past your capacity. That said, i like to breathe out because it suppresses the reflex to breathe.",
"Free divers have lungs full of surface air -- almost empty at depth as it compresses. Scuba divers have lungs full of compressed air -- several lungs' worth as it expands to surface pressure.",
"If you take the regulator out of your mouth. You only need to breathe out going up. Same as any time you make a ascent when scuba diving."
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7ddyxj | Would a rotary phone work in a modern phone jack? | Would it only receive calls or could I dial out? | Technology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"Many, but not necessarily all landline phone provider still support pulse dialing, which rotary telephones use exclusively. A few years back I purchased a new telephone that lacked dtmf signals, and it still worked without issues using pulse dialing.",
"There's nothing \"modern\" about a wall-jack. It's been the same for decades. A rotary phone will be able to receive calls. It might not able to *place* calls, because pulse dialling might not be available - this has nothing to do with the wall jack, though.",
"If you have a regular analog copper landline, it will almost certainly work normally. If you have a \"digital voice\" or VoIP line, like the ones that many cable companies bundle, it will depend on the type of ATA you use. Most of them, in my experience, don't support pulse/rotary.",
"Hard to say. I expect it'd depend on the carrier. My parents had a rotary phone until more recently (like in the last 5 years. They still have the phone, it's built like a tank). They only stopped using it because AT & T \"upgraded\" their system to tone dialing only."
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7ddzqf | When you are holding in a pee, why does it feel UNBEARABLE at times and then 45 seconds later it's subsided? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"Your bladder has a layer of muscle that helps it empty. When your bladder fills up, this muscle is more likely to squeeze, which is helpful when you’re trying to pee. Sometimes it squeezes while you’re still holding on to your urine, and this can feel uncomfortable or even painful. This muscle contraction stops after a few seconds. Some people have this bladder squeezing problem at all hours of the day, not just when they are full of urine, and are generally pretty miserable as a result. Source: am a urologist.",
"You have two sets of muscles that control the flow of urine out of your bladder- internal and external. The internal urethral sphincter stops the leakage of urine from the bladder. As the bladder stretches, signals are sent to the brain to let you determine if it is an appropriate time to empty your bladder. If it is, you voluntarily allow the external urethral sphincter to open and you'll pee. If it's not a good time to go, then your brain overrides the stretch receptors for a while and tells them to calm down for a bit. The process is repeated as the bladder expands. If you wait too long, eventually you'll have no control over the external muscles and you'll pee no matter what. Or, worst case scenario, your bladder can burst if there is a blockage preventing the release of urine.",
"Basically, your bladder stretches relieving the immediate urge to run to the bathroom or find a bush. You likely still feel some sort of discomfort but comparably, it's no big deal.",
"The smooth muscle in your bladder has what is called the 'stretch-relaxation response'. Initially a special area at the base of your bladder is stimulated, causing the need to pee. Then the bladder will self expand outwards to decrease pressure by increasing its volume, meaning the sensitive area is stimulated less, and the need to pee subsides. Source: medical student"
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7dekcm | Why do we feel exhausted after thinking all day? | As a kid I always felt exhausted when I would get home from school, even though I hadn't expended a significant amount of physical energy through exercise. I mean PE and recess, but that's not exactly rigorous activity. Even now as an adult, I feel that way after work. I work in an office. I use my brain all day but any movement I get is short walks and breaks, nowhere near enough to make me feel physically exhausted. My coworkers have told me they experience this, too. What causes us to feel so tired after a day spent primarily playing with numbers and sending emails from a chair? | Other | explainlikeimfive | {
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"The brain burns through up to 1/5 of all the bodies energy needs. Burning energy at that rate is hard work, and thus the body needs rest afterwards.",
"The brain's primary source of energy is glucose, and the brain is given priority over the rest of the body for glucose use. The more complex thinking done = more glucose used = the more exhausted you feel. It's kind of the same thing as feeling exhausted after a workout; your glucose levels are low."
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7des5p | Why do some cysts and zits appear to have multiple chambers? | It is my understanding that pimples of all kinds generally start with a blocked oil gland. That would seem to indicate that when it balloons there is only one container of backed up sebum. However, some pimples seem to have multiple detonations when squeezed in their glorious ripeness. There can sometimes even be a succession of release, resistance and release again. Questions: • Are these pimples actually multi-chambered or do these only have the sensation of multiple cores, perhaps caused by different viscosities of the sebum trying to get out? • Blackheads do not appear to ever seem multi-chambered. Is this correct? • Cysts, which I have never had, often seem on Dr Lee's videos or places like Popthatzit, definitely have the appearance of different containers inside the overall capsule. Or is that a false interpretation? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"A possible partial answer to your question: Chambers can exist, but I'd characterize them as random. The puss that fills the chambers is mostly dead white blood cells(neutrophils), dead bacteria, cellular debris and fluid(water, cytoplasm from dead cells, plasma etc). As opposed to sebum. The chamber phenomena your discussing is a result of the immune system. Chambers form as a result of the inflammatory process. Your body identifies the problem. A gland blocked by dirt, or that is infected, triggers the immune system. Immune cells near the problem areas release chemical signals, the capillaries dilate in a process called diapedesis. This allows more immune cells from the blood stream to pass through the walls of the capillaries into the tissues where they can do their job of destroying the foreign material...dirt and or bacteria. The chambers will appear where most of the white blood cells have collected after leaving the blood stream and pooling in the tissues. So it is not uncommon to have pockets or chambers develop based on the underlying capillary response. The immune response isn't terribly precise in that it will not occur only at the infection source. Picture a dart board with the bulls eye being the infection. Most of the response will occur at this location and to a lesser and diminishing degree as you radiate away from the bulls eye. A simple way to envision the formation of the chambers would be through an analogy. Imagine a kid blowing soap bubbles into a pool of water. They can blow one big bubble, or if they blow hard, they'll get several random smaller bubbles with distinct walls that all kind of stick to each other. Instead of bubbles, you have a pocket or multiple pockets appearing where underlying capillaries have dilated allowing immune cells to pass into the tissue. These concepts typically apply to pimples and cysts."
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7dfj0a | If our bodies are supposed to be able to run on fat reserves, why do we feel weak and are unable to think clearly when very hungry? | I've always been basically useless when I'm hungry and my brain chugs along at 2mph if I miss a meal. Surely once my body starts metabolising fat it should continue to function normally. It seems like it'd be a severe disadvantage in a survival situation to be cognitively impaired when you need to find food. | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"> It seems like it'd be a severe disadvantage in a survival situation to be cognitively impaired when you need to find food. You are not nearly as impaired as you think you are, it is mostly an issue of motivation. We have the luxury to allow ourselves to get distracted by mild hunger...not finishing your TPS reports right away isn't going leave you dead, so we blow them off to get a snack. It is not that we can't think well when hungry, we don't want to put in the effort for something that can be easily fixed. But if you were a hunter who hasn't eaten in a day stalking prey out on the savannah, I guarantee that task would capture your full attention and leverage all of your cognitive abilities.",
"It's also because the primary source of energy for your brain is glucose. When you don't eat for a while the level of glucose in your blood drops. That's when your body has to change to burning fat and proteins. This can deliver energy to your brain to function but it rather has glucose so it makes you go hungry so you will get it some more glucose.",
"Your body can switch over to fat reserves but it would rather have consistent food. So it tells you to get some food (cranky, light headed, hungry) to force you to acquire food. If you don't acquire food it decides you are starving now and it will switch to starvation mode: burning fat reserves and cannibalizing muscle protein for repair of more important body parts. But your body really doesn't want to.",
"If you want to experience what it feels like to run on fat, you need to expend your glycogen reserve, get on bike and ride for 2 to 3 hours on water alone eventually you'll get to what we call the bonk you will feel so awful you'll be shaking feel sick be unable to turn the pedals you will genuinely feel like death. Then you can have one jelly baby and all of a sudden your body will recover like magic"
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7dfm5r | Why do a lot of adults develop lactose and gluten sensitivity in their late 20's and early 30's? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"text": [
"Lactose intolerance is caused by your body no longer producing lactase, the enzyme that breaks lactose down into two different sugar molecules that we can further digest. *Most* mammals stop producing lactose once they reach adulthood, since milk evolved as something for young to consume. Certain human populations evolved to be able to digest lactose because they raised cattle and depended on the milk for nutrition, and those who could actually digest it were able to survive better. There [isn't a lot of evidence]( URL_2 ) for [gluten sensitivity]( URL_1 ) (if it exists, it certainly isn't caused by gluten), but right now no one knows. Bear in mind that *the majority* of \"gluten sensitivity\" is not actually caused by gluten, just like the majority of \"food allergies\" are [actually something else]( URL_0 ) because people decide not to get formally diagnosed and guess at their symptoms!"
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"https://www.menshealth.com/health/food-allergies-inaccurate",
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"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23648697"
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7dfnu4 | Telephone Country Codes | Canada and US share the same country code, 1. We don't duplicate any telephone area codes. Therefore any 10 digit telephone number should be unique. However when I a local number and add a 1 it gives me an automated message telling me I don't need to dial the 1. Why can't it just connect me through if it knows the number is not long distance? | Technology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"text": [
"This isn't about country codes at all. Historically, any area code was preceded by a 1 or it wouldn't work. These days it's confusing. In some regions, phone companies require a 1 before the area code if it's not a free call. On some other companies (mobile carriers), the 1 is never required before an area code. On some others, it's *always* required before an area code."
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7dfo19 | why do we "zone out" where our eyes unfocus and our vision goes blurry? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"Yep it is to rest them. The natural shape of you eyeball is not for reading things up close like we do most of our daily lives.(like phones and computers, but also reading a book) We can read these things because we can change the shape of our lens and see thing up close better. This costs energy though, so that is also why, when you've had a long day, it can become harder to read something."
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7dfx9f | I recently read a Reddit post about a 500kilowatt radio signal so strong it was picked up on mattress coils. Does this mean audible radio programming could be heard from mattresses? If so, how is this possible and what are the mechanics behind it? | Physics | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"> Does this mean audible radio programming could be heard from mattresses? Yup. > If so, how is this possible and what are the mechanics behind it? Radio waves induce a current in conductors, which in turn is used a vibrate a membrane to produce sound. Usually, the current is used to drive an electromagnet attached to the membrane, that's what a speaker is. But with enough power, the conductor itself will vibrate. A spring mattress would be well suited to this, lots of long conduction paths pressed up against taut fabric that would act as the speaker."
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7dg8mh | Why do you sometimes wake up and your mouth feels fuzzy with bacteria, but this never happens during the day? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"dpxklmf",
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"text": [
"Eating, drinking, talking, and just salivating help wash clean mouth surfaces while awake. One would hope all of these are sharply reduced during sleep.",
"You stop producing saliva when you're asleep (most of the time - occasionally you continue to produce sliva, which is why some people sleep-drool). Saliva works to kill bacteria; a lack of saliva lets it grow with impunity. This is why, if you can only do it once a day, to brush your teeth at night than in the morning, because otherwise you're letting the bacteria grow and work on your teeth all night."
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7dga0c | Why do we "feed" bad emotions? | For example why do we listen to sad songs when we're feeling like shit? Feeding that emotion and becoming even sader. Wouldn't it be more logical if your brain did everything it could to fight off conscious decisions that fucks with it. | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"To be honest, it's really hard to say from a scientific perspective There are a few theories, depending on how you tend to associate yourself in psychology. Some theorize that it's a catharsis effect, similar to Greek tragedy. You sit through the music for example, in all its sadness, and at the end, when the song is over, it helps make you feel like your sadness is also gone Others believe it's more akin to shadenfruede, the feeling of pleasure you get when someone else faces misfortune. So you hear a song and knowing that someone else is sad makes you just a little happier There are other theories too, and some explanations that touch more on the biological aspect of things, but we really don't know very well"
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7dgrq2 | How does our mouth know when to open the path to the lungs, and when to open the path to the stomach? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
"dpxnvbn",
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"text": [
"The airway is open as default on our body. When we swallow something, the epiglottis moves in order to close the airway for a few seconds and returns to default after that. It's just like a trucks' exhaust flapper, but in reverse. This image could be helpful. URL_0",
"Ooooh, we had a nurse explain this when my nan was ill. You have a flappy bit at the back of your throat which can cover the passage to either your lungs (air) or stomach (food). The flappy bit is always covering your stomach so the air can get to your lungs (you know, breathing), but notice when you swallow you kinda do it in two stages. Stage one kinda moves the flappy bit, stage 2 swallows the food. To be fair, she was one of those nurses who thought she new better than the doctors, hence the \"talk to me like a 5 year old\" kinda answer. Wait..."
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7dgybe | Why do so many spacestations on tv and movies have the same circular shape with a pod in the middle? Does this serve any real purpose? | Technology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"In order to easily create artificial gravity you can simply rotate the space station around the central axis (probably the center of the pod).",
"I can think of one real world reason. All of the \"real\" space stations build to date have all been cylinders (basically). [All Real Space Stations]( URL_0 ) - each module of a large space station has to be brought up from the planet in a launch vehicle. And to date the most common shape for that is a nice cylinder with no long hard corners. At some point you don't just want a longer and longer cylinder. Imagine a thin cylinder space station one kilometer long, it's not very practical. If you want MORE space on your space-station you could: - branch OUT with attached modules on the side. Solar panels and compartments, like the ISS - make the cylinder's diameter larger, but then you need bigger rockets to bring the parts up. - OR make a circle out of lots of other smaller cylinders (and some creative curving technology). if you think about it, the circle makes a lot of sense. There can be a central area - easy to get to from the rest of the station. you don't have to craft elaborate designs - just the same piece attached one after another. Iconic in shape because it made sense in the early days of sci-fi and science fact, and some experimental designs actually were made with this in mind. Even the \"expandable\" space stations (and components) of the Genesis project are cylinder shaped. (see inside the link above) watch the ISS [being built]( URL_1 ) with lots of components (and mostly cylinders)."
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7dgz1k | How do machine learning models improve over time? | I keep reading about how machine learning models (particularly predictive models) can improve over time. I'm a little unclear about the mechanics for how this happens. Does a model improve simply because it accumulates more training data, or is it doing something more nuanced? For example, let's say I train and validate a model on data from Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday. Say the model predicts that an event will happen occur on Thursday. When Thursday rolls around, the event does not end up happening. How is the model retrained in order to make a prediction about Friday? Does it simply retrain itself from scratch, this time using an extra day's worth of data (Thursday's data)? Or does it flag Thursday's prediction as an error and then make efforts to figure out where it went wrong? Thanks! | Mathematics | explainlikeimfive | {
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"Machine learning algorithms must be \"trained\" for them to be effective at prediction. This process happens very similarly to how humans learn as well. The model makes a prediction, and know whether that prediction was correct. This is why we feed the algorithm data that includes the outcome of the event. The algorithm is then able to look at the predictions it made wrong, identify the similarities between the other wrong predictions and the differences between the correct predictions. This allows it to adjust itself to make a better prediction. As I said, this is similar to how we learn as humans. If I asked you to pick decide whether a customer will buy bread based on the other things in their cart, you may guess randomly at first. Then you may notice that the ones that you guessed wouldn't buy bread but did all have butter in their cart as well. Now you've identified what caused the wrong decisions in the first place and can more accurately guess based on your observation about butter."
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7dh5ck | Why do military helmets not protect the face like a medieval helmet? | Technology | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
"dpxqq35",
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"text": [
"Because any helmet that adequately protected your face from bullets would restrict your head movement and vision, and not being able to see where you're going is more risky than running around with your face exposed.",
"First, facial protection interferes with getting a good cheek weld to see your sights/optics. Second, the primary purpose of helmets have to been to protect against fragmentation. Rifle bullets have easily defeated helmets except for the most rare exceptions up to the last decade. So helmets have primary been designed to deal with fragmentation from things like artillery and mortars. Third. Facial protection decreases visibility. Makes the helmet more uncomfortable to wear for extended time. And makes the helmet hotter."
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7dhg8h | Why are pupils in our eye black? Shouldn’t the light entering them allow you to see inside the eye? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"text": [
"Pupils aren't black in the sense of true color (like your iris, which may be brown/blue/green), but rather in the sense that you're looking at a \"shadow.\" It's like looking at a red shirt in a very dark closet and seeing it as almost black. They look black because we can't really see the light that's passing into them. When a doctor or optometrist uses an opthalmoscope and shines bright light directly into your pupils, they can actually see your cornea and all of the blood vessels in the back of your eye. Natural light isn't enough for us to see through there, so they appear to be black. Certain animals like cats have a special coating in the back of their eye. When light hits it, it's reflected around. For the cat, this allows them to get more out of the limited amount of light entering the eye at night. When you *look* at a cat in the dark, you see that green glow through the pupils.",
"We *do* see inside the eye sometimes; this is what causes 'red eye' in flash photography, you are seeing the light bouncing off of the blood vessels in the retina. Cats have 'silver eye' instead, because as night hunters they need to be able to see better in the dark... this is in part made possible by a silver reflective layer that bounces light forward through the retina again, giving it a second chance to absorb the photon.",
"The inside of the eye isn't a mirror. If you shine a bright flashlight at it and look close, you can see. That's why your optometrist does that. But the retinas absorb light well, which is why they work the way they do."
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7dhmd1 | How are new Pharmaceutical drugs "designed"? | I know that a lot of pharmaceuticals are largely based on things found in nature, but how do chemists even begin to synthesize them? If a company was seeking to manufacture a new SSRI, say, what would the process look like? | Chemistry | explainlikeimfive | {
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"One way, based on structural biology, is to determine the 3D structure of an enzyme or protein and use computer modeling to design molecules that fit into its shape. A common method is to determine where the native substrate sits and design molecule which fits the site better. Another method is to take existing drugs and slightly modify them to see if then can be made better. Adding methyl groups can massively increase there effectiveness or fluorines can make them last longer. Or, we just brute force it and have robots screen every chemical known to man in ultra-high throughput facilitates against potential drug targets and see if anything sticks."
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7dhmez | How is polyester soft when it's basically plastic? | Chemistry | explainlikeimfive | {
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"text": [
"From my understanding- fiber size. Bending a solid steel cylinder is a lot more difficult than bending a woven steel cable. The fabric might be essentially plastic, but it's a bunch of small plastic threads knit together.",
"Because whether something is soft or not has very little to do with its molecular structure. Studies have shown that people can feel a difference as small as 13 nanometers (that's 13 x 10^-9 meters), but atoms are way smaller (usually around 30 * 10^-12 meters) than that. In short, molecules are very very small and you can't feel them. Softness has a lot more to do with other things, like the material's flexibility and the actual physical shape of the material. Raw cotton is pretty rough, because the cotton strands are thick and tangled, but if you run it through a spinner and draw it out into fine cotton strands, it feels nice and soft. Because the cotton is no longer tangled up on itself, and the shape of the strands has been changed, it feels entirely different from its raw form. Similarly, a block of polyester isn't going to feel soft, but if you took that block and drew it out into very thin strands you've changed almost everything important about it (for feel anyway). The molecule chains that make up the polyester are no longer rigidly attached to the rest of the block (which makes it more flexible), and they are quite a lot thinner than they used to be (which will begin to get closer to that 13 nanometers which is the smallest distance you can actually feel). Drawing a rigid material into strands doesn't always make it nice and soft, think of steel wool for an example. Even in strand form, steel still has very strong and rigid bonds between atoms that gives it a lot of rigidity. That said, I would also argue that steel wool is considerably softer than a block of steel."
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7dhogd | What's Intel optane? | Extra questions: - How does it work as a memory? - Can my laptop use it? (Lenovo Legion Y520) | Technology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"text": [
"It's a memory technology announced by a joint venture of Intel and Micron. They have been a bit cagey about saying *exactly* how it works. It's not quite as fast as DRAM, but close. It's denser than DRAM. It's non-voliatile like Flash. It's more expensive than Flash. The only place that I've read about it being deployed so far is in some high-end servers. I believe (but am not certain) that they stack the memory chips and mount them on a multi-chip module substrate with the processor. This reduces delays between the processor and memory, which is where the biggest performance gains are to be had in computer architecture. It's a pretty cool technology, because right now computers use about 5 levels of memory. The first three, the fastest, are inside the microprocessor die itself. After that, you go out over the system bus to DRAM, which is cheap and fairly large and fairly fast, but volatile. But the bus is incredibly slow compared to the first three layers (the cache layers). The fifth layer is either a Hard Disc Drive or Solid State Drive, which are large and slow but non-volatile. If they can make it at a reasonable price point, it could squish the last two layers of memory into one, making system performance much faster. I'd *love* to see it in a laptop."
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7dhxvv | Why do some things get slippery when wet while others get sticky/grippier? | Physics | explainlikeimfive | {
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"text": [
"Generally speaking water is a bad lubricant and when you coat something with a (relatively speaking) rough surface, it won’t get slippery afterwards as well. However if you have something less structured and you put water on it (imagine a smooth surface ball or something) it will get slippery. I think the hand also accounts to things being “grippier” when the hand is wet."
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7di2hz | Why didnt Germans just go around the Berlin wall? | Other | explainlikeimfive | {
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"it completely surrounded west berlin. a full circle, as berlin was otherwise fully located in east Germany, so you couldn't go into west berlin to then emigrate to west Germany and other western states.",
"The Berlin wall went all the way around the city of Berlin. It was meant to keep people from going from East Germany (which was controlled by the Soviets ...Russia...and surrounded the city of Berlin.) to west Berlin where they could get out to the free world.",
"In addition to the responses you've already received, [here's a map]( URL_0 ). The famous concrete wall is the red bit that divides the two halves of the city; the grey sections show where the border installations cut off West Berlin from its hinterland, and instead of a iconic concrete wall there was a fence. The black dots show the few (carefully controlled and guarded) crossing points for the lucky few. The diagram on the right shows just how comprehensive the border installations were. It was more than simpy a wall.",
"The wall was the part built in the city which was located deep in East Germany. There was a border and fences surrounding the city. Berlin was noted to be an open city until the wall was built. It was fairly easy for Berliners to cross before the wall was built. There were transit lines which crossed the border. Stops were not allowed.",
"Berlin is in east Germany which was under the control of the USSR. The city therefore was entirely encircled by enemy territory creating any number of problems (look up the Berlin airlift). The east west German divide was further west of Berlin and was demarcated by stretches of barbed wire, chain link, as well as guard posts and fortified positions on either side."
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7di3mo | If heat sanitises, why can getting a burn cause an infection? | I've always heard you can sanitize certain things with heat because the heat kills the bacteria, why is it not the case in burns but yet we can also cauterize a wound? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"text": [
"Burning leads to an open wound. Your skin protects you from nasty things entering through your flesh, so if it's burned off it can no longer protect you."
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7dibzk | What do OLED screens do that make them an improvement over LCD screens? | Technology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"text": [
"Traditional LCD screens use a backlight, the LCD pixels change the color of that light as it passes through them. The backlight makes these screens thicker, and the LCD pixels can't block all the light from the backlight so the display isn't capable of displaying true black. OLEDs emit their own light, there is no backlight. This means the screen can be much lighter and thinner (even to the point of being flexible) and can display true black as each pixel emits no light at all when turned off.",
"At my friends work they have 2 TV's a Samsung Q and a Panasonic OLED. I can't believe the different in the blacks. It's amazing.",
"I bought an OLED LG tv back in 2015 and it has been awesome for watching shows. This article helped push me in that direction to purchase it: URL_0 The picture where they show the StarWars screen and just how much better the OLED screen looked was eye opening for me."
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7dicxo | Why in ancient times anything but a pure wife was rejected, but some men married widows? | I'm reading Philip Freeman's Alexander the great and I've seen a few notes of sisters/daughters/nieces once married (obviously not virgins) but with dead husband's being remarried off. The book has also noted that men would turn away a non virgin bride. I'm a little confused on this particular matter | Other | explainlikeimfive | {
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"Men didn't prefer virgins because they got to be the first. It was about legacy. Everything they had and were would be passed on to a son, and they wanted to make sure that boy really was his son. Marrying a virgin helped ensure this. Not only could the husband be sure she was not pregnant with another man's child, but she had followed the norm of society, and could be expected to continue to do so when married. Conversely, a woman known to have had sex out of marriage defied society, was considered a harlot who could not be trusted to remain faithful. In this scheme, a widow is almost as good as a virgin. She followed the rules and just had an unlucky break, so there was no reason to believe she would be any less faithful. Also, widows often inherited their husband's property and were more wealthy than a young woman still living with her family."
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7difbq | Why do we refrigerate the bottles of coffee creamer and not the small little disposable ones you find at gas stations or 7/11? | Other | explainlikeimfive | {
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"text": [
"Those small ones are sterilised, like sterilised milk that you can find in a carton that does not require refrigeration until it's opened. Not sure all creamer requires refrigeration, but it's probably down to it's contents, some might break down once opened as it's exposed to oxygen.",
"The small ones have a (non-refrigerated) shelf life of well over 100 days, i forget how much. I remember asking a similar question about the tiny MILK cups. I was told the milk cups were sealed, and any that we pulled out of refrigeration would easily last a day - any that were not used by the end of the day were tossed out just in case...lawsuits weren't worth the risk. The little sealed non-dairy creamers would *probably* be safe (if kept at room temperature, and out of sunlight) for over a year, even if not refrigerated...like Twinkies in zombie-land. As for larger containers - after they are opened (seals broken) it is safer to refrigerate them just in case any bacteria gets into the bottle. Bacteria is everywhere all the time - best not to give it wet and WARM calorie rich environment to breed in for several days until it is used up. Keep it cool just in case.",
"Short answer: The big bottles say “keep refrigerated” while the small ones do not. Long answer: Products that are shelf-stable (able to be held at room temperature) require labeling that indicates the products are shelf-stable. If they aren’t, and they are potentially-hazardous foods, they must state “keep refrigerated”. The shelf-stable, little, disposable bottles of creamer have been processed and scientifically tested to assure safety at room temperature. The primary methods of doing this are adding a preservative, making it acidic, or lowering the water content of the product or a combination of these. Then they must treat the product using time, pressure, and/or heat to a minimum of a 5 log reduction of bacteria. This is how we prevent C. botulinum from forming in low-acid, hermetically sealed containers. The refrigerated ones don’t require as much of this. Full disclosure: I have never worked where they manufacture these products, but I have read the Code of Federal Regulations regarding what I assume to be similar products. However, I may be way off because of the dairy the product contains. I have absolutely no experience with dairy."
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7dijvv | - Why do people say you can live without food for two weeks, but my stomach hurts after ten hours? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"text": [
"Because your body wants to eat regularly. Eating regularly is best for you and your health. Your body also has methods to store nutrients for when you don't eat because it's better to be prepared for emergencies. Doing this isn't ideal as you can run into vitamin deficiency problems and sometimes your body has to break down useful stuff (like muscles) to keep you running. In a worst case scenario it starts shutting down parts of you to lower energy required. This means that while you can go for longer periods of time without eating your body still encourages you not to do it. Your body encourages you by making you feel hungry or causing that stomach pain you're referring to. The more hungry you are the more your body is going to get you to try and eat because it knows not eating for that long is bad. Bad, not impossible.",
"We have very sensitive hormones in our stomach, if we have not eaten food for a while, the hormone ghrelin tells our body we are needing food and gets somewhat overdramatic at times relaying it to our brain. You are feeling \"real hunger,\" as pathetic as that sounds after just a few hours. As more time passes, our bodies can become somewhat desensitized to the hormones and have times with less perception of hunger, even though we are in greater need of energy."
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7dilim | How is Zimbabwe still operating as a country when its unemployment rate is around 95%? | Economics | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
"dpy4pxu"
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"text": [
"95% are officially unemployed. The truth is they are likely to be unofficially employed, working the black market or subsistence farming, just not reporting their earnings or employment to the government."
],
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58
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7diuax | How do countries handle the vast discrepancies between international postage costs? | I've got a rough handle on the [Universal Postal Union]( URL_0 ) but I'm still not entirely sure how they handle the nuances of balancing the books when it comes to international postal charges. Let's say I buy something off eBay from China, and have it mailed to me in Australia. The seller in China pays China Post all of $1 or whatever low price they charge to ship it, and the item makes it all way the to Australia, where it gets handed over to Australia post - who have to invest considerably more than $1 worth of resources and effort to get that item to me. In fact, if I was to mail the same item across the city here, it would cost me about $8 or so. Since the number of people in Australia buying stuff online from China vastly outweighs the number of people in China buying stuff from Australian online retailers - how, exactly, do Australia Post and China Post reconcile the books to take into account the fact $1 isn't even close to covering the cost of getting something delivered in Australia from their end? It makes more sense with sending from places like the US or UK, where the postage charges more or less seem to even out and the parcel traffic between the two countries is probably relatively similar. Are there minor diplomatic incidents over these things? Is the Postmaster General of China telling the Postmaster General of Canada that it's too bad everyone in Canada wants mail from China but there's only so much maple syrup people in China want mailed to them? Or is it one of those situations were everyone agrees it's all out of whack but the international postal service is important enough that they just let it slide? | Economics | explainlikeimfive | {
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"text": [
"There is an organization called the Universal Postal Union that helps sort things out. Established in 1874, it is perhaps the oldest international governance organization in the world. It is now part of the UN. They have a system to balance the books when there is a mail imbalance between countries, where in your example China would have to compensate Australia. In addition, some countries, like the US and China, have a bilateral agreement on how to handle postage imbalances.",
"The receiving country is supposed to charge the sending country a certain amount for delivering mail that was paid using stamps of the sending country. The same is true the other way, so countries just work it out between themselves. If China Post is losing money on mail sent to Australia then they will eventually increase the prices (or not, they may be happy to take a loss on certain destinations, the government may want to keep the price down, etc)"
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7djlg2 | What makes humans so curious, and why do we need to know everything? | Why do we lie awake at night wondering how cheese is made? Is curiosity a large part of what makes us human? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"text": [
"I'm not a expert in this so it's possible I could be wrong but I believe it's basically a survival strategy of you know how to make traps is cook food that will give you an advantage. Add a result we basically need constant stimulation. In fact, boredom and disgust are the same emotion (kinda). I mean that they are the same in the way that rage and mad are the same emotion. Boredom is a more mild version of disgust. There was an experiment where they had people touch a button that would shock them and when asked they said they would not touch it again. But when asked to wait in a room alone almost all of them touched the button again with 20-30 minutes"
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7djnyt | Computer games | Other | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"There are still single player games that you buy for a one time payment. However many have DLC (Downloadable Content), which is extra content you typically have to pay extra for. Some DLC is like the expansion packs you'd get in the 90s, some is minor things like a new weapon or costume. Many games have microtransactions. Small DLCs like costumes is a microtransaction, but microtransactions can also be consumable in game items like potions. Being able to pay for consumable items is more common in multiplayer games, but a few single player ones have it too. In single player games all of this is optional. You can just play offline if you want. Steam is an online distribution system for PC games. You pay on the online store, or use a code you bought in a physical one, and the game gets added to your account. Then you can download and play it."
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7djnzo | How does human intelligence work? Is there a limit to how smart/dumb a person can be? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
"dpyaom5"
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"text": [
"We don't know. The human brain is a massively parallel supercomputing intelligence engine more complicated than anything else that exists on Earth. Making a supercomputer with an even remotely similar amount of processing power costs billions, and even then such a computer wouldn't be as smart and versatile as a human because we have no idea how our brains have become as insanely flexible as they are."
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7djpob | What is that low humming/ringing sound we hear shortly after a TV or other device is shut off? | It's that noise you hear when you can tell someone has a TV or radio on a few rooms over even if the volume is off. I've heard this sound right before getting a text or phone call, too. I always thought I was some clairvoyant until I realized there must be a scientific explanation for it. | Technology | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"Every electronic device vibrates due to electronic collisions in the circuitry. It’s why you hear buzzing in overhead power lines. When electrons hit something, part of the kinetic energy transfer is lost as a pressure wave, ie, sound. In the case of TVs, radios, and phones, it just means the emitted pressure wave is at a frequency that is audible to you."
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7djr8m | Why do we sometimes talk to ourselves, and why do some of us do it more than others? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"dpyb8sy"
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"text": [
"I'm no expert so take my response with a grain of salt. Back in high school, I asked my psychology teacher this question. She said that everyone talks to themselves and that's normal. Its a way for us to work through scenarios(or something like that) or problems in our head. According to her its normal to talk to yourself but it's considered something to take a look at when you hear a response."
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7djx7r | Why the liver can regenerate but other vital internal organs cannot? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"text": [
"The liver is intended to handle the most toxic compounds in your body while it is cleaning your blood. Invariably, cells get damaged during that process. If the liver wasn't able to regenerate, you would quickly not have a liver. None of the other body parts are designed to be damaged.",
"AFAIK they can. Just not at a level good enough for the damage they tend to sustain/take. For example your lungs can recover after excessive smoking. I apologise if I am wrong. Source: URL_0",
"*ALL* body parts can regenerate, as regeneration is a vital function of every living cell. If it cannot regenerate, it dies very quickly. 50,000-100,000 cells in our bodies are damaged **every single day**, but most of them regenerate before any lasting damage occurs. If they cannot, for some reason, they kill themselves and are replaced by nearby cells duplications. The liver regenerates very quickly compared to other organs because it does a very dirty job; it processes toxins, chemicals, and cleans your blood. Certain organs, like the brain, take around 7-8 years to replace every cell. This is why brain damage is often seen as being lasting damage, serious damage, or permanent damage. This is also why strokes are such a serious issue, because they kill around 500,000-2,000,000 cells every second until they're over. That's a whole heck of a lot of dead cells. The largest organ in/on the body, the skin, only takes about 27 days to fully replace every cell. The liver takes around the same amount of time."
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"https://www.livestrong.com/article/240258-can-your-lungs-recover-from-smoking/"
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7dkea1 | What actually happens when your ear starts to ring randomly? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"The phenomenon you are describing is called sudden brief unilateral tapering tinnitus (Yes it is called SBUTT for short) and the cause is unknown. There are some theories according to this article [What Is This God-Awful Ringing in My Ears?]( URL_0 ) > But what causes these phantom sounds? No one knows for sure, but there are a few theories. One involves the small muscles that attach to the three bones in the ear. These bones conduct sound vibrations, which get transferred into the inner ear and converted into neural impulses to the brain; the nearby muscles can help dampen sounds that are too loud, Dr. Jethanamest says. It’s possible that if one of those muscles spasms — kind of like an eyelid twitch — it could pull tightly, making your ear feel “full” and blocking external sounds. You hear a high-pitched sound, and then the spasm stops. > Another theory involves misfiring neurons of the small sensory cells in the inner ear, known as hair cells. These cells move in reaction to sound waves, which trigger the release of electrical signals to your brain, which it interprets as sound. If one part of this production line is messed up, you might hear something weird. “Maybe there’s just some slight change for half a second and some of those firings are a little bit off or changed a little bit in the neural activity, and that’s what creates that one-second thing that you hear or you feel,” Dr. Jethanamest says.",
"Nobody fully understands tinnitus. In some cases, tinnitus has a logical explanation: hearing loss will sometimes cause it, which makes sense in the same way that phantom limb pain makes sense. However, things like aspirin and TMJ can cause it as well...and why a musculoskeletal thing in the jaw can cause your ears to ring is beyond me If the ringing persists, however, *see your doctor right away*. There are very few ear emergencies, but sudden changes in hearing is the biggest.",
"The cells bearing cilia (hairs) in your inner (middle?) ear that detect pressure waves (sounds) in the air get damaged from over-stimulation, ie very loud noises (in my case, anyway.). For some reason, they can't turn off and keep sending signals even when there's no external stimulus. Lots of combat vets come home with this condition, I understand.",
"Good question. I've always noticed this happening when an older tube tv was turned on near me - my ears would start to ring and over 30-60 seconds the sound would \"normalize\" (I have no other way to describe it) and just disappear. Not sire if it went away or just faded into the background as my body processed the new sound.",
"Hello, Massage Therapist here. There are a few muscles on the front of your neck that are typically responsible for that ringing. The main one, (sternocleidomastoid) connects from the middle of your upper chest, (where the sternum and clavicles meet) to the back of your head just behind your ears. If this muscle is tight it can cause that ringing.",
"When the little hairs in your ear that are linked to a particular frequency die your brain can't figure out that there is just nothing coming in from that frequency anymore so it replaces it with that temporary ringing sound. Pretty scary if you've worked in a loud place awhile or listen to loud music and suddenly it starts happening a lot"
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7dkflw | Why can’t bots check ‘I am not a robot’ checkboxes? | Technology | explainlikeimfive | {
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"text": [
"It's checking a lot more than whether you can check the check box. It checks how quickly you begin to move the mouse towards the checkbox, whether you move the mouse in an absolutely straight line, or at a steady speed, or indeed if you even move the mouse at all - it would be very easy to program a bot to click the check box, but all of these things would be giveaways that it's a bot. To see if it's a human, it checks that the time it takes you to respond to seeing the checkbox is what's expected from a human, that the mouse movements appear human-like, that the delay between the mouse reaching the check box and you actually clicking it are human-like. It might be possible to build a bot that does all of these things in a human-like manner, but if that bot runs over and over again, patterns would soon start forming where the mouse follows the same path each time, and Captcha would soon block that particular pattern of mouse movement."
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7dkox3 | A galvanic cell | Chemistry | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
"dpyfvnr"
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"text": [
"Basically a galvanic cell is used to test the difference in E between the two electrodes used. There will be 2 electrodes, say copper and iron, and their electrolytes, say copper(II) sulfate and iron(II) sulfate respectively. there will be 2 containers, each containing the electrode and its electrolyte, where the electrodes are joined together by a wire connected by a voltmeter. there will be a salt bridge connecting the two, (1) to complete the circuit and (2) to ensure that the charge doesn’t build up"
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7dkqf4 | why does it take 7-8 weeks for results from a tox screen ? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
"dpyj8hz",
"dpyibp9"
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"text": [
"It's not your tox screen, it's the thousands of other tox screens in the queue ahead of you that makes it take forever.",
"Usually because I'm waiting on the patient to give urine. But seriously, they don't take that long. About an hour in the man. Probably just a lot of processing time by whoever performed it."
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7dkxf4 | Auditing the Federal Reserve | Don't we already get transcripts 5 years later? Is it just for conspiracy theorists? Would the Federal Reserve be politicized by congress? | Other | explainlikeimfive | {
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"> Don't we already get transcripts 5 years later? More than that. The fed is audited: internally, by the GAO, and by an outside firm, usually ~annually. On top of that, the head of the Fed reports directly to Congress bi-annually. You can access those here: URL_0 The transcripts are just things like FOMC meetings. The audits include all of their financial assets etc. > Is it just for conspiracy theorists? There's 3 people who want to \"audit the Fed\": conspiracy theorists, regular people who don't understand how the Fed works (unfortunately, the way it's set up makes it look shady to the average person), and people in Congress who want more direct control. > Would the Federal Reserve be politicized by congress? Yes, almost definitely, which is why it was created (mostly) independent in the first place, to avoid those pressures. The current audit the fed movement is by people who want more politicization (currently, it tends to be people who disliked/distrusted the Fed's \"easymoney\" response to the 2008 crisis)",
"The way we currently audit the Federal Reserve allows for several things to occur that aren't awesome. First, the annual audit has no deadline. This means that the audit from 2002 (random number) could still be in progress in 2017, or be sitting on someone's desk until they get around to filing it. So, even though annual audits are currently required, they never actually have to be finished. Secondly, the audit currently does not have to be made available to Congress/Senate or the American population, which is a pretty significant problem. This means we don't really have a clue what they're doing at any given time. Last, and perhaps most significantly, the current auditing process allows the Federal Reserve to omit their dealings with foreign nationals, foreign banks, or foreign countries, as well as omit its dealings with other banks in the USA. Because of this, we don't know if they're violating ethics laws by leveraging control on our open market system. Most simply; the current auditing system is broken/flawed, and needs updating to meet new national standards and guidelines."
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7dl0id | Why does water on my tablet or phone screen make it act as if it was being clicked? | Technology | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
"dpyhp63",
"dpyl3di"
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"text": [
"Because the touch screen of your phone is capacitive so it works by detecting whether or not something that conducts electricity is touching it. Water conducts electricity",
"You can also use slices of apples as well as hot dogs among many other things as a stylus for your phone."
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7dlh7m | Why social media apps prefer showing a trending or popular timeline as opposed to a chronological one? | Technology | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"Remember, on platforms where you're using it for free, you're not the customer, you're the product (the advertisers are the customers). So they want to show things you're more likely to click on first.",
"It shows stuff people are more likely to want to see (popular stuff) so they keep using the service as they keep seeing relevant things"
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7dlq6p | How is it possible to have unknown elements on the periodic table where the atomic number is known but not the actual element? | Chemistry | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"That's the entire point of the **periodic** table. It was developed because we recognized that the elements have these recurring properties that fit predictable patterns. This allowed us to put them in a table based on those patterns and sort them. When we did, we noticed gaps where other elements should be. Over time we filled those gaps by discovering those elements. Theoretically, the periodic table could extend to infinity, but we usually don't list any elements that haven't yet been detected. Also, *unnamed* elements shouldn't be confused for *undetected* elements.",
"We don't discover a new element, then measure its atomic number. An element is **defined** by its atomic number, even if it doesn't yet exist. It is kind of like knowing there has to be a mile marker 118 on 200-mile highway, even if you've never been that far. The marker itself might be missing, but there will be place it supposed to be."
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7dmfef | What is a Banana Republic? How is it related to Bananas? | Economics | explainlikeimfive | {
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"/u/formerguest gives a good definition of the precise meaning. The term is often used more loosely, as a way to insult or dismiss a country. It means that country is small, backward, irrelevant, and has questionable or illegitimate leadership, particularly if it is Latin America.",
"Small politically unstable country economically dependent on the export of a single crop or mineral. Used to describe Honduras when it was highly dependent on the export of Bananas. These places are characterized by there being a small ruling class who are getting all the profits from the export, and a vast underclass who is used as labor.",
"A banana republic is a politically unstable country whose economy depends on the export of one product in limited supply, such as bananas or minerals. A banana republic has social classes that are divided by wealth. These include a large, poor working class and a small ruling class made up of the businessmen, politicians, and the military. The ruling class controls and exploits the country's economy. [source]( URL_0 )",
"Banana republic can either be: A fake republic, like the Nicaraguan republic in the late twentieth century. In this sense, banana is a connection to a centralized republic, like, int he hands of the few, in the case of Nicaragua, the hands of the banana business family. See the paradox? Or you can be referring to the nation and not to the system. In this case, we can use the southern central American countries, or the northern south American countries to explain. Historically, the government of these countries was controlled by the owners of the banana farms, these families were friends with the United States. So it was like \"we give you bananas, and you give us other stuff so we can control the masses\". And there you have it, a fake republic, dominated by the banana families. And, of course, there were several other banana companies that wanted to be the most powerful ones, but let's not complicate it. Here is an awesome video to explain it better and more organized: URL_0"
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7dmq74 | Can a Non-Disclosure Agreement (NDA) be used to protect someone from a crime? | I've been reading that there are victims of sexual assault/harassment by celebrities, business leaders, etc. who won't come forward because they signed a non-disclosure agreement (NDA). My understanding is that you cannot use a contract to commit an illegal act i.e. even if you sign a contract selling yourself into slavery, it is not legal and cannot be enforced. So, if someone signs a NDA saying that they will not disclose that the other party committed assault or rape, etc. - is that legally enforceable? If they report the crime, would they still have to pay the penalty for breaking the NDA? | Other | explainlikeimfive | {
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"Other people have given answers with basic information about NDAs, let me give you some more detailed information about these recent cases and how NDAs are affecting peoples's decisions to come forward. What has occurred with many of these situations is the alleged sexual assault occurred where the two people involved were the only ones present at the time (as is the case with most sexual assaults). The woman filed an official complaint (either through HR or a lawyer) against the man that assaulted her. This complaint was then resolved via a settlement agreement that included an NDA. Essentially this works by the company/person saying, hey we know you are upset about what happened, here is $50,000 if you do not say anything about it. Also we do not accept any fault in this and this contract does not presume any guilt on us. Also you have to sign a contract that states you will not say anything or else you owe us the $50,000 back. The woman in this situation could always go to the police and file charges. They could do this before, during, or even after the settlement. However if they do, they could and will be sued for the the $50,000 as they breached the contract. However there is almost no reason for the women to come forward as proving sexual assault is incredible difficult. Most of these cases are men either saying/asking something sexual and/or light physical contact (eg grabbing a boob). If they were the only two people present when the event occurred, it becomes a he-said-she-said situation. In the US justice system (and most countries) the accuser has to prove that the thing happened beyond some form of doubt, the defendant does NOT have to prove it DIDN'T happen. All the burden of proof is on the woman to provide some kind of hard evidence, which in most cases is impossible. In the end, many women are not coming forward because they risk losing the money they were given in a settlement for no purpose. There is essentially no chance that any legal ramifications will come of it. Therefor many do not talk.",
"This is not legal advice and will vary depending on jurisdiction (each state, province, and country will be different). If you have signed or are considering signing an NDA covering a sexual assault see a lawyer in your jurisdiction, and if you have seen a lawyer, do not disregard their advice to you based on this comment. Generally speaking a contract that is immoral is voidable for immorality. If you sign an NDA to keep a rape secret then turn around and go to the police the rapist would have to go to court and ask for the contract to be enforced. At that point the judge would say \"Well, common law gives me the authority to void contracts for various reasons of public policy. If you contracted to be a slave or work for below the minimum wage I could void that. If you contracted to sell a child I could void that.\" Etc. Historically this power has not been exclusive to criminally illegal contracts, but rather a broader part of the court's authority. I would be very surprised if most judges didn't respond by voiding the contract. Now, something very interesting happens once the contract is voided. The rapist is going to ask for their money BACK. But void means that the contract never existed as a legal document. When you pay someone money without a legal reason for doing so, and you want it returned to you, what you need to do is go to the court under the rules of Equity, and plead Unjust Enrichment. This is what banks use if they accidentally put a million bucks into your account. Basically its the legal equivalent of \"opps I gave you something of mine you were not entitled to\". There is a very old rule of Equity however that you have to go to the court with clean hands. Equitable remedies are different from legal remedies in that everyone from a rapist to a murderer is allowed their legal remedies for wrongs done to them, but in equity only the just may receive the benefit they seek (its more complex than that but accept the over-simplification for a moment). What this means is that the courts likely have the discretion as to whether or not to void the NDA and let the victim keep the payment. If you and I would want the victim to keep the money, I think its a pretty safe bet a judge would naturally desire that outcome. And if they have a legal avenue to do so, my bet would be that they do. That said, I'm not aware of one of these actually being litigated and I would be interested to see how it actually turned out.",
"The contract is not to disclose X information for Y amount of money. That in and of itself is not illegal. The fact that X is an illegal act is irrelevant. If they disclose it, then the suspect can be prosecuted, but in the seperate civil matter of the contract, the contract has now been voided, and the money will have to be paid back to return to the status before the contract ever occurred."
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7dmq9l | how long does person have to be dead before it’s considered archaeology instead of grave robbing? | Other | explainlikeimfive | {
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"text": [
"It is not a matter of time, it is a matter of intent and legality. A graverobber illegal takes objects from graves to sell them. An archaeologist legally (usually) takes objects from graves to study them.",
"It depends on who owns the burial site. Archeologists must get permission from the landowner and get an excavation permit from the government. Grave robbing is a crime, so no permission necessary. What must be done with any finds are dictated by the laws of the country. The IS has the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act, for instance. In Switzerland, all \"ancient artifacts\" found belong to the state, though the finder must be rewarded. Archeologists worked on the site of the 9-11 attacks on the World Trade Center, and their finds are on exhibit at the 9-11 museum.",
"I don't know as a whole but there was a case of someone retrieving a well preserved and *ancient* native american body that was eventually returned to to contemporary native american people, so in some cases it seem like an indefinite amount of time.",
"Time is not an element here. It's the same difference between illegally harvesting a person's kidneys and going to a hospital to have a surgeon remove your kidneys. 1) You must be a trained and licensed professional. This involves years of education followed by government overseen licensing procedures. 2) You must have explicit permission from the owner of the property. 3) You must have explicit permission from the government in which the property is located. 4) You are bound by explicit rules, laws, and obligations that vary from country to country. Breaking any of these rules, laws, or obligations will likely result in losing your license to perform the task, which means all of that training, licensing, and education will go to waste."
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7dmr8x | Why does a temperature inside feel cold but the same temperature outside feel good? | Physics | explainlikeimfive | {
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"dpyvo73"
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"text": [
"Sunlight. Air is a poor conductor of heat, so you don’t lose that much heat to the air compared to most things. You do however absorb heat from the sun pretty well. If you sit in the shade at 50 then you will get cold pretty fast."
],
"score": [
4
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|
7dmt0a | How do planes crash into each other? | I dunno, seems like there's an awful lot of sky to use. How do such things happen? | Technology | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
"dpywbat"
],
"text": [
"It is pretty uncommon, because yes the sky is quite big. It is more common around airports because the plane concentration is much higher there of course. Also, planes of particular types tend to use very similar routes and altitudes because they are the most efficient. Finally, air traffic controllers use holding patterns that are fairly consistent to avoid the mistakes that can come from complexity. These factors make a small increase in the probability of a collision, but I would imagine the overall safety gains more than off that risk. Also I’m sure there is some selection bias when you hear/think about aircraft collisions. They’re quite rare but extremely memorable."
],
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4
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7dmwe8 | Why do frozen peppers thaw so fast? | I just took a scorpion pepper out of the freezer (was there for weeks) and put it under cold water for 2 seconds, it was completely thawed. Why is the thawing time so short compared to other foods? | Chemistry | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
"dpyx1yx",
"dpz0agk"
],
"text": [
"It's because the total mass is small, it's mostly filled with air, and the water content is less than in other foods (like meat). If you took the equivalent weight of chicken and formed it into a spherical bubble with air inside, it would thaw very quickly as well.",
"Theres a difference between temperature and heat. The pepper may be the same temperature as a large block of ice or other freezer temperature objects, but since it doesnt have much mass it doesnt have to absorb much heat to raise its temperature to the water temperature Also since its a veggie its mostly water which is good at conducting heat, and submerging it in more water is the fastest way to transr heat, if you just left it on the counter to thaw in the air itd take a while longer"
],
"score": [
11,
3
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7dmwhv | What is the psychology behind microtransactions and how effective they are for the monetization of games? | In the past, I've generally just assumed that microtransactions prey on people who are bad at math, have poor impulse control, or are just loose with their money. What is the business perspective? How do they craft the monetization system to extract money from consumers? What psychological quirks are they trying to use or take advantage of? What are the strategies? | Other | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
"dpyyl3k",
"dpyysj7",
"dpyzvoo"
],
"text": [
"> I've generally just assumed that microtransactions prey on people who are bad at math, have poor impulse control, or are just loose with their money. This is pretty much correct. In short, they're targeting the same group of people who are likely to have gambling addictions, or those with huge amounts of disposable income. The latter group doesn't care how much they're spending, but the former group will irresistably crave that chance for hitting the jackpot. They're taking advantage of the fact that winning makes you feel good (by releasing dopamine), and the buyer's brain will chase that rush. Have you ever noticed how few clicks it takes to get more microtransaction currency in these games? Once you've made your first purchase and saved your billing info, you can typically purchase more in 3-4 mouse clicks at **maximum**. They streamline the process to such a degree that there's no time to have second thoughts. You're never typing in your credit card information *over and over* while considering if it's worth it. You just click two buttons, click \"approve,\" and it's done.",
"There's a South Park episode called Freemium Isn't Free which sums up how it goes after people who are susceptible to the reward feelings it generates. SP compares it to alcohol companies preying on alcoholics because they make up 80% of their sales. There is a certain segment of the microtransaction population that they call Whales (which is also the name given to high rollers in Vegas) which will spend many times more than the regular person. The psychological quirks are your dopamine receptors in your brain. This is how people can be addicted to activities like sex and gambling (as opposed to outside substances like drugs). Some people get stimulated by these micro-rewards to the point that they need to keep doing it. This is also why it's sort of accepted in the gaming world if the base product is free (and the paid items are either cosmetic, or they make up for a reasonable amount of game time), but the scuttlebutt surrounding Star Wars Battlefront 2 is that you're paying $100 for the game (game + season pass) just to play it, but then are put in a position that you will be at a disadvantage to those who have paid more money (EA rolled back that idea today, but said it's only temporary, so it will eventually happen).",
"remember, the loot box system isn't designed to get money from EVERYBODY, just an extremely small minority. they are an extremely bad deal, but even with them being that predatory, a small minority will still buy them. and that small minority might buy $1,000's of dollars worth each, meaning that 1% of the population is spending $100,000's of dollars on these loot boxes. Polygon (i think, i can't remember) interview a \"whale\" who spent THOUSANDS a month on microtransactions. it takes advantage of not only \"people who are bad at math\", but also gambling addicts and children. EDIT: also, as mentioned elsewhere, look up skinner boxes. an inconsistent reward is actually MORE addictive than a consistent one."
],
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10,
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7dn2vw | When we are deep under water, why can we not feel the weight of all the water above us? | Physics | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
"dpyygzt",
"dpyzyk4"
],
"text": [
"You do feel the pressure of the weight of the water above you, but you also feel increased pressure on all parts of your body. This means you're getting crushed, but it doesn't feel like there's thousands of pounds on your back. This is the same reason that you don't feel hundreds of pounds of pressure on your body from all of the air above you.",
"I see everyones said that water will create pressure from all sides but it helps to think how water acts to understand why. Solids will only really create force on the bottom, thats called the normal force and it is a direct reaction to gravity pulling that object down. Since water is a fluid it doesnt just push down it pushes on the sides as well. Imagine you had a door in front of you that was flooded on the other side, that door would be straining to keep the water on the other side and if you were to open the door that had water behind it, it would push you out of the way because that water can now freely move in that direction. Being underwater is just like being that door, but the water is trying to push on you from all sides instead of just one, because all the water around/above you wants to fill the space you are taking up."
],
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7
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|
7dn80a | If this Doctor in the news lately can actually perform a head transplant as he claims, then by extension wouldn't he have found a way to repair severed spinal cords, and be able to reverse paralysis in living people? | Seems like if there were real science behind this, he would be focused on reversing paralysis in millions of people. | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
"dpz1u6o",
"dpz5oq1"
],
"text": [
"It has been done on animals, but they remain paralyzed. This doctor that wants to do a head transplant, wants to do it on an already paralyzed patient, that also suffers from multiple organ failure to save his life by moving his head on a healthy body. He will still be paralyzed but won't have to worry about his other organs failing him....",
"No matter what you have heard, the planned head transplant is just to see what happens first and foremost, not so much for the patient's benefit. The entire scientific community is pretty skeptical of the doctor who is planning to do it, with many saying it is blatantly unethical. This doctor did head transplants on animals, but *did not* use the techniques he is going to be using on the human patient. Note that it may not ever happen, and just be a case of \"I could totally do this if I had piles and piles of money!\" [Some past ELI5 comments]( URL_0 ) that elaborate on this."
],
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"https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/7byzyi/eli5_could_a_brain_transplant_actually_be/dply8pu/"
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7dnasz | The difference between hand soap and dish soap. | Chemistry | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
"dpz0839",
"dpz0juk"
],
"text": [
"Dish soap is harsher. They work basically the same way, but dish soap is extra concentrated, and isn't really healthy for your skin.",
"Dish soap contains more of the grease-cutting detergent, and few or no skin softeners/moisturizers. And it's usually very concentrated, since it's designed to be mixed with a sinkful of water."
],
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|
7dnlko | Why do we smile when we're happy instead of frown? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
"dpz94yn"
],
"text": [
"Some facial expressions - not all, but some, including smiles and disgust faces - are universal across cultures, which makes us think that they are biologically determined. There are muscles in the face that all contract together during a genuine smile, due to input from emotion-related neurons firing in the brain. (The exact pattern of muscles contracting can hard to fake, which is why you can often kind of tell when someone is genuinely happy vs. just smiling for a camera or something.) From an evolutionary standpoint, certain facial expressions like the smile may have evolved to clearly convey emotions - this idea goes back to Darwin. You can see how this could be beneficial. As a hypothetical example, if you're feeling friendly toward a stranger, it might be better to smile so that they're aware of your friendly intentions, rather than snarl and make them think you're potentially hostile. Side note, some biologists think that the human smile is rooted in the same evolutionary ancestry as the primate facial expression known as the \"[silent bared teeth face]( URL_0 )\" (AKA \"fear grimace\"). Although this expression is often mistaken for a smile, it actually signals submission. According to these researchers, the human smile would have gone from meaning \"please don't hurt me\" in a primate ancestor, to \"I'm friendly, please don't hurt me,\" to \"I'm friendly,\" to \"I'm happy,\" over the course of human evolution."
],
"score": [
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"http://cdn.iflscience.com/images/8a47aa66-7834-5ac6-8df3-9ec3cdcae810/default-1470396368-cover-image.jpg"
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|
7do8ns | Is being asleep and unconcious the same thing? If not what's the difference. | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
"dpz8hne"
],
"text": [
"Not the same. The difference is in responsiveness. If you're asleep, generally, you can be easily woken up, like with a loud nose or a nudge. If you're unconscious, you might only slightly respond to even painful stimulus."
],
"score": [
8
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|
7doahm | The appeal of buying name products versus the generic products at a cheaper price. | Other | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
"dpz8zhk"
],
"text": [
"1. There usually IS a difference between the generics and name brand. Name brand cheerios might taste pretty similar to the generic, but other cereals may vary enough that someone might choose to pay more. Stuff like clothes, you're pretty much buying them for the logo so you can show off how cool you are, so the generic won't do the same thing for you 2. Some products like medicines are more different than you would think, especially those that require an extremely precise dosage (generics need to be accurate within a certain margin to be approved), or if the generics use different capsules/etc containing materials someone might be allergic to. 3. People overvalue name brands"
],
"score": [
9
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|
7dosyq | Why is the middle part of our upper lip indented? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
"dpzes3u",
"dpzfg9j"
],
"text": [
"It's called a [philtrum]( URL_0 ) and it's vestigial, meaning it serves no purpose but used to. Like an appendix. As for what it used to do, I don't know.",
"It's where the two halves of your face meet and knit together. Think of it as like the seams in a piece of clothing. If the two halves of the face don't meld properly, cleft lip and/or cleft palate can result."
],
"score": [
11,
7
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"text_urls": [
[
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philtrum"
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|
7doxka | What makes someone an intellectual "genius" or "prodigy"? How can someone be tremendously smarter than the general population? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
"dpze733",
"dpzkhn8"
],
"text": [
"**TL;DR**: *They \"won\" the smartness genetic lottery, plus had time and exposure to get really good at what they do.* Let's make an analogy with dogs. With dogs, you have your basic dumb-as-a-post mutt that would happily bark itself to death at a fire hydrant while standing in its own poop, and then you have your amazingly trainable assistance dog that understands dozens of commands and anticipates the needs of its human. And somewhere in between them is the average dog that can learn a couple tricks. But there's a huge variety in there, and some animals are just absolutely brilliant. Part of it is because they were born with high levels of native intelligence. Part of it is because they were exposed to interesting human-driven training processes that whetted that intelligence. Humans are no different. Occasionally genetics or other birth conditions turn \"on\" the real smart-causing capabilities so you end up with a basically smarter person. Sometimes it's because the gene that says \"make a creative brain\" gets a boost, other times because a crazy short-circuit happens in there that creates, for example, a near-perfect capability of recall. And sometimes it's because other abilities suffer and the early growth of the person concentrates on the brain, like we see in some autistic musical geniuses. And sometimes it gives a giant boost to creativity and causes the person to think in different and entirely new ways. Then you add in youth, time, opportunity and exposure. A mentally flexible young genius that doesn't have to work 20 hours per day and meets someone willing to mentor and push them gets a chance to flourish and grow because they stumbled across their first piano and instantly KNEW how to start playing it, gets the chance to hone their natural skill by a perceptive parent or scholar. The more time they have, the better. So you end up with someone that, through a combination of factors, is crazy smart, often at the expense of leading a normal life because they either are or become flawed in other areas when it comes to being well-rounded.",
"The short answer is that intelligence is a genetic human trait like height and most of the time those traits they follow the normal distribution. Meaning that most of the population will be around the average but you will have some outliers. So just like some people have the genetics to become 7 feet tall or be able to run 100 meters below 10 seconds, some people have the intelligence to understand calculus before 7 years old and finish university at 14 years old."
],
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7dp6pt | What happens to the bones from fish eaten whole by dolphins and other animals? | Biology | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
"dpzgtw0"
],
"text": [
"These animals have evolved an alimentary canal to withstand much stronger gastric acids and enzymes which are needed to dissolve bone. Fish bones are softer than most other bones. Bones of terrestrial creatures are eaten by a few species of mammals like the Hyena and Tasmanian Devil and others but they are chewed well and pass through the digestive tract mostly intact. Some birds and reptiles like alligators, crocodiles, and snakes have really powerful stomach acids and since the prey-food item sits in one spot as it is digested, they don't perforate their intestines. Oseophagy is seen in many creatures, but this \"bone nibbling\" is simply using bones as a source of calcium and phosphorus. Giraffes do this regularly."
],
"score": [
11
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"text_urls": [
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|
7dp8zz | Why are the frets on a guitar smaller the higher you get, when the frequency-delta separating two notes actually increases the higher the notes are? | Other | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
"dpzm6qp",
"dpzg23x",
"dpzjs2d",
"dpzyxjz"
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"text": [
"Because an octave interval is equivalent to doubling (or halving) a frequency. 16 - - - - - - - - 8 - - - 4 - 2 1 8 is closer to 4 than it is to 16.",
"The percentage of the string you are vibrating compared to the previous fret is much smaller since the string is effectively much shorter.",
"The frequency-delta gets larger. But the string length relates to the wavelength which is proportional to the reciprocal of the frequency. So that needs to be a smaller difference for each higher note.",
"Let's say the vibrating portion of your string is 50\" long. To get a string to play a note up an octave, you have to either cut the string in half (to 25\"), or increase the tension exponentially (squared). To go up yet another octave, you would cut the string in half again, to 12.5\". You'll notice that each time you cut the string in half, you're cutting off less string. Notes are just subdivisions of octaves, so if going up each octave requires that you cut off less string, the notes in between also require cutting off less string. When you put your finger on the fret with a proper setup and technique, the string tension stays constant, but the vibrating length of the string is cut shorter. A fun way to see the relationship between string length and octaves play out, is with harmonics: - Play your 6th string and watch it vibrate along the length of the guitar. - Now put your finger over the 12th fret/halfway point (over the metal fret itself, not the space between frets) and **lightly** touch the string (don't push it down). - Play the string again and immediately take your finger off the string, you should see it vibrate again, only this time you can see that the point your finger was touching will remain still (we call this point a *node*), and you'll essentially have two strings, half the original length, vibrating at the same time. This produces an E an octave higher than your open E. - To go up another octave, move your finger back towards the 5th fret (this should be halfway between your nut and the 12th fret). Again, touch the string over this fret lightly and play the string, immediately removing your finger. - You'll see the string should be vibrating, only in 4 equal sections with nodes in between, each half the length of the last note you just played (1/4 of the full length), which produces an E an octave higher than the last high E, and two octaves higher than your open E. - Technically you could also produce this same harmonic by placing your finger by the soundhole, 3/4 of the way up the string, but the 5th fret gives you a quick reference point. Edit: I learned how to format a list!"
],
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7dpezi | Why do smoke detectors contain Americium? | Technology | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
"dpzimgx",
"dpzhdyy",
"dpzhyy5"
],
"text": [
"Americium is radioactive, and we put some next to a radiation detector. When smoke gets in there, the radiation can't reach the detector. Detectors are designed so this sets the alarm off.",
"Because it' radioactive. It's a low cost element that's not fubject to lots of proliferation risk. The radioactive decay particals detect the smoke.",
"So the first question to answer is \"how do you detect smoke?\" Humans can detect smoke by smell and by sight mainly, so let's start there. Smell is a pretty complex chemical reaction, where a certain airborne molecule fits into a complicated smell receptor in your nose. This smell receptor has a lot of different places that the airborne molecule could potentially fit, and depending on which one it fits into best, that's the electrical signal that gets sent back to your brain. I have no idea how you'd accomplish this in a way that is mass-producable and cheap. So let's move on to sight. As it turns out, that's a lot easier to fake. Human sight is pretty complicated, but you don't need to replicate the whole thing, just have a beam of light/energy that if it gets broken (by thick black smoke in our case) an alarm goes off. You could do this with an LED or a laser or some other similar light source, but those all require power. We want this design to be able to work with as little outside power input as possible, so that in the event of a fire that damages the power supply, it'll still work. So what do we have that can have a near constant stream of energy without power input? Radioactive materials fit that bill pretty well . Americium is a fairly cheap, fairly common radioactive material, and it emits particles that are large enough to get blocked by most smoke, making it ideal for this purpose."
],
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7dpiyy | Why do some noises like clicking a pen sound less annoying when we're the ones doing it? | Other | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
"dpziii8"
],
"text": [
"Probably because we are in control off it, unlike when jeremy from across the classroom clicks his damn pen for 45 straight minutes"
],
"score": [
3
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} | [
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|
7dps2o | When and how did the internet go from being telephone calls between computers to these giant "ISPs"? | Bonus question: how did the FCC get involved in what are essentially (to my understanding) telephone networks? | Technology | explainlikeimfive | {
"a_id": [
"dpzjrlv"
],
"text": [
"The larger computers on the Internet were always connected by special network lines, not phone calls. Using phones was a temporary solution to get home computers and small-business computers connected until the telecom companies could build proper network connections using technologies like cable and DSL."
],
"score": [
7
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} | [
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