text
stringlengths 1
3.86k
|
|---|
There were 112 deaths associated with the construction of the dam . The first was J. G. Tierney , a surveyor who drowned on December 20 , 1922 , while looking for an ideal spot for the dam . Ninety @-@ six of the deaths occurred during construction at the site . Of the 112 fatalities , 91 were Six Companies employees , three were BOR employees , and one was a visitor to the site , with the remainder employees of various contractors not part of Six Companies . |
Not included in the official fatalities number were deaths that were recorded as pneumonia . Workers alleged that this diagnosis was a cover for death from carbon monoxide poisoning , brought on by the use of gasoline @-@ fueled vehicles in the diversion tunnels , and a classification used by Six Companies to avoid paying compensation claims . The site 's diversion tunnels frequently reached 140 ° F ( 60 ° C ) , enveloped in thick plumes of vehicle exhaust gases . A total of 42 workers were recorded as having died from pneumonia ; none were listed as having died from carbon monoxide poisoning . No deaths of non @-@ workers from pneumonia were recorded in Boulder City during the construction period . |
= = = Architectural style = = = |
The initial plans for the facade of the dam , the power plant , the outlet tunnels and ornaments clashed with the modern look of an arch dam . The Bureau of Reclamation , more concerned with the dam 's functionality , adorned it with a Gothic @-@ inspired balustrade and eagle statues . This initial design was criticized by many as being too plain and unremarkable for a project of such immense scale , so Los Angeles @-@ based architect Gordon B. Kaufmann , then the supervising architect to the Bureau of Reclamation , was brought in to redesign the exteriors . Kaufmann greatly streamlined the design , and applied an elegant Art Deco style to the entire project . He designed sculptured turrets rising seamlessly from the dam face and clock faces on the intake towers set for the time in Nevada and Arizona — the two states are in different time zones , but as Arizona does not observe Daylight Saving Time , the clocks display the same time for more than half the year . |
At Kaufmann 's request , Denver artist Allen Tupper True was hired to handle the design and decoration of the walls and floors of the new dam . True 's design scheme incorporated motifs of the Navajo and Pueblo tribes of the region . Although some initially were opposed to these designs , True was given the go @-@ ahead and was officially appointed consulting artist . With the assistance of the National Laboratory of Anthropology , True researched authentic decorative motifs from Indian sand paintings , textiles , baskets and ceramics . The images and colors are based on Native American visions of rain , lightning , water , clouds , and local animals — lizards , serpents , birds — and on the Southwestern landscape of stepped mesas . In these works , which are integrated into the walkways and interior halls of the dam , True also reflected on the machinery of the operation , making the symbolic patterns appear both ancient and modern . |
With the agreement of Kaufmann and the engineers , True also devised an innovative color @-@ coding for the pipes and machinery , which was implemented throughout all BOR projects . True 's consulting artist job lasted through 1942 ; it was extended so he could complete design work for the Parker , Shasta and Grand Coulee dams and power plants . True 's work on the Hoover Dam was humorously referred to in a poem published in The New Yorker , part of which read , " lose the spark , and justify the dream ; but also worthy of remark will be the color scheme " . |
Complementing Kaufmann and True 's work , the Norwegian @-@ born , naturalized American sculptor Oskar J.W. Hansen designed many of the sculptures on and around the dam . His works include the monument of dedication plaza , a plaque to memorialize the workers killed and the bas @-@ reliefs on the elevator towers . In his words , Hansen wanted his work to express " the immutable calm of intellectual resolution , and the enormous power of trained physical strength , equally enthroned in placid triumph of scientific accomplishment " , because " [ t ] he building of Hoover Dam belongs to the sagas of the daring . " Hansen 's dedication plaza , on the Nevada abutment , contains a sculpture of two winged figures flanking a flagpole . |
Surrounding the base of the monument is a terrazzo floor embedded with a " star map " . The map depicts the Northern Hemisphere sky at the moment of President Roosevelt 's dedication of the dam . This is intended to help future astronomers , if necessary , calculate the exact date of dedication . The 30 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) bronze figures , dubbed " Winged Figures of the Republic " , were each formed in a continuous pour . To put such large bronzes into place without marring the highly polished bronze surface , they were placed on ice and guided into position as the ice melted . Hansen 's bas @-@ relief on the Nevada elevator tower depicts the benefits of the dam : flood control , navigation , irrigation , water storage , and power . The bas @-@ relief on the Arizona elevator depicts , in his words , " the visages of those Indian tribes who have inhabited mountains and plains from ages distant . " |
= = Operation = = |
= = = Power plant and water demands = = = |
Excavation for the powerhouse was carried out simultaneously with the excavation for the dam foundation and abutments . A U @-@ shaped structure located at the downstream toe of the dam , its excavation was completed in late 1933 with the first concrete placed in November 1933 . Filling of Lake Mead began February 1 , 1935 , even before the last of the concrete was poured that May . The powerhouse was one of the projects uncompleted at the time of the formal dedication on September 30 , 1935 — a crew of 500 men remained to finish it and other structures . To make the powerhouse roof bombproof , it was constructed of layers of concrete , rock , and steel with a total thickness of about 3 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) , topped with layers of sand and tar . |
In the latter half of 1936 , water levels in Lake Mead were high enough to permit power generation , and the first three Allis Chalmers built Francis turbine @-@ generators , all on the Nevada side , began operating . In March 1937 , one more Nevada generator went online and the first Arizona generator by August . By September 1939 , four more generators were operating , and the dam 's power plant became the largest hydroelectricity facility in the world . The final generator was not placed in service until 1961 , bringing the maximum generating capacity to 1 @,@ 345 megawatts at the time . Original plans called for 16 large generators , eight on each side of the river , but two smaller generators were installed instead of one large one on the Arizona side for a total of 17 . The smaller generators were used to serve smaller communities at a time when the output of each generator was dedicated to a single municipality , before the dam 's total power output was placed on the grid and made arbitrarily distributable . The present contracts for the sale of electricity expire in 2017 . |
Before water from Lake Mead reaches the turbines , it enters the intake towers and then four gradually narrowing penstocks which funnel the water down towards the powerhouse . The intakes provide a maximum hydraulic head ( water pressure ) of 590 ft ( 180 m ) as the water reaches a speed of about 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . The entire flow of the Colorado River passes through the turbines . The spillways and outlet works ( jet @-@ flow gates ) are rarely used . The jet @-@ flow gates , located in concrete structures 180 feet ( 55 m ) above the river , and also at the outlets of the inner diversion tunnels at river level , may be used to divert water around the dam in emergency or flood conditions , but have never done so , and in practice are only used to drain water from the penstocks for maintenance . Following an uprating project from 1986 to 1993 , the total gross power rating for the plant , including two 2 @.@ 4 megawatt Pelton turbine @-@ generators that power Hoover Dam 's own operations is a maximum capacity of 2080 megawatts . The annual generation of Hoover Dam varies . The maximum net generation was 10 @.@ 348 TWh in 1984 , and the minimum since 1940 was 2 @.@ 648 TWh in 1956 . The average power generated was 4 @.@ 2 TWh / year for 1947 @-@ 2008 . In 2015 , the dam generated 3 @.@ 6 TWh . To lower the minimum power pool elevation from 1 @,@ 050 to 950 feet ( 320 to 290 m ) , five wide @-@ head turbines , designed to work efficiently with less flow , will be online by 2017 . Due to lack of water , the dam mostly provides power only during periods of peak demand . |
Control of water was the primary concern in the building of the dam . Power generation has allowed the dam project to be self @-@ sustaining : proceeds from the sale of power repaid the 50 @-@ year construction loan , and those revenues also finance the multimillion @-@ dollar yearly maintenance budget . Power is generated in step with and only with the release of water in response to downstream water demands . |
Lake Mead and downstream releases from the dam also provide water for both municipal and irrigation uses . Water released from the Hoover Dam eventually reaches several canals . The Colorado River Aqueduct and Central Arizona Project branch off Lake Havasu while the All @-@ American Canal is supplied by the Imperial Dam . In total , water from the Lake Mead serves 18 million people in Arizona , Nevada and California and supplies the irrigation of over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 400 @,@ 000 ha ) of land . |
= = = = Power distribution = = = = |
Electricity from the dam 's powerhouse was originally sold pursuant to a fifty @-@ year contract , authorized by Congress in 1934 , which ran from 1937 to 1987 . In 1984 , Congress passed a new statute which set power allocations from the dam from 1987 to 2017 . The powerhouse was run under the original authorization by the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power and Southern California Edison ; in 1987 , the Bureau of Reclamation assumed control . In 2011 , Congress enacted legislation extending the current contracts until 2067 , after setting aside 5 % of Hoover Dam 's power for sale to Native American tribes , electric cooperatives , and other entities . The new arrangement will begin in 2017 . The Bureau of Reclamation reports that the energy generated is allocated as follows : |
= = = Spillways = = = |
The dam is protected against over @-@ topping by two spillways . The spillway entrances are located behind each dam abutment , running roughly parallel to the canyon walls . The spillway entrance arrangement forms a classic side @-@ flow weir with each spillway containing four 100 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 30 m ) and 16 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) steel @-@ drum gates . Each gate weighs 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 pounds ( 2 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 kg ) and can be operated manually or automatically . Gates are raised and lowered depending on water levels in the reservoir and flood conditions . The gates are unable to entirely prevent water from entering the spillways but are able to maintain an extra 16 ft ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) of lake level . Water flowing over the spillways drops dramatically into 600 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 180 m ) , 50 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 15 m ) spillway tunnels before connecting to the outer diversion tunnels , and reentering the main river channel below the dam . This complex spillway entrance arrangement combined with the approximate 700 @-@ foot ( 210 m ) elevation drop from the top of the reservoir to the river below was a difficult engineering problem and posed numerous design challenges . Each spillway 's capacity of 200 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 5 @,@ 700 m3 / s ) was empirically verified in post @-@ construction tests in 1941 . |
The large spillway tunnels have been used only twice , for testing in 1941 and because of flooding in 1983 . During both times , when inspecting the tunnels after the spillways were used , engineers found major damage to the concrete linings and underlying rock . The 1941 damage was attributed to a slight misalignment of the tunnel invert ( or base ) , which caused cavitation , a phenomenon in fast @-@ flowing liquids in which vapor bubbles collapse with explosive force . In response to this finding , the tunnels were patched with special heavy @-@ duty concrete and the surface of the concrete was polished mirror @-@ smooth . The spillways were modified in 1947 by adding flip buckets , which both slow the water and decrease the spillway 's effective capacity , in an attempt to eliminate conditions thought to have contributed to the 1941 damage . The 1983 damage , also due to cavitation , led to the installation of aerators in the spillways . Tests at Grand Coulee Dam showed that the technique worked , in principle . |
= = = Roadway and tourism = = = |
There are two lanes for automobile traffic across the top of the dam , which formerly served as the Colorado River crossing for U.S. Route 93 . In the wake of the September 11 , 2001 terrorist attacks , authorities expressed security concerns and the Hoover Dam Bypass project was expedited . Pending the completion of the bypass , restricted traffic was permitted over Hoover Dam . Some types of vehicles were inspected prior to crossing the dam while semi @-@ trailer trucks , buses carrying luggage , and enclosed @-@ box trucks over 40 ft ( 12 m ) long were not allowed on the dam at all , and were diverted to U.S. Route 95 or Nevada State Routes 163 / 68 . The four @-@ lane Hoover Dam Bypass opened on October 19 , 2010 . It includes a composite steel and concrete arch bridge , the Mike O 'Callaghan – Pat Tillman Memorial Bridge , 1 @,@ 500 ft ( 460 m ) downstream from the dam . With the opening of the bypass , through traffic is no longer allowed across Hoover Dam , dam visitors are allowed to use the existing roadway to approach from the Nevada side and cross to parking lots and other facilities on the Arizona side . |
Hoover Dam opened for tours in 1937 after its completion , but following Japan 's attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7 , 1941 , it was closed to the public when the United States entered World War II , during which only authorized traffic , in convoys , was permitted . After the war , it reopened September 2 , 1945 , and by 1953 , annual attendance had risen to 448 @,@ 081 . The dam closed on November 25 , 1963 and March 31 , 1969 , days of mourning in remembrance of Presidents Kennedy and Eisenhower . In 1995 , a new visitors ' center was built , and the following year , visits exceeded one million for the first time . The dam closed again to the public on September 11 , 2001 ; modified tours were resumed in December and a new " Discovery Tour " was added the following year . Today , nearly a million people per year take the tours of the dam offered by the Bureau of Reclamation . Increased security concerns by the government have led to most of the interior structure being inaccessible to tourists . As a result , few of True 's decorations can now be seen by visitors . |
= = Environmental impact = = |
The changes in water flow and use caused by Hoover Dam 's construction and operation have had a large impact on the Colorado River Delta . The construction of the dam has been credited as causing the decline of this estuarine ecosystem . For six years after the construction of the dam , while Lake Mead filled , virtually no water reached the mouth of the river . The delta 's estuary , which once had a freshwater @-@ saltwater mixing zone stretching 40 miles ( 64 km ) south of the river 's mouth , was turned into an inverse estuary where the level of salinity was higher close to the river 's mouth . |
The Colorado River had experienced natural flooding before the construction of the Hoover Dam . The dam eliminated the natural flooding , which threatened many species adapted to the flooding , including both plants and animals . The construction of the dam devastated the populations of native fish in the river downstream from the dam . Four species of fish native to the Colorado River , the Bonytail chub , Colorado pikeminnow , Humpback chub , and Razorback sucker , are listed as endangered . |
= = Naming controversy = = |
During the years of lobbying leading up to the passage of legislation authorizing the dam in 1928 , the press generally referred to the dam as " Boulder Dam " or as " Boulder Canyon Dam " , even though the proposed site had shifted to Black Canyon . The Boulder Canyon Project Act of 1928 ( BCPA ) never mentioned a proposed name or title for the dam . The BCPA merely allows the government to " construct , operate , and maintain a dam and incidental works in the main stream of the Colorado River at Black Canyon or Boulder Canyon " . |
When Secretary Wilbur spoke at the ceremony starting the building of the railway between Las Vegas and the dam site on September 17 , 1930 , he named the dam " Hoover Dam " , citing a tradition of naming dams after Presidents , though none had been so honored during their terms of office . Wilbur justified his choice on the ground that Hoover was " the great engineer whose vision and persistence ... has done so much to make [ the dam ] possible " . One writer complained in response that " the Great Engineer had quickly drained , ditched , and dammed the country . " |
After Hoover 's election defeat in 1932 and the accession of the Roosevelt administration , Secretary Ickes ordered on May 13 , 1933 that the dam be referred to as " Boulder Dam " . Ickes stated that Wilbur had been imprudent in naming the dam after a sitting president , that Congress had never ratified his choice , and that it had long been referred to as Boulder Dam . Unknown to the general public , Attorney General Homer Cummings informed Ickes that Congress had indeed used the name " Hoover Dam " in five different bills appropriating money for construction of the dam . The official status this conferred to the name " Hoover Dam " had been noted on the floor of the House of Representatives by Congressman Edward T. Taylor of Colorado on December 12 , 1930 , but was likewise ignored by Ickes . |
When Ickes spoke at the dedication ceremony on September 30 , 1935 , he was determined , as he recorded in his diary , " to try to nail down for good and all the name Boulder Dam . " At one point in the speech , he spoke the words " Boulder Dam " five times within thirty seconds . Further , he suggested that if the dam were to be named after any one person , it should be for California Senator Hiram Johnson , a lead sponsor of the authorizing legislation . Roosevelt also referred to the dam as Boulder Dam , and the Republican @-@ leaning Los Angeles Times , which at the time of Ickes ' name change had run an editorial cartoon showing Ickes ineffectively chipping away at an enormous sign " HOOVER DAM , " reran it showing Roosevelt reinforcing Ickes , but having no greater success . |
In the following years , the name " Boulder Dam " failed to fully take hold , with many Americans using both names interchangeably and mapmakers divided as to which name should be printed . Memories of the Great Depression faded , and Hoover to some extent rehabilitated himself through good works during and after World War II . In 1947 , a bill passed both Houses of Congress unanimously restoring the name " Hoover Dam . " Ickes , who was by then a private citizen , opposed the change , stating , " I didn 't know Hoover was that small a man to take credit for something he had nothing to do with . " |
= Tropical Storm Abby ( 1964 ) = |
Tropical Storm Abby was an exceptionally small tropical cyclone that had minor effects across Southeast Texas in early August 1964 . Forming as a tropical depression out of a trough south of Louisiana on August 5 , the system moved generally westward . It was not until August 7 that the system began to organize . That day , an eye rapidly formed within the system and it became a tropical storm just 60 mi ( 95 km ) southeast of Galveston , Texas . Soon thereafter , a weather reconnaissance plane reported a barometric pressure of 1000 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) at the storm 's center . Around 18 : 00 UTC ( 1 : 00 p.m. CDT ) , the newly named Abby attained peak winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . It subsequently made landfall near Matagorda , Texas four hours later . Once onshore gradual weakening ensued , though a brief period of re @-@ organization delayed its dissipation . Abby degenerated into an area of showers on August 8 southwest of San Antonio , Texas . |
Prior to Abby 's landfall in Texas , gale warnings were issued for the coast and residents on Matagorda Island were evacuated . Overall , the storm 's impacts were limited due to its small size . Only two structures sustained damage in Matagorda , one being destroyed by a possible tornado , and the remaining effects resulted from flooding in Jackson and Victoria Counties . Total damage from the storm was estimated at $ 750 @,@ 000 with the majority stemming from crops . |
= = Meteorological history = = |
On August 5 , 1964 , a weak trough emerged from Florida over the northeastern Gulf of Mexico . According to the Atlantic hurricane database ( referred to as HURDAT ) , the system developed into a tropical depression by 18 : 00 UTC ( 1 : 00 p.m. CDT ) that day , with its center located roughly 160 mi ( 260 km ) south @-@ southeast of the Mississippi River Delta . Moving generally west , the system exhibited no signs of further development as it neared the Texas coastline . However , on August 7 , radar images from Brownsville , Galveston , Lake Charles , and Victoria showed an abrupt increase in organization . During the afternoon hours , banding features consolidated around a developing eye and weather reconnaissance planes were dispatched to the system . Forecasters initially mistook the eye as a hook echo @-@ type feature at the end of a squall line . It is estimated that the depression became a tropical storm by 12 : 00 UTC ( 7 : 00 a.m. CDT ) , roughly 60 mi ( 95 km ) southeast of Galveston , Texas . Operationally , the system was not even monitored as a depression this time , with the classification and naming of Tropical Storm Abby occurring at 16 : 00 UTC ( 11 : 00 a.m. CDT ) on August 7 . |
Abby was an unusually small storm , with its entire circulation being far less than 100 mi ( 160 km ) in diameter . Around 16 : 00 UTC ( 11 : 00 a.m. CDT ) on August 7 , reconnaissance measured a central barometric pressure of 1000 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) within Abby , the lowest in relation to the system . They also reported peak winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) in squalls , which would rank as a Category 1 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . These winds were seen to be an overestimate by forecasters and discarded , however . The system attained its maximum winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) by 18 : 00 UTC ( 1 : 00 p.m. CDT ) and subsequently made landfall just northeast of Matagorda , Texas at 22 : 00 UTC ( 5 : 00 p.m. CDT ) . Irvin Velbrecht , a forecaster at the Weather Bureau ( now known as the National Weather Service ) in Galveston , described the storm as a " perfectly miniature hurricane . " Despite moving onshore , Abby 's core continued to organize and it developed a closed eyewall roughly three hours later . Thereafter the storm began to gradually weaken , passing over Edna around 02 : 00 UTC on August 8 ( 9 : 00 p.m. CDT on August 7 ) . Weakening to a depression hours later , Abby ultimately degenerated into an area of showers and dissipated southwest of San Antonio by 12 : 00 UTC ( 7 : 00 a.m. CDT ) . |
= = Preparations and impact = = |
Owing to the abrupt nature of Abby 's development on August 7 , residents had little time to prepare for the storm . According to Irvin Velbrecht , " in the absence of aircraft reconnaissance and radar information , two reasonably new tools in storm detection , Abby could well have formed and approached the shore before knowledge of a tropical storm was gained . " Gale warnings were raised from Galveston to San Antonio immediately following the storm 's formation and were kept in place through the morning of August 8 . Evacuation orders were issued for Matagorda Island and most complied , with some deciding to remain at their homes . Personnel at Matagorda Island Air Force Base were evacuated to Victoria . Red Cross facilities were readied and public shelters were opened in the area . At the mouth of the Colorado River , seagoing vessels were tied down with extra rope . Within the Weather Bureau , members of the Galveston office were the first to notice the system and relayed to the other offices in the area to attune their radars to follow the system . |
Abby 's small size resulted in its effects being limited to areas within the immediate track . Sustained winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) with gusts to 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) were measured by the Army Corps of Engineers in Matagorda . Near the town , a possible tornado unroofed a barn and tossed the structure 225 ft ( 69 m ) ; this building previously had withstood the effects of Hurricane Carla in 1961 . Winds estimated at 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) tore part of the roof off a fishing warehouse in Matagorda itself . Along the coast , tides ranged from 2 to 4 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 to 1 @.@ 22 m ) above normal from Matagorda to Freeport . Four men and five dogs required rescue after their vessel became stranded on the Colorado River . |
Heavy rains accompanied the system across Texas . Most areas along the immediate track received at least 3 to 5 in ( 76 to 127 mm ) of rain , with a peak value of 6 @.@ 14 in ( 156 mm ) recorded at the Victoria International Airport . The hardest hit areas were in Jackson and Victoria counties where the heaviest rains fell . In these areas , flooding and strong winds damaged the cotton and rice crops ; however , effects of the rice crop were more limited due to losses from earlier storms as well as ongoing harvesting . Some flooding also took place across the Atascosa River watershed , but no damage resulted . Overall , property damage was estimated at $ 150 @,@ 000 while agricultural losses reached $ 600 @,@ 000 . |
= 7 Independent Company ( Rhodesia ) = |
7 Independent Company ( 7 Indep Coy ; French : 7ème Compagnie indépendante ) was a short @-@ lived company of francophone volunteers in the Rhodesian Army during the Rhodesian Bush War . Numbering about 200 men at its peak , it was unique in the history of the Rhodesian Army as an exclusively expatriate unit . It existed between November 1977 and May 1978 as a company in the 1st Battalion , the Rhodesia Regiment , and served two counter @-@ insurgency tours on Operation Hurricane in north @-@ eastern Rhodesia ( today Zimbabwe ) . |
During the Bush War , the Rhodesian Army augmented its ranks with foreign volunteers , who were accepted into regular regiments with the same pay and conditions of service as locals . Most foreign recruits enlisted in the Rhodesian Light Infantry ( RLI ) , which launched an overseas recruitment programme in 1974 , but required successful applicants to speak good English . The Army attempted to alleviate the strain on its troops during late 1977 by recruiting French @-@ speakers as well , and formed a designated company in the Rhodesia Regiment for them . The regiment already had six independent companies , so the francophone unit became 7 Independent Company . |
The company 's men , a mixture of former French paratroopers , ex @-@ Foreign Legionnaires and young adventurers , had trouble from the start integrating with the Rhodesian forces , and became unsettled by the respective ranks they were given in the Rhodesian Army . In an attempt to raise their morale and create a strong esprit de corps , the Army issued them beret insignias backed with the French tricolour and allowed them to raise the flag of France alongside that of Rhodesia each morning . Apparently under the impression that they had signed up as highly paid mercenaries , many of the French troopers returned home after their first bush trip , unhappy to have received no more money than a regular Rhodesian soldier . |
On operations their performance was generally below par , but the Frenchmen were involved in some successful actions during February and early March 1978 . Their oppressive treatment of the black villagers they encountered made them very unpopular in the operational area . The Rhodesians quickly deemed the experiment a failure and following a series of disasters for the company during the latter part of its second tour , including two friendly fire incidents and several fatalities , it was disbanded in May 1978 . Forces led by one of its members , Bob Denard , later that month executed a coup d 'état in the Comoros with French , Rhodesian and South African governmental support . |
= = Background = = |
Following a dispute with the British government regarding terms for the granting of full independence , the predominantly white minority government of the self @-@ governing colony of Rhodesia ( or Southern Rhodesia ) , led by Ian Smith , unilaterally declared independence on 11 November 1965 . Britain and the United Nations refused to recognise this and each imposed economic sanctions on Rhodesia . Meanwhile , the country 's two most prominent communist @-@ backed black nationalist groups , the Zimbabwe African National Union and the Zimbabwe African People 's Union , mobilised their respective guerrilla armies , the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army ( ZANLA ) and the Zimbabwe People 's Revolutionary Army ( ZIPRA ) , for what they called the " Second Chimurenga " , with the goal of overthrowing the government and introducing black majority rule . |
The Rhodesian Bush War was the result , beginning in earnest on 21 December 1972 when ZANLA attacked Altena and Whistlefield Farms near Centenary in the country 's north @-@ east . The Rhodesian Security Forces launched Operation Hurricane in response and fought back strongly , reducing the number of guerrillas active within the country to under 300 by December 1974 . In the period October – November 1974 , they killed more nationalist fighters than in the previous two years combined . However , a South African @-@ brokered ceasefire , which the security forces respected and the insurgents ignored , helped the nationalists to win back ground . By 1977 there were 2 @,@ 500 guerrillas operating in Rhodesia , with several times that number in training abroad . |
The Rhodesian Army , though mostly made up of local men , also included some foreign volunteers , who were integrated into regular units under the same salary and conditions of service . Almost all of the foreigners served in the Rhodesian Light Infantry ( RLI ) , a heliborne commando battalion with a glamorous international reputation . The RLI initiated a major overseas recruitment drive in 1974 , targeting potential volunteers from Europe , Oceania and the Americas , and requiring successful applicants to speak good English . This campaign was bearing considerable fruit by May 1976 , when the RLI 's largest ever intake included more foreign volunteers than any before , and the enlisting of men from overseas into the RLI would increase yet further . By 1977 – 78 there were around 1 @,@ 500 foreigners in the Rhodesian forces . However , the Rhodesian Army remained stretched and low on manpower . |
= = Formation and training = = |
The idea for a francophone unit came from a French national , François Cramer , who had business interests and connections in Rhodesia . He proposed it to Major @-@ General Sandy MacLean , then the Rhodesian Army 's second @-@ in @-@ command , while they were visiting France together . MacLean relayed the idea to the General Staff in Salisbury , which decided in late 1977 to form a " French battalion " to alleviate the strain on its regular units . A Rhodesian officer of French extraction , Cyril Bernard , warned his superiors strongly against the scheme , but was ultimately himself sent to France to start the project . On the way he stopped in Zurich , Switzerland , where MacLean gave him final approval for the operation and a budget of US $ 30 @,@ 000 . They resolved to recruit mainly in Paris and Lyon . Bernard then entered France and renewed old connections from the French military academy at Saint @-@ Cyr . |
Recruitment was carried out by a former French paratrooper , Roger Bruni , operating from an apartment on Rue Bachaumont in central Paris . Advertisements , placed in newspapers such as France Soir , offered " a job with a future abroad ... minimum age 22 , former non @-@ commissioned officers preferred " . The body of men eventually assembled varied widely in terms of age , background and experience , but was based largely around ex @-@ paratroopers and former Foreign Legionnaires . The average age was about 25 . French @-@ speaking veterans of an assortment of African and Middle Eastern conflicts spanning the previous two decades successfully applied , but past service did not prove a necessity ; some of the men accepted had no military experience . Most of them spoke English only at a basic level if at all . |
Once signed up , each man was instructed to travel to Switzerland , where appropriate visas were swiftly procured from the South African Embassy . In early November 1977 , the French recruits flew from Zurich to Johannesburg on a South African Airways liner , then to Salisbury by Air Rhodesia . Already in Rhodesia waiting for the men were their leaders : Major Roland de l 'Assomption , an ex @-@ officer of the French Army 's crack 11th Shock Parachute Regiment , and a former officer of the Gabonese President Omar Bongo 's guard ; and Major Mario La Viola , once a non @-@ commissioned officer in the Foreign Legion 's 2nd Parachute Regiment . Beneath them were the Antillean Captain Toumi , who became the first black officer in the regular Rhodesian Army as the unit 's second @-@ in @-@ command , and " Colonel " Bob Denard , an infamous French soldier of fortune nicknamed le chien de guerre — " the dog of war " . |
According to an anonymous veteran of the unit , it mostly comprised recently discharged servicemen from the French forces who were having trouble adapting to civilian life . " They didn 't know how to do anything else , only how to jump with a parachute and obey orders , " he explained , " and they liked that kind of thing . " Others , he said , were members of the political far right who had joined up " to kill commies and blacks " , and some were criminals hoping to escape the attention of the French police . Each signed on for two years . The French @-@ speaking unit was placed in the Rhodesia Regiment ( RR ) as an " independent company " . The RR already had six of these ( made up of Rhodesians ) , so the Frenchmen became 7 Independent Company . |
The Rhodesian Army sought to forge a strong esprit de corps among the new recruits , and to this end extended them several sentimental allowances : for example , morale amongst the Frenchmen rose when they were informed that the Rhodesian insignia on their berets would be backed with the French tricolour . In a similar vein , their request for permission to raise the flag of France alongside that of Rhodesia outside their headquarters each morning was approved . French @-@ speaking men already in the army were attached to the unit to act as interpreters and assist with coordination and tactical instruction . Some of these were Mauritians , who by virtue of their upbringing spoke both English and French at a native @-@ like level . The company itself , which numbered about 200 men , was assigned headquarters near Salisbury at Cranborne Barracks , the home of the Rhodesian Light Infantry . It was organised in the same manner as a standard Rhodesian independent company , the only exception being its exclusively francophone personnel . |
Spirits were high during the unit 's brief training period as the men enjoyed playing sports , observing the country scenery and experiencing the night @-@ life of the nearby capital . They were not adequately trained , receiving only a basic medical examination , a few days ' fitness training and a cursory explanation of proper conduct in the bush . They expressed surprise when instructed to paint stripes of camouflage green on their weapons and combat boots in the Rhodesian fashion , having never before heard of such a practice . |
The first dent to morale came after about a week when the volunteers were first issued ranks in the Rhodesian Army . In the eyes of some of the French @-@ speaking soldiers , the ranks assigned appeared to have been chosen almost at random by their superiors , and did not reflect their actual respective levels of training , ability and experience . Some men who considered themselves to have been overlooked began to have problems with discipline . The brazen attitude of most of the company 's soldiers jarred strongly with that of their Rhodesian commanders , who had high standards regarding presentation and dress which many of the Frenchmen had little inclination to meet . |
= = Service = = |
= = = First bush trip = = = |
The francophone company was first deployed out of its barracks in late November 1977 , when it was sent to Bindura , about 88 kilometres ( 55 mi ) north @-@ east from Salisbury , for a few days in the bush on Operation Hurricane , the Army 's operational area which covered Rhodesia 's north @-@ east against guerrilla activity . After this passed without major incident , the Frenchmen were despatched to Rusambo , a camp in the Chimanda Tribal Trust Lands , near Rushinga , about 250 kilometres ( 160 mi ) north @-@ east from the capital and less than 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) from the border with Mozambique . Most insurgents in this area belonged to ZANLA . |
A company of men from the Territorial Force was already stationed at Rusambo , advised by a team of intelligence officers . " Sticks " of four men ( three FN FAL riflemen and an MAG gunner ) would be sent out into the bush from Rusambo for periods of up to two weeks , equipped with a radio to communicate with the base . Their task while in action was to seek out guerrillas by means of patrolling , ambushing and operating observation and listening posts . Once a group of insurgents was spotted , the stick leader would report their positions ; Rusambo would then alert the Army and request a Fireforce . If Fireforce were available , it would arrive and engage the cadres ; if not , the stick in the field would have to handle the situation itself . |
At first , men from 7 Independent Company were sent out in sticks mixed with the Territorials , but problems soon arose regarding proper regimen and the language barrier . When the Frenchmen were then sent out alone , their Land Rovers prominently flying the French flag , the issue of language was resolved , but that of indiscipline remained . Though discretion was paramount if they were to observe enemy movements covertly and effectively , the men of 7 Independent Company were found to have difficulty maintaining this and sometimes made careless mistakes which risked revealing their presence . Moreover , when investigations were made of local kraals , marked tension soon arose between the Frenchmen and the local black population ; the soldiers ' ignorance of English or Shona made it very difficult for discussions to take place and , according to other Rhodesian units who came into contact with them , the French soldiers took out their frustration on the villagers , often using excessive force in their attempted interrogations . Nyamahoboko Police Station received a report of a 7 Independent Company man raping a young tribeswoman in a dense thicket , but did not act on it . According to one history of the Rhodesia Regiment , " it was indicated that the Frenchmen had received instruction that all black people were to be regarded as terrorists " . |
The Rhodesian Army quickly deemed the French experiment a failure . It reassigned 7 Independent Company in late November to Marymount Mission , a small settlement to the east of Rusambo where there was a minor police station . The number of patrols they would embark on was reduced . Two of the company 's vehicles were ambushed by cadres between Marymount and Rusambo on 6 January 1978 , resulting in two men being injured , one fatally so . A week later another truck was surprised on the same bush road , resulting in one death and three serious casualties . The company was brought back from the bush four days later for rest and recuperation ( R & R ) in Salisbury . |
= = = Strike = = = |
During their 15 @-@ day rest periods the company 's men congregated around the Belgian @-@ owned Elizabeth Hotel , in the centre of the city at the corner of Causeway and Manica Road . Many of them became seriously disaffected when they first received their salary from the Rhodesian Army . Having apparently been misled about wages of up to R $ 1 @,@ 000 per month ( ₣ 7 @,@ 000 ) by the French recruiters , they were surprised to find that their basic monthly pay was actually R $ 245 ( ₣ 1 @,@ 800 ) , the same as a regular Rhodesian soldier . Moreover , some were upset that they had been paid in Rhodesian dollars , which because of the country 's international isolation could not easily be exchanged for foreign currencies . Although it was not as much as they had been expecting , one disenchanted veteran of the unit afterwards admitted that the tax @-@ exempt R $ 245 wage , which came with a $ 10 special @-@ unit supplement , was still more than enough money for them to live comfortably in Salisbury during their time off . |
The pay dispute split the unit . About two thirds went on strike , saying they would not return to action unless the Army upped their wages and paid them in foreign currency . Meanwhile , some of the more contented Frenchmen made steps to remain permanently , buying cars and having their wives join them in Salisbury . The Army detained the strike 's ringleaders for insubordination . With neither side willing to budge — the Army refused to give the strikers extra pay or special treatment , saying this would contravene Rhodesia 's policy not to engage mercenaries — the disaffected men were repatriated to France at their own request . The Rhodesian Army considered disbanding the unit altogether , but persevered when Major de l 'Assomption convinced his superiors that his remaining men were still loyal and eager to continue serving . |
= = = Second bush trip ; dissolution = = = |
Starting on 11 February 1978 , 7 Independent Company spent half a week at Mount Darwin , where there was a major Army base . The company acquitted themselves well during this time , but one of their number was badly injured in a motor accident . They returned to Rusambo , where the camp was now manned by the British South Africa Police ( BSAP ) , Criminal Investigation Department and Special Branch , guarded by a group of Coloured and Indian @-@ Rhodesian soldiers . On 26 February , the Frenchmen spotted a group of seven cadres indoctrinating tribespeople at a local kraal , and called up Fireforce . The RLI men who arrived killed four of the seven , including one carrying detailed documents . The next day 7 Independent Company observed 11 guerrillas entering another kraal , but this time the Fireforce took too long to arrive . The French company took part in a large contact on 1 March , fighting alongside an RLI Fireforce against 28 cadres ; 18 insurgents were killed in this contact without loss for the Rhodesian Army . |
Soon after this , two sticks from 7 Independent Company were despatched to Marymount , led by a deputy intelligence officer who began sending them out on more regular night patrols . The following months were a disaster for the locally based Rhodesian forces ; first one stick fired on another , causing an injury , then a BSAP Land Rover hit a mine , killing two members of the French company . A further Frenchman died in an ambush by insurgents before another friendly fire incident on 19 April 1978 resulted in a fatality . On several occasions during this bush trip the area was " frozen " ; regular army units were confined to their camps while the Selous Scouts operated against the guerrillas . With morale amongst the Frenchmen plummeting , bringing their unit close to collapse , its officers at Rusambo frantically worked to keep it together . The company did not last much longer once back in Salisbury for R & R. Soon after three of its troopers were placed in detention at Llewellin Barracks , the unit was formally dissolved in May 1978 . The only personnel retained by the Army were the interpreters , who were returned to their former units . |
= = Legacy = = |
Supported by the French , Rhodesian and South African governments and with Rhodesian logistical assistance , forces led by Denard took part in a coup d 'état in the Comoros later in May , toppling Ali Soilih ( who Denard had himself put into power three years earlier ) . The Comoros subsequently became a key location for Rhodesian " sanction @-@ busting " operations , providing a convenient end @-@ user certificate for clandestine shipments of weapons and equipment bound for Rhodesia in spite of the UN embargo . South Africa , also under a UN arms boycott because of apartheid , received war materiel through the Comoros in a similar fashion . |
Some 7 Independent Company men became civilians in Rhodesia , which was reconstituted as Zimbabwe in 1980 . Two of them , Gervais Henri Alfred Boutanquoi and Simon Marc Chemouil ( both former Foreign Legionnaires ) , were executed in April 1983 , despite a late plea from French authorities for clemency , having been found guilty of robbing and murdering Richard Kraft , a Karoi café owner . Witness Mangwende , the Zimbabwean Minister of Foreign Affairs , issued a statement clarifying that the execution was for the murder and unrelated to their earlier " service as mercenaries during the time of the Smith regime . " |
= Jenova Chen = |
Xinghan Chen ( simplified Chinese : 陈星汉 ; traditional Chinese : 陳星漢 ; pinyin : Chén Xīnghàn ; born October 8 , 1981 ) , known professionally as Jenova Chen , is a Chinese video game designer . He is the designer of the award @-@ winning games Cloud , Flow , Flower , and Journey , and is co @-@ founder of Thatgamecompany . Chen is from Shanghai , where he earned a bachelor 's degree in computer science with a minor in digital art and design . He then moved to the United States , where he earned a master 's degree from the University of Southern California 's Interactive Media Division . While there he created Cloud and Flow , and met fellow student Kellee Santiago . After a brief period at Maxis working on Spore , he founded Thatgamecompany with Santiago and became the company 's creative director . The company signed a three @-@ game deal with Sony Computer Entertainment , and has sold Flow , Flower , and Journey through the PlayStation Network . |
As Chen was born in a culture other than the culture he now lives in , he tries to make games that appeal universally to all people . His goal with his games is to help video games mature as a medium by making games that inspire emotional responses in the player that other games are lacking . Although he and Thatgamecompany can and have made more traditional games , he does not plan on commercially developing any of them , as he does not think that it fits with their goals as an independent video game developer . |
= = Biography = = |
Chen was born in Shanghai on October 8 , 1981 , and lived there until 2003 . His parents were " a middle @-@ class family " , and his father worked in the software development industry , having previously worked on " one of the earliest giant computers in China " . Although Chen was interested in art and drawing as a young child , his father influenced him towards computers , entering him in programming contests from when he was 10 years old . He found himself interested in video games that he saw there , but was not as enthusiastic about programming . While a teenager , he had deep emotional experiences with games that he played , including The Legend of Sword and Fairy , which he ascribes to the fact that he was not as exposed to books , films , or life events that other people would have had those experiences with . These experiences drove him to try to create those types of feelings in games as an adult , when more emotional maturity had caused his " standards to rise " in what would move him in a game . It was during high school that he chose the English name Jenova after a character in Final Fantasy VII , wanting a name that would be unique anywhere he used it as there were " thousands of Jason Chens " . |
He earned a degree in Computer Science & Engineering in Shanghai Jiao Tong University , which due to his background in computers he found " quite easy " , but describes himself as spending much of his time there teaching himself digital art and animation , and later did a minor in digital art and design at Donghua University . Still interested in video games , he was involved in making three video games as part of a student group while in school . Upon graduating , he had trouble finding a job in the Chinese video game industry that combined his interests of " engineering , art , and design " , and additionally felt that " very few games [ had ] actually achieved those qualities that would be interesting to an adult " . He also considered working in digital animation for films . |
He then went to the United States to earn a master 's degree in the School of Cinematic Arts at the University of Southern California . Chen studied in the Interactive Media Program , a new division of the School of Cinematic Arts . His intention at the time was to use the degree to get the kind of job he wanted back in China . At USC , he became inspired when he went to the Game Developers Conference , where he positively compared the games he had made in college with the student work present at the Independent Games Festival portion of the conference . While at USC he met Kellee Santiago , another student in the same program , and the two decided to work together on games that would be outside of the mainstream . Their first game , which won a grant of twenty thousand dollars from USC to produce , was Cloud , released in 2005 , which " focuses on a young hospital patient who soars in his mind despite being trapped indoors " . The idea was partially based on himself , as when he was a child he was often hospitalized for asthma . It was designed as an attempt to " expand the spectrum of emotions video games evoke " . At a student showcase at the Game Developers Conference , Chen and Santiago showed the game to a representative from Sony , John Hight , saying that it was the first game in the " Zen " genre . Hight was interested , though no deal was forthcoming . The game won the Best Student Philosophy award at the Slamdance Guerilla Games Competition and a Student Showcase award at the Independent Games Festival , and was showcased on Spike TV , G4TV , and CBS Sunday . |
Chen felt that the reason that Cloud had been so warmly received was because the emotions it sparked in players were different than any other game available at the time , and believed that it was his " calling " to make more games that changed what people saw video games as . Chen went on to do his master 's thesis the following year in the concept of dynamic difficulty adjustment , where the game adjusts how it reacts to the player based on the past and present actions of that player . Chen illustrated his ideas with Flow , a Flash game made with Nicholas Clark . The game involves the player guiding an aquatic microorganism through various depths of the ocean , consuming other organisms and evolving in the process . It was released in March 2006 ; it received 100 @,@ 000 downloads in its first two weeks and by July had been downloaded over 650 @,@ 000 times . A PlayStation 3 version was announced in May 2006 as a downloadable game via the PlayStation Store , and was released in February 2007 . A version for the PlayStation Portable , developed by SuperVillain Studios , was released in March 2008 . Flow became the most downloaded game on the PlayStation Network in 2007 , and won Best Downloadable Game at the Game Developers Choice Awards . |
After graduating , Chen and Santiago formed their own game company , Thatgamecompany , in Los Angeles where he still lives and signed a deal with Sony for three PlayStation Store games . The PS3 version of Flow was the first , and while it was in development Chen worked for Maxis on the game Spore . Upon Flow 's release , Chen returned to Thatgamecompany and began working on their second game . |
= = = Thatgamecompany = = = |
The next game , Flower , was Chen and Thatgamecompany 's " first game outside the safety net of academia " . Chen was the creative director in charge of the game , while Santiago was the producer and Clark was the lead designer . The company ranged in size from six to nine people at varying stages of the game 's development . Flower was intended by Chen to primarily to provoke positive emotions in the player , and to act as " an emotional shelter " . Chen described the game as " an interactive poem exploring the tension between urban and nature " . He decided on a " nature " theme early in the development process , saying that he " had this concept that every PlayStation is like a portal in your living room , it leads you to somewhere else . I thought ; wouldn 't it be nice if it was a portal that would allow you to be embraced by nature . " Chen designed the game around the idea that the primary purpose of entertainment products like video games was the feelings that they evoked in the audience , and that the emotional range of most games was very limited . To make Flower have the " emotional spectrum " that he wanted , Chen looked at the development process as creating a work of art , rather than a " fun " game , which would not provoke the desired emotions . In 2008 , during Flower 's development , Chen was named to the MIT Technology Review TR35 as one of the top 35 innovators in the world under the age of 35 . |
After Flower was released to critical praise and awards , Chen and Thatgamecompany moved on to their next game , Journey . Journey was intended by Chen to focus on the element of communication and social interaction in video games . Since in most games the communication between players is focused on specific goals , in Journey Chen intended for the player to be able to either play alone or to come across other players , but not be able to communicate with them directly . Instead , players have to build relationships with each other through their actions , helping each other or leaving as they choose . Journey was released on the PlayStation Network on March 13 , 2012 , and has received critical acclaim . |
= = Influences and philosophy = = |
Chen plays a wide variety of video games , but he names his greatest influences as Katamari Damacy , Ico and Shadow of the Colossus . He also names Final Fantasy VII as an influence , and the game that he took his adopted name from . He personally plays games " competitively " , including titles such as Street Fighter IV and StarCraft . He feels he has a competitive nature , which he has turned towards " winning " at being a game designer by creating games that are unlike what is in the market rather than towards creating competitive games . As he was raised in China and works in America , Chen feels that he cannot fully relate to either culture as a game designer . As such , instead of trying to make games that fit perfectly with one culture he tries to make games that tap into feelings that are universal and independent of culture . |
When Chen quit Maxis to re @-@ join Thatgamecompany , he did so knowing that it would mean taking less pay and having a less stable career . He felt , though , that it was important to the industry and medium as a whole to create games that provoked different emotional responses in the player than just excitement or fear . While Chen is not opposed to making action games , and his company has made internal " exciting " games that were well received at Sony , he feels that there is no point to Thatgamecompany commercially producing games like that instead of working for existing game developers , as they would not be making anything new that justified the cost of remaining an independent studio . Similarly , Chen does not intend for Thatgamecompany to make " big budget blockbuster games " , as the pressure on profits that that entails would stifle the innovation that he wants Thatgamecompany to focus on . Chen believes that for video games to become a mature medium like film , the industry as a whole needs to create a wide range of emotional responses to their games , similar to how film has thriller , romance , and comedy genres based on the emotions they provoke . He feels that there are only three ways for video games to impact adults in the same way they do children : " intellectually , whereby the work reveals a new perspective about the world that you have not seen before , " by " emotionally touching someone , " and " by creating a social environment where the intellectual or emotional stimulation could happen from other people . " |
= E. W. Hornung = |
Ernest William Hornung ( 7 June 1866 – 22 March 1921 ) was an English author and poet known for writing the A. J. Raffles series of stories about a gentleman thief in late 19th @-@ century London . Hornung was educated at Uppingham School ; as a result of poor health he left the school in December 1883 to travel to Sydney , where he stayed for two years . He drew on his Australian experiences as a background when he began writing , initially short stories and later novels . |
In 1898 he wrote " In the Chains of Crime " , which introduced Raffles and his sidekick , Bunny Manders ; the characters were based partly on his friends Oscar Wilde and his lover , Lord Alfred Douglas , and also on Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson . The series of Raffles short stories were collected for sale in book form in 1899 , and two further books of Raffles short stories followed , as well as a poorly received novel . Aside from his Raffles stories , Hornung was a prodigious writer of fiction , publishing numerous books from 1890 , with A Bride from the Bush to his 1914 novel The Crime Doctor . |
The First World War brought an end to Hornung 's fictional output . His son , Oscar , was killed at the Second Battle of Ypres in July 1915 . Hornung joined the YMCA , initially in England , then in France , where he helped run a canteen and library . He published two collections of poetry during the war , and then , afterwards , one further volume of verse and an account of his time spent in France , Notes of a Camp @-@ Follower on the Western Front . Hornung 's fragile constitution was further weakened by the stress of his war work . To aid his recuperation , he and his wife visited the south of France in 1921 . He fell ill from influenza on the journey , and died on 22 March 1921 , aged 54 . |
Although much of Hornung 's work has fallen into obscurity , his Raffles stories continued to be popular , and have formed numerous film and television adaptations . Hornung 's stories dealt with a wider range of themes than crime : he examined scientific and medical developments , guilt , class and the unequal role played by women in society . Two threads that run through a sizeable proportion of his books are Australia and cricket ; the latter was also a lifelong passion . |
= = Biography = = |
= = = Early life : 1866 – 86 = = = |
Hornung was born Ernest William Hornung on 7 June 1866 at Cleveland Villas , Marton , Middlesbrough ; he was nicknamed Willie from an early age . He was the third son , and youngest of eight children , of John Peter Hornung ( 1821 – 86 ) and his wife Harriet née Armstrong ( 1824 – 96 ) . John was christened Johan Petrus Hornung in the Transylvania region of Hungary and , after working in Hamburg for a shipping firm , had moved to Britain in the 1840s as a coal and iron merchant . John married Harriet in March 1848 , by which time he had anglicised his name . At the age of 13 Hornung joined St Ninian 's Preparatory School in Moffat , Dumfriesshire before enrolling at Uppingham School in 1880 . Hornung was well liked at school , and developed a lifelong love of cricket despite limited skills at the game , which were further worsened by bad eyesight , asthma and , according to his biographer Peter Rowland , a permanent state of generally poor health . |
When Hornung was 17 his health worsened ; he left Uppingham and travelled to Australia , where it was hoped by his family that the climate would be beneficial . On his arrival he was employed as a tutor to the Parsons family in Mossgiel in the Riverina , south @-@ western New South Wales . In addition to teaching , he spent time working in remote sheep stations in the outback and contributing material to the weekly magazine The Bulletin ; he also began writing what was to become his first novel . Although he spent only two years in Australia , the experience was " the making of him and ... the making of his career as a writer " , according to Rowland . Another biographer , Mark Valentine , wrote that Hornung " seems to have regarded this period as one of the most satisfying of his life " . |
= = = Return to England : 1886 – 98 = = = |
Hornung returned to England in February 1886 , before the death of his father in November . From a position of relative prosperity , John 's coal and iron business had encountered difficulties and he was in financially straitened circumstances by the time of his death . Hornung found work in London as a journalist and story writer , often publishing his work under a pseudonym , although in 1887 he published his first story under his own name , " Stroke of Five " , which appeared in Belgravia magazine . His work as a journalist was during the period of Jack the Ripper and the series of five murders , which were undertaken against a background of rising urban crime in London ; it was around this time that Hornung developed an interest in criminal behaviour . |
Subsets and Splits
No saved queries yet
Save your SQL queries to embed, download, and access them later. Queries will appear here once saved.