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Bituminous_coal | Bituminous coal or black coal is a relatively soft coal containing a tarlike substance called bitumen . It is of higher quality than lignite coal but of poorer quality than anthracite . Formation is usually the result of high pressure being exerted on lignite . Its coloration can be black or sometimes dark brown ; often there are well-defined bands of bright and dull material within the seams . These distinctive sequences , which are classified according to either `` dull , bright-banded '' or `` bright , dull-banded '' , is how bituminous coals are stratigraphically identified . Bituminous coal is an organic sedimentary rock formed by diagenetic and sub metamorphic compression of peat bog material . Its primary constituents are macerals : vitrinite , and liptinite . The carbon content of bituminous coal is around 60-80 % ; the rest is composed of water , air , hydrogen , and sulfur , which have not been driven off from the macerals . Bank density is approximately 1346 kg/m ³ ( 84 lb/ft ³ ) . Bulk density typically runs to 833 kg/m ³ ( 52 lb/ft ³ ) . The heat content of bituminous coal ranges from 24 to 35 MJ/kg ( 21 million to 30 million BTU per short ton ) on a moist , mineral-matter-free basis . Within the coal mining industry , this type of coal is known for releasing the largest amounts of firedamp , a dangerous mixture of gases that can cause underground explosions . Extraction of bituminous coal demands the highest safety procedures involving attentive gas monitoring , good ventilation and vigilant site management . |
Black_Sunday_(storm) | Black Sunday refers to a particularly severe dust storm that occurred on April 14 , 1935 , as part of the Dust Bowl . It was one of the worst dust storms in American history and it caused immense economic and agricultural damage . It is estimated to have displaced 300 million tons of topsoil from the prairie area in the US . On the afternoon of April 14 , the residents of the Plains States were forced to take cover as a dust storm , or `` black blizzard '' , blew through the region . The storm hit the Oklahoma Panhandle and Northwestern Oklahoma first , and moved south for the remainder of the day . It hit Beaver around 4:00 p.m. , Boise City around 5:15 p.m. , and Amarillo , Texas , at 7:20 p.m. . The conditions were the most severe in the Oklahoma and Texas panhandles , but the storm 's effects were felt in other surrounding areas . The storm was harsh due to the high winds that hit the area that day . The combination of drought , erosion , bare soil , and winds caused the dust to fly freely and at high speeds . |
Breathing | Breathing is the process that moves air in and out of the lungs , to allow the diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the external environment into and out of the blood . `` Breathing '' sometimes also refers to the equivalent process using other respiratory organs such as gills in fish and spiracles in certain arthropods . For organisms with lungs , breathing is also called ventilation , which consists of inhalation ( breathing in ) and exhalation ( breathing out ) . Breathing is one part of physiological respiration required to sustain life . Aerobic organisms ( all animals , most plants and many micro-organisms ) require oxygen at cellular level to release energy by metabolizing energy-rich molecules such as fatty acids and glucose . This is often referred to as cellular respiration . Breathing is only one of the processes that delivers oxygen to where it is needed in the body and removes excess carbon dioxide . After breathing , the next process in this chain of events is the transport of these gases throughout the body by the circulatory system , and then their uptake or release from the respiring cells . Breathing fulfills another vital function : that of regulating the pH of the extracellular fluids of the body . It is , in fact , this homeostatic function which determines the rate and depth of breathing . The medical term for normal relaxed breathing is eupnea . At the end of each exhalation the adult human lungs still contain 2.5 -- 3.0 liters of air , termed the functional residual capacity ( FRC ) . Breathing replaces only about 15 % of this volume of gas with moistened ambient air with each breath . This ensures that the composition of the FRC changes very little during the breathing cycle , and remains significantly different from the composition of the ambient air . The partial pressures of the gases in the blood flowing through the alveolar capillaries equilibrate with the partial pressures of the gases in the FRC , ensuring that the partial pressures of carbon dioxide , and oxygen of the arterial blood , and therefore its pH , remain constant . The equilibration of the gases in the alveolar blood with those in the alveolar air ( i.e. the gas exchange between the two ) occurs by passive diffusion . Breathing is used for a number of subsidiary functions , such as speech , expression of the emotions ( e.g. laughing . yawning etc. ) , self-maintenance activities ( coughing and sneezing etc. ) and , in animals that can not sweat through the skin , panting . |
Boreogadus_saida | Boreogadus saida , known as the polar cod or as the Arctic cod , is a fish of the cod family Gadidae , related to the true cod ( genus Gadus ) . Another fish species for which both the common names Arctic cod and polar cod are used is Arctogadus glacialis . B. saida has a slender body , a deeply forked tail , a projecting mouth , and a small whisker on its chin . It is plainly coloured with brownish spots and a silvery body . It grows to a length of 40 cm . This species is found further north than any other fish ( beyond 84 ° N ) with a distribution spanning the Arctic seas off northern Russia , Alaska , Canada , and Greenland . This fish is most commonly found at the water 's surface , but is also known to travel at depths greater than 900 m . The polar cod is known to frequent river mouths . It is a hardy fish that survives best at temperatures of 0 -- 4 ° C , but may tolerate colder temperatures owing to the presence of antifreeze protein compounds in its blood . They group in large schools in ice-free waters . B. saida feeds on plankton and krill . It is in turn the primary food source for narwhals , belugas , ringed seals , and seabirds . They are fished commercially in Russia . |
Blackwater_(coal) | Blackwater '' ' is a form of pollution produced in coal preparation . In its purification , coal is crushed in a coal preparation plant and then separated and transported as a coal slurry , From the slurry , incombustible materials are removed and the coal can be sized . After the recovery of the coal particles from this slurry , the remaining water is black , contains very fine particles of coal . This blackwater can not be processed in a water treatment plant . |
Branches_of_science | The branches of science ( also referred to as `` sciences '' , `` scientific fields '' , or `` scientific disciplines '' ) are commonly divided into three major groups : Natural sciences : the study of natural phenomena ( including fundamental forces and biological life ) Formal sciences : the study of mathematics and logic , which use an a priori , as opposed to factual , methodology ) Social sciences : the study of human behavior and societies . Natural and social sciences are empirical sciences , meaning that the knowledge must be based on observable phenomena and must be capable of being verified by other researchers working under the same conditions . Natural , social , and formal science make up the fundamental sciences , which form the basis of interdisciplinary and applied sciences such as engineering and medicine . Specialized scientific disciplines that exist in multiple categories may include parts of other scientific disciplines but often possess their own terminologies and expertises . |
Black_swan_theory | The black swan theory or theory of black swan events is a metaphor that describes an event that comes as a surprise , has a major effect , and is often inappropriately rationalized after the fact with the benefit of hindsight . The term is based on an ancient saying which presumed black swans did not exist , but the saying was rewritten after black swans were discovered in the wild . The theory was developed by Nassim Nicholas Taleb to explain : The disproportionate role of high-profile , hard-to-predict , and rare events that are beyond the realm of normal expectations in history , science , finance , and technology . The non-computability of the probability of the consequential rare events using scientific methods ( owing to the very nature of small probabilities ) . The psychological biases which blind people , both individually and collectively , to uncertainty and to a rare event 's massive role in historical affairs . Unlike the earlier and broader `` black swan problem '' in philosophy ( i.e. the problem of induction ) , Taleb 's `` black swan theory '' refers only to unexpected events of large magnitude and consequence and their dominant role in history . Such events , considered extreme outliers , collectively play vastly larger roles than regular occurrences . More technically , in the scientific monograph ` Silent Risk ' , Taleb mathematically defines the black swan problem as `` stemming from the use of degenerate metaprobability '' . |
Boutonneuse_fever | Boutonneuse fever ( also called Mediterranean spotted fever , fièvre boutonneuse , Kenya tick typhus , Indian tick typhus , Marseilles fever , or African tick-bite fever ) is a fever as a result of a rickettsial infection caused by the bacterium Rickettsia conorii and transmitted by the dog tick Rhipicephalus sanguineus . Boutonneuse fever can be seen in many places around the world , although it is endemic in countries surrounding the Mediterranean Sea . This disease was first described in Tunisia in 1910 by Conor and Bruch and was named boutonneuse ( French for `` spotty '' ) due to its papular skin rash characteristics . |
Brontosaurus | Brontosaurus ( -LSB- ˌbrɒntəˈsɔːrəs -RSB- ) , meaning `` thunder lizard '' ( from Greek βροντή , brontē = thunder + σαῦρος , sauros = lizard ) , is a genus of gigantic quadruped sauropod dinosaurs . Although the type species , B. excelsus , had long been considered a species of the closely related Apatosaurus , more recent research has proposed that Brontosaurus is a genus separate from Apatosaurus that contains three species : B. excelsus , B. yahnahpin , and B. parvus . Brontosaurus had long , thin necks and small heads , adapted for a herbivorous lifestyle ; a bulky , heavy torso ; and long , whip-like tails . The various species lived during the Late Jurassic epoch in the Morrison Formation of North America , going extinct by the end of the Jurassic . Adult individuals of Brontosaurus are estimated to weigh up to 15 t and measure up to 22 m long ; this places Brontosaurus among the largest land animals along with other diplodocids . As the archetypal sauropod , Brontosaurus is one of the best-known dinosaurs , and has been featured in film , advertising , and postal stamps , as well as many other types of media . |
Brown_ocean_effect | The brown ocean effect is an observed weather phenomenon where tropical cyclones , which are commonly expected to lose energy when they make landfall , instead maintain strength or intensify over land surfaces . While these systems are highly common in the United States and China , the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) names Australia the most conducive environment after 30 years of research . In Australia such storm systems are called agukabams . One source of the brown ocean effect has been identified as the large amount of latent heat that can be released from extremely wet soils . A 2013 NASA study found that , from 1979-2008 , 45 of 227 tropical storms either gained or maintained strength after making landfall . The press release stated , `` The land essentially mimics the moisture-rich environment of the ocean , where the storm originated . '' Originally , countless research devoted to extratropical cyclones , storms that first derive energy from the warm ocean waters and later from the conjecture of various air masses , explained the intensification of storms after landfall . However , as research into these storms persists , Anderson and Shepherd , the two leading scientists behind the NASA study , discovered that some of these storms were not transitioning from warm-core to cold-core but were actually maintaining their warm-core dynamics , while ultimately outputting a greater measure of rainfall . In order for the brown ocean effect to take place , three land conditions must be met : `` First , the lower level of the atmosphere mimics a tropical atmosphere with minimal variation in temperature . Second , soils in the vicinity of the storms need to contain ample moisture . Finally , evaporation of the soil moisture releases latent heat , which the team found must measure at least 70 watts averaged per square meter . '' Storm systems impacted by the brown ocean effect gave rise to a new sub-category of tropical storm type called Tropical Cyclone Maintenance and Intensification Event or TCMI . Another study concluded that latent surface heat flux from land surfaces actually have the potential to be larger than from the ocean , albeit for brief periods only . Anderson and Shepherd are also examining the effects of climate change on TCMIs , looking into the potential intensification of these storms due to increase or decrease in the degree of wetness and dryness in areas susceptible to these systems . |
British_North_Greenland_expedition | The British North Greenland expedition was a British scientific mission , led by Commander James Simpson RN , which lasted from July 1952 to August 1954 . A total of 30 men took part , though not all stayed for both years . The purpose of BNGE was primarily to carry out scientific studies in glaciology , meteorology , geology and physiology . Gravimetric and seismological surveys were made , and radio wave propagation was also studied from their station codenamed `` North Ice '' . It also provided information useful to the Armed Forces about operating in Arctic environments , and the majority of the team were serving members . Travel over the icecap was either on foot , by dog sled , or by M29 Weasel tracked vehicles . Expedition members also made pioneering ascents in the Barth Mountains and Queen Louise Land . |
Boreal_(age) | In paleoclimatology of the Holocene , the Boreal was the first of the Blytt-Sernander sequence of north European climatic phases that were originally based on the study of Danish peat bogs , named for Axel Blytt and Rutger Sernander , who first established the sequence . In peat bog sediments , the Boreal is also recognized by its characteristic pollen zone . It was preceded by the Younger Dryas , the last cold snap of the Pleistocene , and followed by the Atlantic , a warmer and moister period than our most recent climate . The Boreal , transitional between the two periods , varied a great deal , at times comprising within it climates like today 's . |
Brown_bear | The brown bear ( Ursus arctos ) is a large bear with the widest distribution of any living ursid . The species is distributed across much of northern Eurasia and North America . It is one of the two largest terrestrial carnivorans alive today , rivaled in body size only by its close cousin , the polar bear ( Ursus maritimus ) , which is much less variable in size and averages larger due to this . There are several recognized subspecies , many of which are quite well-known within their native ranges , found in the brown bear species . The brown bear 's principal range includes parts of Russia , Central Asia , China , Canada , the United States ( mostly Alaska ) , Scandinavia and the Carpathian region ( especially Romania ) , Anatolia , and Caucasus . The brown bear is recognized as a national and state animal in several European countries . While the brown bear 's range has shrunk and it has faced local extinctions , it remains listed as a least concern species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) with a total population of approximately 200,000 . As of 2012 , this and the American black bear are the only bear species not classified as threatened by the IUCN . However , the Californian , North African ( Atlas bear ) , and Mexican subspecies were hunted to extinction in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries , and many of the southern Asian subspecies are highly endangered . One of the smaller-bodied subspecies , the Himalayan brown bear , is critically endangered , occupying only 2 % of its former range and threatened by uncontrolled poaching for its parts . The Marsican brown bear , one of several currently isolated populations of the main Eurasian brown bear race , in central Italy is believed to have a population of just 30 to 40 bears . |
British_Arctic_Expedition | The British Arctic Expedition of 1875-1876 , led by Sir George Strong Nares , was sent by the British Admiralty to attempt to reach the North Pole via Smith Sound . Two ships , HMS Alert and HMS Discovery ( captained by Henry Frederick Stephenson ) , sailed from Portsmouth on 29 May 1875 . Although the expedition failed to reach the North Pole , the coasts of Greenland and Ellesmere Island were extensively explored and large amounts of scientific data were collected . On this expedition , Nares became the first explorer to take his ships all the way north through the channel between Greenland and Ellesmere Island ( now named Nares Strait in his honour ) to the Lincoln Sea . Up to this time , it had been a popular theory that this route would lead to the supposed Open Polar Sea , an ice-free region surrounding the pole , but Nares found only a wasteland of ice . A sledging party under Commander Albert Hastings Markham set a new record Farthest North of 83 ° 20 ' 26 `` N , but overall the expedition was a near-disaster . The men suffered badly from scurvy and were hampered by inappropriate clothing and equipment . Realising that his men could not survive another winter in the ice , Nares hastily retreated southward with both his ships in the summer of 1876 . However , naval personnel and topographers , among them Thomas Mitchell , did succeed in documenting , by photograph , the Northern indigenous peoples and landscapes of what would become Canada 's Northwest Territories and , later , Nunavut . The expedition included Petty Officer Adam Ayles , after whom both the Ayles Ice Shelf and Mount Ayles are named . Other features named after the expedition include the Markham Ice Shelf , Nares Strait and Alert , Nunavut , the most northerly permanently inhabited place on earth . Pelham Aldrich was a lieutenant on the expedition and commanded the Western Sledge Party to Ellesmere Island , where Cape Aldrich was named in his honour . Archives are held at Scott Polar Research Institute , University of Cambridge . |
Brise_soleil | Brise soleil , sometimes brise-soleil ( -LSB- bʁiːz sɔlɛj -RSB- , plural , `` brise-soleil '' ( invariable ) , or `` bris-ole '' , from French , `` sun breaker '' ) , is an architectural feature of a building that reduces heat gain within that building by deflecting sunlight . |
Blue_Ridge_Mountains | The Blue Ridge Mountains are a physiographic province of the larger Appalachian Mountains range . This province consists of northern and southern physiographic regions , which divide near the Roanoke River gap . The mountain range is located in the eastern United States , starting at its southernmost portion in Georgia , then ending northward in Pennsylvania . To the west of the Blue Ridge , between it and the bulk of the Appalachians , lies the Great Appalachian Valley , bordered on the west by the Ridge and Valley province of the Appalachian range . The Blue Ridge Mountains are noted for having a bluish color when seen from a distance . Trees put the `` blue '' in Blue Ridge , from the isoprene released into the atmosphere , thereby contributing to the characteristic haze on the mountains and their distinctive color . Within the Blue Ridge province are two major national parks : the Shenandoah National Park , in the northern section , and the Great Smoky Mountains National Park , in the southern section . The Blue Ridge also contains the Blue Ridge Parkway , a 469 mi long scenic highway that connects the two parks and is located along the ridge crestlines with the Appalachian Trail . |
Black_Sea | The Black Sea is a body of water between Eastern Europe and Western Asia , bounded by Bulgaria , Georgia , Romania , Russia , Turkey , and Ukraine . It is supplied by a number of major rivers , such as the Danube , Dnieper , Rioni , Southern Bug , and Dniester . The Black Sea has an area of 436400 km2 ( not including the Sea of Azov ) , a maximum depth of 2212 m , and a volume of 547000 km3 . It is constrained by the Pontic Mountains to the south and by the Caucasus Mountains to the east , and features a wide shelf to the northwest . The longest east-west extent is about 1,175 km . Important cities along the coast include Batumi , Burgas , Constanța , Giresun , Istanbul , Kerch , Novorossiysk , Odessa , Ordu , Poti , Rize , Samsun , Sevastopol , Sochi , Sukhumi , Trabzon , Varna , Yalta , and Zonguldak . The Black Sea has a positive water balance ; that is , a net outflow of water 300 km3 per year through the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles into the Aegean Sea . Mediterranean water flows into the Black Sea as part of a two-way hydrological exchange . The Black Sea outflow is cooler and less saline , and floats over the warm , more saline Mediterranean inflow -- as a result of differences in density caused by differences in salinity -- leading to a significant anoxic layer well below the surface waters . The Black Sea drains into the Mediterranean Sea and then the Atlantic Ocean , via the Aegean Sea and various straits . The Bosphorus Strait connects it to the Sea of Marmara , and the Strait of the Dardanelles connects that sea to the Aegean Sea region of the Mediterranean . These waters separate Eastern Europe and Western Asia . The Black Sea is also connected to the Sea of Azov by the Strait of Kerch . The water level has varied significantly . Due to these variations in the water level in the basin , the surrounding shelf and associated aprons have sometimes been land . At certain critical water levels it is possible for connections with surrounding water bodies to become established . It is through the most active of these connective routes , the Turkish Straits , that the Black Sea joins the world ocean . When this hydrological link is not present , the Black Sea is an endorheic basin , operating independently of the global ocean system , like the Caspian Sea for example . Currently the Black Sea water level is relatively high , thus water is being exchanged with the Mediterranean . The Turkish Straits connect the Black Sea with the Aegean Sea , and comprise the Bosphorus , the Sea of Marmara and the Dardanelles . |
Breaking_news | Breaking news , interchangeably termed latebreaking news and also known as a special report or special coverage or news bulletin , is a current issue that broadcasters feel warrants the interruption of scheduled programming and/or current news in order to report its details . Its use is also assigned to the most significant story of the moment or a story that is being covered live . It could be a story that is simply of wide interest to viewers and has little impact otherwise . Many times , breaking news is used after the news organization has already reported on the story . When a story has not been reported on previously , the graphic and phrase `` Just In '' is sometimes used instead . |
Boulder,_Colorado | Boulder ( -LSB- ˈboʊldər -RSB- ) is the home rule municipality that is the county seat and the most populous municipality of Boulder County , and the 11th most populous municipality in the U.S. state of Colorado . Boulder is located at the base of the foothills of the Rocky Mountains at an elevation of 5430 ft above sea level . The city is 25 mi northwest of Denver . The population of the City of Boulder was 97,385 people at the 2010 United States Census , while the population of the Boulder , CO Metropolitan Statistical Area was 294,567 . Boulder is famous for its colorful Western history , being a choice destination for hippies in the late 1960s , and as home of the main campus of the University of Colorado , the state 's largest university . Furthermore , the city of Boulder frequently receives high rankings in art , health , well-being , quality of life , and education . |
Bohr_model | In atomic physics , the Rutherford -- Bohr model or Bohr model or Bohr diagram , introduced by Niels Bohr and Ernest Rutherford in 1913 , depicts the atom as a small , positively charged nucleus surrounded by electrons that travel in circular orbits around the nucleus -- similar in structure to the Solar System , but with attraction provided by electrostatic forces rather than gravity . After the cubic model ( 1902 ) , the plum-pudding model ( 1904 ) , the Saturnian model ( 1904 ) , and the Rutherford model ( 1911 ) came the Rutherford -- Bohr model or just Bohr model for short ( 1913 ) . The improvement to the Rutherford model is mostly a quantum physical interpretation of it . The model 's key success lay in explaining the Rydberg formula for the spectral emission lines of atomic hydrogen . While the Rydberg formula had been known experimentally , it did not gain a theoretical underpinning until the Bohr model was introduced . Not only did the Bohr model explain the reason for the structure of the Rydberg formula , it also provided a justification for its empirical results in terms of fundamental physical constants . The Bohr model is a relatively primitive model of the hydrogen atom , compared to the valence shell atom . As a theory , it can be derived as a first-order approximation of the hydrogen atom using the broader and much more accurate quantum mechanics and thus may be considered to be an obsolete scientific theory . However , because of its simplicity , and its correct results for selected systems ( see below for application ) , the Bohr model is still commonly taught to introduce students to quantum mechanics or energy level diagrams before moving on to the more accurate , but more complex , valence shell atom . A related model was originally proposed by Arthur Erich Haas in 1910 , but was rejected . The quantum theory of the period between Planck 's discovery of the quantum ( 1900 ) and the advent of a full-blown quantum mechanics ( 1925 ) is often referred to as the old quantum theory . |
Borean_languages | Borean ( also Boreal or Boralean ) is a hypothetical linguistic macrofamily that encompasses almost all language families worldwide except those native to sub-Saharan Africa , New Guinea , Australia , and the Andaman Islands . Its supporters propose that the various languages spoken in Eurasia and adjacent regions have a genealogical relationship , and ultimately descend from languages spoken during the Upper Paleolithic in the millennia following the Last Glacial Maximum . The name Borean is based on the Greek βορέας , and means `` northern '' . This reflects the fact that the group is held to include most language families native to the northern hemisphere . Two distinct models of Borean exist : that of Harold C. Fleming and that of Sergei Starostin . |
Borrelia_kurtenbachii | Borrelia kurtenbachii is a spirochete bacterium ; it can be pathogenic , being involved in cases of Lyme borreliosis . |
Black_carbon | Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients . |
Breathing_gas | A breathing gas is a mixture of gaseous chemical elements and compounds used for respiration . Air is the most common , and only natural , breathing gas - but a range of pure gases or mixtures of gases are used in breathing equipment and enclosed habitats such as scuba equipment , surface supplied diving equipment , recompression chambers , submarines , space suits , spacecraft , medical life support and first aid equipment , high-altitude mountaineering and anaesthetic machines . Oxygen is the essential component for any breathing gas , at a partial pressure of between roughly 0.16 and 1.60 bar at the ambient pressure . The oxygen is usually the only metabolically active component unless the gas is an anaesthetic mixture . Some of the oxygen in the breathing gas is consumed by the metabolic processes , and the inert components are unchanged , and serve mainly to dilute the oxygen to an appropriate concentration , and are therefore also known as diluent gases . Most breathing gases therefore are a mixture of oxygen and one or more inert gases . Other breathing gases have been developed to improve on the performance of ordinary air by reducing the risk of decompression sickness , reducing the duration of decompression stops , reducing nitrogen narcosis or allowing safer deep diving . A safe breathing gas for hyperbaric use has three essential features : it must contain sufficient oxygen to support life , consciousness and work rate of the breather . it must not contain harmful gases . Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are common poisons which may contaminate breathing gases . There are many other possibilities . it must not become toxic when being breathed at high pressure such as when underwater . Oxygen and nitrogen are examples of gases that become toxic under pressure . The techniques used to fill diving cylinders with gases other than air are called gas blending . Breathing gases for use at ambient pressures below normal atmospheric pressure are usually air enriched with oxygen to provide sufficient oxygen to maintain life and consciousness , or to allow higher levels of exertion than would be possible using air . It is common to provide the additional oxygen as a pure gas added to the breathing air at inhalation , or though a life-support system . |
Carbon-based_fuel | Carbon-based fuel is any fuel principally from the oxidation or burning of carbon . Carbon-based fuels are of two main kinds , biofuels and fossil fuels . Whereas biofuels are derived from recent-growth organic matter and are typically harvested , as with logging of forests and cutting of corn , fossil fuels are of prehistoric origin and are extracted from the ground , the principal fossil fuels being oil , coal , and natural gas . From an economic policy perspective , an important distinction between biofuels and fossil fuels is that only the former is sustainable or renewable . Whereas we can continue to obtain energy from biofuels indefinitely in principle , the Earth 's reserves of fossil fuels was determined millions of years ago and is therefore fixed as far as our foreseeable future is concerned . The great variability in the ease of extraction of fossil fuels however makes its endgame scenario one of increasing prices over one or more centuries rather than of abrupt exhaustion . From the perspective of climate and ecology , biofuels and fossil fuels have in common that they contribute to the production of atmospheric carbon dioxide , which has emerged in recent decades as the fastest-changing greenhouse gas , whose principal impacts are global warming and ocean acidification . However biofuels actively participate in the carbon cycle today by photosynthesizing carbon dioxide , unlike fossil fuels whose participation was long ago , and can therefore in principle bring atmospheric CO2 into an equilibrium not possible with the continued use of fossil fuel . But in practice photosynthesis is a slow process , and the additional fuel produced by artificial methods of accelerating it such as application of fertilizer tends to be offset by the energy consumed by the accelerating processes , to a degree currently under active debate . In contrast the speed of photosynthesis is immaterial for fossil fuels because they had millions of years in which to accumulate . Burning of both fossil fuels and biofuels usually also produces carbon monoxide , which is toxic and can kill a person after mixing with the haemoglobin of the blood , increasing its concentration in the body . Biofuels and fossil fuels may also produce many other air pollutants depending on the contents of the fuel . |
Business_continuity | Business continuity encompasses planning and preparation to ensure that an organization can continue to operate in case of serious incidents or disasters and is able to recover to an operational state within a reasonably short period . As such , business continuity includes three key elements and they are Resilience : critical business functions and the supporting infrastructure must be designed in such a way that they are materially unaffected by relevant disruptions , for example through the use of redundancy and spare capacity ; Recovery : arrangements have to be made to recover or restore critical and less critical business functions that fail for some reason . Contingency : the organization establishes a generalized capability and readiness to cope effectively with whatever major incidents and disasters occur , including those that were not , and perhaps could not have been , foreseen . Contingency preparations constitute a last-resort response if resilience and recovery arrangements should prove inadequate in practice . Typical disasters that business continuity is meant to account for include natural disasters such as fires and floods , accidents by key personnel in the business , server crashes or virus infections , insolvency of key suppliers , negative media campaigns and market upheavals such as stock market crashes . Such disasters may not necessarily have to occur in the place of business to have catastrophic impact in the globalized economy . The management of business continuity falls largely within the sphere of quality management and risk management , with some cross-over into related fields such as governance , information security and compliance . Risk management is an important tool for business continuity as it provides a structured way to identify the sources of business disruption and assess their probability and harm . It is expected that all business functions , operations , supplies , systems , relationships , etc. that are critically important to achieve the organization 's operational objectives are analyzed and included in the business continuity plan . Business Impact Analysis is the generally accepted risk management term for the process of determining the relative importance or criticality of those elements , and in turn drives the priorities , planning , preparations and other business continuity management activities . One important way to achieve business continuity is the use of international standards , program development , and supporting policies . These standards ensure that proven methods and concepts for business continuity are used . As with many quality management standards though , the primary task of identifying relevant potential disasters , making plans for evacuation , buying spare machines and servers , performing backups and bringing them off-site , assigning responsibility , performing drills , educating employees and being vigilant can not be replaced by adherence to standards . As such , commitment by management to see business continuity as an important topic and assign people to work on it , remains the most important step in establishing business continuity . If there is no Business Continuity plan implemented and the organization in question is facing a rather severe threat or disruption that may lead to bankruptcy , the implementation and outcome , if not too late , may strengthen the organization 's survival and its continuity of business activities ( Gittleman , 2013 ) . |
California_(American_Music_Club_album) | California is the third album by American Music Club , released in 1988 . The album was included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die . In the album 's article in the book , the reviewer , Arnar Eggert Thorradsen , from Iceland 's daily newspaper Morgunblaðið , described the album as the band 's `` definitive statement . '' |
California_Labor_Code | The California Labor Code , more formally known as `` the Labor Code '' , is a collection of civil law statutes for the State of California . The code is made up of statutes which govern the general obligations and rights of persons within the jurisdiction of the State of California . `` The California Labor Code promotes and develops the welfare of the wage earners of California , to improve their working conditions and to advance their opportunities for profitable employment . '' Although the Labor Code is dedicated to labor laws , other codifications such as the Family Code and the Insurance Code also contain labor laws . Parallelism exists between provisions of the Labor Code and provisions of the California Government Code . The Labor Code is in English . Division of Labor Standards Enforcement released English and Spanish pre-recorded information phone lines that covered frequently asked topics . |
California,_West_Virginia | California is a ghost town in northern Wirt County , West Virginia . It lies along the Hughes River , between the river and West Virginia Route 47 ( the Parkersburg and Staunton Turnpike ) , about half a mile below the Ritchie County line , and just above the intersection of Route 47 with California House Road , or County Route 47 -- 1 . California is notable as a point where shallow deposits of petroleum naturally percolated to the earth 's surface , a phenomenon common in the area , which spurred settlement at nearby Petroleum in Ritchie County , and Burning Springs , about fifteen miles south of California in Wirt County . Oil from the California area was being collected and used as a commercial lubricant as early as the 1820s . The first oil well at California was sunk in 1859 by Charles Shattuck and T. T. Jones , at about the same time as the well sunk by Edwin Drake near Titusville , Pennsylvania , often referred to as the first commercial oil well . This has led to some dispute as to which well was the earlier ; Drake began drilling some months earlier , but did not discover oil until August 28 . After the Civil War , the development of more productive oil fields led to the gradual abandonment of oil production at small wells such as those at California , Petroleum , and Burning Springs . In 1924 , there were six houses and eleven oil wells in the immediate vicinity , and fifteen more wells along a ridge on the south side of the Hughes River ; in 1957 , there were three wells remaining at or near California , and four more across the river . Today , a historical display including a replica oil derrick stands along route 47 just west of California House Road . |
Carbon_emissions_reporting | Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions . |
Carbon_dioxide_removal | Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions . |
Carmichael_coal_mine | The Carmichael coal mine is a proposed thermal coal mine in the north of the Galilee Basin in Central Queensland , Australia . Mining is planned to be conducted by both open-cut and underground methods . The mine is proposed by Adani Mining , a wholly owned subsidiary of India 's Adani Group . The development represents a $ 16.5 billion investment . At peak capacity the mine would produce 60 million tonnes of coal a year . In court , Adani said it expects the mine to produce 2.3 billion tonnes over 60 years . It would be the largest coal mine in Australia and one of the largest in the world . The mine would be the first of a number of large mines proposed for the Galilee Basin and would facilitate their development . Exports are to leave the country via port facilities at Hay Point and Abbot Point after being transported to the coast via rail . The proposal includes a new 189 km rail line to connect with the existing Goonyella railway line . Most of the exported coal is planned to be shipped to India . The mine has drawn immense controversy about its claimed economic benefits , its financial viability , plans for government subsidy and the damaging environmental impacts . Broadly , these have been described as its potential impact upon the Great Barrier Reef , groundwater at its site and its carbon emissions . The emissions from burning the amount of coal expected to be produced from this one mine , whether sourced from it or elsewhere , would be `` approximately 0.53-0 .56 % of the carbon budget that remains after 2015 to have a likely chance of not exceeding 2 degrees warming . '' |
Carbon_profiling | Carbon profiling is a mathematical process that calculates how much carbon dioxide is put into the atmosphere per m2 of space in a building over one year . The analysis is in two parts which are then added together to produce an overall figure which is termed the ` Carbon Profile ' : operational carbon emissions embodied carbon emissions . Embodied carbon emissions relate to the amount of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from creating and maintaining the materials that form the building e.g. the carbon dioxide released from the baking of bricks or smelting or iron . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured as Embodied Carbon Efficiency ( ECE ) , measured as kg of CO2/m2/year . Occupational Carbon Emissions relate to the amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from the direct use of energy to run the building e.g. the heating or electricity used by the building over the year . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured in BER 's ( Building Emission Rate ) in kg of / m2/year . The BER is a United Kingdom government accepted unit of measurement that comes from an approved calculation process called sBEM ( Simplified Building Emission Model ) The purpose of Carbon Profiling is to provide a method of analyzing and comparing both operational and embodied carbon emissions at the same time . With this information it is then possible to allocate a projects resources in such a way to minimize the total amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere through the use of a given piece of space . A secondary benefit is that having quantified the Carbon Profiling of different buildings it is then possible to make comparisons and rank buildings in term of their performance . This allows investors and occupiers to identify which building are good and bad carbon investments . Simon Sturgis and Gareth Roberts of Sturgis Associates in the United Kingdom originally developed ` Carbon Profiling ' in December 2007 . |
CO2_is_Green | CO2 is Green is a non-profit organization supporting public policy on environmental issues . A main focus of the organization are federal proposals that may `` interfere with natures dependence on carbon dioxide . '' CO2 is Green does not view carbon dioxide as a pollutant and advocates for federal law and regulations to support this thinking . |
Carbon_price | Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations . |
California_League_of_Conservation_Voters | The California League of Conservation Voters ( CLCV ) is a nonpartisan lobbying and educational organization which focuses on environmental issues affecting California . Organized as a 501 ( c ) ( 4 ) , CLCV 's mission is to protect California 's environmental quality by increasing public awareness of the environmental performance of all elected officials , working to elect environmentally responsible candidates , and holding them accountable to the environmental agenda once elected . At the end of each legislative year , CLCV publishes the California Environmental Scorecard . The Scorecard , which CLCV describes as `` the definitive barometer of environmental politics in Sacramento '' , rates the performance of the California State Legislature and the governor on key environmental legislation . The Scorecard is distributed to 35,000 CLCV members , other environmental organizations , and the news media . The CLCV has also awarded an Environmental Leadership Award , which in 2003 went to Nancy Pelosi . CLCV conducts research on candidates in order to make electoral endorsements . They assist endorsed candidates with media , fundraising , and grassroots organizing strategies and campaign to educate voters about candidates ' environmental records . CLCV also works with local Leagues of Conservation Voters to elect environmental candidates at the local level . CLCV campaigns for environmental legislation in Sacramento in collaboration with the greater environmental community . CLCV maintains a lobbying presence in Sacramento . The CLCV Board of Directors and staff often become officials in California state government , and vice versa . Recent board members include former Cal/EPA Secretary Winston Hickox ; former Department of Resources Secretary , Clinton EPA appointee , and current California Air Resources Board chair Mary Nichols ; and former Assemblymember ( and current Santa Cruz County Treasurer ) Fred Keeley ( D-Santa Cruz ) . Former Assemblymember Paul Koretz ( D-West Hollywood ) is a former CLCV staff member . CLCV is affiliated with the State Capacity Building Division of the League of Conservation Voters ( LCV ) -RSB- ( formerly the Federation of State Conservation Voter Leagues ) , which works to strengthen state organizations of this type . Established in 1972 , CLCV is the largest and oldest such organization . LCV , a sister group of CLCV , does work similar to that of CLCV at the federal level . |
California_Proposition_23_(2010) | Proposition 23 was a California ballot proposition that was on the November 2 , 2010 California statewide ballot . It was defeated by California voters during the statewide election by a 23 % margin . If passed , it would have suspended AB 32 , a law enacted in 2006 , legally referred to its long name , the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 . Sponsors of the initiative referred to their measure as the California Jobs Initiative while opponents called it the Dirty Energy Prop . The goal of the proposition was to freeze the provisions of AB 32 until California 's unemployment rate dropped to 5.5 % or below for four consecutive quarters . Since the rate was then at 12.4 % , and it had been decades since the state had seen an unemployment rate below 5.5 % for such a period of time , this wording was seen by former Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger and others as a wording trick to delay the environmental regulations indefinitely . AB 32 requires that greenhouse emission levels in the state be cut to 1990 levels by 2020 , in a gradual process of cutting that is slated to begin in 2012 . Reducing greenhouse emission levels to 1990 levels will involve cutting them by about 15 % from 2010 levels . AB 32 includes a provision allowing the Governor of California to suspend the provisions of AB 32 if there are `` extraordinary circumstances '' in place , such as `` significant economic harm '' . The supporters of Prop 23 , Assemblyman Dan Logue and Ted Costa , decided to circulate a petition to accomplish a suspension of the environmental regulations . Governor Schwarzenegger , as well as the major party candidates for Governor , Jerry Brown , and Meg Whitman , all stated they would vote `` no '' on Prop 23 . Brown however favored `` adjustments '' to AB 32 , while Whitman would have immediately suspended the law . Louise Bedsworth , a research fellow at the Public Policy Institute of California , predicted in April 2010 that total campaign spending on this proposition would top the $ 154 million record set in 2006 by Proposition 87 . If campaign spending on the proposition does reach that level , it could be because supporters and opponents view the battle over the suspension of AB 32 as symbolic in the larger national debate over global warming . Steven Maviglio , speaking for a group that wants to keep AB 32 intact , said , '' ... this could be a ground zero for the battle for the future of clean energy '' . |
Building_implosion | In the controlled demolition industry , building implosion is the strategic placing of explosive material and timing of its detonation so that a structure collapses on itself in a matter of seconds , minimizing the physical damage to its immediate surroundings . Despite its terminology , building implosion also includes the controlled demolition of other structures , such as bridges , smokestacks , towers , and tunnels . Building implosion ( which reduces to seconds a process which could take months or years to achieve by other methods ) typically occurs in urban areas and often involves large landmark structures . The actual use of the term `` implosion '' to refer to the destruction of a building is a misnomer . This had been stated of the destruction of 1515 Tower in West Palm Beach , Florida . `` What happens is , you use explosive materials in critical structural connections to allow gravity to bring it down . '' |
California_State_Legislature,_2009–10_session | The 2009 -- 2010 session was a meeting of the California State Legislature . |
Canadian_electoral_system | The Canadian electoral system is based on a parliamentary system of government , modelled on that of the United Kingdom . |
Canadian_Taxpayers_Federation | The Canadian Taxpayers Federation ( CTF ) ( French : La Fédération canadienne des contribuables ) is a federally incorporated , non-profit organization and taxpayers advocacy group that claims 30,156 donors in 2015 and is governed by a six-person board of directors . Voting membership is restricted to the board of directors . According to its by-laws , the board `` can have as few as three and as many as 20 '' members and in 2017 it reportedly had 6 board members . The organization advocates lower taxes , a reduction of what it considers to be wasteful government spending , and an increase in government accountability . It was founded in Saskatchewan in 1990 through a merger of the Association of Saskatchewan Taxpayers and the Resolution One Association of Alberta . The CTF maintains a federal office in Ottawa , and has staffed based in Calgary , Vancouver , Edmonton , Regina , Toronto , Montréal and Halifax . Provincial offices conduct research and advocacy activities specific to their provinces , and act as regional organizers of Canada-wide initiatives . The group opened the office in Halifax , partly due to a pension scandal in September 2010 . In February 2016 , the CTF hired its first Québec Director , based in Montréal . The federation uses a combination of media interviews , press conferences , stunts , speeches , presentations , petitions and publications to advocate its political views . The CTF publishes The Taxpayer magazine four times a year , and a regular e-mail Action Updates and a website/blog . CTF offices also issue weekly Let 's Talk Taxes commentaries to media outlets . |
Canada | Canada ( -LSB- ˈkænədə -RSB- -LSB- kanadɑ -RSB- ) is a country in the northern part of North America . Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic to the Pacific and northward into the Arctic Ocean , covering 9.98 e6km2 , making it the world 's second-largest country by total area and the fourth-largest country by land area . Canada 's border with the United States is the world 's longest binational land border . The majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate , but southerly areas are warm in summer . Canada is sparsely populated , the majority of its land territory being dominated by forest and tundra and the Rocky Mountains . It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities , many near the southern border . One third of the population lives in the three largest cities : Toronto , Montreal and Vancouver . Its capital is Ottawa , and other major urban areas include Calgary , Edmonton , Quebec City , Winnipeg and Hamilton . Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization . Beginning in the 16th century , British and French claims were made on the area , with the colony of Canada first being established by the French in 1535 during Jacques Cartier 's second voyage to New France . As a consequence of various conflicts , Great Britain gained and lost territories within British North America until it was left , in the late 18th century , with what mostly geographically comprises Canada today . Pursuant to the British North America Act , on July 1 , 1867 , the colonies of Canada , New Brunswick , and Nova Scotia joined to form the semi-autonomous federal Dominion of Canada . This began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada . In 1931 , Canada achieved near total independence from the United Kingdom with the Statute of Westminster 1931 , but at the time , Canada decided to allow the British Parliament to temporarily retain the power to amend Canada 's constitution , on request from the Parliament of Canada . With the Constitution Act 1982 , Canada took over that authority ( as the conclusion of Patriation ) , removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom , giving the country full sovereignty . Canada is a federal parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy , with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state . The country is officially bilingual at the federal level . It is one of the world 's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations , the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries . Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world , relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade networks . Canada 's long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture . Canada is a developed country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index . It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency , civil liberties , quality of life , economic freedom , and education . Canada is a Commonwealth realm member of the Commonwealth of Nations , a member of the Francophonie , and part of several major international and intergovernmental institutions or groupings including the United Nations , the North Atlantic Treaty Organization , the G8 , the Group of Ten , the G20 , the North American Free Trade Agreement and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum . |
Capital_gains_tax | A capital gains tax ( CGT ) is a tax on capital gains , the profit realized on the sale of a non-inventory asset that was purchased at a cost amount that was lower than the amount realized on the sale . The most common capital gains are realized from the sale of stocks , bonds , precious metals and property . Not all countries implement a capital gains tax and most have different rates of taxation for individuals and corporations . For equities , an example of a popular and liquid asset , national and state legislation often has a large array of fiscal obligations that must be respected regarding capital gains . Taxes are charged by the state over the transactions , dividends and capital gains on the stock market . However , these fiscal obligations may vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction . |
Carbohydrate | A carbohydrate is a biological molecule consisting of carbon ( C ) , hydrogen ( H ) and oxygen ( O ) atoms , usually with a hydrogen -- oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 ( as in water ) ; in other words , with the empirical formula ( where m could be different from n ) . This formula holds true for monosaccharides . Some exceptions exist ; for example , deoxyribose , a sugar component of DNA , has the empirical formula C5H10O4 . Carbohydrates are technically hydrates of carbon ; structurally it is more accurate to view them as polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones . The term is most common in biochemistry , where it is a synonym of ` saccharide ' , a group that includes sugars , starch , and cellulose . The saccharides are divided into four chemical groups : monosaccharides , disaccharides , oligosaccharides , and polysaccharides . Monosaccharides and disaccharides , the smallest ( lower molecular weight ) carbohydrates , are commonly referred to as sugars . The word saccharide comes from the Greek word σάκχαρον ( sákkharon ) , meaning `` sugar '' . While the scientific nomenclature of carbohydrates is complex , the names of the monosaccharides and disaccharides very often end in the suffix - ose . For example , grape sugar is the monosaccharide glucose , cane sugar is the disaccharide sucrose , and milk sugar is the disaccharide lactose . Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living organisms . Polysaccharides serve for the storage of energy ( e.g. starch and glycogen ) and as structural components ( e.g. cellulose in plants and chitin in arthropods ) . The 5-carbon monosaccharide ribose is an important component of coenzymes ( e.g. ATP , FAD and NAD ) and the backbone of the genetic molecule known as RNA . The related deoxyribose is a component of DNA . Saccharides and their derivatives include many other important biomolecules that play key roles in the immune system , fertilization , preventing pathogenesis , blood clotting , and development . In food science and in many informal contexts , the term carbohydrate often means any food that is particularly rich in the complex carbohydrate starch ( such as cereals , bread and pasta ) or simple carbohydrates , such as sugar ( found in candy , jams , and desserts ) . Often in lists of nutritional information , such as the USDA National Nutrient Database , the term `` carbohydrate '' ( or `` carbohydrate by difference '' ) is used for everything other than water , protein , fat , ash , and ethanol . This will include chemical compounds such as acetic or lactic acid , which are not normally considered carbohydrates . It also includes `` dietary fiber '' which is a carbohydrate but which does not contribute much in the way of food energy ( calories ) , even though it is often included in the calculation of total food energy just as though it were a sugar . Carbohydrates are found in wide variety of foods . The important sources are cereals ( wheat , maize , rice ) , potatoes , sugarcane , fruits , table sugar ( sucrose ) , bread , milk , etc. . Starch and sugar are the important carbohydrates in our diet . Starch is abundant in potatoes , maize , rice and other cereals . Sugar appears in our diet mainly as sucrose ( table sugar ) which is added to drinks and many prepared foods such as jam , biscuits and cakes . Glucose and fructose are found naturally in many fruits and some vegetables . Glycogen is carbohydrate found in the liver and muscles ( as animal source ) . Cellulose in the cell wall of all plant tissue is a carbohydrate . It is important in our diet as fibre which helps to maintain a healthy digestive system . |
California_State_and_Consumer_Services_Agency | The California State and Consumer Services Agency ( SCSA ) was a state cabinet-level agency of the executive branch of California . It was replaced by the California Business , Consumer Services and Housing Agency ( BCSH ) effective July 1 , 2013 . The entities under SCSA were `` responsible for civil rights enforcement , consumer protection and the licensing of 2.4 million Californians in more than 255 different professions , '' and perform `` procurement of nearly $ 9 billion worth of goods and services , the management and development of state real estate , oversight of two state employee pension funds , collecting state taxes , hiring of state employees , providing information technology services , adopting state building standards and the administration of two state museums . '' As of 2008-2009 , SCSA 's entities had over 16,000 employees and a budget of almost $ 27 billion . The Secretary of the State and Consumer Services Agency served as the Chair of the California Victim Compensation and Government Claims Board . |
California_Department_of_Forestry_and_Fire_Protection | The California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection ( CAL FIRE ) is the State of California 's agency responsible for fire protection in State Responsibility Areas of California totaling 31 million acres , as well as the administration of the state 's private and public forests . In addition , the Department provides varied emergency services in 36 of the State 's 58 counties via contracts with local governments . It is often called the California Department of Forestry , which was the name of the department before the 1990s . The California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection is also the largest full service all risk fire department in the Western United States and operates more fire stations year round than the New York ( FDNY ) , Los Angeles ( LAFD ) , and Chicago ( CFD ) fire departments combined . It is also the second largest municipal fire department in the United States , behind only the New York Fire Department . |
Camas,_Washington | Camas -LSB- ˈkæməs -RSB- is a city in Clark County , Washington , with a population of 19,355 at the 2010 census . Officially incorporated on June 18 , 1906 , the city is named after the camas lily , a plant with an onion-like bulb prized by Native Americans . At the west end of downtown Camas is a large Georgia-Pacific paper-mill from which the high school teams get their name `` the Papermakers '' . Accordingly , the city is about 20 miles east ( upwind ) from Portland , Oregon . Historically , the commercial base of the city was almost solely the paper mill ; however , the diversity of industries has been enhanced considerably in recent years by the influx of several white-collar , high-tech companies including Hewlett-Packard , Sharp Microelectronics , Linear Technology , WaferTech and Underwriters Labs . Annual events include the summer `` Camas Days '' , as well as other festivals and celebrations . The east side of town borders the city of Washougal , Washington , and the west side of town borders Vancouver , Washington . Camas lies along the Washington side of the Columbia River , across from Troutdale , Oregon , and is part of the Portland , Oregon , Metropolitan Statistical Area as defined by the United States Census Bureau . At this juncture the Columbia River is nearly a mile wide ; vehicular traffic flows across the Columbia via the Interstate Bridge on I-5 and the I-205 . The main road through town is the limited-access SR 14 expressway . One of the major geographical features of the city is Prune Hill . Prune Hill is an extinct volcanic vent and is part of the Boring Lava Field of northwest Oregon and southwest Washington . Based on a test conducted in 2010 Camas ranks 42nd in homeless people per square mile . |
Calendar_year | Generally speaking , a calendar year begins on the New Year 's Day of the given calendar system and ends on the day before the following New Year 's Day , and thus consists of a whole number of days . A year can be measured by also starting on any other named day of the calendar , and end on the day before this named day in the following year . This may be termed as a `` years time '' but not in practice or an accepted means to term a Calendar year . To reconcile the calendar year with the astronomical cycle ( which has a fractional number of days ) certain years contain extra days . The Gregorian year , which is in use in most of the world , begins on January 1 and ends on December 31 . It has a length of 365 days in an ordinary year , with 8,760 hours , 525,600 minutes , and 31,536,000 seconds ; but 366 days in a leap year , with 8,784 hours , 527,040 minutes , and 31,622,400 seconds . With 97 leap years every 400 years , the year has an average length of 365.2425 days . Other formula-based calendars can have lengths which are further out of step with the solar cycle : for example , the Julian calendar has an average length of 365.25 days , and the Hebrew calendar has an average length of 365.2468 days . The astronomer 's mean tropical year which is averaged over equinoxes and solstices is currently 365.24219 days , slightly shorter than the average length of the year in most calendars , but the astronomer 's value changes over time , so William Herschel 's suggested correction to the Gregorian calendar may become unnecessary by the year 4000 . |
Bush_v._Gore | Bush v. Gore , , is the United States Supreme Court decision that resolved the dispute surrounding the 2000 presidential election . The ruling was issued on December 12 , 2000 . On December 9 , the Court had preliminarily halted the Florida recount that was occurring . Eight days earlier , the Court unanimously decided the closely related case of Bush v. Palm Beach County Canvassing Board , . The Electoral College was scheduled to meet on December 18 , 2000 , to decide the election . In a per curiam decision , the Court ruled that there was an Equal Protection Clause violation in using different standards of counting in different counties and ruled that no alternative method could be established within the time limit set by Title 3 of the United States Code ( 3 U.S.C. ) , § 5 ( `` Determination of controversy as to appointment of electors '' ) , which was December 12 . The vote regarding the Equal Protection Clause was 7 -- 2 , and regarding the lack of an alternative method was 5 -- 4 . Three concurring justices also asserted that the Florida Supreme Court had violated Article II , § 1 , cl . 2 of the Constitution , by misinterpreting Florida election law that had been enacted by the Florida Legislature . The Supreme Court decision allowed the previous vote certification to stand , as made by Florida Secretary of State Katherine Harris , for George W. Bush as the winner of Florida 's 25 electoral votes . Florida 's votes gave Bush , the Republican candidate , 271 electoral votes , one more than the required 270 to win the Electoral College , and the defeat of Democratic candidate Al Gore , who received 266 electoral votes ( a `` faithless elector '' from the District of Columbia abstained ) . Media organizations subsequently analyzed the ballots , and under the strategy that Al Gore had pursued at the beginning of the Florida recount , as filing suit to force hand recounts in four predominantly Democratic counties , then Bush would have kept his lead , according to the ballot review conducted by the consortium . The study also found that the actual statewide recount with disputed ballots containing overvotes ( where a voter hole-punches multiple candidates but writes out the name of their intended candidate ) would have resulted in Gore emerging as the victor by between 60 and 171 votes , if the Supreme Court had not stopped the recount . Florida subsequently changed to new voting machines to avoid punch cards which had allowed dimpled or hanging chads . |
Carbon_cycle_re-balancing | The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon is exchanged between the four reservoirs of carbon : the biosphere , the earth , the air and water . Exchanges take place in several ways , including respiration , transpiration , combustion , and decomposition . The carbon balance , or carbon budget , is the balance of exchange between the four reservoirs . Debate about 're - balancing the carbon cycle ' arises from a concern that use of fossil fuels , which has accelerated since the start of the industrial revolution , has caused carbon to accumulate in the atmosphere . Levels of CO2 in the atmosphere are estimated to have risen from 280 ppm to almost 400 ppm since 1800 and this is linked to global warming . It is therefore argued that the carbon cycle should be re-balanced by reducing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere . ` Carbon cycle re-balancing ' is a useful name for a group of environmental policies listed below . The name gives a specific reason for adopting these policies . Related names , including pleas for sustainable development and participation in the green movement are politics-based rather than science-based . Carbon offset - for example by photosynthesis ( e.g. in new forests ) Carbon capture and storage - extraction of CO2 and placing it underground or underwater Carbon capture and transformation - extraction of CO2 and reacting it with hydrogen via renewable energy electrolysis to create methane as an energy store/carrier . Low to neutral cycle Sustainable energy - a shift from fossil fuels energy to wind power and solar power Nuclear power - as an alternative to fossil fuels Sustainable design - to reduce inputs and outputs of energy Sustainable transport - to reduce reliance on fossil fuels Burning domestic refuse to generate power can be promoted as a recycling , and therefore sustainable , policy . But from a carbon cycle re-balancing standpoint it is better to compost as much domestic refuse as possible . |
Carbon_sequestration | Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks . |
California_elections,_November_2012 | The California state elections was held on Election Day , November 6 , 2012 . On the ballot were eleven propositions , various parties ' nominees for the United States presidency , the Class I Senator to the United States Senate , all of California 's seats to the House of Representatives , all of the seats of the State Assembly , and all odd-numbered seats of the State Senate . This was the first general election with California 's newly implemented nonpartisan blanket primary in effect , pursuant to Proposition 14 , which passed with 53 % voter approval in June 2010 . Additionally , in November 2010 , voters approved Proposition 20 , which authorized a California Citizens Redistricting Commission to re-draw congressional district lines , in addition to its current job of drawing state senate district lines and state assembly district lines , taking away that job from the California state legislature . This was the first general election whose winners represent districts drawn by the Citizens Redistricting Commission . After the election , California 's congressional delegation gained four new Democrats , including the first gay Asian-American elected to Congress . Dianne Feinstein won her re-election bid for the U.S. Senate , and the Democrats gained a 2/3 supermajority in both of the state 's legislative chambers . California voters also voted to re-elect incumbent President Barack Obama , giving him the state 's fifty-five electoral votes . Among the propositions on the ballot , voters chose to increases taxes in order to fund education and other state programs , voted to keep the death penalty and the power of labor unions to use payroll deduction to fund political campaigns , and opted to reform the state 's three-strikes law . |
Capitalism | Capitalism is an economic system and an ideology based on private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit . Characteristics central to capitalism include private property , capital accumulation , wage labor , voluntary exchange , a price system , and competitive markets . In a capitalist market economy , decision-making and investment are determined by the owners of the factors of production in financial and capital markets , and prices and the distribution of goods are mainly determined by competition in the market . Economists , political economists , and historians have adopted different perspectives in their analyses of capitalism and have recognized various forms of it in practice . These include laissez-faire or free market capitalism , welfare capitalism , and state capitalism . Different forms of capitalism feature varying degrees of free markets , public ownership , obstacles to free competition , and state-sanctioned social policies . The degree of competition in markets , the role of intervention and regulation , and the scope of state ownership vary across different models of capitalism ; the extent to which different markets are free , as well as the rules defining private property , are matters of politics and policy . Most existing capitalist economies are mixed economies , which combine elements of free markets with state intervention , and in some cases economic planning . Market economies have existed under many forms of government , in many different times , places , and cultures . The development of capitalist societies , however , marked by a universalization of money-based social relations , a consistently large and system-wide class of workers who must work for wages , and a capitalist class which dominates control of wealth and political power , developed in Western Europe in a process that led to the Industrial Revolution . Capitalist systems with varying degrees of direct government intervention have since become dominant in the Western world and continue to spread . Capitalism has been criticized for establishing power in the hands of a minority capitalist class that exists through the exploitation of a working class majority ; for prioritizing profit over social good , natural resources , and the environment ; and for being an engine of inequality and economic instabilities . Supporters believe that it provides better products through competition , creates strong economic growth , yields productivity and prosperity that greatly benefits society , as well as being the most efficient system known for allocation of resources . |
Canada_(New_France) | Canada was a French colony within New France discovered and named in 1535 during the second voyage of Jacques Cartier . The word `` Canada '' at this point referred to the territory along the Saint Lawrence River , then known as the Canada river , from Grosse Island in the east to a point between Quebec and Three Rivers , although this territory had greatly expanded by 1600 . French explorations continued `` unto the Countreys of Canada , Hochelaga , and Saguenay '' before any permanent settlements were established . Even though a permanent trading post and habitation was established at Tadoussac in 1600 , it was under a trade monopoly and thus not constituted as an official French colonial settlement . As a result , the first official settlement was not established within Canada until the founding of Quebec by Samuel de Champlain in 1608 . The other four colonies within New France were Hudson 's Bay to the north , Acadia and Newfoundland to the east , and Louisiana far to the south . Canada , the most developed colony of New France , was divided into three districts , Québec , Trois-Rivières , and Montréal , each with its own government . The governor of the District of Quebec was also the governor-general of all New France . Although the terms `` Canada '' and `` New France '' are sometimes used interchangeably , `` New France actually represents a much broader portion of North American territory than the Great Lakes-St Lawrence colony of Canada '' . After the Treaty of Paris of 1763 , when France ceded Canada to Great Britain , the colony was renamed the Province of Quebec . |
Caribbean | The Caribbean ( -LSB- ˌkærᵻˈbiːən -RSB- or -LSB- kəˈrɪbiən -RSB- ) is a region that consists of the Caribbean Sea , its islands ( some surrounded by the Caribbean Sea and some bordering both the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean ) and the surrounding coasts . The region is southeast of the Gulf of Mexico and the North American mainland , east of Central America , and north of South America . Situated largely on the Caribbean Plate , the region comprises more than 700 islands , islets , reefs and cays . ( See the list . ) These islands generally form island arcs that delineate the eastern and northern edges of the Caribbean Sea . The Caribbean islands , consisting of the Greater Antilles on the north and the Lesser Antilles on the south and east ( including the Leeward Antilles ) , are part of the somewhat larger West Indies grouping , which also includes the Lucayan Archipelago ( comprising the Bahamas and Turks and Caicos Islands ) north of the Greater Antilles and Caribbean Sea . In a wider sense , the mainland countries of Belize , Guyana , Suriname and French Guiana are often included due to their political and cultural ties with the region . Geopolitically , the Caribbean islands are usually regarded as a subregion of North America and are organized into 30 territories including sovereign states , overseas departments , and dependencies . From December 15 , 1954 , to October 10 , 2010 , there was a country known as the Netherlands Antilles composed of five states , all of which were Dutch dependencies . From January 3 , 1958 , to May 31 , 1962 , there was also a short-lived country called the Federation of the West Indies composed of ten English-speaking Caribbean territories , all of which were then British dependencies . The West Indies cricket team continues to represent many of those nations . |
Canadian_Centre_for_Policy_Alternatives | The Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives is an independent and non-partisan think tank policy research institute in Canada . It has been described as `` left leaning '' . It concentrates on economic policy , international trade , environmental justice and social policy . It is especially known for publishing an alternative federal budget on an annual basis . The CCPA claims that its estimates of budgetary surpluses have consistently been more accurate than those of the government . The CCPA is a registered charity with the Canada Revenue Agency , and it reported $ 5.6 million in revenues in 2013 . Think tanks such as the CCPA , C.D. Howe Institute , Macdonald-Laurier Institute , Fraser Institute and Montreal Economic Institute have charity status in Canada through their work in the advancement of education . The CCPA is based in Ottawa but has branch offices in Vancouver , Winnipeg , Regina , Toronto and Halifax . It is funded primarily through individual donations , but also receives research grants , and has institutional support from trade unions . The CCPA has recently launched a new research and public awareness campaign called the Growing Gap . Its research claims to demonstrate the growth of income inequality in Canada and offer solutions . |
Calaveras_County,_California | Calaveras County , officially the County of Calaveras , is a county in the northern portion of the U.S. state , California . As of the 2010 census , the population was 44,828 . The county seat is San Andreas , and Angels Camp is the only incorporated city . Calaveras is the Spanish word for skulls ; the county was reportedly named for the remains of Native Americans discovered by the Spanish explorer Captain Gabriel Moraga . Calaveras County is in both the Gold Country and High Sierra regions of California . Calaveras Big Trees State Park , a preserve of Giant Sequoia trees , is in the county several miles east of the town of Arnold on State Highway 4 . Credit for the discovery of giant sequoias here is given to Augustus T. Dowd , a trapper who made the discovery in 1852 while tracking a bear . When the bark from the `` Discovery Tree '' was removed and taken on a tour around the world , the trees became a worldwide sensation and one of the county 's first tourist attractions . The uncommon gold telluride mineral calaverite was discovered in the county in 1861 and is named for it . Mark Twain set his story , `` The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County '' , in the county . The county hosts an annual fair and Jumping Frog Jubilee , featuring a frog-jumping contest , to celebrate the association with Twain 's story . Each year 's winner is commemorated with a brass plaque mounted in the sidewalk of downtown Historic Angels Camp and this feature is known as the Frog Hop of Fame . The California red-legged frog , feared extinct in the county by 1969 , was rediscovered in 2003 . In 2015 , Calaveras County had the highest rate of suicide deaths in the United States , with 49.1 suicides per 100,000 people . |
Canada–Panama_Free_Trade_Agreement | The Canada -- Panama Free Trade Agreement is a free trade agreement between Canada and Panama that went into effect April 1 , 2013 . The agreement was concluded on August 11 , 2009 by Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper and Panamanian President Ricardo Martinelli and signed by the two countries ' trade ministers on May 14 , 2010 . The agreement was approved by both countries ' parliaments by December 2012 , allowing the agreement to come into effect . The agreement eliminates Panamanian tariffs on 90 % of goods from Canada . The remaining 10 % will be phased out within the next 10 years . Canada will remove 99 % of its tariffs on goods from Panama . Canada will keep tariffs on some imports of sugar , poultry , eggs and dairy products . Panama will end its ban on beef from Canada which was initiated after cases of mad cow disease were found in Canada in 2003 . In 2008 , bilateral merchandise trade between Canada and Panama totaled $ 149.1 million . Trade has increased by 48 percent from 2007 . Canada made up $ 127.9 million of total trade between the two countries , while Panama made up the remaining $ 21.2 million . Both countries parliament needed to approve the agreement before it could come into force . The Canadian opposition parties had considered stalling the agreement over the issue of Panama being considered a tax haven . The agreement was negotiated over four meetings . The first negotiation started in October 2008 . The negotiations followed two exploratory meeting over a possible agreement . In 1998 , Panama and Canada signed the Foreign Investment Promotion and Protection Agreement ( FIPA ) . This agreement placed rights and obligations on foreign direct investments between the two countries . In 2006 , FDI in Panama by Canadian companies was $ 111 million . On May 14 , 2010 , Canada 's International Trade Minister Peter Van Loan , along with Panama 's Minister of Commerce and Industry , Roberto Henríquez , signed the Canada -- Panama Free Trade Agreement ( FTA ) , as well as parallel agreements on labour cooperation and the environment . On June 11 , 2012 a bill to implement the trade , environmental , and labour agreements was introduced in the Canadian parliament as Bill C-24 . |
Carbon_offset | A carbon offset is a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide or greenhouse gases made in order to compensate for or to offset an emission made elsewhere . Carbon offsets are measured in metric tons of carbon dioxide-equivalent ( CO2e ) and may represent six primary categories of greenhouse gases : carbon dioxide , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , and sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . One carbon offset represents the reduction of one metric ton of carbon dioxide or its equivalent in other greenhouse gases . There are two markets for carbon offsets . In the larger , compliance market , companies , governments , or other entities buy carbon offsets in order to comply with caps on the total amount of carbon dioxide they are allowed to emit . This market exists in order to achieve compliance with obligations of Annex 1 Parties under the Kyoto Protocol , and of liable entities under the EU Emission Trading Scheme . In 2006 , about $ 5.5 billion of carbon offsets were purchased in the compliance market , representing about 1.6 billion metric tons of CO2e reductions . In the much smaller , voluntary market , individuals , companies , or governments purchase carbon offsets to mitigate their own greenhouse gas emissions from transportation , electricity use , and other sources . For example , an individual might purchase carbon offsets to compensate for the greenhouse gas emissions caused by personal air travel . Many companies ( see list ) offer carbon offsets as an up-sell during the sales process so that customers can mitigate the emissions related with their product or service purchase ( such as offsetting emissions related to a vacation flight , car rental , hotel stay , consumer good , etc. ) . In 2008 , about $ 705 million of carbon offsets were purchased in the voluntary market , representing about 123.4 million metric tons of CO2e reductions . Some fuel suppliers in the UK offer fuel which has been carbon offset such as Fuel dyes . Offsets are typically achieved through financial support of projects that reduce the emission of greenhouse gases in the short - or long-term . The most common project type is renewable energy , such as wind farms , biomass energy , or hydroelectric dams . Others include energy efficiency projects , the destruction of industrial pollutants or agricultural byproducts , destruction of landfill methane , and forestry projects . Some of the most popular carbon offset projects from a corporate perspective are energy efficiency and wind turbine projects . Carbon offsetting has gained some appeal and momentum mainly among consumers in western countries who have become aware and concerned about the potentially negative environmental effects of energy-intensive lifestyles and economies . The Kyoto Protocol has sanctioned offsets as a way for governments and private companies to earn carbon credits that can be traded on a marketplace . The protocol established the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , which validates and measures projects to ensure they produce authentic benefits and are genuinely `` additional '' activities that would not otherwise have been undertaken . Organizations that are unable to meet their emissions quota can offset their emissions by buying CDM-approved Certified Emissions Reductions . Emissions from burning fuel , such as red diesel , has pushed one UK fuel supplier to create a carbon offset fuel named Carbon Offset Red Diesel . Offsets may be cheaper or more convenient alternatives to reducing one 's own fossil-fuel consumption . However , some critics object to carbon offsets , and question the benefits of certain types of offsets . Due diligence is recommended to help businesses in the assessment and identification of `` good quality '' offsets to ensure offsetting provides the desired additional environmental benefits , and to avoid reputational risk associated with poor quality offsets . Offsets are viewed as an important policy tool to maintain stable economies and to improve sustainability . One of the hidden dangers of climate change policy is unequal prices of carbon in the economy , which can cause economic collateral damage if production flows to regions or industries that have a lower price of carbon -- unless carbon can be purchased from that area , which offsets effectively permit , equalizing the price . |
Bushfires_in_Australia | Bushfires in Australia are frequent events during the warmer months of the year , due to Australia 's mostly hot , dry climate . Each year , such fires impact extensive areas . On one hand , they can cause property damage and loss of human life . On the other hand , certain native flora in Australia have evolved to rely on bushfires as a means of reproduction , and fire events are an interwoven and an essential part of the ecology of the continent . For thousands of years , Indigenous Australians have used fire to foster grasslands for hunting and to clear tracks through dense vegetation . Major firestorms that result in severe loss of life are often named based on the day on which they occur , such as Ash Wednesday and Black Saturday . Some of the most intense , extensive and deadly bushfires commonly occur during droughts and heat waves , such as the 2009 Southern Australia heat wave , which precipitated the conditions during the 2009 Black Saturday bushfires in which 173 people lost their lives . Other major conflagrations include the 1983 Ash Wednesday bushfires , the 2003 Eastern Victorian alpine bushfires and the 2006 December Bushfires . Global warming is increasing the frequency and severity of bushfires . |
Carbonation | In chemistry , carbonation refers to two chemical processes involving the binding of carbon dioxide to substrates . Various applications or manifestations of this reaction are listed in order of their relative scale . In biochemistry . Carbon-based life originates from a carbonation reaction that is most often catalysed by the enzyme RuBisCO . So important is this carbonation process that a significant fraction of leaf mass consists of this carbonating enzyme . The production of urea , a widely used fertilizer , involves the combination of carbon dioxide and ammonia : 2 NH3 + CO2 → ( H2N ) 2CO + H2O In inorganic chemistry , carbonation occurs widely . Metal oxides and metal hydroxides react with CO2 to give complexes of carbonate and bicarbonate . In reinforced concrete construction , the chemical reaction between carbon dioxide in the air and calcium hydroxide and hydrated calcium silicate in the concrete is known as neutralisation . Low valent metal complexes react with CO2 to give metal carbon dioxide complexes . In organometallic chemistry , carbonation involves the insertion of CO2 into metal-carbon bonds . The topic has attracted great interest for organic synthesis and even as a means of utilizing CO2 as a feedstock . |
Carnivore | A carnivore -LSB- ˈkɑrnɪvɔər -RSB- meaning ` Meat Eater ' ( Latin , caro meaning ` meat ' or ` flesh ' and vorare meaning ` to devour ' ) is an organism that derives its energy and nutrient requirements from a diet consisting mainly or exclusively of animal tissue , whether through predation or scavenging . Animals that depend solely on animal flesh for their nutrient requirements are called obligate carnivores while those that also consume non-animal food are called facultative carnivores . Omnivores also consume both animal and non-animal food , and apart from the more general definition , there is no clearly defined ratio of plant to animal material that would distinguish a facultative carnivore from an omnivore . A carnivore that sits at the top of the food chain is termed an apex predator . Plants that capture and digest insects ( and , at times , other small animals ) are called carnivorous plants . Similarly , fungi that capture microscopic animals are often called carnivorous fungi . |
California_(Phantom_Planet_song) | `` California '' is a song by American rock band Phantom Planet . It was released as a single from their second album The Guest in February 2002 . The song was first heard on television on episode 8 of the television show Fastlane . Both the song and the band received major attention when it became the title song on the hit television show The O.C. . It was also previously in the soundtrack to the film Orange County and featured on the episode `` Milhouse of Sand and Fog '' of The Simpsons . The song is about driving on U.S. Route 101 , traveling to see a concert . The song became a top ten hit in Austria , Italy , the United Kingdom , and Republic of Ireland , reaching number 3 ( in both Austria and Italy ) , number 9 , and number 10 in the respective countries . |
California_State_Assembly | The California State Assembly is the lower house of the California State Legislature . It consists of 80 members , with each member representing at least 465,000 people . Due to the state 's large population and relatively small legislature , the State Assembly has the largest population-per-representative ratio of any state lower house and second largest of any legislative lower house in the United States after the federal House of Representatives . As a result of Proposition 140 in 1990 and Proposition 28 in 2012 , members elected to the legislature prior to 2012 are restricted by term limits to three two-year terms ( six years ) , while those elected in or after 2012 are allowed to serve 12 years in the legislature in any combination of four-year state senate or two-year state assembly terms . Members of the assembly are generally referred to using the titles assemblyman ( for men ) , assemblywoman ( for women ) , or assemblymember ( for all genders ) . The State Assembly convenes at the California State Capitol in Sacramento . In the current session , the Democrats control 55 seats , forming a supermajority of the chamber . Republicans control 25 seats . |
Carbon_cycle | The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere , pedosphere , geosphere , hydrosphere , and atmosphere of the Earth . Carbon is the main component of biological compounds as well as a major component of many minerals such as limestone . Along with the nitrogen cycle and the water cycle , the carbon cycle comprises a sequence of events that are key to make Earth capable of sustaining life . It describes the movement of carbon as it is recycled and reused throughout the biosphere , as well as long-term processes of carbon sequestration to and release from carbon sinks . The global carbon budget is the balance of the exchanges ( incomes and losses ) of carbon between the carbon reservoirs or between one specific loop ( e.g. , atmosphere and biosphere ) of the carbon cycle . An examination of the carbon budget of a pool or reservoir can provide information about whether the pool or reservoir is functioning as a source or sink for carbon dioxide . The carbon cycle was initially discovered by Joseph Priestley and Antoine Lavoisier , and popularized by Humphry Davy . |
Carbonate | In chemistry , a carbonate is a salt of carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) , characterized by the presence of the carbonate ion , a polyatomic ion with the formula of . The name may also mean an ester of carbonic acid , an organic compound containing the carbonate group C ( =O ) ( O -- ) 2 . The term is also used as a verb , to describe carbonation : the process of raising the concentrations of carbonate and bicarbonate ions in water to produce carbonated water and other carbonated beverageseither by the addition of carbon dioxide gas under pressure , or by dissolving carbonate or bicarbonate salts into the water . In geology and mineralogy , the term `` carbonate '' can refer both to carbonate minerals and carbonate rock ( which is made of chiefly carbonate minerals ) , and both are dominated by the carbonate ion , . Carbonate minerals are extremely varied and ubiquitous in chemically precipitated sedimentary rock . The most common are calcite or calcium carbonate , CaCO3 , the chief constituent of limestone ( as well as the main component of mollusc shells and coral skeletons ) ; dolomite , a calcium-magnesium carbonate CaMg ( CO3 ) 2 ; and siderite , or iron ( II ) carbonate , FeCO3 , an important iron ore . Sodium carbonate ( `` soda '' or `` natron '' ) and potassium carbonate ( `` potash '' ) have been used since antiquity for cleaning and preservation , as well as for the manufacture of glass . Carbonates are widely used in industry , e.g. in iron smelting , as a raw material for Portland cement and lime manufacture , in the composition of ceramic glazes , and more . |
California_gubernatorial_election,_2014 | The 2014 California gubernatorial election was held on November 4 , 2014 , to elect the Governor of California , concurrently with elections for the rest of California 's executive branch , as well as elections to the United States Senate in other states and elections to the United States House of Representatives and various state and local elections . Incumbent Democratic Governor Jerry Brown ran for re-election to a second consecutive and fourth overall term in office . Although Governors are limited to lifetime service of two terms in office , Brown previously served as Governor from 1975 to 1983 and the law only affects terms served after 1990 . A primary election was held on June 3 , 2014 . Under California 's nonpartisan blanket primary law , all candidates appear on the same ballot , regardless of party . In the primary , voters may vote for any candidate , regardless of their party affiliation . The top two finishers -- regardless of party -- advance to the general election in November , even if a candidate manages to receive a majority of the votes cast in the primary election . Washington is the only other state with this system , a so-called `` top two primary '' ( Louisiana has a similar `` jungle primary '' ) . Brown and Republican Neel Kashkari finished first and second , respectively , and contested in the general election , which Brown won . He won the largest gubernatorial victory since 1986 , `` despite running a virtually nonexistent campaign . '' |
Carbon_fiber_reinforced_polymer | Carbon fiber reinforced polymer , carbon fiber reinforced plastic or carbon fiber reinforced thermoplastic ( CFRP , CRP , CFRTP or often simply carbon fiber , or even carbon ) , is an extremely strong and light fiber-reinforced plastic which contains carbon fibers . The spelling ` fibre ' is common in British Commonwealth countries . CFRPs can be expensive to produce but are commonly used wherever high strength-to-weight ratio and rigidity are required , such as aerospace , automotive , civil engineering , sports goods and an increasing number of other consumer and technical applications . The binding polymer is often a thermoset resin such as epoxy , but other thermoset or thermoplastic polymers , such as polyester , vinyl ester or nylon , are sometimes used . The composite may contain other fibers , such as an aramid ( e.g. Kevlar , Twaron ) , aluminium , ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene ( UHMWPE ) or glass fibers , as well as carbon fiber . The properties of the final CFRP product can also be affected by the type of additives introduced to the binding matrix ( the resin ) . The most frequent additive is silica , but other additives such as rubber and carbon nanotubes can be used . The material is also referred to as graphite-reinforced polymer or graphite fiber-reinforced polymer ( GFRP is less common , as it clashes with glass - ( fiber ) - reinforced polymer ) . |
California_State_University,_East_Bay | California State University , East Bay ( commonly referred to as Cal State East Bay , CSU East Bay , or CSUEB ) is a public university located in Hayward , California , United States . The university , as part of the 23-campus California State University system , offers 136 undergraduate and 60 post-baccalaureate areas of study . California State University , East Bay has been designated a top -- tier institution among master 's -- granting universities in the west by U.S. News & World Report and has been recognized as a `` Best in the West '' college by the Princeton Review . Founded in 1957 , California State University , East Bay has a student body of almost 16,000 . In Fall of 2013 , it had 752 faculty , of which 275 ( or 37 % ) were on the tenure track . The university 's largest and oldest campus is located in Hayward , with additional campus-sites in the nearby cities of Oakland and Concord . The university operates on the quarter system and is scheduled to convert to the semester system Fall 2018 . In 2005 , with multiple campuses across the region , the university broadened its mission to serve the East Bay region of the San Francisco Bay Area . To reflect a more widespread objective , the school changed its name from California State University , Hayward to California State University , East Bay that same year . California State University , East Bay is the most ethnically diverse college in California and the fifth most in the United States . |
Carbon_bubble | The carbon bubble is a hypothesized bubble in the valuation of companies dependent on fossil-fuel-based energy production , because the true costs of carbon dioxide in intensifying global warming are not yet taken into account in a company 's stock market valuation . Currently the price of fossil fuels companies ' shares is calculated under the assumption that all fossil fuel reserves will be consumed . An estimate made by Kepler Chevreux puts the loss in value of the fossil fuel companies due to the impact of the growing renewables industry at US$ 28 trillion over the next two decades-long . A more recent analysis made by Citi puts that figure at $ 100 trillion . Analysts in both the petroleum and financial industries are concluding that the `` age of oil '' has already reached a new stage where the excess supply that appeared in late 2014 may continue to prevail in the future . A consensus appears to be emerging that an international agreement will be reached to introduce measures to constrain the combustion of hydrocarbons in an effort to limit global temperature rise to the nominal 2 ° C that is consensually predicted to limit environmental harm to tolerable levels . According to the UK 's Committee on Climate Change , overvaluing companies that produce fossil fuels and greenhouse gases poses a serious threat to the economy . The committee warned the British government and Bank of England of the risks of the carbon bubble in 2014 . The following year , Mark Carney , the Governor of the Bank of England , in his lecture to Lloyd 's of London , warned that limiting global warming to 2 ° C appears to require that the `` vast majority '' of fossil fuel reserves be `` stranded '' , or `` literally unburnable without expensive carbon-capture technology '' , resulting in `` potentially huge '' exposure to investors in that sector . He concluded that `` the window of opportunity is finite and shrinking '' for responding to the threat that climate change poses to financial resilience and longer-term prosperity , which he called the `` tragedy of the horizon '' . That same month , the Prudential Regulation Authority of the Bank of England issued a report discussing the risks and opportunities that climate change presents to the insurance industry . In his speech announcing his denial of the proposal to build the Keystone XL oil pipeline , U.S. President Barack Obama gave as one reason for the decision '' ... ultimately , if we 're going to prevent large parts of this Earth from becoming not only inhospitable but uninhabitable in our lifetimes , we 're going to have to keep some fossil fuels in the ground ... '' . |
Canada_and_the_Kyoto_Protocol | Canada was active in the negotiations that led to the Kyoto Protocol in 1997 , and the Liberal government that signed the accord in 1997 also ratified it in parliament in 2002 . Canada 's Kyoto target was a 6 % total reduction by 2012 compared to 1990 levels of 461 Megatonnes ( Mt ) ( Government of Canada ( GC ) 1994 ) . '' ` Base year ' refers to the base year under the Kyoto Protocol , which is 1990 for all gases . '' However , in spite of some efforts , federal indecision led to increases in greenhouse gas emissions ( GHG ) since then . Between the base year ( 1990 ) and 2008 Canada 's GHG increased by around 24.1 % . Debates surrounding the implementation of Kyoto in Canada are informed by the nature of relationships between national , provincial , territorial and municipal jurisdictions . The federal government can negotiate multilateral agreements and enact legislation to respect their terms . However , the provinces have jurisdiction in terms of energy and therefore , to a large extent -- climate change . In 1980 , when the National Energy Program was introduced , the country was almost torn apart , deeply dividing the provinces along an East -- West axis . Since then no federal government has had the courage to implement an intergovernmental , long-term , cohesive energy plan . Some argue that since 2006 , when Prime Minister Stephen Harper took office , his strong opposition to the Kyoto Accord , his market-centred policies and `` deliberate indifference '' contributed to a dramatic rise in GHG emissions in 2007 ( Climate Action Network Canada ) . Prime Minister Harper opposed the imposition of binding targets at the 2007 Bali Conference unless such targets were also imposed on such countries as China and India , which are exempt from GHG reduction requirements under the terms of the Kyoto Protocol . Although Canadian GHG emissions fell in 2008 and 2009 due to the global recession , Canada 's emissions are expected to increase again with the economic recovery , fueled largely by the expansion of the oil sands . ( Environment Canada 2011 ) . In 2009 Canada signed the Copenhagen Accord , which , unlike the Kyoto Accord , is a non-binding agreement . Canada agreed to reduce its GHG emissions by 17 % from its 2005 levels by 2020 , which translates to a reduction of 124 Megatonnes ( Mt ) . In December 2011 , Ministry of the Environment ( Canada ) Peter Kent announced Canada 's withdrawal from the Kyoto Accord one day after negotiators from nearly 200 countries meeting in Durban , South Africa at the 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference ( November 28 -- December 11 ) , completed a marathon of climate talks to establish a new treaty to limit carbon emissions . -LSB- 1 -RSB- ) The Durban talks were leading to a new binding treaty with targets for all countries to take effect in 2020 . Environment minister Peter Kent argued that , `` The Kyoto protocol does not cover the world 's largest two emitters , the United States and China , and therefore can not work . '' In 2010 Canada , Japan and Russia said they would not accept new Kyoto commitments . Canada is the only country to repudiate the Kyoto Accord . Kent argued that since Canada could not meet targets , it needed to avoid the $ 14 billion in penalties for not achieving its goals . This decision drew widespread international response . Finally , the cost of compliance has been estimated 20 times lower . States for which the emissions are not covered by the Kyoto Protocol ( the US and China ) have the largest emissions , being responsible for 41 % of the Kyoto Protocol . China 's emissions increased by over 200 % from 1990 to 2009 . Canadian Council of Chief ExecutivesThe Canadian business community has taken the most active interest in politics at the CEO level than any other business community in the world ( Tom D'Acquino , CEO of the Canadian Council of Chief Executives cited in Brownlee 2005 : 9 Newman 1998:159 -160 ) . And this interest and influence has been on the rise in the last decades . Canada 's business community has had more influence on Canadian public policy in the years 1995-2005 then in any other period since 1900 . `` Look at what we stand for and look at what all the governments , all the major parties ... have done , and what they want to do . They have adopted the agendas we 've been fighting for in the past few decades ( d'Acquino cited in Brownlee 2005 : 12 Newman 1998:151 ) . '' VP John Dillon argued ( 2011-11-22 ) that a further extension of Kyoto would not be effective as many countries , not just Canada , were not on track to meet their 1997 Kyoto commitments to reduce emissions . He called for a comprehensive , long-term global agreement that includes major emitters like the US , China , India and Brazil . Dillon regards as positive the `` series of non-binding pledges in Copenhagen by both developed and developing countries to lower emissions or improve energy intensity , leading to a more flexible structure that might eventually attract broader participation and more meaningful action '' . However , he called for Canada to do more to `` improve its brand as a responsible energy producer -- one that takes full advantage of our country 's vast and diverse energy resources . That means investing proactively and strategically in energy efficiency , low-carbon energy infrastructure and innovative new technologies that will ensure a more environmentally sustainable energy system going forward . '' The Bill C-38 Jobs , Growth and Long-term Prosperity Act passed in June 2012 ( informally referred to as Bill C-38 ) , a 2012 omnibus Bill and Budget Implementation Act , Bill C-38 was given Royal Assent on June 29 , 2012 . repealed the Kyoto Protocol Implementation Act , `` legislation , which required government accountability and results reporting on climate change policies ( May 2012 ) . '' According to the report entitled `` Environment : GHG Emissions Per Capita '' ( July 2011 ) , Canada ranks `` 15th out of 17 countries for greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions per capita and earns a 'D ' grade . Canada 's per capita GHG emissions increased 3.2 per cent between 1990 and 2008 , while total GHG emissions in Canada grew 24 per cent . The largest contributor to Canada 's GHG emissions is the energy sector , which includes power generation ( heat and electricity ) , transportation , and fugitive sources . '' Canada is a high-tech industrial society with a trillion-dollar economy and a market-oriented economic system , pattern of production , and affluent living standards similar to the United States . |
Carbon_diet | A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies . |
Calgary | Calgary ( -LSB- ˈkælɡəri , _ - ɡri -RSB- ) is a city in the Canadian province of Alberta . It is situated at the confluence of the Bow River and the Elbow River in the south of the province , in an area of foothills and prairie , about 80 km east of the front ranges of the Canadian Rockies . The city anchors the south end of what Statistics Canada defines as the `` Calgary -- Edmonton Corridor '' . The city had a population of 1,239,220 in 2016 , making it Alberta 's largest city and Canada 's third-largest municipality . Also in 2016 , Calgary had a metropolitan population of 1,392,609 , making it the fourth-largest census metropolitan area ( CMA ) in Canada . The economy of Calgary includes activity in the energy , financial services , film and television , transportation and logistics , technology , manufacturing , aerospace , health and wellness , retail , and tourism sectors . The Calgary CMA is home to the second-highest number of corporate head offices in Canada among the country 's 800 largest corporations . In 1988 , Calgary became the first Canadian city to host the Winter Olympic Games . |
CNN | The Cable News Network ( CNN ) is an American basic cable and satellite television news channel owned by the Turner Broadcasting System division of Time Warner . It was founded in 1980 by American media proprietor Ted Turner as a 24-hour cable news channel . Upon its launch , CNN was the first television channel to provide 24-hour news coverage , and was the first all-news television channel in the United States . While the news channel has numerous affiliates , CNN primarily broadcasts from the Time Warner Center in New York City , and studios in Washington , D.C. and Los Angeles . Its headquarters at the CNN Center in Atlanta is only used for weekend programming . CNN is sometimes referred to as CNN/U . S. ( or CNN Domestic ) to distinguish the American channel from its international sister network , CNN International . As of August 2010 , CNN is available in over 100 million U.S. households . Broadcast coverage of the U.S. channel extends to over 890,000 American hotel rooms , as well as carriage on cable and satellite providers throughout Canada . Globally , CNN programming airs through CNN International , which can be seen by viewers in over 212 countries and territories . CNN has also been accused of having a left-wing bias , most notably during the 2016 U.S. Presidential election between now 45th U.S. President Donald Trump ( who has targeted the network multiple times ) and former U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton . As of February 2015 , CNN is available to about 96,289,000 cable , satellite , and telco television households ( 82.7 % of households with at least one television set ) in the United States . |
Canada_(unit) | The canada ( -LSB- kɐˈnaðɐ -RSB- ) was the unit of liquid volume of the ancient Portuguese measurement system . It was used in Portugal , Brazil and other parts of the Portuguese Empire until the adoption of the metric system . It was equivalent to 4 quartilhos ( pints ) . The exact value of the canada varied from region to region , the canada of Lisbon being equivalent to 1.4 litres . In the Portuguese metric system officially adopted in August 1814 , `` canada '' was the name given to the unit of liquid volume . This metric canada was equivalent to 1 litre . The canada is still used in some rural areas of Portugal and Brazil to indicate a liquid volume of between 1.5 and 2.0 liters . |
Burt_Lake | Burt Lake is a 17,120 acre ( 69 km ² ) lake in Cheboygan County in the U.S. state of Michigan . The western shore of the lake is on the boundary with Emmet County . The lake is named after William Austin Burt , who , together with John Mullett , made a federal survey of the area from 1840 to 1843 . The lake is approximately 10 miles ( 16 km ) long from north to south , about 5 miles ( 8 km ) at its widest , and 73 feet ( 22 m ) at its deepest . Major inflows to the lake are the Maple River , which connects with nearby Douglas Lake , the Crooked River , which connects with nearby Crooked Lake , and the Sturgeon River which enters the lake near the point where the Indian River flows out of the lake into nearby Mullett Lake . The lake is part of the Inland Waterway , by which one can boat from Crooked Lake several miles ( km ) east of Petoskey on the Little Traverse Bay of Lake Michigan across the northern tip of the lower peninsula 's so-called mitten to Cheboygan on Lake Huron . Along with nearby Mullett Lake and Black Lake , it is noted for its population of Lake Sturgeon , which briefly held the record of largest sturgeon caught in the USA . YMCA Camp Al-Gon-Quian and Burt Lake State Park are both located on the southern shore of the lake . The unincorporated community of Burt Lake is on the southwest shore on M-68 . Interstate 75 passes to the east of the lake , with two interchanges near the south end of the lake at the unincorporated community of Indian River . |
Carnivorous_plant | Carnivorous plants are plants that derive some or most of their nutrients ( but not energy ) from trapping and consuming animals or protozoans , typically insects and other arthropods . Carnivorous plants have adapted to grow in places where the soil is thin or poor in nutrients , especially nitrogen , such as acidic bogs and rock outcroppings . Charles Darwin wrote Insectivorous Plants , the first well-known treatise on carnivorous plants , in 1875 . True carnivory is thought to have evolved independently nine times in five different orders of flowering plants , and is represented by more than a dozen genera . This classification includes at least 583 species that attract , trap and kill prey , absorbing the resulting available nutrients . Additionally , over 300 protocarnivorous plant species in several genera show some but not all of these characteristics . |
CO2_fertilization_effect | The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions . |
Carbon_footprint | A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual , event , organisation , or product , expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent . In most cases , the total carbon footprint can not be exactly calculated because of inadequate knowledge of and data about the complex interactions between contributing processes , especially which including the influence on natural processes storing or releasing carbon dioxide . For this reason , Wright , Kemp , and Williams , have suggested to define the carbon footprint as : A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( CH4 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) . Greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) can be emitted through land clearance and the production and consumption of food , fuels , manufactured goods , materials , wood , roads , buildings , transportation and other services . For simplicity of reporting , it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide , or its equivalent of other GHGs , emitted . Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U.S. household come from `` indirect '' sources , i.e. fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer . These are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in one 's car or stove , commonly referred to as `` direct '' sources of the consumer 's carbon footprint . The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint , discussion , which was developed by Rees and Wackernagel in the 1990s which estimates the number of `` earths '' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint . However , given that ecological footprints are a measure of failure , Anindita Mitra ( CREA , Seattle ) chose the more easily calculated `` carbon footprint '' to easily measure use of carbon , as an indicator of unsustainable energy use . In 2007 , carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the energy plan for City of Lynnwood , Washington . Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere . Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators , which also includes water footprint and land footprint . |
Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia | Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated . |
Carbon_pricing_in_Australia | A carbon pricing scheme in Australia , commonly dubbed by its critics as a `` carbon tax '' , was introduced by the Gillard Labor Government in 2011 as the Clean Energy Act 2011 which came into effect on 1 July 2012 . It was in operation until it was repealed on 17 July 2014 , and backdated to 1 July 2014 . In its place the Abbott Government set up the Emission Reduction Fund in December 2014 . As a result of being in place for such a short time , regulated organisations responded in a rather tepid and informal manner , with very few investments in emissions reductions being made . The 2011 scheme required entities which emit over 25,000 tonnes per year of carbon dioxide equivalent greenhouse gases and which were not in the transport or agriculture sectors to obtain emissions permits , called carbon units . Carbon units were either purchased from the government or issued free as part of industry assistance measures . The Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency stated that in June 2013 only 260 entities were subject to the scheme , of which approximately 185 were liable to pay for carbon units under the carbon price scheme . The carbon price was part of a broad energy reform package called the Clean Energy Futures Plan , which aimed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in Australia by 5 % below 2000 levels by 2020 and 80 % below 2000 levels by 2050 . The plan set out to achieve these targets by encouraging Australia 's largest emitters to increase energy efficiency and invest in sustainable energy . The scheme was administered by the Clean Energy Regulator . Compensation to industry and households was funded by the revenue derived from the charge . As part of the scheme , personal income tax was reduced for those earning less than $ 80,000 per year and the tax-free threshold was increased from $ 6,000 to $ 18,200 . Initially the price of a permit for one tonne of carbon was fixed at $ 23 for the 2012 -- 13 financial year , with unlimited permits being available from the government . The fixed price rose to $ 24.15 for 2013 -- 14 . The government had announced that the scheme was part of a transition to an emissions trading scheme in 2014 -- 15 , where the available permits will be limited in line with a pollution cap . The scheme primarily applied to electricity generators and industrial sectors . It did not apply to road transport and agriculture . Domestic aviation did not face the carbon price scheme per se , but was subject to an additional fuel excise levy of approximately 6 cents per litre . In February 2012 , the Sydney Morning Herald reported that Clean Energy Future carbon price scheme had not deterred new investment in the coal industry , as spending on exploration had increased by 62 % in 2010-2011 , more than any other mineral commodity . The government agency Geoscience Australia reported that investment in coal prospecting reached $ 520 million in 2010-2011 . Falls in carbon emissions were observed following implementation of this policy . It was noted that emissions from sectors subject to the pricing mechanism were 1.0 % lower and nine months after the introduction of the pricing scheme , Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions from electricity generation had fallen to a 10-year low , with coal generation down 11 % from 2008 to 2009 . However , attribution of these trends to carbon pricing have been disputed , with Frontier Economics claiming trends are largely explained by factors unrelated to the carbon tax . Electricity demand had been falling and in 2012 was at the lowest level seen since 2006 in the National Electricity Market . |
Canadian_Anti-Terrorism_Act | The Canadian Anti-terrorism Act ( Loi antiterroriste ) was passed by the Liberal government of Canada in response to the September 11 , 2001 , attacks in the United States . It received Royal Assent on December 18 , 2001 , as Bill C-36 . The `` omnibus '' bill extended the powers of government and institutions within the Canadian security establishment to respond to the threat of terrorism . The expanded powers were highly controversial due to widely perceived incompatibility with the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms , in particular for the Act 's provisions allowing for ` secret ' trials , preemptive detention and expansive security and surveillance powers . |
Cambrian_explosion | The Cambrian explosion or Cambrian radiation was the relatively short evolutionary event , beginning around in the Cambrian period , during which most major animal phyla appeared , as indicated by the fossil record . Lasting for about the next 20 -- 25 million years , it resulted in the divergence of most modern metazoan phyla . Additionally , the event was accompanied by major diversification of other organisms . Prior to the Cambrian explosion , At 610 mya , Aspidella disks appeared , but it is not clear that these represented complex life forms . most organisms were simple , composed of individual cells occasionally organized into colonies . Over the following 70 to 80 million years , the rate of diversification accelerated by an order of magnitude and the diversity of life began to resemble that of today . Almost all present animal phyla appeared during this period . There is strong evidence for species of Cnidaria and Porifera existing in the Ediacaran and possible members of Porifera even before that during the Cryogenian . Bryozoans do n't appear in the fossil record until after the Cambrian , in the Lower Ordovician . The Cambrian explosion has generated extensive scientific debate . The seemingly rapid appearance of fossils in the `` Primordial Strata '' was noted by William Buckland in the 1840s , and in 1859 Charles Darwin discussed it as one of the main objections that could be made against the theory of evolution by natural selection . The long-running puzzlement about the appearance of the Cambrian fauna , seemingly abruptly , without precursor , centers on three key points : whether there really was a mass diversification of complex organisms over a relatively short period of time during the early Cambrian ; what might have caused such rapid change ; and what it would imply about the origin of animal life . Interpretation is difficult due to a limited supply of evidence , based mainly on an incomplete fossil record and chemical signatures remaining in Cambrian rocks . Phylogenetic analysis has been used to support the view that during the Cambrian explosion , metazoans ( multi-celled animals ) evolved monophyletically from a single common ancestor : flagellated colonial protists similar to modern choanoflagellates . |
California_station_(CTA_Blue_Line) | California is a station on the Chicago Transit Authority 's ` L' system , serving the Blue Line , on North California Avenue near West Fullerton Avenue in the Logan Square neighborhood . From California , trains run every 2 -- 7 minutes during rush-hour periods , and take 12 minutes to reach the Loop . It is not to be confused with the California Station on the Blue Line 's Congress Branch , which permanently shuttered its doors in 1973 . Along with Damen and Western , this station opens at a side platform , unlike all other Blue Line stations . |
California_Department_of_Transportation | The California Department of Transportation ( Caltrans ) is an executive department within the U.S. state of California . Caltrans manages the state highway system ( which includes the California Freeway and Expressway System ) and is involved with public transportation systems throughout the state . It supports Amtrak California and the Capitol Corridor . The department is part of the state cabinet-level California State Transportation Agency ( CalSTA ) . Like the majority of state government agencies , Caltrans is headquartered in Sacramento . In 2015 , Caltrans released a new mission statement : `` Provide a safe , sustainable , integrated and efficient transportation system to enhance California 's economy and livability . '' |
Carotenoid | Carotenoids ( -LSB- kəˈrɒtɪnɔɪd -RSB- ) , also called tetraterpenoids , are organic pigments that are produced by plants and algae , as well as several bacteria and fungi . Carotenoids can be produced from fats and other basic organic metabolic building blocks by all these organisms . The only animals known to produce carotenoids are aphids and spider mites , which acquired the ability and genes from fungi . Carotenoids from the diet are stored in the fatty tissues of animals , and exclusively carnivorous animals obtain the compounds from animal fat . There are over 600 known carotenoids ; they are split into two classes , xanthophylls ( which contain oxygen ) and carotenes ( which are purely hydrocarbons , and contain no oxygen ) . All are derivatives of tetraterpenes , meaning that they are produced from 8 isoprene molecules and contain 40 carbon atoms . In general , carotenoids absorb wavelengths ranging from 400-550 nanometers ( violet to green light ) . This causes the compounds to be deeply colored yellow , orange , or red . Carotenoids are the dominant pigment in autumn leaf coloration of about 15-30 % of tree species , but many plant colors , especially reds and purples , are due to other classes of chemicals . Carotenoids serve two key roles in plants and algae : they absorb light energy for use in photosynthesis , and they protect chlorophyll from photodamage . Carotenoids that contain unsubstituted beta-ionone rings ( including beta-carotene , alpha-carotene , beta-cryptoxanthin and gamma-carotene ) have vitamin A activity ( meaning that they can be converted to retinol ) , and these and other carotenoids can also act as antioxidants . In the eye , certain other carotenoids ( lutein , astaxanthin , and zeaxanthin ) apparently act directly to absorb damaging blue and near-ultraviolet light , in order to protect the macula of the retina , the part of the eye with the sharpest vision . |
California_(Blink-182_album) | California is the seventh studio album by the American rock band Blink-182 , released on July 1 , 2016 through BMG . Produced by John Feldmann , it is the first album by the band to feature vocalist/guitarist Matt Skiba , who replaced former member Tom DeLonge . After touring and releasing the band 's sixth album Neighborhoods ( 2011 ) , it became difficult for the trio to record new material , due to DeLonge 's various projects . After disagreements , the remaining members of the group -- vocalist/bassist Mark Hoppus and drummer Travis Barker -- sought separation from DeLonge and recruited Skiba , best known as the guitarist of punk rock band Alkaline Trio , in his place . California was recorded at Foxy Studios between January and March 2016 with Feldmann . He was the group 's first new producer since longtime collaborator Jerry Finn . Prior to his involvement , the trio began writing together in September 2015 and completed dozens of songs . They decided to shelve them upon working with Feldmann to start fresh , and they proceeded to record another 28 songs ; in all , the group recorded upwards of 50 . The band , as well as Feldmann , would regularly spend 18 hours in the studio a day , aiming to start and complete multiple songs in that timeframe . The album 's title comes from the band 's home state of California , and its artwork was illustrated by the street artist D * Face . The album debuted at number one in the US and several other countries , and was the group 's first domestic chart-topper in 15 years , and their first ever in the UK . In addition , its lead single , `` Bored to Death '' , became the group 's first number one single on any chart in a decade . The album received mostly positive reviews from music critics , who complimented its throwback sound . The band have supported the album with a large headlining tour in North America and Europe alongside A Day to Remember , the All-American Rejects , and All Time Low . The album was nominated for Best Rock Album at the 2017 Grammy Awards ; it is the band 's first-ever nomination . A deluxe edition of the album , which contains ten newer songs , was released on May 19 , 2017 . |
Cambrian | The Cambrian Period ( -LSB- pronˈkæmbriən -RSB- or -LSB- ˈkeɪmbriən -RSB- ) was the first geological period of the Paleozoic Era , of the Phanerozoic Eon . The Cambrian lasted 55.6 million years from the end of the preceding Ediacaran Period 541 million years ago ( mya ) to the beginning of the Ordovician Period mya . Its subdivisions , and its base , are somewhat in flux . The period was established ( as `` Cambrian series '' ) by Adam Sedgwick , who named it after Cambria , the Latinised form of Cymru , the Welsh name for Wales , where Britain 's Cambrian rocks are best exposed . The Cambrian is unique in its unusually high proportion of lagerstätte sedimentary deposits , sites of exceptional preservation where `` soft '' parts of organisms are preserved as well as their more resistant shells . As a result , our understanding of the Cambrian biology surpasses that of some later periods . The Cambrian marked a profound change in life on Earth ; prior to the Cambrian , the majority of living organisms on the whole were small , unicellular and simple ; the Precambrian Charnia being exceptional . Complex , multicellular organisms gradually became more common in the millions of years immediately preceding the Cambrian , but it was not until this period that mineralized -- hence readily fossilized -- organisms became common . The rapid diversification of lifeforms in the Cambrian , known as the Cambrian explosion , produced the first representatives of all modern animal phyla . Phylogenetic analysis has supported the view that during the Cambrian radiation , metazoa ( animals ) evolved monophyletically from a single common ancestor : flagellated colonial protists similar to modern choanoflagellates . Although diverse life forms prospered in the oceans , the land was comparatively barren -- with nothing more complex than a microbial soil crust and a few molluscs that emerged to browse on the microbial biofilm . Most of the continents were probably dry and rocky due to a lack of vegetation . Shallow seas flanked the margins of several continents created during the breakup of the supercontinent Pannotia . The seas were relatively warm , and polar ice was absent for much of the period . The United States Federal Geographic Data Committee uses a `` barred capital C '' character similar to the capital letter Ukrainian Ye to represent the Cambrian Period . The proper Unicode character is . |
Capitol_Power_Plant | The Capitol Power Plant is a fossil-fuel burning power plant which provides steam and chilled water for the United States Capitol , the Supreme Court , the Library of Congress and 19 other buildings in the Capitol Complex . Located at 25 E St SE in southeast Washington , D.C. , it is the only coal-burning power plant in the District of Columbia , though it mostly uses natural gas . The plant has been serving the Capitol since 1910 , and is under the administration of the Architect of the Capitol ( see ) . Though it was originally built to supply the Capitol complex with electricity as well , the plant has not produced electricity for the Capitol since 1952 . Electricity generation is now handled by the same power grid and local electrical utility ( Pepco ) that serves the rest of metropolitan Washington . According to the U.S. Department of Energy , the facility released 118,851 tons of carbon dioxide in 2007 . In 2009 it switched to using natural gas , unless coal was needed for backup capacity . In 2013 , it was announced that the Capitol Power Plant would add a Cogeneration Plant to the CPP that will use natural gas in a combustion turbine in order to efficiently generate both electricity and heat for steam , thus further reducing emissions . |
CLOUD_experiment | Cosmics Leaving Outdoor Droplets or CLOUD is an experiment being run at CERN by a group of researchers led by Jasper Kirkby to investigate the microphysics between galactic cosmic rays ( GCRs ) and aerosols under controlled conditions . The experiment began operation in November 2009 . The primary goal is to understand the influence of galactic cosmic rays ( GCRs ) on aerosols and clouds , and their implications for climate . Although its design is optimised to address the cosmic ray question , ( as posed by Henrik Svensmark and colleagues in 1997 ) CLOUD allows as well to measure aerosol nucleation and growth under controlled laboratory conditions . Atmospheric aerosols and their effect on clouds are recognised by the IPCC as main source of uncertainty in present radiative forcing and climate models . |
California | California ( -LSB- kælᵻˈfɔːrnjə , _ - ni.ə -RSB- , ) is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area . Located on the western ( Pacific Ocean ) coast of the U.S. , California is bordered by the other U.S. states of Oregon , Nevada , and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California . The state capital is Sacramento . Los Angeles is California 's most populous city , and the country 's second largest after New York City . The Greater Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nation 's second - and fifth-most populous urban regions , respectively . California also has the nation 's most populous county , Los Angeles County , and its largest county by area , San Bernardino County . California 's diverse geography ranges from the Pacific Coast in the west to the Sierra Nevada mountain range in the east ; and from the redwood -- Douglas fir forests in the northwest to the Mojave Desert in the southeast . The Central Valley , a major agricultural area , dominates the state 's center . Though California is well-known for its warm Mediterranean climate , the large size of the state means it can vary from moist temperate rainforest in the north , to arid desert in the interior , as well as snowy alpine in the mountains . What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries . The Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony . The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its successful war for independence , but was ceded to the United States in 1848 after the Mexican -- American War . The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California , and admitted as the 31st state on September 9 , 1850 . The California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes , with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom . If it were a country , California would be the 6th largest economy in the world and the 35th most populous . It is also regarded as a global trendsetter in both popular culture and politics , and is the origin of the film industry , the hippie counterculture , the Internet , and the personal computer , among others . Fifty-eight percent of the state 's economy is centered on finance , government , real estate services , technology , and professional , scientific and technical business services . The San Francisco Bay Area has the nation 's highest median household income by metropolitan area , and is the headquarters of three of the world 's largest 40 firms by revenue , Chevron , Apple , and McKesson . Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the state 's economy , California 's agriculture industry has the highest output of any U.S. state . |
Built_environment | In social science , the term built environment refers to the man-made surroundings that provide the setting for human activity , ranging in scale from buildings to parks . It has been defined as `` the humanitarian-made space in which people live , work , and recreate on a day-to-day basis . '' The `` built environment encompasses places and spaces created or modified by people including buildings , parks , and transportation systems . '' In recent years , public health research has expanded the definition of `` built environment '' to include healthy food access , community gardens , mental health , `` walkability '' and `` bikeability . '' |
Carbon_neutrality | Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 . |
Carbonic_acid | Not to be confused with Carbolic acid , an antiquated name for phenol . Carbonic acid is a chemical compound with the chemical formula H2CO3 ( equivalently OC ( OH ) 2 ) . It is also a name sometimes given to solutions of carbon dioxide in water ( carbonated water ) , because such solutions contain small amounts of H2CO3 . In physiology , carbonic acid is described as volatile acid or respiratory acid , because it is the only acid excreted as a gas by the lungs . It plays an important role in the bicarbonate buffer system to maintain acid -- base homeostasis . Carbonic acid , which is a weak acid , forms two kinds of salts , the carbonates and the bicarbonates . In geology , carbonic acid causes limestone to dissolve producing calcium bicarbonate which leads to many limestone features such as stalactites and stalagmites . It was long believed that carbonic acid could not exist as a pure compound . However , in 1991 it was reported that NASA scientists had succeeded in making solid H2CO3 samples . |
California_Current | The California Current is a Pacific Ocean current that moves southward along the western coast of North America , beginning off southern British Columbia and ending off southern Baja California Peninsula . It is considered an Eastern boundary current due to the influence of the North American coastline on its course . It is also one of five major coastal currents affiliated with upwelling zones , the others being the Humboldt Current , the Canary Current , the Benguela Current , and the Somali Current . The California Current is part of the North Pacific Gyre , a large swirling current that occupies the northern basin of the Pacific . |
Bølling-Allerød_warming | The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 . |
California_(novel) | California is a novel by American author Edan Lepucki described as `` post-apocalyptic dystopian fiction '' , in which characters Frida and Cal flee Los Angeles to live in the wilderness of post-apocalyptic California . The novel rose to prominence after Stephen Colbert urged his viewers to pre-order copies of the book from sellers other than Amazon.com -- part of an ongoing dispute between the online bookseller and Colbert 's own publisher , the Hachette Book Group . On 21 July 2014 , Colbert announced that the novel would debut on The New York Times Best Seller list at number 3 . |
C3_carbon_fixation | carbon fixation is one of three metabolic pathways for carbon fixation in photosynthesis , along with and CAM . This process converts carbon dioxide and ribulose bisphosphate ( RuBP , a 5-carbon sugar ) into 3-phosphoglycerate through the following reaction : CO2 + H2O + RuBP → ( 2 ) 3-phosphoglycerate This reaction occurs in all plants as the first step of the Calvin -- Benson cycle . In plants , carbon dioxide is drawn out of malate and into this reaction rather than directly from the air . Plants that survive solely on fixation ( plants ) tend to thrive in areas where sunlight intensity is moderate , temperatures are moderate , carbon dioxide concentrations are around 200 ppm or higher , and groundwater is plentiful . The plants , originating during Mesozoic and Paleozoic eras , predate the plants and still represent approximately 95 % of Earth 's plant biomass . plants lose 97 % of the water taken up through their roots to transpiration . Examples include rice and barley . plants can not grow in very hot areas because RuBisCO incorporates more oxygen into RuBP as temperatures increase . This leads to photorespiration ( also known as the oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle , or C2 photosynthesis ) , which leads to a net loss of carbon and nitrogen from the plant and can , therefore , limit growth . In dry areas , plants shut their stomata to reduce water loss , but this stops from entering the leaves and , therefore , reduces the concentration of in the leaves . This lowers the : O2 ratio and , therefore , also increases photorespiration . and CAM plants have adaptations that allow them to survive in hot and dry areas , and they can , therefore , out-compete plants in these areas . The isotopic signature of plants shows higher degree of 13C depletion than the plants . |
Burning_Man | Burning Man is an annual gathering that takes place at Black Rock City -- a temporary city erected in the Black Rock Desert in Nevada . The event is described as an experiment in community and art , influenced by 10 main principles : `` radical '' inclusion , self-reliance and self-expression , as well as community cooperation , civic responsibility , gifting , decommodification , participation , immediacy and leaving no trace . First held in 1986 on Baker Beach in San Francisco as a small function organized by Larry Harvey and a group of friends , it has since been held annually , spanning from the last Sunday in August to the first Monday in September ( the U.S. Labor Day ) . Burning Man 2016 was held between August 28 and September 5 , 2016 . At Burning Man the community explores various forms of artistic self-expression , created in celebration for the pleasure of all participants . Participation is a key precept for the community -- selfless giving of one 's unique talents for the enjoyment of all is encouraged and actively reinforced . Some of these generous outpourings of creativity can include experimental and interactive sculpture , building , performance , and art cars among other mediums , often inspired by the yearly theme , chosen by organizers . The event takes its name from its culmination , the symbolic ritual burning of a large wooden effigy ( `` the Man '' ) that traditionally occurs on the Saturday evening of the event . Burning Man is organized by the Burning Man Project , a non-profit organization that , in 2014 , succeeded a for-profit limited liability company ( Black Rock City , LLC ) that was formed in 1997 to represent the event 's organizers , and is now considered a subsidiary of the non-profit organization . In 2010 , 51,515 people attended Burning Man . Attendance in 2011 was capped at 50,000 participants and the event sold out on July 24 ; the attendance rose to 70,000 in 2015 . Smaller regional events inspired by the principles of Burning Man have been held internationally ; some of these events are also officially endorsed by the Burning Man Project as regional branches of the event . |
Carbon_capture_and_storage | Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) ( or carbon capture and sequestration ) is the process of capturing waste carbon dioxide from large point sources , such as fossil fuel power plants , transporting it to a storage site , and depositing it where it will not enter the atmosphere , normally an underground geological formation . The aim is to prevent the release of large quantities of into the atmosphere ( from fossil fuel use in power generation and other industries ) . It is a potential means of mitigating the contribution of fossil fuel emissions to global warming and ocean acidification . Although has been injected into geological formations for several decades for various purposes , including enhanced oil recovery , the long term storage of is a relatively new concept . The first commercial example was the Weyburn-Midale Carbon Dioxide Project in 2000 . Other examples include SaskPower 's Boundary Dam and Mississippi Power 's Kemper Project . ` CCS ' can also be used to describe the scrubbing of from ambient air as a climate engineering technique . An integrated pilot-scale CCS power plant was to begin operating in September 2008 in the eastern German power plant Schwarze Pumpe run by utility Vattenfall , to test the technological feasibility and economic efficiency . CCS applied to a modern conventional power plant could reduce emissions to the atmosphere by approximately 80 -- 90 % compared to a plant without CCS . The IPCC estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until year 2100 . Carbon dioxide can be captured out of air or fossil fuel power plant flue gas using adsorption ( or carbon scrubbing ) , membrane gas separation , or adsorption technologies . Amines are the leading carbon scrubbing technology . Capturing and compressing may increase the energy needs of a coal-fired CCS plant by 25 -- 40 % . These and other system costs are estimated to increase the cost per watt energy produced by 21 -- 91 % for fossil fuel power plants . Applying the technology to existing plants would be more expensive , especially if they are far from a sequestration site . A 2005 industry report suggests that with successful research , development and deployment ( RD&D ) , sequestered coal-based electricity generation in 2025 may cost less than unsequestered coal-based electricity generation today . Storage of the is envisaged either in deep geological formations , or in the form of mineral carbonates . Deep ocean storage is not currently considered feasible due to the associated effect of ocean acidification . Geological formations are currently considered the most promising sequestration sites . The National Energy Technology Laboratory ( NETL ) reported that North America has enough storage capacity for more than 900 years worth of carbon dioxide at current production rates . A general problem is that long term predictions about submarine or underground storage security are very difficult and uncertain , and there is still the risk that might leak into the atmosphere . |
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