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Language and Development in Africa "discusses the resourcefulness of languages, both local and global, in view of the ongoing transformation of African societies as much as for economic development.. "
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Date: Tue, 16 Jul 2002 12:29:50 EEST From: Hurriyet Gokdayi Subject: Wray (2001) Formulaic Language and the Lexicon
Wray, Alison (2001) Formulaic Language and the Lexicon. Cambridge University Press, 352pp, hardback ISBN 0-521-77309-1, $64.95.
Hürriyet Gökdayı, Department of Turkish Language and Literature, Mersin University
PURPOSE OF THE BOOK Our everyday language significantly contains routine elements. Speakers (of a language) easily recognize their form and keep them in their memory as prefabricated units. Though they are commonly used, their structural boundaries have not been clearly stated and what role they play in the production and comprehension of linguistic messages has not been firmly established. With her book "Formulaic Language and the Lexicon," Alison Wray attempts to explore the nature and purposes of formulaic language and gradually build up a "unified description and explanation of formulaic language and its status relative to the lexicon" (p.5). Wray also aims at giving us a full account of the vast literature in various fields that somehow includes formulaic language and providing an inclusive approach to explain what language is and how we use it.
CONTENT Wray's book is divided in 6 parts and 14 chapters, which are followed by notes (pp. 283-300), references (pp. 301-326) and index (pp. 327-332). It also includes 21 figures and 5 tables (listed in pp. vii-viii). The book is organized as follows:
Part I. What Formulaic Sequences Are
Chapter 1. The Whole and the Parts (pp. 3-18) In this chapter, Wray states the focus of her book as formulaic elements of the language because we need to include them in our explanation of how language works and certain modern theories of linguistics (e.g. generative syntax) ignore them. She asserts that linguists should recognize "the role of formulaicity" that fundamentally affects our "understanding of the freedoms and constraints of language" (p.5). Having reviewed the majority of findings in this field, Wray puts forward a hypothesis to explain what formulaic language is that "it is a dynamic response to the demands of language use and, as such, will manifest differently as those demands vary from moment to moment and speaker to speaker" (p.5). She also offers replacing "formulaic language" with "formulaic sequence" (defined in p. 9) because it has not been used in the literature and it can capture all characteristics of formulaicity. Wray also proposes "a dual-processing systems" (p. 14) to explain how speakers treat linguistic material. This proposition contains two processing ways, namely holistic and analytic. She favors holistic processing to utter and decode formulaic elements because it simply reduces processing effort for the speaker and the hearer.
Chapter 2. Detecting Formulaicity (pp. 19-43) In this chapter, the author discusses what kinds of tools could be used to identify formulaic sequences (FS). Wray reviews the potential roles of the following features associated with FS in her pursuit of identifying the subject: Intuition of individuals; shared knowledge of the same speech community; frequency counts in texts; structure, internal composition, fixedness, and phonological form of FS; fluency and pause, stress and articulation, and pronunciation while speaking; liaison in French; and code-switching in bilingual speech. The author concludes that there is no single criterion that helps to distinguish FS from similar structures, e.g. idioms. Therefore, FS should be governed by some unified criteria.
Chapter 3. Pinning Down Formulaicity (pp. 44-66) This chapter includes a detailed review of form, function, meaning, and provenance, which are the main themes used to describe FS in the literature. Form-based approach enables researchers to determine descriptive characteristics of FS but do not explain the wide variety of fixed and grammatical sequences and invariable structures. Function-based approach associates FS with situations but some do not require a situation for their utterance. When it comes to meaning-based account, Wray thinks that semantics and pragmatics are easily mixed in this method. Provenance is another theme adopted to determine the boundaries of FS. Wray cites Peter (1983) saying that 'the speech formula' [FS] is fabricated either though social negotiation or individual evaluation (p. 59). However, this model also cannot solve all the problems related to the identification of FS. For example, when listeners hear a new sequence, it is difficult for them to describe the utterance as formulaic, as in the example of "to take a rain check" in British English. In addition, Wray considers using continuum model to determine precisely what formulaicity is. Nonetheless, the inherent problem with continuum models that how to decide the base of any given model still remains. Wray's discussion in this chapter suggests that attempts to define FS based on a single theme or characteristics are eventually destined to fail because none of them covers all aspects of formulaicity. Consequently, there might be a need to utilize all discussed features together to pin down FS.
Part II. A Reference Point
Chapter 4. Patterns of Formulaicity in Normal Adult Language (pp. 69-92) Having focused on the language of adult native speakers in this chapter, Wray aims at determining some reference points about the use and functions of FS to make comparisons with the language of children, non-natives and aphasics in later chapters. She evaluates probable roles of FS in traditional oral texts (oral storytelling and poetry), sports commentaries, auctions, and weather forecasts. While composing those texts, speakers purposely utilize FS to lessen processing effort both for hearers and for themselves, and eventually become very fluent in their delivery of the texts. It seems that reducing the processing effort is the most visible function of formulaicity. Besides, Wray identifies additional functions that FS serve such as signaling identity, manipulating the situation, and elevating the interlocutor or someone else. The evidences presented in this chapter imply that there seem to be several roles for FS relating to the speaker and the hearer.
Chapter 5. The Function of Formulaic Sequences: A Model (pp. 93-102) Based on the discussions in previous chapter, this relatively short chapter proposes that all of the functions of FS actually serve the promotion of the speaker's interests (listed in p. 95-96). Wray presents a model in which various functions of FS are reduced to three (p.101): The reduction of the speaker's processing effort, the manipulation of the hearer, and the marking of discourse structure. Then, they are further reduced to one single function that overrides all others. That is the speaker's promotion of self. Even though that is a non-linguistic problem, speakers solve it through a linguistic tool (FS).
Part III. Formulaic Sequences in First Language Acquisition
Chapter 6. Patterns of Formulaicity in Child Language (pp. 105-127) The author shows that early stages of child language also feature various kinds of FS such as rhymes, songs, and simple greetings. Based on the literature review, Wray argues that children use both analytic and holistic processing while acquiring their first language. In the process of learning and making use of their first language, children basically have four main goals, that are to get things done, express individuality, gain control of language, and feel part of the group (Figure 6.3 in p. 125). In order to achieve these goals, children tend to employ FS mostly that are either created by fusing strings of words or formed by reproducing complex utterances of care givers. The reason for this tendency is that FS lessen the processing effort for both parts of the communicative exchange.
Chapter 7. Formulaic Sequences in the First Language Acquisition Process: A Model (pp.128-139) This chapter discusses how children know not to analyze FS and add them in their memory as a whole when acquiring the first language. There are identificational and definitional cues for FS that were presented in Chapter 2 and 3. Wray maintains that those cues are not necessarily available to children who do not learn language for the sake of learning grammar but do acquire language for the purpose of communicating with others. Children rarely apply the analytic processing during first language acquisition and "operate with the possible largest unit" (p. 138). As Wray points out, children do use analytic processing only when they need to do (e.g., acquiring literacy, learning how to read and write). To explain the relevant balance of holistic and analytic processing during first language acquisition, Wray proposes a developmental account (Figure 7.1 in p. 133). This account suggests that children pass through four phases concerning analytic and holistic processing during first language acquisition. Children start with holistic processing and end up having a balance between holistic and analytic processing in late teenage years.
Part IV. Formulaic Sequences in a Second Language
Chapter 8. Non-native Language: Overview (pp. 143-149) In this another short chapter, Wray discusses how to make use of the findings of second language learning research in her exploration of FS and how to make judgements about them. She reviews the evidence from second language acquisition research to explore "the ways in which formulaic sequences seem to be used, or not used, to support the individual's promotion of self, by promoting fluency and ensuring hearer comprehension" (p. 145). The evidence suggests that the use of FS by second language learners depends mainly on their priorities in socio-interaction and processing. Then she presents a summary of the main patterns found in this data in pp. 147-149.
Chapter 9. Patterns of Formulaicity in Children Using a Second Language (150-171) In this chapter, Wray evaluates the results of 14 case studies, which specifically focused on the role of FS in children's learning a second language. Those studies were conducted with 21 children (12 girls, 9 boys), aged approximately 2 to 10. The subjects in these experiments established their first language before they were exposed to a second language. Based on her review, Wray maintains that children also express themselves holistically in a second language by employing FS in most cases. They primarily have four goals as in the case of first language acquisition (presented in Figure 6.3 in p.125). FS serve as a means of accomplishing one or more of those goals for children in the second language learning process.
Chapter 10. Patterns of Formulaicity in Adults and Teenagers Using a Second Language (pp. 172-198) Wray reviews the available data on second language learners concerning the roles FS in the language acquisition process. This data consists of 7 studies examining FS in the process of adults' learning a second language naturally and 20 studies carried on classroom setting. Based on the data, Wray indicates that teenagers and adults learning a second language are unable to balance between formulaicity (holistic processing) and creativity (analytic processing). The evidence suggests, as Wray argues, that they seem to use either too much or too less FS and behave too creatively in the process of acquiring a second language. This approach might hinder the success in the acquisition of a second language.
Chapter 11. Formulaic Sequences in the Second Language Acquisition Process: A Model (pp. 199-213) Having reviewed the relevant literature, Wray proposes "a second language version of the first language model" (p. 199) to explain the complex roles of FS in the process of learning another language. According to the model, there are three main points: 1. Adult second language learners make mistakes when they retrieve and reconstruct FS from their memory because they take apart FS to get the lexical constituents, store them separately, and do not keep information about how word strings stay together. 2. They are not able to acquire and employ FS in the same way children do because they perceive the word as the main unit of the language structure. 3. Contrary to the native speakers, they understand collocations as separate items, which become paired. This model is able to account many differences between child and adult second language learners in relation to the acquisition and use of FS. Children could easily learn, store, retrieve and use FS as a whole with holistic processing because their goal is to control the environment and have a place within it. However, adult second language learners usually prefer the analytic approach towards FS, which indicates a firm control to the language units. Adults frequently fail to recognize that FS are units that belong, not go, together and there is no need to separate them.
Part V. Formulaic Sequences in Language Loss
Chapter 12. Patterns of Formulaicity in Aphasic Language (pp. 217-246) This chapter presents the role of FS in one type of language loss, aphasia, in which the left hemisphere of the brain is damaged. It has been discovered that FS could survive the most types of aphasia because people store at least some, if not all, FS in the right hemisphere and/or subcortex. Wray examines the data to find answers to following questions: 1. How do aphasics treat FS in their processing? There is plenty of evidence, Wray presented, that aphasics treat formulaic word strings like words rather than phrases or sentences. 2. What kind of role do FS play in language processing of the aphasic speaker? Aphasic people have much more difficulty in the promotion of self because their language processing ability is somewhat impaired. Therefore, as studies suggest, aphasic speakers depend on FS more than normal speakers do in order to get their message across for it reduces the processing effort for the speaker and the hearer. In addition, they use FS for commenting and giving answers, which is different from normal speakers, who use them "for questioning and expressing personal beliefs, attitudes, feelings and emotion" (p. 236).
Chapter 13. Formulaic Sequences in Aphasia: A Model (pp. 247-258) In this chapter, Wray draws another model to explain aphasic language with reference to normal adult language. With her model (Figure 13.1 in p. 249), she divides the lexicon of a normal person (adult native speakers and in this case non-aphasic) in five sections in relation to the function each serves. First section includes the lexical units used to grammatically construct novel utterances. Second stores referential expressions. Third contains elements used in routine interactional situations. Fourth retains memorized texts. Fifth consists of fully reflexive expressions. In this model, first and second sections are located in the left hemisphere while the rest is located in the right. These five sections all holistically store elements with different sizes (morphemes, words, word strings). In addition, Wray's model includes multiple representation of elements in different sections as exemplified by the author in pp. 252-253. According to Wray, it is possible with this model to explain that aphasic people whose left hemisphere damaged are not able to produce fully grammatical novel utterances because their lexicon have lost first and second sections. It is also possible to explain why aphasics are able to utter and use FS because third, fourth and fifth sections of their lexicon located in the right hemisphere are still intact.
Part VI. An Integrated Model
Chapter 14. The Heteromorphic Distributed Model (pp. 261-281) In this final chapter, Wray proposes a "macro" model of lexicon in which all the models presented in different chapters were drawn into a unified model (Figure 14.1 in p. 263) called The Heteromorphic Distributed Lexicon. The model divides lexicon in five subgroups each featuring the distribution of three types of formulaic elements (the morpheme, the formulaic word and the formulaic word string). This model is "the repository of all linguistic units which are not subject to further segmentation and which are therefore handled as holistic units" (p. 264). Wray asserts that individuals' priorities determine the nature of the lexicon. She reaffirms that a single system processing cannot be adequate to explain the handling of all linguistic material by speakers and hearers. Instead, a dual-system model, in which language is processed in both holistic and analytic ways, possibly provides a better explanation of processing linguistic input and output. Therefore, we can clearly see how grammar works and "how language use determines patterns of distribution and frequency" (p. 278). Wray concludes declaring that researchers must examine linguistic behavior "as one manifestation of more fundamental ... socio-interactional priorities such as the promotion of the self" (p. 281).
EVALUATION I have been stimulated a great deal by Wray's book 'Formulaic Language and the Lexicon.' The author gives an extensive review of the literature concerning FS in the fields of discourse analysis, language acquisition, and language pathology. Having surveyed a vast amount of research findings, Wray provides different kinds of tools that could help us to identify and define FS. She then presents four models to explain how the speakers and the hearers handle FS in adult native language, first and second language acquisition processes, and aphasics. In the conclusion, Wray proposes a final model, which unifies all previous models and presents the distribution of all linguistic units, formulaic and non-formulaic, in the lexicon of a speaker. This model enables us to explain how we use, process and store formulaic and other elements of the language.
Wray makes three important points: 1. Speakers possess a dual-processing system, in which analytic processing is used to produce and comprehend grammatical novel utterances, and holistic processing system is used to utter and comprehend formulaic elements of the language. The processing effort required for the holistic processing is lesser than that of the analytic process. 2. Formulaicity is commonly used to promote the self. 3. Formulaicity is placed at the center of the language.
While the book is both interesting and inspiring, it's worth to consider some minor weaknesses. First, though the title contains the term "Formulaic language," it has been replaced with "formulaic sequence" in the rest of the book. Wray offers this term for the place of 'formulaic language' and 58 other terms used to refer to formulaic parts of the language. She thinks that formulaic language "is too commonly used to be free of such associations [the same term used to used for different things]" (p. 9) and it cannot be defined clearly. Wray gives a definition of formulaic sequence which is "a sequence, continuous or discontinuous, of words or other elements, which is, or appears to be, prefabricated: that is stored and retrieved whole from memory at the time of use, rather than being subject generation or analysis by the language grammar" (p. 9). This definition is inclusive but seems to be incomplete and not clear enough. Wray uses the term 'other elements' in the definition but do not explain what the 'other elements' are.
In addition, a sequence implies units or morphemes that are attached to each other. In this case, it is hard to assume that such words like 'yes, no, huh' are formulaic sequences. Wray later differentiates between types of FS and uses the terms 'formulaic word strings, formulaic word and morpheme. Wray also admits that "the term [formulaic sequence] will have to be used fairly loosely and a coverall" (p. 9).
Second, in Chapter 2, Wray considers liaison in French as a criterion to detect formulaicity (p. 39). I think this is a little confusing because liaison might be used to identify formulaic elements in French but not in English.
Third, in chapter 2 and 3, Wray reviews the relevant literature and evaluates the criteria for the identification and description of FS which "are not a single and unified phenomenon" (p. 66). Therefore I assumed that Wray would provide us a framework in which we could utilize a bunch of criteria to determine and clarify FS. Instead, she presents models that explain how FS are treated by native adult speakers, children, second language learners, and aphasics.
Fourth, I am concerned with the contradictory methods in the discussions of FS in first and second language acquisition processes. Having considered teenage years as a stage in children's first language acquisition process in chapters 6 and 7, Wray discusses and evaluates the research findings from this perspective. However, she regards teenage years as a period in adults' second language learning in chapters 10 and 11, and examines the literature based on this categorization. I think this approach do not give a reliable account of the research findings.
Fifth, I don't accept the term 'polyglot' for the place of bilingual in Chapter 13 (p. 298). Wray uses 'polyglot' "simply to avoid the much more loaded term bilingual. Normally a polyglot speaks at least three languages, but we shall take the epithet here to refer to anyone who has knowledge of at least two" (note 10 p. 298). I think this replacement is not necessary because these terms have been widely employed in linguistics and any researcher could easily recognize and define them.
Sixth, in page 97, the subject and the object of a sentence is the same: "When the speaker wishes to manipulate the speaker..." The later 'the speaker' should be replaced with 'the hearer.'
Finally, Wray cites Nickels (1997) saying, "a single Turkish noun can have more than four million different forms" (p. 268). I wonder how Nickels came up with this huge number. As a native speaker and researcher of Turkish, I would argue that this statement is an exaggeration. While its true that Turkish is an agglutinative language which has a productive morphologic system, four million different forms for a single noun is inconceivable.
Despite these minor criticisms, the book covers a wide variety of topics related to the nature and purpose of FS. It will, for sure, inspire a great deal of future research. I would recommend the book to ethnographers of communication, researchers of language acquisition, language pathologists, cognitive scientists and anyone who has a desire to understand how we use and comprehend formulaic elements of the language.
ABOUT THE REVIEWER:
ABOUT THE REVIEWER Hürriyet Gökdayı teaches grammar, syntax, and linguistic courses at the Department of Turkish Language and Literature, Mersin University. His doctoral dissertation (University of Washington, Seattle) was about the ways of speaking and ethnography of communication in Turkey. He is currently doing research on formulaic language in Turkish. His other interests are semantics, language and culture relationship, and language policy.
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Historical Items Showing 3 of 2347 View All
Contributed by: Maine Historical Society
Date: circa 1900
Title: Miniature rootclub, ca. 1850
Contributed by: Hudson Museum, Univ. of Maine
Date: circa 1850
Creation and other cultural tales are important to framing a culture's beliefs and values -- and passing those on. The Wabanaki -- Maliseet, Micmac, Passamaquoddy and Penobscot -- Indians of Maine and Nova Scotia tell stories of a cultural hero/creator, a giant who lived among them and who promised to return.
The paper mill on the Penobscot River in South Brewer, which became known as Eastern Fine Paper Co., began as a sawmill in 1884 and grew over the years as an important part of the economy of the region and a large presence in the landscape. Its closing in 2005 affected more than the men and women who lost their jobs.
According to legend, the Great Spirit created Gluskabe, who shaped the world of the Native People of Maine, and taught them how to use and respect the land and the resources around them. This exhibit celebrates the gifts of Gluskabe with Maine Indian art works from the early nineteenth to mid twentieth centuries.
An introduction to Bangor history as depicted by a broad-based group of city institutions and organizations. Partners included the middle-level William S. Cohen and James F. Doughty Schools, Bangor High School, Bangor Public Library, Bangor Museum and Center for History, and individual city historians. Topics covered include early railroads, natural disasters, the Brady Gang, the Civil War, and the 1940s.
The history of a long-time mill town as depicted by seventh and eighth grade students at Mattanawcook Junior High School, with help from Lincoln Historical Society and Lincoln Memorial Library. The site includes exhibits on the paper industry, founding fathers, wartime Lincoln, Main Street, influential institutions, and communication and transportation.
View collections, facts, and contact information for this Contributing Partner.
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| 0.927809 | 422 | 3.0625 | 3 |
Radiation in veterans can be acquired when they have served time doing active duty to protect the peace. The first thing to combating its harmful effects is to know what had caused it.
How does high levels of radiation cause harmful effects in health?
When radioactive materials that decay will produce what is called ionizing radiation. This will contain a sufficient level of energy to strip electrons into atoms. Thus, the cells inside the body may either have a tough time to repair itself or won’t be repaired at all.
What are the harmful effects caused by this radiation?
There are short-term and long-term effects brought about high levels of radiation in veterans.
Long-term effects include a person obtaining cancer. This is, by far, the primary health side effect of high level exposure of radiation.
Cancer is the illness wherein there is an uncontrolled growth of cells within parts of the body. The sickness also control the natural process in which the cells repair and replace damaged tissue. Disrupting the natural order in which these cells regenerate promote the uncontrolled growth of cancer. This is why high levels of radiation will have the ability to break the chemical bonds located in atoms and molecules, and why it makes such a potent carcinogen.
Short-term health effects are more acute. This can include skin burns and illnesses caused by radiation. Some sicknesses include a sudden state of weakness, some hair loss, nausea, or even diminished organ system functions.
Veterans who are starting to notice the symptoms of these illnesses should first stay calm and seek medical attention. If anxiety may occur, Suntheanine L-THEANINE may be a proper solution. It will help ease the mind of stress and is a great help against anxiety attacks. Keeping the mind stress-free is the first step to fighting against the harmful effects of high levels of radiation. This will allow veterans to think clearly and know the next course of action to take.
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| 0.953244 | 393 | 3.21875 | 3 |
5.1.1 General system layout
5.1.2 The gasifier
5.1.4 Impingement separator
5.1.5 Glass fibre cloth filter
5.1.7 Engine and alternator
5.1.8 Start-up fan and flare
5.1.9 Safety devices
A schematic flow diagram for the power plant is shown in Figure 5.1.
The rated power output is 32 kW.
The gasifier is of the down-draught type with five air entrance openings. The throat diameter is approximately 15 cm, and the general dimensioning of the unit is in accordance with the design rules given in Chapter 2.
The throat is made from refractory cement. The inner side of the bunker is air-lined with this material. The hand-operated grate is positioned approximately 20 cm below the smallest cross-sectional area of the throat.
The gasifier is equipped with a double-valve hand operated filling sluice. '
Product gas exchanges heat with incoming air before it is passed on to the gas cleaning section.
Figure 5.1 Flow diagram for producer gas power plant at the Giriulla mill
The gasifier is equipped with an acoustic fuel level indicator which gives an alarm at the time refuelling is required.
Gasifier outlet temperatures as well as the pressure drop over the "throat" of the unit can be measured. Average values obtained with the different types of fuels tested are given in Table 5.1.
Coarse particles are separated from the gas stream in a high efficiency cyclone separator. Entrained ashes from the gasifier are collected in an ash bin which can be opened at the bottom for regular cleaning.
Intermediate size particles and most of the fines are removed from the gasifier in an impingement separator of special design. This separator is insulated so as to avoid condensation of vapours and to allow passage of hot gas (above 150°C) to the glass fibre cloth filter.
To guard the engine against any solid material, the product gas is passed through a glass fibre cloth filter, which removes any solids that have slipped through the previous filter sections.
In order to maintain the temperature above the dew-point of the gas and to avoid condensation (approximately 80°C) this filter is also insulated with rockwool and an aluminium lining.
Both the impingement separator and glass fibre cloth filter are equipped with water gauge manometers in order to permit the continuous monitoring of pressure drop caused by fouling of the filtering devices.
Originally, the glass fibre cloth filter was equipped with a safety condensate outlet. In Giriulla it was found that such a device was unnecessary. Because some water was condensing in the connection pipe between cooler (see below) and engine air inlet manifold, the drain vessel was removed from the filter box and put in the connection pipe, where it worked better.
The cooling section consists of a tubular heat exchanger. Condensate can be tapped from the cooler by means of two drain vessels, equipped with safety taps, similar to the one described above. Cooler outlet temperatures vary between 30° and 50°C, depending on environmental conditions (temperature, wind) and engine load.
Gas is introduced into the engine after being mixed with air in a gas carburettor.
Engine speed is controlled by-means of a Barber-Colman electronic engine speed regulator, which controls simultaneously a gas valve and an air valve. The engine speed is kept constant at 1500 rpm.
The system is equipped with an International Harvester gas engine (compression ratio 9.5 : 1), with a cylinder volume of 9.9 dm³.
The alternator is a short-circuit proof, self-excited internal pole machine in synchronous construction with the following specifications:
cos phi 0.8
The system is able to follow a step load change of 20 kVA with constancy of + 5 percent.
The alternator is equipped with a switchboard containing:
- 3 ampere meters
- 1 voltmeter
- 1 frequency meter
- fan control button
- ignition button
- start-up safety switch
- power socket CEE (5 pole) and power socket DIN 49462
A 24 V fan is provided for use during start-up of the installation.
Initially the product gas is flared. The flare is provided with a water lock in order to prevent backfiring.
During operation of the installation the fan batteries are continuously recharged.
Table 5.1 Performance Data for the Gasifier
The reactor and the filter box are provided with explosion discs.
Operating the start-up fan is not possible with valve E (see Fig. 5.1) opened, thus preventing air from being sucked into the system.
The engine is automatically stopped on loss of oil pressure.
The installation is provided with a suitable staircase and fuel feeding platform, in order to permit easy fuel delivery to the gasifier via the double-valve filling sluice. The whole installation is mounted on a base frame and can thus be transported without being dismantled.
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Like dmckee says, the potential energy of electrons in an atom doesn't really compare to the energy of the nucleus. Since the nucleus is so tightly packed, and (in the case of Uranium) contains so many protons, they have a lot of potential energy—it takes a lot of work to "push" them together. The strong force holds protons and neutrons together when they're close enough together. It's sometimes compared to a glue in that sense. However, this force disappears very quickly once the nucleons become separated past a certain distance (on the order of a femtometer), so for a large nucleus like that of Uranium, the protons on one end of the nucleus aren't "stuck" to the protons on the other side, but there's still plenty of electrostatic force pushing them apart. That's why large nuclei are unstable; especially those with a higher proton-to-neutron ratio, like U-235 (or U-236). If you can destabilize that nucleus enough (you could imagine it stretching out like a football), its own electric force will tear it apart, and release a tremendous amount of energy as the fragments accelerate apart.
It seems that you've already considered that to a degree, but yes, you don't have to worry about electrons. Just think about the protons, because the nucleus is definitely not neutral. It is a bit of a problem if you don't know how close together those nuclear fragments start out, but you could probably estimate it by considering the nuclear radius of uranium, which is about 7 or 8 fm (it's hard to find an exact figure), or by using double the radius of the fragments it creates, which, it would seem, would be paladium nuclei. Obviously the protons weren't in the same place when they start out, but they were very close together.
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Commemorated on July 20
Mother Maria was born in Latvia in 1891. Like many of the pre-Revolutionary Russian intelligentsia, she was an atheist and a political radical in her youth, but gradually came to accept the truths of the Faith. After the Revolution, she became part of the large Russian émigré population of Paris. There she was tonsured as a nun by Metropolitan Evlogy, and devoted herself to a life of service to the poor.
With a small community of fellow-believers, she established “houses of hospitality” for the poor, the homeless, the alcoholic. She was also known to visit Russian émigrés in mental hospitals. In 1939, Metropolitan Evlogy sent Fr. Dimitry to serve Mother Maria’s community. Fr. Dimitry proved to be a partner, committed even unto death, in the community’s work among the poor.
When the Nazis took Paris in 1940, Mother Maria, Fr. Dimitry, and others in the community chose to remain in the city to care for those who had come to count on them. As Nazi persecution of Jews in France increased, the Orthodox community’s work expanded to include protection and care of the most helpless. Fr. Dimitry was asked to provide forged certificates of baptism to preserve the lives of Jews and always complied. Eventually, this work led to the arrest of Mother Maria, Fr. Dimitry, and their associates.
Mother Maria was sent to Ravensbruck concentration camp, while Fr. Dimitry was sent to Buchenwald. After great sufferings, they both perished, along with others from their community who followed them.
It is believed that Mother Maria’s last act was to take the place of a Jewish woman who was being sent to death in the gas chambers, voluntarily dying in her place.
Mother Maria and her companions were glorified by the Patriarchate of Constantinople in 2004.
A full account of her life and death is given on the site of the Orthodox Peace Fellowship.
Troparion (Tone 1) –
Through the sufferings which the saints have endured for Your sake,
O Lord, we beseech You
to heal all of our infirmities,
O Good Friend of Man.
Kontakion (Tone 8) –
As witnesses of truth and preachers of piety,
let us worthily honor through divinely inspired chants:
Dimitry and Maria, George and Elias,
who have borne the sufferings,
the bonds and unjust judgment,
in which like the martyrs
have received the imperishable crown
By permission of www.abbamoses.com
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“Have a nice day” is a classic Americanism. Many of our day-to-day interactions end with, “Have a nice day.” Often the people saying it don’t really mean it, but they say it anyway. So what does it mean to have a nice day? I would guess it is to have a day that is, well, nice – a day that is void of any problems, a day in which there is no sickness, no conflict and no hardship. It is a day that is basically nice.
That is how some people like to think of God. They imagine him almost as a Santa Claus-like figure smiling benignly from heaven who wants us all to be healthy and wealthy and fat and sassy. But that is not the picture the Bible gives us of God. I am not suggesting that God cannot bless us with health or even a certain degree of wealth. Nor am I suggesting that God will not bring happiness into our lives, because he will. But it is not God’s objective simply for us to have a nice day.
Now, some would suggest that if you are not having a nice day, if are suffering, if you are going through hardship or if you are sick, then it is a result of your own sin. They even would suggest that if you just had more faith, this would not be happening to you.
These ideas, while wrong, are not new. In fact, they go all the way back to the oldest book of the Bible, the book of Job. Job was a real man with real problems who had a real God that he turned to. The Bible tells us that Job was a man of integrity, a family man. He was also a wealthy man. And he was indeed a great man of God. But in one day, Job lost everything, including his 10 children. Job was not having a nice day. In fact, the day he was having was incomprehensible.
Job went from being one of the wealthiest men in the land to having nothing. Everything he had worked for in his life was gone. But the worst news of all was hearing that his seven sons and three daughters had been killed. I can say, from personal experience and from having walked with other parents through the death of a child, that this is the worst thing that could happen to a mother or father. No parent ever wants to outlive their children.
So how did Job fare up under all this? The Bible says that he praised God (see Job 1:21–22). There is a lot we can learn from Job’s story, and we would do well to learn from it, because it is not a matter of if, but when some kind of calamity, hardship, trial or sickness will strike you or someone you love. Not only can we learn from the book of Job how to persevere in our own trials, but we can also learn how to bring comfort to others who are going through times of great difficulty.
Job had lost his possessions. He had lost his children. His wife was still around, but he might have wished he had lost his wife after what she said to him. And then, just when it seemed it couldn’t get any worse, he lost his health. He found himself covered with boils. He was in the midst of scraping them with fragments of a broken pot when his three friends, Eliphaz, Bildad and Zophar came to visit. They had traveled a great distance to see him, and when they saw Job, “they began to weep aloud, and they tore their robes and sprinkled dust on their heads. Then they sat on the ground with him for seven days and seven nights. No one said a word to him, because they saw how great his suffering was” (Job 2:12–13 NIV). That was the perfect thing to do. Job just needed someone to be with him. Sometimes the best thing to do is to simply be there – be there, and say absolutely nothing.
These three were silent for a while, but more than made up for it later. Hallmark would never hire these guys to write sympathy cards. Their conversation with Job went on and on, largely full of human logic and human reaction to suffering. And then God intervened. He brought all the lame explanations to a halt and essentially said to Job, “Excuse me, but I kind of missed you when I was creating the heavens. Were you there? I didn’t notice you there.” God basically put Job in his place and declared his glory. You see, Job did not need an explanation about God; he needed an encounter with God. Why? Because when we see God for who he is, we will see our problems for what they are. If we have a small God, then we have big problems. But if we have a big God, then we have small problems.
God is ultimately in control. The word “oops” is not in his vocabulary. But why does God allow these things to happen? And why does he allow them to happen to someone like Job?
One reason is that suffering helps us grow stronger spiritually. The Bible says, “When troubles come your way, consider it an opportunity for great joy. For you know that when your faith is tested, your endurance has a chance to grow. So let it grow, for when your endurance is fully developed, you will be perfect and complete, needing nothing” (James 2:2–4 NIV).God allows hardship in our lives so that our beliefs, the things that we hold on to, will transfer from the realm of theory to the realm of reality. We can start living out our lives in the real world. God can allow these things to make us stronger in our faith.
God can also use suffering in our lives to prepare us for a special task. It just may be that God is allowing you to go through something now for something he wants you to do in the future. Perhaps the hardships of today are preparing you for greater opportunities tomorrow.
Calamity comes into every life – the righteous and the unrighteous, the godly and the ungodly. But the good news is that the godly can see God use their suffering to strengthen them spiritually and give them the ability to comfort others. But what is the consolation for unbelievers? What do they have to show for their suffering? Not much. The comfort is in Christ. The hope is in God. And that is where you need to be putting your faith.
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Design on the Half Scale
A few weeks ago, I heard about The Center for Pattern Design website and e-newsletter from Judith Neukam, Threads' senior technical editor. Judith told me about what a wonderful and FREE resource the e-mail newsletter is, and in particular, a recent article about working with half-scale dress forms and design tools.
I read the newsletter and checked out the Center's website. It is an amazing resource for those who sew. It is full of resources and inspired information about pattern-making, and offers the tools to work with as well.
Sandra Ericson, The Center for Pattern Design's founder, was the author of "No Waste Allowed" in Threads no. 149. Zero-waste cutting is featured on the Center's home page as I write this, but I meant to focus on half-scale design. )There is much, much more to explore on the website!)
What is half-scale design?
The concept is simple: to test and create designs, make muslins and sample garments, at 50 percent of their usual size. Slopers, dress forms, measuring tools and more are all available to help with this method. In 2009, members of the Association of Sewing & Design Professionals recreated 38 designs by Madeleine Vionnet in half scale. You can see some of the garments in Judith's post, "Vionnet in Miniature."
Why work on the half scale?
These tips are from The Center for Pattern Design's page devoted to this technique, "Half-Scale Pattern Design."
- You can see the entire form while still standing near enough to make changes to the design.
- The eye can accurately gauge the best proportions for the body and the design.
- You can better predict the behavior of the fabric.
- The design can be created in the actual fashion fabric, since so little is used; its characteristics can be used to the best effect in the design.
- Custom dressmakers can use the half scale to exhibit their work for customers, enabling customers to "see" the garment much more clearly.
- Sewing instructors can use it as an effective way to teach sewing skills - students learn construction skills without having to worry about fit and they feel more willing to try a technique without having to wear it.
- The garment pieces are small enough that students can see which end is up.
- And finally, the student has a permanent sample that can always be checked again for how-to.
I can't wait to try this method myself. I think it will conserve my time, space, energy - and fabric! Do you design on the half scale? If not, do you think you would try it after hearing about its benefits?
Posted on in sewing, design, garment construction, tools & supplies, measuring, ASDP, dress form, hand drafted patterns, vionnet, center for pattern design, draped patterns, patternmaking, sandra ericson, half-scale
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Is obesity inevitable? [Updated]
The vast majority of overweight and obese Americans will not lose sufficient weight -- and obesity won't be prevented -- without major changes in society, say the authors of a thoughtful, although bleak, commentary published today in the Journal of the American Medical Assn.
The piece, by Martijn B. Katan of VU University, Amsterdam, and Dr. David S. Ludwig of Children's Hospital, Boston, should not deter people who have resolved to eat healthier and exercise more in the new year. However, it points out some hard truths about weight loss and American's obesity epidemic. [Note: A previous version of this post described Katan as employed by the University of Amsterdam. He is with VU University, Amsterdam.]
For example, the authors explain, when an individual reduces food intake and his or her body size diminishes, so does the amount of energy needed to maintain and move it. "Therefore, additional weight loss can only be achieved by a more severe diet or a more arduous physical activity routine," they write. "Most individuals do the opposite: After having achieved some weight loss, they resume their original diet and exercise habits. Consequently, weight gain recurs rapidly."
The second problem: Most Americans consume far too many calories, resulting in a hefty weight gain over time. For example, they say, drinking 1 ounce of a soda and walking one minute less per day creates a temporary energy surplus of about 13 calories a day. That sounds small. But repeating changes of this magnitude over 28 years would produce a 35-pound weight gain. Some studies have shown the average American today consumes about 500 calories per day more than they did in the 1970s.
The point to this depressing analysis, the authors say, is to clarify that modern lifestyles contribute significantly to obesity and that it will be nearly impossible to reverse obesity trends on a grand scale without major societal changes.
"[S]mall changes in lifestyle would have a minor effect on obesity prevention," they write. But the huge energy imbalance most Americans experience is "far beyond the ability of most individuals to address on a personal level." Instead, they say, changes in the food supply and social infrastructure and more stringent regulations of the food industry will be needed.
Katan elaborated in an e-mail: "Studies show that even the most motivated, thoughtful, strong-willed people have a hard time losing weight when huge portions of cheap, tasty, convenient food are available at every turn of the road, and when walking and other forms of exercise are superfluous or impossible."
Food for thought.
-- Shari Roan
Photo credit: Rogelio V. Solis / AP
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It costs a lot of money to build a road … even more if you want to add wires to power the streetlights from the grid. Urban Green Energy (UGE) has a solution: an off-the-grid streetlight.
UGE recently installed 120 streetlights on a stretch of highway in PingQuan, China. What’s special about these lights? They’re powered by a combination of solar and wind. Complementary systems derive the most energy because when the solar resource is low (e.g. in the winter), it’s often windy. On the other hand, it’s more likely to be sunny on calm summer days. When your photovoltaic panels are in the dark, the wind turbines pick up the slack. And when the wind slows down, it’s likely that the solar panels will produce. (That’s the theory, at least.) What about calm nights? The light fixture includes a battery that holds enough energy for up to five days of autonomy.
Each UGE light consists of two highly-efficient LED bulbs, two solar panels, a vertical axis helical wind turbine, and a 150Ah battery. One LED bulb produces over 3100 lumens of light while using 56W of electricity. (By comparison, you would need two 100W incandescent bulbs or one 70W high-pressure sodium lamp for the same light output.) Each solar panel generates 235 Watts (peak) and the wind turbine generates 200W at a wind speed of 12 m/s (about 27 MPH). That’s a pretty high wind speed, especially considering its low latitude. But keep in mind that on a busy highway there’s a lot of turbulent wind generated by the traffic.
Just running some conservative numbers, let’s say you can achieve a somewhat consistent 6 m/s wind. Wind power operates on the inverse-cube law, so cutting the wind velocity in half reduces the power by a factor of 8. That 200W turbine is generating a paltry 25W at this speed. If that occurs for 10 hours per day, we can generate 250 watt-hours of energy each day.
With a solar resource estimate of 4 Peak Sun Hours (PSH), each solar panel would generate 940 Watt-hours per day, so the pair gives 1880 Watt-hours per day. Combined with the wind resource, the system can generate roughly 2 kWh per day. A 56W bulb running 12 hours per day uses 672 Wh/day. Two bulbs requires 1344 Wh. This leaves around 700 Wh available to charge the batteries.
The math works out; the lights will be on when you need them. But I think the helical wind turbine serves more of an aesthetic purpose than anything else. With the above numbers, the turbine generates 12% of this system’s total energy. Based on my calculations, the system would work perfectly well without the turbine. But hey, it looks nice, doesn’t it?
Image and video: Urban Green Energy
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We recently received the following email question:
I have been studying quantum physics for a bit now and was hoping that Bob could give his explanation of The Uncertainty Principle and Wave/Particle duality.
My first question is…
Is the drawing of a wave (on paper) just a 2D representation of a more abstract idea of what a wave really is? or can we literaly imagine a particle flying through space oscillating up and down along it’s amplitude.(quantum oscillation?)
My second question is how this relates to Photon slit experiments…
Does the photon display the properties of a wave as it is flying towards the slit, and then display the properties of a particle when it hits the wall? IS this why we cannot predict where the photon will land? Because it is displaying the characteristics of a wave and therefore exist anywhere within the oscillating amplitude, even if all places at one?
…If you please, I would like to hear Bob and the SGU’s understanding of Wave/Particle duality, The Uncertainty Principle, and Photon slit experiments.
Thanks for the question Dan, I’m no quantum physicist but I do play one on a podcast so I’ll give it a go.
First a little background.
Wave Particle Duality refers to the bizarre dual nature of light. Some consider this the central mystery of Quantum Mechanics. Light is not either a wave OR a particle but it is somehow a fusion of both. Some experiments show its wave nature and others its particle nature.
Two classical examples of its wave nature are diffraction and interference. Only waves exhibit these behaviors.
On the other hand, the photoelectric effect in which incident light knocks out electrons from matter is that iconic experiment which shows that light is also a particle.
Most interestingly, this dual nature extends to atoms and molecules and even to all macroscopic objects. So yes, you and I have a wavelength but they are so incredibly small that our wave properties aren’t seen.
Dan also mentions the Uncertaintly Principle in his question so I’ll give a little background on this as well.
Heinsenberg’s Uncertainty Principle (also known as the Indeterminacy Principle), is the notion that since matter ultimitely has this spread-out wave-like nature, it is impossible to pin it down precisely at the quantum scale. There is then a fundamental limit to the extent we can examine nature.
For example, objects of study often consists of pairs of quantities like position and momentum, so-called conjugate variables.
Heisenberg said we cannot know both of these quantities with arbitrary precision. The more we know one, the less clear the other becomes. If we know position with absolute precision, then there’s nothing we can know about its momentum.
It is important to stress that this limitation is not due to primitive technology or brain structure but is impossible IN PRINCIPLE. Think of any uber-advanced sci-fi aliens
None of them can investigate nature any deeper than allowed by this principle.
My favorite example of this limitations is weather prediction.
Generally speaking, If we knew the precise locations and momenta of every particle in the atmosphere, we could extrapolate future interactions and therefore the weather deep into the future. Because we can’t in principle know this information, then any model we create is by definition an average with unavoidable round-off errors no matter how tiny. These errors double and double over time eventually overwhelming any attempt at detailed prediction past a handful of days. This same limitation applies to all chaotic systems in which there is this sensitive dependence on initial conditions.
Dan’s first question is…
“Is the drawing of a wave (on paper) just a 2D representation of a more abstract idea of what a wave really is? or can we literaly imagine a particle flying through space oscillating up and down along it’s amplitude.(quantum oscillation?)”
I don’t think we can internalize the dual nature of light enough to visualize it as it truly is. This may just be a fundamental limitation to how humans perceive the world and our intelligence. Like trying to teach a dog algebra. The smartest dog can’t hope to understand it. Depending on the context of the visualization, I think you can legitimately visualize it in a number of ways. Each one is a valid way to visualize if it makes sense in the context. You can visualize it as a simple 2D wave and that would be sufficient for many applications. If you want to visualize it in 3 dimensions then imagine an oscillating magnetic field 90 degrees away from an electric field. Each field is creating the other letting it fly through even the vacuum of space, no ether required.
The other obvious way you can visualize it is as discrete photon or packet of energy. If you just wamt to try to imagine it as it really is then my favorite compromise is a small tear-drop shape with a wave shape inside it. 🙂
Dan’s second question related this to the famous photon slit experiments…
“Does the photon display the properties of a wave as it is flying towards the slit, and then display the properties of a particle when it hits the wall? IS this why we cannot predict where the photon will land? Because it is displaying the characteristics of a wave and therefore exist anywhere within the oscillating amplitude, even if all places at one?”
This refers to one of the most famous experments of all time. Young’s Double-Slit experiment from the early 1800s. This clearly shows not only Duality in which light is somehow both particle and wave but also Complementarity in which only one aspect can be revealed at a time.
Here’s the experimental setup: Imagine light shining on a barrier with 2 slits in it allowing the light to shine through and onto a far wall. Light coming thru 2 slits creates 2 sources of light which then interact with each other like water waves creating an interference pattern of bright and dark spots instead of big and small waves.
The really weird stuff happen when you shine light so dim that only one photon is traversing the slits at a time. Even in this case an interference pattern builds up. It seems then that the single photon of light is entering both slits at once and interfering with itself.
This simple experiment is pretty much the poster boy for Quantum Mechanics. In fact, physicist Richard Feynman famously said once that all of QM could be derived from the implications of this one experiment.
Dan asks why we can’t predict where the photon will land. We cannot predict this because quantum phenomena are inherently unpredictable. They are for all intents and purposes a-causal events. The best we can do is assign probabilities as to where they will go. This inherently statistical nature of reality is what upset Einstein so much prompting his God Does Not Play Dice quote and removing him from cutting edge physics for the last decades of his life.
The fact is that God does play D&D every chance he gets.
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- Posted April 14, 2014 by
This iReport is part of an assignment:
Living with a rare disease?
What Is Candida Die Off And Tips to Dealing With It
A strict Candida elimination diet is no easy task to begin with, but it can be made even harder by something called Candida Die-Off. The point when the die-off symptoms kick in is the time when many people prematurely abandon their Candida diet, so its important to be prepared.
When yeast cells are rapidly killed, a die-off (or Herxheimer reaction) occurs and metabolic by-products are released into the body. The Candida yeast cells actually release 79 different toxins when they die, including ethanol and acetaldehyde.
Acetaldehyde in particular has a whole host of detrimental effects on your health and wellbeing. It can impair your brain function and even kill brain cells. Your endocrine, immune and respiratory systems can all be affected, and it also damages the membranes of your red blood cells, reducing their ability to carry oxygen round the body. Again this directly affects your brain, so you can see how acetaldehyde is linked to Candida symptoms like brain fog and fatigue. These by-products also cause allergic reactions and inflammation that lead to an array of undesirable symptoms.
Candida Die Off symptoms will vary from person to person, but Common Symptoms of yeast die-off include:
Fatigue, brain fog, gastrointestinal distress such as nausea, gas, bloating, diarrhea or constipation, low grade fever, headache, sore throat, body itch, muscle and joint soreness or pain, flu-like symptoms. Other symptoms include: lethargy, intense sweet cravings, rashes, irritability, joint stuffiness, or muscle pain. In susceptible individuals with pre-existing neurological symptoms such as hyperactivity, irritability, tantrums, and difficulty concentrating, their symptoms may temporarily intensify.
Yeast die-off reactions are not necessarily a sign that yeast treatment is succeeding. It may be an indication that yeast cells are dying in large numbers, and an indicator of the body's toxic overload. At that point, more poisons are being released than the body can adequately cope with at one time and may be a sign the system's elimination pathways (liver, kidneys, & bowels) are overburdened or blocked (as in constipation or liver congestion)
Strategies to minimize discomfort & shorten duration of die-off reactions
· Reduce the dose of anti-fungals: Some patients may have to stop altogether for a few days. Dr Jill will generally start doses slowly and increasing them over time to help you deal with the possible die-off symptoms
· Enzymes: Adding enzymes with meals may improve the digestion of foods and limit putrefactive short chain fatty acids with enzymes. Use pancreatic enzymes, NOT fungal or plant based enzymes.
· Stay hydrated: Dr Jill recommend 4-6 fluid ounces of warm water every forty-five minutes, throughout the day. Mineral water may help, too!
· Get your sleep: It is imperative to rest when experiencing yeast die-off reactions – 8-10 hours per night is essential.
· Neutralize toxins: There are ways to neutralize fungal toxins. Dr. Jill may recommend molybdenum, biotin, pantethine or liver support to accomplish this. Activated charcoal may also help.
· Alkalinize: You may buffer the toxins by taking alkalizing agents immediately upon experiencing die-off symptoms. Such products as AlkaSeltzer Gold. Drinking mineral water may also help.
· Antioxidants: Provide extra antioxidants to quench the oxidative reactions created by the toxins. Dr Jilll may prescribe vitamin C, Vitamin E or A, alpha lipoic acid or N-acetylcysteine.
· Sauna & baths: If you have access to a sauna, begin slowly (15 minutes per session) scrub all skin surfaces with a stiff brush and shower immediately afterwards. Another helpful detox regimen is Epsom salt baths – use 3-4 cups in hot bath and soak for 20min every night.
· Keep your bowels moving: You must address any issues with bowel elimination if you have constipation – if you are not eliminating, you will reabsorb any die-off toxins being released!
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On View: Rembrandt Prints from The Morgan Library & Museum
When you visit Rembrandt in America, be sure not to miss the companion exhibition, Rembrandt Prints from The Morgan Library & Museum. It is an once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to see prints that rarely go on public view. The Morgan Library & Museum contains the largest and finest collection of prints by Rembrandt van Rijn. The nearly 500 impressions survey the artist’s career as a printmaker from about 1626 to about 1661, during which time he executed some 300 plates.
Jane Glaubinger, Curator of Prints, worked for more than two years pulling the exhibition together and she says it was wonderful to survey more than 500 prints from her favorite printmaker of all time.
“I love Rembrandt because he was such an innovative printmaker. He was doing things with prints that no one else was doing during his time.”
Rembrandt was innovative because of the techniques he employed and how he showed the subjects he captured. He combined etching, drypoint and even did the fine details in engraving to change the way a print looked.
“While other printmakers wanted their impressions to look the same, he used techniques to make each impression look different. That was one of the things he loved about printmaking,” Glaubinger said. “It was the only medium where you could take the matrix and make each impression look different.”
An example of his innovation can be found in The Entombment, about 1654. He used a mixture of etching, drypoint, and engraving to fill the background with a dense web of hatching, shrouding the space in an ominous gloom. There are three impressions of this print on view and for each impression he inked and wiped the plate differently to achieve a variety of effects. It is one of 60 prints in the free exhibition.
Rembrandt also experimented with different types of paper and velum (animal skin). Most artists in his native Holland printed on ivory, Dutch paper but Rembrandt began using Japanese paper that was being brought to Amsterdam by the Dutch East India Company. He liked that the Japanese paper had a colored tone – sometimes beige, sometimes brown. Several prints on view are printed on Japanese paper.
Glaubinger presents an exhibition that offers a survey of Rembrandt’s development as a printmaker and showcases the variety of subjects he worked with – landscapes, religious subjects, everyday people and animals.
The show is a sort of a homecoming for the artist. During World War II, all of the Rembrandt prints from the Morgan Library & Museum were stored at the Allen Memorial Art Museum at Oberlin College. Louise Richards, Glaubinger’s predecessor at the museum, shared this information.
“I wanted to pick the crème de la crème of the Rembrandt prints and I am pleased to tell you I did,” “ Glaubinger said.
Hear Glaubinger talk more about the exhibition in a free lecture on Wednesday, April 4 sponsored by the Print Club of Cleveland. Details @ http://goo.gl/mnRlt See Rembrandt Prints from The Morgan Library & Museum in the Prints and Drawings gallery through May 28.
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- Top Brain Foods for Children Slideshow
- Children's Illnesses Slideshow Pictures
- Take the ADHD Quiz
- Find a local Pediatric Rheumatologist in your town
- Why is childhood such an important time for bone development?
- What is osteoporosis? Isn't it something old people get?
- How can I help keep my kids' bones healthy?
- How can I persuade my daughter to drink milk instead of diet soda? She thinks milk will make her fat.
- But my kids don't like milk.
- My teenage son loves milk, but it seems to upset his stomach. Could he have lactose intolerance?
- My daughter is constantly dieting. Should I be concerned?
- Should I give my kids calcium supplements?
- How does physical activity help my kids' bones?
- Is it possible to get too much exercise?
- What else can my kids do besides eating calcium-rich foods and getting plenty of weight-bearing exercise to keep their bones healthy?
- My son has asthma and takes a steroid medication to control it. His doctor said this might affect his bones. Is there anything we can do about this?
- My 8-year-old son is a daredevil and has already broken several bones. could he have a problem like osteoporosis at this young age?
- How can I get through to my kids? They sure don't think about their bones.
- Where can I go for more information?
But My Kids Don't Like Milk.
Drinking milk isn't the only way to enjoy its benefits. For example, try making soup and oatmeal or other hot cereals with milk instead of water. Pour milk over cold cereal for breakfast or a snack. Incorporate milk into a fruit smoothie or milkshake. Chocolate milk and cocoa made with milk are also ways to increase the milk in your child's diet.
Sources of calcium also might include an ounce or two of cheese on pizza or a cheeseburger, a cup of calcium-enriched orange juice, or a small carton of yogurt. Your kids can also get calcium from dark green, leafy vegetables like kale or bok choy, or foods such as broccoli, almonds, tortillas, or tofu made with calcium. Many popular foods such as cereals, breads, and juices now have calcium added too. Check the Nutrition Facts label on the package to be sure.
My Teenage Son Loves Milk, But It Seems to Upset His Stomach. Could He Have Lactose Intolerance?
People with lactose intolerance have trouble digesting lactose, the sugar found in milk and dairy foods. Lactose intolerance is not common among infants and young children, but can occur in older children, adolescents, and adults. It is more common among people of African American, Hispanic, Asian, and American Indian descent.
Most kids with lactose intolerance are able to digest milk when it is served in small amounts, and combined with other foods like cereal. They may tolerate other dairy products such as cheese or yogurt even if milk is a problem. Lactose-free milk products are now available in most stores, and there are pills and drops you can add to milk and dairy products that make them easier to digest.
Be sure to include plenty of foods with calcium in the meals and snacks you plan for your kids. Almonds, calcium-fortified orange juice, tortillas, fortified cereals, soy beverages, and broccoli with dip are a few great choices. Although it's best to get calcium from food, calcium supplements can also be helpful.
How to Read a Food Label for Calcium
The food label, called Nutrition Facts, shows you how much one serving of that food contributes to the total amount of calcium, as well as other nutrients, you need every day. This is expressed as a percentage of the daily value (%DV) of calcium that is recommended. For labeling purposes, this is based on the daily calcium recommendation of 1,000 milligrams for people 19 to 50 years old. Since children and teens 9 to 18 years old require more calcium, their %DV target is higher, as indicated below:
Here is an easy rule of thumb for evaluating the calcium content of a food: 20%DV or more is high for calcium. That means it is a high-calcium food and contributes a lot of calcium to the diet. A food with a calcium content of 5%DV or lower contributes little calcium to the diet and is a low source.
If you want to convert the %DV for calcium into milligrams, you can multiply by 10. For example, if a single-serving container of yogurt lists 30%DV for calcium, it contains 300 mg of calcium (30 x 10).
Getting plenty of high-calcium foods every day is important. To meet their calcium needs, children 9 to 18 years old need about four servings of foods with a 30%DV for calcium (300 mg each) or six to seven servings of foods with a 20%DV for calcium (200 mg each) every day. Foods with a lower %DV for calcium are also important to fill gaps and help ensure that your children get all the calcium they need.
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The demography of motherhood in the United States has shifted strikingly in the past two decades. Compared with mothers of newborns in 1990, today's mothers of newborns are older and better educated. They are less likely to be white and less likely to be married.
In 1990, there were more births to teenagers than to women ages 35 and older. By 2008, that had reversed – 14% of births were to older women and 10% were to teens. Births to women ages 35 and older grew 64% between 1990 and 2008, increasing in all major race and ethnic groups.
Another notable change during this period was the rise in births to unmarried women. In 2008, a record 41% of births in the United States were to unmarried women, up from 28% in 1990. The share of births that are non-marital is highest for black women (72%), followed by Hispanics (53%), whites (29%) and Asians (17%), but the increase over the past two decades has been greatest for whites – the share rose 69%.
Just over half of births (53%) in 2008 were to white women, and a quarter (24%) were to Hispanic women. More than half of the mothers of newborns (54% in 2006) had at least some college education. One-in-four (24% in 2004) was foreign born.
The shift in characteristics of motherhood over the past two decades is linked to a complex mixture of demographic and behavioral changes. This analysis examines and explains these trends using data from the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) and the U.S. Census Bureau.
Read the full report The New Demography of American Motherhood on the Pew Research Center's Social and Demographic Trends Web site.
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Bipolar blogger Natasha Tracy offers exclusive insight into the world of bipolar disorder.See all posts »
Biological Evidence of Bipolar Disorder – Part 2: Genetics
Bipolar blogger Natasha Tracy explores the state of genetic research into bipolar disorder.
Part one of this series discussed the biological differences between a brain with bipolar disorder and one without and while several differences were noted, none can definitively be used to diagnose bipolar disorder.
Unfortunately, it’s a similar story with the genetics of bipolar disorder. While twin, family ,and adoption studies have been conducted within the bipolar population—and we know that a person with a first-degree relative (like a mother or father) with bipolar disorder is about seven times more likely to develop the disease—we still can’t pinpoint the genetics.
Genetics and Bipolar Disorder
It was hoped that like with Huntington’s disease—an illness that also manifests psychiatric symptoms—we would be able to find a gene that causes bipolar disorder, but unfortunately, a genetic study has produced the likelihood that possibly hundreds of genes may be linked to bipolar disorder. It is likely that many genes increase the risk of bipolar disorder, but it’s only in specific combinations that the disease actually manifests.
Genes Linked to Bipolar Disorder
Naturally, the discussion of genes is necessarily very complicated and studies do differ in their analysis of which genes contribute to bipolar disorder. Based on thousands of samples, here is what scientists are currently thinking:
- Two genes linked to voltage-gated calcium channels (ANK3 or ankyrin G) and CACNA1C (alpha 1C subunit of the L-type voltage-gated calcium channel)) have been linked to bipolar disorder. This makes sense as calcium channel blockers have been used to treat bipolar disorder and lithium, the most effective treatment for bipolar disorder, is known to down-regulate these mechanisms in mice brains. Anticonvulsants may also have calcium channel blocking effects.
- ANK3 and CACNA1C have also been linked to schizophrenia, so as with neurobiological markers, genes point to a common underpinning for both bipolar disorder and schizophrenia.
- Both the CLOCK (circadian locomotor output cycles kaput) and ARNTL (aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator-like) genes are linked to the circadian rhythm and bipolar disorder, and in the case of the CLOCK gene, mutating it in mice produces a mania-type state that is treatable with lithium.
- A low-functioning serotonin transporter gene (HTTLPR) has also been associated with bipolar disorder. This gene is one of the targets of select serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) medication.
Clinical Implications of Genes in Bipolar Disorder
While this and other genetic work is ongoing, none of these genes have a sizable enough effect, on their own, to warrant genetic testing for bipolar disorder.
However, these genes are not only leading us towards objective diagnosis, they are also leading us towards a better understanding of how bipolar medication works and who will likely respond to specific medications or medication types. Lithium has already been better understood thanks to genetic testing as has other medication and genes may also be able to predict who is more likely to suffer from antidepressant-induced mania.
important to remember that the bulk of this understanding has happened only in
the last five years. The next five years may take us to places we haven’t even
Please see here for more on genetics and bipolar disorder.
Recent Blog Posts
Dec 18, 2013
The End of Bipolar Bites
Dec 11, 2013
Does Having Bipolar Increase Your Risk of Dementia?
Dec 04, 2013
Why SAMHSA Should Have Nothing to Do with the Alternatives Conference
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Just last Thursday, we received calls in the newsroom about an earthquake out in Lake County. Each time an earthquake happens, it never ceases to amaze me how many people are shocked that they actually occur here in Northeastern Ohio. The prevailing thought is that earthquakes in the Cleveland area are a relatively new phenomena. In reality, quakes have been a regular occurrence in northeastern Ohio since the last glacial period 15,000 years with the root, quake-driving structures beneath the surface present for undoubtedly millions of years or longer.
In order to better document and understand the small quakes throughout the state, the Ohio Seismic Network was formed in 1999 to better track these tremors. 25 stations are distributed across the state, more in earthquake prone areas, to accurately detect and measure the quakes.
Rather than continue siting trivia about earthquakes, I've compiled a list of frequently asked questions from the Ohio Seismic Website that mirrors the requests we receive via email and phone calls each time an earthquake occurs.
Q: What is the largest earthquake recorded in the Cleveland area?
The largest earthquake since 1700 was in 1986, January 31st pictured below. This was the first earthquake where injuries were reported. Prior to this quake, most people in Northeastern Ohio were unaware of how strong earthquakes can get in this area of the state. It ranks third all-time in the state behind the 1937 quake in Shelby county.
Q: How many quakes have caused minor to moderate damage?
Only 15 quakes have caused this level of damage--a very low number. Below is a map of the earthquakes across the state. Notice the higher concentrations in our area (Cleveland) and in western Ohio.
Q: Can we be affected by distant quakes like the ones in California and Alaska?
Absolutely. Seismographs around the world can detect the waves from these massive earthquakes. The
7.9-magnitude Denali, Alaska earthquake on November 3, 2002 caused water-level changes in some Ohio
wells. That quake in Alaska was followed by 35,000 aftershocks over the next 2 and a half years!
Q: What causes the Ohio earthquakes?
In our area, extremely small fault lines--compared to the ones in California--are the focus of our seismic
activity. Studies have suggested that these fault lines might be remnants of an ancient fault line from a
billion years ago. Yes, BILLION. See the known faults below followed by a map of faults around Cleveland, Ohio.
Q: Since our ground in northern Ohio is more sediment, gravel and sand in nature, an earthquake is more
apt to be weakened and absorbed causing less damage than if we lived on more rocky ground. True or
The answer is false.
Q: How many fault lines are there in the Cleveland area? Can we see them?
There are many fault lines across the region. A large number exist that are not mapped. The map above
shows the mapped fault lines and other deep structures that cause earthquakes.
There are studies currently underway that aim to map the deep structures that cause the earthquakes
around the state. Since we do not have large earthquakes (magnitude 5 or greater) the data needed from
earthquakes to map these small fault lines is incomplete.
Q: Do earthquakes occur more often now than in the past?
Examining this list, you could easily conclude that this is the case. But the list is misleading. Most
earthquakes less than a 3 on the scale were not reported as they are today. So the list is more detailed
now with better instruments to detect them.
The list can be found HERE.
Since 1776, more than 160 earthquakes have been documented. 68 quakes since 2000. Only 10 quakes greater than a 3 on the scale. Only one quake greater than a 4. That was in 2001 east of Edgewood in Ashtabula county. Contrast that with more than 138 earthquakes reported in Alaska from June 12th through early June15th. That's 138 quakes in roughly 80 hours!
Q: Since the tsunami in the Pacific back in 2004, people have wondered if such an event could occur over
Lake Erie. Is this possible?
According to the Ohio Seismic Network, the chances are almost zero. Why?, an earthquake of at least a 7.0
or greater would be needed over the lake. The fault line would need to move vertically displacing the rock
and sediment. All of the faults in Ohio are horizontal. Many scientists believe that the vertical
displacement would need to occur in very deep water. Lake Erie is very shallow--average depth of 62 feet
and relatively flat on the bottom. The depth of the ocean near the location of the tsunami in 2004 is more
than 12,000 feet!
Q: How do I report an earthquake?
Call the Ohio Seismic Network at 614-325-1051
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By Marion K. Jacobs, Ph.D
We had to keep adding chairs to accommodate all the people who showed up at the Woman’s Club last Thursday night to hear UC Irvine Prof. Roger Walsh, MD, Ph.D, talk on “What The Research Tells Us About Optimizing Well Being.” The talk was jointly sponsored by AAUW-LB and the Woman’s Club.
A professor of psychiatry, philosophy, anthropology and religious studies, Walsh is as expert as they come on a topic near and dear to all of our hearts— what can we do to promote our well-being.
With an impressive command of the research on this complicated subject, Walsh detailed how the diseases exacting the greatest toll in our country—such as cardiovascular, obesity, diabetes and cancer—are all lifestyle related. Differences in just four lifestyle factors—smoking, alcohol intake, physical activity and diet exert such major impact that it amounts to a 14-year age effect on mortality. Research shows that therapeutic life change can ameliorate prostate cancer, reverse coronary artery disease, and be as effective as medication or psychotherapy for a number of psychological problems.
Scientists are definitely making progress in how to counter this trend. Homing in on the mechanisms—the how and why—their understanding keeps growing of why good lifestyle choices not only promote health and happiness, but actually add years to our lives. Neuroscience has even proven that healthy living actually does something once thought impossible—it increases the size of some regions of the brain. What that means is that as we age, such brain growth supports memory, energy, balance, and dementia-inhibiting executive functions like planning, judgment and decision-making.
Unfortunately, as medicine is practiced today, it does not capitalize on what we know about the role lifestyle plays in fostering personal well being, in causing pathology, or in preserving and optimizing cognitive and brain capacities.
As Dr. Walsh sees it, all of us are unwitting subjects participating in a massive, unprecedented, global lifestyle experiment. Unlike our ancestors of even a few generations ago, we increasingly live indoors, our lighting is low level and artificial, and much of what we do is in environments that are artificial and nature-free. We eat high calorie diets that are short on nutrition, get little exercise, and immerse ourselves and get shaped by a hyper real world created for us by multimedia.
From his examination of thousands of research studies, Dr. Walsh offers the top eight areas where lifestyle changes have maximum impact on both physical health and mental well-being. Some are the ones we usually hear about, like exercise, diet, and relaxation and stress management. But the Big Eight research findings also include time in nature, relationships, religious and spiritual involvement and contribution and service to others.
As I mentioned when introducing Prof. Walsh, Healthy Laguna! is a newly forming coalition of local groups and individuals who are interested in promoting healthy lifestyles in Laguna Beach. We look forward to a lively exchange of ideas, articles and personal experiences with community members via our website www.healthylaguna.com which is organized around Dr. Walsh’s eight categories. Healthy Laguna! is just in the process of getting up and running. We invite you to check us out, add your comments and help us get rolling. For further information about Healthy Laguna! you can also contact me at [email protected].
Dr. Marion Jacobs is a practicing psychologist in Laguna Beach and an adjunct professor at UCLA.
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We commenced production of multicrystalline ingots in May 2006. To produce multicrystalline ingots, the molten polysilicon is changed into a block through a casting process in the multicrystalline furnaces. Crystallization starts by gradually cooling the crucibles in order to create multicrystalline ingot blocks. The resulting ingot blocks consist of multiple smaller crystals as opposed to the single crystal of a monocrystalline ingot. The output of a multicrystalline furnace is higher than that of a monocrystalline furnace. We have developed manufacturing technologies that enable us to increase our yield of ingots, reduce electricity costs and enhance the utilization rate of furnaces and consumables, such as crucibles.
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It might be one of the weirdest-looking moons in the solar system: Saturn’s moon Hyperion looks like a giant sponge. Additionally, its eccentric orbit makes it subject to gravitational forces from Saturn, so it is just tumbling along, almost out of control. Just yesterday, August 25, 2011, the Cassini spacecraft made a relatively close flyby of Hyperion (24,000 km 15,000 miles away) and took some amazing images.
“Hyperion is a small moon … just 168 miles across (270 kilometers)… orbiting between Titan and Iapetus,” said Carolyn Porco in an email. Porco is the Cassini imaging team lead. “It has an irregular shape and surface appearance, and it rotates chaotically as it tumbles along in orbit, making it impossible to say just exactly what terrain we would image during this flyby.”
See some more of the shots below:
Scientists say this flyby’s closeness has likely allowed Cassini’s cameras to map new territory. At the very least, it will help scientists improve color measurements of the moon. It will also help them determine how the moon’s brightness changes as lighting and viewing conditions change, which can provide insight into the texture of the surface. The color measurements provide additional information about different materials on the moon’s deeply pitted surface.
The next closest pass of Hyperion is coming up again soon: Sept. 16, 2011, when it passes the tumbling moon at a distance of about 36,000 miles (58,000 kilometers).
See more raw images at the CICLOPS website.
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Our young people are worth more than a few low paid and insecure jobs in Christchurch. If they can find a job, that is.
IN THE 1930s many unemployed people who could not find work where they lived often took to the road. They became known as 'swaggers' or 'swagmen'. It was a term used to describe an underclass of transient temporary workers, who travelled by foot from farm to farm carrying the traditional swag or bedroll.
Writer George Weetman observed:
One talks of hard times. I remember when times were as bad or worse than they are now. I have seen men walking around the Island month in month out looking for work and nothing doing...I have seen men walking for nine months of the year and only get if they had luck three months work in the rabbit poisoning season..I know in one or two cases of men being found dead on the roadside..one man found dead on the road had only raw turnips in his stomach.' (Weetman Papers, Alexander Turnbull Library).
Also in the 1930s the Government introduced work camps in rural areas. Unemployed workers were used mostly in forestry, road building and swamp drainage. Indeed many of New Zealand's state forest plantations were the result of gross exploitation - planted by men living in the work-for-dole camps.
Over eighty years later have we moved on? Most of us probably like to think we have and the mainstream media invites us to believe that.
But, as in the 1930s, twenty-first century capitalism has failed to deliver the promised economic goods for most people. While the tame economists talk of 'economic recovery' and a 'rock star economy', this so-called 'recovery' has left 99 percent of us mostly untouched.
While we may no longer have men dying of starvation on a public road, the level of poverty is such that the food banks consistently say they are struggling to cope to meet the demand. Statistics NZ`s Annual Economic Survey for 2013, tells us 14 per cent of respondents stated that they did not have sufficient food. Beyond that 14 percent another considerable slice of the population is just making ends meet. Somehow.
These kind of figures make the government's crowing about a slight decrease in the 'official' unemployment rate sound increasingly shrill and hollow . All the more so because the extraordinary inaccurate Household Labour Force Survey actually masks the real rate of joblessness.
According to a February Roy Morgan poll unemployment in New Zealand stood at 8.5%, with a further 11.3% under-employed. Collectively, 19.8% of the workforce (519,000 people – up 69,000) were either unemployed or under-employed.
Too many people are not just out of work but are stuck in minimum wage jobs or in part time or casual work. They are the working poor.
While the Government often likes to blow smoke about having a job being ‘the best route out of poverty’ for an increasing number of people simply 'getting a job' can be just a turn in the cycle of recurrent poverty – and of long-term churning between low-skilled ‘poor work’ and unemployment.
The Government has waded again into this social disaster by announcing that it is 'inviting' one thousand young beneficiaries (18-24 years of age) to seek work in Christchurch. If they can find work, 'the new swaggers' will be given a $3000 grant for relocation expenses.
I can't decide whether this policy is exploitative or cynical. Perhaps it's both.
While it might be a few steps away from forcing people into work-for dole camps, this solution is equally as despairing. Move to Christchurch - and abandon all hope.
Finding work - even the most insecure and low paid work - is the government 'solution' to unemployment.
Many young people have little predictably or security in their lives and the Government is seeking to exploit that by sending 1000 young beneficiaries to work in low paid and unskilled jobs in Christchurch - although many local employers are saying that there are simply not enough jobs available.
Given that some 7000 people are classified as homeless in Christchurch, finding somewhere to live will be a Herculean task in itself. And given the exorbitant rents now being demanded by landlords/vampires, it is unlikely that any of these new prospective workers will be any better off.
What worries me a lot about this policy though is the message it sends to young people. The talk is mostly about the numbers, the impact it will have on the economy and blah blah blah. Young people are evaluated merely in terms of how 'useful' they are to capital. We might as well be talking about cans of baked beans.
What message are we sending to young people that the only future on offer is one where they get bounced around from insecure and low paid jobs to stretches of time on the dole? What message is being sent to young people that the future is a low paid and insecure job in Christchurch, away from families and friends? What message is being sent to young people that they are judged merely on terms deemed important by 'the market'?
To oppose this policy just on the grounds that there is nowhere to house an influx of young beneficiaries into Christchurch misses the point. As does objecting to the policy on the grounds that $3000 isn't enough to adequately cover relocation costs.
I think our young people are worth more than a few low paid and insecure jobs in Christchurch or anywhere else for that matter.
The writer and artist John Berger noted: “The poverty of our century is unlike that of any other. It is not, as poverty was before, the result of natural scarcity, but of a set of priorities imposed upon the rest of the world by the rich. Consequently, the modern poor are not pitied, but written off as trash.”
Quote from George Weetman taken from Born of Hunger, Pain and Strife:150 years of Struggle Against Unemployment in New Zealand by Karen Davis. Published by the Peoples Press, 1991.
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The Tudor architectural style is the final development of Medieval architecture in
England, .... Enormous ironwork for spit roasting located inside cooking fireplaces
. In the homes ... Smaller Tudor...
Tudor houses were built during the Tudor era in England between 1485 - 1603 ...
frame, as well as a tall chimney, steep roof and an enclosed fireplace inside.
(Early Tudor times the houses, especially the poor houses, did not have
chimneys. The wood smoke was allowed to escape from inside through a simple
hole in ...
In the Middle Ages rich people's houses were designed for defense rather than
comfort. In the 16th century life was safer so houses no longer had to be easy to ...
www.ask.com/youtube?q=Inside a Tudor House&v=devUNB1MAp0
Jun 12, 2007 ... Tudor houses that we see today are typically tudor revival style, ... Though mostly
private homes, some of the buildings you can go inside.
www.ask.com/youtube?q=Inside a Tudor House&v=ifkTmPUZD3c
Jun 13, 2007 ... Tudor homes have a very distinct personality that becomes all too apparent when
you walk inside. They can be both dark and ... i went there for a field trip. it was
really fun. i would have luved to live in that house.. Read more.
Life Inside a Castle ... Tudor houses are famous for their black and white effect.
Most ordinary houses had a black-painted timber frame with the spaces between
Nov 6, 2007 ... A look inside the home of a Tudor merchant in Ludlow, Shropshire.
Houzz.com - Tudor Interior design ideas and photos. ... Wood-panelled walls -
The stately halls inside the homes of wealthier citizens were often lined ... 2 years
ago I used your example on your beautiful eclectic modern tudor house for mine!
The Tudors were a family that ruled England and Wales for 118 years from 1485
to 1603, and two of our most well known monarchs sat on the throne reigned in ...
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posted December 23, 2004
Cosmochemistry and Human Exploration--- Cosmochemistry plays an important role in developing local resources on the Moon and Mars, essential to sustained human presence in space.
Written by G. Jeffrey Taylor
ISRU Essential for Sustained Human Presence in Space
In January 2004, President George W. Bush announced a visionary plan to explore space, calling for sustained human presence on the Moon and then Mars. The plan emphasizes the use of the abundant resources of the Moon and Mars. In fact, sustained human habitation of the Moon and Mars is impossible without in situ resource utilization (ISRU). It is simply impossible to haul everything we need up from the deep gravity well of the Earth and plop it all down on the lunar surface, let alone onto the Martian surface.
Not only will the availability of resources--materials and energy--reduce the difficulty and cost of exploration programs, by "living off the land," but will allow commerce to take root outside of the Earth. Using space resources for propellant will reduce the cost of operating in space by allowing complex extraction systems built on Earth to replace the tremendous payloads of inert propellant that now must be transported into space. Using space resources to capture, transform, and transport energy in space will replace the need for heavy, expensive payloads lifted off Earth. Production of the raw materials of space for construction and manufacturing will ultimately sever the umbilical that, until now, has bound space travel to the Earth, and will allow self-sufficiency to take root beyond the boundaries of Earth.
This NASA painting of the lunar landscape shows a concept for a pilot plant to produce liquid oxygen propellant derived from lunar raw materials. More than merely oxygen, this picture symbolizes ISRU--the use of in situ resources on the surfaces of other planetary bodies. [High resolution version]
Cosmochemists make up one of the main pillars of this exciting venture. They will find the resources on other planets--indeed, they already have identified and determined the chemical and mineralogical properties of several key resources such as the presence of helium-3 for use in nuclear fusion reactors or concentrations of ilmenite for use as a feedstock for oxygen extraction. Cosmochemists have been major players in devising ways to extract resources from the lunar regolith (much less work has been done for Mars). A prime example is the demonstration of extracting oxygen from the lunar regolith by reduction of ilmenite and glasses rich in iron oxide, which has been done independently by Lawrence Taylor (University of Tennessee) and Carl Allen and David McKay of the Johnson Space Center. There are many other examples. Cosmochemists will also be in the forefront of developing flight-ready testbed factories by providing expertise into the nature of lunar and Martian surface materials and by making mineralogical and chemical analyses of the products produced by prototype machinery. All that, while still continuing to extract the scientific secrets held by the Moon and Mars.
Vision for an Economic Market
Who's going to buy all those resources? Brad Blair, Mike Duke, Javier Díaz, and Begoña Ruiz (all at the Colorado School of Mines) are developing complex economic models of space development centered on propellant production from the Moon. Blair and his colleagues identified the potential markets, increasingly farther into the future, arranged below from top left to bottom right.
Fueling space science missions throughout the solar system
Supplying the International Space Station or its successor
Refueling communication satellites in earth orbit
Refueling and maintaining reconnaissance and terrestrial remote sensing satellites in low earth orbit and in geosynchronous orbit
Providing fuel and life support to human exploration of the Moon and, eventually, Mars
Providing fuel, life support, and materials for sustained human presence on the Moon, including perhaps an elaborate solar-powered colony on the Moon that could market its products
Produce, fuel, and maintain solar power satellites in earth orbit to provide energy to the planet
Not Your Daddy's Mining Gear
Dale Boucher and Jim Richard (Northern Centre for Advanced Technology, Inc., NORCAT, located in Sudbury, Ontario, Canada) shared their expertise in mining. It begins with searching for a potential resource (prospecting), which we have already started to do for the Moon and Mars through human (to the Moon) and robotic (to both) missions. Once identified you explore the prospect in detail (implying spacecraft that land on the surface), then mine it. The mined materials are usually beneficiated (minerals separated and concentrated), though this might not be necessary at first on the Moon. We then process the mined materials to make products (e.g., metallic iron, oxygen, water). This step produces some waste, that must be managed, and useful products. This is, among other things, applied cosmochemistry at its most artful.
The trick, Dale Boucher told Roundtable participants, is to transform traditional Earth-based mining equipment into efficient and light-weight gear to use on other planets. He calls it the VAMPS process: Eliminate Volatiles (we can't use drilling fluids, for example), Automate (make extensive use of robotics), Miniaturize (lower the size and mass), redefine the Paradigm (do things completely differently if need be), and Stabilize. The result is new mining equipment and approaches. An interesting example is the NORCAT design of a bucket wheel for excavating the lunar regolith. It is small, takes little power, but can excavate efficiently. Boucher and his team plan more tests with simulate regolith.
The VAMPS process starts with traditional mining or construction equipment and changes it in suitable ways for use on another planetary body.
Experiments with a bucket wheel excavator designed at NORCAT in Sudbury, Canada. Shown from left to right are the wheel with its buckets, the test platform, and the bucket wheel excavating sand during a test.
The Cold, Mysterious Lunar Poles
There are places on the Moon where the "Sun don't shine." These regions are located at the lunar poles, shaded by mountains formed by the rims of impact craters. They exist because the Moon's spin axis is tilted only a small amount from being perpendicular to the plane of its orbit, allowing mountains to cast long shadows and creating places in permanent shadow; see PSRD article: Ice on the Bone Dry Moon. These are cold places. Without direct sunlight, the only sources of heat are the background energy in the universe (only 3 Kelvin), reflected sunlight off distant hills, and heat flowing from inside the Moon. The heat from below would cause the temperature to be only about 25 Kelvin (-248 oC). There might be rare places that cold if they are not exposed to any reflected sunlight. Most receive some indirect sunlight, but they reach at most 80 Kelvin (-193 oC) even during the hottest part of the lunar day, and many places in permanent shadow get no hotter than about 60 Kelvin. At night the temperature falls to less than 50 Kelvin. Ben Bussey (Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Lab), a leading expert on illumination conditions at the poles, enlightened the audience with an updated report on lighting conditions (see PSRD article: The Moon's Dark, Icy Poles).
Distribution of temperatures inside a large flat-floored crater in a lunar polar region were calculated by Ashwin Vasavada (University of California, Los Angeles), an expert in thermal modeling of planetary surfaces. During the long lunar night the surface everywhere cools to less that 80 Kelvin, with some areas less than 50 Kelvin. But even during the hottest part of the lunar day, some portions of a crater like this remain very cold, reaching no more than 80 Kelvin. These regions can trap volatiles like H2O, CO, and CO2, and might be important sources for propellant to drive commerce throughout the inner solar system.
Permanently dark areas could collect volatile materials otherwise scarce on the Moon. The most important of these is water. The neutron detector onboard the Lunar Prospector mission showed clearly that there is an enrichment of hydrogen (H) in polar regions, but could not determine whether it was in the form of H2O, molecular hydrogen (H2), elemental hydrogen, or some other form. The Clementine mission rigged an innovative radar experiment that suggested the presence of water ice, but observations of portions of the south pole using the huge radio telescope in Arecibo, Puerto Rico did not detect ice. The issue remains highly controversial, but leaves the rest of us lots of room to speculate on the nature of the hydrogen in polar regions.
If the hydrogen is in the form of H2O ice, it could be an enormously important resource that could drive commercial development of the Moon, as Brad Blair and his colleagues discussed at the Roundtable. Before any commercialization can take place, however, cosmochemical prospectors have a lot of work to do. As I noted in my talk at the meeting, we know very little about the nature of the surface in the permanently shadowed areas of the Moon. The ground up rock might be finer grained than the regolith (fragmental surface materials on the Moon) we sampled at the Apollo landing sites, including that at the Apollo 16 site in the ancient highlands.
More important, if water condensed onto silicate grains at the cold temperatures in the shadows it would not be in the form of the familiar crystalline ice. It would be amorphous, lacking any long-range order to the H and O atoms--sort of an icy glass. In contrast to crystalline ice, this structure is quite accommodating to gases such as those in comets (carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane). When amorphous ice (also called amorphous solid water) is heated above about 120 Kelvin, it changes to the crystalline form, releasing the trapped gases. This is one of the reasons why comets spew gas and dust. Thus, if we tried to mine the ice to make hydrogen and oxygen for propellant, heating the icy regolith might cause rapid loss of the water we were trying to mine. Heat is also released as amorphous ice transforms to crystalline ice, which could cause a runaway effect-catastrophic loss of a precious resource, at least locally.
But all that is speculation at present. We need to conduct experiments on regolith with ice in it, with and without other gases. This needs to include understanding what happens when the regolith is gardened by the rain of tiny meteorites that continuously strike the Moon. Most important, we need to characterize the permanently shadowed places thoroughly from orbit and with robotic landers equipped with sophisticated analytical instruments. NASA is planning such missions during the next five years. A talk by James Powderly and colleagues at Honeybee Robotics (in collaboration with scientists at the Johnson Space Center, Ames Research Center, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Boeing, the Army Corps of Engineers, and Los Alamos National Laboratories) highlighted one well-tested concept for sampling the icy, cryogenic regolith in polar regions. Called the Subsurface Analyzer and Sample Handler (SASH) it is basically a drill equipped with instruments to measure physical properties, and the concentration and distribution of water ice (or hydrogen) in the regolith, using a rover as the drilling platform.
Concept of SASH (Subsurface Analyzer and Sample Handler) operating from a rover on the lunar surface. The device can acquire cores and powdered samples from beneath the surface and deploy instruments down the holes to characterize the regolith, including detecting ice and hydrogen.
Exploring for Resources
My colleague at the University of Hawai'i, Jeff Gillis, discussed the general problem of exploring for resources using orbital remote sensing. He explained that an important step in exploration is to understand what you need and to search for those substances. Quoting Dr. Phil, Gillis noted, "In order to get what you want you have to know what it is you want." In lunar exploration terms this means that we must develop strategies for resource exploration and efficient methods of extraction. Remote sensing surveys (orbiting and roving spacecraft) will provide the ability to select a site for the first lunar base. Gillis showed the value of remote sensing measurements to determine the locations of numerous resources. Although only a few elements can be measured remotely, others can be inferred from the concentrations of just one element. A prominent example is the concentration of thorium, which has been measured by the Lunar Prospector mission. High thorium concentrations are correlated in lunar samples with the concentrations of potassium, rare earth elements, zirconium, phosphates, and others. Thorium is a tracer for a host of other potentially valuable resources.
A large number of elements can be measured directly by remote sensing techniques or inferred from the concentrations of tracer elements or other properties. These correlations were established by cosmochemists in their analyses of lunar samples.
Richard Dissly (Ball Aerospace and Technologies Corp.) and colleagues from several university and government laboratories discussed the idea of prospecting for resources using an autonomous rover equipped with an array of sensors. The sensors would be mounted in the wheels, on the front of the rover, and on a mast on the rover. All would work in consort to identify resource targets, such as concentrations of ilmenite or volcanic glasses. The virtue of autonomy is that it increases the speed of mapping, lowers operational costs, and is safer than doing it all with humans exposed to the space environment. It is also applicable for exploration on both the Moon and Mars.
Rich Dissly's concept for an autonomous prospecting rover for use on the Moon and Mars.
Making Fake Moon Dirt
As mentioned above, permanent habitation and industrial use of the Moon and Mars will require that we live off the land-ISRU is essential. Developing techniques to excavate regolith, move it, separate its components, heat it, melt it, dissolve it, or even just pile it up will require a lot of experiments. Although Apollo astronauts returned 382 kilograms (840 pounds) of rock and regolith, the material is much too valuable to use for extensive experimentation. We need simulated lunar regolith-and lots of it. Seven participants at the Roundtable meeting indicated they would need more than 10 tons, and two indicated that they would need more than 100 tons. Larry Taylor (University of Tennessee) reports that he knows of one company that expects to use 600 tons. From this somewhat limited sampling, it is apparent that there will be a near-term need for a quantity that could approach 1000 tons of lunar soil simulant.
That's a lot of fake moon dirt. And it is not ordinary dirt. Larry Taylor reviewed the nature of the lunar regolith. It has some unique properties. Chief among them is the presence of glassy agglutinates, twisted, bubbly, swirly aggregations of rock and mineral fragments bound together by impact-produced glass. The glassy portions are decorated by a Milky Way, as Larry Taylor put it, of microscopic grains of metallic iron. The tiny metal grains are probably produced when hydrogen, implanted into the surface by the solar wind, reacts with iron oxide when the glass forms by micrometeorite impacts. Microscopic metal grains also form when impacts cause vaporization of surface materials. The environment is reducing, so extremely small metallic iron grains condense on the surfaces of mineral grains. This makes them magnetic.
Some of the unique properties of lunar regolith are shown here. Clockwise from the upper left: Agglutinates are glass-bonded aggregates of other regolith components. They contain countless microscopic grains of metallic iron (shown in the second image) formed by reduction of iron oxide present in the glass. The surfaces of mineral grains, even minerals that contain no iron, are coated with a mixture of silicon-rich glass and nanometer-sized grains of metallic iron (bottom image). It will not be easy to duplicate these properties.
The regolith has a distinctive distribution of grain sizes, high quantities of gases implanted by the solar wind (such as hydrogen and helium), crystals damaged by impact and radiation, and variable chemical composition. Some of these properties can be readily duplicated. Others will be difficult. Some might be impossible. Nevertheless, standardized simulants are needed so experiments in different laboratories can be compared readily to one another. Nevertheless, as Larry Taylor pointed out, one stimulant does not fit all. The chart below shows the types of uses of regolith simulants, what general type of property needs to be simulated, and a list of simulants that have been used. The "Xs" refer to the extent to which the property was successfully simulated--the greater the number the more accurately the property is matched by a stimulant.
James Carter (University of Texas, Dallas) discussed the manufacturing of the widely used, but now used up, lunar stimulant JSC-1 (commissioned by the Johnson Space Center, JSC). He explained the value of simulants, the need for a standardized set of simulants, and described what properties of the regolith JSC-1 matched and did not match. It simulated the chemical composition of some Apollo soils, the types of minerals and glass present in the regolith, and the grain size distribution of the typical regolith. JSC-1 did not match the spectral properties in visible and near-infrared wavelengths, magnetic properties and the presence of microscopic metallic iron, the shapes of agglutinates, and the high contents of solar wind gases.
Lunar simulant JSC-1 was produced from a volcanic deposit located near Flagstaff, Arizona under the supervision of James Carter. Twenty-five tons of it were produced and distributed by the astromaterials curatorial laboratory at the Johnson Space Center, but none is available now. Industry will need up to 1000 tons of stimulant to develop the technology for ISRU leading to permanent habitation and industrialization of the Moon.
Most important, Carter introduced the concept of a "root stimulant," a basic mixture of minerals, rock fragments, and glassy objects. At least two of these are needed for the Moon: one with a chemical composition of a typical lunar maria and a second with a highlands composition. These basic root stimulants will be useful for many purposes, and specialized simulants (branches from the root) can be made from them. These might contain solar wind implanted gases, partly reduced iron, soil-ice mixtures (for the dark areas at the poles), vapor-coated grains, and many other features.
Marshall Space Flight Center is organizing a Lunar Regolith Simulant Materials Workshop January 24 -26, 2005 to discuss in detail the problem of making simulants, how much to make, what properties should be simulated by a root simulant, and many other issues.
ISRU on Mars
Partly because less work has been done on ISRU processes for Mars and partly because President Bush's Exploration Vision calls for going to the Moon first, there was not much discussion of ISRU on Mars. However, one particularly important issue was addressed in separate presentations given by Carol Stoker (NASA Ames Research Center) and Humbolt Mandell (Center for Space Research, University of Texas, Austin): the need for deep drilling on Mars. This is essential for scientific exploration and for resource extraction. Stoker made a compelling case for being able to drill a few hundred meters in places where liquid water might reside beneath the surface because of over pressurization of ground ice. There are hundreds of places where gullies emerge from the sides of craters. The existence of liquid water only a few hundred meters below the surrounding plains is an enticing target for human bases and for the search for existent life on Mars. We only have to drill.
But drilling is not as simple as you might think, particularly if we do not use traditional lubricants, essential to prevent contamination that could compromise our search for life on Mars. The presentations by Stoker, Mandell, and Powerly (discussed above) all show that deep drilling is feasible, though some development is still necessary. The designs of drilling equipment are surprisingly similar, whether from Honeybee or from a design based on drilling technology developed by Baker Hughes, one of the foremost terrestrial drilling equipment companies. There was a strong consensus that deep drilling is an essential part of resource exploration and the search for life on Mars.
|Painting of a concept for a Mars lander equipped with a drill.|
Two talks centered on the exploration for other resources on Mars. A presentation by Chris Woodworth-Lynas and his colleagues at Guigné Space Systems Inc. (Golden, Colorado) focused on rover-based instruments to search for resources on Mars. This included apparatus to make seismic measurements, with the geophones (seismic receivers) made from Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) and mounted in the wheels of the rover. Kim Kuhlman (Jet Propulsion Laboratory) and colleagues from JPL and NASA Langley Research Center described an updated version of a fascinating concept called Tumbleweed proposed in the late 1970s by Jacques Blamont (JPL and the University of Paris). The idea is to make inflatable, light-weight balls that would travel with the winds of Mars to sample a wide area and map the distribution of potential resources on the surface. Each Tumbleweed would carry a suite of instruments that would measure soil properties, water vapor, mineralogy, and chemical composition. Kuhlman's JPL colleagues, Alberto Behar and Jack Jones, have tested the concept in Greenland and Antarctica. Tumbleweeds would fill a gap between orbiters and rovers. They would go wherever the wind took them, searching for answers about Martian geology and resources--the answer, my friend, is blow'in in the wind.
Model of Tumbleweed, showing components inside the light-weight spherical prospector. It has been tested in Antarctica (inset photo) and Greenland.
Other Great Ideas
PSRD concentrates on discoveries in cosmochemistry and planetary geosciences, so this report highlights mostly those areas. However, readers will find a wealth of fascinating ideas in the abstracts and the presentations given at the Roundtable meeting. You'll find out about the mysteries of granular flow, the production of metallic parts by carbonyl vapor deposition, automated mining techniques, and more.
The assembled cosmochemists, remote sensing specialists, engineers, construction experts, business men and women, entrepreneurs, and other technical experts and dreamers at the Roundtable meeting discussed the need to include ISRU right from the start in planning human activities on the Moon. All of the needed materials and energy to create a self-sufficient lunar outpost are available there and their use is essential to attain self-sufficiency and prepare the way for affordable travel to Mars. At some level of development, if we plan well, a lunar outpost can achieve economic "takeoff," from which it then becomes possible to cut the umbilical from Earth and provide products to Earth and to ventures in cislunar space in free-market exchanges. When that stage of development has been reached, the ingenuity of humans on the Earth and in space will provide new businesses and products to improve standards of living on Earth. In the meantime, it will be a role of the Exploration Vision to blaze the technology trail and of NASA to investigate the mechanisms by which new private investment in space can be encouraged.
In a white paper (pdf) written on behalf of the Space Resources Roundtable and based on the clear consensus at the meeting, Michael Duke (Colorado School of Mines) and I concluded:
"We encourage NASA to establish a Space Resources Council that would be responsible for evaluating the political and economic framework in which space resources are developed and encouraging the development of the needed technology. Industry should play a role in the decision-making that must go into the integration of these important new technologies into NASA's exploration programs. Fulfilling the Exploration Vision requires that we invest immediately in the tools and techniques required to use space resources."
[Links open in new window.]
References on lunar oxygen production:
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Most DefinitionsAccording to the Oxford English Dictionary:
"Modern English includes words from a wide variety of different sources around the world. Patterns of word-borrowing over time reflect the changing demography of its speakers; cultural and economic influences on Britain; the spread of English-speaking explorers, traders, and settlers; and encounters with other cultures."
The English language has one of the largest vocabularies of all the languages of the world. The Oxford English Dictionary contains more than 600,000 words.
Which word has the most definitions in the English language?
The word SET has the most definitions of any word in the English language.
SET has 464 definitions in the Oxford English Dictionary.
Here's how the others stack up:
- RUN - 396 (defs.)
- GO - 368
- TAKE - 343
- STAND - 334
- GET - 289
- TURN - 288
- PUT - 268
- FALL - 264
- STRIKE - 250
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The potato (Solanum tuberosum) is a food staple around the world and can be effortlessly grown in the home garden. Also called white, or Irish, potatoes, they are grown from sections of mature potatoes that contain the beginnings of new sprouts. Once they are used to grow new plants, they are called seed potatoes, and depending on their size, can be planted whole or cut into smaller sections.
The Eyes Have It
A close inspection of a common white potato reveals small indentations or depressions at intervals across its skin. On potatoes that have been in storage for awhile, there may actually be the beginnings of sprouts growing from these indentations. Called eyes, they mark the site on the potato where germination will take place once it is planted. A radicle, or first root, emerges from the eye at about the same time as a shoot, but each grows in a different direction. The root travels down into the soil while the shoot grows upward toward the surface of the soil where it will produce its first leaves. The eyes sprout according to how much light they are exposed to, and they do this on both a whole potato or on just a section.
While you can plant store-bought potatoes, results will most likely be less than satisfactory as many have been treated to inhibit sprouting. The quality of any potatoes that do develop will be inferior to those produced by certified seed potatoes grown only for this purpose. Small seed potatoes can be planted whole as long as they have at least two or three eyes on them. Larger potatoes are generally cut into sections containing that many eyes apiece. Each piece should measure roughly 1 1/2 to 2 inches, or the size of a large ice cube, as pieces any smaller than this do not contain enough stored starch to feed the developing plant. The minimum number of eyes improves the odds by assuring that at least one will be viable and develop into a new plant.
To Cure or Not to Cure
While whole or sections of seed potatoes can be planted right after cutting, allowing time for the cut sides to dry creates a protective barrier that may guard against organisms that could cause the potatoes to rot. Curing them for two to three days in a humid area at a temperature of 70 degrees Fahrenheit promotes faster healing and keeps the potato sections from drying out. Once planted, the dried covering also helps seal in moisture and energy as the plant becomes established. The National Gardening Association suggests that the decision to cure seed potatoes should be made based upon when they are planted. In late spring, curing may not be necessary, as the soil is more likely to be warmer and less likely to promote rot, while early spring soil is generally cooler and more moist and seed potatoes benefit from the extra layer of protection.
Potatoes do best if planted as early in the spring as possible in U.S. Department of Agriculture plant hardiness zones 1 to 7. In USDA zones 8 to 10, fall and winter sowings are harvested in April for young potatoes and in June for mature. Potatoes generally do best if grown at temperatures that range from 50 to 70 degrees Fahrenheit and require deep, loose soil that retains water yet drains freely. Aged manure or compost should be spread in the bottom of a 4-inch-deep trench and whole potatoes or cut sections placed on top and spaced about 12 inches apart with rows 2 to 3 feet apart. The soil should be kept consistently moist, particularly after blooming when tubers are developing. The plants should also be hilled, or the soil brought up to the base of the plants, to prevent new potatoes from getting sunburned. Potatoes are ready to harvest when the plants turn yellow and start to wilt.
- Photos.com/Photos.com/Getty Images
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Training Your Brain For Dummies (UK Edition)
Everyone wants their brain to work at its best – whether you want to stay sharp to keep up with your children or come up on top at work. This Cheat Sheet gives you the essential need-to-know information up front to get you started.
Five Questions to Ask before Training Your Brain
Everyone has days when they don’t feel on top form. The question is, does this happen to you all the time? Here are some questions that you can ask yourself as a kind of mini-check for how well your brain is working:
Do you find yourself frequently distracted when you’re doing something important?
Do you always struggle to follow conversations?
Do you often lose your train of thought and end up forgetting what you wanted to say?
Do you always find it hard to remember information that people tell you, like phone numbers or directions?
Do you constantly have trouble mentally juggling different tasks during the day?
If you answered ‘yes’ to more than one of these questions, then training your brain is all the more important. Science shows that the brain can change and adapt at any age. So it’s never too early or too late to start developing good habits to train your brain. By training your brain, you can be more mentally alert, cope better with daily stresses, and even enjoy life more!
Do’s and Don’ts of Training Your Brain
Before you get yourself going with the process of training your brain, take a quick note of these tips to help you on your way.
Don’t put off brain training for tomorrow. Make today the day that you choose to boost your brain power.
Do take baby steps. Do a little each day to make a difference for your brain.
Don’t let yourself feel overwhelmed. You can do many things to train your brain. Find things that you enjoy so you stay motivated to do them.
Do start the day with a brain training activity that you look forward to.
Don’t let ‘no time’ be an excuse to avoid training your brain. Many games exist that you can do on the move.
Do brain train with a friend. It’s easier and much more fun if you have someone to share the experience with.
Five Considerations for Training Your Brain
Training your brain involves more than just your brain itself. From what to eat to doing the right physical activities, to socialising, you can help your brain to work more efficiently in lots of different ways. Here are five great examples:
Mental health. Happiness isn’t a state of mind that some people are lucky enough to be born with; happiness can be a choice. And you can choose to be happy to make a difference to your mental health.
Body matters. An active lifestyle leads to a more efficient brain. From what you eat, to what exercise you do, to how much sleep you get, and the amount of caffeine you drink – all these affect your brain.
Call a friend. From picking up the phone, to meeting for coffee, to discussing the latest movie together – growing research illustrates the benefits of friendships for the brain.
Digital help. You’re never too young or too old to start training your brain. But although many products do have good hard science to back up their claims, equally many – if not more! – products are without any scientific backing. Don’t get suckered into products that don’t have research behind their claims. Discover how to figure out what really works from what doesn’t.
Silence speaks. In this ever-demanding environment, finding time to quiet your brain and create a space for contemplation is increasingly important. Calm time brings tremendous benefits for your brain, so be sure to make time for quiet every day.
Four Key Parts of Your Brain
The brain is complex but, thanks to cutting-edge science, knowledge of the brain has increased considerably. Here is a brief overview of the four key parts of the brain:
Frontal lobe. Located in the front of the brain, this lobe is responsible for planning and organising incoming information. You also use this lobe to control behaviour and emotions.
Parietal lobe. Crucial in integrating sensory and visual information.
Temporal lobe. Used for processing language and storing information in the long-term memory.
Occipital lobe. Home to the visual cortex.
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Tips for the PRAXIS Exam
The PRAXIS exam is a test that many states use as part of their educational licensure and certification process. If you're planning to take the PRAXIS exam in preparation for securing your first teaching job, you may feel nervous about taking it. However, with some preparation, you'll find that you're able to excel at demonstrating your knowledge on this standardized test for new teachers.
General Tips for Passing the PRAXIS Exam
- Study for the exam. The more familiar you are with the content and format of the exam, the easier it will be to perform well on the test.
- Take the practice tests that are available on the www.ets.org website.
- Look for patterns in your performance when you take the practice tests. Is there one particular area that you need to work on?
- Pace yourself. The PRAXIS exam is a timed test. Therefore, it is important to do your best and neither rush, nor move too slowly, through each section.
- Because test scores are based on the number of correct answers, it is better to guess at an answer for the PRAXIS exam than to leave it blank.
- Try not to second guess yourself. If you are unsure about an answer, don't go back and change it. You first impression is usually correct.
Tips for Passing the Reading Portion of the PRAXIS Exam
The reading portion of the PRAXIS exam is made up of 46 multiple choice questions, and participants have 75 minutes to complete this portion of the test. The test is broken down into two sections: literal comprehension, and critical and inferential comprehension.
- Scan the questions that are being asked before you read the actual reading passage, so that you will know up front what to look for or focus on.
- Read each selection carefully and thoroughly.
- You can find practice tests for the reading portion of the PRAXIS exam on the www.ets.org website.
Tips for Passing the Writing Portion of the PRAXIS Exam
The writing portion of the PRAXIS exam is made up of 38 multiple choice questions and one essay question. Participants have one hour to take the test, broken down into two separate half-hour sections. Topics covered include grammatical relationships, structural relationships, word choice and mechanics, and essay writing.
- Make an outline of your thoughts before writing your essay.
- Proofread your writing before completing the exam.
- You can find practice tests for the writing portion of the PRAXIS exam on the www.ets.org website.
Tips for Passing the Math Portion of the PRAXIS Exam
The math portion of the PRAXIS exam is made up of 40 multiple choice questions, and participants have 60 minutes to complete this portion of the test. In addition, test-takers are prohibited from using calculators during the test. The test is broken down into four sections: numbers and operations, algebra, geometry and measurement, and data analysis and probability.
- It is presumed that you will have an understanding of certain math concepts, such as area, perimeter, ratio, integer, factor, and prime.
- Most of the concepts covered on the math portion of the PRAXIS exam are operations that the average adult would already be familiar with.
- You can find practice tests for the math portion of the PRAXIS exam on the www.ets.org website.
Tips for Dealing with PRAXIS Exam Anxiety
- Make sure that you get plenty of rest the night before the PRAXIS exam.
- Eat a light breakfast so that you will not be hungry or distracted during the PRAXIS exam.
- Have confidence in yourself. You've prepared well, and the exam itself is an opportunity for you to shine.
- Keep the PRAXIS exam in perspective. It is a test that you need to pass for certification, but that's all it is. It's one tool that is used to anticipate your ability to teach well, but your actual ability to teach and relate to your students is determined by much more than whether you pass this one test.
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|Name: _________________________||Period: ___________________|
This test consists of 5 multiple choice questions, 5 short answer questions, and 10 short essay questions.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. In Part 2, Antigone tells the Nurse that she is too _____________ for what she must do.
2. How is Haemon described in Part 1?
(a) Boorish and uncommonly ugly.
(b) Adventurous and fickle.
(c) Fun loving and sport loving.
(d) Dour and sapid.
3. What is Antigone's response to Ismene's reply when Antigone tells Ismene about her plan?
(a) She agrees and offers Ismene another option.
(b) She disagrees and begins to pack.
(c) She refuses, saying that it is the way things are meant to be.
(d) She leaves the room angrily.
4. What is Antigone's plan in Part 2?
(a) To marry the king.
(b) To run away.
(c) To bury Polynices.
(d) To elope.
5. What does Part 1 say about the play's setting?
(a) It has no geographical or historical implications.
(b) There is no mention of the play's setting.
(c) It is in the south of France on the shore of the Cote d'Azur.
(d) It is in a gloomy wood.
Short Answer Questions
1. What did Antigone do to try to find out if Haemon really wanted her in Part 3?
2. What is the agreement between Eteocles and Polynices?
3. When Creon's wife is introduced, it is said that she will continue her task until what?
4. What does Prologue explain after the characters are introduced in Part 1?
5. In Part 2, Ismene tells Antigone that she is what?
Short Essay Questions
1. As is typical of a tragedy, the lovers die together; their marital bed now serving as their death bed. Do you think Creon is really surprised by Haemon's suicide?
2. Why do you think the author chose to introduce Antigone and her sister, Ismene, as such contrasting characters? What purpose might this serve to the storyline?
3. Tragedy is often seen as a spectacle, something to gawk at and comment upon. In Part 4, how does tragedy as a spectacle become pertinent to the storyline?
4. Why do you think that Antigone lies to Creon when he asks if anyone else knows what she is doing in Part 5?
5. After learning that everyone is dead, Creon leaves to make a council meeting. What is ironic about this?
6. In Part 7, what is the symbolism of the guards coming in and sitting down to play cards?
7. In Part 5, Creon accuses Antigone of being just like her father, playing out destiny's designs and being melodramatic about everything. What does he suggest Antigone do instead?
8. What does Creon finally reveal to Antigone in Part 5 that leaves her confused?
9. In Part 2, the reader begins to get a feel of Antigone as a tragic heroine. What are some of the hints the author gives to lead the reader to this conclusion?
10. What is the role of the Messenger, and why is he sitting away from the rest of the group?
This section contains 963 words
(approx. 4 pages at 300 words per page)
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Baseball helped lift spirits at Arizona WWII internment camp
From Weldon B. Johnson at the Arizona Republic on March 8, 2013, with mention of SABR member Bill Staples Jr.:
It is regarded among the darkest episodes in Arizona history, but people coped and got through it.
The stories of Japanese-Americans held at the Gila River Internment Camp, just south of Chandler, during World War II will be told at the Sunset Library on Saturday morning [March 9].
The free presentation, “From Internment to Hope: Arizona Celebrates Japanese-American Baseball,” is 10:30 a.m.-noon at the library, 4930 W. Ray Road, at Rural Road. The discussion will touch on war, politics, race relations, and sports.
Two men who played baseball in that camp, Tets Furukawa and Kenso “Howard” Zenimura, will join Chandler resident Bill Staples in the discussion. Staples is an author and baseball historian who heads the Society for American Baseball Research’s Asian baseball-research committee.
More than 13,000 Japanese-Americans were confined at Gila River during the war. Baseball was among the ways they coped. The game also was used to bridge the gap with the outside world.
“They loved baseball,” Staples said. “Then they taught it to their children as a way to kind of prove to everybody they were just as American as the next guy. In many ways they used the game of baseball to break down those barriers.”
This page was last updated March 15, 2013 at 1:38 pm MST.
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Mary McLeod Bethune, the noted African-American educator and civil rights leader, founded an institution known as the Daytona Educational and Industrial Training School for Negro Girls on Oct. 3, 1904.
It would ultimately become one of the noted historically Black colleges in the state of Florida. However, the school went through a number of stages in its development. In 1923, it merged with the Cookman Institute of Jacksonville, Florida, and in the process became a co-ed high school. The following year, the school became affiliated with the Methodist Church and became a junior college in 1931. One decade later, the school became a four-year college and the name was changed to Bethune-Cookman College.
After the school established its first graduate program, the board of trustees approved the name being changed to Bethune-Cookman University. The school’s interim president is Edison O. Jackson, who previously served for 20 years as president of Medgar Evers College in Brooklyn, New York.
BET National News - Keep up to date with breaking news stories from around the nation, including headlines from the hip hop and entertainment world. Click here to subscribe to our newsletter.
(Photo: Courtesy of blackpast.org)
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Most faculty work hard to make each individual course they teach the best learning experience it can be. They learn with each semester, and make revisions based on what worked and where the course stumbled. If done correctly, it’s a continuous improvement process that runs like a well-oiled machine. But no matter how good their individual courses are, it’s easy for faculty to end up in a silo–unsure of what’s happening in other courses throughout their discipline or department.
Curriculum mapping, a process that helps faculty align curriculum to ensure that the program addresses all learning outcomes effectively, can help break down those silos.
“It is through cross-curriculum development that learning and skills development can be enhanced and reinforced,” says Peter Wolf, director of Teaching Support Services at the University of Guelph in Ontario, Canada.
In the recent online seminar Connect Learning Across Courses with Curriculum Mapping, Wolf explained how Guelph uses curriculum mapping to ensure that individual learning experiences are connected across courses and relate to the larger context of the student experience.
Although curriculum mapping can be accomplished with a low-tech approach such as Excel, Guelph uses two different software applications to accomplish its goals. Using the Visual Understanding Environment (VUE), an open source project based at Tufts University, Guelph’s curriculum committees can develop course progression maps to help make informed decisions about program structure. For example, by viewing the four-year course progression map of a particular major, the committee discovered that the most difficult required courses were all in semesters four and five. In an earlier survey, students reported feeling burned out during these same two semesters. The department was able to make a few adjustments to even out the workload, without sacrificing program quality, Wolf says.
To accomplish the second dimension of curriculum mapping–breadth program outcomes mapping–Guelph developed its own software called CurricKit, a curriculum mapping toolkit that helps match program outcomes with individual courses by collecting data from faculty, course outlines, and curriculum committees. The software helps map courses across three components: knowledge, skills and values; instructional methods; and assessment methods.
“The processes are faculty driven, that’s the only way to have a sustainable model,” says Wolf. “The goal is not to evaluate courses or evaluate faculty, but to use data to have meaningful discussions that drive curriculum decisions so that our graduates have the knowledge, skills, and values we want to foster in our students.”
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The Indian government has set a new interim target for solar of 9GW of grid connected solar energy by 2017 – the year that the solar industry is tipping that utility-scale solar farms will reach parity with the cost of coal-fired generation.
The new target set by the Indian government this week will see a tender for 1.6GW of large-scale solar PV projects in the first half of 2013, with a further tender of 870MW of solar PV and 1,080MW of solar thermal projects that will be constructed in the following financial year.
The interim target has been set to help India along the path to its National Solar Mission target of 22GW of installed solar capacity by 2022. But most people think there will be little problem meeting that target, because by 2017, or even earlier, solar will match the cost of coal.
V Saibaba, the chairman of the Solar Energy Task Force at the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry, and chairman of local solar project developer and aspiring manufacturer Lanco, says the electricity industry in India faces a revolution in coming years as solar becomes cheaper to deploy than fossil fuels.
“Solar used to be very expensive but Germany took leadership and today it is close to grid parity,” Saibaba told a conference here in Doha this week. “This was unimaginable just six years back, but it is possible to deploy technologies and make them work.”
Saibaba told RenewEconomy in a later interview that coal is becoming increasingly problematic in India because much of the local reserves are locked away in forests, and the imported coal is crippling the country’s balance of payments. We pointed out some of the issues facing coal in this story a while back. Saibaba said solar, however, could offer solutions not just in large-scale deployment, but also in rural electrification, avoiding the need for expensive grids, and on rooftops.
Lanco Solar is one of the largest solar companies in India, currently building more than 350MW of solar farms – both PV and solar thermal, as well as a polysilicon, wafer and cell facility – the first integrated solar panel plant of its kind in India.
Lanco’s projects include a 100MW parabolic trough plant being built under the country’s ambitious National Solar Mission, which aims to construct 22GW of solar by 2022. However, the cost of solar power has come down so quickly that many private forecasts believe the actual deployment of solar could be three or four times that much in the next decade.
Here is an edited transcript of the interview:
RenewEconomy: India has a very ambitious solar strategy – 22GW by 2020, why is it doing that and what is the significance of that?
Saibaba: The fundamental thing for India is that it is growing at a very fast pace, and energy consumption is growing even faster – at 11-12 per cent. And the per capita consumption of India is one-third of the global average. In 1950, when India gained independence, it had about 3MW of power total installed. By 2000, it had about 100,000MW; and between 2000 and 2010 we added another 100,000MW. We added in 10 years what we did in 50, and now we need to do it again in five years to support the GDP growth. But look at what resources India has – it has only has coal, and most of it is in forest area, and if you want to mine it, it is very difficult. Thirty per cent of our imports are energy resources, so there is huge foreign exchange shortfall. So energy security is a major issue for the country.
RE: So fossil fuels are not the answer to that, then.
Saibaba: Correct, and India is blessed with a huge amount of solar irradiation. And the grid network is not very strong, and the one energy solution that can meet the energy problems to a substantial extent is solar energy. You can deploy solar at a few kilowatts, and you can deploy it at a few hundred megawatts.
RE: But what about the costs, isn’t solar expensive?
Saibaba: Solar, per se, is definitely expensive as of today. But the solar irradiation is so excellent in India that a 1MW plant will produce 2.5 times more than a similar plant in Germany. But the capital cost of India and germany is about the same, maybe lower in India because of labour costs. But it is more expensive than in Germany because of the interest rates. In Germany they are paying 3 per cent, and in India we are paying 13 per cent, which makes it unviable.
RE: How do you address that?
Saibaba: The Indian government, the ADB and others are looking at instruments to address that. If we can address this, then solar can be deployed at a very large level in this country. At the same time, the solar cost is coming down. It has come down globally thanks to technology improvements and the economies of scale. The cost used to br about 17 rupees, or 13c US, a kWh – but the average price is now 8.5 rupees, down one half in just 18 months for utility-scale PV.
RE: What has driven that?
Saibaba: The efficiency of solar cells used to be around 13 per cent, it’s now at 17-18 per cent and the manufacturing plants are taking greater scale, and the cost of solar power is showing amazing reductions. Cell efficiencies will grow to 22 per cent – and at this point in time the difference between grid costs and solar costs is something around 2 rupees per kWh. And the cost of fossil fuel power is increasing. We think that in a maximum of four to five years time, utility-scale solar will be at parity, even at the existing interest rates in india
RE: What will happen then?
Saibaba : I think you will find a huge amount of solar utilitisation across the country. Small rooftop installations, rural electrification where power is not available today, that will help solve that problem. It is kind of a revolution that we will see.
RE: You’re also in solar thermal, but that is more expensive.
Saibaba : Yes, if you go back three to four years, solar thermal was more cost efficient than solar PV. Now it is the other way round because solar PV is deployed in a large way in the world, and solar thermal is not deployed so much beyond Spain. But what we see is there is a huge opportunity in solar thermal, and that comes in dispatchibility; you can consistently supply power to the grid, and that has to be factored in when considering cost. In India there are huge stretches of land for this, in Rajasthan and Gujarat. But our analysis is that an area of just 17km by 17km, and filling it up with solar thermal and solar PV, can meet the entire 100,000MW, which is our five-year target. It is possible to do it.
RE: But if the costs are coming down, is that what the energy future of India will look like?
Saibaba: Yes, absolutely, absolutely.
RE: We see lots of Indian companies coming to Australia to dig up coal and take it back to India. Are they making the wrong decision?
Saibaba: (Big smile) I don’t think so. The way energy consumption is growing, we need all sorts of energy sources.
RE: The National Solar Mission aims for 22GW by 2020, but I think KPMG estimated that could be the annual installation rate by that time.
Saibaba: The number presented by KPMG is to have 60-70GW by that time. And I completely agree with them when they say, the moment that solar reaches grid parity, it is going to penetrate in a very, very large way. It is going to be a sustainable source of energy, and we are blessed with so much solar irradiation.
RenewEconomy Free Daily Newsletter
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Sheldon Glashow and the Electroweak Theory
[Sheldon] ‘Glashow shared the 1979 Nobel Prize for physics with Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam for unifying the theories of weak and electromagnetic forces. The new "electroweak" theory underlies all of particle physics and provides a framework for understanding how the early universe evolved and how the chemical elements were created. ...
"Glashow's work has been instrumental in our understanding of how our universe came into being," says Lawrence R. Sulak, chairman of the Boston University physics department. "In the years since winning the prize, Glashow has helped develop the Grand Unified Theory of all particles and all forces. Its predictions led to the construction of massive underground detectors, the refinement of the unification models, the first observation of neutrinos from a supernova, and the recent discovery that neutrinos have mass. Glashow has fueled an ongoing search for rare events and exotic effects that may shed further light on the evolution of the early universe."1
"Professor Glashow has done seminal research in the fields of elementary particle physics and cosmology. His work led to the prediction of neutral currents, charmed particles, and intermediate vector bosons, all of which were subsequently discovered by experiments. He played a key role in unifying the weak and electromagnetic forces and in creating today's successful "standard model of particle physics," as well as its more speculative generalization, "grand-unified theory." He is the author of some 300 research papers and ... Interactions (with Ben Bova, 1988), The Charm of Physics (1990), and From Alchemy to Quarks (1993)."2
"Glashow's recent research involves many aspects of particle theory, cosmology, and classical mechanics. His most recent book is From Alchemy to Quarks: The Study of Physics as a Liberal Art (Brooks/Cole, 1994)."1
2Excerpt from Sheldon Glashow, University Professor
Additional information about Sheldon Glashow and his research is available in full-text and on the Web.
Gauge Theories of Vector Particles, DOE Technical Report, April 24, 1961
Eightfold-way Assignments for Y1* (1660) and Other Baryons, DOE Technical Report, December 4, 1962
Divergences of Massive Yang-Mills Theories; Physical Review D, Vol. 3, Issue 4: 1043–1045, February 15, 971
Possible Non-Regge Behavior of Electroproduction Structure Functions; Physical Review D, Vol. 10, Issue 5: 1649–1652, September 1, 1974
Towards a Unified Theory: Threads in a Tapestry; Review of Modern Physics, Vol. 52, Issue 3: 539–543, July 1980 (Nobel Lecture)
Additional Web Pages:
Viewpoints on String Theory, Public Broadcasting System (PBS)
"When an object emits light, say, a flashlight, it gets lighter." about Einstein's Theory of Relativity (audio)
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Ask a Question
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How can I ensure that my drinking water is safe?
Rate This FAQ
Every day Americans drink more than one billion glasses of water. Public drinking water in the United States is generally safe; however, it is wise to be aware that water can become contaminated.
Contaminants often have no odor or color and are hard to detect. Some of them are1: bacteria and viruses may cause upset stomachs, diarrhea or more serious illnesses; 2: lead can get into water from corroded plumbing and can cause children to have learning and behavioral problems as well as other illnesses; 3: chemicals such as pesticides can wash off lawns and fields or leak from storage containers, or gas and oil can seep into the ground water and then into drinking water where even a small amount can cause cancer, damage to kidneys, liver or other organs, or present health risks to pregnant women; 4: radon, a naturally occurring radioactive gas found in some well water escapes into the air in the home from showers and washing machines and has been linked to lung cancer — most of the risk comes from radon that seeps into homes from the ground soil; 5: nitrate gets into water from animal and human waste and from fertilizer. Some experts believe nitrate can cause miscarriages in pregnant women, birth defects and illness to some infants under six months old.
Though contaminants can be hard to detect, there are things you can do to prevent them from harming your water. Consider these suggestions.
* If you think you have a water problem, have your water tested. Call the Department of Health for assistance in obtaining a water sample.
* If you find your water's radon level is 10,000 pico curies per liter or higher, contact the State Department of Health or the Department of Environmental Quality for methods of aerating the water before it enters your house.
* If you have pipes soldered with lead, do not use hot water from the tap for cooking or drinking because heat can dissolve the metal. If you must use the water and haven't used your tap for several hours, clear out the pipes by letting cold water run until you feel the temperature change. Very soft water, which is more corrosive than hard water, is especially likely to leach lead from soldered pipes or brass fixtures.
* Prevent the backflow of contaminated water from entering your water supply by leaving an air gap between the water supply and any reservoir of dirty water. For example, if you are filling a swimming pool with a hose, leave an air gap between the hose and the water in the pool. Toilets and washing machines have built-in air gaps. If an air gap cannot be maintained, a backflow prevention device such as a check valve or vacuum breaker should be installed on the water supply line. Inexpensive backflow prevention devices can be purchased from plumbing suppliers. Backflow of contaminated water into your water supply can occur if your system undergoes sudden pressure loss, if there is a line break in the public water system or if a well fails.
* If your water comes from a well, have your water tested at a laboratory at least yearly. Call your county health department if you have questions. Also have your well inspected by a qualified well driller or pump installer every 10 to 15 years. Keep records of well construction details and dates and results of maintenance visits so you and future owners can follow a regular maintenance schedule.
* If you have questions or concerns about water safety, call the EPA's Safe Drinking Water Hotline at (800) 426-4791.
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- Do you have information on freezer meals?
- Would like to know how many drops in one ounce of water equals how many parts per million? Or quart ect.
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- What is the nutritional value of pickled vegetables and how much vit C etc is saved?
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Who would win a fight Batman or Superman?
Which super-hero is most like you?
What qualities do you need to be a super-hero?
Who is the the most popular super-hero in your country?
What super-hero should have a movie made about him/her?
Who is the most popular comic book hero in your country?
What real life person could be a super-hero?
If you could make your own super-hero what would his or her name be?
What would his superpower be?
Do we need more super-heroes?
If you could have one superpower what would it be?
What is the best superpower to have?
What are some complaints that some parents have about comic books?
Why do people like to read comic books?
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
ESL questions and discussion topics on Super Heros for use when teaching English as a foreign or second language. Discussion topics questions and ideas for teaching Adult ESL English as a foreign language / teaching abroad.Discussion topics questions and ideas for teaching Adult ESL English as a foreign language / teaching abroad, ESL lessons, speaking practice, debate clubs, lesson add-ons, and more.
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| 0.956309 | 268 | 3.046875 | 3 |
Ease your first grader into the art of story-writing with a silly short story fill-in.
Help your beginning reader boost her reading comprehension by figuring out what happened next in three different story lines.
"A Silly Outfit" gives your first grader a chance to write an entertaining story of her own, by simply filling in the worksheet with certain types of words.
Give your first grader an introduction to grammar with this cute, fill-in-the-blank picnic story.
This funny, fill-in-the-blank story lets your first grader get a handle on words, while keeping her entertained.
This funny, zoo-themed story gets your first grader to practice grammar and reading practice.
Little brothers and sisters can be annoying sometimes, but that's never an excuse to waste a perfectly good cupcake.
What little boy doesn't love thinking about, talking about, and playing with cars? Encourage him to put his love to the pen by writing a sentence about a car.
Buzz, buzz, buzz! Get your kindergartener buzzing about bees with this beginning writing worksheet. Writing has never been this fun!
Want to get your kindergartener excited about writing? Invite him to write a scary, spooky, or simply silly sentence about an alien.
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TORONTO, Nov. 13, 2013 /CNW/ - Postsecondary tax credits cost the federal and provincial governments billions of dollars each year, but are not distributed equitably and may have no proven effect in boosting enrolment, according to a report released today by the C.D. Howe Institute. In "What You Don't Know Can't Help You: Lessons of Behavioural Economics for Tax-Based Student Aid," author Christine Neill finds flaws in the design of postsecondary tax credits and recommends they be better-targeted at low-income families that need them most.
Canada's federal and provincial governments spend a lot of money subsidizing postsecondary students, notes the author. Tuition and education/textbook tax credits, in particular, cost the federal government alone around $1.6 billion in 2012 - a sum greater than the net cost of the Canada Student Loan Program.
"There are good reasons to conclude these tax credits are poor policy, as currently designed," commented Neill. "The immediate benefits of the credits go disproportionately to students from relatively well-off families, who are not relatively sensitive to the costs of postsecondary education. Students from lower-income families benefit from them only after they have finished their education and have enough taxable income to claim the credit."
Among Neill's findings:
- Only 10 percent of tax filers have an income above $80,000, but they account for about 42 percent of total tuition and education credits transferred to parents;
- About one-half of all tax filers have incomes below $30,000, but they use only 7 percent of all tuition and education credits transferred to parents;
- Very few postsecondary students are over the age of 40, but just over 20 percent of all tax benefits paid to students or former students go to this population group.
The author recommends a simple change to the tax credits - making them refundable instead of non-refundable - which would go a long way to making them more efficient and equitable. A non-refundable tax credit cannot reduce the amount of tax owed to less than zero, but a refundable tax credit can reduce tax payable below zero and provide a refund. This change would provide a more immediate benefit to students from low-income families, those who need it most.
The C. D. Howe Institute is an independent not-for-profit research institute whose mission is to raise living standards by fostering economically sound public policies. It is Canada's trusted source of essential policy intelligence, distinguished by research that is nonpartisan, evidence-based and subject to definitive expert review. It is considered by many to be Canada's most influential think tank.
SOURCE C.D. Howe Institute
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Green Tea: The Eyes Have It
Eyes Can Absorb Antioxidants From Green Tea, Which May Have a Protective Effect, Researchers Say
Feb. 18, 2010 -- Researchers say the compounds responsible for many of the health benefits of green tea are capable of penetrating the tissues of the eyes and have antioxidant activity there.
Green tea has been touted for a number of health benefits, such as fighting heart disease and cancer, thanks to its high concentration of disease-fighting antioxidants called catechins.
Researchers say catechins are among a number of antioxidants, including vitamin C, vitamin E, lutein, and zeaxanthin, thought to help protect the delicate tissues of the eye from glaucoma and other eye diseases. But until now it wasn't known if the catechins in green tea were capable of being absorbed into the tissues of the eye.
Another Health Benefit of Green Tea
In the study, published in the Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, researchers fed laboratory rats green tea extract and then analyzed their eye tissues.
The results showed that different parts of the eye absorbed varying amounts of catechins. The area with the highest concentration of catechins was the retina, which is the light-sensing tissue that lines the back of the eye. The area with the least absorption of catechins was the cornea, which is the clear, outer layer of the eye.
The study also showed that a measure of antioxidant activity lasted for up to 20 hours after the drinking green tea extract.
Researcher Kai On Chu of the department of ophthalmology and visual sciences at the Chinese University of Hong Kong and colleagues say that their findings suggest that drinking green tea could be protective of the eyes. Further studies, however, will be needed to confirm a protective effect in humans.
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There has been a lot of information surfacing lately about this amazing Asian fruit, which is said to have 10,000 times the cancer fighting properties than chemotherapy. Quite impressive! This fruit is called ‘Soursop.’
I just want to say that there are a number of different studies done with this fruit, but it appears that there are no real scientific studies done on humans to prove that this fruit can cure cancer. I am not surprised by this because if this fruit does do as the claims are saying then the cancer industry wouldn’t want to report on a study because then, they would be out of business and the ‘Cancer Industry,’ would no longer be an industry at all. The way I see it is that I don’t understand why people would go through all the trouble of providing their own research and experiences about something if it is completely false. Not only that, but chemo is still really not a very effective treatment at all, so any alternative methods are worth a shot!
Soursop is a sweet, seedy fruit with a milky white flesh and a green-yellowy colored skin. It comes from a specific type of evergreen tree that is found in Mexico, Peru, Australia, Malaysia and many South American and Asian countries.
There have been studies done on rats that show that soursop can directly combat cancer cells and stop and inhibit growth. This is a great thing because the Chemotherapy method combats all cells in the hopes that it will kill the cancer cells as well. Soursop is a high alkaline food, so it is important to watch the intake of it, because too much alkaline can in fact, have adverse affects on the body. If it is being used to fight cancer, then the body is acidic and can definitely benefit from high doses of alkaline. This is how the soursop combats the cancer.
Soursop also contains high levels of vitamin C, vitamin B1 and vitamin B2, which are some of the most essential nutrients for the human body!
One of the downsides to soursop is that it is found mostly in tropical countries, so it makes it difficult for those of us in the North West to reap the benefits of this sweet fruit. It doesn’t travel well as its flesh can be bruised quite easily, and needs to be maintained at a temperature above 3° Celsius. If the fruit is being juiced, then bottled and sold it is most likely pasteurized which will kill the majority of its healing properties anyways. The best way to have this fruit is fresh from the tree, or at least as close to that as possible. Some people have been able to grow soursop trees in Florida too, so there is hope for us up here in the North West. 😉
From what I have gathered, soursop appears to be quite amazing! If anyone is seriously thinking of using this fruit to treat or cure cancer I do strongly encourage everyone to do his or her own research on the matter and decide whether this is a good choice for you! This is one of the MANY natural cancer treatments are available to us today!
We're incredibly passionate about what we do because we know the world NEEDS conscious media. The world is confusing and mainstream media is often making it worse - making what we do even more important.
Producing news is costly! So we opened up a store. to help support our work and expand it while giving people something in return as.
Everything in our store so far is in line with what we believe in and all proceeds support what we do.
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Have you ever noticed that your toddler spends more time playing with the gift-wrapping than the present that was wrapped inside? Or that your older children lose interest in a new toy if that toy has just one way to play with it, and instead gravitate back to materials, like blocks, crayons, miniature animals or iPads where the possibilities are endless?
It is holiday season and so for blogs I have been writing on the researchers and neuroscientists who have genuinely inspired me in my 11-year journey to create Mind in the Making, I am sharing the story of Laura Schulz of MIT. Her studies help explain what curiosity is and thus how to promote children's curiosity in the gifts we give them.
I am not sure about other parents, but I didn't think too much about curiosity except to assume that my children were naturally curious. They wondered about everything that was new and were bursting with endless questions: "What's that?" And, "Why, why, why." Interestingly, however, the research on children's curiosity reveals that is it far more complex than this.
Laura Schulz has been being curious about curiosity throughout her career and finds not surprisingly, that children -- in fact all of us -- are curious about what's new. But there are other drivers of curiosity. Schulz explains:
We often seem to be curious about things that aren't particularly novel -- they just puzzle us.
Her quest to understand curiosity has led to new insights:
I think there are two different things that can provoke curiosity. The simplest one is a violation of your prior beliefs. You go [into an experience] with a certain expectation that "this is the way the world is," and then you see some evidence that's inconsistent with that.
When this happens, Schulz says:
You have to do something with that evidence. You can deny it. You can try to explain it away. You could realize that your beliefs are wrong and that they have to change. But one way or another, you need more information to figure out what to do.
Children also become curious when they have two competing expectations or theories. Schulz elaborates:
The other time you might be curious is if you see evidence that fails to distinguish [among] competing beliefs. There are many things that might be true, and the evidence just doesn't determine which one is the case.
In scientific terms, when people are trying to understand how things work, they are typically trying to understand causal relationships -- what causes something to happen. A toddler might be trying to understand what happens if she pushes her rubber duck underwater in the bathtub. Does it always rise back up to the surface? Yes, it does. That kind of evidence, in scientific terms, is "unconfounded" -- there's a clear and consistent cause and effect. When Schulz talks about "competing beliefs" where "many things might be true," she's talking about "confounded evidence" -- it's not clear exactly what the causes are.
Schulz and one of her graduate students, Elizabeth Baraff Bonawitz, created a study to further explore the question of when children remain curious. They designed a red jack-in-the-box toy that has two levers, one on each side. When both levers are pushed at the exact same time, two toys -- a straw puppet and a duck -- pop up. This toy demonstrates a "confounded" experience: there's no way to determine how the toy works simply by looking at it. Maybe it takes both levers to make the toy work or maybe it doesn't.
In the experiment, an experimenter shows preschool-aged children this toy. The experimenter says to each child, "You push down your lever and I'll push down my lever at the same time." They count to three and each pushes one of the levers. Both the puppet and the duck pop up. Although they repeat this action several times, the child can't figure out from this process which lever controls which pop-up toy.
A second group of children is introduced to the toy in a different way. After the experimenter and the child push down the levers at the same time, they each take turns. The child can easily see which lever controls the duck and which lever controls the puppet. Then, as Schulz explains:
We take that jack-in-the-box away. We bring it right back out along with a brand-new box that the children have never played with before.
Normally, children would be drawn to the new yellow toy because children are curious about what's new. But that didn't happen for one of the groups of children in the experiment.
The researchers found that the children who knew how the old red jack-in-the-box worked (that is, they had unambiguous or unconfounded information) went to play with the new box. But the children who didn't know how it worked (they had ambiguous or confounded information) kept playing with it, as you will see in this video of the experiment.
There are some very important lessons for me in this study by Laura Schulz. The first is to give children gifts that puzzle them, that intrigue them, that make them want to find out more. Rather than toys with just one way to use them, give them toys that can be used in many ways--that's why the classic toys (like materials to use in building and creating or exploring) remain classic.
But the second lesson is far more important. It's how we respond to children when they ask us their endless questions -- "What's that?" or "Why, why, why."
Often we are so busy -- especially during the holiday season -- that we want to slough off their questions or tell what we think so we can finish everything on our to-do lists. But if we want our children to remain curious, we will find times when we can stop, notice what they are curious about and then ask them questions to keep them curious and wanting to explore. For example, we might say:
Why do you think that rubber duck always pops up when you push it underwater in the bathtub? Do you think if you put a washcloth on top of it, it would stay underwater? Do you think your empty shampoo bottle would float? Do you think it would float if we filled it with water?
Or with older children, we might say:
Why do you think your friend seemed unhappy at the holiday party? Was it something that might have happened to her? Was it something that happened between you? What might make things better for him?
It is by remaining curious that children learn, whether about the natural world or about people. And that is a gift that lasts long after the holidays are over!
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Network With Us
Join us on Facebook to get the latest news and updates.
The educators you see on ReadWriteThink are working to improve literacy learning for every student. Check out their stories for inspiration.
ReadWriteThink couldn't publish all of this great content without literacy experts to write and review for us. If you've got lessons plans, videos, activities, or other ideas you'd like to contribute, we'd love to hear from you.
Lauretta D. Doyle
|Contributions on ReadWriteThink.org|
Grades 9 – 12 | Lesson Plan | Unit
Students have the right to have fun in this lesson in which they create a PowerPoint presentation about civil rights and the Supreme Court.
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A study suggesting that the "pause" in global warming is not real has managed to unify climate scientists and their arch-sceptics over the need for further research to clarify whether global average temperatures really have flat-lined over the past 15 years.
The study, by Kevin Cowtan of York University and Robert Way of Ottawa University, found that the global warming pause could be virtually eliminated by including temperature estimates from the Arctic, which are currently excluded because of a lack of weather stations in this remote region.
As revealed today by The Independent, the study used an established statistical technique called kriging to fill in the missing surface temperatures in the Arctic with satellite readings of the atmosphere above. This eliminated the pause or hiatus in global average temperatures that appears to have developed over the past decade or more.
The slowdown in temperatures has been used by climate sceptics, such as the former Chancellor Lord Lawson of Blaby, to undermine the science of climate change, claiming that global warming has stopped despite a continuing rise in industrial emissions of greenhouse gases - set to reach a record 36 billion tons in 2013.
However, Lord Lawson said yesterday that he would like to read the latest study before commenting on it in detail. "These things come out from time to time and sometimes they have merit and sometimes they don't. It needs to be reviewed by other scientists," Lord Lawson told The Independent.
However, the science writer and climate sceptic Matt Ridley, now Lord Ridley, a Conservative hereditary peer, dismissed the latest study because it relies on swapping one type of "uncertain data" used to fill in the gaps in the polar region with another.
"Even if that gives a slight net warming for the past 15 to 17 years, it does not change the fact that the warming over the full 34 years since warming began has been slower than predicted by 95 per cent of the [computer] model runs consulted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change….The key point is that warming is slower than expected," Lord Ridley said.
Rasmus Benestad of the Norwegian Meteorological Institute in Oslo, who was one of the first scientists to try to estimate the effect of the missing Arctic warming data on global average temperatures, said that the latest study is a useful contribution to the debate.
"The pronounced recent warming can be inferred from different and independent observations, such as the melting of the ice on Greenland, thawing of permafrost, and the reduction of the sea-ice. Hence, when the most rapidly warming regions on Earth are not part of the statistics, the global mean estimate is bound to be lower than the real global mean. Hence, our picture of Earth's surface temperature is somewhat 'patchy'," Dr Benestad said.
It is likely that the slowdown in global average temperatures to the Earth's surface is the result of a combination of factors, such as the uptake of heat in the deep oceans, the effect of El Nino and La Nina conditions in the Pacific Ocean, in addition to the hidden temperature increases in the Arctic, he said.
Professor Richard Allan of the University of Reading said that the study by Cowtan and Way appears reasonable as they have tested their method by applying the technique to regions of the world where there are ground-based measurements to gauge its accuracy. However, the study is still preliminary and will need to be scrutinised by other scientists, Professor Allan said.
"There is still a slowdown in the rate of global average surface warming in the 21st century compared to the late 20th century and this still looks to be caused by natural fluctuations in the ocean and other natural climate fluctuations relating to volcanic eruptions and changes in the brightness of the sun," Professor Allan said.
"However, the size of this slowdown and the discrepancy between observations and climate simulations may be less than previously thought. The conclusions of the IPCC stands: we can expect a return to substantial warming of the planet over the coming decades in response to rising concentrations of greenhouse gases," he said.
Ed Hawkins of Reading University added: "This is an interesting and important contribution to the continuing discussion about the recent temperature hiatus, but is unlikely to be the final word on the issue. It must also be remembered that a 15-year trend is still too short to be considered as representative of longer-term global temperature trends, and also too short to be meaningfully compared with climate simulations."
The Conservative MP Peter Lilley said that he is not convinced that the latest study can explain the pause. “The IPCC tried to explain the pause by saying the heat is in the deep ocean and now these people say it’s in the polar regions. They both can’t be right,” Mr Lilley said.Reuse content
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A new satellite launched by NASA at the end of February called Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) will revolutionize the way meteorologists and other scientists view precipitation here on Earth. The satellite has the capability to take a high-resolution picture of all the precipitation occurring on earth — from rain to snow and everything in between — every two to three hours.
NASA's GPM page explains the mission's objective:
Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) is an international satellite mission to provide next-generation observations of rain and snow worldwide every three hours. NASA and the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) will launch the GPM Core Observatory satellite carrying advanced instruments that will set a new standard for precipitation measurements from space. The data they provide will be used to unify precipitation measurements made by an international network of partner satellites to quantify when, where, and how much it rains or snows around the world.
GPM is preceded in spaceflight by its older satellite sibling known as the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM). Launched in 1997, TRMM measures precipitation in the tropics to help researchers gain a better understanding of how "the distribution and variability of precipitation within the tropics as part of the water cycle in the current climate system," according to the mission's website.
A great example of the images captured by the older TRMM is seen in the powerful storm that came across the United States this past week. The satellite's microwave imager was able to capture clouds (especially the swirl west of California in the top frame), precipitation (seen in the second frame extending from AZ into CO), and snow cover (most of the yellow shading in the last frame) as the storm made its way east.
The TRMM is also able to see precipitation in much the same way that we're used to seeing with ground-based Doppler radars, as demonstrated by the satellite's observation of tornadic thunderstorms in the southeastern United States on February 21, 2014:
The mission behind GPM, which was launched on February 27, hopes to build upon the work and research that the TRMM satellite has provided the meteorological community for the past 17 years.
Engineers are currently testing out all of the GPM's equipment to make sure everything works as expected (it is, so far), and the satellite will likely begin transmitting regular data sometime this year.
[All images via NASA / Goddard Space Flight Center]
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Researchers Create ‘Neon Lights’ Using Fluorescent Bacteria
The "biopixels" in this living display can be made to glow in unison and have potential uses in medical research.
Researchers from the University of California San Diego have created an innovative display similar to a neon sign, that is composed of millions of bacterial cells. Thousands of fluorescent E. coli bacteria make up one biopixel on the living display, which can then be made to glow in unison.
A fluorescent protein was attached to the biological clocks of the bacteria within a colony, which synchronized them so they glowed on and off together like blinking light bulbs. Using this same technique, the team created a bacterial sensor capable of detecting arsenic, which made the cells blink on and off to indicate the presence of the toxin. They believe that low-cost biosensors could be designed to respond to changes in the quantities of different toxins over time. Jeff Hasty, professor of biology and bioengineering at UC San Diego, said:
These kinds of living sensors are intriguing as they can serve to continuously monitor a given sample over long periods of time, whereas most detection kits are used for a one-time measurement. Because the bacteria respond in different ways to different concentrations by varying the frequency of their blinking pattern, they can provide a continual update on how dangerous a toxin or pathogen is at any one time.
Check out this video of the biopixel display in action:
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IGY station, field camp has supported West Antarctica science for more than 50 years
Posted June 12, 2009
“Snow melter shoveling is one of the exciting experiences you get at only small inland stations, so consider yourself one of a select group.”
— Your Stay at Byrd Station 1970-71
That little excerpt from the 10-page New Byrd Station guide from more than 35 years ago is a light-hearted reminder that life in Antarctica’s vast backyard is far from the comforts of home — or even the relative luxury of McMurdo Station .
At 80° south latitude and 119° west longitude, it’s not a spot on the world map suitable for a family vacation. The Navy personnel charged with establishing the first Byrd Station during 1956-57 for the International Geophysical Year (IGY) at first balked at the idea of heading some 1,000 kilometers by tractor train across the unknown, crevasse-ridden ice of West Antarctica. But they drove the distance — twice in one summer — and built one of the first research stations deep into the interior of the continent.
Named after the famed polar explorer Rear Adm. Richard E. Byrd Jr., the new station was something of a hurried, ad hoc effort that first season when the military officially commissioned it on Jan. 1, 1957.
A tunnel system connected the station’s five main buildings, but most of the supplies for the underground corridors never arrived. So the men improvised, welding together empty oil drums to serve as vertical columns for the tunnel framework. The first winter-over crew of scientists and Navy personnel had enough food, if the variety was limited, but a short supply of libations, including a ration of only 10 cans of beer per person for the entire season of darkness.
Not all was deprivation. Charles Bentley, a scientist who spent the first two winters at Byrd Station, had his collection of chamber music with him. On his way north after 25 months on the Ice, he lent the records to an incoming seismologist, who promised to return them.
“He never brought them back,” said Bentley, who at 78 returned to Antarctica in 2008 for the WAIS Divide ice-drilling project. “My records are still out there. I always had the idea that I could go back and get them.” [See related story: Practically home.]
No one is likely to see them ever again. The first station was only used for four years because the weight of snow threatened to collapse it. Construction of a second research station began in 1960, about six miles from the original location. Prefabricated buildings with steel “wonder arches” were lowered into man-made trenches and manually covered with snow, a concept first developed and tested in Greenland by the U.S. Army.
Commissioned on Feb. 13, 1961, New Byrd Station was located underground except for some scientific structures. Tunnels connected the stations’ various facilities, which served to support the largest inland scientific program at the time.
New Byrd Station outlived its predecessor, lasting for about a decade. However, equipment vapors, human breathing and various other sources caused rime to form on the inside, and over a period of several years, the structures buckled from within. In 1972, the station was redesigned and moved to the surface. It was then used as a summer-only field camp.
Patrick Haggerty is the Research Support and Logistics Manager in the Arctic Sciences Division of the Office of Polar Programs at the National Science Foundation . But in 1970-71, he worked as the assistant station science leader for one of the first civilian contractor companies in Antarctica, Holmes and Narver, during the station’s final season. By that time, Haggerty recalled, most of the steel arch material had been crushed and removed.
Part of the house mouse duties — common housekeeping tasks shared by all at the station — included roof maintenance, he said. “[We spent] a day per week with an electric chain saw cutting snow blocks from over the buildings (standing on the roofs), and dropping them over the side into a snow melter. Hot water from the electric snow melter would then be drained into a hole in the bottom of the tunnel.”
Recreation at New Byrd Station was “self-made.” There was a library and club, which contained a pool table and BYOB bar.
Byrd Surface Camp carried on support for science in West Antarctica in succeeding summers, albeit scaled down from the heyday of the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1970s and 1980s, the camp primarily supported the new Siple Station at the base of the Antarctic Peninsula as a waypoint for flights, according to Dave Bresnahan, a long-time U.S. Antarctic Program (USAP) participant and former NSF official.
“Flight time, round trip, to Siple was 11 hours via LC-130 from McMurdo,” Bresnahan said. Byrd Station essentially served as a gas station to increase the amount of cargo each plane could carry between McMurdo and Siple. The standard routine, he said, was to fly direct to Siple from McMurdo, offload the cargo, and then stop at Byrd for additional fuel before returning to McMurdo.
“For every three flights to Siple Station we needed two flights to Byrd to position fuel at the camp,” Bresnahan explained. “So, if we had 75 flights planned for Siple, we had to make 50 to Byrd just for fuel for the return flights.”
About the Sun
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| 0.962285 | 1,178 | 3.09375 | 3 |
1. The sixth month of the civil year.
5. A fatal disease of cattle that affects the central nervous system.
8. A compartment in front of a motor vehicle where driver sits.
11. Produced by a manufacturing process.
12. (informal) Of the highest quality.
13. To make a mistake or be incorrect.
14. (Babylonian) God of storms and wind.
15. A label made of cardboard or plastic or metal.
16. South American wood sorrel cultivated for its edible tubers.
17. Thigh of a hog (usually smoked).
20. A soft white precious univalent metallic element having the highest electrical and thermal conductivity of any metal.
24. An industrial city in southern Poland on the Vistula.
28. The mission in San Antonio where in 1836 Mexican forces under Santa Anna besieged and massacred American rebels who were fighting to make Texas independent of Mexico.
31. A small cake leavened with yeast.
32. Being ten more than one hundred ninety.
34. According to the Old Testament he was a pagan king of Israel and husband of Jezebel (9th century BC).
35. A unit of information equal to one million (1,048,576) bytes.
36. A public promotion of some product or service.
37. A soft silvery metallic element of the alkali earth group.
38. A bachelor's degree in religion.
40. The blood group whose red cells carry both the A and B antigens.
45. A river in north central Switzerland that runs northeast into the Rhine.
47. A river in north central Switzerland that runs northeast into the Rhine.
51. A loose sleeveless outer garment made from aba cloth.
52. An Arabic speaking person who lives in Arabia or North Africa.
53. Type genus of the family Myacidae.
54. Experiencing or showing sorrow or unhappiness.
55. A Tibetan or Mongolian priest of Lamaism.
56. Having undesirable or negative qualities.
1. A woman hired to suckle a child of someone else.
2. An informal term for a father.
3. (Old Testament) In Judeo-Christian mythology.
4. Having any of numerous bright or strong colors reminiscent of the color of blood or cherries or tomatoes or rubies.
5. A Chadic language spoken south of Lake Chad.
6. Someone who works (or provides workers) during a strike.
7. A graphical record of electrical activity of the brain.
8. The corporate executive responsible for the operations of the firm.
9. Type genus of the family Arcidae.
10. (informal) Exceptionally good.
18. Aircraft landing in bad weather in which the pilot is talked down by ground control using precision approach radar.
19. West Indian tree having racemes of fragrant white flowers and yielding a durable timber and resinous juice.
21. Jordan's port.
22. A white metallic element that burns with a brilliant light.
23. A member of the Siouan people formerly living in the Missouri river valley in NE Nebraska.
25. An intensely radioactive metallic element that occurs in minute amounts in uranium ores.
26. A defensive missile designed to shoot down incoming intercontinental ballistic missiles.
27. Fiddler crabs.
29. Informal terms for a mother.
30. A Russian river.
33. Being one hundred more than three hundred.
39. A Chadic language spoken south of Lake Chad.
40. A barrier constructed to contain the flow or water or to keep out the sea.
41. Any of numerous local fertility and nature deities worshipped by ancient Semitic peoples.
42. Having nine hinged bands of bony plates.
43. Common Indian weaverbird.
44. A small nail.
46. A unit of absorbed ionizing radiation equal to 100 ergs per gram of irradiated material.
48. A constellation in the southern hemisphere near Telescopium and Norma.
49. The most common computer memory which can be used by programs to perform necessary tasks while the computer is on.
50. The executive agency that advises the President on the federal budget.
51. A white metallic element that burns with a brilliant light.
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| 0.874692 | 913 | 2.5625 | 3 |
The Nature Conservancy Releases Groundbreaking Report on Defending New York City from Climate Change Impacts
New analysis shows mixing natural and built solutions will protect vulnerable, urban communities.
Ariel view of Howard Beach, Queens
The Nature Conservancy released to the public today, two weeks before the one-year anniversary of Hurricane Sandy, a groundbreaking case study that provides a preliminary, comprehensive evaluation of how natural defenses, in conjunction with built solutions, can effectively be used to protect communities in New York City and around the globe from the impacts of climate change.
The highlights of “Integrating Natural Infrastructure into Urban Coastal Resilience,” the first-ever analysis of its kind, are that:
- Natural features can be successfully used in a dense urban setting, in combination with “built” defenses, to provide efficient and cost-effective protection from sea level rise, storm surges and coastal flooding, and;
- Innovative financing options are available to bring these hybrid approaches to reality.
“When Hurricane Sandy struck last year, it changed New York City forever,” said Bill Ulfelder, executive director of The Nature Conservancy in New York. “Sandy left a wake of destruction, and revealed just how vulnerable we are to climate change, how much is at stake, as well as how nature—wetlands, dunes, parks, forests and barrier islands — can play a critical role in helping protect us.”
The Nature Conservancy prepared the report by request from The New York City Special Initiative for Rebuilding to undertake a project evaluating the role of nature and natural infrastructure in protecting communities from some of the impacts of climate change. The community of Howard Beach, Queens, was selected as a conceptual model for the project because this neighborhood, hit hard during Sandy, is low-lying and densely populated. Although Howard Beach was used in the analysis, the study methodology is applicable to coastal communities across the City and around the globe.
The study found that a mix of natural and built defenses could result in avoided losses in this one neighborhood of between $348 million and $466 million from the current 1-in-100 year storm event. Demonstrating the benefits of a hybrid approach in terms of future cost-avoidance provides a strong basis for making investments that use both nature and built systems in community resiliency that are critically needed today.
“The Nature Conservancy is using a science-based approach to demonstrate how investments in natural defenses, often combined with built infrastructure, can provide the most significant benefits. These aren’t only reduced disaster risk benefits, but also clean water, clean air, recreational opportunities and access to shorelines and open space,” Ulfelder says. “New Yorkers now have the opportunity to talk about resiliency—and we now have the analyses that demonstrate nature is an essential part of the solution.”
The Nature Conservancy is a leading conservation organization working around the world to conserve the lands and waters on which all life depends. Visit The Nature Conservancy on the web at www.nature.org. To learn about the Conservancy’s global initiatives, visit www.nature.org/global. To keep up with current Conservancy news, follow @nature_press on Twitter.
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| 0.929066 | 672 | 2.921875 | 3 |
(BPT) - Each year, millions of Americans seek hospital care to treat a wide range of medical problems – from accidental injuries to chronic or life-threatening illnesses. While the majority of patients have positive outcomes, it is imperative to remember patient safety should be a top priority for everyone.
In fact, the World Health Organization (WHO) notes patient safety is a serious global public health issue. Even in developed countries such as the United States, as many as one in 10 patients may be harmed while hospitalized. Injury rates are even higher in developing countries, making patient safety a high priority around the world.
You can take steps to help ensure your safety whether in the hospital for a planned or unexpected circumstance. Here are three things to keep in mind to make your hospital stay as safe as possible:
Reduce infection risks:
Hospital infections are a top concern, especially for surgical patients. According to WHO, hand hygiene is the single most important measure to reduce health-care-related infections. Patients should keep hand sanitizer at their bedside and use it often. Additionally, the National Patient Safety Foundation (NPSF) recommends:
* Reminding your care team about hand-washing before any direct interaction.
* Keeping an eye on intravenous catheters and wound dressings, and notifying your health care provider right away if something looks wrong.
* Taking charge of health problems such as diabetes, excess weight and smoking, which can increase infection risk in the hospital.
* Following doctors’ directions about breathing treatments to avoid lung infections.
Over the past century, anesthesiologists have advanced patient safety through innovative research, science and technology advancements. Whether in the operating room, procedure room, intensive care unit or pain clinic, anesthesiologists are committed to patient safety. Today, anesthesia-related fatalities only occur in less than one in every 200,000 procedures.
To help ensure the highest quality and safest care, anesthesiologists lead Anesthesia Care Teams to supervise non-physician providers during the administration of anesthesia to make critical life decisions when there are only seconds to make them. According to the American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA), anesthesiologists have more than 10,000 hours of related medical training and education to diagnose, treat and respond to any medical complications that may occur.
In addition to making sure a physician supervises your anesthesia care, it is important to follow all pre-operative instructions from your doctors and get plenty of rest before surgery. Also, be sure your anesthesiologist is aware of your prior anesthesia history and any medications you take. For more information about anesthesia and preparing for surgery, please visit LifelinetoModernMedicine.com.
Be aware of setbacks:
While unpredictable progress in recovery is not unusual, it’s important to minimize the risk of avoidable setbacks such as falls and readmissions.
Tumbles are a major concern for the elderly, but even younger patients are at risk of falling in the hospital. NPSF often points to research indicating more than 500,000 falls occur in U.S. hospitals each year, causing 150,000 injuries. Muscle weakness, medication-related impairment and age can increase a patient’s risk of falling. Follow your physician’s directions and the hospital’s procedures for surer footing.
Before you leave the hospital, make sure you understand the doctor’s after-care instructions to reduce your risk of readmission. Bring any questions or suspicions of complications to follow-up appointments to help your physician assess your recovery.
Health care is incredibly intricate and complex, and while medical science has made great strides for patient safety, patients need to play an active role in their care. With diligent research and advocacy for their own health, patients’ collaboration with their care team can make them informed and, most importantly, safe.
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| 0.943482 | 793 | 2.890625 | 3 |
Without the greenhouse effect, Earth would be a cold, lifeless planet. Carbon dioxide and water vapor in the atmosphere absorb solar heat as it reradiates off Earth’s surface and keep the planet warm. The greenhouse effect, of course, also has a downside. Some researchers predict that in 60 years, global temperatures will rise by nearly 4 degrees Fahrenheit as the carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere doubles. Even worse, a new study says that the interaction of higher carbon dioxide levels with Earth’s vegetation could amplify global warming by as much as 50 percent.
How could plants worsen global warming? The culprits, says biologist Jim Collatz of nasa’s Goddard Space Flight Center, are the tiny pores called stomata on leaf surfaces. Stomata allow carbon dioxide to seep into leaves, where it is used in photosynthesis, and they also let water out. Normally, when the sun heats up a plant, water inside the plant gets warm and evaporates out the stomata. But to cut down on water loss, stomata close when a leaf has absorbed enough carbon dioxide, and as carbon dioxide concentration goes up, they stay closed for longer periods of time. With stomata closed, hot water inside the plant can’t escape. The water heats the plant, and the plant in turn warms its surroundings. So the sun’s energy, instead of being used to evaporate water from vegetation, heats plants--and the rest of the planet.
To find out just how significant this effect would be, Collatz and a team of researchers headed by Goddard atmospheric scientist Piers Sellers created a computer model that estimated the exchanges of heat, water, and radiation between the land, ocean, and atmosphere. The model also predicted the effect of increased levels of carbon dioxide on Earth’s vegetation.
If carbon dioxide levels double over the next 60 years, the model found, closed stomata will add up to 2 degrees to the 4 degrees of warming expected from the greenhouse effect alone. It is a significant amount of heating, Collatz says, and from a source that had not previously been addressed in any other model. Even though plants with closed stomata would release less water vapor--itself an important greenhouse gas--that effect would be outweighed globally by increased evaporation from the oceans in a CO2-warmed world. Meanwhile the drop in atmospheric water vapor over parts of the land could have a decidedly negative effect, the model found: it could cut rainfall over vegetated areas during the growing season.
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en
| 0.949435 | 523 | 4.125 | 4 |
Anthocyanins give many red, blue and purple fruits and vegetables their colour. These phytonutrients act as antioxidants to help prevent cell damage and are good for your heart, brain and eyes.
For instance, the anthocyanins in blueberries may help circulatory problems, improve vision and cognitive abilities. New research shows that berries may be important in aiding your natural antioxidant defences against cancer, as they may help block, suppress or inhibit chemical reactions that cause cancer to develop or spread.
How much do I need?
Further research is being done into the way that anthocyanins could help those at risk for developing cancer or those fighting cancer, but there is substantial evidence to support making berries a regular part of the recommended daily servings of seven to 10 fruits and vegetables.
It is always better to eat whole berries than to take supplements that contain isolated compounds from them, since the fruits' most powerful components may not yet be realized. And it would be advantageous to eat them regularly. Some dietitians and nutrition experts in cancer therapy recommend 1.5 cups a day as a preventive strategy.
Juice may seem like a tasty way to get your anthocyanins, but juice isn't perfect. It usually falls short in fibre compared to whole fruit and can be high in sugar and calories. Whatever type of juice you drink, don't overdo it.
Where do I find it?
Your best sources are blackberries, strawberries, raspberries, boysenberries, cherries, cranberries, pomegranate, plums, purple grapes, eggplant (in skin), purple potatoes, figs, prunes and raisins. Purple potatoes have triple the anthocyanin content of white ones. The darker the berry you eat, the higher the anthocyanin level you consume.
Keep berries refrigerated in a shallow dish lined with paper towel to keep them fresh longer. Or place berries in a single layer on a cookie sheet, freeze for a couple of hours then transfer to a freezer-safe container to use later. This way, the berries stay separate and can be removed as you need them. Buying frozen berries is another good option, since you do not compromise much of the nutritional value and they are available year round.
Deep Berry Glaze
Pour this anthocyanin-rich glaze on plain yogurt, ice cream, pancakes, french toast, meringues and angel food cake.
4 cups (1L) strawberries
1½ cups (375 mL) blueberries
1 cup (250 mL) raspberries
¼ cup (50 mL) cranberry or pomegranate juice
2 tbsp (25 mL) granulated sugar
In a saucepan, combine strawberries, blueberries, raspberries, cranberry juice and sugar. Bring to a boil. Reduce heat and simmer for 5 minutes.
Puree in a blender or food processor and then strain through a sieve to remove seeds, if you wish.
Return mixture to saucepan and bring to a boil again, reduce heat and cook gently for 10 minutes longer or until mixture is thick, but not sticky.
You should have about 2 cups (500 mL).
Refrigerate or freeze. It will keep in the refrigerator for at least 2 weeks.
-- From The Best of Heart Smart, Bonnie Stern, 2006
Samara Felesky-Hunt is a registered dietitian at the Downtown Sports Clinics in Calgary. She can be reached at dietitian-online.com.
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en
| 0.926503 | 726 | 2.734375 | 3 |
How polluted is New York City’s air? For the first time, soot and other easily inhaled particulates are being tracked at street level in the city’s five boroughs. The Center for the Biology of Natural Systems (CBNS) received a four-year grant in 2008 to do this monitoring as part of the New York City Community Air Survey. Usually air quality is monitored from rooftops. But CBNS created portable monitors and is placing them on street poles about 10 feet up to track pollutants in 150 sites, from high-traffic locations to quiet tree-lined neighborhoods. By matching those results with data on asthma, emphysema, and other health outcomes, New York’s Department of Health and Mental Hygiene will have a better idea of how reducing air pollutants could improve health.
Through such projects, CBNS— established in 1966 at Washington University in St. Louis by environmentalist Barry Commoner—responds to environmental and resource problems and their policy implications. CBNS is known for its pioneering studies to devise and assess alternative solutions and its assistance to government agencies and community organizations. When it moved to Queens College in 1981, CBNS began to focus on urban environmental problems, and increasingly on environmental health. Its researchers continue to monitor and address the health risks of first responders at the World Trade Center, as well as workers in U.S. nuclear bomb plants.
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| 0.959334 | 285 | 3 | 3 |
To precede is to go before, to be in front of, or to preface. Proceed, by far the more common of the two words, means to go forward, to continue, or to carry on. The words aren’t homophones, but their similarity in sound (and sometimes in meaning) makes them easy to confuse with each other in some contexts.
Thought precedes words, words precede deeds. [Guardian]
Depression is a robust predictor of stroke, even independently of memory impairments that might precede a stroke. [Psychiatric News]
A brief period of freezing drizzle may precede the snow in the state’s north, but Clay said it shouldn’t take long to change to snow. [Texarkana Gazette]
Mining companies can proceed with their challenge to U.S. EPA’s new policies on mountaintop-removal coal mining. [NY Times]
She’ll proceed to the Miss Alabama pageant in June, where she’ll compete for a spot in the Miss America pageant. [Studio Ten]
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| 0.915271 | 230 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Suppose that you could magically snatch a million molecules of “air” from our atmosphere and see what they were. You’d find that virtually all of those molecules were Nitrogen and Oxygen. On average, only about 400 of them would be carbon dioxide molecules (or CO2), the greenhouse gas we hear so much about.
For the first time in human history, we are now on the verge of reaching a CO2 concentration of 400 parts per million (or 400 ppm) in Earth’s atmosphere.
The data from the curve above is from Mauna Loa in Hawaii, the site with the longest observed records of atmospheric CO2. It actually doesn’t matter too much where you take the observations, since CO2 is efficiently mixed throughout the atmosphere pretty uniformly, so the Mauna Loa curve is almost equivalent to the globally-averaged CO2 concentration. As of today’s post, the reading is 399.72 ppm.
400 ppm isn’t a magic number, but it’s a symbolic threshold. It’s also a bit disconcerting that we’ve hit that value; back in 1988 atmospheric CO2 was only about 350 ppm- this was the year “global warming” was first introduced very publicly (by James Hansen, recently retired head of NASA GISS) as a problem that could clearly be traced to humans.
These numbers don’t seem too big, but they are actually quite significant for Earth’s temperature. Remember that CO2, unlike Nitrogen or Oxygen, plays a big role in regulating how efficiently Earth loses heat to space.
You actually need to go back several million years before the industrial revolution to last encounter CO2 concentrations this high. Ice core records from Antarctica, for example, which preserve trapped air from the ancient past, demonstrate that at no time during the last 800,000 years did CO2 even reach higher than 300 ppm. Humans are literally carrying out a geological-scale experiment with Earth’s atmospheric composition.
You can see the clear upward trend in CO2 in the graph above, which covers the last 50+ years. There’s also a sawtooth pattern in the data. This is the seasonal cycle of CO2, and it typically peaks around May, so we will probably hit the 400 ppm threshold this year and then watch it dip back down a bit during the summer (when plants and trees come out in the Northern Hemisphere and take a bit of that CO2 out of the air). For me personally, this is one of the most remarkable data sets in the physical sciences. For one thing, it’s extremely “well-behaved.” It’s very rare to get data that looks as clean as the graph above. It also shows the breathing in and breathing out of life on our planet during the course of the year, in addition to demonstrating the impact of human carbon emissions on the longer-term change in atmospheric composition.
Here’s a plot from ice core data going back 800,000 years into the past. The further to the left of the graph you go, the farther back in time.
The long-term variations in CO2 you see on this graph take place over thousands of years, noting the timescale on the graph above. These ups and downs correspond to carbon cycle changes brought about by the coming and going of ice ages. These carbon changes are primarily driven by changes in ocean circulation, temperature, salinity, and to an extent, changes in biological productivity during the coming and going of ice ages. These ice age cycles are paced by features of the Earth’s orbit, primarily the tilt on its axis. But because CO2 is a greenhouse gas, the changes seen above are still important for controlling the rather large global temperature fluctuations that occur during ice age swings. This is a bit different than today, where excess CO2 is clearly coming from fossil fuel burning and not from the oceans. Nonetheless, the ice age cycles clearly illustrate the leverage that CO2 has over global temperature changes.
It might seem natural to go back further in time in order to see what Earth’s climate was like the last time CO2 concentrations were at 400 ppm. The ice core record above is close to the age of the oldest ice on Earth that is suitable for obtaining these sort of records. Before that you need to rely on other types of indirect indicators to determine what CO2 or temperature was like. Nonetheless, there’s now a number of ways to do this, and it seems pretty clear that you have to go back at least 3 million years to start finding CO2 levels in the atmosphere that are comparable to today. This is a time period that we call the Pliocene- it’s a warmer planet, probably without the West Antarctic ice sheet, significantly reduced ice on Greenland, and at least 20 meters (roughly 60 feet) higher sea level than today. High-latitude vegetation was much different from present, with forests replacing tundra over wide regions.
That is a big deal, and it’s led to a lot of speculation that if CO2 levels are sustained for many decades or centuries beyond 400 ppm, Earth’s climate might end up looking like the Pliocene. Such as change would make Albany look more like present-day Georgia or Miami. This site explores some of the other changes in biology and climate during the Pliocene (you can also use this site to track the most recent CO2 data). None of these climate impacts will happen in the next ten years- it takes time for ice sheets to melt and for sea level to rise, but the carbon we emit today lasts for a very long time in the atmosphere. These comparisons aren’t perfect, but there’s actually nothing else (that we know of) forcing the Pliocene to much warmer than today, so the possibility that Earth is quite sensitive to that to only slightly higher CO2 levels needs to be taken as a real possibility.
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en
| 0.953204 | 1,239 | 3.6875 | 4 |
||The English used in this article or section may not be easy for everybody to understand. (April 2012)|
This picture of Eros shows the view looking from one end of the asteroid across the gouge on its underside and toward the opposite end.
|Discovered by||Carl Gustav Witt|
|Discovery date||August 13, 1898|
|Other names||1898 DQ; 1956 PC|
|Reference date October 22, 2004 (JD 2453300.5)|
|Longest distance from the Sun||266.762 Gm (1.783 AU)|
|Shortest distance from the Sun||169.548 Gm (1.133 AU)|
|Longest distance from the center of its orbital path
|218.155 Gm (1.458 AU)|
|How long it takes to complete an orbit||643.219 d (1.76 a)|
|Average speed||24.36 km/s|
|Angle above the reference plane
|Size and other qualities|
|Average density||2.4 g/cm³|
|Surface gravity||0.0059 m/s²|
|Escape velocity||0.0103 km/s|
|Rotation period||0.2194 d (5 h 16 min)|
|How much light it reflects||0.16|
|Avg. surface temp.||~227 K|
|+7.1 to +15|
433 Eros is the first found Near-Earth asteroid named after the Greek god of love, Eros (Greek Ἔρως). It is an S-type asteroid about 13 × 13 × 33 km in size, the second-biggest near-Earth asteroid (NEA) after 1036 Ganymed, belonging to the Amors. It is a Mars-crosser asteroid and was the first asteroid that was known to come within the orbit of Mars. Eros is one of the few NEAs with a maximum diameter higher than 10 km. It is thought to be bigger than the impactor that created Chicxulub crater in the Yucatán, which has been linked to the extinction of the dinosaurs.
On January 31, 2012, Eros is expected to pass Earth at 0.1787 astronomical units (16.6 million miles) with a visual magnitude of +8.1. But during rare oppositions, every 81 years, such as in 1975 and 2056, Eros can reach a magnitude of +7.1, which is brighter than Neptune and brighter than any main belt asteroid except 4 Vesta and, not usually, 2 Pallas and 7 Iris. Under this condition, the asteroid actually appears to stop, but unlike the normal condition for a body in heliocentric conjunction with the Earth, it never appears to be retrograde. Its synodic period of over 846 Earth days is among the biggest of any body in the Solar System.
Eros was visited by the NEAR Shoemaker probe, which orbited it, taking many pictures of its surface, and, on February 12 2001, at the end of its mission, landed on the asteroid's surface using its maneuvering jets.
Objects in an orbit like Eros can exist for only a few hundred million years before the orbit is perturbed by gravitational interactions. Simulations suggest that Eros may evolve into an Earth-crosser within 2 million years (Michel et al., 1996).
The adjectival form which is not used a lot of the name Eros is Erotian.
Physical characteristics[change | change source]
Surface gravity depends on the distance from a spot on the surface to the center of a body's mass. The Erotian surface gravity changes a lot, since Eros is not a sphere but a stretched peanut-shaped (or potato- or shoe-shaped) object. The daytime temperature on Eros hovers at about 100 °C and nighttime measurements at −150 °C. Eros's density is 2,400 kg/m3, about the same as the density of Earth's crust. It rotates once every 5.27 hours.
NEAR scientists have found that most of the bigger rocks strewn across Eros were blown off from a single crater in a meteorite collision approximately 1 billion years ago. This impact may also be responsible for the 40 percent of the Erotian surface that is devoid of craters smaller than 0.5 kilometers across. It was first thought that the debris thrown up by the collision filled in the smaller craters. An analysis of crater densities over the surface indicates that the areas with lower crater density are within 9 kilometers of the impact point. Some of the lower density areas were found on the opposite side of the asteroid but still within 9 kilometers.
History[change | change source]
As one of the bigger Near Earth Asteroids (NEAs), Eros has played a significant role in history. It was found on the same night (13 August 1898) by Gustav Witt in Berlin and Auguste Charlois at Nice. Witt was taking a 2 hour exposure of beta Aquarius to secure astrometric positions of asteroid 185 Eunike.
In 1975, Eros became the first asteroid to be detected by radar.
Eros was one of the first asteroids to be visited by a spacecraft, and the first to be orbited and soft-landed on. NASA spacecraft NEAR Shoemaker entered orbit around Eros in 2000, and came to rest on its surface in 2001.
References and Notes[change | change source]
- Thomas PC, Robinson MS (1970). "Seismic resurfacing by a single impact on the asteroid 433 Eros". Nature 436 (7049): 366-9. PMID 16034412
- Dividing the mass of 433 Eros by its density gives a volume of 3000 km3, while the estimated 5 km radius of the (assumed spherical) Chicxulub Crater impactor yields a volume of only about 520 km3.
- Scholl, Hans and Lutz D. Schmadel, "Discovery Circumstances of the First Near-Earth Asteroid (433) Eros", Beiträge zur Astronomiegeschichte, vol. 5, p. 210-220 (2002)
Other websites[change | change source]
- NEAR Shoemaker spacecraft
- NEAR image of the day archive
- Movie: NEAR Shoemaker spacecraft landing
- The Eros Project (OrbDev's attempts at litigation over their property claim)
- Orbital simulation from JPL (Java)
- NEODys (saved output file) showing distance and magnitude Ephemerides for Eros during rare oppositions
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This temple is by no means the largest of the temples built by Ramses II, nor is it well preserved; in fact some of the blocks were removed from the monument and reused during the last century. Only the lower part of the walls and the bases of the columns remain. Nevertheless, it will be briefly described because it must once have been among the most beautiful temples in the Nile valley. It was built of fine-grained white limestone, black granite, rose granite, red and brown sandstone, and flawless alabaster. The granite was used for the doorways, sandstone for the columns and alabaster lined the inner shrine.
|Temple of Ramses II|
The door to the rear led to the Sanctuary (5). The roof was constructed of red granite, the upper part of the walls of alabaster, and the lower part of red sandstone. This must undoubtedly have been the most beautiful Sanctuary built in Egypt. The rear wall is an imitation door built of a huge slab of alabaster, which rests on a sill of red granite. The two sculptured panels represent Ramses embracing Osiris.
As with all Egyptian temples, the temple of Ramses II was completely decorated, both inside and out. The walls on the inside were covered with religious subject matter: scenes of priests bearing flowers and sacrificial animals towards the temple; and processions of people singing, clapping hands, blowing trumpets and carrying banners. On the outside walls there were scenes of official journeys, wars and activities abroad.
|Temple of Ramses II Night|
The surviving battle scenes on the outside of the temple can be found on the eastern face of the northern tower (c) and the western wall (d). These are not in good condition, and will be but briefly described.
The scene at (c), from left to right, shows the text of the battle (i) that differs from that at Abu Simbel by a special decree that Ramses’ two chariot horses should be commended for their bravery by henceforth receiving food in his presence for ever. Ramses II is depicted in his chariot (2) with Egyptian soldiers beneath him (3).
Ramses II at Abydos; outer wall of temple (c)
He watches scribes who count and record the hands of the slain enemy (4) and prisoners of war (5). The Hittite army and camp are depicted (6), with Ramses surrounded by the enemy (7). The great battle scene is to the right (8) showing Hittite chariots, the Hittites rescuing their friends from the river Orontes into which they were driven, and the king of Aleppo being held upside down to disgorge water.
The scene on the western wall (d) shows (from left to right) hand- to-hand combat between Hittites, Egyptian and Sherdan soldiers; Ramses’ camp protected by infantry carrying shields; Ramses’ chariot, with sunshade and w'ith groom holding the reigns; and the Egyptian infantry and chariots.
All representations of Ramses II, unlike those of his father Seti I, are proud, arrogant, and confident. His head is always held high and his shoulders are squared.
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Like all collectibles, the rare coin market has its own terms and slang. The following is a brief definition and explanation
of the most frequently used coin collecting terms.
NOTE:This is a work in progress and we would love to hear your comments and suggestions. Send your thoughts
to [email protected].
The major, or most important, coin in a particular series. The "key" coin is usually the lowest-mintage coin and/or the most expensive coin in a particular set. The 1916-D dime, for instance, is usually considered the key coin of the Mercury dime series. It is the lowest mintage coin of the set and the most expensive (in most grades). The 1919-D dime is the "condition rarity key" of the Mercury dime series, as it is the most expensive coin in top condition.
Most sets have more than one key coin. In Lincoln cents, for instance, the 1909-S V.D.B., the 1914-D, the 1922 Plain and 1955/55 Doubled Die are all considered to be key coins in most grades. In MS65RD the 1926-S is the rarest of the regular issues, so it is considered the "condition rarity key."
At times any scarce or rare coin is referred to a "key" coin. The terms "key to the set" or "key to the series" are also used as synonyms for "key coin."
Slang term for outstanding. (i.e. That 1880-S silver dollar has killer luster.)
The number one coin. The 1804 dollar was referred to as the "King of Coins" in an 1885 auction catalogue. Since then, the word "King" has come to mean the most important coin of a particular series.
Slang for wire edge.
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Asof, Marwan and Gofar, Nurly and Rahmatullah, Rahmatullah (2008) Response of clay shale to the variation of moisture content. Geotechnical & Highway Engineering .
Official URL: http://www.fka.utm.my/
Deterioration of shale often occurs in open mining activity because the material is exposed to climate change which causes repetitive change in moisture content and weathering process. Furthermore, the dumping of excavated material caused an accumulation of water and pounding at the intermediate layer and further reduced the shear strength. The increase of water content beyond the infiltration capacity will cause the reduction of inter-particle bonding as well as cohesion of the shale. This research focuses on the effect of water content and creep on both exposed and dumped shale. Direct shear test performed on undisturbed shale and exposed shale showed that creep cause a reduction on shear strength by 60%. Shear strength tests conducted on samples obtained at random from dumped area confirmed that the change in water content significantly affects shear strength. Therefore, the prediction of slope stability should be based on the actual shear strength of both the shale and the dumped material.
|Additional Information:||ISBN 978-983-42613-4-4|
|Uncontrolled Keywords:||shear strength, clay shale, moisture content, slope stability|
|Subjects:||T Technology > TA Engineering (General). Civil engineering (General)|
|Deposited By:||Norshiela Buyamin|
|Deposited On:||06 May 2009 04:59|
|Last Modified:||02 Jun 2010 01:56|
Repository Staff Only: item control page
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Hiking through the snow over the weekend I happened upon a frozen pond, when suddenly a small blunt brown head popped out of a break in the ice near some cattails at the pond’s outfall. The creature then pulled itself out onto the ice where it turned to reveal a cattail tuber (root) in its mouth. Then another creature popped out onto the ice, then another, and two more. In all, five muskrats appeared on the ice each munching away happily on cattail roots they had dislodged from the bottom of the pond.
Although rodents, muskrats are not really “rats," they are medium-sized semi-aquatic rodents native to North America and more closely related to voles and lemmings. Muskrats have sort of a “rat-like” appearance with their scaly tail, but the similarities end with that. Their tail is laterally compressed and it has a fringe of coarse hair along the underside that they use as a rudder when swimming. Their hind feet have partial webbing between their toes to also aid in swimming. Their ears are well hidden situated close to their head and they also poses two layers of thick soft waterproof fur that helps them insulate their bodies against the cold.
Muskrats can be found throughout New Jersey in a variety of habitat types such as marshes, swamps, ponds, streams and even in brackish habitats along the coast. They feed on the roots, stems, leaves, and fruits of many aquatic plants, such as cattails, pickerelweed, pond weed, water lilies, wild rice, sweetflag, arrowhead (duck potato), bur-reed, and various rushes and sedges. They will occasionally eat small fish, clams, snails, crayfish and even turtles. When they eat, they typically use “platforms”. The platform is basically a place where they bring their food to consume it. A feeding platform can be either an area they build themselves or they will use the top of a tussock or in winter they will bring food out onto the ice of a frozen waterbody. Muskrats do not store food for the winter, like a beaver. They need to eat fresh food each day.
They are primarily nocturnal, but can be active during daylight hours. They do not hibernate and along with beavers are the only mammals to build houses in water. Muskrats will build a domed “hut” out of plant material and mud in a shallow body of water with at least one entrance below the water line. They will also burrow into the banks of a waterbody which can be problematic for earthen dams or berms. Both the muskrat huts and borrows are also used by other wildlife for resting and nesting, in fact sometimes while still occupied by the muskrats.
A strong swimmer, muskrats spend much of their time in the water. They have been known to swim under water for up to 15-17 minutes and they can close off their ears and nose to keep water out when they dive.
Muskrats start breeding in late winter and continue into early fall. A single female can produced up to five litters per year, with up to 10 young in each litter. Although muskrats live in large family groups, if it gets too crowed the female will drive the young ones away. In some cases, they are known to even eat their own young.
Muskrats do mark their territory by making “scent posts." These are usually a small pile of leaves and grass mixed with body fluids, that have a “musky” odor (hence the name), secreted from its paired scent glands located underneath the tail. Muskrats are territorial and will fight when food is scarce or when territories become crowded. They can be aggressive when cornered and fight using their long, sharp incisors teeth to bite and slash at an intruder.
In New Jersey, muskrats have many natural predators including, mink, otters, eagles, ospreys, hawks, owls, snapping turtles, foxes, coyotes and raccoons. Aside from being part of the food-chain, they do play an important role in ecosystem management especially when it comes to invasive aquatic vegetation control. Since they feed on wetland vegetation (in particular vegetation that can become invasive – such as cattails and lily pads), by eating these plants including the roots, they routinely open up overgrown areas of shallow water. These open areas then provide good forage and nesting sites for water birds and other wildlife, as well as help maintain plant diversity.
This story is a weekly feature that runs with the cooperation of New Jersey Audubon. For more information about NJ Audubon or how to perform conservation efforts on your property, contact John Parke of NJ Audubon at [email protected] or visit njaudubon.org
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To Home Page
To Exams and Study Guides Menu
The use of secondary sources constitutes an essential element of any research essay written for an upper-division class, particularly in cases where students are dealing with a subject matter in which they have little prior background. Secondary sources often play an important role in the composition of first-year essays as well. It is important, therefore, that you know how to employ such sources properly.
Your principal resource for such issues should be the UofS Regulations on Student Academic Misconduct, which deal specifically with matters of plagiarism and other forms of inappropriate conduct. What follows below are my own thoughts regarding problems students experience in researching and producing formal essays.
The three most common types of mistakes that students make in using secondary sources are:
A fourth difficulty that has to be addressed is:
Documentation: it is important that you document your use of secondary sources properly. Failure to do so puts you in danger of committing plagiarism — the unacknowledged use of another person's work, whether it be their exact words, or their specific arguments or ideas presented in the form of a paraphrase. As a general rule, if something in an essay directly stems from something that you have read, acknowledge its precise source, either in a footnote or in the text itself. The citation need not be elaborate but should be specific. For example, if you have cited Bill Smith's work, An Aardvark's Odyssey, in your bibliography, you need only include a reference in the form, "Smith 97", to tell your reader that this quotation / idea / information (or whatever) is to be found on page 97 of Smith's book. (If you have more than one work by one particular author, include the date: "Smith (1987) 97.") Be certain to include the page reference: "Smith" by itself is not sufficient.
You need not cite a source for general references to matters of common knowledge (the date of a particular work, for example, or the author's birthplace), nor need you cite the source for material derived from the class lectures (again, such material can be assumed as common knowledge between you and your reader). Thus, for example, the general statement that Homer composes in dactylic hexameter or that his gods are anthropomorphic in nature does not require a note — these are matters of common knowledge, and the latter could be deduced from the text itself; the statement that Homer's treatment of the gods reflects the rise of a panhellenic outlook in Greece in the 9th to 7th centuries (something that you or your reader probably would not deduce from the text itself) does need to be documented.
Over-reliance on secondary sources: it is important that you use your sources creatively, not slavishly. An essay that merely summarizes or paraphrases material from a secondary source is a report, not a thesis, and is not acceptable. Essays are assigned so that students will develop their knowledge of a particular field — the material with which it deals, the resources and methodologies employed by scholars in the field — but essays also serve the general purpose of encouraging students to develop their ability to express ideas effectively and combine them into a coherent and compelling argument. The summarizing of material from a secondary source does little to serve any of these purposes.
Rather than merely reproducing some scholar's argument, one strategy that can be useful is to begin with a brief statement of a scholar's views and then use that scholar's arguments as a springboard for your own discussion. Along the way you can use works by other scholars to reinforce your own views. For example: "E.R. Dodds claims that the Oedipus of Sophocles' play is guiltless and that concerns with possible flaws in the character of the protagonist are the result of modern misreadings of the play. I disagree. The following essay will examine Dodds' arguments and will demonstrate their weaknesses by showing that flaws in Oedipus' character are deliberately highlighted in a way that recalls Herodotus' Croesus. This view of the Oedipus has been developed, in part, by Griffith, (FN: "See, in particular, Griffith 203.") whose arguments I will employ to reinforce my own."
Insufficient command of sources: if you cite a work on your bibliography or in your text, be certain that you have read it thoroughly and fully understood the author's arguments. Do not inflate your bibliography with works that you have not seen: to the degree that any of the works you cite deals with issues that you raise, you will be expected to have taken the author's views into account. Neither should you use articles as window-dressing: if you purport to analyze or critique a scholar's work, be certain that you present his/her views fully and accurately. To ensure that you have fully understood a particular article, you should read it carefully (and more than once), take notes on the points that it has to make, and compose a brief summary, in your own words, of its principal argument(s).
For more on this and related matters, the student should consult the brochure published by the Department of English, Requirements for Essays.
Use of WWW resources: the World Wide Web offers an immense amount of material of varying quality and reliability. Students who use the Web should be aware that information is not necessarily true simply because someone has made it available on a server. (The same holds true for academic books, of course, but these usually are reviewed prior to publication and only survive in the marketplace if they have been found to have a certain degree of merit.) While the Web offers many useful sites, it is crucial that you verify the reliability and accuracy of any material that you elect to cite from such a source.
It is also important that such sources be cited accurately. Make sure that your bibliography includes the precise URL for all pages that you cite — e.g.
as opposed to simply
Be sure to include as well an indication of the most recent date on which you accessed the page.
In the case of on-line scholarly resources (accessed via JSTOR, Google Books, or the like), you need to be aware that simply having a group of scholarly works to cite in your footnotes does not constitute meeting the research requirement for a university-level essay. Too often, students settle on the first articles that pop up on a Google search, without a proper evaluation of how appropriate those articles might be or how up-to-date, or how much weight to accord their viewpoints.
For notes on preparing a term essay, see Notes on Composing a Term Essay (Porter).
For notes on preparing an assigned in-class essay, see CLAS 110: In-Class Essay and Class 121: In-Class Essay under Sample Examinations and Study Guides.
Top of Page : Exams and Study Guides Menu : Home Page
These pages were designed by John Porter.
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A complaint investigation about a daycare that offered webcam monitoring to parents caused us to consider the prevalence of high tech surveillance tools in the day-to-day lives of children. Specifically, we wondered how technical surveillance might affect kids’ feelings about privacy.
To gain some insight into this issue, we examined current research on the effects of surveillance on children and youth. The resulting paper is Surveillance technologies and children.
The research we examined raised questions about the potential effects of surveillance on children’s social development in the long term, particularly as it pertains to children’s feelings of trust and autonomy. Some research suggested that persistent surveillance could even result in children not knowing how to establish their own privacy, or recognize the privacy of others.
But it seems that this area is only beginning to be studied. We would like to see more research being done on this subject, taking into account children of different age groups and varying levels of surveillance. Having more information about how surveillance impacts children’s attitudes, life skills, moral development, and sense of privacy would help parents find the appropriate balance between protecting their children and respecting their children’s need for independence and privacy. It might also focus more attention on those who track our children for less altruistic purposes, like for profit.
Have a read, and let us know in the comments: Do you think surveillance of children has an impact on their long-term development? We would love to hear from you.
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One of the most vexing problems for U.S. education has been the achievement gap between white and non-white students. In 2011, “black and Hispanic students trailed their white peers by an average of more than 20 test-score points on the NAEP math and reading assessments at 4th and 8th grades, a difference of about two grade levels.”
But new work shows that this perhaps isn’t the most troubling education gap, as the difference between the educational achievement of affluent and low-income students has grown significantly larger than the gap between white students and black students:
[Stanford Professor Sean Reardon] is the author of a study that found that the gap in standardized test scores between affluent and low-income students had grown by about 40 percent since the 1960s, and is now double the testing gap between blacks and whites.
In another study, by researchers from the University of Michigan, the imbalance between rich and poor children in college completion — the single most important predictor of success in the work force — has grown by about 50 percent since the late 1980s.
These studies didn’t even take into account the effects of the Great Recession, which likely exacerbated the gap. “We have moved from a society in the 1950s and 1960s, in which race was more consequential than family income, to one today in which family income appears more determinative of educational success than race,” said Reardon, who found that “the income achievement gap is large when children enter kindergarten and does not appear to grow (or narrow) appreciably as children progress through school.”
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http://thinkprogress.org/education/2012/02/10/422671/education-gap-rich-poor/
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| 0.981498 | 332 | 3.390625 | 3 |
"You can see quite easily how that mistaken identity might come about," Dr Nathan Hart explains. Photo: Taronga Zoo
Look at these images and it's easy to imagine how a shark might mistake a swimmer or surfer for a seal.
At least that's the premise behind the "mistaken identity" theory that tries to explain why sharks sometimes attack people.
While the idea seems reasonable, even logical, it has never been tested until now.
Mistaken identity? Researchers are testing the idea that sharks mistake surfers and swimmers for seals. Photo: Taronga Zoo
At Taronga Zoo, researchers have this month run a series of experiments to understand what drives a shark to attack by mimicking what they see and hear underwater.
With this information, they hope to develop specific shark repellents, such as making surfboards less attractive with lights; a feature they'll test on South Africa's white pointer population later this year.
"We know their visual system isn't as good as ours," said lead researcher Nathan Hart, a neuroscientist at the University of Western Australia.
Sharks have poorer vision than humans. Photo: Taronga Zoo
Sharks are colour blind but they have very sensitive eyes, making them good at detecting objects in low contrast. However, they also have poor spatial acuity, which essentially means their vision is more blurred than humans.
"If you now imagine blurring those images, you can see how there'd be even more similarity between them because the details of the arms and the legs get hidden," Dr Hart said.
"You can see quite easily how that mistaken identity might come about," he said.
To simulate what sharks might see and hear underwater, the team recorded Taronga Zoo's seals and sea lions – shark's natural prey – swimming and splashing using underwater cameras and hydrophones.
"Then we jumped in the pools ourselves and swam and paddled on surfboards backwards and forwards," Dr Hart said.
From the videos and sound recorders, the team extract information about how seals, sea lions and humans move in the water, the contrast between them and the surrounding environment, and the sounds made. This information is now being plugged into a software system that simulates how a shark might view the scenario.
While Dr Hart said it did seem that seals and humans sounded similar under the water, sharks had a different hearing system to humans so that information would be added to the simulation software.
The study forms part of a broader project funded by the Western Australian government to assess shark attack deterrents. Data published in the Australian Shark Attack File has found most people are surfing when attacked by a shark.
Later this year, the researchers will test in South Africa's Mossel Bay whether illuminating the underside of surfboards with lights reduces the risk of an attack.
"If we can come up with a directed solution for surfers in particular, hopefully we can make an impact," Dr Hart said.
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Chromosome 5, Trisomy 5p
National Organization for Rare Disorders, Inc.
It is possible that the main title of the report Chromosome 5, Trisomy 5p is not the name you expected. Please check the synonyms listing to find the alternate name(s) and disorder subdivision(s) covered by this report.
- chromosome 5, trisomy 5p, complete (5p11-ter), included
- chromosome 5, trisomy 5p, partial, included
- dup(5p) syndrome
- duplication 5p syndrome
- trisomy 5p
Trisomy 5p is a rare chromosomal disorder in which all or a portion of the short arm (p) of chromosome 5 (5p) appears three times (trisomy) rather than twice in cells of the body. Often the duplicated portion of 5p (trisomy) is due to a complex rearrangement involving other chromosomes. These individuals have a variable phenotype depending on which chromosome is involved, the size of the duplication and whether there is loss of material from the same or another chromosome. There are rare cases with an isolated duplication of 5p. These individuals have less variability. The variability that does appear is due to the size and location of the duplication. The individuals with only the duplication allow a better description of the symptoms (phenotype) and definition of a critical region for certain symptoms (cardiac abnormalities and seizures). Many affected infants and children have abnormalities that include low muscle tone (hypotonia); an unusually large head (macrocephaly) and additional abnormalities of the head and facial (craniofacial) area; long, slender fingers (arachnodactyly); delays in the acquisition of skills requiring the coordination of mental and physical activities (psychomotor retardation); and intellectual disability. Some affected individuals may have heart defects and seizures. Not all individuals with trisomy 5p will have all of the symptoms of the disorder.
Chromosome Disorder Outreach, Inc.
- P.O. Box 724
- Boca Raton, FL 33429-0724
- Tel: (561)395-4252
- Fax: (561)395-4252
- Email: [email protected]
- Website: http://www.chromodisorder.org/
Genetic and Rare Diseases (GARD) Information Center
- PO Box 8126
- Gaithersburg, MD 20898-8126
- Tel: (301)251-4925
- Fax: (301)251-4911
- Tel: (888)205-2311
- Website: http://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/GARD/
March of Dimes Birth Defects Foundation
- 1275 Mamaroneck Avenue
- White Plains, NY 10605
- Tel: (914)997-4488
- Fax: (914)997-4763
- Website: http://www.marchofdimes.com
Support Organization for Trisomy 13/18 and Related Disorders, UK
- c/o Christine Rose
- 48 Froggatts Ride
- West Midlands, B76 2TQ SOFT
- United Kingdom
- Tel: 1213513122
- Email: [email protected]
- Website: http://www.soft.org.uk
Support Organization for Trisomy 18, 13, and Related Disorders
- 2982 S. Union Street
- Rochester, NY 14624-1926
- Fax: (585)594-1957
- Tel: (800)716-7638
- Email: [email protected]
- Website: http://www.trisomy.org
- 1825 K Street NW, Suite 1200
- Washington, DC 20006
- Tel: (202)534-3700
- Fax: (202)534-3731
- Tel: (800)433-5255
- Email: [email protected]
- Website: http://www.thearc.org
UNIQUE - Rare Chromosome Disorder Support Group
- The Rare Chromosome Disorder Support Group
- Surrey, RH8 9EE
- United Kingdom
- Tel: 441883723356
- Email: [email protected] or [email protected]
- Website: https://www.facebook.com/pages/Unique-Rare-Chromosome-Disorder-Support-Group/130797430472
For a Complete Report
This is an abstract of a report from the National Organization for Rare Disorders (NORD). A copy of the complete report can be downloaded free from the NORD website for registered users. The complete report contains additional information including symptoms, causes, affected population, related disorders, standard and investigational therapies (if available), and references from medical literature. For a full-text version of this topic, go to www.rarediseases.org and click on Rare Disease Database under "Rare Disease Information".
The information provided in this report is not intended for diagnostic purposes. It is provided for informational purposes only. NORD recommends that affected individuals seek the advice or counsel of their own personal physicians.
It is possible that the title of this topic is not the name you selected. Please check the Synonyms listing to find the alternate name(s) and Disorder Subdivision(s) covered by this report
This disease entry is based upon medical information available through the date at the end of the topic. Since NORD's resources are limited, it is not possible to keep every entry in the Rare Disease Database completely current and accurate. Please check with the agencies listed in the Resources section for the most current information about this disorder.
For additional information and assistance about rare disorders, please contact the National Organization for Rare Disorders at P.O. Box 1968, Danbury, CT 06813-1968; phone (203) 744-0100; web site www.rarediseases.org or email [email protected]
Last Updated: 12/30/1969
Copyright 2013 National Organization for Rare Disorders, Inc.
Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated.
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| 0.805704 | 1,339 | 2.78125 | 3 |
People who have a traumatic brain injury (TBI) may be more likely to have a future stroke, according to research that appears in the June 26, 2013, online issue of Neurology, the medical journal of the American Academy of Neurology.
"Both stroke and traumatic brain injury are common, costly, and leading causes of severe disability in adults, and approximately 20 percent of strokes occur in adults under age 65," said study author James F. Burke, MD, MS, of the University of Michigan and the Ann Arbor VA Healthcare System and a member of the American Academy of Neurology. "A large proportion of stroke risk is unexplained, especially in the young, so if we can identify new risk factors, we have the potential to prevent more strokes and improve outcomes."
For the study, researchers looked at the records of adults who went to the emergency department or were admitted to a hospital for TBI or other trauma with no brain injury in the state of California during a five-year period.
A total of 435,630 people with traumatic brain injury were studied, along with 736,723 people with trauma with no brain injury. Over an average of 28 months following the injury, 11,229 people, or 1 percent, had an ischemic stroke. A total of 1.1 percent of those with TBI suffered a stroke, compared to 0.9 percent of those with trauma with no brain injury. With an ischemic stroke, blood flow to part of the brain is blocked. Eighty percent of strokes are ischemic.
After adjusting for factors that can affect stroke risk, such as age, high blood pressure and high cholesterol, as well as other disorders such as heart disease and the severity of the trauma, the researchers found that people with traumatic brain injury were 30 percent more likely to develop a stroke than those with trauma with no brain injury.
"While the stroke risk of one person with TBI is small, the overall link between TBI and stroke was substantial— as large as the link between the strongest stroke risk factor, high blood pressure, and stroke," Burke said. "If further research establishes TBI as a new risk factor for stroke, that would stimulate research to help us understand what causes stroke after TBI and help us learn how to prevent these strokes."
Explore further: Traumatic brain injury linked with tenfold increase in stroke risk
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| 0.972039 | 484 | 2.90625 | 3 |
The final larval stage of certain molluscs, having two ciliated flaps for swimming and feeding.
- Torsion takes place during the veliger stage, usually very rapidly.
- Most marine bivalves go through a trochophore stage before turning into a free-swimming veliger larva.
- The veliger usually metamorphoses in 5-6 days.
For editors and proofreaders
Line breaks: ve|li¦ger
Definition of veliger in:
What do you find interesting about this word or phrase?
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| 0.889736 | 136 | 2.9375 | 3 |
The Internet of Things (IoT) will create additional security risks for businesses and consumers, according to network security experts at the APNIC 38 conference in Brisbane.
Each new machine connected to the Internet opens another window for malicious attackers to enter, they said.
Eric Vyncke, an engineer with Cisco, said the extent of damage caused by hacking an IoT device can range from minor to devastating. For example, an air-conditioner system could be attacked to cause shivers in a conference hall or a nuclear power plant could be attacked to precipitate a meltdown, he said.
On a more consumer level, a hacker could attack an Internet-connected pacemaker or an insulin pump to bring potentially fatal harm to a person, said Vyncke. Or, a burglar could scan the smart meter of a house to determine the hours or days when the owner is least likely to be home, he said.
Internet-connected devices on the edge of the network should be built with adequate security protections, but this is frequently not the case, said Farsight Security CEO Paul Vixie.
A recent example was a widely distributed Internet-enabled light bulb that carried a major security flaw, he said. The bulb, designed by LIFX, learns the wireless key for encryption when it's connected to the network but afterward has no security to protect that information, he said.
"In other words, anybody coming into your house could then inquire of that light bulb what your key was and it would tell [them]."
However, it's not possible to fix this problem, because the manufacturer has no list of customers who bought the bulbs, the bulbs cannot be reprogrammed through a network upgrade, and the company doesn't have the money to do field upgrades, said Vixie.
"So now what we have is an attack surface that has been built through efficient capitalism. We have ... potentially hundreds of thousands of these light bulbs out there with this bug, and we're going to have them forever or as long as these light bulbs last."
Given that IoT is a broad term covering a wide range of technologies in many diverse areas, the best approach to closing the security gap is to break the problem into niche areas to solve, said Vyncke.
"We need to cut the IoT problem into smaller pieces," he said. "Address [the problems] one by one, and it will be easier."
Adam Bender travelled to Brisbane as a guest of APNIC.
- Top IT vendors reveal their IoT strategies
- RadComms: Tech advances to be fueled by spectrum
- Sweeping security law would have computer users surrender privacy
- IPv6, IANA transition headline APNIC meeting
- Apple reports bump in data requests from Australian police
- Swinburne Uni, Cisco sign research agreement
- Ninja Blocks wants to be 'household name' in US
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| 0.957314 | 591 | 2.671875 | 3 |
“Global warming” is probably the most used phrase at present and has become a topic being discussed over dinner in every household. With an increasing concern about Global warming and its effect on the climate which is quite evident from numerous anomalies in the weather pattern all over the world, various organisations and institutions across the globe have been striving to restore balance on earth by taking various measures of which human participation is crucial part. Organisations like NGOs and governments and other authorities have been creating awareness, educating the common masses about the phenomenon and its aftermath through various channels.
How the population responded
Recent marketing trend of a certain section of the population has shown that these awareness programs have been successful in warning people about Global warming and educating them about steps to be taken to limit its effects.
This is quite evident from the expenditure pattern of the consumers which have reached a record point since 2008 despite the crashing economy.The number of shoppers in stores and on websites increased by 9%. Spending on an averageincreased by 6% to $ 398 and total expenditure was up by 13% to $ 59 billion. A majority of this expenditure has been associated with “green” ecological products which are environment friendly. Consumers are adopting more and more eco-friendly products and are accepting the environment friendly alternatives to mainstream products which emit Greenhouse gases and cause Global warming.
Sustainable products over non-sustainable ones: But of what significance?
The sales of hybrid cars have also increased with the increase in the overall sales of all kinds of car. But these cars account for only 3% of the total market. This means that even though the sales of these hybrid cars have grown at an astonishing rate, it still has a very small share in the market. Similar trend is observed in larger markets, such as the organic food market which is expected to show a growth of 9%, which will translate to $ 35 billion in sales, but still accounts for only 4% of the total food market. So although the sales of green product have gone up considerably, so have the sales of unsustainable products.
Another trend observed in 2010 was that more people were taking buses, trains, metros and other public transports or even took to walking and cycling instead of using their own cars. Other methods like carpooling have also been adopted by many responsible citizens. However, this too makes up a very small portion of the population while the majority of the population continue to take private cars even for small distances.
Availability of sustainable products in the market
A positive trend observed in 2012 was that eco-friendly products became easily available with a number of online and offline retailers making themselves more accessible to the public. Advertisements in social, print and mass media have made consumers aware of these retails selling environment friendly products. It will now be interesting to observe these retailers in the near future who are dedicated to sustainable and more eco-friendly products as many have claimed that they would prefer to buy green products over unsustainable ones if they were more easily available in the market.
Developing countries: The leaders
While the facts mentioned above are mostly related to the United States of America, other studies have shown that consumers from developing countries like India, China and Brazil were twice as more likely to have used green products than consumers in the States. Hence, we can draw the conclusion that it’ll be the developing countries that are most likely to lead the way for responsible consumerism and are more likely to pay extra for sustainable products for their environmental benefits.
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| 0.975302 | 710 | 3.078125 | 3 |
"A giant rhino with a ridiculously supersized head."
"Fifteen long, pointed sideways oriented eye horns: one over the nose, one atop each eye, one at the tip of each cheek bone, and ten across the rear margin of the bony frill."
"A horned face: large horn over the nose and short, blunt eye horns that project strongly to the side."
Such phrases have been used to describe two newly discovered species of dinosaurs with looks only a mother could love. Still, they are drawing the attention and inspiring the imagination of scientists and lay people alike.
Announced today in PLoS ONE, the online open-access journal produced by the Public Library of Science, two new species of horned dinosaurs--Utahceratops gettyi and Kosmoceratops richardsoni--have been found in Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument in southern Utah. Close relatives of the famous Triceratops, these giant plant eaters were once inhabitants of the "lost island continent" of Laramidia, a swampy, subtropical setting formed when a shallow sea flooded the central region of North America, isolating the eastern and western portions of the continent for millions of years during the late Cretaceous period.
"My enthusiasm for these findings is threefold," said Raymond Bernor, program director of the Sedimentary Geology and Paleobiology Program at the National Science Foundation (NSF). "First, researchers discovered two new, exciting dinosaur species. Second, the research has accomplished a major advance in understanding the biogenographic provinciality of Western North American dinosaur communities that apparently included separate northern and southern populations. And third, this discovery has inspired future discoveries in the Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument, which has now emerged as one of the most important paleontological reserves in the world."
But what about these ugly, horned creatures Although much speculation has ensued about the function of the ceratopsian horns and frills of these prehistoric monsters--from fighting off predators to recognizing other members of the same species or controlling body temperature--the dominant idea today is that these features functioned first and foremost to enhance reproductive success. Scott Sampson, first author on the paper, explains, "Most of these bizarre features would have made lousy weapons to fend off predators. It's far more likely that they were used to intimidate or do battle with rivals of the same sex, as well as to attract individuals of the opposite sex."
|Contact: Lisa-Joy Zgorski|
National Science Foundation
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| 0.931781 | 526 | 3.28125 | 3 |
In Alaska, in the Nation and the World
1928, a windstorm in Cordova caused more than $30,000 in damage to the town.
1974, negotiators for the Alaska Public Employees Association accepted a 15 percent pay increase for striking supervisors, ending the state's first government employee strike.
1979, a rockslide in Juneau destroyed a 40-foot section of the Basin Road trestle, closing access to Gold Creek Basin.
1980, Alaska voted to send an all-Republican delegation to Washington D.C. as Frank Murkowski defeated Clark Gruening in the Senate race and incumbent Don Young won re-election.
1986, Steve Cowper was elected as the state of Alaska's seventh governor.
In the nation
In 1884, Democrat Grover Cleveland was elected to his first term as president, defeating Republican James G. Blaine.
In 1924, Nellie T. Ross of Wyoming was elected the nation's first female governor to serve out the remaining term of her late husband, William B. Ross.
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| 0.967938 | 214 | 3.125 | 3 |
Graphene, multi-walled carbon nanotube, carbon nanoscroll. (Image reprinted with permission from American Chemical Society)
Carbon nanoscrolls (CNS) can be obtained by rolling up a graphene sheet into a tubular structure. In contrast to multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), with CNS one can vary the distance between layers, a property that might be crucial for gas storage applications. CNS are also expected to be useful in other nanotechnology applications, for instance in nanoelectronics, since they inherit some properties from both graphene and carbon nanotubes, e.g. high mechanical strength and carrier mobility. However, theoretical calculations also predict some unusual electronic and optical properties of CNS due to their unique topology.
"Although there are abundant theoretical predictions, few experimental investigations on CNS have been reported" says Kaili Jiang. "For instance, up to now its electronic structure remains experimentally untouched, either through optical methods or transport measurements. The challenges are how to fabricate high-purity and high-quality CNS and integrate them into devices."
Previously, several methods have been developed to make CNS. However, they were hard to control, difficult to purify, and the fabricated scrolls were found to possess poor morphology. Now, Jiang and his team at the Department of Physics and Tsinghua-Foxconn Nanotechnology Research Center at Tsinghua University in Beijing have developed a simple and effective technique for fabricating high-quality CNS. This work is based on the development of fabricating and characterizing single-layer graphene on substrate. It will be helpful for exploring both the physical properties and applications of CNS.
"During our fabrication of a graphene-based device using electron-beam-lithography, we found that some 2D graphene is likely to shrink to a 1D fiber-like structure when spinning the photoresist," Xu Xie tells Nanowerk. "At first we tried our best to avoid it because we actually had hoped to obtained 2D graphene devices. However, Professor Jiang thought the shrunk graphene might have interesting properties to explore, so we tried to fabricate it intentionally and then characterize it. Since we do not want to work with a photoresist (which is hard to clean and might affect the physical properties of graphene) we experimented with some chemical solutions. Finally we found that isopropyl alcohol (IPA) is a good candidate and it is the interaction between IPA solutions and the graphene surface that causes the graphene to roll up."
1) First, graphene was extracted by mechanical exfoliation of natural graphite on a silicon wafer covered with 285 nm silicon dioxide and then immersed this chip with graphene into IPA solution. Now, the upper and lower surfaces of the graphene were in contact with IPA and silicon dioxide respectively, resulting in a surface strain in the graphene. This surface strain served as one of the driving forces to bend the graphene sheet.
2) Following the immersion into IPA solution, the edges of the graphene sheet were lifted up from the substrate by the surface strain. Then IPA molecules entered into the space between graphene and the substrate, which also facilitated the detachment of the graphene.
3) In the third step, the detached parts of the graphene curved due to perturbations in the solution environment. Once the free end touched another part of the graphene by chance, the π-π interaction of the overlapped parts decreased the total free energy of graphene, even though the curvature energy increased due to bending.
4) The scrolling process proceeded continuously in the final step, that is, the graphene became detached from the substrate and rolled up bit by bit until a scroll was formed with a decrease in total free energy.
"Based on this 4-step analysis, we optimized the scrolling process in three aspects" say Xu Xie and Long Ju. "Firstly, we found that pure IPA was too harsh for scrolling – if the graphene detaches from the substrate more quickly than it scrolls, direct folding might occur – but that we could affect the scrolling speed with different concentrations. Secondly, the shape of the graphene sheet is important; a long smooth edge was beneficial for scrolling and the sheets tended to scroll along this edge. And lastly, we noticed that the scrolling process is sensitive to contamination and that heavily contaminated graphene is difficult to roll. Therefore, in order to fabricate high-quality CNS, the graphene needs to be carefully protected"
(a) Schematic representations of current conduction at low bias. For CNT, only the outermost shell (which is in direct contact with the metal electrodes) sustains current. For CNS, the current extends to the whole scrolled graphene layer. (b) Current-voltage (I-V) curve measured under ambient conditions showing the high-bias electrical characteristics of a CNS about 50 nm in diameter. The breakdown point, which shows the diameter thinning after breakdown, lies midway between the two electrodes. (Image reprinted with permission from American Chemical Society)
The researchers also conduct an interesting comparison of the current conduction characteristics of carbon nanoscrolls and multi-walled carbon nanotubes.
"For MWCNTs, only the outermost shell participates in conduction at low bias; the inner shells can only couple to the external electrodes through a barrier composed of the outer graphene layers," explain the Tsingua scientists. "In the CNS, however, current flows through the whole scrolled graphene layer."
An interesting aspect of this work is that, since the CNS are fabricated directly on SiO2/Si substrate, it facilitates further device-making. Jiang, Xie and the team are also intrigued by the variations in properties that could be achieved by controlling diameter and chirality of the CNS. To that end they are planning further experiments to clarify the roles and morphologies of the surfaces and edges in the scrolling process.
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| 0.955081 | 1,201 | 3.65625 | 4 |
by William R. Beardslee, MD and Susan Linn, EdD
All families go through hard times. As parents, we may struggle to cope with stresses ranging from money worries and job changes to marital difficulties and illness. Talking with our children about these problems may seem like an insurmountable hurdle, but keeping silent may inadvertently cause them harm.
Children -- even very young children -- are acutely sensitive to the nuances of their parents' tension and well-being. Family silence around stress can cause children to shoulder unnecessary burdens of shame and guilt. Talking with them is an important first step toward helping them gain important coping skills.
Even when families are faced with the most overwhelming life stress, parents can help children. Try these approaches:
- Acknowledge the stress. It's helpful for children, as well as adults, to be reassured that what they are experiencing is real.
- Depending on their ages, conversations with children can range from talking generally about the source of stress, such as worries about work, or going into more detail about it. How much we share with our children will depend on their age, their interests and our own needs for privacy. In general, young children probably need less detail than older children.
- Leave the door open for ongoing conversation. Children understand events differently over time, and their capacity for grasping complicated issues develops as they mature. As they grow and change, we and our children will probably revisit crises such as death, illness, or divorce several times as they grow and change.
- Be as concrete and specific as possible about events they have witnessed. Have we or our spouse been unusually preoccupied, irritable or even absent recently? "You've probably noticed that Daddy and I were arguing last night," or "You've probably noticed that I've been sad recently," are good ways to begin.
- Prevent unnecessary guilt by making sure children know that our irritability or preoccupation is because of something going on in our life, not because of them.
- Encourage relationships with other trusted adults and friends. A favorite aunt, teacher, babysitter or neighbor can be a great source of comfort and support for a child whose parents are temporarily unavailable.
- Be open with children about the ways we seek, and obtain, assistance for our problems, including going to a therapist. In doing so, we model an important coping strategy -- recognizing the need for help and obtaining it.
More on: Instilling Values
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| 0.973249 | 500 | 3.28125 | 3 |
McHoul, A. (1990) Commonsense geography. Geographical Education, 6 (2). pp. 50-53.
Presents an ethnomethodological study of how Australian high school geography teachers and students rely on common sense knowledge and reasoning to facilitate learning. Analyzes portions of transcripts from a class activity in which students built a scale model of a city. Explains location categorization devices, illustrating how learning involves practical reasoning based on culture-bound knowledge.
|Publication Type:||Journal Article|
|Murdoch Affiliation:||School of Humanities|
|Publisher:||Australian Geography Teachers Association|
|Item Control Page|
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http://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/9699/
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| 0.811799 | 137 | 2.953125 | 3 |
Verbs are words that express an action, occurrence, or a state of being.
A verb is a word that expresses an action, occurrence, or a state of being, such as be, have, make, jump, think, speak, happen, trust.
Whenever possible and appropriate, it is advisable to also tag the questions in this tag with more specific tags, such as
- auxiliary-verbs, modal-verbs
- transitive-verbs, intransitive-verbs
- present-participle, past-participle
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| 0.910764 | 113 | 3.515625 | 4 |
This is a condensed and edited version of an unpublished paper given in the invited Presidential Session “The Ethnographer’s Discipline: Alfred Métraux (1902-1963) in his Centenary” at the American Anthropological Association’s Centennial Meeting, New Orleans, 2002. It was further edited for and presented at a session of the Pacific Arts Association meeting, Salem, Mass., 2005.
Field work, and the field notes such work produces, supplies the discipline of anthropology with new ethnographic information. Before ethnography was established as a discipline in the 1840s, the critical and comparative observations of early Pacific voyagers produced rich accounts of Oceanic cultures. “Recent studies of ethnography as a genre bring out the many tropes it shares with unscientific, lay forms such as travel writing.”
Consider the words of Alan Howard, in his foreword to Robert Borofsky’s Making History: “By examining the residues of ethnographic research…we can develop a more sensitive understanding not only of the peoples we study but of our own constructions about them.” This paper examines the “residues” of research produced by two early investigators who were powerful personalities on Easter Island (Rapa Nui): Katherine Pease Routledge and Alfred Métraux.
Between the first visit of Europeans to Rapa Nui in 1722 and the Peruvian slave raids (1862-1864) and subsequent introduction of Catholicism (1864-1866), there were at least 55 ships’ calls (about one every 2.54 years). These visits were largely, but not exclusively, random events, and the duration of each was from less than 24 hours to about 72 hours. Naval officers, travelers, missionaries, and administrators produced secondary accounts in letters, diaries, journals, ships’ logs, and naval reports. Published scientific writings from this era are scant but valuable, and include 1 in French, 3 in Spanish, 7 in English, and 10 in German.
From 1868 to 1935, however, the tide turned. Seven organized or goal-oriented expeditions representing five nations of the world visited Rapa Nui. The on-island stay for each ranged from 3.5 days to 17 months, and the disciplines represented included medicine, history, ethnography, museum studies, linguistics, and physical anthropology. Scientific reports were published by each expedition and specific types or classes of objects were systematically sought and collected. Three individuals with backgrounds in the arts published in the “travel writing as ethnography” genre.
Katherine Pease Routledge (1866-1935), co-leader with her husband of the Mana Expedition to Easter Island, 1913-1915, held one of Oxford’s first degrees awarded to women (honors in modern history). She had field experience as an ethnographer in East Africa (with a major co-authored report to her credit). She was a member of the Oxford Anthropological society and had solid connections in the developing field of British ethnography. Her unpublished field notes are arguably the most important, largely untapped resource in Rapa Nui studies.
Swiss ethnographer Alfred Métraux (1902-1963) was a trained professional whose wide-ranging career was established before his sojourn on Rapa Nui. He carried out fieldwork as a member of the Franco-Belgian Expedition to Easter Island, July 1934 to January 1935. His report, published in English by the Bishop Museum in 1940, is a baseline ethnographic source. Neither the Mana Expedition nor the Franco-Belgian expedition included an archaeologist. O.G.S. Crawford quit the Mana Expedition within weeks of its departure from England, and French archaeologist Charles-Louis Watelin of the Franco-Belgian expedition died at sea before reaching Rapa Nui.
Rapa Nui is isolated in the East Pacific, in an extreme windward position, at 270 9’ S latitude, 1090 26’ W longitude. It is 2,300 miles west of Chile and 1,400 miles east of Pitcairn, its nearest neighbor. Mangareva lies just beyond Pitcairn. Rapa Nui has no protective reef. Its roughly triangular shape was created about three million years ago by the coalescing flows of three massive submarine volcanoes—each of which marks a point of the triangle. Smaller volcanic cones punctuate a landscape of gently rolling hills and grassy, rock-strewn slopes. Winds are changeable but nearly constant, and the southeast trade winds dominate from October to April. The climate is subtropical, but Rapa Nui is no quintessential South Seas paradise. Environmental hazards include drought and tidal waves. Its chief characteristic is geographic isolation.
Routledge was 48 years old when she arrived on Rapa Nui, while Métraux was only 32. Each experienced isolation as Rapa Nui’s most profoundly affecting attribute. Both suffered at various times in their lives from significant depression, including while on Rapa Nui. While Routledge, in general, found the island liberating, Métraux found it confining. While Routledge sought independence in the field, Métraux preferred the interchange of his colleagues. While Routledge immersed herself in the larger cultural experience, Métraux appears to have been alienated by it.
The Routledges arrived on Rapa Nui aboard Mana, a state-of-the-art yacht choking on tons of food, equipment, medical supplies and luxuries of every description. In sharp contrast, the 250 Rapa Nui people who greeted them were living in a repressed and impoverished state. They were confined to the island’s only village (Hanga Roa) and to a tiny surrounding patchwork of about six acres. The rest of the island—more than 90% of its surface—was leased by an international sheep ranching concern (“the Company”). The only crop foods were bananas and sweet potatoes grown in small household plots. Big, deep-sea fish were rarely available, and smaller coastal fish and sea urchins were commonly eaten. Milk was rare and meat so expensive that sheep and cattle were regularly poached.
Mataveri farm—on land that was once the staging ground for ancient, exotic birdman (tangata manu) ceremonies—was Company headquarters and home to Percy Edmunds, a Scotch-English collector, entrepreneur and resident ranch manager. Although only a mile distant, Hanga Roa and Mataveri were worlds apart. Hanga Roa had no school, no medical care, no sanitary facilities and only one or two water cisterns. Mataveri was a comfortable European enclave strictly off-limits to all but a chosen few. Workmen were given seasonal work shearing sheep or running stock, and wages of about twenty to forty centavos a day were credited against purchases in the Company store. Most families were enslaved by debt.
The Franco-Belgian Expedition was transported to Rapa Nui by the French navy aboard the man-of-war Rigault-de-Genouilly. The expedition arrived in July, 1934 and departed in January, 1935, less than a month after Katherine Routledge died in Ticehurst, an insane asylum near Somerset. The population of the island was 456, all “entirely derived from the 111 natives left after the abandonment of the island by the French missionaries in 1872.” Henri Lavachery, a museum curator and rock art enthusiast, a Chilean doctor intending to study leprosy, and Métraux made up the team. Lavachery and Métraux believed that Mana Expedition papers had been lost.
Juan Tepano Huki was the son of Victoria Veriamu and Rano, her third husband. Tepano was baptized Catholic and had served in the Chilean military, where he acquired a sense of personal discipline, punctuality and familiarity with weapons. Upon his return to the island in 1901 he was named “headman” of the community and, in 1902, appointed “mayor” by the Company. He was a man of the wider world, the conduit between Hanga Roa and Mataveri, between the islanders and the Company. He had police power in the village and freedom to travel the island.
The delicately self-sustaining Rapa Nui world constantly tried either to save itself from outsiders or to benefit from contact with them, and the community guarded its resources carefully. Because Tepano received so much support from outsiders he, in turn, lost some familial support. By 1934-35, Tepano believed that the anthropologists and archaeologists he worked with were building reputations and getting rich from his hard-won knowledge.
Katherine Routledge immediately grasped Tepano’s central role in island society. “Any real success” she had on the island, Katherine wrote in The Mystery of Easter Island, was “due to the intelligence of one individual known as Juan Tepano.” Such praise later encouraged Alfred Métraux to seek out Tepano. Métraux said that Tepano was Katherine’s “interpreter,” and had “retained” from his contact with her “a keen interest in the past. He is intelligent, quick, and proud of his reputation as the maori [expert] of the old folklore. When other natives are asked about their ancestors they always refer to Juan Tepano.”
Tepano had thus become, in the course of 21 years between the Mana Expedition and the Franco-Belgian Expedition, the Rapa Nui community’s recognized expert in their traditions. This change in status, from respected, feared, and envied “headman” in his 40s to revered cultural elder in his 60s, was not an accident. It was constructed by Tepano in his own interest and as a direct result of his field work with Katherine Routledge. Before working with her, and by his own admission, Tepano regretted not knowing more about his culture. He regretted not listening to his elders.
When Tepano orchestrated and facilitated a circle of ethnographic contacts for Routledge, however, he came into regular contact with them as her translator. He was exposed to objects and artifacts he had never seen on the island through the photographs, museum catalogs and books she brought with her and shared with him. He absorbed new information from the field discoveries they made together. Tepano’s contact with Routledge changed his life, and the information he later shared with Métraux was, in a real way, enriched—some would say contaminated—by his intimate contact with Katherine Routledge.
During his work with Routledge, Tepano looked after a small group of elderly men who were without family, and he brokered or arranged fruitful contacts for her with them and a half-dozen others. Jotefa Maherenga was the oldest man on the island at the time. “Kapiera” (Gabriel Revahiva), “Porotu” (Juan; Hongi Atua a Ure Auviri), “Te Haha” (Ramón Te Haha) and others met with Katherine in what anthropologists call “veranda interviews.” She paid them in food or favors, and developed fruitful relationships with most of them. However, she had poor social relationships with young Rapa Nui males. They kept their distance because Juan Tepano had “assumed the attitude of watch-dog” over her.
It is probable that younger Rapa Nui men, if not the entire community, assumed that sex was part of the bargain between Tepano and Katherine Routledge. Sex had always played a religious and economic role on Rapa Nui, just as it had in all other early island societies. Routledge noted that, “sexual morality, as known to us, was not a strong point in life on the island.” Tepano’s proprietary “watch-dog” relationship with Routledge benefited him and enriched her work, but it also shaped and curtailed it.
Katherine, considering her “new woman” approach to life, held some quite startlingly conventional beliefs that, apparently, Tepano shared. As jefe or “headman” of the village, Tepano acted as a kind of policeman. Some say he was a prig and zealous enforcer of sexual morality in others—people in Hanga Roa sang a song, a little ditty to warn others when he was nearby. Such conservative notions of sexual propriety were part of the role Tepano played in the European world.
Victori Veriamu was Juan Tepano’s mother. Her age in 1914 is uncertain, but she was probably the oldest Rapa Nui woman then living. Born in the eastern part of the island, literally in the shadow of the great statue quarries of Rano Raraku, Veriamu had had three husbands. Sadly, all of her children except Juan Tepano and a daughter—who lived in the leper colony—had perished in the mid-1800s. Her last husband, Rano (baptized “Iovani”), was also from the eastern sector; he was Tepano’s father and Veriamu’s favorite. When Métraux arrived in 1934-35 Veriamu was said to be 100 years old and no longer able to remember the past. As a consequence, details of important early initiation and other ceremonies experienced by women or viewed through the eyes of females of the time are sparse in Routledge’s notes and lacking in Métraux’s.
In spite of Métraux’s acknowledgement of Tepano as a consultant, there is good evidence that their relationship was confrontational. Tepano’s son Jorge worked at Orongo in 1954-55 with archaeologist Edwin N. Ferdon, Jr. of Thor Heyerdahl’s Norwegian Archaeological Expedition. He told Ferdon that Alfred Métraux challenged his father often. Their disagreements finally came to a head one evening when Tepano, deeply annoyed and angry, shoved Métraux out of his house.
In fact, the lion’s share of the credit for Métraux’s ethnographic detail goes not to Tepano but to the dazzling Isabel Chavez, who flatly enchanted Métraux, and to Victoria Rapahango, who was his chief consultant. These two women opened doors to feminine custom that Katherine had never approached with Veriamu. Both Métraux and Lavachery lavished expensive gifts on the women, including white silk stockings and fashionable clothing. Lavachery was so taken with Victoria that he tried to persuade her to leave the island with him and attempted to adopt her daughter.
Routledge’s field notes are primarily scratch notes usually produced in full view of her consultants (except in the case of Juan Porotu, who disliked her note taking and refused to be photographed or drawn). She often conducted intensive group interviews or rambling gossip session translated by Tepano or a resident European named Varta.. Her field notes are thus of the type usually called “inscription,” in which Routledge as a participant-observer jotted down words or phrases. During later “transcription” she used them to recall the whole thought or event. Unfortunately, her scratch notes are incomplete or illegible. Her final “descriptive” field notes were often written after the scratch notes were “cold” or not written at all.
Katherine painstakingly traced genealogies and connected a family web of almost two hundred Rapa Nui people. She considered information from a single source to be “inadmissible evidence.” Her methodology was to seek two individuals who could support a given point, thus giving her three statements. She rarely got that, but was able quite often to validate a statement with one other confirming opinion. She applied tests of continuity and context, and sought corroboration.
Her husband William Scoresby Routledge, in contrast, was convinced that Katherine’s consultants were dishonest, making up stories to either please or mislead her. Tepano, to a certain extent, shared his cynicism—he once characterized one of his own relatives as “a liar.” One of the younger Rapa Nui women working at Mataveri derisively told Katherine that the old men she consulted did not know what they were talking about. Routledge did not believe that her consultants deliberately invented stories, but did see the “tendency to glide” when “memory was vague”
As early as July, 1914 Tepano had begun to take “a real interest in the work.” His mutually beneficial collaboration with Routledge grew and deepened over the seventeen months the expedition was on Easter Island.
By the time the Mana Expedition departed Routledge and Tepano had covered every inch of the island and were a field team of two—working together on the same task or separately pursuing the same elusive bit of information. Scattered throughout Katherine’s fieldnotes and journals are dozens of pencil sketches by Tepano with her notes in pen attached; pages torn from his Company account books and scribbled on by her hand; names of places, families, statues and clans given to her by old people and then scratched out and corrected by Tepano.
On September 21 Scoresby, Katherine, and four men dug out two statues in the interior of the quarry that turned out to be, in Katherine’s opinion, her single most important archaeological finds on the island. One of them was buried up to its chin and the other to mid-torso. On September 24 Tepano was at Mataveri and heard gossip that many toki had been taken from the excavations when Katherine’s back was turned. He reported it to her and, two days later, Katherine refused to pay the men until the tools were returned. Tepano, in fact, handled many of the expedition’s logistical details.
Did I make clear that if you have not got the 2 men to dig for us on Monday I should be so much obliged if you would hand the matter over to Juan [emphasis added] & [ask] him to find them if possible. Wages of $1 a day & mutton if they want potatoes etc they had better bring them.
Just a few months after the departure of the Franco-Belgian Expedition, Padre Sebastián Englert arrived. He spent the next thirty-three years pursuing the Rapa Nui past.
Notwithstanding Métraux’s opinion that all was lost, Englert inventoried moai and other archaeological remains; recorded stories and legends; studied and spoke the Rapanui language, and published some of his findings. When the Norwegian Archaeological Expedition arrived, it was Padre Englert who took on Tepano’s traditional role of intermediary and liaison with the community, acting as archaeological guide and chief consultant. This was, of course, a significant departure from the methods of both Katherine Routledge and Alfred Métraux.
There were definite differences in the ways Routledge, Métraux and Tepano gathered information about the Rapa Nui past. Those differences in style reveal their individual personalities and tastes as well as the nature of the island and its history. Social, cultural, economic and ecological constraints acted on all of them. Their individual strengths and weaknesses combined to produce a unique intellectual triangulation across time.
The principles and goals of field work articulated by Malinowski were recognized before 1914. Routledge understood field work methods to include outlining native customs through direct questioning, the gathering of genealogies, and census taking. She was significantly less successful at grasping the more imponderable aspects of island life through use of the Rapanui language.
Routledge’s approach to field work was humanistic and subjectivist. Functional analyses involving charts, tables and cross-referenced inter-relationships between cultural events or human institutions utterly escaped her. The “ticking clock” that she sensed every day, and that urged her on to rescue history threatened with extinction was embedded in her by Haddon, Rivers, Seligman and other anthropologists of the day who saw all field research as salvage work.
Katherine Routledge knew the four guides of ethnographic fieldwork: learn the language; be authoritative but sympathetic; record everything precisely, and avoid preconceptions. She succeeded at following only one of them: authority and sympathy were inherent in her character.
Katherine Routledge had in common with Métraux two ways in which she understood her data: as a collection of empirical facts (metonymic) and as images or patterns (metaphoric). She was, in fact, obsessed with patterns. Métraux dealt with data as a hierarchical, functional or organizational whole, and sought temporal reality or relevance. Both Routledge and Métraux achieved a certain degree of success in making difficult customs and fragmented beliefs comprehensible.
Tepano’s influence on the data is reflected in Katherine Routledge’s field notes and in Métraux’s published ethnographic report. It is also discernable in later records, including those of Englert. During demonstrations of self-taught carving prowess, language facility, and memory, Tepano communicated to younger members of the Rapa Nui community what he had learned as Routledge’s consultant, confidant and collaborator, and left a lasting imprint on Rapa Nui culture. He taught his daughter, Amelia, what he had learned from Veriamu. In my own field work between 1982 and 1990, I have notes in which field assistants such as Felipe Teao A., and recognized elders and traditional authorities such as José Fati answered my questions by naming and referring directly to Juan Tepano.
Tepano observed and participated in group conversations in his own language. Routledge staged group interactions and sought consensus through interpreters.
Métraux tried to followed-up on Routledge’s data through Tepano. At least two elderly women who were alive when Routledge was on the island were still living when Métraux arrived. While he relied on Victoria Rapahango and Isabel Chavez, yet he confirmed much of what Routledge had collected. He collated and summarized data, presenting it in the context of museum collections and in a cohesive and well-established scientific fashion. Routledge and Métraux each collected a body of field data, and each interpreted that data in their own ways. Tepano, in contrast, did much more: he single-handedly identified, collected, recorded, influenced, shaped and reconstructed the quintessential data all researchers today regard as the ethnography of Rapa Nui.
No related posts.
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No. 98: Mar-Apr 1995
In August 1914, Professor M.A. Gonzales was excavating Mayan ruins in the city of Acajutla, in Mexico. The two illustrated statuettes were uncovered. On the male, the headdress, the beard, and the cartouche are all typically Egyptian in style. The male is thought to represent Osiris, the female Isis.
(Thompson, Gunnar; "Egyptian Statuettes in Mexico," Ancient American, 2:12, no. 8, 1995.)
In the same issue of The Ancient American, the issue of whether the ancient Egyptians reached the New World is joined with pro and con articles. The first is entitled: "The Egyptians Were Here!" It is written by R.A. Jairazbhoy, like G. Thompson an ardent diffusionist and author of the recent book Rameses III: Father of Ancient America. No need to ask what Jairazbhoy's position is on the issue!
The second article is a rebuttal to the whole Egypt-in-America business by E. Lurio. His title: "Point: No Egyptians in Ancient America." Lurio is also the author of the 1990 book: A Fractured History of the Discovery of America. Lurio concludes: "Sorry folks! It just ain't so."
Finally, G. Thompson comes to the fore again with: "Counter Point: Egypt's Role in Ancient America." Thompson's latest contribution to the anomalist's library is: American Discovery. We have to warn readers that the issue is contaminated with frauds and wishful correlations on one hand and, on the other, by derisive dismissals of artifacts and epigraphy that really may be legitimate.
Science Frontiers Sourcebook Project Reviewed in:
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I'm stuck on bQuote:
When bicycles are sold for $300 each, a cycle store can sell 70 in a season. For every $25 increase in the price, the number sold drops by 10.
a) Represent the sales revenue as a function of the price.
b)The total sales revenue is $17,500. How many bicycles were sold? What is the price of one bicycle?
c) What range of prices will give a sales revenue that exceeds $18,000?
n= number of bikes
Price| Number of Bikes sold
300 | 70
325 | 60
350 | 50
So find the slope
Plug that into y=mx+b
So that means the function to find n(number of bicycles sold) is
Since Revenue is then part a is which simplifies to
So to solve part b?(Speechless)
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Although scientists are uncertain of when some of the tipping points will occur, many say that it is extremely urgent that policies cut carbon emissions in the next 50 years; not doing so could trigger changes that are irreversible. Three “too close for comfort” tipping points are:
- complete coral bleaching which could damage world fisheries in three decades;
- serious sea level rise by the end of the century, taking tens of thousands of years to reverse;
- shutdown of the ocean current system that moderates temperatures in northern Europe, in as little as 200 years.
Princeton University geosciences and international affairs professor Michael Oppenheimer, who also advises the advocacy group Environmental Defense, said one of the greatest dangers is in the collapse of Greenland or West Antarctic ice sheets that consist of 20% of world’s fresh water. If either collapses, sea level would rise by 20 feet, flooding a third of Florida and Manhattan. Once lost, there would be no way to reverse it for thousands of years. A 1.8 degrees Fahrenheit rise would lead to serious coral bleaching. Many are worried about the collapse of Atlantic thermohaline circulation, a current bringing warm surface water to northern Europe as well as returning cold water from the south. According to Hans Joachim Schellnhuber, there is 50% chance that the current will collapse within 200 years.
Date: 29 January 2006
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This was a student's work was done in 15 minutes of class time. There is so much math here too.
Sign up with desmos.com and make a face using the free online calculator.
Your face must include these things:
1. A circle or ellipse
2. A line
3. A sin or cos wave
4. A slider
5. A parabola
Now post your face in a link to this website: http://tinyurl.com/nchsprecalculus6
Please go to this site to see all the wonderful examples that my students made. They will make you smile.
Here are some questions that I had today.
How do you make the sin wave go vertical instead of sideways?
How do you move the circle from the center?
How do you restrict the x values so they don't always show?
How do you make a circle bigger?
How do I make this parabola wider?
Take 15 minutes and make a face today and you will see how much math DESMOS has. Now this was a fun class. The students were really active in their pursuit of the math topics. Please try this and let me know how it goes.
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| 0.924928 | 254 | 3.78125 | 4 |
You are not currently logged in.
Access your personal account or get JSTOR access through your library or other institution:
Black Educators' Views on Middle School Students' Dress and Uniforms: Addressing Challenges from Commercialism
Sylvan I. Alleyne, Velma LaPoint, Jennifer Lee and Harold W. Mitchell
The Journal of Negro Education
Vol. 72, No. 4, Commercialism in the Lives of Children and Youth of Color: Education and Other Socialization Contexts (Autumn, 2003), pp. 418-426
Published by: Journal of Negro Education
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3211193
Page Count: 9
Preview not available
Youth dress, influenced by commercialism, impacts students' attitudes and behaviors in public schools. This article reports quantitative data and qualitative data on Black educators' views on student dress and behavior, including the use of uniforms. Findings indicate that educators support the use of school uniforms because they believe that uniforms reduced the risk of both psychological harm and school related problems. Younger students (sixth graders) agreed with the educators while the older students disagreed. These findings generally reflect the views of many educators who are grappling with effective strategies to reduce dress-related problems among youth in public schools.
The Journal of Negro Education © 2003 Journal of Negro Education
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| 0.88943 | 280 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Accuplacer English placement test has two parts: Sentence Skills and Reading
consists of 20 questions. The test is not timed, but may take
approximately one hour. The Sentence Skills test measures your ability to
correct sentences by substituting a word or phrase underlined in the sentence.
It will also ask you to specifically rewrite sentences without changing the
meaning. Reading Comprehension measures your analytical and comprehensive
reading skills and your ability to apply what you have read.
Samples of Both Tests
- College Board Official Web-Based Study App for computers - FREE -
Interactive practice tests for ACCUPLACER™ Arithmetic, Elementary Algebra,
College-Level Math, Reading Comprehension and Essay Skills tests
- Accuplacer Test Descriptions and Samples from The College Board
- Accuplacer Free Sample Questions from The College Board
- Advancer - Montgomery
College offers an intensive online tutorial program for each of the three
Accuplacer test subjects: Mathematics, Reading Comprehension, and
Sentence Skills. Register for Advancer here.
Reading Comprehension Sample Tests
County Community College District Dallas TX
Community College NC Reading Practice Test
- Reading Comprehension Passiac County Community
- Studyguidezone: www.studyguidezone.com/accuplacer_reading.htm
- Test Prep Practice.net www.testpreppractice.net/ACCUPLACER/Reading-Comprehension-ACCUPLACER-Practice-Tests.aspx
- Aims Community College,
- Central Piedmont CC,
NC – Accuplacer Reading Comprehension Videos
Sentence Skills (English)
- Practice Test Dallas County Community
College District TX
- Sentence Skills Sample Test StudyguideZone
- Sandhills CC NC Sentence Skills Practice Test
- Accuplacer Sentence Skills Videos Central Piedmont
- Aims Community College
Google it! Search "Accuplacer practice tests" to find more sample tests, and search Youtube.com for practice videos.
Accuplacer ESL Samples:
- Bunker Hill Community
- The College Board – ESL Accuplacer sample starts on Page 15
Go to Montgomery College Assessment Centers this link includes additional study sites.
Last update: 5/3/16 ads
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Last name: Skinley
Recorded in a number of spellings, as shown below, this unusual surname is English. It is well recorded from Elizabethan times, and is believed to derive from either the Medieval English word 'shingle', or perhaps from a lost mvillage called 'Scincle-leah' or similar, meaning the place where shingles were made, as in Shingle in Essex. Shingle is a developed form of the pre 8th century 'scinglen', and hence was an occupational name for a maker or seller of wood tiles much used in South East England for roofing. In the modern idiom the surname spellings are believed to include Skingle, Skingell, Skinglee, Skinsley, Skinley and Skingley. The surname not surprisingly is most recorded in Greater London and examples include John Skingle at St James Clerkenwell in the city of London on September 30th 1599, and in the county of Kent that of James Skingley, a christening witness at Bearsted church on August 16th 1605. The name recordings in the surviving registers of Greater London include such examples as Joseph Skingell in 1616, Clemence Skyngle in 1617 and George Skinglee in 1713. The first recorded spelling of the family name is shown to be that of John Skingle, which was dated 30th September 1599, who married Christiana Fletcher at St. James Church Clerkenwell, during the reign of Queen Elizabeth 1, known as 'Good Queen Bess', 1558 - 1603. Surnames became necessary when governments introduced personal taxation. In England this was known as Poll Tax. Throughout the centuries, surnames in every country have continued to "develop" often leading to astonishing variants of the original spelling.
© Copyright: Name Origin Research www.surnamedb.com 1980 - 2016
Want to dig deeper into your family history? Take a look at our page on building a Family Tree
. Or get scientific and enter the exciting world of Ancestral DNA
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| 0.961556 | 433 | 2.5625 | 3 |
WHAT IS MEDIATION?
MEDIATION: A voluntary settlement process to help you resolve disputes.
Mediation is an informal process where a mediator helps people with a dispute to reach agreement. The mediation process identifies important issues, clarifies misunderstandings, explores solutions, and negotiates settlement.
The mediator is not a judge and does not make a decision or impose a solution on the dispute. Rather, the mediator helps those involved in the dispute talk to each other, thereby allowing them to resolve the dispute themselves. The mediator manages the mediation session and remains impartial.
HISTORY OF MEDIATION IN TENNESSEE
Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR), otherwise known as mediation, is a concept that is sweeping the country. It is recognized as a way to reduce delay, reduce cost, and increase consumer satisfaction in the outcome of their disputes. In 1992, the Tennessee Supreme Court created a commission to study dispute resolution in Tennessee “with a view toward the use and implementation of procedures to expedite and enhance the efforts of the courts to secure the just, speedy, and inexpensive determination of disputes.”
The recommendations of the 1992 commission resulted in the enactment of Supreme Court Rule 31 in January 1996. Rule 31 created a system where litigants, courts, and attorneys can locate qualified alternative dispute resolution mediators and other neutrals and enlist their assistance in resolving matters pending before courts of record.
Rule 31 does not affect dispute resolution programs or individual cases that are resolved outside the Rule 31 system. Any case may go to mediation, arbitration, or other form of dispute resolution without having to go through the Rule 31 process. The Rule was set up to assist the court in obtaining a mediator or other neutral when the court or the parties want one.
Rule 31 also established a new Alternative Dispute Resolution Commission that spent over a year devising a way that ADR neutrals could be trained and approved for use by the courts. During this time the Rule was amended to include more detail regarding the credentials and training required for mediators. The current Rule was filed in December 1996 and amended in subsequent years.
The first list of Rule 31 mediators was sent to the state’s clerks and judges in March 1997. We now maintain a current list of Rule 31 mediators on our website.
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Many Help desk calls arise from users trying to configure their systems. To help prevent these calls, you can limit your users' ability to change the configuration of their systems. In placing limitations, you also will tighten your network's security. You might even experience significant productivity gains if your users can run only certain programs. These benefits are among the reasons to take a look at Windows NT's system policies and the tool used to create them, System Policy Editor (SPE). As a bonus, you can apply similar policies to your Windows 9x clients.
What Is a System Policy?
A system policy is a restriction you place on a user or a user's computer that limits the user's ability to access resources or configure the computer. A system policy might also impose corporate standard configurations. An example of a system policy is removing the Run command from the Start menu so that a user cannot run programs by typing the command name.
By integrating the policies with the Registry at system startup, you can configure and control the user's desktop. In some cases, the control you implement might be simple. For example, you might implement a rule that removes the name of the previous user from the logon dialog box for security reasons. In other cases, you might implement controls so strict that they limit a computer's color scheme and wallpaper or let the computer run only one application.
The System Policy Process
System policies start with the administrator, who defines the policies using the SPE tool. To find this tool, go to Start, Programs, Administrative Tools on the NT server. You can define policies for users, groups, and computers. If you do not define a set of policies, NT will apply a set of default policies to each user and computer.
The administrator uses SPE to specify the various restrictions that he or she wants to put in place. Then, the administrator saves the policy file, ntconfig.pol, in the \winntroot\ system32\repl\export\scripts directory (winntroot is the NT directory) on the PDC. You must configure replication to replicate this file in all the Netlogon shares, which are in the \winntroot\system32\repl\import\scripts directories on the PDC and the BDCs. (If you are not familiar with NT replication, see Getting Started with NT: "Replication in Windows NT," February 1999.) Neither the path nor the filename is the default save location in SPE.
When users log on, NT finds this policy file on the Netlogon share, downloads the file, and integrates the settings into the local Registry. However, NT does not apply the policies at this point. Only when the user logs on again does NT apply the policies. If you are testing SPE, remember to log off and log on twice to make sure that SPE is working.
When you first open SPE, you see only a blank window. To start defining and editing policies, click File, New Policy. The Default Computer and Default User icons will appear, as Screen 1, page 156, shows.
At this point, you might be wondering what happens if the computer policy conflicts with the user policy. The fact is that these policies cannot conflict with each other. The policies are integrated with the Registry so that the computer policies modify HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE values and the user and group policies modify HKEY_CURRENT_USER values. This situation will become apparent as you look at the policies.
Computer policies apply to all users. Administrative drive-share creation is a good example of a computer policy. User policies apply to a specific user and regulate items such as wallpaper or color schemes. These user specific policies will constrain a user regardless of which machine he or she logs on to.
Let's take a closer look at computer policies. Double-click the Default Computer icon. The dialog box that Screen 2, page 156, shows will open. (In Screen 2, I have already expanded the Windows NT System policy. Usually, nothing is expanded when you open this dialog box.)
Some of the policies let you set limits. For example, the remote access policy lets you set the maximum number of unsuccessful authentication retries. This setting is obviously a computer setting, not a user setting, because the setting is active even when a user is not logged on.
Some settings are for security, such as the Windows NT System option that turns off the display of the last logged-on username. Other settings, such as the logon banner, require input when you select an option. (By the way, the logon banner should not say "Welcome to XYZ Corporation." The courts have ruled that this kind of salutation extends a welcome to everyone, including intruders. Use something such as "Only authorized employees of XYZ Corporation are permitted to use this computer." Companies can consider nonemployees trespassers if they continue to log on after seeing such a banner.)
When you expand the settings, you will see that most of the check boxes are grayed out. If you click a check box, the box will change to contain a check mark. Click again, and the box will clear. Click once more, and the box will cycle back to gray. The check mark means the option is turned on. A clear box indicates that the option is turned off. A gray box means you have specified no policy.
Setting Specific Computer Policies
You can consider the default computer policies to be a lowest-common-denominator set of policies. But what if you have some computers, such as your servers, that need tighter policies? Or, what if you have a set of machines reserved for visitors, which needs tighter policies? In these cases, you can create policies that differ from the default policies.
To add a new policy definition for a specific computer, go to SPE's main menu and click Edit, Add Computer. Use the Browse button to find the name of the computer, or type the computer name in the dialog box that appears. The Browse button is usually the best choice because it shows you a list of computers in an NT Explorer-like interface. You can pick a computer name from the list and avoid the possibility of misspelling the name. Unfortunately, NT provides no grouping mechanism for computers. You must set up each exception to the default computer policy individually.
User and Group Policies
User policies work in a similar fashion to computer policies, with three possible states for each check box—on, off, and no policy. Screen 3 shows the Default User policy dialog box with the Control Panel option expanded. The Desktop option is also expanded, showing that the administrator can set the wallpaper and color scheme to a corporate standard. (The most common pitfall in this area is that the .bmp file you specify for wallpaper might not be available on the user's computer.) I usually let users pick their wallpaper, screen savers, and color schemes, but I restrict them on more crucial issues. Screen 4 shows how much control the administrator has over what the user can do. The administrator can limit the user to only one or two applications, if necessary—no browsing the 'hood, no drive icons. For a more restrictive interface, try setting the Windows NT Shell policy to use a Custom User Interface with a Custom shell, and specify a program. The program you specify is all the user can run.
If you want to be less restrictive, you can provide a list of the programs a user can run under Programs, System, Restrictions. You can make this list as short as necessary. You might want to restrict the Guest user account in this way. Screen 5 shows the results of severely limiting a user's options—even the File menu is gone from the NT Explorer window.
You set individual user policies the same way you set specific computer policies. Go to Edit on SPE's main menu. Select Add User for a list of users (this window looks just like the User Manager window). Again, you cannot select policies for multiple users at the same time. However, you can add a group or groups to the SPE window. Each group gets its own set of policies. You must use NT global groups to define policies.
Screen 6 shows that I have added two groups, SQLAdmins and SQLUsers, and a user—Michael—with administrator privileges. Notice the Group Priority dialog box, which you open from the Options menu in the SPE window. You must designate the order of precedence for the groups in case a user belongs to several groups that have different settings for the same policy.
The subject of group priorities brings up a very important point about policy implementation. NT applies policies in a specific order.
If a user has an individual user policy, that policy will constrain the user, and NT ignores the default user policy and applies no group policies. If the user has no individual policy, NT applies the default user policy (if one exists). Then, if the user belongs to any groups with defined policies, NT applies a combination of these groups' policies. If any of these groups' policies conflict, the highest-priority group's policy will prevail.
If one group sets an option and other applicable groups have no policy, the set option governs what a user can do. If multiple groups have policies for one option, the highest-priority group wins. Note that unlike NT security, policies apply to either a user or a group—never a combination of the two. The default user policy is effectively a group policy because it applies to everyone that individual user policies do not govern.
The same method applies to computer policies. The applied policy is either the policy for a computer or the default policy, but they are never combined.
To apply system policies to your Win9x clients, you must use Win95's SPE. Win9x saves the policy file as config.pol in the same directory as the ntconfig.pol file on the domain controllers, so the policies are established as the users log on.
A Matter of Policy
System policies can be tricky to set up, especially when applied to groups. However, system policies provide an important level of control over the changes users can make to their computers. If you use them judiciously and with moderation, you can alleviate Help desk calls without being too intrusive. For more information about SPE and system policies, see "Related Articles in Windows NT Magazine."
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The Glossary for Western Civilizations
, 5/e is for the complete text, Chapters 1 - 30.
A form of government in which sovereignty is vested in a single person, the king or queen; monarchs in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries based their authority on the theory of the divine right of kings?i.e., that they had received their authority from God and were responsible only to Him.
An elevated point within a city on which stood temples, altars, public monuments, and various dedications to the gods of the polis.
African National Congress (ANC)
The main black nationalist organization in South Africa; it was led by Nelson Mandela.
The descendants of the Dutch in the Cape Colony.
age of commerce
A period of heavy trading from 1570 to 1630 in which Southeast Asia exchanged its spices and other raw materials for textiles from India, silver from the Americas and Japan, and silk, ceramics, and manufactures from China.
Age of Division
The period after the fall of the Han Dynasty, during which time China was divided into the Northern and Southern Dynasties.
Among the societies of Senegambia, groups of men and women whom the society initiated into adulthood at the same time.
A gradual but profound change in agricultural methods that promoted accelerated economic growth.
> The chief Iranian god, who was the creator and benefactor of all living creatures; unlike Yahweh, he was not a lone god.
A terrorist network led by Osama bin Laden; it claimed responsibility for the September 11 attacks and other terrorist acts.
alternate residence system
Lords lived in Edo every other year and left their wives and sons there as hostages.
The term for the noble class in Mughal India.
An Egyptian God, consisting of Amon, a primeval sky-god, and Ra, the sun-god.
The general name given to several Protestant groups that believed that only adults could make an informed decision about baptism and that therefore refused to have their children baptized.
The native home of the ruler Osman and the region that many peoples in the Ottoman Empire hailed from.
The best excavated settlement from the Shang Dynasty.
The system of racial segregation and discrimination that was supported by the Afrikaner government.
A theological belief, originating with Arius, a priest of Alexandria, that denied that Christ was divine and co-eternal with God the Father.
A type of Greek government in which only the top members of society exercise authority. The word translates as ?power in the hands of the best.?
Army Order No. 1
A radical order of the Petrograd Soviet that stripped officers of their authority and placed power in the hands of elected committees of common soldiers.
The dominant people in North India after the decline of the Indus Valley civilization; they spoke an early form of Sanskrit.
An instrument, developed by Muslim navigators in the twelfth century, that allowed mariners to plot their latitude by determining the altitude of the sun and other celestial bodies.
The name bestowed on the Turkish president Mustafa Kemal; it means "father of the Turks."
Presided over by the viceroy, the twelve to fifteen judges who served as advisory council and as the highest judicial body.
The colonies' highest judicial bodies, which also served as councils to the viceroys.
Auxiliary Service Law
A German law requiring all males between the ages of seventeen and sixty to work only at jobs considered critical to the war effort.
A kingdom in northwestern Ethiopia that was a sizable trading state and the center of Christian culture.
A clan; it served as the fundamental social unit of Inca society.
A term coined by nineteenth-century historians to describe the Mexica people.
An ancient Semitic fertility god represented as a golden calf.
Babylonian Captivity A period of time in 587 B.C.E. when the survivors of a Babylonian attack on the southern kingdom of Judah were sent into exile in Babylonia.
Term applied to the seventy years (1307?1377) when the popes resided in Avignon, rather than in Rome. The phrase refers to the seventy years during which the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzer held the ancient Hebrew people in captivity.
Imperial ruler; it was the title that Akbar took at the age of thirteen.
A 1917 statement by British foreign secretary Arthur Balfour that supported the idea of a Jewish homeland in Palestine.
Units of the Chinese Manchu army; each was made up of a set of military companies, but included the families and slaves of the soldiers as well.
The people living in Africa south of the Congo River who speak a Bantu language.
A name given by the Romans to all peoples living outside the frontiers of the Roman Empire (except the Persians).
The term applied to a late-seventeenth?early-eighteenth-century style of art that originated in Rome and is associated with the Catholic Reformation; it is characterized by emotional intensity, strong self-confidence, and a proselytizing spirit.
An economy with few salaried jobs and an abundance of tiny, unregulated businesses such as peddlers and pushcart operators.
Followers of the radical philosopher Jeremy Bentham, they believed in the "greatest good for the greatest number."
North African peoples who were the first to develop saddles for use on the camel.
Held in 1884 and 1885 in order to lay down some basic rules for imperialist competition in sub-Saharan Africa, it established the principle that European claims to African territory had to rest on ?effective occupation? in order to be recognized by other states.
Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill.
The bubonic plague that first struck Europe in 1347. It spread either in the bubonic form by flea bites or in the pneumonic form directly from the breath of one person to another. In less virulent forms, the disease reappeared many times until 1701.
A private army under Mussolini that destroyed socialist newspapers, union halls, and Socialist party headquarters, eventually pushing Socialists out of the city governments of northern Italy.
"Lightning war? using planes, tanks, and trucks, the first example of which Hitler used to crush Poland in four weeks.
Amusements popular with the masses, including bullbaiting and cockfighting.
A massacre of peaceful protesters at Winter?s Square in St. Petersburg in 1905 that turned ordinary workers against the tsar and produced a wave of general indignation.
Buddhas-to-be who stayed in the world after enlightenment to help others on the path to salvation.
Another term for underwear, so called because it was made from expensive cloth.
The "majority group?; this was Lenin?s camp of the Russian party of Marxian socialism.
Book of Documents
A written work describing the Zhou conquest of the Shang.
Book of Songs
The earliest collection of Chinese poetry; it provides glimpses of what life was like in the early Zhou Dynasty.
Book of the Dead
An Egyptian book that preserved their ideas about death and the afterlife; it explains that after death, the soul leaves the body to become part of the divine.
A bay on the coast of eastern Australia in which numerous specimens of plant life were discovered. It later became home to a penal colony.
A term for well-educated, prosperous, middle-class groups.
The Marxian term for the middle class.
A Chinese secret society that blamed the country's ills on foreigners, especially missionaries.
The unchanging, ultimate reality, according to the Upanishads.
Aryan priests who supported the growth of royal power in return for royal confirmation of their own religious rights, power, and status.
The doctrine created after the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968, according to which the Soviet Union and its allies had the right to intervene in any socialist country whenever they saw the need.
A Southeast Asian custom whereby at marriage, the groom paid the bride or her family a sum of money that remained under her control.
The period in which the production and use of bronze implements became basic to society; bronze made farming more efficient and revolutionized warfare.
Also called the "Way of the Warrior," this was the code of conduct by which samurai were expected to live.
A political system in which heads of governmental administrative departments serve as a group to advise the head of state (prime minister). All these ministers are drawn from the majority party in the legislature (in Britain the House of Commons) and are responsible to it.
The successor to Muhammad; the representative or deputy of God.
Canadian Pacific Railroad
A transcontinental railroad supported by John Macdonald; it stretched across Canada and helped to unite the country.
A series of agreements that basically surrender the rights of one party. The Ottoman government signed these with European powers and gave them a stranglehold on Ottoman trade and commerce.
Issued in 1819, these decrees required the thirty-eight German member states to root out subversive ideas in their universities and newspapers.
An Indian system that divided society into four hierarchical strata.
A school of Buddhism (known in Japan as Zen) that rejected the authority of the sutras and claimed the superiority of mind-to-mind transmission of Buddhist truths.
y Absolute legal ownership of another person, including the right to buy or sell that person.
checks and balances
A term referring to the framework of the central government in the United States. The executive, legislative, and judicial branches would balance one another, and the federal government's power would be checked by the powers of individual states.
The re-established tsarist secret police, which hunted down and executed thousands of real or suspected foes, sowing fear and silencing opposition.
Also known as the Yi Dynasty, this Korean dynasty was founded by Yi Songgye in 1392 and lasted until 1910.
Civil Rights Act
A 1964 act that prohibited discrimination in public services and on the job.
civil service examinations
Tests at the prefecture, province, and capital levels that all Ming government officials had to master.
Conflicting classes existed, in part, because many individuals came to believe they existed and developed an appropriate sense of class feeling.
The protection of individual liberties and political safeguards to guard against unchecked political power.
Free men and women who were dependent on the nobility?in return for their labor, they received small plots of land to work for themselves.
A system in which an emperor retired to a Buddhist monastery, but continued to exercise power by controling his young son on the throne.
A mass protest in the 1930s by Gold Coast producers of cocoa, who refused to sell their beans to British firms and instead them sold directly to European and American chocolate manufacturers.
Code of Manu
The codification of Indian law from the second or third century C.E.; it lays down family, caste, and commercial law.
Communal living in monasteries, encouraged by Saint Basil and the church because it provided an environment for training the aspirant in the virtues of charity, poverty, and freedom from self-deception.
A form of coal that was unlimited in supply and therefore easier and better to use.
The forcible consolidation of individual peasant farms into large, state-controlled enterprises.
A university was made up of a collection of these privately endowed residences for the lodging of poor students.
A law that originated in, and was applied by, the king's court.
The European Economic Community created in 1957.
The shared use of agriculture land; it was abolished with the enclosure movement.
A republican form of government that was established in England after the abolition of kingship in 1649.
A tool developed in Song times to aid in navigation at sea; it consisted of a magnetic needle that would point north in a small, protective case.
Large areas of Chinese treaty ports that were leased in perpetuity to foreign powers.
A woman contracted to a man as a second wife; she took orders from the wife, but her children were considered equal in status.
A woman contracted to a man as a second wife; as in Chinese culture, they often lived in a harem with the man's mother, wife, unmarried sisters, and royal children.
The eleven Southern states that seceded from the United States and bonded together with a capital at Richmond, Virginia.
The idea of a union of Canadian provinces.
The canonical scriptures?ancient Confucian texts recovered during the Han Dynasty.
Congress of Vienna
The peace settlement that attempted to redraw Europe's political map after the defeat of Napoleonic France.
A freely elected assembly promised by the Bolsheviks, but permanently disbanded after one day on Lenin?s orders after the Bolsheviks won less than one-fourth of the elected delegates.
A form of government in which power is balanced between the authority and power of the government on the one hand, and the rights and liberties of the subject or citizen on the other hand.
The idea that the sun, not the earth, was the center of the universe; this had enormous scientific and religious implications.
The laws revised in 1815 that prohibited the importation of foreign grain unless the price at home rose to improbable levels.
corpus juris civilis
The "body of civil law"; it is composed of the Code, Digest, and Institutes.
Free groups and outlaw armies formed by Russian peasants during the time of Ivan the Terrible.
Court of Star Chamber
A division of the English royal council, a court that used Roman legal procedures to curb real or potential threats from the nobility; the court was so called because there were stars painted on the ceiling of the chamber in which the court sat.
A formal agreement between Yahweh and the Hebrew people?if the Hebrews worshiped Yahweh as their only god, he would consider them his chosen people and protect them from their enemies.
Imported from the Maldive Islands, these served as the medium of exchange in West Africa.
People of Spanish descent born in America.
A weapon developed during the Warring States Period that allowed foot soldiers to shoot farther than a horseman carrying a light bow.
Holy wars sponsored by the papacy for the recovery of the Holy Land from the Muslims in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries.
The location of the Great Exposition in 1851 in London; an architectural masterpiece made entirely of glass and iron, both of which were now cheap and abundant.
The Dutch policy that required Indonesian peasants to plant a fifth of their land in export crops, which were then turned over to the Dutch as taxes.
The Sumerian form of writing (from the Latin term for ?wedge-shaped?), used to describe the strokes of the stylus.
The headman of the Inca clan; he was responsible for conducting relations with outsiders.
Local warlords in Japan who seized what they needed and promoted irrigation and trade to raise revenues.
The product of the reparations commission, accepted by Germany, France, and Britain, that reduced Germany?s yearly reparations, made payment dependent on German economic prosperity, and granted Germany large loans from the United States to promote recovery.
The reversal of Europe?s overseas expansion caused by the rising demand of Asian and African peoples for national self-determination, racial equality, and personal dignity.
A grand naval alliance, created by the Athenians and led by Aristides, aimed at liberating Ionia from Persian rule.
A local unit that served as the basic of Cleisthenes? political system.
A type of Greek government in which all citizens, without regard to birth or wealth, administered the workings of government. It is translated as ?the power of the people.?
The liberalization of the post-Stalin Soviet Union, led by reformer Nikita Khrushchev.
The progressive piecemeal relaxation of cold war tensions.
A process whereby the sultan's agents swept the provinces for Christian youths to become slaves.
The moral law that Hindus observe in their quest for brahman.
A term meaning "protected peoples"; it included Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians and represented the third class of Muslim society.
The dispersion of the Jews from Jerusalem between 132 and 135.
An administrative device meaning "register"; it listed all Muslim soldiers.
A record of a survey ordered by William the Conqueror to determine how much wealth there was in his new kingdom, who held what land, and what land had been disputed among his vassals; it is an invaluable source of social and economic information.
A novel authored by Miguel de Cervantes, perhaps the greatest work of Spanish literature. It is a survey of the entire fabric of Spanish society that can be read on several levels: as a burlesque of chivalric romances, or as an exploration of conflicting views (idealistic vs. realistic) of life and of the world.
A divisive case in which a Jewish captain in the French army was falsely accused and convicted of treason.
The term that historian Eric Hobsbawn used for the economic and political changes that tended to fuse, reinforcing each other.
Dutch East India Company
A joint stock company chartered by the States General of the Netherlands to expand trade and promote relations between the Dutch government and its colonial ventures.
The view of Chinese historians that dynasties rise and fall in a cyclical fashion, largely based on the collection of taxes and the morale of the government and the armies.
economic growth without economic development
When large profits are made from cash crop production or from industrial manufacturing, yet few of these profits are put back into the construction of infrastructure or other efforts to raise the standard of living of the common people.
The idea that countries should protect and foster their own businesses by imposing high protective tariffs on imported goods as well as eliminating tariffs within the country.
The code of conduct that the Buddhist follows to triumph over human weaknesses.
emancipists All freed or emancipated persons.
Arab governors who were appointed and given overall responsibility for good order, maintenance of the armed forces, and tax collecting.
A theory of inductive reasoning that demands that you go beyond speculation and begin to compare and analyze the subject.
Empress of India
The title adopted by Queen Victoria in 1877 to reflect the British rule of India.
The act pushed through the Reichstag by the Nazis that gave Hitler absolute dictatorial power for four years.
The enclosing of the individual shares of the pastures as a way of farming more effectively.
The Spanish system whereby the Crown granted the conquerors the right to employ groups of Amerindians in a town or area as agricultural or mining laborers or as tribute payers; it was a legalized form of slavery.
The system under which Spanish colonists were given the exclusive right to control public affairs in the Philippines and collect taxes in a specific locality.
A world-view that has played a large role in shaping the modern mind. The three central concepts were the use of reason, the scientific method, and progress.
A form of monasticism that began in Egypt in the third century in which individuals and small groups withdrew from cities and organized society to see God through prayer. The people who lived in caves and sought shelter in the desert and mountains were called hermits, from the Greek word eremos.
The religious belief that teachings containing the secrets of enlightenment have been secretly transmitted from the Buddha and can be accessed through initiation into the mandalas, mudras, and mantras.
The three orders into which France's inhabitants were divided: the Roman Catholic clergy, the nobility, and everyone else.
The first black African society that can be studied from written records; it was the site of the kingdom of Axum.
Castrated males who played an important role as palace servants.
European Union (EU)
The new name given to the European Community in 1993.
The idea, applied by thinkers in many fields, that stresses gradual change and continuous adjustment.
The highly competitive civil service examinations through which the scholar-official class was certified.
The officers and jailers who tried to establish a colonial gentry and impose rigid class distinctions from England.
A highly diverse and even contradictory system of thought that was loosely united in a courageous search for moral values in a world of terror and uncertainty.
The production and exportation of high-value commodities that could be sold on the world market.
A clause in the Treaty of Nanjing that made British subjects in China answerable only to British law.
Factory Act of 1833
An act that limited the factory workday for children between nine and thirteen years of age to eight hours and that of adolescents between fourteen and eighteen years of age to twelve hours.
A term first used by the British for their trading post at Surat, it was later applied to all European walled settlements in India.
Fortified trading posts that were established on the Gold Coast.
A goal of Napoleon's, whereby the power of the husband and father over his wife and children was as absolute as Napoleon's was over his subjects.
A movement characterized by extreme, often expansionist nationalism, an antisocialism aimed at destroying working-class movements, alliances with powerful capitalists and landowners, a dynamic and violent leader, and glorification of war and the military.
of poverty The issue of those living in extreme poverty being disproportionately women.
Obedience of children toward their parents; it was extolled by Confucius.
A political alliance between Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey in which they agreed to advance one another?s interests.
five good emperors
The name for the five emperors who ruled the empire wisely, fairly, and humanely. They created a period of peace and prosperity.
Five Pillars of Islam
The basic tenets of the Islamic faith; they include reciting a profession of faith in God and in Muhammad as God?s prophet; prayer five times daily; fasting and prayer during the month of Ramadan; a pilgrimage to Mecca once in one's lifetime; and contribution of alms to the poor.
Launched by Stalin and termed ?revolution from above,? its ultimate goal was to generate new attitudes, new loyalties, and a new socialist humanity.
An elite practice of binding the feet of girls with long strips of cloth to keep them from growing and to make the foot narrow and arched.
Four Noble Truths
The Buddha's message that pain and suffering are inescapable parts of life; suffering and anxiety are caused by human desires and attachments; people can understand and triumph over these weaknesses; and the triumph is made possible by following a simple code of conduct.
The style of French art, architecture, and literature (ca. 1600?1750) based on admiration and imitation of Greek and Roman models, but with greater exuberance and complexity.
The French domination and rule of the countries of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.
A series of violent uprisings during the time of Louis XIV triggered by oppressive taxation of the common people, ambitions of the nobles, and efforts of the Parlement of Paris to check the authority of the crown; the last attempt of the French nobility to resist the king by arms.
"Leader-dictator? with unlimited, arbitrary power; this name was bestowed upon Adolf Hitler.
The Chinese name for the first state to appear in Southeast Asia; it had its capital in southern Vietnam.
The principle that buildings, like industrial products, should serve the purpose for which they were made as well as possible.
The second main body of the United Nations; each "peace-loving" state is eligible to join and participate in it.
General History of the Indies
A 1547 detailed eyewitness account of plants, animals, and peoples that was widely read.
The idea, contrary to miasmatic theory, that disease was spread through filth and not caused by it.
The name of a great African kingdom inhabited by the Soninke people.
The name used by the Soninke people for their ruler.
A group contesting control of the National Convention in France; it was named after a department in southwestern France.
Criminals and convicts who were sentenced to be slaughtered in the arena as public entertainment.
"Openness,? part of Gorbachev?s campaign to ?tell it like it is,? marked a break from the past; long-banned writers sold millions of copies of their works, and denunciations of Stalin and his terror were standard public discourse.
The belief among the majority of the world's scientists that hydrocarbons produced through the burning of fossil fuels have caused a greenhouse effect and increased global temperatures over time.
The term for the architectural and artistic style that prevailed in Europe from the mid-twelfth to the sixteenth century.
A canal, built during the Sui Dynasty, that connected the Yellow and Yangzi Rivers.
Grand National Consolidated Trades Union
Organized by Owen in 1834, this was one of the largest and most visionary early national unions.
Also called steppe, this arid land is easily cropped by horses, but is too dry for crop agriculture.
During the French Revolution, the fear of vagabonds and outlaws that seized the countryside and fanned the flames of rebellion.
An honorary name given to the Mongol ruler Chinggis in 1206.
Great Leap Forward
Mao Zedong's acceleration of development in which industrial growth was to be based on small-scale backyard workshops run by peasants living in gigantic self-contained communes.
Great Mutiny/Great Revolt
The terms used by the British and Indians to describe the last armed resistance to British rule in India, which occurred in 1857.
Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution
A movement launched by Mao Zedong that attempted to purge the party of time-serving bureaucrats and recapture the revolutionary fervor of his guerrilla struggle.
The period during which the Church had two popes, one in Rome and one in Avignon; it caused the ultimate division between the Eastern (Orthodox) and Western (Roman) churches.
Great Silk Road
The name of the major route for the silk trade.
A rammed-earth fortification built along the northern border of China during the reign of the First Emperor.
great white walls
Discriminatory laws that appeared in the 1880s in the United States and Australia and were designed to keep Asians out.
A ruined African city discovered by a German explorer in 1871; it is considered the most powerful monument south of the Nile Valley and Ethiopian highlands.
The increase in food production stemming from the introduction of high-yielding wheats, hybrid seeds, and other advancements.
The signing of treaties and agreements under threat of military violence, such as the opening of Japan to trade after Commodore Perry's demands.
Large landed estates owned by the Spanish throughout the eighteenth century.
Collections of the sayings of or anecdotes about Muhammad.
A mercantile association of towns that allowed for mutual protection and security.
A name meaning homeless, independent nomads; it represents a group of people that was partially made up of Hebrews.
The first Indian civilization; it is also known as the Indus Valley civilization.
The separate quarters of a Muslim house or palace where women lived.
Popular groups in Spanish towns that were given royal authority to serve as local police forces and as judicial tribunals with the goal of reducing aristocratic violence.
This virus and disease had infected more than 40 million persons worldwide in 2004 and are now the world's fourth leading cause of death.
The attempted extermination of all European Jews by the Nazi state.
An alliance formed by Austria, Russia, and Prussia in September of 1815 that became a symbol of the repression of liberal and revolutionary movements all over Europe.
An official Roman Catholic agency founded in 1542 to combat international doctrinal heresy and to promote sound doctrine on faith and morals.
The heavily armed infantry that were the backbone of the Greek army.
The chief among the Aztecs' many gods; it symbolized the sun blazing at high noon.
A term first used by Florentine rhetorician Leonard Bruni as a general word for ?the new learning?; the critical study of Latin and Greek literature, with the goal of realizing human potential.
Called ?Rulers of the Uplands? by the Egyptians, these people began to settle in the Nile Delta shortly after 1800 B.C.E.
The conflict that resulted from the destruction of Christian images in Byzantine churches in 730.
Freudian term for the primitive, irrational unconscious.
The name for the Mongol rulers of Persia.
The leader in community prayer.
The Peruvian empire that was at its peak from 1438 until 1532.
Emigrants, often from Asia, who were recruited under contract to work.
A term often used for the indigenous peoples of the Americas; it stems from the mistaken belief of European explorers that they were near the East Indies.
Indian Civil Service
Western-style examinations that Indians were eligible to take, but that were offered only in England.
Indian National Congres
s Formed in 1885, this group of Indians demanded increasing equality and self-government.
A basic feature of the Italian Renaissance stressing personality, uniqueness, genius, and self-consciousness.
Refers to a large family of languages that includes English, most of the languages of modern Europe, Greek, Latin, Persian, and Sanskrit, the sacred tongue of ancient India.
A papal statement granting remission of a priest-imposed penalty for sin (no one knew what penalty God would impose after death).
A term coined in the 1830s to describe the burst of major inventions and technical changes in certain industries.
The belief that the masses were impoverished because they were living in a primitive agricultural economy and that only modern factory industry would raise standards of living.
An unbeliever; the Muslim term for a Christian, no matter how assimilated.
iron law of wages
The rule that because of the pressure of population growth, wages would always sink to subsistence level, meaning that wages would be just high enough to keep workers from starving.
The solution to the problem of arid climates and scant water supplies; a system of watering land and draining to prevent the buildup of salt in the soil.
ius civile (civil law)
A law that consisted of statutes, customs, and forms of procedure.
ius naturale (natural law)
A universal law that could be applied to all societies.
Izanagi and Izanami
According to the Japanese creation myth, this divine brother and sister came to earth and created the Japanese islands and other gods.
In Revolutionary France, a political club whose members were a radical republican group.
A massive uprising by French peasants in 1358 protesting heavy taxation.
Turkish for "recruits"; they formed the elite army corps.
The Ottoman sultan's slave army; they soon became a corrupt and privileged hereditary caste.
The numerous Indian castes.
The 1825?1830 war between the Dutch government and the Javanese, fought over the extension of Dutch control of the island.
Members of the Society of Jesus, founded by Ignatius Loyola and approved by the papacy in 1540, whose goal was the spread of the Roman Catholic faith through humanistic schools and missionary activity.
"Holy war," a Muslim term that some scholars interpret as the individual struggle against sin and others interpret as having a social and communal implication.
Religious wars waged by Muslim scholars and religious leaders against both animist rulers and Islamic states that they deemed corrupt.
A tax on non-Muslims.
In William the Conqueror's reign, a priest and six local people who swore an oath to answer truthfully all questions about their wealth.
A Muslim temple containing a black stone thought to be God's dwelling place.
In Turkish history, this name, meaning "Lawgiver," was given to Suleiman because of his profound influence on the civil law.
The tally of good and bad deeds that determines the status of an individual's next life.
The four units into which Chinggis divided the Mongol Empire.
A Jewish collective farm on which each member shared equally in the work, rewards, and defense of the farm.
The most powerful city of the coast of Africa by the late thirteenth century.
A common dialect of the Greek language that influenced the speech of peninsular Greece.
The ritual of kneeling on both knees and bowing one's head to the ground out of respect for the Chinese ruler.
Better-off peasants who were stripped of land and livestock under Stalin. They generally were not permitted to join the collective farms, and many of them starved or were deported to forced-labor camps for ?re-education.?
Bismarck's attack on the Catholic Church, also known as the "struggle for civilization."
The city where the king of Ghana held his court.
Highly skilled workers who made up about 15 percent of the working classes at the turn of the twentieth century.
Made from the sap of the lac tree, it was often used to make cups and dishes.
Economic liberalism that believes in unrestricted private enterprise and no government interference in the economy.
A 1929 agreement that recognized the Vatican as a tiny independent state, with Mussolini agreeing to give the church heavy financial support. In turn, the pope expressed his satisfaction and urged Italians to support Mussolini?s government.
Huge Roman estates created by buying up several small farms.
A proclamation issued by the Babylonian king Hammurabi ?to establish law and justice in the language of the land, thereby prompting the welfare of the people.? It inflicted harsh punishments, but despite its severity, it is pervaded with a spirit of justice and a sense of responsibility.
law of inertia
A law formulated by Galileo that stated that rest was not the natural state of an object. Rather, an object continues in motion forever unless it is stopped by some external force.
Law of the Sea
A proposed law based on the principle that the world's oceans are "a common heritage of mankind"; it would have allowed only a United Nations?sponsored authority to regulate and tax use of the sea.
law of universal gravitation
A law stating that every body in the universe attracts every other body in the universe in a precise mathematical relationship, with the force of attraction being proportional to the quantity of matter of the objects and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
The selection and appointment of church officials by secular authorities.
League of Nations
A permanent international organization established during the peace conference in Paris in January 1919; it was designed to protect member states from aggression and avert future wars.
Political theorists who emphasized the need for rigorous laws and laid the basis for China's later bureaucratic government.
The king of Belgium who colonized the Congo and sent expeditions into Central Africa.
The dominant soil in China; it is fertile and easy to work.
A revolt against established certainties in philosophy that rejected most of the concerns of traditional philosophy, from the existence of God to the meaning of happiness, as nonsense and hot air.
A language in which each word is represented by a single symbol, such as the Chinese script.
The 6,000-mile retreat of the Communist army to a remote region on the northwestern border of China, during which tens of thousands lost their lives.
A world of rich lands and poor lands and global inequality.
A 1916 alliance between Hindus leading the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League.
Handicraft workers who attacked whole factories in northern England in 1812 and after, smashing the new machines that they believed were putting them out of work.
The name of the British passenger liner sunk by a German submarine that claimed 1,000 lives.
The vast majority of the Aztec population; these were the ordinary citizens or members of the working class.
A school for the study of Muslim law and religious science.
A priestly class developed among the Medes to officiate at sacrifices, chant prayers to the gods, and tend the sacred flame.
The term for Zoroastrian priests.
A Chinese invention that allowed sailors to determine their position and direction at sea.
A form of Buddhism that is known for being more inclusive; also called "Great Vehicle."
The national assembly established by the despotic shah of Iran in 1906.
Mandate of Heaven
The theory that Heaven gives the king a mandate to rule only as long as he rules in the interests of the people.
The belief that God had foreordained Americans to cover the entire continent; the phrase was used as a catchword for and justification of expansion.
The estate that most European peasants, free or unfree, lived on.
The privileges of lordship that allowed lords to tax the peasantry for their own profit.
The freeing of individual slaves by their masters.
The plan of economic aid to Europe to help it rebuild, which Stalin refused for all of eastern Europe.
May Fourth Movement
A nationalist movement against foreign imperialists; it began as a student protest against the decision of the Versailles Peace Conference to leave the Shandong Peninsula in the hands of Japan.
A period from the late 1800s to after World War II during which scientists discovered vaccines for many of the most deadly diseases.
Cities with a population of five million people or more.
The leaders who organized the coup that ousted the Tokugawa Shogunate and returned the emperor to power in Japan.
The 1867 ousting of the Tokugawa Shogunate that marked a return to direct rule by the Japanese emperor.
A book written by Adolf Hitler in which he outlines his theories and program for a ?national socialist revolution.?
A prevailing economic theory of European nations in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; it rested on the premise that a nation?s power and wealth were determined by its supply of precious metals, which were to be acquired by increasing exports (paid for with gold) and reducing imports to achieve domestic self-sufficiency. Mercantilism remained the dominant theory until the Industrial Revelation and articulation of the theory of laissez faire.
A system of economic regulations aimed at increasing the power of the state.
Communal enterprises, people commonly linked by similar occupations as united enterprise provided them with greater security and less risk of losses than did individual action.
The term used by scholars to designate the area of present-day Mexico and Central America.
The savior of Israel.
Another term for Aztec; it is a pre-Columbian term designating the dominant ethnic people of the island capital of Tenochtitlán-Tlalelolco.
The belief that people contract disease by breathing bad odors and decay and putrefying excrement.
Those countries not considered part of either the First World or the Developing World; they became increasingly assertive after the cold war.
The movement of peoples in which one strong individual would blaze the way and others would follow.
Japanese officials who were appointed to oversee the military and enforce the law in the provinces.
military land stewards
Japanese officials who were in charge of seeing to the hard-to-tax estates' proper operation.
Mines Act of 1842
The act that prohibited underground work for all women as well as for boys under ten.
The Chinese dynasty in power from 1368 to 1644; it marked a period of agricultural reconstruction, foreign expeditions, commercial expansion, and a vibrant urban culture.
A draft rotary system that determined when men of a particular hamlet performed public works.
A process of colonization by which people living in newly conquered territories were transferred to other parts of the Inca Empire and replaced with workers who had lived longer under Inca rule and whose independent spirit had been broken.
An economy that is part socialist and part capitalist.
The changes that enable a country to compete effectively with the leading countries at a given time.
A theory, popular in the 1960s, that assumed that all countries were following the path already taken by the industrialized nations and that the elites' task was to speed the trip.
Those native to a colony who believed that Western impact had affected their society in some positive ways and who wanted to reform their country in a similar manner.
A Muslim port city founded between the eighth and tenth centuries; today it is the capital of Somalia.
Release from the wheel of life.
Derived from the Greek for ?the rule of one man,? it was a type of Greek government in which a king represented the community.
The belief in one god; when applied to Egypt, it means that only Aton among the traditional Egyptian deities was god.
Societies of peoples in North America who built massive earthworks, mounds of earth and stone.
A system of printing in which one piece of type was used for each unique character.
Assimilated Christians who adopted some Arabic customs.
A term used to refer to the Muslim empire of India, although its founders were primarily Turks, Afghans, and Persians.
The Turkish general who established a modernized and virtually independent Egyptian state.
Business firms that operate in a number of different countries and tend to adopt a global rather than a national perspective.
The rival to the Indian Congress, it argued for separate homelands for Muslims and Indians.
The language of both the Toltecs and the Aztecs.
Japan's first true city; it was established in 710 north of modern Osaka.
National Liberation Front
The name of the victorious anticolonial movement in Algeria.
A system established to offer Parisians constant work at fair wages.
Patriotic dedication to a national state and mission; it was a decisive element in the French republic's victory.
Native Land Act
A 1913 South African law that limited black ownership of land to native reserves encompassing only one-seventh of the country.
A movement born of extreme nationalism and racism and dominated by Adolf Hitler for as long as it lasted.
A form of economic domination in which foreign investors acquired control over railroads, resources, banking, and real estate.
A system designed to perpetuate Western economic domination and undermine the promise of political independence.
The revival of Confucian thinking that began in the eleventh century.
The period between 7000 and 3000 B.C.E. that serves as the dividing line between anthropology and history. The term itself refers to the new stone tools that came into use at this time.
A belief of social scientists, based on the late-eighteenth-century works of Thomas Malthus, that population tends to grow faster than the food supply.
The most important of the subatomic particles because its capacity to pass through other atoms allowed for intense experimental bombardment of matter, leading to chain reactions of unbelievable force.
New Culture Movement
An intellectual revolution founded by young Western-oriented intellectuals; it advocated new and anti-Confucian virtues.
Franklin Delano Roosevelt?s plan to reform capitalism through forceful government intervention in the economy.
New Economic Policy (NEP)
Lenin?s policy of re-establishing limited economic freedom in an attempt to rebuild agriculture and industry in the face of economic disintegration.
Hitler's program, based on the guiding principle of racial imperialism, that gave preferential treatment to the Nordic peoples. The French, an ?inferior? Latin people, occupied a middle position. Slavs in the conquered territories to the east were treated with harsh hatred as ?subhumans.?
New South Wales
The name given to Australia by James Cook, the English explorer.
The Vietnamese dynasty that came to power in 1802 and put an end to thirty years of peasant rebellion and civil war.
A state of blissful nothingness and freedom from reincarnation.
The top level of Sumerian society; it consisted of the king and his family, the chief priests, and high palace officials.
Homeless independent people who lead roaming lives, always in search of pasturage for their flocks.
Wandering peoples who have no fixed home and move from place to place in search of food, water, and land.
North German Confederation
A new government structure created by Bismarck after the war; it put the federal government in control of the army and military affairs, but created a legislature with two houses that shared equally in the making of laws.
The name for the king of Benin.
The result of a great general strike in October 1905, it granted full civil rights and promised a popularly elected duma (parliament) with real legislative power.
?The rule of a few,? a type of Greek government in which a small group of wealthy citizens, not necessarily of aristocratic birth, ruled.
The oldest of the early advanced Amerindian civilizations.
An Arab-led organization of countries that export oil that helps to set policies and prices on its trade.
A system of village farming developed by peasants where the land was divided into several large fields, which were in turn cut into strips.
A war between the British and the Chinese over limitations on trade and the importation of opium into China.
The study of the compounds of carbon.
Members of the Turkish empire that lasted from 1453 to 1918.
People not belonging to a caste; they were often scorned and sometimes deemed "untouchable."
Palestine Liberation Organization
Created in 1964, a loose union of Palestinian refugee groups opposed to Israel and working toward Palestinian home rule.
A West African tropical product, often used to make soap, that the British encouraged cultivation of as an alternative to the slave trade.
People, such as Marcus Garvey, who promoted solidarity among all blacks and the eventual self-governing union of all African peoples.
The Chinese government produced the world's first government-issued money on paper, rather than the coins that were used previously.
A general peace treaty that brought an end to World War II and the cold war that followed; it called for a scaling down of all armed forces and the acceptance of all existing borders as legal and valid.
The process developed by Louis Pasteur that suppressed the activity of living organisms in a beverage by heating it.
A term that means far more than merely ?father,? it indicates the oldest dominant male of the family, one who holds nearly absolute power over the lives of his family as long as he lives
The aristocracy, wealthy landowners who held political power.
A period during the first and second centuries C.E. of security, order, harmony, flourishing culture, and expanding economy.
Peace of Utrecht
A series of treaties in 1713 that ended the War of the Spanish Succession, ended French expansion in Europe, and marked the rise of the British Empire.
Peace of Westphalia
The name of a series of treaties that concluded the Thirty Years' War in 1648.
A term for natives of Spain or Portugal.
Manuals for the examination of conscience.
Indians who were permanently in debt to the landowners.
The economic ?restructuring? reform implemented by Gorbachev that permitted an easing of government price controls on some goods, more independence for state enterprises, and the setting up of profit-seeking private cooperatives to provide personal services for consumers.
Permanent Mandates Commission
A commission created by the League of Nations to oversee the developed nations' fulfillment of their international responsibility.
The statement used by popes, bishops of Rome, based on Jesus? words, to substantiate their claim of being the successors of Saint Peter and heirs to his authority as chief of the apostles.
A counter-government that was a huge, fluctuating mass meeting of two to three thousand workers, soldiers, and socialist intellectuals.
The leader of religious and political life in the Old Kingdom, he commanded the wealth, resources, and people of Egypt.
Intellectuals in France who proclaimed that they were bringing the light of knowledge to their ignorant fellow creatures in the Age of Enlightenment.
Robespierre and the government set maximum prices for products, rather than relying on supply and demand, so as to create a more egalitarian social structure.
The common people of Rome, who had few of the patricians? advantages.
Generally translated as ?city-state,? it is the basic political and institutional unit of Greece.
The worship of several gods; this was the tradition of Egyptian religion.
A New Deal?inspired party in France led by Leon Blum that encouraged the union movement and launched a far-reaching program of social reform, complete with paid vacations and a forty-hour workweek.
Fifteenth-century Portuguese written descriptions of maritime routes showing bays, coves, capes, ports, and the distance between these places.
A new office created in 366 B.C.E.; these people would act in place of consuls when the consuls were away, although they primarily dealt with the administration of justice.
Calvin?s teaching that by God?s decree, some persons are guided to salvation, and others to damnation; that God has called us not according to our works but according to His purpose and grace.
A title meaning First Citizen, it later came to mean ?prince? in the sense of a sovereign ruler.
One of the central concepts of the Enlightenment; intellectuals in France proclaimed that they were bringing the light of knowledge to their ignorant fellow creatures in the Age of Enlightenment.
The transformation of large number of small peasant farmers into landless rural wage earners.
The Marxian term for the modern working class.
The Muslim classification used for Hindus, Christians, and Jews; they were allowed to follow their religions, but had to pay a special tax.
Originally meaning "Lutheran," this term came to be generally term applied to all non-Catholic Christians.
The rural colonies of the Roman civilization; they were often allowed to keep many of their local beliefs.
A school of Buddhism that taught that by paying homage to the Buddha Amitabha and his chief helper, one could achieve rebirth in Amitabha's paradise.
Members of a eighteenth-century reform movement within the Church of England that advocated ?purifying? it of Roman Catholic elements, such as bishops, elaborate ceremonial, and the wedding ring.
The burial place of a pharaoh; it was a massive tomb that contained all things needed for the afterlife. It also symbolized the king?s power and his connection with the sun-god.
Muslim judges who carried out the judicial functions of the state.
The multiethnic Chinese dynasty founded by the Manchus and lasting from 1644 to 1911.
Nomadic tribesman, often from Anatolia, who were loyal to and supportive of the early Safavid state.
First deemed the official language of the Incas under Pachacuti, it is still spoken by most Peruvians today.
An agent that proved effective in controlling attacks of malaria, which had previously decimated Europeans in the tropics.
One-fifth of all precious metals mined in the Americas that the Crown claimed as its own.
The sacred book of Islam.
The chief of an Aryan tribe; he led his followers in battle and ruled them in peacetime.
A fourteenth-century term used to describe the Christian crusade to wrest Spain back from the Muslims; clerics believed it was a sacred and patriotic mission.
Records of the Grand Historian
A comprehensive history of China written by Sima Qian.
Radical cadres formed by young people who would attack anyone identified as a enemy of either the Communist party or Chairman Mao.
The guerrilla army of Giuseppe Garibaldi, who invaded Sicily in 1860 in an attempt to ?liberate? it and won the hearts of the Sicilian peasantry.
A temporary ruler appointed to rule in the place of a child emperor.
The popularly elected lower house of government of the new German Empire after 1871.
Reign of Terror
The period from 1793 to 1794, during which Robespierre used revolutionary terror to solidify the home front of France. Some 40,000 French men and women were killed during this period.
The ultimate Confucian virtue; it is translated as perfect goodness, benevolence, humanity, human-heartedness, and nobility.
A French word, translated from the Italian rinascita, first used by art historian and critic Giorgio Vasari (1511?1574), meaning rebirth of the culture of classical antiquity; English-speaking students adopted the French term.
Not democracy, but the process of voting for representatives (those who owned property) as a voice for the people.
An effort by various socialists to update Marxian doctrines to reflect the realities of the time.
The earliest collection of hymns, ritual texts, and philosophical treatises; it is the central source of information on early Aryans.
A dispute over ritual between the Jesuits and other Roman Catholic religious orders. The Jesuits supported the celebration of Mass and other ceremonies in Chinese, while other missionaries felt that the Jesuits had sold out the essentials of the Christian faith.
The main highway created by the Persians; it spanned 1,677 miles from Greece to Iran.
The 1904 war between Russia and Japan, fought over imperial influence and territory in China, particularly in Manchuria.
The dynasty that encompassed all of Persia and other regions; its state religion was Shi'ism.
Saint Bartholomew?s Day massacre A savage 1572 Catholic attack on Calvinists in Paris that led to the War of the Three Henrys.
A law code issued by the Salian Franks that provides us with the earliest description of Germanic customs.
Elegant private drawing rooms where talented and rich Parisian women held regular social gatherings during the Enlightenment to discuss literature, science, and philosophy.
The transmigration of souls by a continual process of rebirth.
Skilled Japanese workers who performed loyal service to their lords in return for land or income.
The name for the petty traders and laboring poor of Paris, so called because the men wore trousers instead of the knee breeches of the aristocracy and middle class.
India's classical literary language.
A practice whereby a high-caste Hindu woman would throw herself on her husband's funeral pyre.
Loosely translated as "Soul Force," Gandhi believed this was the means of striving for truth and social justice through love, suffering, and conversion of the oppressor.
A division, or split, in church leadership; during the period 1377?1418, there were two, then three, popes.
Schleswig and Holstein
Provinces that were inhabited primarily by Germans, but ruled by the king of Denmark; they revolted at the prospect of being integrated into the German state by Frederick VII.
Medieval professors who developed a method of thinking, reasoning, and writing in which questions were raised and authorities cited on both sides of a question.
Sea Peoples Invaders
who destroyed the Egyptian empires in the late thirteenth century; they are otherwise unidentifiable because they went their own ways after their attacks on Egypt.
A phase during which the fall of the French monarchy marked a rapid radicalization of the Revolution.
Second Treatise of Civil Government
A 1690 work by the English political philosopher John Locke that was a justification of the Glorious Revolution of 1688?1689 and of the people?s right of revolution, a defense of the rights of property, and a supporter of a system of checks and balances.
An attitude that tends to find the ultimate explanation of everything and the final end of human beings in what reason and the senses can discover, rather than in any spiritual or transcendental belief.
The United Nations body that has the authority to examine international conflicts, impose economic and political penalties on an aggressor, and even use force, if necessary, to restore international peace and security.
A euphemism for shantytowns.
Originating under the Etruscans, a council of noble elders who advised the king.
A rigid gender division of labor, with the wife as mother and homemaker and the husband as wage earner.
Radical demands for ethnic autonomy or political independence.
A group of Jews that settled along the trade routes of western Europe and that during the eleventh century played a major role in the international trade between the Muslim Middle East and the West.
The army of native Indian troops who were trained as infantrymen.
Meaning "king," it was the term first used by Ismail.
Areas of makeshift squatter settlements created by a group of the urban poor.
Muslim law, which covers social, criminal, political, commercial, and ritualistic matters.
A term for the chief magistrate of Mecca.
The lower ranks of Chinese aristocracy; these men could serve in either military or civil capacities.
Arabic term meaning "supporters of Ali"; these make up one of the two main sects of Islam.
The "Way of the Gods"; it was the native religion espoused by the Yamato rulers.
A general-in-chief; this person ruled over the Japanese military.
A process for trading goods in which European ships sent boats ashore or invited African dealers to bring traders and slaves out to the ships.
The trade routes across Central Asia through which Chinese silk and other items were traded.
An Islamic business device that invokes prompt payment in return for a distant future delivery.
A brief 1894 war between Japan and China, fought over Japanese efforts to separate Korea from Chinese influence.
Those who believed that nothing can ever be known beyond all doubt and that humanity?s best hope was open-minded toleration.
A person who is bound in servitude and often traded as property or as a commodity.
A group of thinkers who saw the human race as driven forward to ever-greater specialization and progress by the unending economic struggle, which would determine ?the survival of the fittest.?
A backlash against the emergence of individualism and fragmentation of society, it was a move toward cooperation and a sense of community; the key ideas were planning, greater economic equality, and state regulation of property.
Founded in 1809 by Usuman dan Fodio, this African state was based on Islamic history and law.
Led by Lech Walesa, this group of Polish workers organized a free and democratic trade union that quickly became the union of a nation.
A collection or batch of British goods that would be traded for a slave or for a quantity of gold, ivory, or dyewood.
An independent, autonomous state run by its citizens, free of any outside power or restraint.
The idea that the people alone have the authority to make laws limiting an individual's freedom of action.
jenny A machine, invented by James Hargreaves, that enabled workers to spin cotton.
A maritime empire that held the Strait of Malacca and the waters around Sumatra, Borneo, and Java.
African societies bound together by ethnic or blood ties rather than political states.
A term used by the national assembly of the United Provinces of the Netherlands, where the wealthy merchant class held real power; because many issues had to be referred back to the provinces, the United Provinces was a confederation, or weak union of strong states.
A breakthrough invention by Thomas Savery in 1698 and Thomas Newcomen in 1705 in which coal was burned to produce steam, which was then used to operate a pump.
Another name for the arid grasslands that are common in Central Asia.
The most popular of Hellenistic philosophies; it considers nature an expression of divine will, and holds that people can be happy only when living in accordance with nature.
A literary technique, used by James Joyce and others, using interior monologue to explore the human psyche.
Struggle of the Orders
A great social conflict that developed between patricians and plebeians; the plebeians wanted real political representation and safeguards against patrician domination.
Sturm und Drang
Literally "Storm and Stress," the German early Romantics of the 1770s and 1780s who lived lives of tremendous emotional intensity?suicides, duels, madness, and strange illnesses were common.
The African region surrounded by the Sahara, the Gulf of Guinea, the Atlantic Ocean, and the mountains of Ethiopia.
A principle of universal tolerance that stated that the emperor was responsible for all his people, regardless of their religion.
An Arabic word originally used by the Seljuk Turks to mean authority or dominion; it was used by the Ottomans to connote political and military supremacy.
The name that the Ottoman sultans took as their title; it means "Sultan of Rome."
Members of one of the two main sects of Islam, these Muslims adhere to the practices and beliefs of the umma, based on the precedents of the Prophet.
Freudian term for the ingrained moral values, which specify what a person should do.
The written teachings of the Buddha, first transcribed in the second or first century B.C.E.
The East African coastal culture, named after a Bantu language whose vocabulary and poetic forms exhibit strong Arabic influences.
Meaning "People of the Coast," this is the term used for the people living along the East African coast and on nearby islands.
The 1916 secret agreement between Britain and France that divided up the Arab lands of Lebanon, Syria, southern Turkey, Palestine, Jordan, and Iraq.
A faith that absorbed and adopted many of the religious ideas of the western Mediterranean world.
Literally, a "blank tablet." It is incorporated into Locke?s belief that all ideas are derived from experience, and that the human mind at birth is like a blank tablet on which the environment writes the individual?s understanding and beliefs.
A desolate settlement in the western Sahara; it was the site of the main salt-mining center.
An internal rebellion in China over the religious followers of Hong Xiuquan that ended with 20 million deaths.
A later religious work, composed during the period between C.E. 70 and C.E. 636, that records civil and ceremonial law and Jewish legend.
The dominant form of Japanese poetry; it had thirty-one syllables in five lines of 5-7-5-7-7.
Radical reforms to the Ottoman Empire that were designed to remake the empire on a western European model.
A common image in Chinese bronzes; it is a stylized animal face.
A government?s way of supporting and aiding its own economy by laying high tariffs on the cheaper goods imported from another country.
The Mongol process of allowing Central Asian Muslim merchants to bid against each other for licenses to collect taxes.
Provincial governors who exercised full political, judicial, and military authority on the Aztec emperor's behalf.
A large and prosperous Aztec city that was admired by the Spanish when they entered in 1519.
A city in central Mexico that became a great commercial center during the Classic period.
The use of force or violence by a person or organized group with the intention of intimidating societies or governments, often for political purposes.
A system by which four men ruled the empire.
A political group of the French National Assembly, led by Robespierre. It was so called because its members sat on the uppermost left-hand benches of the assembly hall.
A 1513 treatise by Machiavelli on ways to gain, keep, and expand power; because of its subsequent impact, probably the most important literary work of the Renaissance.
The economic and social elites; the philosophes were determined to reach and influence these educated and enlightened individuals.
The Tale of Genji
A Japanese literary masterpiece written by Lady Murasaki; it tells the story of court life.
The Dao, the whole natural order.
Military districts of the Byzantine Empire; they were governed by generals who held both civil and military authority.
Government ruled by a priestly order.
The period after the execution of Robespierre in 1794; it was a reaction to the despotism of the Reign of Terror.
A branch of physics built on Newton?s laws of mechanics that investigated the relationship between heat and mechanical energy.
League A conservative alliance that linked the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Russia against radical movements.
The site of a Chinese student revolt in 1989 at which Communists imposed martial law and arrested, injured, or killed hundreds of students.
Originally a campsite for desert nomads, it grew into a thriving city under Mansa Musa.
The Japanese empire fashioned by Ieyasu and lasting until 1867; it is also called the Edo period because the shogunate was located at Edo.
An heir to Teotihuacán, this confederation extended its hegemony over most of Central Mexico under the reign of Topiltzin.
A Korean religious cult movement with strong xenophobic elements; its founder was executed, but it continued to gain support among poor peasants.
Mosaic law or the first five books of the Bible.
In each country during the First World War, a government of national unity that began to plan and control economic and social life in order to make the greatest possible military effort.
A dictatorship that exercises unprecedented control over the masses and seeks to mobilize them for action.
Those native to a colony who focused on preserving their traditional culture against imperialists at all costs.
The Lutheran doctrine of the Eucharist that states that when the bread and wine are consecrated by the priest at Mass, they are transformed into the actual Body and Blood of Christ.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848)
The treaty with the United States in which Mexico surrendered its claims to Texas, yielded New Mexico and California, and recognized the Rio Grande as the international border.
Treaty of Lausanne
The 1923 treaty that ended the Turkish war and recognized the territorial integrity of a truly independent Turkey.
Treaty of Nanjing
The treaty ending the Opium War; it opened five ports to international trade, fixed the tariff on imported goods, imposed an indemnity on China to cover Britain's war expenses, and ceded the island of Hong Kong to Britain.
Treaty of Versailles
The World War I treaty that declared Germany responsible for the war; it limited Germany?s army to 100,000 men and forced Germany to pay reparations equal to all civilian damages caused by the war.
Fighting behind rows of trenches, mines, and barbed wire; the cost in lives was staggering and the gains in territory minimal.
The people whom plebeians were able to elect; tribunes would, in turn, protect the plebeians from the arbitrary conduct of patrician magistrates.
A system used during the Han Dynasty to regulate contact with foreign powers. States and tribes beyond its borders sent envoys bearing gifts and received gifts in return.
The alliance of Great Britain, France, and Russia in the First World War.
The U.S. plan to contain communism to areas already occupied by the Red Army.
The Slavic word for "caesar"; Ivan III took this name for an absolute ruler.
Along with the Moors, these warriors controlled the north-south trade in salt.
A set of rules for organization and behavior in a monastery.
Rule by a tyrant, a man who used his wealth to gain a political following that could take over the existing government.
A group of religious scholars whom Sunnis trust to interpret the Qur'an and the Sunna.
A community that consisted of those who shared a religious faith and commitment, rather than a tribal tie.
Founded in 1945 as a resurrected League of Nations, its main purpose is to "maintain international peace and security."
A rapid increase in the populations of world cities such as Mexico City.
urbanization without industrialization
A sociological phenomenon in which newcomers stream to cities seeking work, even when there are no industrial jobs available.
Another name for the strata, or four groups into which Indian society was divided under the caste system.
The moment when communism died in 1989 with an ousting of Communist bosses in only ten days; it grew out of popular demonstrations led by students, intellectuals, and a dissident playwright.
The name for the four administrative units of Spanish possessions in the Americas: New Spain, Peru, New Granada, and La Plata.
"Inhabitants of small villages? or English serfs.
The Inca creator-god, who, according to their legend, had brought civilization to them, become displeased, and sailed away, promising to return someday.
The caliph's chief assistant.
The application of the total-war concept to a civil conflict; the Bolsheviks seized grain from peasants, introduced rationing, nationalized all banks and industry, and required everyone to work.
War Raw Materials Board
Masterminded by Walter Rathenau, this was set up by the German government to ration and distribute raw materials.
Warring States Period
The period of Chinese history between 403 and 221 B.C.E., when there was no central authority.
Invented by Richard Arkwright, this machine used water power to spin coarse, strong thread in factories.
The scandal in which Nixon?s assistants broke into the Democratic Party headquarters in July 1972.
?Manmoney? or ?money to buy off the spear?; according to the code of the Salian Franks, this is the particular monetary value that every person had in the tribe.
Works Progress Administration (WPA)
The most famous of Roosevelt?s New Deal programs, it employed one-fifth of the entire labor force at some point in the 1930s, constructing public buildings, bridges, and highways.
All of the oldest and most honored kingdoms and peoples of the ancient Near East that were united under the Persian political organization.
A basic outlook on life.
A god, who in Medieval Latin became ?Jehovah,? that appeared to Moses on Mount Sinai and made a covenant with the Hebrews.
The top of the Korean social system; these hereditary aristocrats owned most of the land and held most government offices.
yin and yang
A concept of complementary poles, one of which represents the feminine, dark, and receptive, and the other the masculine, bright, and assertive.
Idealistic Turkish exiles in Europe and young army officers in Istanbul who seized power in the revolution of 1908 and helped pave the way for the birth of modern secular Turkey.
The Turkish patriots who had seized power in the revolution of 1908 and now worked for an "Arab movement" in Asia.
Tents in which the Mongols lived; they could be dismantled and loaded onto animals or carts in a short time.
Giant conglomerate firms in Japan.
The movement toward Jewish political nationhood started by Theodor Herzl.
The religion based on the teachings of Zoroaster, who emphasized the individual?s responsibility to choose between good and evil. Though Zoroaster?s teachings often met with opposition, the Persian ruler Darius was a convert.
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Black Sea is one of the major water bodies and a famous inland sea of the world. It has been famous for a long time, mainly because of the name that denotes rather inhospitable nature of this sea. For a long time, the lack of hospitability of this sea was attributed to difficulty in its navigation.
However, with time its image as one of the most difficult water bodies changed but the name remained. But still, there are a lot of interesting Black Sea facts that must be known. We enumerate 10 of the most important facts..
1. Surrounded by Six Countries : Geography and location
The most interesting thing about this sea is its map. The map of Black Sea flaunts its 159,600 sq mi sea lying between South East Europe and Asia. This sea is connected with the Mediterranean Sea through Bosporus, the Sea of Marmara and the Dardanelles. It is an amazing feature on the map of Black Sea that it is surrounded by six different countries.
Sharing its shores with boundaries of Turkey, Romania, Ukraine, Bulgaria, Russia and Georgia, this sea is the connecting link between all these six different countries.
2. Mystery Surrounding the Origin of the name – Black Sea
One of the best and little known Black Sea facts is the origin of its name. There are various theories as to how this sea got to be called by this particular name. Of the many prevalent theories, there is one that says that the Black sea was called ‘the Sea’ for a long time before being called as the ‘inhospitable Sea’ before the Greeks took over its shore lines. Once Greeks made navigation through this sea very easy, the name changed from the inhospitable to the hospitable sea.
However, this sea has been given many names over the centuries by different people but this particular name happens to be the most famous one, believed to be given by the Turkish in medieval times.
3. Anoxic water
One of the most intriguing facts about the Black Sea is its anoxic water. Black Sea happens to be the largest water body with a meromictic basin. This means the movement of water between the lower and upper layers of water in this sea is the least found anywhere in the world.
This makes a considerable temperature difference between these layers along with making the lower layers absolute free of oxygen and hence, inactive.
4. Believed to be the Landing Point of the Noah’s Ark : Maritime History
Another very interesting fact or perhaps rumor about the Black Sea is that the Mt. Ararat standing in the eastern Turkey along the coastline of the Black Sea is considered to be the landing point for Noah’s Ark.
Since there is no concrete way of verifying this rumor, black Sea happens to be one the most famous ways for people to check out the rumored mountain for themselves.
5. Has Exotic Smaller islands
The black sea is a house to many smaller islands all along its inland. These islands are about ten in number and are amazing store of fauna and flora that make this sea even more unique that it already is. These islands cover an expanse of three different countries, making each one a unique experience of its own.
6. Creepy Rumors: The dead lies beneath the water
What seems like an intriguing and almost scary fact is that the dead are believed to persist in waters of the Black Sea. Remains of ships and humans and other decomposable materials like ropes, wood etc can still be found at the bed of this sea, hundreds of years after their entry into the waters of the Black Sea. As thrilling as this fact sounds, the scientific explanation for it is that due to anoxic nature of the lower water layers of this sea, the process of decomposition is negligibly slow, hence, the persistence of remains of the dead inside the sea’s water.
7. The Water Level Always Remains the Same
Another one of the interesting Black Sea facts is that the water level in this sea always remains the same. Due to absence of any high or low tides, there is no fluctuation in the water level, making it a calm, quiet and serene sea on the surface.
8. Thriving tourists spot choice and favorite destination for cruises
In spite of all the mystery surrounding the Black Sea, the fact remains that it happens to be a very famous choice for tourists’ vacations all the year round. With its amazing destinations that include six countries, tour of the Mediterranean sea, intermediate sea, tourists spots etc, it remains one of the most famous picks for people wishing to enjoy some quality time on a relaxed laid back traveling experience.
Because of its popularity as a tourist choice and amazing scope of cruising, there are a number of cruises that offer a chance to explore the secrets of this sea. You can choose your destination from any of the six countries this sea borders along with the smaller islands that fall on the way, along with the Mediterranean Sea as a bonus.
These are just a few of all the amazing Black sea facts. But to know more about them, it is best to visit this sea and let it do the talking.
You may also like to read-Buy a House at Sea: The World Ship’s Residence at Sea
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IMAP CD-ROM: Integrating Mathematics and Pedagogy to Illustrate Children's Reasoning
After studying the video clips on this CD, you will be able to better understand the ways individual children approach math problems, get to know the unique and creative ways children think mathematically, and recognize the best ways to support their developing comprehension. This CD contains 25 video clips. The mathematics content of the clips is early number, place value, and rational number. Some clips show children in Grades 1-5 solving problems; others show problem solving in classrooms. A few clips were designed to illustrate interviewing children to assess their mathematical thinking. A video guide containing suggestions for using each video clip and reflection questions accompanies the CD. For prospective and practicing elementary school teachers and administration.
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ISBN-10/ISBN-13: 1889031453 / 978-1889031453 / Advanced Vehicle Stop Tactics: Skills for Today's Survival Conscious Officer / Michael T. Rayburn 1889031577 / 978-1889031576 / Terrorism Response Handbook for Police Officers in New York State / Cliff Mariani 1889031879 / 978-1889031873 / Identity Theft First Responder Manual for Criminal Justice Professionals: Law Enforcement, Fraud Investigators, Prosecutors, Judges / Judith M. Collins, Sandra K. Hoffman 188903200X / 978-1889032009 / Winning the War Within: A Bibical Strategy for Spiritual Warfare / Jay Edward Adams 1889032050 / 978-1889032054 / Back to the Blackboard: Design for a Bibical Christian School / Jay Edward Adams 1889032190 / 978-1889032191 / Signs & Wonders: In the Last Days / Jay Edward Adams 1889032271 / 978-1889032276 / Uncommon Vessels: A Program for Developing Godly Eating Habits / Elyse Fitzpatrick 1889032298 / 978-1889032290 / Insight & Creativity in Christian Counseling: A Study of the Usual & the Unique / Jay Edward Adams 1889015598 / 978-1889015590 / Jeremiah Study Guide (Jeremiah Study Guide) / Tom M. Constance 1889015628 / 978-1889015620 / Isaiah Study Guide (Isaiah Study Guide) / Tom M. Constance 1889015636 / 978-1889015637 / Isaiah Study Guide (Isaiah Study Guide) / Tom M. Constance 1889015687 / 978-1889015682 / God's Perfect Plan: Exploring Bible Prophecy from Genesis to Revelation Study Guide (God's Perfect Plan) / Marni Shideler McKenzie 1889020109 / 978-1889020105 / Louisa May Alcott's Civil War / Louisa May Alcott 1889030082 / 978-1889030081 / Seminole Indians During the Colonial Period / Chuck Blanchard, Claudine Payne, Nina Borremans 1889030139 / 978-1889030135 / Steamboats in 19th Century Florida / Sandra Dunnavant, Kathy Wray, Sue Middleton 1889031224 / 978-1889031224 / Constitutional Law for Criminal Justice Professionals / Irving J. Klein, Christopher J. Morse 1889031267 / 978-1889031262 / Defensive Living: Attitudes, Tactics & Proper Handgun Use to Secure Your Personal Well-Being / Ed Lovette, Dave Spaulding 1889031607 / 978-1889031606 / Suicide by Cop--Inducing Officers to Shoot: Practical Direction for Recognition, Resolution and Recovery / Vivian B. Lord 1889031631 / 978-1889031637 / Police Management Examinations: Preparation Guide / Larry F. Jetmore 1889031666 / 978-1889031668 / The Retail Manager's Guide to Crime and Loss Prevention: Protecting Your Business from Theft, Fraud, and Violence / Liz Martinez, Liz Martinez Defranco 1889031909 / 978-1889031903 / Civil Practice For Paralegals In New York State: Practical Interpretation Of The Crucial Elements / Charles E. Coleman, Gail Elizabeth Williams 1889032026 / 978-1889032023 / The Grand Demonstration: A Bibical Study of the So-Called Problem of Evil / Jay Edward Adams 1889032085 / 978-1889032085 / The Gospel of John & Letters of John and Jesus (Christian Counselor's Commentary) / Jay Edward Adams 188903214X / 978-1889032146 / Acts (Christian Counselor's Commentary) / Jay Edward Adams 1889032174 / 978-1889032177 / Preaching According to the Holy Spirit / Jay Edward Adams 188903231X / 978-1889032313 / Pain: The Plight of Fallen Man: God's Prescription for Persevering / James Halla 1889015571 / 978-1889015576 / The Gospel of Matthew Study Guide (Gospel of Matthew Study Guide) / Tom M. Constance 188901558X / 978-1889015583 / The Gospel of Matthew Study Guide (Gospel of Matthew Study Guide) / Tom M. Constance 1889020044 / 978-1889020044 / Our Army Nurses: Stories from Women in the Civil War / Mary Gardner Holland 1889020052 / 978-1889020051 / Gettysburg and the Christian Commission / Daniel J. Hoisington
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Extreme Healthy Eating: The Dangers Of Orthorexia
Orthorexia (also known as 'orthoexia') is an eating disorder developed when people take healthy eating to the point of obsession. While on the surface it may seem constructive to have an extremely healthy diet, orthorexia is a mental health issue and can interfere with many aspects of daily life.
Orthorexics exhibit some of the same controlling eating habits as people with other eating disorders, but are unique in their obsession with nutrition and health.
Healthy eating is essential to a long, happy life, but orthorexia is a serious eating disorder that can actually harm the body more than it helps. Orthorexics tend to restrict their diets to only the essential vitamins and minerals needed on a daily basis, which can lead to nutritional deficits and create a lot of mental stress.
Moderation is essential for a truly healthy diet and lifestyle.
A trip to the grocery store can be extremely stressful for an orthorexic. They can spend hours obsessing over nutrition facts, scanning food labels, and spending large sums of money at health food stores. In extreme cases, orthorexics develop a fear of certain foods, including healthy options like produce, because they have been exposed to pesticides or potentially harmful chemicals.
Everyone has a unique approach to how they eat, but a quirk differs from a disorder in that disorders interfere with daily life. Orthorexics, like anorexics and bulimics, may feel uncomfortable eating with friends or ordering from restaurants. In addition, they may refuse to eat home-cooked meals for fear of unknown ingredients in the food. Such habits can lead to social isolation, stress, and self-harming habits.
Some orthorexics also develop extreme exercise regimens. In addition to a carefully monitored diet, many feel the need to burn off excess calories and fat by working out excessively. It is common for orthorexics to create an imaginary mental number of how much time should be devoted to exercise during the week, and go out of their way to reach their goal.
While moderate exercise is very healthy for the body, extreme exercise mimics an addition, where people can get physically dependent on the hormones the body produces while working out (specifically troponin, which signals damage to the heart). Over time, this can cause scar tissue on the heart, making it more vulnerable to abnormal heart rhythms.
The key to a healthy lifestyle is balance.
A healthy diet is only beneficial if it doesn’t cause stress or obsession, and exercise can be harmful once it changes the functions of essential organs. Orthorexia is not only harmful to the body, but psychologically a sign of greater mental illness. If you’re worried that you or a loved one has orthorexia, please contact a treatment center near you and try to improve on moderating health habits.
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The films were produced as part of the Southern Environmental Law Center's Southern Exposure film series. This year, six film fellows created six short films about environmental topics in Alabama, and three screenings for the films are lined up in central and south Alabama, according to Katherine Gorringe, one of the organizers.
The first screening will be Sept. 16 at 7 p.m. at the Birmingham Botanical Gardens. On Sept. 24 at 8:30 p.m., the films will screen at the Crescent Theater in Mobile, and at 7 p.m. on Sept. 25, they'll show at the USA-Baldwin County Performance Center in Fairhope.
All of the events are free.
Here are the films, with descriptions provided by the SELC:
Invasive in Alabama -- Mindy Keeley -- 9 minutes
Since arriving in Alabama in the 1500s through Spanish settlers, the prevalence of wild pigs has increased in the past 20 years with the illegal introduction of recreational hunting in new areas. This film explores the problems caused by invasive species through the experiences of those trying to curb the ever-increasing feral hog population in Northern Alabama.
In Deep Water -- Zoe Gieringer -- 7 minutes
Despite being one of the most water-rich states in America, Alabama lacks a statewide water management plan; unregulated water withdrawal, increased population, and expansion are putting stress on our water resources and amplifying droughts. This film follows the Coosa River downstream to discover the competing uses of this precious resource and how Alabama can protect its waters for the future.
Paradise or Profit -- Chris Jones -- 11 minutes
For the first time in Alabama, an outside industry is attempting to strip-mine and process the tar sands of Northern Alabama to extract oil-rich bitumen. How will the environmental consequences of mining and processing tar sands potentially impact the community of Colbert County and its concerned citizens in the movement to preserve their water, air, and local agricultural economy?
In Our Nature -- Johanna Obenda -- 7 minutes
Explore Alabama's environment through the eyes of its young, future environmentalists at Camp McDowell, a non-profit educational organization with a mission to connect young people to their environment and promote commitment to lifelong learning. Can this deepened relationship with nature educate our children on the environment and the importance of protecting it?
Down the Drain -- Carlos Estrada -- 11 minutes
After a failed sewage project left Jefferson County in debt and eventually bankruptcy, sewage infrastructure continues to be a statewide issue in Alabama. Focusing on the small community of Uniontown, a town extremely affected by failed sewage infrastructure, what is at stake and how can we turn it around?
The Accidental Environmentalist -- Kristine Stolakis -- 13 minutes
John Wathen was just an average guy until coming into contact with toxic chemicals, stumbling upon a video camera, and discovering his passion for protecting the world's waters. See this Alabama native's transformation into an internationally recognized environmentalist.
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For Immediate Release, Aug. 4, 2010
Contact: Kierán Suckling, (520) 275-5960
Statement of Center for Biological Diversity's Executive Director Kierán Suckling on
Government Estimates of Remaining Oil in the Gulf of Mexico
TUCSON, Ariz.— Kierán Suckling, executive director of the Center for Biological Diversity, issued the following statement today responding to the federal government’s report that up to 75 percent of the oil from the BP spill in the Gulf of Mexico has been captured, burned, broken down or evaporated:
“The overly rosy tone of today’s report may leave the false impression that this crisis is somehow nearing an end. But much of the oil that the government refers to has simply been broken apart and remains in the ecosystem. It’s like taking separated salad dressing and shaking up the bottle so the oil and vinegar mix. You may not be able to see the oil, but it’s there.
“That unseen oil, though, is what will foul the Gulf for years, eating away at the basic elements of the food chain that are the building blocks for fisheries, birds, sea turtles and mammal populations.
“The harsh reality is that even if you accept today’s estimate, that means there are still more than 1 million barrels of oil in the ocean and along the shoreline – nearly five times the size of the Exxon Valdez spill that’s still impacting ecosystems in Alaska.
“No matter what the spin, there’s no denying the devastating long-term effects of the Gulf oil spill. Rather than down-playing the historic magnitude of this spill, the government ought to be working aggressively to tally its true costs – both to wildlife and people of the Gulf – and hold BP accountable for every drop.”
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What is string theory?
Tim Whitwell is a research engineer who works in Hong Kong. He uses his physics knowledge to tackle acoustics, electromagnetic design and mechanics. He was a resident expert on Big Bang Blogs for a month, and school pupils had the chance to ask him some questions about his life, the universe and everything.
What is string theory?
One of the goals of Physics is to find a single theory that unites all of the four forces of nature. These are; electromagnetism, gravity, and the strong and weak nuclear forces. The first two are familiar. Electromagnetism is the force that holds a fridge magnet to a refrigerator while gravity is trying to pull it off towards the earth.
The strong nuclear force is responsible for holding the central part of atoms (their nuclei) together, while the weak nuclear force is involved in the decay of these nuclei.
In the attempt to tie all the four forces together a lot of interesting ideas and new theories have been proposed. One of the most promising of these new theories is string theory. In attempting to unite gravity with the three other forces, string theory requires us to change the way we view the universe.
According to the theory all particles are actually tiny vibrating strings and each type of vibration corresponds to a different particle. The different particles are like the different notes that can be played by bowing a violin string. However, the strings of string theory almost certainly would not look like violin strings.
String theory also requires us to accept the existence of extra dimensions in the universe. We are familiar with the four usual dimensions: up-down, forwards-backwards, left-right and time, but string theory requires seven more dimensions!
A universe of eleven dimensions seems strange to us but many physicists think these extra dimensions are possible and are looking for ways to detect them.
The attempt to unify the 4 forces of nature is one of the most exciting areas of physics and I hope to be around if this is successful, whether it is string theory or some other candidate that is successful. On the other hand there is the possibility that no single, theory exists that can describe all the forces of nature in a neat and tidy way as we would like.
Whatever the outcome, scientists from all over the world will continue working together to discover what could be the ultimate theory of everything.
The folowing links are external
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http://www.physics.org/article-questions.asp?id=47
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| 0.953416 | 493 | 3.421875 | 3 |
Purpose and scope.
Definitions, abbreviations, and acronyms.
Adoption by reference.
Water system ownership.
Variances, exemptions, and waivers.
PLANNING AND ENGINEERING DOCUMENTS
Water system plan.
Small water system management program.
Duty to provide service.
Place of use expansion.
Consistency with local plans and regulations.
Project report and construction document submittal exceptions.
Source water protection.
Existing system as-built approval.
DESIGN OF PUBLIC WATER SYSTEMS
Drinking water materials and additives.
Water demand design criteria.
Water system physical capacity.
Finished water storage facilities.
Maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) and maximum residual disinfectant levels (MRDLs).
WATER SYSTEM OPERATIONS
Operations and maintenance.
Reliability and emergency response.
Disinfection of drinking water.
Treatment techniques for groundwater systems.
Operation of chemical contaminant treatment facilities.
Fluoridation of drinking water.
Uncovered finished water storage facilities.
Recordkeeping and reporting.
Recordkeeping and reporting for groundwater systems.
SURFACE WATER TREATMENT
Subpart A - Introduction and General Requirements
Purpose of surface water treatment.
Applicability of surface water treatment requirements.
Treatment technique violations.
Follow-up to treatment technique violations.
Determination of disinfectant contact time (T).
Determination of GWI sources.
Subpart B - Requirements for Filtered Systems
Compliance requirements for filtered systems.
Filtration technology and design criteria for existing filtered systems.
Treatment criteria for filtered systems.
Disinfection for filtered systems.
Monitoring for filtered systems.
Reporting for filtered systems.
Subpart C - Requirements for Systems Installing Filtration Facilities
Compliance requirements for existing unfiltered systems installing filtration.
Interim treatment requirements.
Interim monitoring and reporting.
Filtration technology and design criteria.
Reliability for filtered systems.
Subpart D - Requirements for Other Unfiltered Systems
Compliance requirements for unfiltered systems.
Criteria to remain unfiltered.
Criteria for unfiltered systems with a "limited alternative to filtration" to remain unfiltered.
Disinfection for unfiltered systems.
Monitoring for unfiltered systems.
Reporting for unfiltered systems.
Subpart A - Public Notification and Consumer Information
Public notice content.
Public notification distribution.
Public notification mandatory language.
Special public notification requirements.
Public notification special provisions.
Subpart B - Consumer Confidence Reports
Purpose and applicability of the consumer confidence report requirements.
Report contents—Source water.
Report contents—Information on detected contaminants.
Report contents—Information on Cryptosporidium, radon, and other contaminants.
Report contents—Compliance with National Primary Drinking Water Regulations.
Report contents—Variances and exemptions.
Report contents—Additional information.
Report contents—Required additional health information.
Report delivery and recordkeeping.
Report contents—Groundwater systems.
WATER USE EFFICIENCY
Purpose and applicability.
Water use efficiency program.
Distribution system leakage standard.
Water use efficiency goal setting.
Water use efficiency performance reports.
Water system evaluation and project review and approval fees.
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http://apps.leg.wa.gov/WAC/default.aspx?cite=246-290
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| 0.753184 | 710 | 2.65625 | 3 |
ASME B 36.10
ASME B 36.19
A pipe is a tubular section or hollow cylinder, usually but not necessarily of circular cross-section, used mainly to convey substances which can flow — liquids and gases (fluids), slurries, powders, masses of small solids.
There are three processes for metallic pipe manufacture.
1-Centrifugal casting of hot alloyed metal is one of the most prominent process. Ductile iron pipes are generally manufactured in such a fashion.
2-Seamless (SMLS) pipe is formed by drawing a solid billet over a piercing rod to create the hollow shell. Seamless pipe withstands pressure better than other types, and is often more easily available than welded pipe.
3-Welded (also Electric Resistance Welded ("ERW"), and Electric Fusion Welded ("EFW")) pipe is formed by rolling plate and welding the seam.
Seamless pipes are made using extruction process. There will be no seam on the periphery of tube which can take more pressure.
But the ERW tube is made from a plate rolling down to a pipe form and then finally welded at seam. Hence the pipe is weak at welded region so incapable od taking more pressure.
So all the pressure parts tubes in boiler plants are made up of seamless tubes.
Pipe Size Designation
Pipe sizes are specified by a number of national and international standards.
API 5L ………………………….......in USA
ANSI/ASME B36.10M………….in USA
ANSI/ASME B36.19M ……….. in USA
BS 1600 ………………………........in UK & Europe
BS EN 10255 ………………....…..in UK & Europe
JIS …………………………........…..in Japan
Two most popular common methods for designating pipe outside diameter (OD).:
The North American method
NPS ("Nominal Pipe Size") and is based on inches also known as NB ("Nominal Bore").
The European method
DN ("Diametre Nominal" / "Nominal Diameter") and is based on millimetres. Designating by OD-outside diameter
Two most common methods for designating Wall thickness & Weight.
Steel Pipe Size based on Sch ( read as Schedule )
The wall thickness were like- Sch 40, 80, 160. For example, Sch 20 pipe is even thinner than Sch 40, but same OD
The Iron pipe size (IPS) the wall thickness were like- Standard Wall (STD), Extra Strong (XS), and Double Extra Strong (XXS)
Other Old system are
Ductile Iron Pipe Size (DIPS), which generally has larger ODs than IPS.
Plastic Irrigation Pipe(PIP) PIP comes in pressure ratings of 22 psi (150 kPa), 50 psi (340 kPa), 80 psi (550 kPa), 100 psi (690 kPa), and 125 psi (860 kPa)
Copper Tube Size (CTS)
Plastic tubing, such as PVC and CPVC, for plumbing applications also has different sizing standards
For pipe sizes less than NPS 14 inch /DN 350, both methods give a nominal value for the OD that is rounded off and is not the same as the actual OD.
Piping Class Rating.
The piping rating must be governed by the pressure-temperature rating of the weakest pressure containing item in the piping.The weakest item in a piping system may be a fitting made of weaker material or rated lower due to design and other considerations.It is usual industry practice to classify the pipe in accordance with the pressure temperature rating system used for classifying flanges.
Some Commonly Used Materials: Stainless Steel, Carbon Steel, Alloy Steel
Other Materials : Monel, Nickel, Inconel, Hastalloy, Copper, Brass, Bronze, Titanium, Tantalum, Bismuth,Aluminium, High Speed Steel, Zinc, Lead, Etc.
Some Commonly Used Designated Piping Materials:
Stainless Steel : ASTM A312 TP 304/ 304L/ 304H/ 316/ 316L/ 317/ 317L/ 321/ 310/ 347/904L/ etc.
Carbon Steel : ASTM A53 GR. B/ A106 GR. B/ API 5L GRADE B/ API 5L GR. X42/46/52/56/60/65/70 / A333 GR. 3/ GR. 6/ etc.
Alloy Steel : ASTM A335 GR. P1/ P5/ P9/ P11/ P22/ P91/ etc.
longer than double random
Single Random Length : Single random pipe length is usually 18-25 feet plain end or 18-22 feet threaded and coupled pipes.
Double Random Lengths : Double random length pipes are made between 38-40 feet.
Longer than Double Random: The length of longer than double random pipes are more than 38-40 feet.
Cut Lengths: Cut length pipes are made in fixed lengths within +/- 1/8 inch. Some pipe is available in about 80-ft lengths.
Bevel End (BE)
Bevel Both Ends (BBE)
Bevel Large End (BLE)
Bevel One End (BOE)
Bevel Small End (BSE)
Bevel for Welding (BFW)
Buttweld Ends (BE)
End of Pipe (EOP)
Flange One End (FOE)
Plain End (PE)
Plain End Beveled (PEB)
Plain One End (POE)
Plain Both Ends (PBE)
Screwed End (SE)
Screwed Both Ends (SBE)
Screwed One End (SOE)
Socket Weld End (SWE)
Thread Both Ends (TBE)
Thread End (TE)-
Note:A threaded connection is often designated by a T as in TE for threaded end. When describing a nipple, it would be used as TOE or TBE for threaded one end or threaded both ends.
Thread Large End (TLE)
Thread One End (TOE)
Thread Small End (TSE)
Threads Only (TO)
For pipe sizes less than NPS 14 inch /DN 350, both methods (North American method-NPS and Europian method-DN)give a nominal value for the OD that is rounded off and is not the same as the actual OD.
After 14 inch the actual OD of the pipe will be same as there respective inches of the pipe size.
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| 0.860485 | 1,394 | 3.578125 | 4 |
Morse, Tolkowsky, Higuchi and Other Revolutionaries
There were a few main players through history that had a hand in development
of today's Super Ideal Cut diamonds. It is curious that three men from different
continents and different time periods could be so influential in taking us to
where we are today. In America in the 1870s, Boston cutter Henry D. Morse
introduced the concept of cutting diamonds (and re-cutting) for “beauty
verses weight” and pioneered a cutting style that would later become the
American Cut. He and his colleagues produced some revolutionary innovations
that would forever change the diamond world. The contrary idea of sacrificing
valuable rough to produce a more scientifically crafted diamond was taking
hold despite the resistance of the status quo in the cutting world.
Decades later in 1919, Belgian mathematician Marcel Tolkowsky documented
specific angles and percentages in his book Diamond Design. These top
and bottom angles would later become the basis of the cut grade system
taught by GIA as “Ideal Cut proportions” in their gemology course materials
until about 1980. Contrary to popular thought Tolkowsky’s treatise was
not his doctorial thesis nor did he himself use the word “ideal” to
describe his best cut parameters.
In the 1980s in Japan a paradigm shift was looming. Japanese gemologists,
cutters and scientists were studying the ideal cut model while experimenting
with tools that could show brilliance and light return in diamonds. A
scientist named Kazumi Okuda was key in the development of research tools
using colored reflectors. His small red-ringed loupe with Zeiss optics was
among the first tools used to observe precision of facet placement in
diamonds. Fig 1-1.
Okuda was contracted by diamond dealer and researcher, Tsuyoshi Shigetomi and
his colleague Kazuo Inoue to develop a more sophisticated reflector tool, which
led to the creation of an instrument they called the Firescope in
1984. Fig 1-2, 1-2a.
This unique device showed a three-dimensional view of the diamond easily
demonstrating light return and light leakage in the stone. Realizing that
Tolkowsky only addressed two-dimensional modeling of the 16 main facets
and table, this instrument permitted a new three-dimensional visual view
of the whole diamond showing the interplay of all 57 facets. Japanese
cutter Kioyishi Higuchi, an early pioneer in high performance ideal cuts,
used the Firescope and experimentation to create diamonds that would produce
superior light refraction and reflection (aka light performance) while
not deviating much from the original proportions of Tolkowsky. Ultimately
the Super Ideal cut was born. These early Japanese ideal cuts were very
tight tolerance and also showed superior optical symmetry when viewed in
the Firescope. Another exciting feature of these diamonds was the perfectly
symmetrical eight-rayed star that was clearly visible in the Firescope.
Earliest Super Ideal cut brands such as Eightstar
and Apollon 8
the mid-80s. Around this time, legend has it, quite by accident someone
discovered that when one of these diamonds was viewed upside down in
the Firescope, one could see a visible pattern eight symmetrical “hearts”
through the pavilion of the stone.
This was the birth of a totally new
concept in diamonds that would become known as Hearts and Arrows
Yamashita, an associate of Shigetomi, coined the name and trade marked it
in 1988. He also is credited with development of the Hearts & Arrows viewer,
for which he received a patent in 1990. The Hearts and Arrows Viewer though
a reflector device like Firescope, this instrument allows the viewer to
analyze the physical symmetry, contrast and alignment of facets in
both the pavilion and crown of a diamond, by directing light at set angles
to catch and reflect light back from specific facets and angles in the diamond.
An early version of a Japanese Hearts and Arrows viewer like the one shown here,
was developed in Japan for use across the retail counter to show this unique
phenomenon to consumers. Fig 1-4.
Romancing the stone- Japanese style
In Japan, in the early 1990s ideal cut diamonds were all the rage. In this
country, the second biggest diamond market, where quality, status and brand
names are in vogue consumers became big buyers of ideal cuts. Cut grades
of Excellent and later Super Excellent or Triple Excellent were much sought after.
Some ideal cuts with these grades were known to show the "Cupid effect", a
visual pattern of eight hearts while looking down through the pavilion and
eight arrows when viewing the stone in the table up position. A Hearts and
Arrows Scope was needed to show this phenomenon. These new diamonds become
known in the trade as Hearts & Arrows
According to both Roman and Greek mythology a person shot with Cupid's arrow
supposedly fell in love, so the link between the hearts and arrows and love
is obvious. Japanese bridal magazines, featuring these romantic jewels, sent
young couples out into the streets shopping for these exciting new diamonds.
Now, for many young buyers, ideal cutting without the hearts & arrows was
not good enough. Gemological laboratories in Japan, realizing a golden opportunity,
began issuing certificates with Excellent cut grades with photos showing the
hearts & arrows pattern. See Fig 2-1.
To assure accuracy of the new quantifying cut grades, Japanese labs used new
computerized automatic measuring systems like the Sarin Dia-mension machine
at right. Fig 2-2.
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| 0.948174 | 1,206 | 3.359375 | 3 |
Functions and Models: Exponential Functions
base, exponent, exponential function, rational number, irrational number, transcendental number, successive approximation, rate of growth, half-life
Defining exponential functions
The exponential function can be algebraically defined when is rational. When is irrational, we define as a limit of powers of where the exponent is a sequence of rational numbers converging to .
Positive Integer Exponents
If is a positive integer, then we can think of as a shorthand notation for multiplying 2 times itself times.
Example: and similarly .
Negative Integer Exponents
If is a negative integer, then we define as the reciprocal of .
Example: and .
If is a rational number, then we define as the th root of .
For this example, we take the base of the exponential function to be . Let us also take a particular case of an irrational exponent for purposes of illustration. Take the exponent . Using Maple, we can find decimal approximations of to any desired number of digits. These approximations up to 3 decimal digits are as follows:
We can use these rational approximations to to obtain a sequence of approximations to (since we are raising 2 to a rational power each time, each of these powers is defined as in the previous section).
As we use more decimal digits in our rational approximations of , our approximations of become progressively better. The limit of these approximations is the value of .
Laws of Exponents
We record the following properties of exponential calculations. These properties will be useful in simplifying computations in later problems.
In previous algebra courses, you have likely proved the laws of exponents for rational values of . These laws in fact apply to all real values of . We will prove these laws later in the course.
Modelling with Exponential Functions
Exponential functions are useful in modeling many phenomena involving rapid growth. In particular, population growth under ideal conditions can be modeled effectively by exponential functions. Let represent the size of a population at time . The basic exponential growth model is given by the following equation where is the doubling time and is the initial population:
Example: If a bacteria colony initially contains 100 bacteria and the population size doubles every 3 hours, what is the size of the population after 10 hours?
The size of the population after 10 hours is , which is approximately 1007 bacteria.
Exponential functions are useful in modeling radioactive decay. Let represent the amount of a radioactive substance present at time . The basic exponential decay model is given by the following equation where is the half-life and is the initial amount of the radioactive substance:
Example: If there are initially 50 mg of the radioactive isotope Strontium-90 and the half-life of this isotope is 25 years, how much of the isotope remains after 13 years?
The amount of the isotope after 13 years is milligrams, which is approximately 34.869 mg.
The Natural Base
Later in this course we will want to simplify our computations involving exponential functions. We introduce a special constant now which serves this purpose. Among all the possible values of the base , there is only one value for which the graph of has slope 1 at the point (0,1). This value of is the number , named after the mathematician Euler who also showed that is irrational (approximately a century later, Hermite showed that is in fact transcendental). The first digits of the decimal representation of are 2.718281828. In later sections we will introduce other ways of defining .
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| 0.88001 | 733 | 4 | 4 |
Letter C > C is for Car
Crafts > Car
Holidays and Events >
May > Transportation Month
Online jigsaw puzzles >
Alphabet > Car
Activities > Safety >
Activity: What is a car and alphabet Letter C Car
Visit this lesson plan and incorporate this activity.
Alphabet Lower Case Letter C Car Activity
Worksheet and Craft
activities will help children learn letter C, beginning writing skills (tracing), scissor cutting skills, problem solving
(assembly of the craft).
upper portion of the activity worksheet is a foldable flash card, the lower portion is
a craft to trace, color and assemble.
Printing Tips: This activity worksheet will be more
effective when printed on stiff paper or card stock. To
add interest, print on pastel colors.
1. Print the activity page. If working with a group,
print one for display and for instruction. Distribute only the
upper portion (flash card and tracer as one piece).
Tell the children they are going to
play different games with a car theme. They need to listen and
follow instructions for the game.
2. Game 1 - Trace and Say the Letter - Assemble the Flash
*Trace the large dotted letter (left) and sound out the word car and
point to the image (right side).
*Have the children trace the dotted letter with their finger
first. Instruct to trace with color pencil or crayon.
*Color the car image on the right.
*Instruct children (or help) fold on the center line and apply
glue. One side of the card will show the tracer and the other
side the car picture.
3. Game 2:
Craft - Trace, Cut and Assemble a Car
The lower part of the worksheet is an easy craft that will provide
opportunities to trace, cut (scissor skills) and creativity in
coloring, decorating and assembly (small motor skills).
Distribute the car craft portion:
1. Instruct the children to trace along the dotted
lines of the different pieces in their favorite colors. Now the
children can color, fill and decorate the pieces
Once the pieces are traced and colored, instruct the children to cut
out the pieces.
3. Instruct to assemble. They can refer to the
image in the flash card. The wheels can be attached with a
large fastener, so these can turn around (Ages 3+ and older only).
Optional: The car can be decorate with a community
Car - add an upper light to make a police
car or taxi cab (write police or taxi on the craft)
Activities Online: Think Safe, Ride Safe, Be Safe Traffic Safety Program
Fun online activities that address traffic safety issues such as: car tips (buckle up),
walking tips such as crossing a street, bike tips, school bus and parents resources for car seats brought to you by Chugginton and the NHTSA.
Activity > Online Jigsaw Puzzle: C
Car Online Puzzle
||Enjoy this 6-piece
online puzzle that will provide problem solving skills
and letter recognition practice. Click on the SHAPE
button to increase number of pieces
*print on card stock,
paper, or construction paper
*something to color with-color pencils, crayons or markers
*Optional - sticker and two fasteners for wheels
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| 0.864562 | 719 | 3.765625 | 4 |
A good Computer Science syllabus will cover everything from bit manipulation to set theory, from Boolean algebra to concurrency, from parsing grammars to graph traversal, from two's-complement arithmetic to higher-order functions, from sorting algorithms to multiple dispatch, from macros to closures. Along the way, the CS student should also learn how to program competently in (at least) the imperative, object-oriented, and functional paradigms.
Perl 6 is a new language in the Perl family. It aims to provide all of the major features of all of the major languages from all three dominant paradigms, and offers everything from low-level bitwise operations on raw bytes, to a full range of built-in system commands, to hygenic source code macros, to direct symbol-table introspection and manipulation, to run-time composition of multiply dispatched multimethods from mixins, to object-oriented grammars with hybrid DFA/NFA rules, to concurrent higher-order functions applied over infinite lists of pipelined arbitrary precision integers.
In other words, we stole the best features from 20 different languages, and then spent a decade working out how to put them together in a way that is clean, efficient, powerful, and still usable by actual human beings. And Perl 6 was the result.
In this presentation, Dr Damian Conway (one of the principle designers of Perl 6) will discuss some of the more interesting features of the language and demonstrate how it might be of value in an integrated Computer Science curriculum.
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| 0.912248 | 316 | 2.859375 | 3 |
MOSES BEN ENOCH:
Founder of Talmud study in Spain; died about 965. He was one of the four scholars that went from Sura, the seat of a once flourishing but then declining Talmud academy, in order to collect contributions for that school. During a voyage from Bari, on the coast of Italy, they were captured by the Moorish-Spanish admiral Ibn Rumaḥis, who, according to the legend, became enamored of the beautiful young wife of Moses. In distress she asked her husband in Hebrew whether those who were drowned in the sea could look forward to resurrection, and when he answered, in the words of the psalm, "The Lord saith, I will bring again from Bashan, I will bring them again from the depths of the sea," she cast herself into the waters and was drowned. Moses was taken to Cordova with his little son Enoch, where he was redeemed by the Jewish community, about 945 or 948. While there he went to the schoolhouse, took his seat in a corner, and listened quietly to the Talmudic discourse of the judge and rabbi, Nathan, not a very learned man. Some of the stranger's remarks attracted attention, and his detailed explanation of the passage quoted by Nathan and his ready answers to all questions addressed to him astonished the whole assembly. Nathan, therefore, on that very day voluntarily resigned his office and confessed himself Moses' pupil. The wealthy community of Cordova showed Moses much honor and immediately elected him rabbi. Ḥasdai ibn Shaprut, rejoicing at this event, induced the calif 'Abd al-Raḥman to order Ibn Rumaḥis to forego the higher ransom which he, in consequence, was demanding for Moses. Moses organized an important school at Cordova, which was independent of the gaonate and was attended by many pupils; and through him Cordova became the seat of Jewish scholarship.
- Sefer ha-Ḳabbalah, ed. Amsterdam, p. 41a;
- Jost, Gesch. des Judenthums und Seiner Sekten, ii. 399 et seq.;
- Frankel's Zeitschrift für die Religiösen Interessen des Judenthums, ii. 100 et seq., iii. 397 et seq., 422 et seq.;
- Grätz, Gesch. v. 336, 347 et seq., 542 et seq.
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| 0.980746 | 516 | 2.703125 | 3 |
View Full Version : Help making a felted bag I am stuck
06-13-2007, 11:28 PM
the pattern calls for cast on 30 stitches on a circular needle. Knit to the end and turn for eitht rows.
then knit the 30 stitches, Pick up and knit 5 stiches along the short end base. Place a stitch marker, then pick up and knit 30 stitches along the long side of base. Place a marker, Pick up and knit 5 stitches aalogn the other short. Ok question do I use the needles on the circular needle? or do I use an extra needle. The process is confusing to me. I am a beginner, I have been using the circular needle Now I want to make a bag, Can anyone help?
06-13-2007, 11:38 PM
You'll use the needles on the circular needles, not an extra one. It sounds like you'll be knitting in the round? What pattern are you using?
06-13-2007, 11:49 PM
Its from a book Knit one Felt two by Kathleen taylor. It just a ladies bag small in size. Yes it is on circular needles. I am not sure how to start the pick up. the base row, does it get folded, the pattern doesn't say so. confused
06-14-2007, 12:51 AM
You don't fold the base, but what will help in picking up those stitches is to push the 30 stitches away from the right needle tip and sort of fold the cord, then pick up the stitches. That's just so you can go around the corner easier to pick up the side stitches. After you get a few on, pull on the other end of the needle so all the stitches are together and take out any slack in the yarn.
06-14-2007, 07:57 PM
I just tried doing something similar eysterday and Amy's video on picking up stitches (in the basic techniques section) made all the difference. A literal "a HA!" moment! you have made a rectangle with working back and forth. this will be the bottom of the bag. Now you are going to go around the edges (perimeter) and create stitches from the edges of the rectangle. These created stitches will be worked in a circle (joined) to work up.
06-14-2007, 08:10 PM
ok so I have knitted the base these knitted sitches are on one side of the circular needles. Do I use the other circular needle to pick up the stitches, I am still confused.
06-14-2007, 11:13 PM
06-14-2007, 11:29 PM
Do you mean the other end of the needle, or another needle? No to both; use the needle tip that still has the stitches on it from the last row you knit.
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http://www.knittinghelp.com/forum/archive/index.php/index.php?t-60296.html
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en
| 0.895423 | 594 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Date of Statehood: July 10, 1890
Population: 563,626 (2010)
Size: 97,812 square miles
Nickname(s): Big Wyoming; Equality State; Cowboy State
Motto: Equal Rights
Tree: Plains Cottonwood
Flower: Indian Paintbrush
- On September 2, 1885, a group of white coal miners attacked and killed 28 of their Chinese coworkers, wounded 15 others, and torched 79 of their homes in Rock Springs. None of the perpetrators—who had been angered by the refusal of Chinese miners to join in a strike for better wages, and by the Union Pacific Coal Company’s decision to allow the Chinese to work a lucrative part of the mine—were ever convicted for the brutal massacre.
- Henry Longabaugh received the nickname “Sundance Kid” after serving time in prison between 1887 and 1889 for stealing a horse in Sundance, Wyoming. He later met Butch Cassidy and joined the notorious Wild Bunch.
- President Theodore Roosevelt designated Devils Tower—a natural rock formation resulting from a volcanic intrusion and a sacred site for many Plains Indians—the first national monument in the U.S. on September 24, 1906.
- In 1949, a massive blizzard blanketed Wyoming, killing 17 people, 55,000 cattle and 105,000 sheep.
- Wyoming is the leading producer of coal in the United States; in 2010, the state produced 40 percent of the nation’s total.
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<urn:uuid:37c9c725-bb1d-4100-b3e1-33a1430048b9>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.history.com/topics/us-states/wyoming/print
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en
| 0.929241 | 306 | 3.5 | 4 |
- Historic Sites
1963 Twenty-five Years Ago
December 1988 | Volume 39, Issue 8
President Lyndon B. Johnson presented the physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer with the Atomic Energy Commission’s Enrico Fermi Medal on December 2. As the brilliant leader of the Manhattan Project, Oppenheimer had headed the team of scientists that developed the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, but after the war he opposed the development of the far more destructive hydrogen bomb, warning that the United States could find itself trapped in a suicidal arms race.
His controversial positions and a youthful flirtation with the Communist party made him the target of an investigation by federal agents. In 1954, despite a complete lack of evidence of wrongdoing, he was stripped of his top-level security clearance. The waning of McCarthy-era anti-Communist fervor eventually brought the disillusioned Oppenheimer into better standing with the government, but he never got his security clearance back.
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<urn:uuid:cb6faed9-18be-4f61-afd8-a838aed88c6f>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.americanheritage.com/content/1963-twenty-five-years-ago-2?nid=62475
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en
| 0.950312 | 197 | 3.390625 | 3 |
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