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Illustrations for Public Use
These illustrations are provided for general use in oral presentations and classes.
Please acknowledge me when you use the illustrations.
These illustrations are also available for publication in print or on the internet.
Please include an acknowledgement such as: "Illustration by David S. Goodsell, the Scripps Research Institute."
All of the illustrations presented through the Molecule of the Month are also available for public use. High quality versions are available by clicking here.
Click on the small images to go to the high resolution images in tif format.
This illustration shows an entire mycoplasma cell. For more information, click on the image.
© David S. Goodsell 2011.
This illustration shows a cross-section of a small portion of an Escherichia coli cell.
The cell wall, with two concentric membranes studded with transmembrane proteins, is
shown in green. A large flagellar motor crosses the entire wall, turning the flagellum
that extends upwards from the surface. The cytoplasmic area is colored blue and purple.
The large purple molecules are ribosomes and the small, L-shaped maroon molecules are
tRNA, and the white strands are mRNA. Enzymes are shown in blue. The nucleoid region is
shown in yellow and orange, with the long DNA circle shown in yellow, wrapped around
HU protein (bacterial nucleosomes). In the center of the nucleoid region shown here,
you might find a replication fork, with DNA polymerase (in red-orange) replicating new DNA.
© David S. Goodsell 1999.
This illustration shows a cross-section through the blood, with blood serum in the upper
half and a red blood cell in the lower half. In the serum, look for Y-shaped antibodies,
long thin fibrinogen molecules (in light red) and many small albumin proteins. The large
UFO-shaped objects are low density lipoprotein and the six-armed protein is complement
C1. The red blood cell is filled with hemoglobin, in red. The cell membrane, in purple, is
braced on the inner surface by long spectrin chains connected at one end to a small
segment of actin filament.
© David S. Goodsell 2000.
HIV in Blood Serum
This illustration shows HIV (the large spherical object in red) under attack by the
immune system. Small Y-shaped antibodies are binding to its surface.
High quality prints of this painting are available--please contact me if you are interested.
I have one copy left, marked "AP" (artist proof). The print is 12"X18".
© David S. Goodsell 1999.
This illustration shows a portion of basement membrane,
a structure that forms the support between tissues in your body.
It is composed of a network of collagen (yellow green),
laminin (blue-green cross-shaped molecules), and proteoglycans (deep green, with three arms).
Blood serum is shown in the picture, with many Y-shaped antibodies, large circular low density lipoproteins,
and lots of small albumin molecules. The large fibrous structure at lower left is von Willebrand factor and the long molecules in red are fibrinogen, both of which are involved in blood clotting. The
blue object is poliovirus.
A small portion of cytoplasm is shown, including three types of filaments that make up the
cytoskeleton: a microtubule (the largest), an intermediate filament (the knobby one) and two
actin filaments (the smallest ones). The large blue molecules are ribosomes, busy in their
task of synthesizing proteins. The large protein at bottom center is a proteosome.
Part of a muscle sarcomere is shown here, with actin filaments in blue and myosin filaments in red. The long yellow proteins are the huge protein titin.
This view shows DNA being replicated in the nucleus. DNA polymerase is shown at the center in purple, with a DNA strand entering from the bottom and exiting as two strands towards the top. The new strands
are shown in white. Chromatin fibers are shown at either site of the replication fork.
Red Blood Cell
A portion of a red blood cell is shown in this illustration, with the cell membrane at the top,
and lots of hemoglobin (red) at the bottom.
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Focus: Deriving Dimensions
For nearly 80 years physicists have struggled to reconcile the prevailing theory of gravity with quantum mechanics. According to Einstein’s general theory of relativity, mass and energy warp spacetime. The undulations then affect the trajectories of passing objects, producing the effects we call gravity. In Einstein’s theory, spacetime is a stretchy, dynamical entity.
However, the precise state of any dynamical thing remains uncertain, according to quantum mechanics. So at lengths of about meters, spacetime can no longer be smooth, but must be roiling and frothy. That “quantum foam” bedevils researchers trying to concoct a quantum theory of gravity because in it concepts such as “ahead” and “behind” or “sooner” and “later” can lose their meaning. And no one has explained how the four-dimensional spacetime we take for granted emerges from the fantastical foam. Researchers have attempted to generate familiar four-dimensional spacetime by adding up all the possible configurations of the foam, thus borrowing a page from quantum mechanics, in which theorists assume that a particle travels between two points by taking every conceivable path at once. But these calculations have produced spacetimes that have either just two dimensions, or infinitely many.
The approach can produce a four-dimensional universe, however, if each particular version of the foam preserves a certain notion of cause and effect, report Renate Loll of the University of Utrecht in the Netherlands and colleagues. As in previous calculations, the researchers used a computer to generate approximate versions of all possible curved and frothy spacetimes by gluing together little triangular bits of flat four-dimensional spacetime, much as an artist might fashion abstract sculptures curving every which way by randomly gluing flat triangular tiles edge to edge. However, this time the researchers required that in each bit of spacetime nothing could travel faster than the speed of light, which implies that effects could never precede causes. In previous work, researchers imposed no such “causality.” The team also took care to connect the triangles together in a way that preserves the cause-before-effect ordering.
The researchers added up all the possible spacetimes to see if something like a large-scale four-dimensional spacetime would emerge from the sum. That was not guaranteed, even though the tiny bits of spacetime were four-dimensional. On larger scales the spacetime could curve in ways that would effectively change its dimension, just as a two-dimensional sheet of paper can be wadded into a three-dimensional ball or rolled into a nearly one-dimensional tube. This time the researchers found that they could achieve something that appeared to have one time dimension and three space dimensions–like the universe we know and love.
“It’s exceedingly important” work, says Lee Smolin of the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics in Waterloo, Canada. “Now at least we know one way to do this.” Des Johnston of Heriot-Watt University in Edinburgh, Scotland, agrees the work is “very exciting” and says it underlines the importance of causality. “The other neat thing about this work is that you’re essentially reducing general relativity to a counting problem,” Johnston says. “It’s a very minimalist approach to looking at gravity.”
Adrian Cho is a freelance science writer in Grosse Pointe Woods, Michigan.
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Dark Energy :: Exoplanets :: Large Area Near Infrared Surveys/Guest Investigator Program :: Guest Observer Program
The discovery that the expansion of space is accelerating was named by the journal Science as the 1998 “Breakthrough of the Year”. The cause of the unexpected acceleration is one of the most important scientific problems of our time. The implication that three quarters of the mass-energy in the Universe is due to an unknown entity, called “dark energy”, has revolutionized cosmology and may drive a new understanding of physics when this phenomenon is fully understood through observations by WFIRST. The two top-level questions of the field are:
Three different types of surveys will be performed in order to answer these questions. (1) High Latitude Spectroscopic Survey: This survey will measure accurate redshifts and positions of a very large number of galaxies. By measuring the changes in the distribution of galaxies over cosmic time relative to the “standard ruler” that was calibrated with precision by NASA's WMAP mission, the time evolution of the dark energy can be determined. Additionally, the distortions in the distributions of galaxies in redshift space induced by galaxy peculiar velocities provides an approach to measuring the growth of large structure, testing Einstein's General Relativity. (2) Type Ia Supernovae (SNe) Survey: This survey uses type Ia SNe as “standard candles” to measure absolute distances. Patches of the sky are monitored to discover new supernovae and measure their light curves and spectra. Measuring the distance to and redshift of the SNe provides another means of measuring the time evolution of the dark energy, providing a cross-check with the galaxy redshift survey. (3) High Latitude Imaging Survey: This survey will measure the shapes and photometric redshifts of a very large number of galaxies and galaxy clusters. The shapes of very distant galaxies are distorted by the bending of light as it passes more nearby mass concentrations. These distortions are measured and used to infer the three-dimensional mass distribution in the Universe. The redshift measurements allow an alternative method of measuring “standard ruler” distances in galaxy cluster patterns. Thus, this survey will determine both the time evolution of the nature of the dark energy as well as another independent measurement of the growth of large structure.
WFIRST will be designed to perform precision measurements using the above 3 surveys. It will make an order of magnitude step forward in dark energy studies by combining these surveys and tightly controlling systematic uncertainties.
-- Top --
The first discovery of planetary companions to Sun-like stars was, along with the discovery of dark energy, one of the greatest breakthroughs in modern astronomy. These discoveries have excited the astronomical community and the broader public as well. Since then, the pace of exoplanet discovery has increased each year. There are now nearly 1000 confirmed exoplanets and Kepler has identified thousands of candidates that await confirmation. Nature has surprised astronomers with the enormous and unexpected diversity of exoplanetary systems, containing planets with physical properties and orbital architectures that are radically different from our own Solar System. Since the very first discoveries, we have struggled to understand this diversity of exoplanets, and in particular how our solar system fits into this menagerie.
WFIRST will advance our understanding of exoplanets along two complementary fronts: the statistical approach of determining the demographics of exoplanetary systems over broad regions of parameter space by gravitational microlensing and the detailed approach of characterizing the properties of a sample of nearby exoplanets by means of high-contrast imaging and spectroscopy. These two complementary surveys will provide the most comprehensive view of the formation, evolution, and physical properties of planetary systems. In addition, information and experience gained from both surveys will lay the foundation for, and take the first steps toward, the discovery and characterization of a “pale blue dot ” — a habitable Earth-like planet orbiting a nearby star.
Exoplanets - Microlensing
The first exoplanets to be discovered were gas giants, but today it is becoming clear that there are probably many more "small" planets, in the Earth to Super-Earth range, than there are giants. Discovering the statistics of these planets is crucial for understanding how they formed and how common Earth-like planets may be. Gravitational microlensing is an observational effect that was predicted in 1936 by Einstein using his General Theory of Relativity. When one star in the sky appears to pass nearly in front of another, the light rays of the background source star become bent due to the gravitational "attraction" of the foreground star. This star is then a virtual magnifying glass, amplifying the brightness of the background source star, so we refer to the foreground star as the lens star. If the lens star harbors a planetary system, then those planets can also act as lenses, each one producing a short deviation in the brightness of the source. Thus we discover the presence of each exoplanet, and measure its mass and separation from its star. This technique will tell us how common Earth- like planets are, and will guide the design of future exoplanet imaging missions.
More than 20 planets have been discovered from the ground using this technique. The WFIRST microlensing survey will detect many more such planets, including smaller mass planets since the planet "spike" will be far more likely to be observed from a space-based platform. This will lead to a statistical census of exoplanets with masses greater than a tenth of the Earth's mass from the outer habitable zone out to free floating planets. The results from the WFIRST microlensing survey will complement the exoplanet statistics from Kepler, and will provide answers to questions about planet formation, evolution, and the prevalence of planets in the galaxy.
-- Top --
Exoplanets - Direct Imaging
Our understanding of the internal structure, atmospheres, and evolution of planets was originally developed through models that were tuned to explain the detailed properties of the planets in our own solar system. Surveys of exoplanetary systems have led to the realization that there exists a diversity of worlds with very different properties and environments than those in our solar system. Subsequently, these models have had to be expanded and generalized to explain the properties of these new worlds, often including new and uncertain physics. Our understanding of these new worlds therefore remains primitive. The best hope of understanding the physical properties of this diversity of worlds is through comparative planetology: detailed measurements of, and comparisons among, the properties of individual planets and their atmospheres. These measurements provide the primary empirical constraints on our models. Understanding the structure, atmospheres, and evolution of a diverse set of exoplanets is also an important step in the larger goal of assessing the habitability of Earth-like planets discovered in the habitable zones of nearby stars. It is unlikely that any such planets will have exactly the same size, mass, or atmosphere as our own Earth. A large sample of characterized systems with a range of properties will be necessary to understand which properties permit habitability and to properly interpret these discoveries.
High-contrast, high-angular-resolution direct imaging provides the critical approach to studying the detailed properties of exoplanets. Images and spectra of directly imaged planets provide some of the most powerful diagnostic information about the structure, composition, and physics of planetary atmospheres, which in turn can provide constraints on the origin and evolution of these systems. The direct imaging technique is also naturally applicable to the nearest and brightest, and thus best-characterized, solar systems. High contrast imaging is also ideally suited to studying the diversity and properties of debris disks around the nearest stars; these disks serve as both fossil records of planet formation, and signposts of extant planets through their dynamical influences.
Advancing the technology for direct imaging of exoplanets was the top priority medium-scale space investment recommended by NWNH. Developing a coronagraph with active wavefront control for AFTA-WFIRST accomplishes this objective and, thanks to the 2.4-m telescope, achieves far more real science than would be possible on a technology demonstration mission with a much smaller aperture. Coronagraphy on AFTA-WFIRST will be a major step towards the long-term goal of a mission that can image habitable Earth-mass planets around nearby stars and measure their spectra for signs of life.
-- Top --
WFIRST will conduct large-area near infrared imaging and spectroscopic surveys over multiple epochs to enable scientific investigations that touch upon virtually every class of astronomical object, environment and distance. The Guest Investigator program supports archival studies to address a broad range of astrophysical research questions using data acquired by the dark energy and exoplanet surveys.
Sensitive near-infrared imaging and spectroscopy over large areas by WFIRST will probe the star formation history of the Universe and the evolution of active galactic nuclei, and will trace the large scale structure and clustering properties of galaxies at z>1. Deep, Wide Field imaging with WFIRST will also determine whether the fluctuations in the infrared background surface brightness that have been observed by Spitzer arise from faint galaxies at z~2 or if they are produced by first-light galaxies containing Population III stars near the epoch of reionization.
WFIRST will answer fundamental questions about the efficiency and mechanisms of formation of low-mass stars, brown dwarfs, and planets in the Milky Way. These most common constituents of the Universe will be identified by their unique infrared colors, by their proper motion acquired through multi-epoch WFIRST surveys and comparison with earlier surveys such as WISE and UKIDSS, and by their spectral signatures from the dominant absorption bands of H2O and CH4.
-- Top --
WFIRST will offer a Guest Observer program that supports community-based observing programs. While the baseline mission emphasizes the dark-energy and exoplanet measurements, the additional surveys carried out via the guest observer program will exploit WFIRST's unique capabilities to substantially broaden the science return of the mission. The Guest Observer program will provide broad support to many fields of astrophysics in the tradition of HST, no doubt with the same astonishing results of new, creative, field-changing science. In an extended mission, the Guest Observer program would likely become the dominant part of the WFIRST mission. HST has demonstrated clearly that the combination of a powerful facility and peer-reviewed proposals has the greatest impact in advancing the extraordinarily broad field of astrophysics research.
Appendix A of the WFIRST SDT (2013) report contains ~ 50 potential GO or Guest Investigator science programs, each described in one page, contributed by members of the broader astronomical community. Here we simply list their titles to illustrate the remarkable range of ideas for scientific investigations enabled by WFIRST:
-- Top --[an error occurred while processing this directive]
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|Location||Philippines, Region X|
|Central coordinates||125o 4.00' East 8o 44.00' North|
|IBA criteria||A1, A2|
|Altitude||0 - 2,442m|
|Year of IBA assessment||2001|
Site description Mt Balatukan is in eastern Misamis Oriental Province, in north-eastern Mindanao. It rises steeply to a long ridge with several peaks of almost 2,000 m and one of 2,442 m. The mountains retain extensive forest cover, and old growth forest is estimated to cover 6,500 ha. This is mainly montane forest, including mossy forest. The extent of primary lowland forest has been greatly reduced by logging and kaingin activities, and in 1997 this forest type was reported to be almost absent from the mountain. There are some areas of residual forest and cogon grassland.
Key Biodiversity Several of the threatened and restricted-range species of the Mindanao and Eastern Visayas Endemic Bird Area have been recorded on or near to Mt Balatukan, mainly during a collecting expedition to nearby Civoleg and Daggayan in 1961. There are several recent records of Philippine Eagle from the vicinity of the mountain, and it is likely that the forests there support a significant population of this critically endangered bird. The extensive montane forests in the IBA are likely to prove to be important for many more species of conservation concern. A subspecies of Snowy-browed Flycatcher, Ficedula hyperythra daggayana is only known from Daggayan.
Non-bird biodiversity: There have been no surveys of the mammals on the mountain, but it may support many of the endemic Mindanao species which occur at high elevations.
|Species||Season||Period||Population estimate||Quality of estimate||IBA Criteria||IUCN Category|
|Philippine Eagle Pithecophaga jefferyi||resident||2001||present||-||A1||Critically Endangered|
|Spotted Imperial-pigeon Ducula carola||resident||2001||present||-||A1||Vulnerable|
|Ceyx melanurus||resident||2001||present||-||A1||Not Recognised|
|Blue-capped Kingfisher Actenoides hombroni||resident||2001||present||-||A1||Vulnerable|
|Azure-breasted Pitta Pitta steerii||resident||2001||present||-||A1||Vulnerable|
|Philippine Leafbird Chloropsis flavipennis||resident||2001||present||-||A1||Vulnerable|
|IUCN habitat||Habitat detail||Extent (% of site)|
|Artificial - terrestrial||-|
Protection status The CENRO offices of Gingoog City and Cagayan de Oro City have proposed the Mt Balatukan range for protection as a Natural Park under the NIPAS.
References Haribon Foundation (1998).
Contribute Please click here to help BirdLife conserve the world's birds - your data for this IBA and others are vital for helping protect the environment.
Recommended citation BirdLife International (2016) Important Bird and Biodiversity Area factsheet: Mount Balatukan. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 30/06/2016
To provide new information to update this factsheet or to correct any errors, please email BirdLife
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Figure 1. Los niños que nunca volvieron. Photographs of children who never returned from the war
The content of this series focuses on an introduction and theoretical approach to the emerging genre of interactive documentary in the Spanish and Latin area. Several examples are cited and three significant projects produced in recent years in the Spanish area are discussed in depth: Guernika, pintura de guerra (CCRTVi and Haiku Media, 2007), Las Voces de la Memoria (RTVE, Association of Relatives of Alzheimer’s Disease Patients of Valencia and Barret Films, 2010), and Metamentaldoc (Universitat de Vic and Pintao, 2011).
Figure 2. Los niños que nunca volvieron. Presentation of the project
Los niños que nunca volvieron [The children who never returned] (2008)
Los niños que nunca volvieron is an interactive documentary that tells the stories of several children (now grown up) who, during the Spanish Civil War, were forced to migrate away from Spain and their parents. This documentary work was brought out by the Directorate General of Spanish Citizens Abroad, the Ministry of Labour and Immigration (now Ministry of Employment and Social Security) and produced by the production company Dos de Mayo. Directed by Jaime Solano, the Dos de Mayo team began working on this project in 2008. In a first phase, interviews were conducted with experts and nine children of war. The project continues to be quite active. The dissemination of the project started in the social media, and the team has continued to collect new evidence through a blog, which also shows who will be the new exiled-children storytellers in the documentary.
Figure 3. Los niños que nunca volvieron. Interface
MetamentalDOC multimedia is an interactive documentary that looks at documentary film and independent documentary film. It is a project that contains a great deal of content of various types. The project came about as the result of an audiovisual documentary produced by the same team, and grew to the point where it became a larger work than its predecessor. MetamentalDOC multimedia is also a documentary based on a web and interactive medium. In this platform, the content has been expanded and the audiovisual project has become part of the multimedia, with the inclusion of some parts and at the same time, the inclusion of audiovisual content.
Figure 4. Homepage
From the point of view of the core concept of this work, it is an interactive application halfway between the documentary genre – as can be seen in the interviews section and the documentary piece itself – and a work of cultural dissemination with a didactic and pedagogical objective – as can be seen in the historical background and virtual classroom sections. The newness and added value of this example is based on three key points.
Figure 5. Virtual classroom
First, the fact that there is no similar project on the subject covered, due to its complexity and originality; second, there is also no platform with the attributes that this one possesses, which make it possible to view an audiovisual documentary, and browse or interact five broad sections in a non-linear way; and finally, apart from the innovation in terms of the subject matter and languages used – Spanish and Catalan – there are no other similar experiences on the market that mix an idea for entertainment and a learning and educational idea in such an effective and attractive way.
Figure 6. Projection room
What really adds value to MetamentalDoc Project is this triple aspect:
– The cross-media strategy behind: one project with several parts for different platforms.
– A production conceived as an educational and training tool: acts as a secondary Virtual Campus for a whole Communication College.
– Open project available online that allows users to upload content: includes a 1 hour-long documentary film, 40 interviews and more than 150 downloadable documents and videos.
Figure 7. Interviews
Each part metamentalDoc Multimedia features content that can be browsed in a specific mode and using an original metaphor. The modes used in this documentary are audiovisual, time, spatial, testimonial and preferential. There are five different ways of browsing and interacting with the various types of content.
Figure 8. Historical background
Barret Films; RTVE; Asociación de Familiares del Alzheimer de Valencia. Las voces de la memoria. España (español), 2011. http://vocesdelamemoria.rtve.es/
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Anatomy of a Thesis
A thesis is not a term paper. In the process of completing a thesis, you will do a thorough investigation of background literature/research (referred to as a "Review of Literature," a "Bibliographic Essay," or simply "Background") related to your thesis question and to your mode of inquiry. This portion of your thesis is similar to what is typically thought of as a "term paper." However, a thesis goes far beyond the requirements of a term paper in that it involves original inquiry or creative activity of some kind.
In general, every thesis project requires that you
- explain clearly what you are up to and why.
- review thoroughly the research/thinking that has already been done relative to your particular issue of interest.
- explain how you will conduct your inquiry or creative activity.
- carry out some inquiry or creative activity that has not been done before.
- publish the results of your inquiry or creative activity.
All University Honors Theses require:
- Title Page
- Signature Page
- [Table of Contents]
The format for these items is specified by the Honors College and is available in Pike House and on the Web.
An Honors Thesis in a science or social science field will typically (though not always) consist of the following parts:
- Background/Review of Literature
- Statement of the Problem/Hypothesis
- Materials and Methods/Methodology
- References/Works Cited
Some fields (e.g. history, anthropology, literary studies) lend themselves to a more narrative structure. For example, an historical thesis might include:
- Introduction and statement of historical issue
- Historical narrative
- Bibliographic essay
A literary thesis might proceed through:
- Introduction and statement of thesis focus
- Description of analytic mode or framework
- Preliminary review of relevant literature
- Original literary analysis integrated with relevant literary criticism literature
An anthropological thesis typically includes:
- Introduction and description of the study
- Descriptive/ethnographic essay
In some fields (particularly mathematics) and in some instances, a particular thesis problem or topic will dictate an even looser, more problem-determined structure for the written thesis.
Students in the performing arts and in technical fields (such as Industrial Technology and Computer Science) may choose to complete a thesis project that involves performance (e.g. a musical composition, the development of software, or a design/invention) to a greater degree than it involves a written record of inquiry. The Honors College encourages students to develop theses projects that match their interests, talents and field of study closely. In all cases, the results of the thesis inquiry must be "published." i.e. available to interested persons. This publication must include a written explanation of the intent of the project as well as a written description of the intellectual, practical and/or creative context for the work. It may include alternative media such as musical score, videotape, slides, a computer disk or even a WWW address.
Students are urged to consult closely with their thesis advisor and the members of their committee regarding the "parts" appropriate to their particular thesis project. It is also helpful to take a look at theses completed by past Honors graduates. These are available in Franklin House and in Ganser Library.
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The Canterbury Tales: The Miller's Tale Theme of Competition
"The Miller's Tale" portrays one of the most classic competitions in literature: the love triangle in which two men compete for the affections of one woman. The woman is the "prize" to be won, which in "The Miller's Tale" accords with a characterization of Alisoun that objectifies her. Yet something interesting happens to this competition by the end of "The Miller's Tale": Absolon, upset over Alisoun's crude prank and determined to "quyte" it, begins to view himself in competition with her, rather than with Nicholas. This shifting focus of rivalry also leads to a lost object of affection: when Alisoun is a rival, she can no longer be a "prize."
Questions About Competition
- What are the competitions that occur in "The Miller's Tale"? Between whom do they occur?
- By what criteria do characters in "The Miller's Tale" judge themselves to have won the competition? Does anyone truly win?
- How does Absolon "quyte" Alisoun's treatment of him? In what way is his method a response to her prank?
Chew on This
In the love triangle in "The Miller's Tale," the sign that a character has won the competition is total physical possession of Alisoun's body.
Absolon's total loss of affection for Alisoun after she shifts from being "prize" to competitor suggests that the figure of the love triangle precludes the possibility of a romantic relationship of equals.
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TERC Center, Cambridge, Mass.
Oct. 1, 2004
Education Program Begins Another Year of Inspiring Students
NASA's International Space Station (ISS) EarthKAM program is launching its eighth year of involving students in the scientific study of Earth from space. The ISS EarthKAM (Earth Knowledge Acquired by Middle school students) program is designed to inspire student interest in science, math, technology, and geography.
Students have direct access to, and control of, a digital camera mounted on the Space Station. They identify places on Earth to photograph from space, and then use the ISS EarthKAM Web-based interface to calculate exactly when the digital camera should take pictures. Students use their digital images of Earth to study a wide variety of science topics.
The first ISS EarthKAM investigation period for the 2004-5 school year is October 26-29. Additional ISS EarthKAM image acquisition and investigation missions are scheduled in February and April 2005. Participation is free.
Inspired by her Space Shuttle missions, Dr. Sally Ride, America's first woman astronaut, created the ISS EarthKAM. Ride established EarthKAM in 1996 as a way for students to experience the same fascination and awe she felt looking down at Earth from space.
Since its inception, more than 16,400 scientifically valuable, high-quality digital images of Earth have been taken by thousands of middle-school students from America and other participating ISS countries. "No other NASA program gives students such direct control of an instrument flying on a spacecraft orbiting Earth," said Dr. Karen Flammer, EarthKAM's Project Director. "As a result of this hands-on, real world experience, students assume an unparalleled personal ownership in the study and analysis of their Earth photographs."
NASA expects the excitement and interest generated by participation in ISS EarthKAM to translate into students studying science and engineering in high school and college, and possibly even choosing to participate in agency space exploration activities.
NASA funds ISS EarthKAM. It is coordinated through a partnership between the University of California at San Diego; NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif.; Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas; and TERC, a non-profit education research and development organization based in Cambridge, Mass.
To participate in ISS EarthKAM during the 2004-05 school year, visit:
Student Earth images are available via the Internet at:
For educator guides, activities, and other educational resource materials visit:
For information about NASA education programs on the Internet, visit:
For information about NASA and agency programs on the Internet, visit:
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Severe Weather Awareness Week for 2012 will be observed Monday through March 10 in South Carolina.
The South Carolina Emergency Management Division and the National Weather Service jointly sponsor the week to remind people that severe storms, tornadoes and flash floods are significant hazards in South Carolina and people need to take proper safety precautions.
The South Carolina Emergency Management Division and the National Weather Service are promoting awareness of procedures that help keep you safe during tornadoes.
Annual statewide tornado drill
The State Superintendent of Education is encouraging schools statewide to participate in the drill. South Carolina has received a waiver from the Federal Communications Commission to use the Tornado Warning product on NOAA tone-alert weather radio when the drill is conducted. During the drill, the National Weather Service will use a real-event code, TOR. The “TOR” code will activate tone-alert weather radios that are set to receive tornado warnings, and those radios will broadcast the exercise message.
The drill will be conducted Tuesday at 9 a.m. with a backup date of Thursday, March 8 Public schools, state and local Emergency Management, the South Carolina Broadcasters Association, and others will participate in this annual event. The purpose of the drill is to test communication systems, safety procedures, mitigation processes, etc.
For further information on Severe Weather Awareness Week, contact your county emergency management agency, the State Emergency Management Division or your nearest National Weather Service office.
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150th Anniversary of the Battle of Gettysburg
You’d hardly think it possible today looking over this particular patch of Pennsylvania countryside, which like much of the rest of the area, is known for its rock-strewn fallow fields and picturesque small towns nested in the valleys of the local hillsides. This particular patch however, was immortalized a century-and-a-half ago to the minute, as it played host to the most gruesome battle in the history of the Western Hemisphere, it’s forests and fields filled with fallen men, whom over the course of the three days, would fight one of the most important battles of the American Civil War, and ensured that the name Gettysburg would be remembered long after the guns fell silent.It’s hard to grasp even today just how much rode on the results of that fateful battle – even today, Gettysburg looks like just a small town torn from a Norman Rockwell painting, far removed from the likes of Normandy or Stalingrad or any number of other storied sites of war where the course of battle just so happened to affect the course of history. Yet that history is palpable, walking through the town, and especially walking through the surrounding National Park that covers the battle sites. Place names sanctified by bloodshed and immortalized in countless retellings in the generations since the battle, place names like Little Round Top or Cemetery Ridge, spring out of the history books and into real life before me, as I walk the very grounds that, one hundred and fifty years ago to the minute, Union and Confederate troops fought, bled and died over.When the first shots were fired on McPherson’s Ridge on the morning of July 1st, 1863, few on either the Union or Confederate sides could have guessed the importance the following battle would have on the Civil War, the United States, or the world. Though fierce fighting on both sides for the whole three days, the Union’s occupation and holding of the high ground, combined with several tactical blunders on the part of the Confederacy, allowed for a Union victory, one which when combined with General Grant’s capture of Vicksburg the following day, is considered by many to be the turning point of the American Civil War. Though both sides suffered similar numbers of casualties, the failure of Lee’s second (and final) invasion of the North, and the Confederacy’s inability to replenish their ranks with reinforcements following the long retreat South left the Army of the Northern Virginia gutted, and the Confederate cause all but lost. After the Battle of Gettysburg, the road to Appomattox was all but inevitable.
For the tactical and historical reasons, but also for the size and scope of the battle and the stories of the men who fought it, Gettysburg came away as the definitive battle of the American Civil War, one many people know details about almost instinctively. Yet all the school lessons and books cannot match seeing the battlefield with one’s own eyes, and treading it’s hallowed grounds with your own two feet. I’ve visited Civil War Battlefields before, but with Gettysburg, there is truly a different feeling to it, aided perhaps by my visit coinciding with the 150th Anniversary of the Battle of Gettysburg itself.Having read about the Battle of Gettysburg since grade school, nothing compares to seeing it in person, the weight of history on my shoulders, the scope and scale of the battle’s consequences fleshed out before my very eyes. To see the barricades from where General Joe Chamberlain and the 20th Maine charged Confederate forces with fixed bayonets when their ammo ran low, forcing the surrender or retreat of the Rebel forces, and maintaining Union control of Little Round Top… to walk in the memorial march for Pickett’s Charge, through the same bramble-infested hillside that his men charged Union guns in the forlorn hope of capturing that famed copse of trees… to stand before the spot in Gettysburg National Cemetery where President Lincoln delivered the Gettysburg Address… and to do so largely all at the same time as the events happened all those years ago… to describe the feeling that pervades the proceedings, I’ll admit, my words cannot do it justice, no more than the scores of books or maps of the Battle I’d read previously can compare to seeing it in person.Of course, I’m far from the only one to be here for the occasion – there had to have been tens of thousands of people there with me, ranging from Military attaches to Boy Scout troops to Russian tourists (one group of which I enjoyed a lively debate over whether Gettysburg or Stalingrad is the more celebrated battle) to grandfathers, whom like my own at one point years ago, pointing out the landmarks to a wide-eyed grandchild on their shoulders. All of these guests are on top of the thousands of Civil War Re-enactors filling the park, preparing for the various staged battle reenactments that took place over the week. As someone who had visited Battlefields from Bull Run to Antietam without even seeing another person there, this was something of a shock, albeit a pleasing one, to see so many scores of people there to appreciate, commemorate and memorialize the events that occurred one-hundred-and-fifty years ago.Fifteen decades have passed since the guns grew silent at Gettysburg, where a three-day battle between the North and South saw nearly two-hundred thousand men fight, and nearly fifty-thousand of them dead or wounded. Yet even today, the deeds and actions of the men on both sides who fought there live on in the hearts and minds of people the world over, resonating as loudly today as they thunder of cannon and cries of men did all those years ago. Now, as then, the Battle of Gettysburg, the men who fought and bled there, and the homesteads and causes they fought for, are alive for any who stand on those hallowed grounds, and may it be the so for the countless generations still to come.
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Dalnaya Radio-Lokacyonnovo Obnaruzhyeniya [DRLO]
Long-range Radio-Location and Control [DRLO]
Airborne Early Warning [AEW]
Airborne Warning and Control Systems (AWACS)
The primary way in which the Soviet Union sought to remedy the shortcomings of its ground-based air defense radars was to deploy large radars on aircraft. These aircraft, known as Airborne Early Warning [AEW] or Airborne Warning and Control Systems (AWACS), monitor enemy penetrators - AEW - and coordinate air defenses over a large area - AWACS.
One of the factors in the radar horizon formula is antenna height. The same aircraft operating at 3000 feet against an antenna height of 25,000 feet (in an Airborne Warning and Control, AWACs, type system) would have a radar detection horizon of over 250 miles.
The range of an AWACS is much greater than that of ground-based radars - over 200 miles to the horizon and over 400 miles to another aircraft at a high altitude. A line-of-sight radar standing 50 feet above the ground theoretically can detect at about 30 miles abomber flying at 300 feet above the ground. At greater distances, the bomber is hidden by theearth's curvature. The actual detection range might be less than the theoretical range because ofthe disruption or blocking of radar pulses by terrain features such as hills. The actual detectionrange might be greater than the theoretical range if the radar is located on a hill.
Countries possessing airborne look-down, shoot-down radars have a definite advantage in detecting low altitude attacks. These radars are usually pulsed doppler radars and capable of detecting moving targets in ground clutter. When airborne, the AWACS cannot be targeted in advance since its precise location is unknown.
AEW aircraft can make a decisive contribution to air operations, detecting hostile aircraft as soon as they take off, and managing air defense and counter-air operations. While one side vainly gropes in the dark, the side with AEW capability knows exactly where the enemy is -- and isn't -- can most efficiently direct friendly forces against the enemy's weak points, and maximize surprise. Well known American airborne early warning radar systems for manned aircraft are the AWACS and HAWKEYE, both of which employ specially designed airframes and are relatively expensive.
- The first indication of a Soviet AEW program was the 1968 release of a documentary film showing a transport-type aircraft which appeared to be carrying a radar dome. This first Soviet AWACS, the Moss, was relatively ineffective in tracking low-flying bombers and cruise missiles.
- The more recent Soviet AWACS, the Mainstay, is considered to be much more capable. The MAINSTAY airborne warning and control system (AWACS), deployed in the late 1980s, provided the Soviet Air Forces with a battle management capability for their new FLANKER and FULCRUM aircraft. An effective AWACS capability was essential for the Soviet drive for theater air superiority over NATO. Mainstay can detect remote threats and vector an interceptor such as the Flanker. Its mission is to detect low-flying aircraft and missiles and to help direct fighter operations. The Mainstays might patrol near the Soviet borders to track approaching U.S. bombers, providing the greatest possible reaction time.
- Two Naval AEW aircraft were developed but cancelled. The first was an AEW version of the Antonov An-72 twin-turbofan STOL transport, codenamed "Madcap" by NATO; this interesting design (the radar disc was mounted atop a forward-swept, V-shaped set of tail fins) was cancelled. Systems evidently affected by cutbacks included the Madcap airborne warning and control aircraft, which probably had been canceled by 1991. The official reason given was that a turboprop was more efficient for the AEW role than a jet The fact that Yakovlev is a Russian company while Antonov is Ukrainian probably had something to do with this.
- The second was Yakovlev's Yak-44, a twin turboprop rather similar to the Grumman E-2 Hawkeye. The Yak-44 was also in turn cancelled (although a revival has been considered).
- The Ka-31 Helix-B AEW version of the Kamov Ka-32 helicopter was developed on the basis of Ka-27 ship-borne coaxial helicopter.
The design of aircraft to carry radar equipment suitable for carrying out an airborne early warning (AEW) mission poses significant problems. One requirement for such a mission is provision of 360.degree. azimuthal radar coverage. This creates the need to install, in the aircraft, radar antenna arrays having substantial physical space requirements. One solution to this problem is to mount additional structures on a standard aircraft to accommodate the required radar equipment. The well-known addition of an external rotodome onto an aircraft is an exemplary implementation of such a solution. Use of a dorsal fin mounted on an aircraft to house antenna arrays is another known example of such a solution. The addition of such structures typically requires structural modification to the aircraft to accommodate the additional structure.
One obvious adverse affect of such additional structures is that the aircraft suffers aerodynamic drag penalties. As a result, the overall performance of the aircraft is limited. The drag penalties also serve to limit the flying range of the aircraft. This result is contrary to the AEW mission of the aircraft since it is desirable for the aircraft to travel significant distances from its base of operation and/or remain airborne for extended periods in order to scan over a large area. A further adverse effect of additional structures is that the aircraft becomes mission dedicated. That is, the aircraft serves no useful function other than to fly the AEW mission.
The utilization of integral radome-antenna structures, and particularly such types of structures which are rotatably mounted on aircraft and employed as so-called airborne early warning systems (AEW) is well-known in the technology, and has successfully found widespread applications in conjunction with military surveillance aircraft,, especially aircraft adapted to be launched from naval carriers. In various instances, as currently utilized in military aircraft, such radome-antenna structures are mounted positions so as to be superimposed above the fuselage of the aircraft, although conceivably also being suspendable from below the fuselage, and incorporate a depending shaft structure, generally hollow in nature, extending downwardly from the radome into the fuselage of the aircraft, and wherein the shaft is operatively connected to a suitable drive arrangement for simultaneously rotating the shaft about the longitudinal axis thereof and the radome-antenna structure at specified speeds of rotation.
Suitable couplings and slip ring assemblies may be provided in order to connect the antenna array contained in the radome to suitable stationary sources of electrical energy while, concurrently, enabling the pick-up of signals received by the antenna array and to transmit the signals to stationary signal processing component and/or display consoles which are located in the cabin of the aircraft. Moreover, a suitable cooling fluid may also be transmitted to the antenna components contained in the radome through the intermediary of the hollow shaft mounting and supporting the radome-antenna installation for rotation.
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Head and body length: 1.25-1.50 m
Arm span: 2.25 m
Weight: Male: 50-90 kg
Female: 30-50 kg
The orangutan is the only great ape found outside Africa, and the largest arboreal mammal in the world. It has a coarse, shaggy reddish-brown coat, and long, powerful arms which can reach up to 2 m in length. Both the thumbs and the large toes are opposable, allowing the ape to grasp branches with both its hands and feet. The orangutan is highly sexually dimorphic, with males growing to about twice the size of females. When sexually mature, males develop flanges on either side of their faces, known as ‘cheekpads’. These are deposits of subcutaneous fat bound by connective tissue. Adult males also develop throat sacs, which can be inflated to add resonance to the male’s loud ‘long-call’.
The two species of orangutan differ slightly in appearance and behaviour. Sumatran orangutans tend to be lighter in colour and have longer fur around their faces than the Bornean species. Bornean orangutans have wider faces, particularly the males, which have wider cheek pads than their Sumatran relatives.
Orangutans eat, sleep and travel in the trees. They are active during the day, and spend the majority of their time searching for and consuming food. Fruit such as figs, durians, jackfruit, lychees, mangosteens and mangos are eaten when available, along with smaller quantities of leaves, seeds, ants, termites and bark. Individuals tend to switch to eating these lower quality foods when fruit is scarce, rather than move to another area. In some areas over 400 different types of food have been recorded as part of the species’ diet. At night, individuals sleep in a nest made of twigs or leaves high up in the trees. They generally make a new nest each night, although old nests are occasionally re-used.
Unlike other diurnal primates – which are social and gregarious – orangutans lead a semi-solitary lifestyle. This is thought to be primarily due to the scattered distribution of their food. There is generally not enough fruit in an area at any one time to support a large group of orangutans. Adult males of both species occupy large, overlapping home ranges, which encompass those of several females. They spend almost all of their time alone, coming together with females only to mate. Although males are not territorial, they are generally hostile to one another. Confrontations are rare, as the male’s long-call is thought to serve to repel rivals, as well as advertise his availability to sexually receptive females. Female orangutans are slightly more social than the males. They maintain small, overlapping home ranges, and occasionally come together to feed when food is plentiful. Social behaviour has been observed more frequently in the Sumatran species. In particular, it coincides with the simultaneous (or “mast”) fruiting of fig trees, which does not occur in Borneo. Juvenile males and females of both species display the most social behaviour, and are often observed feeding, playing and travelling together in groups. The fact that Sumatran orangutans have more opportunity to come together to eat fruit that the Bornean species has enabled greater sociality among individuals. This in turn has enabled them to learn tool-using behaviour from one another. Orangutans play an important role in their forest habitat; they act as seed dispersers and help to open up the forest canopy which allows light to reach the forest floor so that the forest can regenerate.
The orangutan is the slowest breeding of all mammal species. Females reach sexual maturity at around 10-15 years of age, and generally give birth to a single young every 6-8 years thereafter, depending on the quality of the habitat. Infants are totally dependent on their mothers, and are carried constantly for the first two to three years of their lives. Weaning occurs at around 3.5 years, but the infant will remain close to its mother for at least another three years, learning the spatial and temporal patterns of fruiting in the forest. When the young disperse, females usually set up a home range adjacent to their mothers, while males tend to travel further afield. Life expectancy in the wild is thought to be 45-50 years. The incredibly long inter-birth period means that a female orangutan can produce a maximum of four surviving young during her lifetime.
Known from primary and secondary forest, typically in lowland dipterocarp, freshwater and peat swamp forests. Orangutans are rarely found above 1000 m.
Orangutan population sizes are difficult to estimate with precision. The most recent estimates of total surviving numbers for the Sumatran and Bornean orangutans are around 7,300 and 57,000 respectively.
Densities and population sizes are in decline across the species' range, and forest continues to be lost at a rapid rate.
The Bornean orangutan is classified as Endangered (EN A2cd) on the 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The Sumatran orangutan is listed as Critically Endangered (CR A2bcd).
Orangutan populations have crashed during the past 200 years, as a result of deforestation of their habitat. Today the species continues to be threatened by habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation as a result of legal and illegal logging, forest fires, illegal gold mining, and conversion to agriculture, in particular oil palm plantations. The species’ highly arboreal lifestyle makes them particularly vulnerable to habitat fragmentation, as they rarely travel long distances on the ground. More than 80% of orangutan habitat has been altered or destroyed by these factors. If this alarming rate of habitat loss continues then the orangutan may become extinct in the wild in as little as 10 years.
Individuals that have lost their natural habitat sometimes enter oil palm estates, where they are often shot as pests. Mothers with babies are particularly vulnerable. They are often killed and the infants sold into the illegal pet trade. It is estimated that at least three orangutans are killed for each one that is captured and transported. The species is also hunted for meat in some areas.
With such a low reproductive rate, the orangutan is particularly vulnerable to these threats. Small, fragmented populations are at considerable risk. Many of the remaining populations, particularly in Sumatra number fewer than 250 individuals. These small, isolated populations do not have the capacity to recover from population declines. A slight rise in female mortality rate of just 1-2% can drive a local population to extinction.
Orangutans are protected by law in Malaysia and Indonesia, and listed on Appendix I of CITES, which prohibits international trade. However, weak law enforcement in both countries means that the species continues to be at risk from the above threats. Populations occur in a number of national parks and other protected areas, although illegal logging is still a problem in many of these areas. The Orangutan Conservation Forum is a consortium of groups working to stop illegal logging and hunting by patrolling protected areas, increasing sustainable economic alternatives for communities surrounding critical orangutan habitat, raising awareness, and releasing ex-captive orangutans into suitable protected habitat. There are currently three orangutan rehabilitation centres in Kalimantan, one in Sabah, one in Sarawak and one in Sumatra.
Increasing the conservation awareness of orangutans to every organisation involved in the issues facing orangutans in Sumatra, including plantation owners and their workers, villages in the remaining forest, educationalists, government ministers and general public.
Orang-utan nest surveys in Murung Raya region as part of the Barito River Initiative for Nature Conservation and Communities (BRINCC) expedition.
Areas of important orangutan habitat are in urgent need of some form of legal protection. Existing protected areas need more effective management and better protection from poachers. Rehabilitation of degraded areas of forests and the creation of additional forested corridors to link protected areas would also be beneficial. Recent studies have shown that orangutans can survive in selectively logged areas of forest, albeit at low densities. This indicates that selective logging may be able to continue in certain areas of orangutan habitat, providing it is managed appropriately. Awareness and education programmes for local communities, and the promotion of alternative sources of income should help to relieve the pressure of illegal logging and poaching on the two species. Finally, long term research and monitoring of important populations should continues to learn more about the species and its habitat requirements. Research stations can provide a presence that would deter outsiders from entering.
Madelaine is actively involved in Great ape conservation and has been involved in the production of many wildlife documentaries
Research expedition to the scientifically unstudied Murung Raya region in Central Kalimantan, Borneo.
I am a criminology graduate student. Research interests: Wildlife trade, illegal logging
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- Posted May 28, 2014 by
Cologno al Serio, Italy
This iReport is part of an assignment:
Life in China
Xinjiang - Uighurs vs han
The main ethnic group, the uighurs, have never been united in one nations, but 1933 when the Republic of East Turkestan were formed backed by Stalin’s Soviet Union as buffered state. In 1949 the chinese People’s Liberation Army came back to Xinjiang and the Turkestan Republic was abolished.
Instead of being united by nationalism, the uighurs are commonly describing themselves as ethnic-turkish people and latter, islamic (islam came in Xinjiang in late X century). Islam has been a value of contrast to han (the main ethnic chinese population) only after 90’s, after the dissolving of Soviet Union and the formation of the central asian republics. The afghan war raised the chinese fear that islamic terrorists were hiring nationalists between uighurs in Xinjiang. East Turkestan Islamic Movement is considered the most active and dangerous islamic movement in Xinjiang, but so far no clear evidence of its existence has been proved.
Since the end of last century, Beijing invested huge capitals to develop Xinjiang, but uighurs claim that the development is a weapon to destroy their culture. Demography in the region has been change drastically: in 1949 Xinjiang was inhabited by 4.900.000 people, 75% uighurs and 6,1% han. In 2010 the population grow to 22.000.000 formed by 43% han and 45% uighurs. City like Urumqi has 90% han population, while southern Xinjiang is inhabitated mostly by uighurs.
The most Uighur city is Kashgar, whose People’s Square has one of the biggest Mao’s statue of China (photo 1) . Chinese authorities are replacing old traditional-wooden houses with new concrete-apartments (photos 2, 3 and 4) saying that will improve uighurs living conditions.
Also public education is a fighting issue: as uighurs are claiming, chinese government uses public schools to install han culture since childhood (photo 5).
All these problems are the fuel for the protests in Xinjiang. Recently the violence upsurged in the region: in april, 21 people died in a terrorist attack in Kashgar and other 39 died in last May blast in Urumqi. Chinese government said that East Turkestan Islamic Movement was responsible also of the Kunming attack last march, which left 29 people dead. Hence the military presence has been intensified (photo 6).
Uighurs follow Islamic religion (photo 7), but some of them are christian-catholic (photo 8). It is said that Nestorians came in this region to escape from the persecutions .
The differences between uighurs and has are clearly seen at the markets (photos 9 and 10).
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The beauty of this country is known too little - undeservedly. Vigorous and diverse, Ghana offers a variety of amazing natural and man made heritage values. Highlights of Ghana are:
- Historical local architecture. In Ghana are located some of the most interesting Sudano-Sahelian mosques. The best known among them is Larabanga Mosque. Even more interesting are the traditional local shrines with living religious traditions.
- Historical European architecture. In Ghana are located the oldest European buildings south from Sahara. Elmina Castle was constructed in 1482, several more fortresses - in the 16th century.
- Waterfalls. Although here are not found such giant waterfalls as in Venezuela, Ghana offers a variety of picture perfect, romantic waterfalls.
- Akaah Falls - Eastern. Unusual waterfall with complex morphology, located in the rainforest.
- Boti Falls - Eastern. Beautiful waterfall, consisting of two parallel, vertical plunges, falling directly into a river.
- Kintampo Falls - Brong Ahafo. Beautiful waterfall with three steps, tallest step is 25 m high, total height - 70 m.
- Tagbo Falls - Volta. Tall waterfall with several steps, the last is approximately 60 m tall.
- Vli Falls (Agumatsa Falls) - Volta. The tallest waterfall in Ghana. Several steps with the total height of 400 m, the tallest is approximately 70 m tall.
Other natural landmarks
- Lake Bosumtwi - Ashanti. The most recent medium sized meteorite impact crater on Earth, 10.5 km across, formed 1.07 million years ago. Filled with 8 km wide lake – the largest natural lake in Ghana. Site of legends.
- Oda Big Tree - Eastern. Enormous Cherry Mahogany (Tieghemella heckelii), 66.5 m tall and 3.22 m in diameter (12 m in circumference). Legendary tree.
- Umbrella Rock - Eastern. Enormous rock plate on the top of another, narrower one. On the top of this formation can stand more than 10 people. Fine view on the surrounding forest.
- Wulin Mushroom Rocks - Upper West. Unusual, muschroom shaped rocks, several meters high.
Man made landmarks
- Hani archaeological site - Brong Ahafo. Prehistoric cave settlement, inhabited around 1200 BC. In archaeological excavations found stone utensils, which are exhibited here.
- Kintampo archaeological site - Brong Ahafo. Prehistoric settlement, inhabited in 2500 - 1400 BC. During the excavations foound remnants of stone buildings, one of the earliest sites where cowpeas were cultivated.
- Mystic Stone in Larabanga - Northern. Ancient sacred place on tran-Sahara route, site of legends.
- Okomfo Anokye's Shrine - Eastern. Shrine of legendary fetish priest, who lived here in the 18th century. Site of legends, hand and foot imprints in the stone.
- Ba’ar Tonna’ab Ya’nee shrine - Upper East. The best known of the Talensi ancestral shrines. The old rituals are living here up to this day. In the vicinities are located numerous other shrines, as well as unusual natural rock formations, caves. Visitors can enter the shrine only half naked. Some other local shrines have unique architecture.
- Gwollu Wall - Upper West. Massive wall, built to protect local people from European slave traders in the 19th century.
- Nareligu Defence Wall (Naa Jaringa, Nalerigu Walls) - Northern. Defence walls, which originally were built around the village in the 16th century to protect villagers from slave traders. Now only parts of walls remain.
- Nzelezu (Nzulezu, Nzulezo) - Western. Approximately 400 years old settlement built on stilts in lake Tadane.
- Wa Naa Castle - Upper West. Residence of the king of Wala, fine example of mud-brick architecture, current building built in the 19th century.
- Banda Nkwanta Mosque - Northern. Spectacular mosque, built from adobe in the 18th century. Unusually tall towers.
- Bole Mosque - Northern. Typical adobe mosque, built in the 17th century. Tall parapets.
- Larabanga Mosque - Northern. Adobe mosque built in 1421.
- Nakore Mosque - Upper West. Adobe mosque in traditional style, cosntructed in the 16th century.
European built fortifications
- Cape Coast Castle - Central. Historical castle, used in slave trade. Current building constructed mainly by British in the 18th century.
- Elmina Castle (St. George of the Mine Castle) - Central. The oldest European building below the Sahara. This castle was constructed by Portuguese in 1482 as the first trading post on the Gulf of Guinea.
- Fort Coenraadsburg - Central. Dutch built fort, constructed in 1652 to protect the trading post of Elmina.
- Fort Metal Cross - Western. British built fort, constructed in 1683.
- Fort Santo Antonio - Western. Portuguese fort, constructed in 1515.
- Fort San Sebastian - Western. Portuguese built fort in 1523.
- Osu Castle (Fort Christiansborg) - Greater Accra. Historical castle, rebuilt several times since the 1660s. For much of the history used as the seat of the government of Ghana. Current building consists of numerous parts built in different times.
- Ussher Fort (Fort Crèvecœur) - Greater Accra. Historical fort, built by the Dutch in 1649, enlarged and rebuilt in the later times.
List of described attractions by regions
Ghana is divided into 10 regions.
|Lake Bosumtwi||Impact craters, Ecosystems|
Map of Ghana
Featured: Lake Bosumtwi
The youngest medium sized impact crater on Earth is Bosumtwi crater. This 10.5 km wide crater was created by meteorite some 1.07 million years ago.
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"I either don't drink at all, or I drink too much."
It is a classic quote from a confirmed binge drinker--one whose primary intention is to become intoxicated by heavy consumption of alcohol over a short period of time. According to the CDC, more than 38 million Americans binge drink around eight drinks in a sitting, four times per month. But, most people who binge drink are not alcohol dependent or alcoholics.
Binge drinking is usually associated with teens and college-aged kids, but the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ("CDC") just released a study revealing that adults over 65 years old binge drink more frequently than any other age group.
More young adults, ages 18 to 34 participate in binge drinking than any other age group, but it is the over-65 crowd that binge-drinks most frequently: an average of five to six times each month. The study describes binge drinking as four or more drinks for a woman and five or more drinks for a man.
Binge drinking has also been found among the baby boomers. A study published in "The American Journal of Psychiatry" in 2009 uncovered binge drinking in 22 percent of men and 9 percent of women who were 50 - 64 years old.
"Binge drinking by adults has a huge public health impact, and influences the drinking behavior of underage youth by the example it sets," said Pamela S. Hyde, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administrator, in a statement. "We need to reduce binge drinking by adults to prevent the immediate and long–term effects it has on the health of adults and youth."
According to the CDC, this behavior greatly increases the chances of getting hurt or hurting others due to car crashes, violence, and suicide. Drinking too much, including binge drinking, causes 80,000 deaths in the US each year and, in 2006 cost the economy $223.5 billion. Binge drinking is a problem in all states, even in states with fewer binge drinkers, because they are binging more often and in larger amounts.
So, the next time you see grandma with a beer bong, ask her if she knows what she's doing.
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PBS Kids‘ history of producing strong and purposeful learning content for children has continued into the mobile space. With a series of quality apps aligned to PBS Kids programs like Super Why, Arthur and Dinosaur Train, it is setting up a platform that demonstrates how to convert existing content and characters into digital content that both respects the mobile space, but also the children who will be engaging with it.
Overall, the design of each app reflects the nature of the characters and show to which it is aligned. The apps have not been squeezed into the same format, and the learning process of children is considered and designed into apps that have appropriate prompts, audio and visual for the different age groups for which the apps are developed.
To further understand and capture how PBS Kids goes about developing its interactive, mobile content, GeekDad interviewed PBS Kids Interactive vice president Sara DeWitt about the process and about what PBS is trying to achieve with its suite of mobile apps.
GeekDad: PBS covers such a broad space; can you talk to the breadth of interactive media for kids?
Sara DeWitt: At PBS Kids we look for learning opportunities in every new technology. The technology landscape is changing so rapidly, which gives us exciting ways to innovate, extend our mission and grow our relevance. Just as we did with television in the 1960s, PBS Kids is now looking at new platforms and saying, “How can we use this to create age-appropriate, educational content to engage kids and help them prepare for success in school and in life?”
PBS Off Book is, according to their press release, “a new web series focused on experimental and non-traditional art forms on PBSArts.org. This 13-part, bi-weekly series explores the ever-changing definition of art in the hands of the next generation of artists taking creative reigns and melding art with new media.”
According to my daughter it’s just super awesome. I completely agree.
This relatively new addition to the PBS Arts line-up, Off Book is an online only series. But with slick production values and sexy contemporary music it’s raised the bar for online magazine episodes. So far the series has covered such topics as Typography, Light Painting, Visual Culture Online (Hello Nyan Cat), and most recently Steampunk.
Geek parents of Arthur-watchers, set your DVRs for “Squee!,” because Neil Gaiman’s visit to Elwood City is set for Oct. 25.
Yes, thatNeil Gaiman. The creator of Coraline, author of The Graveyard Book – which added The Carnegie Medal to its list of awards this summer – and new contributor to Doctor Who will make a Halloween week guest appearance as himself on the animated PBS series.
From the press release: “This season, we’re hoping to empower our young viewers to go after their goals and dreams. Whether that means becoming a wheelchair basketball champion, or expressing yourself through writing, drawing, and making movies, Arthur and his friends show kids that determination and hard work really pay off,” said Executive Producer Jacqui Deegan. “Both Lydia and Neil serve as great role models, and we’re excited to have them to reinforce these important lessons for our audiences.” The new season premiered Oct. 11.
Gaiman‘s role comes in an episode called “Falafelosophy,” inspiring one of the kids who’s trying her hand at writing and illustrating a graphic novel. It’s paired with what sounds like a suitable companion story, “Tales of the Grotesquely Grim Bunny,” about changes on the shelves at the local comic shop.
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Iceland declared an "aviation danger area" around a small volcanic eruption near the Bardarbunga volcano. Scientists said the eruption started early Friday in a lava field north of the Vatnajökull glacier and was nearly half a mile long.
The airspace over the eruption region briefly was closed up to a height of 1,500 meters (4,921 feet), though all of Iceland's airports were open as authorities lowered the alert status to its second-highest level. Authorities also said airborne ash found after the eruption was “minimal.” The ash emitted is not expected to affect the U.K.’s airspace, BBC reported.
"Scientists who have been at work close to the eruption monitor the event at a safe distance," a statement from the Department of Civil Protection said.
A coast guard aircraft will visit the region to survey the site further while the U.K.’s Met Office is reportedly tracking the situation.
Bjorn Oddsson, a geophysicist from Iceland's Department of Civil Protection and Emergency Management, said, according to BBC, "It's mostly effusive; there's no ash in the air, and not even in the vicinity," adding: "So mostly lava is pouring out of the craters right now and the only flight restriction is over the area. All airports are open, and things are quite in control."
Continue Reading Below
Last Sunday, Iceland’s Met Office reported a magnitude 5 earthquake, causing the authorities to issue an alert over the volcanic region.
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Objection 1. It would seem that our intellect knows singulars. For whoever knows composition, knows the terms of composition. But our intellect knows this composition; "Socrates is a man": for it belongs to the intellect to form a proposition. Therefore our intellect knows this singular, Socrates.
Objection 3. Further, our intellect understands itself. But in itself it is a singular, otherwise it would have no action of its own; for actions belong to singulars. Therefore our intellect knows singulars.
I answer that, Our intellect cannot know the singular in material things directly and primarily. The reason of this is that the principle of singularity in material things is individual matter, whereas our intellect, as have said above (Question 85, Article 1), understands by abstracting the intelligible species from such matter. Now what is abstracted from individual matter is the universal. Hence our intellect knows directly the universal only. But indirectly, and as it were by a kind of reflection, it can know the singular, because, as we have said above (Question 85, Article 7), even after abstracting the intelligible species, the intellect, in order to understand, needs to turn to the phantasms in which it understands the species, as is said De Anima iii, 7. Therefore it understands the universal directly through the intelligible species, and indirectly the singular represented by the phantasm. And thus it forms the proposition "Socrates is a man." Wherefore the reply to the first objection is clear.
Reply to Objection 2. The choice of a particular thing to be done is as the conclusion of a syllogism formed by the practical intellect, as is said Ethic. vii, 3. But a singular proposition cannot be directly concluded from a universal proposition, except through the medium of a singular proposition. Therefore the universal principle of the practical intellect does not move save through the medium of the particular apprehension of the sensitive part, as is said De Anima iii, 11.
Reply to Objection 3. Intelligibility is incompatible with the singular not as such, but as material, for nothing can be understood otherwise than immaterially. Therefore if there be an immaterial singular such as the intellect, there is no reason why it should not be intelligible.
Reply to Objection 4. The higher power can do what the lower power can, but in a more eminent way. Wherefore what the sense knows materially and concretely, which is to know the singular directly, the intellect knows immaterially and in the abstract, which is to know the universal.
Objection 1. It would seem that our intellect can know the infinite. For God excels all infinite things. But our intellect can know God, as we have said above (Question 12, Article 1). Much more, therefore, can our intellect know all other infinite things.
Objection 2. Further, our intellect can naturally know "genera" and "species." But there is an infinity of species in some genera, as in number, proportion, and figure. Therefore our intellect can know the infinite.
Objection 3. Further, if one body can coexist with another in the same place, there is nothing to prevent an infinite number of bodies being in one place. But one intelligible species can exist with another in the same intellect, for many things can be habitually known at the same time. Therefore our intellect can have an habitual knowledge of an infinite number of things.
Objection 4. Further, as the intellect is not a corporeal faculty, as we have said (76, 1), it appears to be an infinite power. But an infinite power has a capacity for an infinite object. Therefore our intellect can know the infinite.
On the contrary, It is said (Phys. i, 4) that "the infinite, considered as such, is unknown."
I answer that, Since a faculty and its object are proportional to each other, the intellect must be related to the infinite, as is its object, which is the quiddity of a material thing. Now in material things the infinite does not exist actually, but only potentially, in the sense of one succeeding another, as is said Phys. iii, 6. Therefore infinity is potentially in our mind through its considering successively one thing after another: because never does our intellect understand so many things, that it cannot understand more. On the other hand, our intellect cannot understand the infinite either actually or habitually. Not actually, for our intellect cannot know actually at the same time, except what it knows through one species. But the infinite is not represented by one species, for if it were it would be something whole and complete. Consequently it cannot be understood except by a successive consideration of one part after another, as is clear from its definition (Phys. iii, 6): for the infinite is that "from which, however much we may take, there always remains something to be taken." Thus the infinite could not be known actually, unless all its parts were counted: which is impossible.
For the same reason we cannot have habitual knowledge of the infinite: because in us habitual knowledge results from actual consideration: since by understanding we acquire knowledge, as is said Ethic. ii, 1. Wherefore it would not be possible for us to have a habit of an infinity of things distinctly known, unless we had already considered the entire infinity thereof, counting them according to the succession of our knowledge: which is impossible. And therefore neither actually nor habitually can our intellect know the infinite, but only potentially as explained above.
Reply to Objection 1. As we have said above (Question 7, Article 1), God is called infinite, because He is a form unlimited by matter; whereas in material things, the term 'infinite' is applied to that which is deprived of any formal term. And form being known in itself, whereas matter cannot be known without form, it follows that the material infinite is in itself unknowable. But the formal infinite, God, is of Himself known; but He is unknown to us by reason of our feeble intellect, which in its present state has a natural aptitude for material objects only. Therefore we cannot know God in our present life except through material effects. In the future life this defect of intellect will be removed by the state of glory, when we shall be able to see the Essence of God Himself, but without being able to comprehend Him.
Reply to Objection 2. The nature of our mind is to know species abstracted from phantasms; therefore it cannot know actually or habitually species of numbers or figures that are not in the imagination, except in a general way and in their universal principles; and this is to know them potentially and confusedly.
Reply to Objection 3. If two or more bodies were in the same place, there would be no need for them to occupy the place successively, in order for the things placed to be counted according to this succession of occupation. On the other hand, the intelligible species enter into our intellect successively; since many things cannot be actually understood at the same time: and therefore there must be a definite and not an infinite number of species in our intellect.
Reply to Objection 4. As our intellect is infinite in power, so does it know the infinite. For its power is indeed infinite inasmuch as it is not terminated by corporeal matter. Moreover it can know the universal, which is abstracted from individual matter, and which consequently is not limited to one individual, but, considered in itself, extends to an infinite number of individuals.
Objection 1. It would seem that the intellect cannot know contingent things: because, as the Philosopher says (Ethic. vi, 6), the objects of understanding, wisdom and knowledge are not contingent, but necessary things.
Objection 2. Further, as stated in Phys. iv, 12, "what sometimes is and sometimes is not, is measured by time." Now the intellect abstracts from time, and from other material conditions. Therefore, as it is proper to a contingent thing sometime to be and sometime not to be, it seems that contingent things are not known by the intellect.
On the contrary, All knowledge is in the intellect. But some sciences are of the contingent things, as the moral sciences, the objects of which are human actions subject to free-will; and again, the natural sciences in as far as they relate to things generated and corruptible. Therefore the intellect knows contingent things.
I answer that, Contingent things can be considered in two ways; either as contingent, or as containing some element of necessity, since every contingent thing has in it something necessary: for example, that Socrates runs, is in itself contingent; but the relation of running to motion is necessary, for it is necessary that Socrates move if he runs. Now contingency arises from matter, for contingency is a potentiality to be or not to be, and potentiality belongs to matter; whereas necessity results from form, because whatever is consequent on form is of necessity in the subject. But matter is the individualizing principle: whereas the universal comes from the abstraction of the form from the particular matter. Moreover it was laid down above (Article 1) that the intellect of itself and directly has the universal for its object; while the object of sense is the singular, which in a certain way is the indirect object of the intellect, as we have said above (Article 1). Therefore the contingent, considered as such, is known directly by sense and indirectly by the intellect; while the universal and necessary principles of contingent things are known only by the intellect. Hence if we consider the objects of science in their universal principles, then all science is of necessary things. But if we consider the things themselves, thus some sciences are of necessary things, some of contingent things.
From which the replies to the objections are clear.
Objection 1. It would seem that our intellect knows the future. For our intellect knows by means of intelligible species abstracted from the "here" and "now," and related indifferently to all time. But it can know the present. Therefore it can know the future.
Objection 2. Further, man, while his senses are in suspense, can know some future things, as in sleep, and in frenzy. But the intellect is freer and more vigorous when removed from sense. Therefore the intellect of its own nature can know the future.
Objection 3. The intellectual knowledge of man is superior to any knowledge of brutes. But some animals know the future; thus crows by their frequent cawing foretell rain. Therefore much more can the intellect know the future.
I answer that, We must apply the same distinction to future things, as we applied above (Article 3) to contingent things. For future things considered as subject to time are singular, and the human intellect knows them by reflection only, as stated above (Article 1). But the principles of future things may be universal; and thus they may enter the domain of the intellect and become the objects of science.
Speaking, however, of the knowledge of the future in a general way, we must observe that the future may be known in two ways: either in itself, or in its cause. The future cannot be known in itself save by God alone; to Whom even that is present which in the course of events is future, forasmuch as from eternity His glance embraces the whole course of time, as we have said above when treating of God's knowledge (14, 13). But forasmuch as it exists in its cause, the future can be known by us also. And if, indeed, the cause be such as to have a necessary connection with its future result, then the future is known with scientific certitude, just as the astronomer foresees the future eclipse. If, however, the cause be such as to produce a certain result more frequently than not, then can the future be known more or less conjecturally, according as its cause is more or less inclined to produce the effect.
Reply to Objection 2. As Augustine says (Confess. xii [Gen. ad lit. xii. 13), the soul has a certain power of forecasting, so that by its very nature it can know the future; hence when withdrawn from corporeal sense, and, as it were, concentrated on itself, it shares in the knowledge of the future. Such an opinion would be reasonable if we were to admit that the soul receives knowledge by participating the ideas as the Platonists maintained, because in that case the soul by its nature would know the universal causes of all effects, and would only be impeded in its knowledge by the body, and hence when withdrawn from the corporeal senses it would know the future.
But since it is connatural to our intellect to know things, not thus, but by receiving its knowledge from the senses; it is not natural for the soul to know the future when withdrawn from the senses: rather does it know the future by the impression of superior spiritual and corporeal causes; of spiritual causes, when by Divine power the human intellect is enlightened through the ministry of angels, and the phantasms are directed to the knowledge of future events; or, by the influence of demons, when the imagination is moved regarding the future known to the demons, as explained above (Question 57, Article 3). The soul is naturally more inclined to receive these impressions of spiritual causes when it is withdrawn from the senses, as it is then nearer to the spiritual world, and freer from external distractions. The same may also come from superior corporeal causes. For it is clear that superior bodies influence inferior bodies. Hence, in consequence of the sensitive faculties being acts of corporeal organs, the influence of the heavenly bodies causes the imagination to be affected, and so, as the heavenly bodies cause many future events, the imagination receives certain images of some such events. These images are perceived more at night and while we sleep than in the daytime and while we are awake, because, as stated in De Somn. et Vigil. ii [De Divinat. per somn. ii.], "impressions made by day are evanescent. The night air is calmer, when silence reigns, hence bodily impressions are made in sleep, when slight internal movements are felt more than in wakefulness, and such movements produce in the imagination images from which the future may be foreseen."
Reply to Objection 3. Brute animals have no power above the imagination wherewith to regulate it, as man has his reason, and therefore their imagination follows entirely the influence of the heavenly bodies. Thus from such animals' movements some future things, such as rain and the like, may be known rather from human movements directed by reason. Hence the Philosopher says (De Somn. et Vig.), that "some who are most imprudent are most far-seeing; for their intelligence is not burdened with cares, but is as it were barren and bare of all anxiety moving at the caprice of whatever is brought to bear on it."
The Summa Theologica of St. Thomas Aquinas
Second and Revised Edition, 1920
Literally translated by Fathers of the English Dominican Province
Online Edition Copyright © 2008 by Kevin Knight
Nihil Obstat. F. Innocentius Apap, O.P., S.T.M., Censor. Theol.
Imprimatur. Edus. Canonicus Surmont, Vicarius Generalis. Westmonasterii.
Nihil Obstat. F. Raphael Moss, O.P., S.T.L. and F. Leo Moore, O.P., S.T.L.
Imprimatur. F. Beda Jarrett, O.P., S.T.L., A.M., Prior Provincialis Angliæ
MARIÆ IMMACULATÆ - SEDI SAPIENTIÆ
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Originally posted by micpsi
I can assure you that this experimental research has NOT discovered the magnetic monopole first theorized by British physicist, Paul Dirac.
The magnetic moments in a spin ice do not line up like those in a ferromagnet. Instead physicists believe that they join up to create magnetic flux lines within the material that resemble a knotted mess of strings. However, if a moment is flipped – a string is broken and the magnetic flux spills out in a manner resembling a monopole.
The spin-ice monopoles have very different origins from the monopoles famously predicted by Paul Dirac's work on quantum electrodynamics.
Originally posted by spikey
reply to post by micpsi
At least, not at the moment. But, it's heading in the right direction isn't it.
Would it surprise you to know that predictions of 50 to 100 years, until we have time travel are seriously being backed by top science names?
Or teleportation..reckoned to be perhaps a mere 50 years away?
These crystals are made up of pyramids of charged atoms, or ions, arranged in such a way that when cooled to exceptionally low temperatures, the materials show tiny, discrete packets of magnetic charge.
The muons decay millionths of a second after their production into other sub-atomic particles.
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Palacios, Margarita and Cardenas, A. (2008) Social ties and individualization: a discussion about the possibilities of school learning. Revista de Sociología (22), pp. 65-85. ISSN 0716-632X.Full text not available from this repository.
The concepts of social ties and individualization shed light in this article to a discussion about how the main transformations that have taken place in the institutions of the family and work are related to the phenomenon of low school performance in Chile. More specifically, it is argued that the fractioning of symbolic horizons and the increasing weakening of social ties that are associated to the process of individualization, hinder the very “educability” of children, insofar the affective conditions required in learning, such as trust, belonging and certitude, are increasingly weakened in our society.
|Additional Information:||In Spanish|
|School or Research Centre:||Birkbeck Schools and Research Centres > School of Social Sciences, History and Philosophy > Psychosocial Studies|
|Date Deposited:||08 Dec 2011 10:56|
|Last Modified:||17 Apr 2013 12:22|
Archive Staff Only (login required)
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http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/micro/gallery/superconductor/super.html (Ceramic Superconductor Single Crystal)
As most people know (or don't know, whichever is the case) the component of an electrical circuit that causes energy loss is called "resistance," which can be defined as a materials opposition to current being passed through it. Usually, this resistance results in the production of heat, sound, or another form of energy. In many cases, this transformation of energy is useful in such applications as toasters, heaters, and light bulbs. Even though it is a useful property, resistance often gets in the way of performance in such cases as high voltage transmission wires, electric motor output, and other cases where internal system energy losses are unwanted. This is where the phenomenon of superconducting materials comes into play and may present the solution to this energy loss problem.
Superconductors are materials that display zero resistance under certain conditions. These conditions are called the "critical temperature" and "critical field," denoted Tc and Hc respectively. The Tc is the highest temperature state the material can attain and remain superconductive. The Hc is the highest magnetic field the material can be exposed to before reverting to its normal magnetic state. Within the substances currently known to superconduct, there is a divide between what has come to be called type I and type II superconductors. Type I are composed of pure substances, usually metals, and type II are composite compounds, usually some sort of ceramic.
Additional differences between type I and type II exist, mainly that type II display superconducting qualities at much higher temperatures and can remain superconductive in the presence of much higher magnetic fields. While type I have Tc's that hover just a few degrees from absolute zero, type II can have Tc's of over 130 K. The graph below shows how type I and type II superconductors compare as related to Tc and Hc:
The difference in magnetic fields is also quite large. Type I superconductors can stand fields up to approximately 2000 Gauss, which translates to about .2 Tesla, while type II can with stand fields of up to several hundred thousand Gauss, which translates to more than 10 Tesla. The magnetic field for any temperature below the Tc is given by the follwoing eqution:
Bc ≈ Bc(0) * [1 - (T/Tc)^2]
In The Beginning
How Superconductors Work
Research And Potential Uses
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People with diabetes are twice as likely to develop Alzheimer's, according to a new study in Japan.
The study in Japan included more than 1,000 men and women over the age of 60. The study showed that participants with diabetes were 1.75 times more likely to develop other forms of dementia then the other participants.
This trend is pertinent to people who had pre-diabetes, or an elevated level of blood sugar, as they were also found to be at a higher risk for developing dementia.
"It's really important for the public to understand that diabetes is a significant risk factor for all of these types of dementia," says Rachel Whitmer, Ph.D., an epidemiologist in the research division of Kaiser Permanente Northern California, according to Health.com. Whitmer was not involved in the study but does research on Alzheimer’s.
Some researchers believe that the reason behind this correlation may be because diabetes is known to cause vascular disease, which in turn can disrupt oxygen flow to the brain as well as other organs. This is only a theory at this point, as researchers continue to research the causing factors of Alzheimer's.
In light of this new study doctors urge diabetes patients to keep their blood sugar controlled while regularly getting tested for high blood pressure and high cholesterol.
According to the American Diabetes Association, 8.3 percent, or 25.8 million Americans have diabetes.
The current study was published in Neurology.
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A skeptic wrote to ask the following question: “Bible contradictions, are they real?” He then answered his own question (which makes one wonder why—if he already knew the answer—he was writing us in the first place): “Yes. How did Saul die? 2 Samuel 21:12 says he was killed by a Philistine. 1 Samuel 31:4 says he killed himself. 2 Samuel 1:18-20 says he was killed by an Amalekite. Which one is it?”
With just a few short sentences, the skeptic appears to have documented a legitimate discrepancy within the biblical text. The key word here, however, is “appears.” As is so often the case, there is much more to the matter than merely quoting a single verse or two in an effort to make the Bible appear to contradict itself. An examination of these passages—in their historical context—makes for an interesting and educational study.
Let us begin with the skeptic’s claim that 2 Samuel depicts Saul as having been killed by “a Philistine.” The context for the statement in 2 Samuel 21:12 can be found one book earlier in 1 Samuel 31, which centers on the fact that the Israelites and the Philistines were engaged in an important battle against each other. 1 Samuel 31:1 indicates that “the Philistines fought against Israel; and the men of Israel fled from before the Philistines, and fell down slain in mount Gilboa.” From this simple commentary by the writer, it is clear that the battle was not going well for God’s people. Israel’s finest-trained armies had been thoroughly and completely routed. Her battle-weary soldiers not only were in disarray, but full retreat. Even their king, Saul, was in peril. In fact, the next two verses go on to explain: “And the Philistines followed hard upon Saul and upon his sons; and the Philistines slew Jonathan, and Abinadab, and Malchishua, the sons of Saul. And the battle went sore against Saul, and the archers overtook him; and he was greatly distressed by reason of the archers.”
Israel’s first king was mortally wounded by the Philistines’ arrows. Knowing he was in his death throes, Saul determined not to fall into the hands of his enemies while still living. He therefore turned to his armorbearer and said: “Draw thy sword, and thrust me through therewith, lest these uncircumcised come and thrust me through, and abuse me” (21:4a). Verses 4-6 present the conclusion of the matter: “But his armorbearer would not; for he was sore afraid. Therefore Saul took his sword, and fell upon it. And when his armorbearer saw that Saul was dead, he likewise fell upon his sword, and died with him. So Saul died, and his three sons, and his armorbearer, and all his men, that same day together.”
So how did Saul die? Did “a Philistine” kill him, as the skeptic alleges? Or did Saul commit suicide to escape capture and possible torture at the hands of some of his most feared enemies, as 1 Samuel 31:4 seems to indicate?
First, notice how cautiously the skeptic’s question to us was worded in its original form. The skeptic carefully crafted his statement to read: “2 Samuel 21:12 says he was killed by a Philistine.” But the text nowhere states that a Philistine killed Saul. Rather, it says, “the Philistines (plural) slew Saul in Gilboa.” This is a subtle but important difference. Considering the context, was it not the Philistines (as they battled against the Israelites) who ultimately were responsible for Saul’s self-inflicted wound and subsequent death? Indeed it was.
Suppose a modern-day soldier were in the same situation. Wounded by an enemy’s bullet, he takes his own life on the battlefield to avoid capture and torture. Were a journalist to write an article for a national or local newspaper, might he not (justifiably) report that the soldier died at the hands of his enemy as a direct result of the battle? Indeed he might, for had the events never unfolded as they did, obviously the solider would not have died under such circumstances.
But if the reporter continued his story in the next day’s edition of that same newspaper, and in giving additional details of the circumstances surrounding the battle went on to state that the young man had taken his own life rather than fall into the enemy’s possession and possibly become a tool of betrayal against his comrades, would any reader of the two-part account suggest that the journalist had “contradicted” himself? Hardly. The normal reader, with average common sense, would recognize that in the general context, the enemy had caused the young soldier’s death. In the immediate context, his death had been at his own hand as a direct result of his fear of being captured by that enemy.
The circumstances surrounding Saul’s death were no different. The writer of 2 Samuel 21 was correct, in the general context, in assigning Saul’s demise to “the Philistines” (not “a Philistine,” as the skeptic alleged), because it was in the battle with the Philistines that Saul found himself dying of wounds caused by their arrows and thus committed suicide. The writer of 1 Samuel 31:4 was correct, in the immediate context, in providing additional information regarding exactly how that death occurred—i.e., at Saul’s own hand as he lay mortally wounded and in danger of capture and torture.
But what about the story that is recorded in 2 Samuel 1:1-16, wherein an Amalekite claimed to have killed the Israelite’s beloved king? The context of this story is as follows. David had just returned from a battle with the Amalekites. While in the city of Ziklag, a young man in ragged clothing appeared before him with a report of Saul’s death. The young man, himself an Amalekite, stated:
“As I happened by chance upon mount Gilboa, behold, Saul was leaning upon his spear; and, lo, the chariots and the horsemen followed hard after him. And when he looked behind him, he saw me, and called unto me. And I answered, ‘Here am I.’ And he said unto me, ‘Who art thou?’ And I answered him, ‘I am an Amalekite.’ And he said unto me, ‘Stand, I pray thee, beside me, and slay me; for anguish hath taken hold of me, because my life is yet whole in me.’ So I stood beside him, and slew him, because I was sure that he could not live after that he was fallen: and I took the crown that was upon his head, and the bracelet that was on his arm, and have brought them hither unto my lord” (2 Samuel 1:6-10).
David’s response to this story was one of outrage. At hearing the young man’s report, he inquired: “How wast thou not afraid to put forth thy hand to destroy Jehovah’s anointed?” (2 Samuel 1:14). Turning to the Amalekite, he sternly said: “Thy blood be upon thy head; for thy mouth hath testified against thee, saying, ‘I have slain Jehovah’s anointed’.” David then ordered one of his own soldiers to slay the young man as punishment for the atrocity he claimed to have committed—the murder of Israel’s king, Saul (2 Samuel 1:15-16).
How can this story be reconciled with the accounts in 1 Samuel 31 and 2 Samuel 21? Isolated from both the general and immediate historical context, the simple fact is that it cannot. Is there, then, an unavoidable, unexplainable contradiction as the skeptic has alleged? No, there is not. There is another possible explanation. In his book, Encyclopedia of Bible Difficulties, Gleason L. Archer elaborated on this possibility when he wrote that the Amalekite’s story
is not presented as being an actual record of what happened during Saul’s dying moments; it is only a record of what the Amalekite mercenary said had taken place. Coming with Saul’s crown and bracelet in hand and presenting them before the new king of Israel, the Amalekite obviously expected a handsome reward and high preferment in the service of Saul’s successor. In the light of the straightforward account in the previous chapter, we must conclude that the Amalekite was lying in order to gain a cordial welcome from David. But what had actually happened was that after Saul had killed himself, and the armorbearer had followed his lord’s example by taking his own life (1 Sam. 31:5), the Amalekite happened by at that moment, recognized the king’s corpse, and quickly stripped off the bracelet and crown before the Philistine troops discovered it. Capitalizing on his good fortune, the Amalekite then escaped from the bloody field and made his way down to David’s headquarters in Ziklag. But his hoped-for reward turned out to be a warrant for his death; David had him killed on the spot.... His glib falsehood had brought him the very opposite of what he had expected, for he failed to foresee that David’s high code of honor would lead him to make just the response he did (1982, pp. 181-182, emp. added).
It would not be unusual for a Bible writer to record a story that was told at the time as the truth when, in fact, it was a lie. Moses recorded Satan’s lie to Eve in Genesis 3:4, without comment on its false nature. The writer of 1 Kings 13 recorded the lie of the older prophet to the younger prophet (a lie that ultimately caused the younger prophet’s death). John recorded Peter’s three-fold lie when he denied being one of Christ’s disciples (18:15-27). Other similar examples could be offered. The point is, just because the Amalekite mercenary claimed to have killed King Saul does not mean that he was telling the truth when he made such a claim. In fact, we know he was not because elsewhere (e.g., 1 Samuel 31:4-5) the actual facts of the case are presented with great clarity. Once again, the skeptic’s claim of a biblical discrepancy can be answered by a common-sense appeal to reason that provides a solution consistent with the available facts. God: 2; skeptics: 0.
Archer, Gleason L. (1982), Encyclopedia of Bible Difficulties (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan).
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Hosted by The Math Forum
Problem of the Week 1144
A Crosscut Quadrilateral
Given a convex quadrilateral ABCD, let the midpoints of the sides be E for side AB, F for side BC, and so on. Then connect E to C, F to D, G to A, and H to B.
Prove that the area of the central quadrilateral equals the sum of the four shaded triangular areas.
Source: Rick Mabry, Crosscut convex quadrilaterals, Math. Mag., 84, Feb. 2011, 16-25.
© Copyright 2011 Stan Wagon. Reproduced with permission.
Home || The Math Library || Quick Reference || Search || Help
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In 2009, the Lost Towns Project began excavating a site known as Pig Point, thought to be named for the iron bars or “pigs” made by Patuxent Iron Works and shipped downriver to merchant vessels from this point. Located on private property in Anne Arundel County, the site has revealed a vast array of American Indian artifacts, showing that this place has been continuously occupied for at least 9,500 years. Although 19th century history is not the focus of this excavation, Pig Point also had a dramatic role in the War of 1812.
This site offers opportunities for getting involved year-round. Contact the Lost Towns Project to become a volunteer for a day, a week, or a season. Thanks to this place’s sandy soil that rarely freezes, archeologists are able to excavate at the site two days per week from about mid-March to mid-December. You can set up times during this long excavation season to help dig riverside or get involved in washing and sorting Pig Point’s fascinating artifacts in the Lost Towns Project Lab at Historic London Town and Gardens. The lab is open five days per week during the chilliest winter months and four to five days per week during the field season. The group of friendly archeologists, interns, and dedicated volunteers at this site will teach you as much as you’d like to know about archeological process and local history along the way. The Pig Point site is currently only accepting field volunteers and visitors above age 18 years, but there are some opportunities for minors available in the lab or at the Lost Towns Project’s other field sites.
Star-Spangled History: In August of 1814, British Rear Admiral George Cockburn was leading his forces up the Patuxent River and offering support to British troops on land as they marched northward to Washington. American Commodore Joshua Barney was retreating from the British fleet with his Chesapeake Flotilla. As the British entered Nottingham, a port town on the Patuxent, Barney reached Pig Point and acted quickly. He took 400 flotillamen with him farther upriver and left about 100 men, including his lieutenant Solomon Frazier, behind at Pig Point with the wounded and most of the fleet’s supplies. Barney ordered Frazier to prepare explosives and deliberately sink or “scuttle” the fleet if the British tried to seize their supplies and weapons. On August 22, 1814 Admiral Cockburn approached the Chesapeake Flotilla, including Barney’s famous flagship the USS Scorpion, at Pig Point. But as he neared the fleet, the abandoned vessels ignited and exploded. They were “blown to atoms” in Admiral Cockburn’s words, but his forces were able to capture one barge and some merchant schooners that had been with the flotilla. Meanwhile Commodore Barney and his 400 men joined forces with militia units and US Marine reinforcements to aid in the defense of Washington on land. The flotillamen made a stand at the Battle of Bladensburg, where Commodore Barney was wounded on August 24.
While you visit: Since the archeological site itself is on private property, you must contact the Lost Towns Project in order to visit and volunteer. Only those accompanied by project staff will be able to visit the site and the evocative landscape that surrounds it. However, Historic London Town and Gardens, where the archeology lab is located, is open to the public without reservations. London Town offers tours of its grounds, the historic William Brown House, its exhibit showcasing Lost Towns Project artifacts, and more. For up-to-date information about specific hours, events, and admission pricing, please visit London Town's website.
Contact: Jessie Grow – 410-222-1318 – [email protected]
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A Magical Guide to Avoiding Plagiarism is an infographic guide created by Kate Hart. The guide was published back in June, but I just learned about it yesterday through one of Jenny Luca's Tweets. A Magical Guide to Avoiding Plagiarism uses a Harry Potter theme to succinctly explain to students when and why they need to properly cite the sources of their information. I've embedded the infographic below, but I encourage you to visit Kate Hart's blog post about it as she goes into more depth on the topic of plagiarism.
Applications for Education
A Magical Guide to Avoiding Plagiarism could be a great graphic to print and post in your school's library and or in your classroom. While the infographic doesn't go into the details of how to cite sources, it does provide students with good reminders of when they need to cite the sources of their information. Click here for eight more resources for preventing and detecting plagiarism.
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Michael F. Funchion
Although marked by its own nuances, the history of the Irish in Chicago follows a pattern similar to that of the Irish in most other large American cities where they settled in substantial numbers. Early immigrants formed a visible Irish community. Sustained by certain key institutions, this community remained relatively cohesive into the early-twentieth century. After that, many of the descendants of Irish immigrants gradually began to meld into a more general Catholic American subgroup, although a smaller core of highly ethnic Irish remains to this day.
The early Irish immigrants in Chicago left a homeland teeming with a myriad political, social, and economic problems. Controlled by England in one fashion or another since the twelfth century Ireland became intricately tied to its more powerful neighbor with the creation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801. Although that union worked out to the satisfaction of most Irish Protestants, most Irish Catholics, who made up over three-quarters of the population, detested it. Not only did the political system deny Irish Catholics the chance to control their own affairs, but for some time it also actively discriminated against their religion.
Worse than the political structure was the land system, in which most of the landlords were Anglo-Irish Protestants or Englishmen, while most of the peasants were Catholics. Peasants often had to pay burdensome rents and live in squalid conditions. By the 1830s conditions had worsened as tremendous population growth in previous decades had forced many to eke out a living on minuscule plots of land. This population pressure also triggered a significant rise in immigration to America in the 1830s. Immigrant numbers grew in the early 1840s, but the floodgates opened with the Great Famine (1845-1849). As a result of this catastrophe, which involved successive and widespread failures of the potato crop on which most peasants depended for their food, one million people died and another million emigrated. The Famine greatly increased Irish bitterness toward England, since the Irish believed that the British government could have done far more than it did to save the starving masses. After the Famine years, economic conditions in Ireland improved, and although substantial numbers of Irish left Ireland for America during the latter nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries, relatively few showed signs of real destitution.
The early years of Chicago coincided with the significant rise in Irish immigration in the 1830s. Some Irish already lived in Chicago when it was incorporated as a city in 1837. In the next few years Irish numbers grew rapidly particularly after the arrival of refugees from the Great Famine. By 1850 Irish immigrants accounted for about one-fifth of the city's population. Although the number of Irish immigrants in Chicago continued to increase until the end of the century, their percentage of the city's population was never again as high as it was in 1850, after which an extraordinary large number of Germans and later other immigrant groups settled in the city making it one of the most multi-ethnic urban areas in the United States.
Like those in other parts of the United States, the vast majority of the early Irish immigrants in Chicago came to America in impoverished circumstances. Taking low-skilled and poorly paying jobs in brickyards, meatpacking plants, and the like, they settled in poor neighborhoods, like Bridgeporton the South Side or Kilglubbin on the North. It was in one such depressed neighborhood on the South Side that the Great Chicago Fire (1871) started in the barn of Irish immigrants Patrick and Catherine O'Leary.
In time, the economic status of the Irish improved. The children of the early immigrants appear to have been better off than
their parents, while the new immigrants arriving after the Great Famine were more prosperous and better educated than those who had come before. Yet, at the end of the century, Irish Chicagoans were still overwhelmingly working class, and some lived in considerable poverty. Fascinating insights into the lives of these people are offered in Finley Peter Dunne's fictional accounts of the Irish in Bridgeport, which appeared in his "Mr. Dooley" newspaper columns in the1890s.
After the turn of the century, the Irish continued to gradually climb the economic ladder. Like the Irish portrayed in James T. Farrell's classic Studs Lonigan trilogy, more and more Irish left their old neighborhoods in the central parts of the city and moved to better ones in outlying areas. The Depression, of course, hurt the Irish as it did others, but did not permanently prevent their upward move, which received significant help after World War II with the Gl Bill of Rights. The increased prosperity of the Irish was evident in the steady stream who left the city for the suburbs in the half century after the war.
Although the Irish seem more widely dispersed today than they were a century ago, most of the Irish in Chicago's history have never lived in real ethnic ghettoes. In fact, they have been one of the least clustered ethnic groups in the city. Yet despite the absence of geographic separation, the Irish, at least into the twentieth century, remained a relatively cohesive ethnic group linked together by their Catholicism, devotion to Ireland (particularly their support for Irish nationalism), and by a high level of involvement in the local political system.
The overwhelming majority of Irish in Chicago were Catholics. For Irish Catholics, religious and ethnic identities were entwined, as religious persecution at the hands of Protestant England and the Protestant Anglo-Irish establishment had tended to fuse together their Irish and Catholic identities. In Chicago, it was the Irish along with German Catholics and a handful of French-speaking residents who, in the 1830s and 1840s, laid the foundations of the Catholic Church in the city. With a tremendous increase in the number of Irish and German Catholic newcomers in the following few decades, the Catholic Church grew by leaps and bounds. Then in the last decades of the nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries, the Catholic population not Holy Family Church, Chicago only continued to grow tremendously, but it also became far more diverse with the arrival of thousands of the Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Croats, and Italians from southern and eastern Europe.
Because of their numbers, early arrival, and ability to speak English, the Irish held the dominant role in the Catholic Church in Chicago for decades. Until 1916 all the Catholic bishops in Chicago, except one who served for five years, were of Irish birth or parentage. Although ethnic tensions existed in the church, with few exceptions the Catholics in Chicago remained united. One of the factors that helped to promote this relatively peaceful coexistence of diverse ethnic groups in the same church was that the various Irish bishops supported the practice of establishing separate (termed "national") parishes for the various non-English speaking ethnic groups.
As English-speakers, the Irish did not have national parishes created for them, but instead attended regular (termed "territorial") parishes. The system, however, had a significant effect on them. Because they were virtually the only English-speaking Catholic immigrants, the territorial parishes became in effect Irish parishes, so that for a long time the institutional religious structure not only separated Irish Catholics from American Protestants, but also socially from their fellow Catholics. This system began to change slowly toward the end of the nineteenth century. By 1900 there were large numbers of American-born German Catholics who used English as their first language. As a result, existing German national parishes gradually became English-speaking ones, and hardly any new German national parishes were created. When established, new territorial parishes were intended for Germans as well as for the Irish, although because of settlement patterns, many of these eventually became predominantly Irish or German. The newer Catholic immigrant groups followed the same pattern as the Germans.
The local parish was very important in the lives of Irish Chicagoans. It met their spiritual needs, of course, but it also served other significant functions. The parochial school attached to most parishes provided not only instruction in the Catholic faith but also a solid education in secular subjects. Priests, besides providing spiritual guidance, often acted as surrogate social workers and counsellors, helping their parishioners with a host of everyday concerns. Parish events and meetings, which gave parishioners the opportunity to mix with one another, helped to meet an important social need. Most of these parishes had a vibrant sense of community and the intimacy of small towns.
While being nurtured by parish life, Irish Catholic identity also received reinforcement from anti-Irish and anti-Catholic prejudice. This prejudice was quite intense in the decades before the Civil War. The Chicago Tribune on several occasions, for example, lashed out at Irish Catholics for their political power and religion, and in 1855 Chicagoan selected an anti-Catholic and anti-immigrant Know-Nothing mayor and Know-Nothing-controlled city council. Some decades later in the latter 1880s and early 1890s, another wave of anti-Catholicism hit the city, with a number of Protestant Chicagoans lending their support to groups such as the American Protective Association, whose members swore never to vote for or employ a Catholic. Anti-Catholic prejudice had diminished considerably by the start of the new century but was sometimes quite noticeable. As late as the 1920s, Catholics along with Jews and African-Americans bore the brunt of attacks from the Ku Klux Klan. Most Protestant Chicagoans, of course, were not bigots, and many had quiet, friendly relations with Irish Catholics. Nonetheless, anti-Catholicism on various occasions reared its ugly head and made Irish Catholics more conscious of their own identity.
Besides Catholicism, devotion to Ireland held Irish Chicagoans together. The most visible evidence of this was the support they furnished for both peaceful and revolutionary Irish nationalist movements. In the1860s, for example, Irish Chicagoans provided money and men to the Fenians, a revolutionary organization that sought to win the complete independence of Ireland. After internal divisions led to the collapse of the Fenians in the late 1860s, revolutionary-minded Irish Chicagoans turned to the Clan na Gael, which for many years supported the revolutionary cause in Ireland.
The Chicago Irish also backed non-violent Irish nationalist campaigns. During the 1880s they threw their support behind the Irish Home Rule movement led by Charles Stewart Parnell, the head of the Irish Parliamentary Party. Though it still would have left Ireland in the United Kingdom, Home Rule would have given Ireland a separate parliament for Irish matters, and thus many Irish Chicagoans, including members of the Clan, supported it as a step in the right direction. Parnell's campaign for Home Rule failed, however, as did subsequent attempts in the 1890s and on the eve of World War I.
As a result of events in Ireland, the interest of the Chicago Irish in revolutionary Irish nationalism increased substantially in the period during and immediately following World War I. A daring but unsuccessful republican uprising in Dublin in 1916 combined with certain ill-advised British policies regarding Ireland ignited the embers of revolutionary nationalism among many Irish people, and in the British general election of 1918, the radical Sinn Fein party obliterated the moderate Irish Parliamentary Party. In 1919 Sinn Fein declared Ireland independent, and war broke out between its military wing — the IRA — and the British. The war ended in 1921, and a compromise settlement gave virtual independence to most of the island in the form of the Irish Free State but left two-thirds of Ulster in the United Kingdom as Northern Ireland. During the struggle for Irish independence, the Chicago Irish aided the Irish cause by joining support groups, holding rallies, and contributing money. With the creation of the Irish Free State, which later evolved into the Republic of Ireland, interest in the Irish nationalist struggle waned but revived somewhat again when trouble broke out in Northern Ireland in the late 1960s.
Besides support for Irish nationalism, Irish Chicagoans showed their interest in their Irish heritage in other ways. Some belonged to organizations such as the Ancient Order of Hibernians, which fostered
nationalism but had a broader cultural agenda. Some attended or participated in musical and dance events or in Gaelic football and hurling matches.
Besides Catholicism and a devotion to Ireland, another factor that served to unite many Chicago Irish was their high level of involvement in local politics. From the early days of Chicago the Irish were active in politics. The vast majority voted Democratic, as the Democrats had the reputation of being friendly to the Irish. A knowledge of the English language as well as a familiarity with electioneering in Ireland gave them an advantage over continental immigrants.
In the decades after the Great Chicago Fire, as the first American-reared generation reached adulthood, the Irish dominated the Democratic party and emerged as the single most important ethnic group in the city's politics. The Irish liked the local political system which, like that in many American cities of the time, was based not on ideology but on patronage and other economic incentives. The Irish used the system to get patronage jobs such as those on the police force and thus move up the economic ladder. Good government reformers of the period criticized "boodle" politics as corrupt. There was indeed a good deal of corruption (bribes, vote stealing, etc.), but the system also did much good, providing assistance to the poor and jobs to working class people.
The Irish were skilled politicians, using the contacts and connections they made in their parishes or through Irish organizations to enhance their political prospects. They also on the whole were adept at dealing with non-Irish groups and in building coalitions from various ethnic groups. Yet, despite their considerable political power in the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries, the Irish occupied the mayor's office for only a total of eight years during the period from 1871 to 1933. The Irish mayors, all Democrats, during this period were John Hopkins (1893-1895), Edward F. Dunne (1905-1907), and William E. Dever (1923-1927). One of the reasons for this rather spotty representation was that Irish politicians were never as interested in having one of their own in the mayor's office as in supporting winning candidates like the two Carter Harrisons and Anton Cermak. Ironically, during the thirty some years after Cermak's murder in 1933, when the Irish percentage of the city's population fell steadily, Chicago had a continuous string of Irish Democratic mayors: Edward J. Kelly (1933-1947), Martin J. Kennelly (1947-1955), and Richard J. Daley (1955-1976). Of these the most notable was Daley, who was able to keep a political machine with a patronage system running smoothly, even after those in other American cities had died. In the years since Daley's death in 1976, two Irish Chicagoans, Jane Byrne (1979-1983) and Richard M. Daley (1989-), have between them occupied the mayor's office for over half the time, despite the fact that persons of Irish background make up no more than six percent of the city's population.
Although an Irish Chicagoan holds the city's highest office as this century comes to a close, the Chicago Irish are not nearly as visible now as they were at the beginning of the century. In 1990, 660, 343 persons in Cook County (237, 133 in Chicago alone) claimed Irish ancestry, but many of these are probably not Irish in any significant way. Over the course of the century, a number of the descendants of Irish immigrants lost much of their sense of Irishness, either through the passage of time, intermarriage, or deliberate decision. Yet, a core of ethnic-conscious Irish remains in the city and its suburbs. Consisting of immigrants and their children as well as persons of more distant and/or mixed Irish ancestry, this core supports a viable set of organizations that sponsor a wide array of cultural, scholarly, social, athletic, and nationalist events. The vitality of Irish culture in Chicago perhaps has been best demonstrated lately by the artistic success of Michael Flatley, the Chicago-born and-reared traditional Irish dancer and choreographer, who has held the leading roles in the widely acclaimed Riverdance and Lord of the Dance.
Richard J. Daley,
St. Patrick's Day Parade
Click Here for Curriculum Materials
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Land conservation refers to various methods of preserving land, and ensuring it is protected forever from development. There are a variety of ways that this type of conservation takes place, and a wide variety of nonprofit organizations, as well as governmental agencies, working around the world with this goal in mind. It can take place on a private or public scale; for instance, an individual may decide to forever protect his or her land from development, just as a government may decide the same by creating public lands such as national parks or wilderness areas. Different goals may exist for land conservation, from protecting the scenic value of a property to protecting endangered species, but it always helps to preserve natural spaces for future generations.
One of the most common examples of land conservation is the protection of privately owned lands with a conservation easement. An easement is a binding legal document that stays with the deed for the future of the property, and protects it in perpetuity according to the conditions specified within. An organization known as a land trust or a conservancy holds the conservation easement, and is responsible for making sure the regulations specified in the easement are followed. This is referred to as land stewardship.
The types of regulations specified in the land conservation easement can vary from property to property, based on the desires of the land trust and the desires of the property owner, since each must come to an agreement before the easement is signed. For instance, some landowners may want to keep their property "Forever wild," meaning natural resource extraction or timber management may never occur, in addition to other land uses. Others might want to leave their options open to build a second dwelling, to practice small-scale agriculture, or sustainably manage their forest resources for profit. Some easements will be designed to manage the land for the protection of a particular species, but this is less common with private land conservation.
Public land conservation protects land in different ways, either by designating wilderness or conservation areas, natural parks, or similar. Allowable land uses will vary depending on how the land is designated. Many international conservation organizations take some different approaches to land conservation, including getting indigenous communities involved in planning land development. Conservation does not always mean setting property aside, never to be used; often, it means working together to figure out sustainable solutions for the plants, wildlife, and people who call an area home. This might include staggered logging strategies, for example, where only older trees of certain types are allowed to be cut every few years, with a requirement that new trees must be planted at the same time.
One of our editors will review your suggestion and make changes if warranted. Note that depending on the number of suggestions we receive, this can take anywhere from a few hours to a few days. Thank you for helping to improve wiseGEEK!
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Sir James Clark Ross
by Augustus Fox, published by T. Fielder, after Henry William Pickersgill Click on the links below to find out more
line engraving, published 9 January 1850
15 3/8 in. x 11 7/8 in. (389 mm x 303 mm) plate size; 17 3/8 in. x 13 7/8 in. (440 mm x 354 mm) paper size
Purchased with help from the Friends of the National Libraries and the Pilgrim Trust, 1966
- T. Fielder (active 1850), Publisher. Artist associated with 1 portrait.
- Augustus Fox (active circa 1841-1849), Engraver. Artist associated with 4 portraits.
- Henry William Pickersgill (1782-1875), Portrait painter. Artist associated with 108 portraits, Sitter in 7 portraits.
- NPG D39881: Sir James Clark Ross (from same plate)
Cardinal Wiseman, a Catholic priest who had exerted a strong influence on the Oxford movement, is made a Cardinal and leader of the Catholic church in England, thus restoring Roman Catholic hierarchy in England.
Art and science
Death of poet laureate William Wordsworth; his great autobiographical poem The Prelude
is published posthumously, famously charting the growth of the poet's mind.Tennyson's In Memoriam
is also published. A poignant record of his grief over the death of his friend Arthur Hallam, the poem also movingly questions the strength of faith in an increasingly scientific age.
Up to 50,000 pioneers travel west in wagons on the Oregon trail in the United States, one of the main overland migration routes across the continent. Spanning over half the continent, the trail led 2,170 miles through territories and land which would later become six US states, including Kansas, Wyoming and Oregon, helping the US to implement its goal of Manifest Destiny - building a nation spanning the North American continent.
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Oh, what exactly are the rates of sea level change? NOAA knows and reports here, from whence comes this graphic (which should enlarge if clicked upon):
The rate of global sea level change is reasonably well-established but understanding the different sources of this rise is more challenging. Using re-calibrated scales that are able to ‘weigh’ ice sheets from space to a greater degree of accuracy than ever before, the international team led by Newcastle University has discovered that Antarctica overall is contributing much less to the substantial sea-level rise than originally thought.
Houseboat of San Francisco Bay
Instead, the large amount of water flowing away from West Antarctica through ice-melt has been partly cancelled out by the volume of water falling onto the continent in the form of snow, suggesting some past studies have overestimated Antarctica’s contribution to fast-rising sea levels.
You might note that rates of increase are measured in mm per year and feet per century.
The houseboat? A rising tide lifts all houses within the sea rise limits . . .
UPDATE: Changed image to a more user-friendly version
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Nº 9 2011 > Climate change
Using radiocommunication to monitor climate
The climate is changing, but what are the trends at the global scale? And how can we monitor the processes that are causing the changes? This article outlines some of the ways that radiocommunication can be used to monitor the Earth's climate. In fact, using radiocommunication networks is often the only way to observe and measure the various factors involved.
Understanding what is going on
We need to improve our knowledge and understanding of how electromagnetic radiation from the sun influences the Earth’s environment, including the climate. This requires continuous and long-term monitoring of solar spectral irradiation, coupled with continuous observations to characterize changes in the atmosphere, oceans and land surface. All this information then has to be put together to improve climate change modelling. An area of particular concern relates to changes in the ozone layer, and continuous observations are needed to determine the effects not only on the environment, but also on human health.
Sustainable management of natural resources also requires knowledge and an understanding of the dynamics of changes in land cover. An ability to assess global conditions and see how they might alter is essential if we are to have a solid basis for programmes to protect the environment, ensure food security, and mitigate the humanitarian consequences of climate change.
Satellites as remote-sensing tools
Satellites, as part of the global array of radiocommunication systems, now provide a vital means of gathering global data on the climate and on climate change. Satellites are now being used to monitor carbon emissions, the changes occurring in the ice stored in polar caps and glaciers, and the way atmospheric temperatures vary. Remote sensing provides accurate and up-to-date information on land cover and any changes that are happening over wide areas, providing data from remote areas that are otherwise difficult to reach. Repeated measurements have made it possible to create archives of remote sensing data spanning several decades, which can be used to construct time-series data on land cover and land use.
ITU’s Radiocommunication Sector (ITU–R) has done important work in the field of climate change. In particular, ITU–R studies have formed the basis for several timely resolutions addressing urgent matters related to climate change.
For example, Resolution 673 (WRC‑07) entitled “Radiocommunications use for Earth observation applications” notes that more than 90 per cent of natural disasters are related to climate or weather. According to the resolution, the availability of Earth observation data will increase the understanding of climate change, making it easier to model and verify various aspects of climate change. This understanding will obviously be of benefit in policy-making.
Resolution 672 (WRC‑07) “Extension of the allocation to the meteorological-satellite service in the band 7 750–7 850 MHz” recognizes that the data obtained by meteorological satellites are essential for global weather forecasting, and for predicting climate changes and climate-related hazards.
Regulatory and technical standards
ITU–R creates the regulatory and technical bases for the development and effective operation of satellite and terrestrial climate monitoring and data dissemination systems (see box). It does so by: allocating the necessary radio-frequency spectrum and satellite orbit resources; analysing compatibility between new and existing satellite systems; carrying out studies and developing international standards for space-based and other radiocommunication systems and networks; and providing guidance and support on the use of satellite and terrestrial systems for environmental monitoring, and for prediction and mitigation of the negative effects of disasters caused by climate change.
The standards that are embodied in the Radio Regulations have treaty status and are obligatory. Other standards take the form of ITU Recommendations and are voluntary. Various standards cover the activities of systems such as:
- Earth observation satellites that monitor fluctuating land, sea and atmospheric parameters (such as vegetation biomass, ocean salinity, subterranean reserves of fresh water and cloud relief), track the progress of hurricanes and typhoons and the effluent from volcanoes and major forest fires.
- Weather radars that track tsunamis, tornadoes and thunderstorms.
- Radio-based meteorological aid systems that collect and process weather data.
- Various radiocommunication systems (satellite and terrestrial) that are used to disseminate information concerning natural and man-made disasters.
Helping administrations implement climate monitoring
Radiocommunication technologies are needed for environmental observation, climate control, weather forecasting, and to help in predicting, detecting and mitigating natural and man-made disasters. Where do administrations look for help with implementing these technologies, bearing in mind the need for spectrum planning, and for the engineering and deployment of both satellite and terrestrial technologies? The answer lies in ITU–R Recommendations, Reports and Handbooks on radiocommunication systems and radio-based applications operating in the Space research, Earth-exploration satellite, meteorological-aids, meteorological satellite and radiolocation services.
The upcoming debate at WRC‑12
The 2nd Session of the Conference Preparatory Meeting (CPM11‑2) to the World Radiocommunication Conference to be held in Geneva from 23 January to 17 February 2012 (WRC‑12) considered some topics concerning climate change. In particular, it proposed a change to the Radio Regulations in order to protect the operation and development of long-range lightning detection systems in frequencies below 20 kHz. Based on the discussions at CPM11‑2, WRC‑12 will also consider:
- Making a new allocation of the band 7750–7850 MHz for meteorological satellite systems to improve operational meteorology, in particular with respect to numerical weather prediction.
- Allocating additional spectrum between 275 GHz and 3000 GHz for use by the Earth-exploration satellite service to improve measurement of the components of the hydrological cycle.
- Modifying Resolution 673 (WRC‑07), which calls for studies by ITU–R “on possible means to improve the recognition of the essential role and global importance of Earth observation radiocommunication applications”, and including a new provision in the Radio Regulations urging administrations to recognize the importance of Earth observation.
- Making radiolocation allocations in the range 3–50 MHz that could be used for the operation of oceanographic radars to monitor the sea surface for wave heights and currents, and to track large objects, bearing in mind the increased reliance on the data from these systems for disaster response, as well as for oceanographic, climatological and meteorological operations. This has increased the need to improve the regulatory status of the spectrum used by oceanographic radars.
Some administrations have proposed that ITU–R Study Groups should identify energy-saving measures that could be built into radiocommunication devices without prejudice to their quality of service. Where such measures are likely to result in non-negligible reductions of greenhouse gas emissions, their use should obviously be generalized. A draft new ITU–R Resolution to this end will be presented for consideration at the upcoming Radiocommunication Assembly, to be held in Geneva on 16–20 January 2012.
Environmental monitoring: recent work by ITU–R Study Groups
- New Recommendation ITU–R RS.1883 “Use of remote sensing systems in the study of climate change and the effects thereof”, which provides guidelines on the use of satellites for remote sensing to obtain data for studying climate change.
- ITU–R Study Group 7 has published the new Report ITU–R RS.2178 “The essential role and global importance of radio spectrum use for Earth observations and for related applications”.
- ITU–R Study Group 7 delivered in June 2011 the new ITU–R Handbook “Earth-exploration satellite system”, which describes the technical characteristics, applications, spectrum requirements and benefits of the Earth-exploration satellite service.
- ITU–R Study Group 7 in cooperation with the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) has produced the WMO/ITU Handbook “Use of Radio Spectrum for Meteorology”, which provides information on the development and use of radiocommunication systems and radio-based technologies for environmental observation, climate control, weather forecasting and natural and man-made disaster prediction, detection and mitigation.
- ITU–R Study Group 5 has developed the new Recommendation ITU–R M.1874 “Technical and operational characteristics of oceanographic radars operating in sub-bands within the frequency range 3–50 MHz”.
- ITU–R Study Group 5 has developed the ITU–R “Intelligent Transport System” — Handbook on Land Mobile (including wireless), Volume 4, which describes different uses of radio technologies in regard to transport. One use is to minimize transport distances and cost, resulting in a positive effect on the environment. Another use is to take advantage of cars as an environmental monitoring tool to measure air temperature, humidity and precipitation. In this case, data can be sent through wireless links, to support weather forecasting and climate monitoring.
*Contributed by Vadim Nozdrin, Counsellor, ITU–R Study Group 7.
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ESLV 4822 Workplace Conversation Strategies
ADVISE: Completion of ESLN 3300
(Beginning High 3)
Students learn verbal and nonverbal communication strategies for successful interaction in multicultural workplaces.
Offered on occasion
After successful completion of this course, students will be able to:
- Outcome 1: Engage in effective work-related conversations with co-workers and supervisors.
- Outcome 2: Engage in casual conversations at work.
- Outcome 3: Discuss ways in which cultural patterns and expectations impact communication
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Coffee is among the most consumed — and controversial — beverages in the world. While coffee should be treated with care and avoided altogether by those who metabolize it poorly, it also provides health benefits to many people. Read on to find out what they are – and how to drink coffee responsibly.
Coffee is the second most popular drink in the world, trailing only water and, debatably, tea.
Caffeine, a key component of coffee, is a controversial compound. With 90% of North American adults consuming caffeine daily, it is the world’s most consumed psychoactive drug – and coffee is the delivery method of choice.
Perhaps that’s why, in the fitness world, we’ve traditionally viewed coffee with some suspicion.
But is coffee really bad for us? Should we give up our beloved cuppa joe? If it’s bad, why does it feel so good?
The coffee plant originated in East Africa — according to legend, a goat herder tried coffee cherries after he noticed his goats acting much more energetic after nibbling on the coffee bushes.
The earliest evidence of coffee drinking occurred in the 15th century in Yemen. From Yemen, coffee quickly spread to Egypt and North Africa, and by the 16th century it was being enjoyed by the rest of the Middle East, Persia, and Turkey and soon thereafter Italy and the rest of Europe.
Fast forward to today. Coffee is ubiquitous in our culture. Everywhere you look, there’s a coffee shop on the corner. What effect might our cultural love of coffee have on our health?
Short answer: Well, we’re not completely sure.
Research on coffee’s safety is mixed, for several reasons:
- Metabolism matters. People vary genetically in how well they can process caffeine and coffee.
- Coffee interacts with many hormones and neurotransmitters in the body, such as cortisol, acetylcholine, and insulin. These relationships are complex, and often depend on timing, amount, and people’s individual makeup.
- As a crop, coffee is less like corn or soy, and more like cacao or wine grapes: It’s typically grown and processed in smaller batches by smaller-scale farmers and producers. Variations in soil and climate, as well as later roasting and brewing technique, will change the taste and chemical makeup. It’s hard to standardize the exact chemical compounds in coffee from batch to batch. (By the way, JB likes to roast his own coffee. You can follow along with his process here or see a nice PDF version here.)
So it’s hard to say definitively that coffee is “good” or “bad”; “healthy” or “unhealthy”. Let’s explore this in more depth.
What about my metabolism?
One reason that evidence on the health effects of coffee is so mixed is that people clear caffeine at different rates. Caffeine is broken down and cleared by the liver, and our genetic makeup shapes how quickly and effectively we can do this.
- On one hand, “slow” metabolizers of caffeine don’t process caffeine effectively. These are people who are adversely affected by caffeine, get the jitters, and are wired for up to nine hours after consumption.
- Others just get a boost in energy and alertness for a couple of hours; they are considered “fast” metabolizers of caffeine.
Research in the emerging field of nutrigenomics shows that about half of us have the gene variant that makes us “slow” metabolizers, while the other half enjoy the gene variant that allows them to get away with quad-espressos.
(For more on this, see JB’s interview with nutrigenomics researcher Ahmed El-Sohemy here.)
Thus, whether coffee is better or worse for you depends on how well and quickly you metabolize caffeine.
If you are a slow metabolizer of caffeine and coffee, steer clear (or at least, reduce your consumption). In your case, coffee can do more harm than good, and this may explain why high coffee consumption has been associated with:
- higher risk of miscarriage
- disrupted sleep
- worse PMS symptoms
- increased blood pressure, even in people without hypertension
- non-fatal myocardial infarction (aka a heart attack)
On the plus side, low caffeine consumption still seems relatively safe for most folks, so a few daily cups of tea or squares of dark chocolate shouldn’t harm you (and in fact, may greatly boost your wellbeing!).
And fortunately, not everyone is adversely affected. For those lucky enough to be fast metabolizers, there is good news – and lots of it. Fast metabolizers don’t show the same association between coffee and disease — if you’re a fast metabolizer, coffee might even improve your health!
What about cortisol?
Cortisol is a hormone produced by the adrenal glands. It increases blood pressure, spikes blood sugar and prepares the body for “fight or flight” mode.
Coffee and caffeine tend to transiently increase cortisol levels; however, this depends on several factors, including when you drink coffee, how often you drink it, and whether you have high blood pressure.
Cortisol is normally high in the morning, so if you drink some coffee at 6 a.m. and 10 a.m., you should be fine, as cortisol is naturally elevated at that time of day anyway. However, your body may not appreciate coffee as much in the afternoon or evening, when cortisol normally drops. At that point, consider tea or something decaffeinated.
Again, there’s individual variation: Habitual consumers of coffee seem to be less affected by the cortisol bump, while those with hypertension seem to be more affected.
If cortisol levels are a problem for you, keep your coffee intake to first thing in the morning, and otherwise consume more tea. (Not only does tea have less caffeine, it also has other beneficial, calming compounds such as L-theanine. For more on this, see What You Should Know About Tea.)
What about pesticides?
Coffee plants are heavily sprayed with pesticides, which pose obvious health concerns. Fortunately, the plant’s structure offers some protection. While the outer “berry” does receive a lot of exposure, it’s the interior bean that is roasted and used for coffee, and its exposure is far less. In addition, the roasting process destroys the majority of pesticide residues.
If you’re especially wary of pesticides, choose organically grown coffee. (Hey, it can’t hurt.) And while you’re at it, look for the Fair Trade label, which helps insure that family farmers are paid a fair wage for their crops.
What about my insulin sensitivity?
While a high dose of caffeine tends to decrease insulin sensitivity and glucose tolerance acutely, it doesn’t seem to cause chronic problems. While those at risk of developing diabetes may want to be cautious, overall coffee consumption is actually associated with a 35% decreased risk of developing type II diabetes.
What about my kids?
There’s no clear guideline on when kids can safely consume coffee. Guidelines on caffeine consumption are based mostly on the size of the child, rather than their chronological ages.
Nevertheless, Health Canada recommends:
- no more than 45 milligrams a day for kids aged 4 to 6;
- 62.5 milligrams for kids age 7 to 9;
- 85 milligrams for kids age 10 to 12; and
- no more than 2.5 milligrams per kilogram (2.2 pounds) of body weight for adolescents 13 and up.
All this means that a 110 pound adolescent should not have more than 125 milligrams of caffeine a day — about one 6-8 oz cup of coffee.
Bear in mind, too, that kids may be getting plenty of caffeine from soft drinks, bottled tea, etc. Check out All About Caffeine for more information on caffeine specifically.
Caffeine & dehydration
For years, fitness enthusiasts worried that coffee would dehydrate them. However, a recent review of 10 studies found that consuming up to 550 mg of caffeine per day (or about five 8-oz cups) does not cause fluid-electrolyte imbalances in athletes or fitness enthusiasts.
In another review, researchers concluded that consuming caffeine-containing beverages as part of a normal lifestyle does not lead to fluid losses exceeding the volume of fluid consumed (intake and output were roughly equal), nor is it associated with poor hydration status.
Take-home: Don’t drink coffee as your only beverage, and drink enough water, and you’ll be fine.
Coffee & performance
Let’s be honest — that first morning coffee can transform us from beast to philosopher (or at least, slightly more awake and nicer beast). Coffee, and more specifically its caffeine content, provide many noted mental and physical performance benefits.
Caffeine reduces our rate of perceived exertion, so it doesn’t feel like we’re working as hard as we actually are. People who regularly drink coffee perform better on tests of reaction time, verbal memory, and visuo-spatial reasoning.
Another study found that women over the age of 80 performed significantly better on tests of cognitive function if they had regularly consumed coffee over the course of their lifetimes.
Take-home: A little bit of coffee/caffeine before important tasks requiring alertness and energy can be a good thing.
Coffee & Parkinson’s
Parkinson’s disease is a fatal and incurable brain disease that affects 1 percent to 2 percent of people over 65. Amazingly, at least six studies have found that regular coffee drinkers are up to 80% less likely to develop Parkinson’s.
Researchers have identified a gene called GRIN2A that appeared to protect people who drank coffee from developing Parkinson’s. GRIN2A is linked to glutamate, a compound that is suspected of killing the brain cells that die off in Parkinson’s patients. Glutamate can be affected by another compound called adenosine, and coffee interferes with this process.
However: Only about 25% of the population has the gene variant of GRIN2A that boosts the protective effect of coffee.
Take-home: Coffee may lower Parkinson’s risk, but only in a small subset of people.
Coffee & Alzheimer’s
Speaking of neurodegenerative disorders, Alzheimer’s disease is the most common form of dementia. There is no cure for the disease, which gets progressively worse over time, and eventually leads to death.
What separates the research on Alzheimer’s from most of the other information covered in this article is that it derived from directly controlled trials versus simple observation.
Here, research indicates that people who drink about three cups of coffee a day show a marked reduction in cognitive impairment compared to non-drinkers. Once you got up to four or more cups per day, though, the associated protection disappears.
This protection was not seen with tea or decaf coffee, so the benefit seems to be from the combination of the caffeine and some of coffee’s bioactive compounds.
In fact, new research from the University of South Florida found that this combination boosts blood levels of a critical growth factor called GCSF (granulocyte colony stimulating factor) that seems to prevent the formation of Alzheimer’s disease. People with Alzheimer’s disease have less GCSF than the rest of the population. Increasing GCSF in mice improves their memory.
In the U of South Florida study, the researchers compared the effects of regular and decaf coffee to those of caffeine alone. In both Alzheimer’s mice and normal mice, treatment with regular coffee dramatically increased blood levels of GCSF; neither caffeine alone nor decaf coffee provided this effect.
GCSF seems to improve memory performance in the Alzheimer’s mice in three ways:
- It recruits stem cells from bone marrow to enter the brain and remove the harmful beta-amyloid protein that initiates the disease.
- It creates new connections between brain cells.
- It increases the birth of new neurons in the brain.
As the lead researcher, neuroscientist Dr. Chuanhai Cao, remarked: “Coffee is inexpensive, readily available, easily gets into the brain, appears to directly attack the disease process, and has few side-effects for most of us”.
According to the researchers, no other Alzheimer’s therapy being developed comes close to meeting all these criteria.
Take-home: Coffee seems to contain compounds that may reduce Alzheimer’s risk; and may also be part of a treatment protocol in the future.
Coffee, antioxidants & cancer
While dark chocolate and green tea gather a lot of acclaim for their antioxidant content, coffee actually outshines them both in this department.
In fact, the antioxidants in coffee may make up as much as 50-70% of the total antioxidant intake of the average American! (Which is not necessarily a good thing, because it means that there are a lot of vegetables not getting eaten…)
Despite some general worries about the health effects of coffee, coffee consumption is associated with an overall decreased risk of cancer. In particular coffee consumption has been shown to be associated with a lower risk for oral, esophageal, pharyngeal, breast (in post-menopausal women), liver, colon, and aggressive prostate cancer.
When it comes to the prostate, researchers recently found that men who drank the most coffee (6 or more cups per day) were nearly 60% less likely to develop advanced prostate cancer than non-coffee drinkers. Other research has shown that people who regularly consume two or more cups per day may have a 25% decreased risk of colon cancer.
Again, the research is mixed in part because of the variation in response to coffee.
Take-home: Coffee may lower your cancer risk, but don’t count on it as your only health strategy. And eat some vegetables already.
Coffee & cardiovascular health
Drinking unfiltered types of coffee can increase your levels of LDL (aka “bad”) cholesterol. But overall the data seems to indicate that coffee consumption may moderately reduce your risk of dying from cardiovascular complications.
Take-home: Research is mixed on cardiovascular disease and coffee.
Coffee & overall mortality
A recent study in The New England Journal of Medicine showed that drinking two to three cups of coffee per day was associated with a 10% decreased risk of death for men at any age, and a 13% decreased risk of death for women at any age.
In general, coffee drinkers were less likely to die from heart or respiratory disease, stroke, diabetes, injuries, accidents or infections. (Which makes us wonder… what do they die of? Espresso steamer mishaps?)
Summary & recommendations
Coffee’s not for everyone. And it’s not a magic bullet. Still, it seems to have significant health benefits for those who can tolerate it. This includes:
- better athletic and mental performance
- possibly lower rates of some types of cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, and Type 2 diabetes
- possibly some prevention of premature mortality and cardiovascular disease
Most of the research on coffee is epidemiological. This means studies look at associations rather than cause and effect. Simply because coffee is associated with particular risks and benefits doesn’t necessarily mean that coffee causes all of these risks or benefits.
Just as with all foods (and nutrients for that matter), dosage matters. While some studies have found large intakes (5-6 cups) to have significant benefits, other research suggests that drinking that much coffee is counter-productive.
In general, it appears that drinking some coffee is good, but more might not be better, especially if you are a slow metabolizer. For those who are greatly affected by coffee and caffeine, avoid it altogether or cut down your consumption.
Want a quick and easy test of your coffee consumption? Ask yourself how you feel physically, mentally, and emotionally a few hours after you drink some… as well as if you miss your daily dose.
Also, go black if possible. Pumping your coffee full of cream, sugar, and other exotic additives reduces any potential health benefits by adding unnecessary calories and artificial flavours and sweeteners. (And Frappucinos or chocolate covered coffee beans? C’mon.)
Taking all the data into consideration, it seems that your best bet is about 1-3 cups of coffee (8-24 oz) per day. This will maximize the benefits while minimizing the risk.
And keep this in mind…while there is positive data on coffee, these benefits don’t necessarily include things like energy drinks and caffeine pills. There are many antioxidants and bioactive compounds in coffee that are interacting with its caffeine content to provide the benefits. So, unfortunately, Red Bull doesn’t count.
Eat, move, and live… better.
Yep, we know… the health and fitness world can sometimes be a confusing place. But it doesn’t have to be.
Let us help you make sense of it all with this free special report.
In it you’ll learn the best eating, exercise, and lifestyle strategies – unique and personal – for you.
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Falling snowflakes are a great way to make your winter photography much more interesting. Sometimes, the weather doesn't cooperate however, and you have to turn to Photoshop to get the job done. In this tutorial, we will explain how to create a realistic falling snow effect in Photoshop and show you how to apply it to your images.
You will need the following photo to complete this tutorial. If you don't want to purchase this photo, feel free to find an alternative.
1. Change the Sky
Open your base image in Photoshop. The first step in your editing process should be to create a backup of your base layer so you can always go back to it if something happens. To do this, Double-click the layer to unlock it and name it Backup. Then duplicate it by pressing Command/Ctrl + J (or you can always go to Layer > Duplicate Layer) and name the new layer Background. Finally, create a Fill Layer by going to Layer > New Fill Layer. Pick a dark gray color and place it between the two layers.
One problem with pictures taken during winter is that they often end up having a dull gray sky. In order to have a more interesting result, and to make our snow more visible, we will first have to replace our current sky. Feel free to skip this step if you are working on your own photo and already have visually interesting sky.
First, select the Magic Wand Tool (W) and, while holding Shift, create a rough selection of the sky. Click on various places in the sky to create a rough selection of the sky. Then, go to Layer > Layer Mask > Hide Selection to create your mask.
With your layer selected, open the Properties panel and click on Mask Edge (please note you need Photoshop CS6 or higher to access this option). With the Refine Mask window now open, you can brush on the image to refine the mask. Before doing anything, you will most likely need adjust your brush size in the upper panel. You can also click on View Mode and set it to black so you have a better preview of what you are working on.
Then, you can brush over the trees and the horizon in order to soften and refine the mask. Once you are done, you can play with the settings in the window in order to further refine your mask.
Finally, you can reduce the brush size, zoom in on your image and carefully paint over the borders of your selection to paint out the white fringe.
Once the mask is done, we can add the new background sky. In this case, we will use a gradient to create a clear sky, but you can always use stock photos of clouds if you want to. First, create a Gradient Fill layer by going in the options located in the lower right corner of the Layer panel and selecting Gradient. Make sure the gradient is set to 90° and Double-click on the gradient image to edit it. Set the colors as shown in the example below and press OK.
We will add a few layers to help blend our new sky with the background. First, create a new layer (Command/Ctrl + Shift + N). Select the Brush Tool (B), pick a dark blue color (#303850) and paint over the trees. Name the layer Hue, set its Blending Mode to Hue, and its opacity to 35%.
Next, we'll add a little bit of haze to further blend our trees with the sky. Create a new layer, pick the Brush Tool (B), and holding Shift, paint a straight line over the horizon. Duplicate your layer twice, hit Command/Ctrl + T to enter the Free Transform mode and scale both layer up vertically.
Set all three layers to 20% opacity and name them Haze.
Since the haze is in the background, it shouldn't cover the women's legs. To correct this, select the Haze and the Hue layers, and hit Command/Ctrl + G to group them together. Then, give the group a mask by going to Layer > Layer Mask > Reveal All. Then, with a hard black brush, paint over the woman in order to remove the haze.
2. Generate the Snowflakes
The usual method to generate snow is to combine the Add Noise and Gaussian Blur filter. Start by creating a new layer (Command/Ctrl + Shift + N), then fill it with black (D, then Alt + Backspace), and then go to Filter > Noise > Add Noise. Then go to Filter > Blur > Gaussian Blur and apply the filter. Please note that the higher you set the blur's radius, the bigger the snowflakes will be.
Once you are done, hit Command/Ctrl + M to bring up the Curves adjustment window. In this window, you will see a gray pyramid shaped area.
You can now adjust the contrast of your layer in order to make it look like snow. To do so, bring the left handle to the to the lower left corner of the pyramid, and the right handle toward the middle of the area. Then, click in the middle of the line to create a new handle, and drag it downward. You should get the following effect.
Name your layer Snow and set its Blending Mode to Screen to blend it with your scene.
Now, depending on the size of the image you are working on, you might need to adjust the size of your layer so the snowflakes fit the scene. In this case, I doubled my layer size using the Free Transform mode (Command/Ctrl + T).
To make the snowflakes more realistic, we will give our layer a small Motion Blur. To do so, go to Layer > Blur > Motion Blur and input the following settings. Be careful not to set the distance to high, otherwise the result will look like rain instead of snow.
You should get the following result.
Now, we could end the tutorial there, but the result is a little bit dull and unrealistic. This is because all of our snowflakes are the same size and going in the same direction, which is never the case in real life. In fact, the key to get a more interesting result is randomness. To do so, we'll repeat the effect we just did a few more times, each time varying our Gaussian Blur's radius and the size of our layer.
It is also important to give your layers various Motion Blur settings. As you can see, in this case, I decreased the Angle and increased the Distance of the pixels.
Below you can see the four different layers I created, and the result obtained when they are combined.
The problem with combining multiples layers is that you end up with a lot of snow. If you are looking to create a snowstorm, this is great, but otherwise you will need to soften the effect a little bit. To do so, give your Snow layer a mask. Make sure the mask is selected, and go to Filter > Render > Clouds. Hit Command/Ctrl + M to bring up the Curves adjustment window and give it an S shaped curve to increase the contrast.
Another advantage of using the masks is that you get a much more random result when applied to multiple layers.
It is also possible to manually paint out some areas using the mask. In this case, one of our layers has some very small snowflakes. Since these are meant to look like they are far away, they shouldn't appear in front of the woman. I corrected this by painting them out in the layer's mask. This step would also be useful if, for instance, you have some big snowflakes covering important parts of your picture like a person's eyes.
We can also create a Bokeh effect to simulate snowflakes that would have landed on the camera's lens, or simply for a stylistic purpose. To do so, create a new layer and paint a really big bright dot in the middle of your scene. Then, select the Move Tool (V) and place it in one of the corner of your image so it doesn't hide your subject.
Repeat the process a couple of times until you are satisfied. Then, give each of your layers a soft Gaussian Blur, and set them to 10 % opacity.
Name these layer Bokeh and place everything into a new group named Snow.
3. Color Correction
Once we are done with the snow, we can add a few color corrections in order to make our picture more interesting and bring everything together. The first step would be to add a blue tint in order to make it feel cooler. Go in the options located at bottom right of your Layer panel, and create a Gradient Map. In the editor, select a dark and a bright blue color and press OK.
Duplicate the layer three times and set the blending modes to Hue, Color, and Soft Light respectively. Set all layers to 10% opacity more or less.
You can also add a Curves adjustment layer in order to increase the contrast a little bit.
In this step, we'll add a vignette effect in order to make our subject stand out a little bit more. First, create a new layer. Pick the Rectangular Marquee Tool (M) and draw a selection in the center of your image. Then, hit Command/Ctrl + Shift + I to invert the selection, and go to Edit > Fill to fill the selection with a dark blue color (#222838). Then, add a large Gaussian Blur, and play with the layer's size until you are happy with the result.
Name your layer Vignette, set it to Multiply, and 50% opacity.
In this case, I also added a Hue/Saturation adjustment layer and played a bit with the reds so the leaves on the ground contrast nicely with the picture's overall blue tint. I then added a mask to keep the woman's hairs and skin intact.
In the end, place everything together in a group named Adjustments.
Our image is done, but we can add a few more things to make it pop out even more. First, if you have Photoshop CS6 or higher, you can add an Iris Blur effect. To do so, you first need to select all of your layers, hit Command/Ctrl + J to duplicate them, and go to Layer > Merge Layers to merge them together. Then, go to Filter > Blur > Iris Blur and play with the handles and the blur amount to get a nice blurry effect.
On the same layer, we can also add a Sharpen adjustment by going to Filter > Sharpen > Smart Sharpen. Since I am working on a large image, I used a 4px radius, but you should set it lower if you are working on a smaller image. The key here is subtlety.
In case you missed anything, here is how your Layer Panel should look.
You can also bring back your Backup layer and compare it to your final result to see the difference.
In this tutorial, I showed you how to add realistic falling snow to an image using Photoshop's Noise and Gaussian Blur effects. I hope that you learned something from this tutorial and can use these techniques to add realistic snow to images of your own.
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Over the past century, cooperative-extension programs have been among the best-known public services offered by land-grant universities.
But Waded Cruzado, president of Montana State University, laid out some of the challenges that extension programs face in the 21st century: Advocates for those programs will need to remind the public of extension's relevance, and extension programs themselves will have to adapt to a world that has different cultural demographics, different agricultural structures, and more ubiquitous technology, compared to when cooperative extension was founded, in 1914.
Ms. Cruzado's remarks, delivered in a speech here at the annual conference of the Association of Public and Land-Grant Universities, addressed some of the common assertions she hears as the head of a land-grant institution. Some people believe that extension is not as important as it once was, given that the population has moved out of rural areas and into cities.
"A hundred years ago, when extension was founded, one-third of our nation's population was involved in agriculture," Ms. Cruzado said. "Today, about 1 percent of our population feeds our entire nation. This is a very important 1 percent."
Extension still has a role in supporting agriculture, even as that agriculture moves into new techniques and new landscapes. She cited extension's new role in supporting local food and urban agriculture as an example. Extension programs have also had roles in helping people navigate the energy boom in shale country, and they have offered education programs in nutrition and health among urban communities.
"The questions for our future should be less about the nature of our programs and more about the impact of our projects on the people we serve," she said. "Are our programs relevant? Do our programs make a difference?"
Ms. Cruzado also pointed to the food-safety programs that extension programs deployed in the wake of Hurricane Sandy—an example of the kind of services that extension may have to provide to meet the challenges of the future.
"We need extension today, more than ever, because our society is growing not only in size, but also in the nature and complexity of its problems," she said. "The recent and painful lessons of natural disasters, the threats of man-made catastrophes, of pandemic diseases, and the fragility of the technological systems on which our trust and welfare so blindly reside, give us reason to be concerned. … Plain and simple, we need extension and we are all called to be agents who transmit the message that a better, healthier, happier world is within our reach."
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April 27, 2012 | Houston Chronicle
Dr. Peter Hotez and his role at Baylor College of Medicine’s School of Tropical Medicine were featured in the Houston Chronicle. The article also mentions the new tropical medicine clinic and the vaccine development programs in Houston and calls attention to Dr. Hotez’s PLoS article about NTDs in Texas and Mexico.
Tropical diseases surfacing more in Texas
By Todd Ackerman
Houston scientists have launched an attack against little-known tropical diseases, scourges of the developing world, increasingly showing up in poor areas of Texas.
The diseases, spread by all manner of blood-sucking insects, cyst-forming tapeworms and tissue-invading bacteria and viruses, typically don't kill, but they cause chronic disabilities that trap sufferers in lasting poverty.
"They may have been here all along, but now that we're looking we're seeing these diseases more and more," says Dr. Peter Hotez, a Baylor College of Medicine infectious disease professor leading the effort. "They have a huge impact - heart disease, epilepsy, mental retardation – even though they fly beneath most everyone's radar."
Continue reading here.
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March on Washington had international impact
Aug. 27, 2013
The August 1963 March on Washington brought thousands to the nation’s capital, but the District of Columbia was not the only place that civil rights supporters marched on Washington, says Emory law professor Mary Dudziak. American expatriates and citizens of other nations marched on Washington as well, taking petitions to U.S. diplomatic posts around the world.
The March came not long after police abuse of civil rights protesters in Birmingham Alabama. Terrible images from Birmingham had been “all over the nation's press, and they were also plastered all over the press around the world. This was in the middle of the Cold War," explains Dudziak, an expert on international affairs and American legal history.
At a time when the United States was seen as the leader of the free world, these images were especially damaging, Dudziak says.
"Countries around the world would say, 'America, first of all, don’t tell us how to run our own governments if you’re treating your own people this way,'" she explains. "But also [the reaction was] 'What is so great about democracy if within the world’s leading democracy people of color are treated like this?'"
The global march on Washington showed broad worldwide support for the American civil rights movement, and helped press President John F. Kennedy to support civil rights reform.
Dudziak says Kennedy’s advisors were concerned that the images and protests would aid the Soviet Union in their appeal to newly independent nations in Africa, and would make him appear weak on the international stage. ”The need to address the global reaction was among the reasons Kennedy’s aides urged him to take a stronger stand on Civil Rights reform."
Dudziak is the author of "Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy."
Elaine Justice, [email protected], 404-727-0643
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III. Safety Problem
Many vehicles have significantly under-inflated tires, primarily because drivers infrequently check their vehicles' tire pressure. Other contributing factors are the difficulty of visually detecting when a tire is significantly under-inflated and the loss of tire pressure due to natural leakage and seasonal climatic changes.
A. Infrequent Driver Monitoring of Tire Pressure
Surveys have shown that most drivers check the inflation pressure in their vehicles' tires infrequently. For example, in September 2000, the Bureau of Transportation Statistics (BTS) conducted an omnibus survey for NHTSA. One of the questions posed was: "How often do you, or the person who checks your tires, check the air pressure in your tires?" The answers indicated that 29 percent of the respondents stated that they check the air pressure in their tires monthly; another 29 percent stated that they check the air pressure only when one or more of their vehicle's tires appears under-inflated; 19 percent stated that they only have the air pressure checked when the vehicle is serviced; 5 percent stated that they only check the air pressure before taking their vehicle on a long trip; and 17 percent stated that they check the air pressure on some other occasion. Thus, 71 percent of the respondents stated that they check the air pressure in the vehicles' tires less than once a month. (17)
In addition, NHTSA's National Center for Statistics and Analysis (NCSA) conducted a survey in February 2001. The survey was designed to assess the extent to which passenger vehicle drivers are aware of the recommended air pressure for their vehicles' tires, if drivers monitor air pressure, and to what extent actual tire pressure differs from placard pressure.
Data was collected through the infrastructure of the National Accident Sampling System - Crashworthiness Data System (NASS-CDS). The NASS-CDS consists of 24 Primary Sampling Units (PSUs) located across the country. Within each PSU, a random selection of zip codes was obtained from a list of eligible zip codes. Within each zip code, a random selection of two gas stations was obtained.
A total of 11,530 vehicles were inspected at these gas stations. This total comprised 6,442 passenger cars, 1,874 sports utility vehicles (SUVs), 1,376 vans, and 1,838 pick-up trucks. For analytical purposes, the data were divided into three categories: (1) passenger cars; (2) pick-up trucks, SUVs, and vans with P-metric tires; and (3) pick-up trucks, SUVs, and vans with either light truck (LT) or flotation tires.
Drivers were asked how often they normally check their tires to determine if they are properly inflated. Their answers are in the following table:
|How often is tire
passenger cars (%)
|Drivers of pick-up trucks, SUVs,|
and vans (%)
|P-metric tires||LT or flotation tires|
|When they seem low||25.63||23.58||15.59|
|For long trip||0.99||2.39||2.17|
|Do not check||6.56||4.16||1.69|
These data indicate that only about 30 percent of drivers of passenger cars, 34 percent of drivers of pick-up trucks, SUVs, and vans with P-metric tires, and 48 percent of drivers of pick-up trucks, SUVs, and vans with either LT or flotation tires claim that they check the air pressure in their vehicles' tires at least once a month.
B. Loss of Tire Pressure Due to Natural and Other Causes
According to data from the tire industry, 85 percent of all tire air pressure losses are the result of slow leaks that occur over a period of hours, days, or months. Only 15 percent are rapid air losses caused by contact with a road hazard, e.g., when a large nail that does not end up stuck in the tire punctures a tire.
Slow leaks may be caused by many factors. Tire manufacturers commented that tires typically lose air pressure through natural leakage and permeation at a rate of about 1 psi per month. Testing by CU supports those comments. In addition, tire manufacturers said that seasonal climatic changes result in air pressure losses on the order of 1 psi for every 10 degree F decrease in the ambient temperature. Slow leaks also may be caused by slight damage to a tire, such as a road hazard that punctures a small hole in the tire or a nail that sticks in the tire. NHTSA has no data indicating how often any of these causes results in a slow leak.
C. Percentage of Motor Vehicles with Under-Inflated Tires
During the February 2001 survey, NASS-CDS crash investigators measured tire pressure on each vehicle coming into the gas station and compared the measured pressures to the vehicle's placard pressure. They found that about 36 percent of passenger cars and about 40 percent of light trucks had at least one tire that was at least 20 percent below the placard pressure. (18) About 26 percent of passenger cars and 29 percent of light trucks had at least one tire that was at least 25 percent below the placard pressure. The agency notes those levels of under-inflation because they are the threshold levels for the low-tire pressure warning telltale illumination under the two alternatives the agency proposed in the NPRM for TPMSs. (66 FR 38982, July 26, 2001).
D. Consequences of Under-Inflation of Tires
1. Reduced Vehicle Safety -- Tire Failures and Increases in Stopping Distance
When a tire is used while significantly under-inflated, its sidewalls flex more and the air temperature inside the tire increases, increasing stress and the risk of failure. In addition, a significantly under-inflated tire loses lateral traction, making handling more difficult. Under-inflation also plays a role in crashes due to flat tires and blowouts. Finally, significantly under-inflated tires can increase a vehicle's stopping distance.
NHTSA's current crash files do not contain any direct evidence that points to low tire pressure as the cause of any particular crash. (19) However, this lack of data does not imply that low tire pressure does not cause or contribute to any crashes. The agency believes that it simply reflects the fact that measurements of tire pressure are not among the vehicle information included in the crash reports received by the agency and placed in its crash data bases. (20)
The only tire-related data element in the agency's crash databases is "flat tire or blowout." However, even in crashes for which a flat tire or blowout is reported, crash investigators cannot tell whether low tire pressure contributed to the tire failure.
The agency examined its crash files to gather information on tire-related problems that resulted in crashes. The NASS-CDS has trained investigators who collect data on a sample of tow-away crashes around the United States. These data can be weighted to generate national estimates.
The NASS-CDS General Vehicle Form contains a value indicating vehicle loss of control due to a blowout or flat tire. This value is used only when a vehicle's tire went flat, causing a loss of control of the vehicle and a crash. The value is not used for cases in which one or more of a vehicle's tires were under-inflated, preventing the vehicle from performing as well as it could have in an emergency situation.
NHTSA examined NASS-CDS data for 1995 through 1998 and estimated that 23,464 tow-away crashes, or 0.5 percent of all crashes, are caused by blowouts or flat tires each year. The agency placed the tow-away crashes from the NASS-CDS files into two categories: passenger car crashes and light truck crashes. Passenger cars were involved in 10,170 of the tow-away crashes caused by blowouts or flat tires, and light trucks were involved in the other 13,294.
NHTSA also examined data from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS) for evidence of tire problems in fatal crashes. In FARS, if tire problems are noted after the crash, the simple fact of their existence is all that is noted. No attempt is made to ascribe a role in the crash to those problems. Thus, the agency does not know whether the noted tire problem caused the crash, influenced the severity of the crash, or simply occurred during the crash. For example, a tire may have blown out and caused the crash, or it may have blown out during the crash when the vehicle struck some object, such as a curb.
Thus, while an indication of a tire problem in the FARS file gives some clue as to the potential magnitude of tire problems in fatal crashes, the FARS data cannot give a precise measure of the causal role played by those problems. The very existence of tire problems is sometimes difficult to detect and code accurately. Further, coding practices vary from State to State. Nevertheless, the agency notes that, from 1995 to 1998, 1.1 percent of all light vehicles involved in fatal crashes were coded as having tire problems. Over 535 fatal crashes involved vehicles coded with tire problems.
Under-inflated tires can contribute to types of crashes other than those resulting from blowouts or tire failure, including crashes which result from: skidding and/or a loss of control of the vehicle in a curve or in a lane change maneuver; an increase in a vehicle's stopping distance; or hydroplaning on a wet surface.
The 1977 Indiana Tri-level study associated low tire pressure with loss of control on both wet and dry pavements. The study never defined low tire pressure as a "definite" (i.e., 95 percent certainty that the crash would not have occurred absent this condition) cause of any crash, but did identify it as a "probable" (80 percent certainty that the crash would not have occurred absent this condition) cause of the crash in 1.4 percent of the 420 in-depth crash investigations.
The study divided "probable" cause into two levels: a "causal" factor and a "severity-increasing" factor. A "causal" factor was defined as a factor whose absence would have prevented the accident from occurring. A "severity-increasing" factor was defined as a factor whose presence was not sufficient, by itself, to result in the occurrence of the accident, but which resulted in an increase in speed of the initial impact. The study determined that under-inflated tires were a causal factor in 1.2 percent of the probable cause cases and a severity-increasing factor in 0.2 percent of the probable cause cases.
Note that more than one probable cause could be assigned to a crash. In fact, there were a total of 138.8 percent causes listed as probable causes (92.4 percent human factors, 33.8 percent environmental factors, and 12.6 percent vehicle factors). Thus, tire under-inflation's part of the total is one percent (1.4/138.8). The agency focused solely on the probable cause cases, which represent 0.86 percent of crashes (1.2/1.4 * 1.0).
Tires are designed to maximize their performance capabilities at a specific inflation pressure. When a tire is under-inflated, the shape of its footprint and the pressure it exerts on the road surface are both altered, especially on wet surfaces. An under-inflated tire has a larger footprint than a properly inflated tire. Although the larger footprint results in an increase in rolling resistance on dry road surfaces due to increased friction between the tire and the road surface, it also reduces the tire load per unit area. On dry road surfaces, the countervailing effects of a larger footprint and reduced load per unit of area nearly offset each other, with the result that the vehicle's stopping distance performance is only mildly affected by under-inflation.
On wet surfaces, however, under-inflation typically increases stopping distance for several reasons. First, as noted above, the larger tire footprint provides less tire load per area than a smaller footprint. Second, since the limits of adhesion are lower and achieved earlier on a wet surface than on a dry surface, a tire with a larger footprint, given the same load, is likely to slide earlier than the same tire with a smaller footprint because of the lower load per footprint area. The rolling resistance of an under-inflated tire on a wet surface is greater than the rolling resistance of the same tire properly-inflated on the same wet surface. This is because the slightly larger tire footprint on the under-inflated tire results in more rubber on the road and hence more friction to overcome. However, the rolling resistance of an under-inflated tire on a wet surface is less than the rolling resistance of the same under-inflated tire on a dry surface because of the reduced friction caused by the thin film of water between the tire and the road surface. The less tire load per area and lower limits of adhesion of an under-inflated tire on a wet surface are enough to overcome the increased friction caused by the larger footprint of the under-inflated tire. Hence, under-inflated tires cause longer stopping distance on wet surfaces than properly-inflated tires.
The agency has received data from Goodyear indicating that significantly under-inflated tires increase a vehicle's stopping distance. (21) The effects of tire under-inflation on vehicle stopping distance are discussed in greater detail in the agency's Final Economic Analysis (FEA).
As explained in the FEA, the agency did not use the VRTC data or the Goodyear data that the agency used to estimate benefits in the NPRM because of concerns with the way in which the both tests were performed. (22) The agency believes that the more recent Goodyear test methodology adequately addressed these concerns. (23)
2. Reduced Tread Life
Unpublished data submitted to the agency by Goodyear indicate that when a tire is under-inflated, more pressure is placed on the shoulders of the tire, causing the tread to wear incorrectly. (24) The Goodyear data also indicate that the tread on an under-inflated tire wears more rapidly than it would if the tire were inflated to the proper pressure.
The Goodyear data indicate that the average tread life of a tire is 45,000 miles, and the average cost of a tire is $61 (in 2000 dollars). Goodyear also estimated that a tire's average tread life would drop to 68 percent of the expected tread life if tire pressure dropped from 35 psi to 17 psi and remained there. Goodyear assumed that this relationship was linear. Thus, for every 1-psi drop in tire pressure, tread life would decrease by 1.78 percent (32 percent / 18 psi). This loss of tread life would take place over the lifetime of the tire. Thus, according to Goodyear's data, if the tire remained under-inflated by 1 psi over its lifetime, its tread life would decrease by about 800 miles (1.78 percent of 45,000 miles).
As noted above, data from the NCSA tire pressure survey indicate that 26 percent of passenger cars had at least one tire that was under-inflated by at least 25 percent. The average level of under-inflation of the four tires on passenger cars with at least one tire under-inflated by at least 25 percent was 6.8 psi. Thus, on average, these passenger cars could lose about 5,440 miles (6.8 psi under-inflation x 800 miles) of tread life due to under-inflation, if their tires were under-inflated to that extent throughout the life of the tires.
Also as noted above, data from the NCSA tire pressure survey indicate that about 29 percent of light trucks had at least one tire that was under-inflated by at least 25 percent. The average level of under-inflation of the four tires on light trucks with at least one tire under-inflated by at least 25 percent was 8.7 psi. Thus, on average, these light trucks could lose about 6,960 miles (8.7 psi under-inflation x 800 miles) of tread life due to under-inflation, if their tires were under-inflated to that extent throughout the life of the tires.
3. Reduced Fuel Economy
Under-inflation increases the rolling resistance of a vehicle's tires and, correspondingly, decreases the vehicle's fuel economy. According to a 1978 report, fuel efficiency is reduced by one percent for every 3.3 psi of under-inflation. (25) More recent data provided by Goodyear indicate that fuel efficiency is reduced by one percent for every 2.96 psi of under-inflation. (26)
NHTSA notes that there is an apparent conflict between these data, which indicate that under-inflation increases rolling resistance and thus decreases fuel economy and the previously mentioned Goodyear data that indicates under-inflated tires increase a vehicle's stopping distance. While an under-inflated tire typically has a larger tread surface area (i.e., tire footprint) in contact with the road, which might be thought to improve its traction during braking, the larger tire footprint also reduces the tire load per unit area. The larger footprint does result in an increase in rolling resistance on dry road surfaces due to increased friction between the tire and the road surface. On dry road surfaces, though, the countervailing effects of a larger footprint and reduced load per unit of area nearly offset each other, with the result that the vehicle's stopping distance performance is only mildly affected by under-inflation on those surfaces. However, as explained above in section III.D.1., "Reduced Vehicle Safety -- Tire Failures and Increases in Stopping Distance," on wet surfaces other attributes of under-inflation lead to increased stopping distances.
18 For purposes of this discussion, the agency classified pick-up trucks, SUVs, and vans with either P-metric, LT, or flotation tires as light trucks.
19 In response to the TREAD Act, NHTSA has added new tire related variables and attributes, including tire make, model, recommended tire pressure, actual tire pressure, and tread depth to its crash databases. These new variables will provide more specific tire data for vehicles involved in crashes.
20 These crash databases are the NASS-CDS and the Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS).
21 Goodyear submitted these data to the docket in a letter dated September 14, 2001. See Docket No. NHTSA-2000-8572-160. OMB criticized NHTSA's application of these data to certain vehicle types in estimating safety benefits for this rulemaking. The agency responds to that criticism below in section VI.F., "Technical Foundation for NHTSA's Safety Benefit Analyses." The Alliance also questioned NHTSA's use of the Goodyear data. The agency explains its use of the Goodyear data below in footnotes 22 and 23, and in the agency's Final Economic Analysis (FEA).
22 For example, the VRTC only tested new tires, not worn tires that are more typical of the tires on most vehicles. In addition, the NHTSA track surface is considered to be aggressive in that it allows for maximum friction with tire surfaces. It is more representative of a new road surface than the worn surfaces experienced by the vast majority of road traffic. The previous Goodyear tests on wet surfaces were conducted on surfaces with .05 inch of standing water. This is more than would typically be encountered under normal wet road driving conditions. The agency expressed concerns with the adequacy of both sets of test data in a memo to the docket. (Docket No. NHTSA-2000-8572-81.)
23 For example, in its more recent tests Goodyear tested tires with two tread depths: full tread, which is representative of new tires, and half tread, which is representative of worn tires. Goodyear also conducted wet surface tests on surfaces with .02 inch of standing water, which is more representative of typical wet road driving conditions.
24 Docket No. NHTSA-2000-8572-26.
25 The Aerospace Corporation, Evaluation of Techniques for Reducing In-use Automotive Fuel Consumption, June 1978.
26 Docket No. NHTSA-2000-8572-26.
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The Power of Introverts in a World That Can’t Stop Talking is about people who are quiet, their qualities, and how society underestimates these people. The book starts with a bang with the example of Rosa Parks who was an African-American woman with a quiet demeanor. The place is Alabama in the 1950s. She is in a segregated bus and when she refuses for not giving a seat to a white person, she is arrested. When she is on stage with Martin Luther King, the crowd becomes motivated to fight against the injustice.
This important incident in the U.S. civil rights movement not only shows the immense power of a quiet person, but shows how an extrovert (King) can use the introvert’s (Rosa) power to create a huge impact. Author Susan Cain says, “I had always imagined Rosa Parks as a stately woman with a bold temperament, someone who could easily stand up to a busload of glowering passengers. But when she died in 2005 at the age of 92 the flood of obituaries recalled her as soft-spoken, sweet, and small in stature. They said she was ‘timid and shy’ but had ‘the courage of a lion.’ They were full of phrases like ‘radical humility’ and ‘quiet fortitude.’”
The author, a self-confessed introvert, points out how society is biased against the introvert. From childhood they are taught that to be sociable is to be happy. Introversion is now “somewhere between a disappointment and pathology.” The Power of Introverts is not about extrovert-bashing. Extroversion is good, but we have made it into an “oppressive standard” to which introverts must conform.
So, is introversion a really “second class” trait? No, says the book. For starters, consider the introverts J.K. Rowling, Issac Newton, Albert Einstein, Gandhi, Dr Seuss, Yeats, Steven Spielberg, Larry Page and so on. It shows how introverts, with the extroverts, enrich the society. Yet in schools, ideal students should be extroverts; in organizations there is insistence on working with teams and group conformity; authors must go out and talk on TV. There are drugs that claim to cure shyness and bring about personality transformation. Introverts are not anti-social. They and extroverts have different forms of engaging with the society. For example, introverts may prefer a meaningful conversation over a wild party.
Cain insists that the problem also lies at the individual level. Introverts feel guilty, for instance, when they do not want to go to a party and wish to enjoy their solitude. Introverts should identify their power. They are the thinkers who have the richness inside them, says Cain.
The book also delves upon how extroversion has become an ideal in America. Industrialization brought in mass production, and there was a need for people to talk, to sell these products. How one behaved in family and private took a backseat, and how one presented himself or herself in public became important. How the self-help industry took off with book titles such as How to Win Friends and Influence People.
We know that introverts can become scientists or writers. But Cain elucidates through some examples that introverts can also be good in areas where organizations might prefer extroverts. For example, introverts can become good leaders because they listen, they do not try to dominate others, and are humble. Of course, in addition to these qualities, they have the “professional will” to move the company forward. They can be good in sales or consultancy because it requires the ability to advise, question, understand, and focus on one thing rather than a wide range of topics.
The book lays out some strategies on how introverts can cope up with the world. For instance, being a pseudo-extrovert is okay but too much deception can harm the individual. Pseudo-extrovertism should be supported by meaningful values.
As parents, it means accepting your introverted child and helping the child cope with the world. Cain presents some strategies on how a parent can help an introverted child.
The part which wasn’t convincing for me was when Cain was trying to stereotype according to region saying that the extrovert trait is “less prevalent in Asia and Africa as compared to Europe and America”. But my gut feel says that it all boils down to an individual level as to whether he or she is an extrovert or introvert. In India, for example, I have seen plenty of extroverts.
The Power of Introverts can be leveraged both by extroverts and introverts, and also by ambiverts (yes, there is such a term. It means a person who has traits of both extroverts and introverts). Extroverts and ambiverts can use this book to understand introverts and introverts can use this book to understand themselves.Powered by Sidelines
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Supporting and similar concepts
Although CMAP is focusing on conservation design, there are many similar and supporting concepts that could be used in conjunction with conservation design. The following sections touch on LEED-Buildings, LEED-Neighborhood Design, Eco-villages, Low-impact Development, Smart Growth and New Urbanism.
LEED for Buildings
Changing the ways we design, build and operate our buildings and infrastructure is perhaps the most powerful way we can address the environmental challenges facing cities as well as the planet. In the United States, buildings account for 70% of all electric consumption, 39% of carbon dioxide emissions and 30% of landfill waste. In addition green buildings improve human health and productivity and make good economic sense. The Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Green Building Rating System™ is a nationally recognized and widely applied third party certification program operated by the U.S. Green Building Council. LEED certification projects can be found in every U.S. state as well as 69 countries around the world. This holistic green building rating system measures performance in 5 key areas: sustainable site development, water savings, energy efficiency, materials selection and indoor environmental quality (USGBC website).
LEED for Neighborhood Development
The U.S. Green Building Council, the Congress for the New Urbanism, and the Natural Resource Defense council have come together to develop the first national set of standards for neighborhood location and design based on the combined principles of smart growth, new urbanism, and green building. LEED-ND will continue to incorporate the same values and credits offered in the previous LEED products but in a much broader neighborhood scale to include new residential, commercial and mixed use developments. Additional emphasis will be placed on site selection and the relationships between the individual sites and the neighborhood and surrounding landscape as a whole. The three keys areas for certification are: smart location and linkage, neighborhood pattern and design, and green construction and technology (USGBC website).
Eco-villages entail a more holistic approach to low-impact living in both urban and rural communities. Residents of eco-villages integrate social/community, ecological and cultural/spiritual realms into one community using various techniques including ecological design and building, permaculture, green production, alternative energy and community building practices (Global ecovillage network).
Robert Gilman in The Eco-village Challenge defines an eco-village as a "human-scale, full-featured settlement, in which human activities are harmlessly integrated into the natural world, in a way that is supportive of healthy human development and can be successfully continued into the indefinite future." In most cases food is grown onsite, power is provided by renewables (solar, wind, etc.), wastes are processed and reused on the land (organic and wastewater) and there is extensive recycling. Eco-villages in modern industrial societies usually have 100 or fewer residents however there are variations found worldwide. The main idea is to live a reduced ecological footprint lifestyle but still maintain the functions of modern society (Gilman, 2008).
Perhaps the most closely linked concept to conservation design is low-impact development. The United States Environmental Protection Agency defines Low Impact Development (LID) as a set of practices that can be used to reduce runoff and pollutant loadings by managing the runoff as close to its source(s) as possible. LID promotes the use of natural ecosystems. In addition cost savings manifest themselves in less infrastructure, since the volume of runoff is manage naturally within ecosystems via infiltration and evapotranspiration. Conservation design incorporates several LID practices, including infiltration and filtration practices, runoff storage and conveyance practices and low impact landscaping. Often LID and conservation design techniques can be used interchangeably (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2007; Guillette, 2007).
Smart growth is an initiative that matured from the growing concern regarding conventional, low-density development patterns. The abandonment of existing infrastructure, rising development costs, degradation of prime farmland and growing commutes to work have led communities to look for alternatives. Smart Growth, which recognizes the connection between development and quality of life, positions itself as one of those alternatives. Even though Smart Growth communities are often different in the detail, the core principles for each development are uniform. These communities are more town-centered, transit and pedestrian oriented, and have a greater mix of housing, commercial and retail uses when compared to conventional growth which often separates functions and is more car-reliant and isolated (Smart Growth Network).
New Urbanism is a development design alternative similar to Smart Growth but can be considered more of a movement that promotes and calls for a return to traditional city and village centers. These centers incorporate diversity in terms of both mixed use and population, promotes pedestrian, public transit and car accessibility, public open space and historical, environmental and agriculture preservation. Communities are scaled to be walkable, compact and interactive (Congress for the New Urbanism, 1996). While New Urbanism is "best known (and often stereotyped) for its work at the neighborhood and town scale," in many ways its Charter was aimed at a regional strategy (Congress for the New Urbanism, 1996). As a result, in New Urbanism, truly natural areas are generally found on the periphery of the region, while its more immediate green spaces are more likely to be urban parks. By contrast, conservation design encourages smaller-scale natural areas that are more immediate and accessible to adjacent clustered development. It is reasonable to suggest that a hybrid of the two similar strategies could yield design strategies especially well-suited to a more urban version of conservation design development than is typically the case today.
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You are here
For Immediate Release
NIAAA Releases New Alcohol Prevention Website for Middle Schoolers
The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), part of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), has released a new version of The Cool Spot, the institute's website for middle school (11- to 13-year-old) children. The website can be accessed at: http://www.thecoolspot.gov.
" The Cool Spot uses engaging games and graphics to deliver important messages about the risks of underage drinking and ways to resist peer pressure," says NIAAA Director Ting-Kai Li, M.D. "It's vital to reach this age group, because the younger people are when they start to drink, the higher their chances of developing an alcohol problem at some point in their lives." Research shows that more than 4 in 10 people who start drinking before age 15 eventually become alcohol dependent.
The Cool Spot's new content is largely based on curriculum for grades 6-8 developed by NIAAA-supported researchers at the University of Michigan. The curriculum was used in a large-scale, multi-year project called the Alcohol Misuse Prevention Study (AMPS).
One goal of AMPS was to give young teens a clearer picture about alcohol use among their peers. Teens tend to overestimate how much other teens drink. But when they are provided with accurate information about peer-group drinking habits, teens may feel less pressure to drink. Other goals of AMPS were to help kids learn skills to resist pressure to drink and to give them reasons not to drink. The Cool Spot incorporates AMPS goals in these and other features:
Reality Check quizzes kids about how much drinking is really going on in the U.S. The answers, which often surprise kids and adults alike, are based on results of the 2002 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. Deep Digging depicts why using alcohol as a solution to problems, or a way of trying to cope, is trouble. Peer Pressure Bag of Tricks presents animated scenes that invite kids to identify some common peer pressure "tricks." It also lets kids know that spotting these tricks is the first step to resisting them. Know your No's, an activity that introduces kids to a variety of ways to say no, helps them learn which one is the most effective.
The site has a 10-question interactive quiz that encourages visitors to glean some of the chief learning objectives. Middle school teachers, counselors, and after-school providers can have students complete and print the quiz to show they have grasped some basic prevention messages.
To appeal to the target audience, the website's new graphic design incorporates animated characters based on a popular Japanese comic book style called 'anime." In pre-tests of the new site conducted among nearly 300 adolescents:
93 percent found it easy to use, 96 percent liked its appearance, and 89 percent said they wanted to visit the site again to learn more.
NIAAA conducted additional focus testing on the site's content and usability with small groups and one-on-one interviews of 11- to 13-year olds. The site's peer pressure sections were stand-outs, according to participants. The middle schoolers reported that the site helped them clarify types of pressure they had already felt-such as put-downs or rejection-but had not recognized as forms of peer pressure.
The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, a component of the National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, conducts and supports approximately 90 percent of the U.S. research on the causes, consequences, prevention, and treatment of alcohol abuse, alcoholism, and alcohol problems and disseminates research findings to general, professional, and academic audiences. Additional alcohol research information and publications are available at www.niaaa.nih.gov.
NIH, the nation's medical research agency, includes 27 Institutes and Centers and is a component of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. NIH is the primary federal agency conducting and supporting basic, clinical, and translational medical research, and is investigating the causes, treatments, and cures for both common and rare diseases. For more information about NIH and its programs, visit www.nih.gov.
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In a study published in the Journal of Neuroscience, researchers from Cambridge University tested 53 volunteers and found differences in their ability to distinguish between real or imagined memories.
The scientists then found a direct link between these results and the size of a specific area of the brain called the paracingulate sulcus, or PCS.
The PCS is one of the last regions of the brain to develop before birth, and the study found that people with a larger PCS were better at discerning real experiences from imagined ones.
“The memory differences we observed were quite striking. It is exciting to think that these individual differences in ability might have a basis in a simple brain folding variation,” said Cambridge’s Jon Simons, who led the research.
The findings may also help scientists understand more about schizophrenia, he said, because an inability to recognize what is real and what isn’t is a hallmark of the disease.
“Hallucinations are often reported whereby, for example, someone hears a voice when nobody’s there. Difficulty distinguishing real from imagined information might be an explanation for such hallucinations,” Simons said. “The person might imagine the voice but misattribute it as coming from the outside world.”
Schizophrenia is a severe mental disorder which affects 24 million people worldwide, according to World Health Organization data, yet relatively little is known of its causes.
“We’ve found evidence that suggests this particular (brain)region might be reduced in people with schizophrenia, and that this could be the beginning of an explanation for why these people experience hallucinations,” Simons said in a telephone interview.
The 53 volunteers in the study first had brain scans which showed whether they had either a clear presence or absence of PCS in the left or right brain.
The researchers then showed them well-known word pairs — such as “Laurel and Hardy” for example — which were sometimes complete and sometimes had the second word blanked out.
The volunteers were then asked to remember whether they had seen a completed pair, or whether they had completed the pair in their own mind.
“What we’re interested in linking next. is whether individuals with schizophrenia who also have that reduction in the PCS are definitely more likely to experience hallucinations,” Simons said, adding that his team is planning further research in the coming months.
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| 0.968882 | 494 | 3.453125 | 3 |
Type of design offshore platform subjects to water depth, geology condition and cost effective solution. The various types of offshore platform shown as below:
- Fixed Steel Structure
- Compliant Tower
- Jack-up Platform
- Concrete Gravity Base Structure
- Tension Leg Platform (TLP)
- Semi-submersible Vessel
- Floating Production System
- Spar Platform
1. FIXED STEEL STRUCTURE
The traditional offshore structure consists of weld steel, tubular framework or jacket to support the topside facilities. Piles driven into the seafloor secure the jacket.
Modern design with bridge linked jackets tending to favour a separate well head platform, processing platform and accommodation platform due to safety concern.
The Fixed Steel Structures are restricted to shallow water developments with water deep about 1500 ft.
2. COMPLIANT TOWER
Compliant towers are similar to fixed platforms in that they have a steel tubular jacket that is used to support the topside facilities. Unlike fixed platforms, compliant towers yield to the water and wind movements in a manner similar to floating structures. Like fixed platforms, they are secured to the seafloor with piles. The jacket of a compliant tower has smaller dimensions than those of a fixed platform. Compliant towers are designed to sustain significant lateral deflections and forces, and are typically used in water depths ranging from 1,500 to 3,000 ft.
3. JACK-UP PLATFORM
The Jack-up Platform consists of a triangular shaped (sometimes rectangular), box section barge fitted with three (sometimes four) moveable legs which enable the vessel to stand to the seabed in water depths of up to approximately 120 m (400 ft).
4. CONCRETE GRAVITY BASE STRUCTURE
The Concrete Gravity Base Structure have been constructed using a base manufactured from reinforced concrete. The design of base includes void spaces or caissons to provided the structure with a natural buoyancy which will enable it to be floated to field development location. Once on location the void spaces are flooded on the seabed whilst the topside modules are lifted into place. The void spaces then used as storage compartments for crude oil, or filled with permanent iron ore ballast. The colossal weight of concrete structures obviates the need to install foundation piles, hence the name gravity base structure.
5. TENSION LEG PLATFORM (TLP)
A Tension Leg Platform (TLP) is a buoyant platform held in place by a mooring system. The TLP’s are similar to conventional fixed platforms except that the platform is maintained on location through the use of moorings held in tension by the buoyancy of the hull. The mooring system is a set of tension legs or tendons attached to the platform and connected to a template or foundation on the seafloor. The template is held in place by piles driven into the seafloor. This method dampens the vertical motions of the platform, but allows for horizontal movements. TLPs are used in water depths from 1500 ft to 7000 ft.
The "conventional" TLP is a 4-column design which looks similar to a semisubmersible. Proprietary versions include the Seastar and MOSES mini TLPs; they are relatively low cost, used in water depths between 600 and 4,300 feet (200 and 1,300 m). Mini TLPs can also be used as utility, satellite or early production platforms for larger deepwater discoveries.
6. SEMI-SUBMERSIBLE VESSEL
These platforms have twin hulls (columns and pontoons) of sufficient buoyancy to cause the structure to float, but of weight sufficient to keep the structure upright. Semi-submersible platforms can be moved from place to place; can be ballasted up or down by altering the amount of flooding in buoyancy tanks; they are generally anchored by combinations of chain, wire rope and/or polyester rope during drilling and/or production operations, though they can also be kept in place by the use of dynamic positioning. Semi-submersibles can be used in water depths from 200 to 10,000 feet.
7. FLOATING PRODUCTION SYSTEM
FPSO (floating production, storage, and off-loading) vessel is converted from liquid cargo vessel or new built. FPSO equipped with processing facilities and moored to a location.
Basically, Floating Production Systems are ideal solution for
- The field is small and marginal
- The field is isolated and an established pipeline infrastructure does not exist
- The field is located in very deep water where it would not be possible to install a conventional fixed platform
You may interest:
FPSO - Armada Perkasa (youtube)
The Making of FPSO TGT1 (youtube)
The Making of Armada Sterling FPSO (youtube)
New Round FPSO
FPSO Contractor Fleet Size
BP Scheihallion FPSO Offstation (youtube)
8. SPAR PLATFORM
SPAR is a deep-draft floating caisson, which is a hollow cylindrical structure similar to a very large buoy. Its four major systems are hull, moorings, topsides, and risers. The spar relies on a traditional mooring system (that is, anchor-spread mooring) to maintain its position. About 90 percent of the structure is underwater. Historically, spars were used as marker buoys, for gathering oceanographic data, and for oil storage. The spar design is now being used for drilling, production, or both. The distinguishing feature of a spar is its deep-draft hull, which produces very favorable motion characteristics compared to other floating concepts. Low motions and a protected centerwell also provide an excellent configuration for deepwater operations. Water depth capability has been stated by industry as ranging up to 10,000 ft.
The upper section is compartmentalized around a flooded centerwell containing the different type of risers. This section provides the buoyancy for the spar. The middle section is also flooded but can be economically configured for oil storage. The bottom section (keel) is compartmentalized to provide buoyancy during transport and to contain any field-installed, fixed ballast. Approximate hull diameter for a typical GOM spar is 130 feet, with an overall height, once deployed, of approximately 700 feet (with 90% of the hull in the water column).
The first Spars were based on the Classic design. This evolved into the Truss Spar by replacing the lower section of the caisson hull with a truss. The Truss Spar is divided into three distinct sections. The cylindrical upper section, called the “hard tank,” provides most of the in-place buoyancy for the Spar. The middle truss section supports the heave plates and provides separation between the keel tank and hard tank. The keel tank, also known as the “soft tank,” contains the fixed ballast and acts as a natural hang-off location for export pipelines and flowlines since the environmental influences from waves and currents and associated responses are less pronounced there than nearer the water line.
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| 0.931642 | 1,491 | 2.65625 | 3 |
78 South Professor, 1857
James Monroe, a Connecticut-born abolitionist who graduated from Oberlin in 1844, remained a leading citizen of the village for the next half-century. He built this house in 1857 and lived here in the busy pre-Civil War years while teaching rhetoric at the college, serving in the state legislature, helping to launch the Republican party, and sheltering fugitive slaves. He bought the land for his house from the college on the provision that he employ students in manual labor in ratio with the acreage of his property -- a common arrangement in the 1850s.
Monroe sold his home in 1862 when he left for Rio de Janeiro to serve as U.S. consul during the Civil War. (Upon his return to Oberlin after the war he purchased from Gen. Giles Shurtleff the brick house which has become known as "the Monroe House.") From the turn of the century until 1956 the old frame house on South Professor Street was owned by the Bosworths -- first Edward Increase Bosworth, Bible professor and dean of the theology school, then his son Edward Franklin Bosworth, dean of men at the college. More recently it has served as faculty rental housing. It is a good example of the vernacular "plain style" characteristic of mid-nineteenth-century Oberlin.
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http://www.oberlin.edu/external/EOG/HistoricPreservation/HPMonroeBosworthHouse.html
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| 0.974421 | 271 | 2.5625 | 3 |
[UPDATE (Dec. 7): The research outlined below is under very heavy fire from other biologists. I've written a follow-up post about it.]
[Update (13:30 MT Dec. 2): I misunderstood a part of this research dealing with arsenic when I read the journal paper, which was made more clear during the press conference. I have corrected the relevant text below, and struck through the old text. Hope this doesn't confuse anyone, and sorry about that!]
NASA scientists announced today an incredible find: a form of microbe that apparently evolved the ability to use otherwise toxic arsenic in their biochemistry!
First off, just to be straight and to dispel the rumors: this is not aliens on Titan, or Mars, or anywhere else. This bizarre life form was found right here on good ol' Earth. And don't be disappointed: this is still pretty cool news.
Here are the critters in question:
Note the scale; a typical human hair is 100 times thicker than these beasties.
|DM blogger Ed Yong of Not Exactly Rocket Science has written an in-depth and detailed account of all this as well. Highly recommended!|
The bacteria (technically, the strain GFAJ-1 of Halomonadaceae) was found in Mono Lake, an extremely alkaline and salty lake in California near the Nevada border. And I do mean salty and alkaline: it has about twice the salt of ocean water, and has the incredible pH of 10 (neutral water has a pH of 7, and the pH scale is logarithmic; this means the lake water has the same alkaline strength as commercial antacids). Worse yet, the lake has a high concentration of arsenic, a deadly poison to many forms of life (including us). This makes the water toxic for most living creatures as we know them; for example there are no fish in the lake. However, there are algae, shrimp, and other such flora and fauna.
... including these new microbes. Dr. Felise Wolfe-Simon found them in the mud around the lake, and discovered
that not only do they happily live with the arsenic that when subjected to high levels of arsenic in their environment, they actually incorporated it into their biochemistry!
Life like us uses a handful of basic elements in the majority of its biochemistry: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen for the most part. But phosphorus is also a critical element in two major ways: it's used as the backbone of the long, spiral-shaped DNA and RNA molecules (think of it as the winding support structure for a spiral staircase and you'll get the picture), and it's part of the energy transport mechanism for cells in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate). Without it, our cells would literally not be able to reproduce, and we'd be dead anyway if it were gone. There are many other ways phosphorus is used as well, including in cell membranes, bones, and so on. It's a key element for all forms of life.
Oh, pardon me: all known forms of life up until now. In many ways phosphorus is chemically similar to arsenic (the latter is right below the former in the table of elements, a clear sign of chemical companionship). In fact, in very small amounts (and I mean like 50 parts per billion) arsenic may be important for life, but in larger amounts it's incredibly toxic -- there's a terrifying litany of such attributes.
But these microbes in Mono Lake, at some point in their evolution, decided that if you can't lick 'em, join 'em. They have somehow been able to utilize arsenic
in the lake, using it instead of phosphorus in their biochemistry. To determine this, Dr. Wolfe-Simon took samples of the microbes, adding more and more arsenic while decreasing the amount of phosphorus in their environment to essentially zero. This would kill almost everything known to man, yet these little critters thrived. Even weirder, the bacteria were able to survive when either the phosphorus or the arsenic was reduced, but not both. So somehow, it's able to use both of these elements as needed to survive.
Amazingly, using radioisotope-tagged molecules containing arsenic, they were able to find that the microbes incorporated the arsenic into their very DNA! It's hard to stress how shocking this is; as I understand it, saying something like that to a microbiologist without evidence would've had them slowly backing away from you and looking for weapons or an escape route.
That is seriously freaky. So what does this mean in the scale of things?
For one thing, it means that life, as Jeff Goldblum so eloquently stated in "Jurassic Park", will find a way. It's not clear at all how these bacteria were able to figure out how to utilize arsenic, but it's not hard to imagine that understanding this will have all sorts of implications for biology, and perhaps even medicine.
And for another, it means that we need to be a little more open-minded when it comes to looking for life on other worlds. If a strain of bacterium this truly and awesomely bizarre can be right here under our noses -- in California, for frak's sake! -- then what the heck will we find on other planets?
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<urn:uuid:3373655d-1307-44bd-9d24-e48d626a5083>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad_astronomy/2010/12/02/nasas_real_news_bacterium_on_earth_that_lives_off_arsenic.html
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397797.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00109-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.967014 | 1,093 | 2.84375 | 3 |
Sierra Nevada WildlifeFrom marmots to bears, golden trout to golden eagles, the Sierra Nevada is bountiful with wildlife. I love when I get lucky enough to encounter a wild animal in the Sierra and get to photograph it! Please feel free to contribute a photo or two of the wildlife you've been lucky enough to encounter in the Sierra. I advocate bringing zoom lenses to get close to your subjects and to avoid disturbing or harassing them. Respecting wildlife is one of the 7 principles of Leave No Trace and should be followed whenever you visit any one of the parks or forests in the Sierra.
This wonderful description of the area comes from the CERES Website: "The Sierra Bioregion is rich in biodiversity, containing over half the plant species found in California and more than 400 of the state's terrestrial wildlife species, or about two-thirds of the birds and mammals and half the reptiles and amphibians. The variety of habitat types include annual grassland, blue oak savannah, chaparral, ponderosa pine, black oak woodland, mixed conifer, red fir, riparian, alpine meadow, Jeffrey pine, sagebrush, and bitter brush.
Animals that inhabit the Sierra Bioregion include lodgepole chipmunk, mountain beaver, California mountain king snake, black bear, wolverine, California big horn sheep, Pacific fisher, mule deer, and mountain lion. The California Golden Trout -- the state fish -- is native to the Southern Sierra. Birds include the northern goshawk, mountain chickadee, pine grosbeak, California spotted owl, mountain quail, willow flycatcher, bald eagle, and great grey owl."
External LinksYosemite National Park Wildlife
Sequoia & Kings Canyon National Parks Wildlife
CA Dept of Fish & Game
Winter Wildlife in Yosemite National Park
Sierra Nevada Bighorn Sheep Foundation
Sierra Wild Bear
The Mountain Yellow-legged frog is recovering in Sequoia & Kings Canyon NP's
Yosemite Association Nature Notes articles about wildlife
Are alpine species disappearing?
[ View Gallery - 76 More Images ]
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<urn:uuid:b4273be9-e60e-4f77-be1c-de032e5b9886>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.summitpost.org/sierra-nevada-wildlife/216053
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00117-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.856372 | 437 | 2.734375 | 3 |
The term cataract is often misunderstood by some physicians and the general public. Any thickness of the lens of the eye, whether it interferes with vision or not, is a cataract by definition. In the United States, more than half the population over the age of forty has some form of cataract. Cataracts, however, are responsible for only 10 percent of legal blindness. Cataracts may appear in only one eye, or both.
The most common type of cataract is senile caratact which progresses very slowly. Many diseases, such as diabetes mellitus, hasten the development of cataracts. In addition, the danger of diabetic retinopathy faces the diabetic. It is a disease which affects the blood vessels of the eye.
Both diabetic retinopathy and severe cataracts are often treatable with photocoagulation therapy, a form of the laser process; many cases of detached retina have been repaired successfully by the use of controlled laser beam.
In some cases of glaucoma, the opthalmologist has been able to control intraocular pressure by using laser treatment (laser trabeculoplasty). The procedure is less complicated than surgery. It does not require hospitalization.
Glaucoma is an ocular degenerative condition characterized by intraocular pressure which causes changes in the optic disk and defects in the field of vision.
Macular degeneration affects the central portion of the retina and diminishes clear central vision. A small lesion in the eye would ordinarily not affect vision, but creates problems when it settles on the macula.
Some forms of macular degeneration can be improved with laser photocoagulation.
By Drew Randelman
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<urn:uuid:930d5daa-5214-4a94-ba00-a94418eb16f3>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.encognitive.com/node/4695
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00086-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.945445 | 356 | 3.5 | 4 |
Long recognized in Hispanic cultures, an ataque de nervious (ADN) is a culturally-specific syndrome that closely resembles a panic attack. The DSM-IV recognizes ADN and views it as being a distinct clinical syndrome. Despite the popularity of ADN as a folk diagnosis and clinical reports from various Hispanic countries, ADN continues to be little understood. A study in the September 2008 issue of Depression and Anxiety examines incidence of ADN in an ethnically diverse population. Using a sample of 342 undergraduates assessed for acculturation, clinical and anxiety risk factors, the rate of ADN did not significantly vary across the three main groups (African American, Caucasian, and Hispanic participants) nor did it vary based on acculturation. Symptoms of ADN were found to be notably different from panic attack symptoms. The authors conclude that ADNs, as described by the DSM-IV, are not unique to the Hispanic culture and are experienced by non-Hispanic individuals as well. The findings are consistent with the DSM-IV assertion that ADNs and PAs are distinct syndromes.
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<urn:uuid:0ac2809b-b623-4ab2-8465-b0c71bc3fed1>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://drvitelli.typepad.com/providentia/2008/09/ataques-de-nervios-culturally-bound-and-distinct-depress-anxiety-2008---pubmed-result.html
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397748.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00171-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.962341 | 218 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Let’s recap. September is National Preparedness Month. But it is October, so let’s stop to realize that preparedness is not something to think about only one month a year. In honor of September, let’s strategically take this opportunity to ready ourselves for the unexpected.
Rule number 1: Know your risks!
The majority of national disasters declared in the United States are weather related. In Maine, we know that winter can bring sudden shifts of extreme temperatures without warning. Witness the ice storm of 1998, when Bangor and Brewer generators blew, almost a million Mainers were without heat, and many had no power for weeks during the freeze. Remember the isolation, the eerie outside silence that was broken only by cracking ice-covered trees? During that time, three people lost their lives: two from carbon monoxide poisoning (from inadequately ventilated generators) and one from a falling tree. Long life is a particularly precious gift, but a preventable death is an especially grievous event.
Rule number 2: Prepare yourself!
Since it is October, think Halloween. The CDC recently developed a novel way of teaching emergency preparedness, called “Preparedness 101: Zombie Pandemic. This is an imaginative way to get across the points of protection. To prevent untimely and unnecessary death, have a plan for safety before the threat of a disaster arrives. Make an emergency kit for both your home and vehicle. Keep basics handy, such as water, food and supplies. At home, stock at least three days-worth of food and water (one gallon per person per day), in addition to critical supplies. For the car, store water, snacks, flashlights, warm clothing or sleeping bag, jumper cables, sand, shovel, ice scraper, flairs, means of communicating, and formula or diapers for young children.
Speaking of children: They are not just little adults, especially when it comes to disaster preparedness. Kids need priority protection. Children have unique needs. They depend upon grown-ups for everything. They are more vulnerable to stressors and hardships. Because children rely so heavily on adults, and have developing bodies and minds, they are strongly influenced by attitudes and emotions of caretakers. To best prepare kids for disaster adversity, adults must prepare themselves!
We are lucky in Maine to have leaders who promote the mission to prepare ourselves. William Jenkins is the director of Maine’s Public Health Emergency Preparedness Program. In 2011, Jenkins sponsored the Children’s Hospital of Los Angeles to provide pediatric emergency training for healthcare practitioners from all across the state. This provided exposure to real world pediatric emergencies thorough lectures and interactive exercises. Dr. Christopher Pezzullo is a pediatrician who works in Augusta as the medical director for the division of Population Health; and he is the Maine-Chapter of the American Academy of Pediatrics liaison to the Center for Disease Control (CDC) and works there on our behalf. Both experts suggest that we visit the following web sites to learn more:
Potentially deadly emergencies can also occur in the form of epidemics. Remember the H1N1 outbreak? Leaders in our state epidemiology office keep us aware of such threats. We all need to do our part by staying informed, getting vaccinated, coughing in our sleeves and practicing scrupulous hygiene. If you are a healthcare practitioner, please sign up to receive health alerts from the Maine Center for Disease Control and Prevention by using the secure emergency messaging system. The MaineHAN emergency alerting system is used to disseminate important information to you during disasters or public health emergencies. Signing up for MaineHAN takes a few minutes by sending an email to [email protected]. You may also sign up in person during the upcoming American Academy of Pediatrics Conference in Portland.
Emergency preparedness can protect communities and save lives. Please prepare. Engage your family. Communicate a plan. Sign up for alerts. Practice a drill.
For the sake of all of all children and adults: Be ready and have a plan.
Dr. Janice L. Pelletier is a pediatrician from Orono. Dr. Steve Feder is a pediatrician from Boothbay Harbor.
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<urn:uuid:ed5d59a3-5167-4382-8cbc-a2c81a7bd77d>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://bangordailynews.com/2012/10/06/opinion/disaster-readiness-protect-children-by-preparing-yourselves/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395548.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00072-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.93978 | 860 | 3.171875 | 3 |
Funny Word, Serious Security Risk
“Smishing” may sound like a made-up word, but it is actually a very serious security scam, designed to get you to share personal information via text messages on your cell phone. The most common examples of smishing occur when text messages are sent, posing as your financial institution or another business that has access to sensitive information. These messages often contain something that needs “your immediate attention” such as an account suspension or purchase confirmation and could have serious consequences if you do not respond.
For example, you might receive a text message that says:
“Notice – this is an automated message from Amegy Bank. Your ATM card has been suspended. To reactive, call urgent at 866-XXX-XXXX.”
When you call that number, an automated voice response system claiming to be from your financial institution will ask you to confirm your personal financial information, including credit/debit card information, security codes, your email address, PIN number, Social Security number and other critical data. Other smishing scams may direct you to a legitimate-looking website, asking for the same personal information. This information is then used to create duplicate credit, debit or ATM cards which can then be used anywhere in the world.
So how do you recognize what a smishing message is?
- Check the number the SMS text is originating from. Often, smishing messages originate from a “5,000” number instead of an actual phone number. This indicates that the message was sent via email to the cell phone and not from another mobile device.
- If you get a text message that asks for personal or financial information, don’t reply. Legitimate companies don't ask for this information via SMS messages. If you are concerned about your account, contact the organization mentioned in the email using a telephone number that you know is genuine.
- Do not reply to the message.
- Do not click on any of the links that may be embedded in the message.
- Contact your cell-phone carrier’s Privacy Team. Forward a copy of the text message so they may investigate it.
- Contact your bank, financial institution or another entity you do business with directly. Ask them to verify if this is a legitimate request or not.
- Review credit card and bank account statements as soon as you receive them to check for unauthorized charges. If your statement is late by more than a couple of days, call your credit card company or bank to confirm your billing address and account balances.
If you believe you've been scammed:
- Contact your financial institution or credit card company immediately to freeze your accounts.
- File a report with the Federal Trade Commission at
- Then visit the FTC's identity theft website at ftc.gov/idtheft. While you can't completely control whether you will become a victim of identity theft, you can take some steps to minimize your risk.
- You also may report smishing messages to your cell-phone provider.
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<urn:uuid:8fd981b3-2273-4a83-a92d-9b778304840d>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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https://www.amegybank.com/resource-center/security-center/smishing
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00188-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.907263 | 622 | 2.71875 | 3 |
THE RAPE OF EUROPA tells the epic story of the systematic theft, deliberate destruction and miraculous survival of Europe’s art treasures during the Third Reich and World War II. In a journey through seven countries, the film takes viewers into the violent whirlwind of fanaticism, greed, and warfare that threatened to wipe out the artistic heritage of Europe. For twelve long years, the Nazis looted and destroyed art on a scale unprecedented in history. But heroic young art historians and curators from America and across Europe fought back with an extraordinary campaign to rescue and return the millions of lost, hidden and stolen treasures. Now, more than sixty years later, the legacy of this tragic history continues to play out as families of looted collectors recover major works of art, conservators repair battle damage, and nations fight over the fate of ill-gotten spoils of war. Joan Allen narrates this breathtaking chronicle about the battle over the very survival of centuries of western culture.
Any views, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in the film or on this website do not necessarily represent those of the National Endowment for the Humanities, the National Endowment for the Arts, or any other project sponsor.
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<urn:uuid:f14481b8-5c63-47d1-b407-6ec8aafb5390>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.pbs.org/therapeofeuropa/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399428.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00069-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.883018 | 238 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Along the northern shores of Kwa Zulu Natal in South Africa, there’s a place of constant shift and change: the mangroves. Perfectly positioned between the sea and a series of lakes, this unique place makes it possible for diverse ecosystems to flourish side by side.
Within this finely-balanced environment there lives the strange mudskipper, a fish that spends most of its life out of the water. It has adapted to walk on land by using its muscular pectoral fins as primitive legs. The mudskipper’s lower fins have sucker-like discs, enabling the fish to cling to mangrove tree roots.But how is it possible for fish to breathe out of water? Well, mudskippers have enlarged gill chambers in their body that hold oxygen-rich water. As a scuba diver uses an air tank to breathe underwater, a mudskipper carries water to breathe in the air.
Mudskippers will crawl over mudflats to court mates, find food and locate territories. These fish have bulging, independently-moving eyes, giving them an excellent field of vision. Male mudskippers have been known to open their mouths, raise fins and wrestle one another over prime real estate or to impress a female. Here’s a glimpse of a mudskipper battle:
You can learn more about the mudskipper species in this National Geographic video:
Discover more about animals that call the mangroves home – like buffalo, hippos, vipers and crocodiles – on tonight’s show Secrets of the Mangroves at 8 PM et/pt on Nat Geo Wild!
Video Preview: “Walking Fish” — The mudskipper is a masterpiece of evolution – an amazing little fish that actually walks on land.
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<urn:uuid:c063cb4a-a180-40ed-ab4a-68663cada31d>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://tvblogs.nationalgeographic.com/2011/01/27/mudskippers-in-the-mangroves/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00159-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.897386 | 369 | 3.21875 | 3 |
This past quarter, I did something different with my upper-division course on America in Prosperity, Depression, and War, 1917 to 1945. Because the course usually has more than 100 students and no teaching assistant (welcome to the University of California), I have never assigned a research paper before. It’s just too hard to mentor and police that many research projects. But this year, I decided to ask the students to research and write on a New Deal project for one of their papers.
I suggested that the students start by looking at Gray Brechin’s terrific site, and then gave them the following prompt:
Write a history of something – a bridge, dam, road, mural, school, public building, sculpture, park, photograph – that was created or built with federal government money during the years 1933 to 1943. In your paper, consider these questions:
- Which government agencies paid for this work?
- How much did it cost?
- How was the work – the building or mural or whatever – perceived at the time?
- What was its significance for the people of the time?
- How has it been used over the years?
- How is it perceived today?
- What is the historical significance of this work?
I was stunned by the enthusiasm and the quality of the papers: so many students seemed to really engage with the assignment. At the end of the quarter, I received papers on:
5 city halls or civic auditoriums
5 high schools
4 outdoor theaters
2 fire stations
2 naval training centers
1 state office building
1 federal mint
1 federal writers project guide
Unsurprisingly, the four most popular subjects are in northern California: Sacramento’s Tower Bridge, the San Francisco Bay Bridge, Shasta Dam, and the Coit Tower murals. Many students found federal government reports on their projects; dozens looked at local newspapers on microfilm; some took tours of the project, or interviewed people who work there today, or wrote personal testimonials about how much that particular bridge/high school/theater means to them.
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<urn:uuid:e97ea975-5be9-4bdf-a75d-d041f0f0ccf3>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://chronicle.com/blognetwork/edgeofthewest/2012/07/11/making-the-new-deal-concrete/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00011-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.964997 | 432 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Author: Octavia E. Butler
Title of work: Parable
of the Sower
Using critical pedagogy, Cathie Wright-Lewis encourages students to
connect current events with fiction. In this lesson, Wright-Lewis provides
perspective on Octavia E. Butler's novel Parable of the Sower by
asking students to make connections between newspaper articles and issues
Butler raises in the book. Drawing on these texts, students then project
how the world might change and how they can shape that change. Finally,
Wright-Lewis encourages students to involve themselves politically by writing
letters that call for social justice.
To prepare for the lesson, view The Expanding Canon video
program 7, Part I. Online, review the Session 7 theory
information about the authors
and literature, resources,
and the downloadable print
guide. Read Octavia E. Butler's Parable of the Sower.
- board and/or chart paper
- a screen or monitor on which to show a clip from the video program
3, Part I, either on a vhs tape or from the Web (optional)
- newspapers or collections of newspaper articles (which the teacher
may provide or ask students to provide)
- copies of Parable of the Sower
Standards for the English Language Arts
Teachers may want to show students the interview with Octavia E. Butler
from The Expanding Canon video program 7, Part 1.
1. Cathie Wright-Lewis begins her lesson with a discussion about Chapter
11 of Parable of the Sower with the whole class. Wright-Lewis asks
questions such as:
2. Students read a passage from Chapter 11 in Parable of the Sower.
Wright-Lewis leads a discussion about the treatment of religion in the text,
and encourages students to write down key points that come up in discussion.
The discussion focuses on students' concerns, but Wright-Lewis makes sure
that students consider:
- What are some of Lauren's concerns?
- What is the nature of the community environment? Why is it so dangerous?
- What is the cause of these problems?
3. The students divide into six groups that focus on a single assigned news
area: social news, political news, economic news, environmental news, spiritual
news and, science/technological news. Wright-Lewis explains that students
eventually will pool information from all the groups. Each class group receives
a chart and writes their group's name (e.g., "Environmental News") on the
- Lauren's need to change God's name and to create her own concept
- Her new concept of God
- Her age/maturity and her commitment to shaping her own destiny
- The positive changes Lauren is trying to make in the community
|NEWS EVENTS FOR ___________________
|NAME OF NEWS EVENT
|NEWSPAPER ARTICLE ABOUT EVENT
|TRENDS REPRESENTED BY EVENT
|RELATED TRENDS IN PARABLE OF THE SOWER
|PASSAGES IN PARABLE OF THE SOWER DEPICTING
4. Each group compiles recent newspaper articles that describe current events
in their news area. Students list news items on their charts, along with
any ideas they may have about the trends they're tracking. Some of the questions
that Wright-Lewis asks the class to consider include:
5. The groups share their findings with the class.
- Are all the stories about your news area in one section of the newspaper?
Are there tangential issues that you also need to track?
- Can you describe any trends that are emerging?
- How might these trends lead to the situation described in Parable
of the Sower?
6. Students write a report using evidence from newspaper articles to demonstrate
how contemporary American society might become like the society in Parable
of the Sower. They consider some of the following questions:
7. Wright-Lewis asks students to take action for positive change by writing
a letter to a politician based on the predictions they have made.
- What do you think should happen right now, or within the next 20 years,
to change the course of history so we don't end up with problems like
those in the book?
- To whom should we write?
- What should we say to that person?
8. After students have begun to draft their letters, Wright-Lewis asks them
to share portions with the class. Students finish these letters as a homework
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<urn:uuid:e9c043d6-a161-40ff-9450-57b04d248dae>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://learner.org/workshops/hslit/session7/lessonplan1.html
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393146.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00128-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.893432 | 941 | 3.25 | 3 |
The question as to the reality of Sherlock Holmes has remained unresolved for decades. However, if the reality of his biographer, Dr. Watson can be established, the reality of Sherlock Holmes may follow as a natural consequence. This paper will therefore set out the case for the reality of Dr. Watson.
The stories of Sherlock Holmes, the world’s first consulting detective, come to us through the published writings of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. Sir Arthur was a physician who was also a prolific writer. His early works included short stories and historical novels, some of which were published before he ever wrote a Sherlock Holmes story. In order to develop what may have been the actual events that lead up to the publication of the Sherlock Holmes saga, it is necessary to note and consider the few salient points that follow.
In the first place, it must be noted that the first Sherlock Holmes story was a full-length novel called A Study in Scarlet which was written in 1886 and published in 1887. The book begins with a Part 1 that is stated as “ Being a Reprint from the Reminiscences of John H. Watson, M.D., Late of the Indian Army Medical Department ”. Two things seem a little odd here. First, as will be shown later, referring to the book as a “Reprint” of something by John H. Watson, M.D. may have more significance than was originally realized by the initial reading public. Most of the early readers considered Sherlock Holmes a work of pure fiction but others considered him to be a real person right from the beginning. It will shortly be seen that there is something to be said in the stories themselves for both points of view.
The second odd thing about A Study in Scarlet is that when Sir Arthur wrote it, he was only 26 years of age and yet both Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson emerge as full blown characters and the stories were recounted with a certain maturity of style and content that one would consider to be quite unusual in such a young person. Creative genius is no doubt accountable to some extent. However, it must be remembered that Sir Arthur’s other works did not capture the attention of the public to anything near the extent to which the Sherlock Holmes stories did. No, there was something special about the Sherlock Holmes stories and it is that “something” that can hopefully be identified as “reality”.
Creative genius has shown itself before and since but no character, not even those of Dickens, Poe, Defoe or any others, has had the lasting impact of Sherlock Holmes. Walt Disney was a creative genius and yet his character, Mickey Mouse, did not come upon the world stage fully blown. Disney’s early efforts show the beginnings of Mickey in a character called “ Oswald”. Later, a closer character called “ Steamboat Willie “ appeared who finally evolved into Mickey Mouse. It was a gradual process. Not so with Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson. They arrived on the scene fully developed.
It seems very probable that there did in fact exist a real “consulting detective” who may at first have been a patient, and later a very good friend and room-mate, of a very real Dr. James Watson. That detective and Dr. James Watson evidently had a close relationship even to the point of working together on the detective’s cases, and the good doctor took to making notes about them. For some reason, Dr Watson never got his notes into story form and never published anything about the detective’s cases himself.
Sir Arthur and Dr. James Watson were friends and both were writers and members of the Portsmouth Literary and Scientific Society. However, when Sir Arthur joined the Portsmouth Literary and Scientific Society in 1883, having already achieved the status of a published author in his own right, it would appear that an arrangement was made whereby Sir Arthur would put Dr. James Watson’s notes into story form for publication. And so it came to be, three years later in 1886, that Sir Arthur wrote the novel A Study in Scarlet, the first of sixty Sherlock Holmes stories.
For some reason, Dr James Watson did not want his true name used in connection with the stories, particularly since it was apparently also arranged that Sir Arthur would have permission to add fictionalized stories to the true cases. However, Sir Arthur’s attempt to hide Dr Watson’s name was not very serious. At first, he chose the name Ormond Sacker but apparently Dr. Watson was not happy with that choice. All that Sir Arthur did therefore was to change the doctor’s first name from James to John and to add a middle initial of “H” without ever disclosing what it stood for. But even at that and as we shall see, Sir Arthur could not resist giving some hint that it was Dr. James Watson who was involved. Sir Arthur was born and raised in Scotland and there is a Scottish name “Hamish” which is the English equivalent of “James” It is therefore reasonably conjectured that the “H” in John H. Watson stands for Hamish, the English equivalent of James.
In the Sherlock Holmes story entitled “The Man With the Twisted Lip”, published in 1891, Sir Arthur actually casts Dr. Watson as “James”, not “John”. Was that a slip of the pen or was it because Sir Arthur could not get it out of his mind that Dr James Watson was the real narrator with respect to the actual cases? It seems obvious that the latter is the case. To strengthen that belief, consider this: “ The Man With the Twisted Lip ” was annotated in the 1993 Oxford University edition of The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes, where it is reported that on March 4, 1908, seventeen years after publication of “The Man With the Twisted Lip”, Sir Arthur again referred to Dr. James Watson in a letter to the editor of the Strand magazine. In it he stated that he could see no reason why he could not do an occasional story “…. under some such heading as “Reminiscences of Mr. Sherlock Holmes (Extracted from the diaries of his friend, Dr. James Watson)”!!! That would seem to be fair proof of where Sir Arthur got his factual Sherlock Holmes stories. Notice also that 22 years after he wrote A Study in Scarlet, which he prefaced as “Being a Reminiscence of John H.Watson, etc.”, he again referred to the fact that the further stories that he proposed to write would be taken from an independent source which in the first instance, A Study in Scarlet, he names as John H. Watson, M.D. and in the second, as Dr. James Watson.
Many of the details of the Sherlock Holmes stories, including the factual and physical settings, the residence at 221 Baker Street and the various and numerous parties to the plots, are too convoluted to analyze in this paper for the purpose of confirming the reality of the stories themselves. It appears that some were based on carefully screened facts and that others were pure fiction. There is, however, one observation that should be made in regard to the reality versus fictional aspect of the stories. In some, the fictional nature is obvious while in others there are many references to actual places, events and even people, although the exact identities of the latter are masked behind fictional names. Many times actual locations are referred to except with respect to places where the crimes or major action actually take place. Those locations are fictionalized which leads one to believe that in such cases, the stories are based on real events and thus the need to screen the actual locations. There are many instances of this in the stories and one particular case comes to mind that is illustrative of the point. In “ The Adventure of the “Three Gables”, published in 1920, reference is made to a certain professional gossip named Langdale Pike to whom Sherlock Holmes often turned for helpful information. That story informs us that Langdale Pike, obviously a fictional name, “spent his waking hours in the bow window of a St. James Street club” In the excellent book Sherlock Holmes in London by Charles Viney, there is a photograph, taken in 1907, of a Hansom cab standing outside Boodle’s Club in St. James's Street, London. The photo not only shows what the caption calls “…..its famous bow window ” but also, upon close examination, a man standing in it! There were, at the time, four clubs in St. James's Street but only one had a bow window. Clearly then, Sir Arthur in 1920, was in possession of notes relating to a very real professional gossip who took as his vantage point the real bow window of the real Boodle’s Club and there is that photographic evidence of it taken 16 years before the story was published!
Based on the above, it may be concluded that Dr James Watson, for reasons we will never know, chose to collaborate with Sir Arthur in the publication of notes that he made concerning his association with a certain real “consulting detective”. The name of that detective has come down to us, as Sherlock Holmes and we are unable to confirm or deny the accuracy of it. It is probably accurate. Sir Arthur considered trying to mask the first name as “Sherringford” but eventually decided against it.
There is one final observation to be made in support of the contention that Sherlock Holmes was a real person. In his Preface to The Case Book of Sherlock Holmes, Sir Arthur first explains that after the completion of the Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes, he had determined to end the stories because at the time, he felt that his literary energies should not be directed too much into one channel. He then goes on to state, however, that he never regretted deciding, later on, to continue them. In particular, he said: “Had Holmes never existed I could not have done more, though he may perhaps have stood a little in the way of the recognition of my more serious work.” It seems very clear then that we have Sir Arthur’s own word for it that Sherlock Holmes did indeed exist!
Fact or fiction, it has rightly been noted that Sherlock Holmes has been subsumed into the collective consciousness and someone else who wrestled with the question of his reality put it very succinctly: “Sherlock Holmes is a man who never lived and will never die,” and that is as much as any man could hope for and a happy note upon which to end this paper.
Copyright © Chris Redmond 2008
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The phenomenon of Moreton waves was first reported in 1960 from the legendary Lockheed Observatory. Y. Uchida in his 1968-1974 papers nicely explained Moreton waves as the intersection of coronal shock waves (due to a flare) with the chromosphere. But since then there had been surprisingly few follow-up studies, until coronal waves were detected by SOHO/EIT (hence called "EIT waves") and got lots of attention especially in conjunction with CMEs. Interestingly, many people came to identify EIT waves with the coronal waves that are responsible for Moreton waves, without actually looking at H images in which the latter waves are observed. Only recently, say after 2000, did H Moreton waves come to be a research topic again.
At the Yohkoh meeting, K. Shibata gave an impressive talk to discuss two Moreton wave events, as observed by a small telescope at Hida observatory. The real data analysis was undertaken by his students, of course. His message was that (1) EIT waves are different entities from Moreton waves, and that (2) X-ray waves as detected by Yohkoh SXT, instead, are a coronal counterpart of Moreton waves, therefore signifying fast mode MHD waves as predicted by Uchida. These conclusions are based on the speeds and locations of the three waves.
Moreton waves and EIT waves
The first event was observed on November 4, 1997, at the time of an intense flare (X2.1 in the NOAA/GOES standard). The reference for the analysis is S. Eto et al. (submitted to PASJ in January 2002). This event was associated with a halo CME, which is considered to be the origin of a geomagnetic storm that occurred three days later. A movie of the H off-band (+0.8 Å) images is given here.
Unfortunately, the flare coincided with Yohkoh night, but
EIT waves were observed. The figure on the left (click to enlarge)
shows EIT waves, and compares the locations and speeds of EIT and
Here we note that EIT waves cover a wider angular span. They were also observed further way from the flare site than Moreton waves, due to the lack of high cadence. Plotting the locations of the wave fronts (along four representative lines OA-OD) with time, those for EIT waves do not come on the extrapolations of Moreton waves as shown in the figure on the right.
|One could say that this is due to possible slow down of Moreton waves before they were observed by EIT. But this can be precluded by the oscillations of a remote filament (see the encircled area in the figure on the left), for which the authors think Moreton waves were responsible. Including the time and location of the oscillating filament, we see that Moreton waves did not decelerate. Therefore, EIT waves are not a coronal counterpart of Moreton waves.|
Moreton waves and X-ray waves
The second event occurred a day before. The flare, in the same
active region, was much less intense (only C8.6), but was again
associated with an extended CME, although very diffuse.
This is one of the extremely rare cases where waves were observed in
and soft X-rays at the same time. The reference for this work
is N. Narukage et al., submitted to ApJ in February 2002.
Click here for a movie of H off-band (+0.8 Å) and SXT (saturated, quarter-resolution) images. The fronts of Moreton and X-ray waves were traced and their distances from the flare were plotted with time, as shown in the figure on the right. Unlike EIT waves, X-ray waves are well correlated with Moreton waves. Moreover, the observed speed of X-ray waves (630 km/s) is consistent with the speed predicted from MHD shock theory. For a reasonable range of parameters for temperature and magnetic field, the inferred shock speed is 400-740 km/s, according to the authors. Therefore, they concluded that X-ray waves signify MHD fast shocks responsible for Moreton waves.
Why are these works important?
|In this age of space weather, people often talk about "CME shocks" as a main agent for solar energetic particle (SEP) events. Type II bursts in the dekametric and hectometric wavelengths (observed by Wind/WAVES, which still sends useful data, to my great relief) are a familiar signature of CME shocks. They are often called interplanetary type II bursts because the frequencies correspond to densities characteristic of the outer corona, say 2-10 R. In contrast, metric type II bursts are usually tied with flare shocks. Although Moreton waves may intrinsically represent shocks from flares, the two examples dealt with in this nugget are associated with both metric and hectometric type II bursts. Are the shocks responsible for these type II bursts driven by different mechanisms? Please look at the figures on the right that combine spectra in the two wavelength regimes (credit to the ISTP Workshop in April 1999), and make your own judgment as to whether they are not connected.|
|Observationally, it seems well established that EIT waves are correlated with CMEs. But Uchida, whose model of Moreton waves is still valid, proposed theory at the Yohkoh meeting on the difference of Moreton and EIT waves in "bubble-type" CMEs that are distinct from "loop-type" CMEs. We are still not sure how much of CME launch/acceleration depends on flare explosions not included in scenarios based on filament-eruption-induced processes.|
N. Nitta (NVN) ([email protected]), with thanks to K. Shibata, S. Eto and N. Narukage.
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Is there a diagnostic Mesolithic period in India? Late Pleistocene and Holocene Lithic Assemblages of Bhimbetka and Central India
The main core of the research will consist of lithic analysis of material from Bhimbetka rock-shelter complex in Madhya Pradesh state in India, excavated in the late 70’s and 80’s. Collection from one shelter will be targeted to examine in detail in stratified sequence. An additional assemblage from site/region will be analyzed to assess how representative Bhimbetka sequence is. Potential assemblages from the Son Valley (Univ. of Allahabad) or Gujarat (Univ. of Baroda) are being considered. The research will aim to answer questions like:
- W What does “Mesolithic” mean in the Indian context? Is the use of the term justified?
- Are there significant differences between assemblages in late Pleistocene and early Holocene?
- What technologies and methods were in use? Was there pressure technique present already?
- Is it possible to trace the origin of microlithic tradition(s) in the region?
- Where is the boundary between Mesolithic (hunter-gatherer societies) and Neolithic/ Chalcolithic? When does the “Mesolithic” end?
- How can we define groups of hunter-gatherers coexisting with agriculturalists in the late Holocene? What determines whether those “late” groups are Mesolithic or not?
- MA, Archaeology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland, 2010
- BA, Archaeology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland, 2008
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PRIDE Sentence, Example and UsageExamples and usage of PRIDE in prose and poetry
Usage of "PRIDE": Examples from famous English Poetry
To better understand the meaning of PRIDE, certain examples of its usage are presented.Examples from famous English prose on the use of the word PRIDE
"If there's one thing i pride myself on, it's my memory charms"- The word/phrase 'pride' was used by 'J. K. Rowling' in 'Harry potter and the chamber of secrets'.
"Second head boy in the family! she said, swelling with pride"- 'J. K. Rowling' has used the pride in the novel Harry potter and the prisoner of azkaban.
"Parvati came back down the ladder glowing with pride"- To understand the meaning of pride, please see the following usage by J. K. Rowling in Harry potter and the prisoner of azkaban.
Usage of "PRIDE" in sentences
"Her smiles are lightning, though her pride despair"
- This term pride was used by Samuel Daniel in the Poem Beauty, time, and love.
"The which doe still adorne her beauties pride"
- This term pride was used by Edmund Spenser in the Poem Epithalamion.
"A sense of completion and overflowing pride"
- This term pride was used by Scotty Wright in the Poem Love poem.
"A few well-spoken words on civic pride"
"Her damnable pride"
"Nebulous distinction between pride and conceit"
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- An example of starve is someone being trapped and not being able to eat for five days.
- An example of starve is a child acting up because they're lacking in attention.
- to die from lack of food
- to suffer or become weak from hunger
- Informal to be ravenously hungry
- to suffer great need: with for: starving for affection
- Now Dial. to suffer and die slowly from any cause, esp. from extreme cold
Origin of starveMiddle English sterven ; from Old English steorfan, to die, perish, akin to German sterben: see start
- to cause to starve by depriving of food
- to force by starvation: to starve an enemy into submission
- to cause to suffer from a lack or need of something specified
- Now Dial. to cause to die from extreme cold
verbstarved, starv·ing, starves
- To suffer or die from extreme or prolonged lack of food.
- Informal To be hungry.
- To suffer from deprivation: a puppy starving for attention.
- Archaic To suffer or die from cold.
- To cause to starve.
- To force to a specified state by starving: starved the town into submission.
Origin of starveMiddle English sterven, to die, from Old English steorfan; see ster-1 in Indo-European roots.
(third-person singular simple present starves, present participle starving, simple past starved, starf, or storve (obsolete), past participle starved or rarely storven)
- (intransitive) To die because of lack of food or of not eating.
- (intransitive) To be very hungry.
- Hey, ma, I'm starving!
- To destroy, make capitulate or at least make suffer by deprivation, notably of food
- To deprive of nourishment.
- They starved the child until it withered away.
- (UK, especially Yorkshire and Lancashire) To kill with cold.
- I was half starved waiting out in that wind.
From Middle English sterven, from Old English steorfan (“to die"), from Proto-Germanic *sterbanÄ… (“to become stiff, die"), from Proto-Indo-European *(s)terp- (“to lose strength, become numb, be motionless"); or from Proto-Indo-European *sterbÊ°- (“to become stiff"), from Proto-Indo-European *ster- (“stiff"); or a conflation of the aforementioned. Cognate with Scots sterve (“to die, perish"), Saterland Frisian stjerwa (“to die"), West Frisian stjerre (“to die"), Dutch sterven (“to die"), Low German staarven (“to die"), starven, German sterben (“to die"), Icelandic stirfinn (“peevish, froward"), Albanian shterp (“sterile, unproductive, barren land").
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Spring 2004, Vol. 36, No. 1
Spotlight on NARA:
Archivist Announces Results of The People's Vote
Flanked by Jesse Jackson, Jr., and Cokie Roberts, and with the Charters of Freedom as a backdrop, Archivist John W. Carlin announces the results of The People's Vote. (Photo by Earl McDonald)
From September 17, 2003 (Constitution Day), through December 1, 2003, nearly 40,000 Americans all across the country cast more than 300,000 votes for the documents they believed had most influenced American history.
Some of these records are well known, like the Declaration of Independence, Constitution, or Bill of Rights, but some played a lesser known role in history. For example, the Morrill Act, enabled new western states to establish colleges for its citizens, opening educational opportunities to thousands of people, and the Keating-Owens Child Labor Act, limited the working hours of children and forbade interstate sale of goods produced by child labor.
This unique initiative, titled The People's Vote: 100 Documents that Shaped America, was cosponsored by the National Archives, U.S. News & World Report, and National History Day.
In a Rotunda ceremony on December 15 (Bill of Rights Day), John W. Carlin, Archivist of the United States, announced the results of The People's Vote.
In announcing the winners, Carlin had assistance from two special guests: journalist and Foundation for the National Archives board member Cokie Roberts and Representative Jesse Jackson, Jr., of Illinois. Roberts and Jackson took turns reading passages from the winning documents.
A total of 315,052 votes were cast by 39,075 people. This was truly a diverse national initiative, as people from all geographic regions and age groups participated. More votes came from the Midwest than any other region, followed by the Northeast. Almost twice as many males voted as females.
About fifteen thousand of the voters were over fifty years old, and the next largest age group of participants were people between eighteen and thirty-four years old. There were about eight thousand voters in this group.
Almost twenty-seven thousand votes were cast online, while approximately twelve thousand people voted by paper ballot. The paper ballots allowed voters to write in documents that were not on the list of one hundred milestone documents. Most of the write-in choices were records from after 1965, the cut-off date for the list of milestone documents. Among some of the recurring write-in votes were President Ronald Reagan's speech that implored "Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall"; the Medicare Act; the Supreme Court decision on Roe v. Wade; and President George W. Bush's speech in the wake of the September 11, 2001, attacks.
Students from the Lab School in Washington, D.C., shown viewing the Social Security Act, made The People's Vote part of their classroom activities.
In ascending order, the top ten documents as voted on by the people of the United States are
10) The Social Security Act
"An Act to provide for the general welfare by establishing a system of Federal old-age benefits, and by enabling the several States to make more adequate provision for aged persons, blind persons, dependent and crippled children, maternal and child welfare, public health, and the administration of their unemployment compensation laws; to establish a Social Security Board; to raise revenue; and for other purposes."
On August 14, 1935, the Social Security Act established a system of old-age benefits for workers, benefits for victims of industrial accidents, unemployment insurance, and aid for dependent mothers and children, the blind, and the physically handicapped.
9) Civil Rights Act
"An act to enforce the constitutional right to vote, to confer jurisdiction upon the district courts of the United States to provide injunctive relief against discrimination in public accommodations, to authorize the Attorney General to institute suits to protect constitutional rights in public facilities and public education, to extend the Commission on Civil Rights, to prevent discrimination in federally assisted programs, to establish a Commission on Equal Employment Opportunity, and for other purposes."
Signed into law by President Lyndon Johnson on July 2, 1964, the Civil Rights Act prohibited discrimination in public places, provided for the integration of schools and other public facilities, and made employment discrimination illegal. This document was the most sweeping civil rights legislation since Reconstruction.
8) Gettysburg Address
"Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth, upon this continent, a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that 'all men are created equal.'"
Speaking of a "new birth of freedom," President Abraham Lincoln delivered one of the most memorable speeches in U.S. history at the dedication of the cemetery for the Union war dead in Gettysburg, following the most famous battle of the Civil War in July 1863.
7) The Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution
"Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction."
Passed by Congress on January 31, 1865, and ratified on December 6, 1865, the Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery in the United States.
6) The Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution
"The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex."
Passed by Congress on June 4, 1919, and ratified on August 18, 1920, the Nineteenth Amendment granted women the right to vote.
5) Emancipation Proclamation
"And by virtue of the power, and for the purpose aforesaid, I do order and declare that all persons held as slaves within said designated States, and parts of States, are, and henceforward shall be free; and that the Executive government of the United States, including the military and naval authorities thereof, will recognize and maintain the freedom of said persons."
President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863, thereby including the abolition of slavery as a war aim of the Union.
4) The Louisiana Purchase Treaty
"The First Consul of the French Republic desiring to give to the United States a strong proof of his friendship doth hereby cede to the United States in the name of the French Republic for ever and in full Sovereignty the said territory with all its rights and appurtenances as fully and in the Same manner as they have been acquired by the French Republic in virtue of the above mentioned Treaty concluded with his Catholic Majesty."
In this transaction with France, signed on April 30, 1803, the United States purchased 828,000 square miles of land west of the Mississippi River for fifteen million dollars. For roughly four cents an acre, the United States doubled its size, expanding the nation westward.
3) Bill of Rights
"Article the third . . . Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances."
Although twelve amendments were originally proposed, the ten that were ratified became the Bill of Rights in 1791. They defined citizens' rights in relation to the newly established government under the Constitution.
2) Constitution of the United States
"We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America."
This four-page document, which established the government of the United States, was drafted in secret by delegates to the Constitutional Convention during the summer of 1787 and signed on September 17, 1787.
1) Declaration of Independence
"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness."
The Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. It was engrossed on parchment, and on August 2, 1776, delegates began signing it. More than three-quarters of the voters named this document as one of the most influential in American History.
After announcing the results of The People's Vote, Carlin said, "What is very apparent here is that we Americans hold our rights and freedoms—and the documents that proclaim and protect them—in very high regard, for the majority of these documents deal with individual liberties and the right to vote."
No other project has invited Americans from all walks of life, all across the country, to voice their opinions on the documents that have shaped our history, culture, and society today. Not only did The People's Vote challenge voters to really think and learn about the one hundred milestone documents, but it encouraged enthusiastic debate in homes, classrooms, workplaces, and online.
The goal of The People's Vote was not only to make Americans more aware of some of the important records that have influenced our history and defined our people, but also to increase their interest in all the records held by the National Archives.
For in America—in a democracy—records matter.
For more information on all of the one hundred milestone documents, go to www.ourdocuments.gov.
The ten most influential documents in American history, as chosen by The People's Vote. The percentage of voters that chose each document in also included.
1. Declaration of Independence—75.9%
2. Constitution of the United States—69.3%
3. Bill of Rights—67.9%
4. Louisiana Purchase Treaty—34.3%
5. Emancipation Proclamation—33.5%
6. Nineteenth Amendment (women's right to vote)—31.4%
7. Thirteenth Amendment (abolition of slavery)—30.1%
8. Gettysburg Address—25.4%
9. Civil Rights Act—25.2%
10. Social Security Act—20.9%
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Mt. Zion Rosenwald School – Mars Bluff, South Carolina
South Carolina | SC Picture Project | Florence County Photos | Mt. Zion Rosenwald School
This three-room school in the Mars Bluff community of Florence was built in 1925 as a Rosenwald School. Rosenwald Schools were partly funded by Chicago businessman Julius Rosenwald, then-president of Sears, Roebuck, and Company, to help educate black students across the rural, segregated South. The program existed in South Carolina from 1917 until 1932, during a time when South Carolina’s Constitution prohibited black children from attending school with white children. (This prohibition took root in our 1895 constitution and remained in effect, in many communities, until as late as 1963.)
Interestingly, another school sat on this site prior to the construction of the Rosenwald School. That school was built around 1870 by Mt. Zion Methodist Church, located across the street. When the school burned in the early 1920s, Mt. Zion helped secure funds for its replacement. The Rosenwald Foundation stipulated that black and white communities must work together to raise matching funds in order to receive building monies for new schools.
Children from first through sixth grades were taught at the new school, called Mt. Zion School or Mars Bluff School. Due to limited funding, school met for only part of the year, eliminating two to four months from a typical school year.
The school operated until 1952, when the Mars Bluff Consolidated School opened. Today the school remains very much as it was when it was built in 1925. However, the porch was restored sometime in the 1980s during a preservation effort. Mt. Zion United Methodist Church contributes to the preservation and maintenance of the building.
Mt. Zion Rosenwald School is listed in the National Register, which says the following:
Mt. Zion Rosenwald School was built in 1925 as a rural black school. It was significant for its role in the general development of public education for blacks in the state from 1895 to 1954 and also for its role in one of America’s largest non-residential experiments in standardized architecture intended to provide “separate but equal” facilities for white and black school children. The school also acts as a reminder of Julius Rosenwald Fund’s commitment to the improvement of black education and racial cooperation in the south in the early twentieth century. Construction of the project was funded in part by the Julius Rosenwald Fund, which helped build more than 5,300 black school buildings across the south from 1917-1932. To receive money from the Fund, the local black community and local white community both had to contribute.
Most of the schools were phased out in the 1940s and 1950s as improved roads and the introduction of school buses allowed consolidation of students into more efficient and larger facilities. The Mt. Zion Rosenwald School was typical in construction of a “two or three teacher” type school. The school is a rectangular frame building with tall exterior windows designed to take advantage of the climate and available light.
Mt. Zion Rosenwald School Info
Address: 5040 Liberty Chapel Road, Florence, SC 29506
GPS Coordinates: 34.179850,-79.643673
Mt. Zion Rosenwald School Map
Mt. Zion Rosenwald School Add Info and More Photos
The purpose of the South Carolina Picture Project is to celebrate the beauty of the Palmetto State and create a permanent digital repository for our cultural landmarks and natural landscapes. We invite you to add additional pictures (paintings, photos, etc) of Mt. Zion Rosenwald School, and we also invite you to add info, history, stories, and travel tips. Together, we hope to build one of the best and most loved SC resources in the world!
You may not use them in any form without written consent.
SCIWAY does not provide contact information for photographers.
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| 0.964267 | 801 | 3.640625 | 4 |
Mike & Winston
Mike and Winston are volunteers with the American Cetacean Society near
Los Angeles. They have participated in the counting of migrating whales
for several years. They share these comments and photos about whale wounds:
was probably hit by a boat, or had been entangled in some fishing nets.
Note the V shape cut on its peduncle (tail stock ). The ACS/LA
Gray whale census sighted a similar wound on a mother's back. It was
a huge wound in her right side from just in front of the dorsal ridges down
the side of the peduncle for at least two feet. The wound was white with
lots of lice around it. From the left side it looked like a chunk had been
taken from her back. The wound did, however, appear to be on the mend. Because
the gray whale migrates close to shore, it is more likely than other whales
to get these types of injuries."
"While observing the migrating Gray whales, we occasionally come
across injured whales. Some have very major wounds like this one.
This! Study the Fluke
"Some injuries are minor. If you look carefully at
the fluke (tail) edges on this photo, it appears that something has been
taking bites out of it. What do you think the culprit is? Write or draw
your predictions in your journal before reading on.
you are thinking Orca (killer whales) you would likely be wrong. Although
some Orcas are known to attack and eat other marine mammals, these wounds
are more likely to be done by a 10-inch long shark, known as a "Cookie-Cutter
Shark" (Isistius brasiliensis). The Cookie-cutter Shark is
named after the neat cookie-shaped wounds that it leaves on the bodies
of larger fishes and marine mammals. It does this by attaching itself
to its prey with its suctorial lips, and then spins to cut out a cookie-shaped
plug of flesh."
2001 Journey North. All Rights Reserved. Please send all questions,
comments, and suggestions to our feedback form
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| 0.954853 | 446 | 2.703125 | 3 |
As human beings we are becoming soft in our bodies and in our minds as our bodies do less and less and our minds lose focus on the wider aspects of life.
How many of us own microwaves? It saves us time but what do those micro waves do to the food we cook with them? In 1976 the Russians carried out experiments with microwave ovens and found that heating food sufficiently for human consumption caused the following:
Destabilisation of protein compounds
Binding effects on molecules from radioactivity
Formation of d-Nitrosodiethanolamine cancer causing agent
Creation of cancer forming agents in milk and cereal grain
Microwaves also caused alteration in the breakdown of glucoside when frozen fruits were thawed.
In other words, microwaves change the structure of food and makes it carcinogenic. It is far better to get out a saucepan, switch on the cooker and prepare meals from scratch. We may think we do not have time for freshly cooked food, but compared to the alternatives, it is worth the time and the effort.
Billions of people use mobile/cell phones every single moment of the day. There are no wires confining us to our homes anymore so we can talk on the move. To function cell phones use electromagnetic radiation, which is in microwave level. If used for long periods at a time heat can be felt coming from the cell phone which causes headaches.
The social skills of our societies are based around the latest mobile technology. We can see each other, we can hear each other and we can text/message each other. We never actually have to touch another human being again.
Technology and computers can keep us alive way beyond what our bodies can really cope with. Life support systems, monitors, machines to keep us breathing even when our brains have died. Robotic limbs and computer/brain induced movements help us to walk and talk again. Life can seem endless with technology. How about keeping your head frozen until a new body can be found?
Most of the technology today was dreamed up in sci-fi television programmes. Did we imagine in 1950 that by the year 2012 we would no longer need to leave our homes to do anything ever again?
Computers have taken over the world. We have set up our offices in our homes so that 'work' is just a step away. Every establishment from banking to healthcare is run by computers. Our telephone systems are computer based leaving us listening to recorded voices. We are unable to communicate our wishes until a human picks up the phone. Our electricity and gas supplies are controlled by computer programmes and our drinking water is cleaned using computer technology.
Now imagine if an unexpected explosive Sun-storm came sweeping to Earth and wiped out our entire computer network? It could happen and how would we cope? We would be unable to withdraw money from our banking accounts. We would be unable to speak to each other without having to come face to face. Everything we know as life in the twenty first century would come to a halt.
We can shop on line, pay our bills on line and we can communicate with anyone, anywhere in the world. We can buy computerised treadmills that joggle our soft bodies around in the hope of keeping us fit. We watch television to find out what is happening in the world. We obtain our food the quickest way we can by ordering 'take-out' online or over the phone.
We have machines that do our washing and drying, dishwashers to remove the greasy food from the plates and vacuum cleaners to sweep away the dust and dirt. We never have to put any effort into anything we do. We can sit back and let technology do it for us.
So, is this it for society? Humanity has evolved, but into what? Anti-social creatures who sit behind a computer screen and ignore what is going on in the world? Soft bodies and soft minds will not generate progress. We sit back and allow ourselves to be plied with the latest gadgets in the hope our lives become easier.
Maybe the previous generations had it easier because they lived without all the frustration of talking to machines. They did not live by the fancies of a laptop, because unless we are all computer experts, what do we do when our machines beep and shout error at us? We break down! We think our lives are easier today but we have come to rely on technology and it could spell disaster for us all.
Freedom is the basic concept and construct of life everywhere, because freedom is the basic nature of God. All systems which reduce, restrict, impinge upon or eliminate freedom in any way are systems which work against life itself. ~ Neale Donald Walsch
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| 0.961522 | 957 | 2.984375 | 3 |
How much water should you drink a day? How much is “a lot”? How much is “enough”?
General Rule of Thumb
We are often told that we need to drink at least eight glasses of water a day. How do we derive at eight glasses? How much is a glass? Does this apply to everybody?
As a general guide, here’s a simple formula to work out the minimum amount of water you should drink a day:
Half of your body weight in pounds (lb) convert to oz, divide by 8 oz (approx. 230 ml) per glass.
Your body weight = 160 lb
Halve it = 160 / 2 = 80 lb
Replace “lb” with “oz” = 80 oz
So how much is that if you split the amount into glasses of 8 oz each, to be drunk throughout the day?
80 oz / 8 = 10 glasses
This means, the heavier your body weight, the more water you will need. This is the minimum amount of water you need to drink in a day.
Factors That Influence Water Needs
- Exercise: The more you exercise, the more water you will need to drink to keep hydrated. On top of your minimum requirement, an extra one or two (8-oz) glasses for every hour of exercise should be sufficient.
- Environment: In hot and humid weather which causes you more perspiration and urination, drink additional glasses of water to replenish loss of moisture and to keep hydrated.
- Illnesses or health conditions: When there is fever, vomiting or diarrhea, your body loses water which needs to be replenished with rehydration solutions. Other health conditions like urinary tract or bladder infections may also require you to drink more.
- Pregnancy or nursing mothers: For pregnant women, the above formula applies, to include the weight of her pregnancy. For nursing mothers, endeavour to drink at least two to three glasses (8-oz) more a day, on top of your minimum requirement.
How to Get More From the Water You Drink
The best time to drink your water is during the first half of the day and less nearer to bed time. To get more from the water you drink, there are some ingredients you can add that can help with your overall health:
- A teaspoon of apple cider vinegar or a tablespoon of vinegar honey to a glass of water to break down fats. It also helps to keep your blood pressure in check.
- Squeeze half a lemon into a glass of water to be drunk once a day. Lemon water aids digestion and waste elimination, thus controlling constipation and diarrhea. It also helps relieve heartburn, bloating and belching. It has many other health benefits and alkalizes the body.
- Stir in a pinch of sea salt for every 8 oz of water you drink. Sea salt has over 80 types of natural mineral that are beneficial for our body and helps aid many health conditions, including clearing the lungs of excessive mucus and preventing muscle cramps. Unlike table salt, it actually helps reduce blood pressure. Sea salt is live salt, it doesn’t make you thirsty.
Read also: What type of water to drink?
Drink to your health. It is an easy thing to do !
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Children are as likely to inherit eczema from their fathers as they are from their mothers, research suggests.
The number of people with eczema is increasing
Their conclusions are based on results from an ongoing study called Children of the 90s based at Bristol University.
It had been thought by some that eczema was more likely to have come from the mother's side of the family.
The research involving about 8,000 children also suggests parental eczema is a better marker than parental asthma or hay fever of childhood eczema.
The parents were asked to fill out questionnaires about any family history of allergic or atopic diseases such as asthma, hay fever and eczema.
The study authors then compared this information with the children's records of eczema up to the age of three-and-a-half.
In families where neither parent had eczema, 28% of the children showed signs of eczema.
When either the mother or the father had eczema this rose to 40% and if both parents had eczema 52% of the children had eczema.
There was no evidence that associations with maternal atopy were stronger than with paternal.
A history of eczema also seemed to be more important than a history of general allergy.
Lead author Dr Nellie Wadonda-Kabondo said: "While doctors have tended to group the atopic diseases together, our findings support the idea that there are several different genes involved.
"The child's risk of developing eczema was much higher if parents had a history of eczema, but if parents had hay fever or asthma the risk of the child developing eczema was substantial only if both parents had one or both of these diseases.
"It is important to establish the patterns of how children inherit eczema so that we can search for the genes that cause this disease."
On the increase
Margaret Cox, chief executive of the National Eczema Society, said: "It's interesting and we welcome anything that increases our understanding of eczema.
"It's part of a continuing jigsaw.
"We still, remarkably and worryingly, know little about this disease, despite the fact that it is becoming an increasing common disease.
"Hopefully this could help put us in a better position to be able to cure or even prevent the disease in the future."
She said tackling eczema early on in life might, in turn, prevent the onset of other allergic disease such as asthma and hay fever.
Dr Tom Poyner, vice chairman of the Primary Care Dermatology Society, said it was also important to consider which environmental factors might be contributing to eczema.
The study findings have been published in Archives of Disease in Childhood.
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| 0.976721 | 576 | 2.9375 | 3 |
We all know how the story ends: Apple sells millions of iPhones every time they release a new model. But do you know how the story began?
It all started in the garage at 2066 Crist Drive, Los Altos, California. That's where Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak, along with Ronald G. Wayne, formed the Apple Computer Company on April Fools’ Day, 1976. It's been almost two years since Steve Jobs passed away, and since that time his childhood home has become a popular destination for tourists. Some people feel that this home should be classified as a historical monument, so the Los Altos Historical Commission planned on holding a meeting to discuss the topic Monday night. If the property is indeed classified as a historical site, the home would have to be preserved as it currently stands with no remodeling allowed.
On a local San Francisco television channel, Steve Jobs' mother was interviewed and was in favor of the designation. She said that she's used to people dropping by to pose for pictures in front of the world's most famous garage, the site where the first Apple computer was built. It's not known when a decision will be finalized, but the locals seem to be of the opinion that this is an important piece of computer history so we wouldn't be surprised if this becomes a protected site.
Source: NBC in San Francisco | Image via CNN
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| 0.968996 | 281 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Christopher Wright authors the book Knowing Jesus Through the Old Testament to help modern day Christians make a correlation between Old Testament Israel and the Messiah-ship of Jesus Christ. I think this is the best resource for the answer to this question and the full text can be found here
Wright begins his book by making the assertion that the Jesus of the New Testament embodies the covenants and promises set forth in the Old Testament by God to Israel (Wright 1992, 62). Wright claims that it “is the contention of [the] whole book that we must clearly face up to the distinctive claims of the Hebrew scriptures if we are to get our understanding of Christ’s uniqueness straight also” (Wright, 35). In the Old Testament, the people of Israel are the chosen people of God. It is through these people that God chooses to bring salvation to the world (Wright, 49). Wright claims that Jesus “had, in a sense, taken on the identity of Israel” in the New Testament (Wright, 182). Jesus came into a historically centered Jewish culture and claimed the identity of the saving grace of the world.
Wright concludes his text by making the claim that “Jesus did not come to teach people new ideas about some new moral philosophy which he called the Kingdom of God,” but rather became the fulfillment of the Old Testament promises entirely (Wright, 251). Wright accurately shows how Jesus not only fulfills the promises of the Old Testament but also adapts it’s philosophies for himself (Wright, 197). Jesus, then, uses the Old Testament to find his own identity, his purpose and his values.
As Wright begins to develop his book, his fundamental claim is the Jewish nature of Jesus himself. Therefore, Wright begins Knowing Jesus Through the Old Testament by exploring the Jewish culture that surrounded the time of Jesus. His goal is simply to enhance the personhood of Jesus through a deep knowledge of the Old Testament, its history, and its theological values. Just as through Israel God created a universal blessing, through Jesus God has created a universal means of salvation (Wright, 36). Through both Israel and Jesus there occur elements of election, redemption, covenant and inheritance (Wright, 40). Wright affirms this biblically through multiple passages, the foremost being Galatians 3:29 – “If you belong to the Messiah, then you are Abraham’s seed, and heirs according to the promise.” This verse and the assertions of Wright all center around Jesus being the doorway into which modern-day Christians are accepted into the covenant of eternal life and the blessings set forth in ancient times by God to Israel.
Therefore, as Wright presses on into the book the reader travels with him into the promises that God makes in the Old Testament to Israel and the other nations. It is here that Wright explains in detail the inter-connectedness of Jesus and Israel and how the people in the time that the gospels were written would have implicitly understood the significance (Wright, 60). As the reader explores all of the ancient covenants that God created with Israel, Wright explains how each one of them was more than just a specific promise to a specific people. “So once again, we find the same combination: the universal, missiological dimension of the covenant, in its ultimate scope, for the blessing of all nations through Israel” (Wright, 92-93). This sets up the historical context for the New Covenant which occurred with Jesus (Israel) and through Him salvation can be expanded to other nations (Gentiles).
Wright’s goal of enhancing the person of Jesus through the Old Testament is both clear and powerful as moves forward in the text. Wright then explains how the character of Jesus was formed by the Old Testament’s use of the phrase “Son of God” (Wright, 106-107). Many times in the Old Testament, the people of Israel are referred to as the “sons of God” and are therefore related to Jesus within the text (Wright, 122-123). In Exodus 4:22 God declares Israel to be His firstborn son; therefore, the relationship between Israel and Jesus is very explicit – Israel was the firstborn son of God and Jesus also carried this title. Because of this, the mission of Israel must also be the mission of Jesus. The redemptive abilities of Israel then become the redemptive abilities of Jesus. Through Israel God chose to bless the world and through Jesus He chose to save it.
Wright also asserts, then, that Jesus gained his mission from the Old Testament as well. Wright claims that “Israel was the servant of God, chosen and upheld by [God], with the purpose of being a light to the nations” (Wright, 162). As Jesus became the embodiment of Israel he also took on the global mission and yoke of Israel. This is the weakest part of Wright’s argument for the purpose of Jesus through the Old Testament. While he provides some Biblical examples in the chapter about Jesus’ purpose, this is the area of his book where he treats the Bible figuratively. Wright produces a firm argument for his case but loses ground in his over-employed metaphor of Jesus acting as every aspect of Israel.
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| 0.952282 | 1,083 | 2.625 | 3 |
Teen dating violence
Verizon Wireless is working with the YWCA to raise awareness this February of teen dating violence. February is dedicated to promoting healthy relationships among teens and to prevent dating violence.
“Teen dating violence comes in many forms,”said Jan Peery, CEO of the YWCA. “From bullying to verbal and physical abuse and stalking, we are seeing more and more teens exposed to violence within their relationships. We encourage those who have questions or would like to discuss what is occurring in their own life to talk with a trusted family member or friend and call the YWCA hotline at 917-YWCA (9922) to communicate with a professional who is trained to help.”
Teen dating violence affects nearly 1.5 million high school students nationwide each year. The violence does not just target women – 15 percent of men between 11 and 17 years of age have experienced some form of dating violence.
Here are some common signs of teen dating violence:
- · Isolation from past friends
- · Constant communication with partner
- · Frequent emotional changes
- · Jealousy issues when your teen speaks with another boy/girl
“The statistics of teen dating violence are paralyzing,” said Rich Wu, district manager for Verizon Wireless in Oklahoma City. “Technology can play an important part in helping end the abuse and violence. By using a smartphone a victim can reach out for help through texts, phone calls and even apps. The small device you carry in your pocket can potentially save your life.”
Verizon Wireless is working to provide teens and parents with options to help stop bullying and teen dating abuse.
Here are some apps that are available to teens and parents to help with teen dating violence:
- · The Circle of 6 app connects you with six of your closest friends when you are in a threatening situation, with the touch of only two buttons.
- · An app designed to help those affected by teen dating violence and electronic victimizations, td411, assists in finding help when needed.
- · Never be alone again with the bSafe app. The GPS-based safety alarm will alert your safety network of friends and family in the event of an emergency.
Beyond giving teens a voice and opportunity to end teen dating violence, Verizon also focuses on helping those who have been affected by domestic violence with its HopeLine program. HopeLine is an organization that gives silent victims a voice by providing no longer used wireless devices to local shelters, for use by domestic violence victims. For more information, visit www.verizonwireless.com/hopeline.
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<urn:uuid:4582b322-b692-47a1-9794-cc3e81818a8c>
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http://www.ionok.com/culture/social-issues/teen-dating-violence/
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| 0.955759 | 550 | 2.546875 | 3 |
- 1077 German King Heinrich IV petitions Pope Gregory VII for forgiveness.
1118 Death of Pope Paschal II
1118 Paschalis II [Raniero], pope (1099-1118), dies.
1189 Philip II, Henry II and Richard Lion-Hearted initiate third Crusade.
1189 Philip II of France and Richard I of England begin to assemble troops to wage the Third Crusade.
1276 Innocent V becomes Pope.
1276 Pierre de Tarantaise elected Pope Innocent V.
1287 The treaty of San Agayz is signed. Minorca is conquered by King Alfons III of Aragon.
1324 Zen Buddhist religious debate between Tendai and Shingon.
1338 Birth of Charles V (the Wise) king of France (1364-80).
1519 Death of Vasco N��ez de Balboa, Spanish explorer
1522 Head inquisitor Adrian Florisz Boeyens elected pope.
1525 The Swiss Anabaptist Movement is born when Conrad Grebel, Felix Manz, George Blaurock, and about a dozen others baptize each other in the home of Manz’s mother in Zürich, breaking a thousand-year tradition of church-state union.
1527 Death of Juan de Grijalva, Spanish conquistador
1542 Parliament passes bill of attainder against Queen Katherine Howard.
1546 Death of Azai Sukemasa, Japanese samurai and warlord (b. 1491)
1571 Birth of John I Pontanus physicist/historian (Amsterdam).
1596 John Ligarius German theologist/prime minister, dies at age 66.
1604 Tsar Ivan IV defeats the False Dmitri, who claims to be the true tsar.
1609 Death of Joseph Justus Scaliger, French protestant scholar (b. 1540)
1609 Joseph Justus Scaliger French inventor of “Julian Period”, dies at age 68.
1626 John Dowland English musician/lyric poet (In Darkness We Dwell), dies at about age 63.
1638 Death of Ignazio Donati, Italian composer
1643 Abel Tasman discovers Tonga.
1659 Birth of Adriaen van der Werff Dutch portrait painter/engraver/architect.
1664 Count Mikl=s of Zrinyi sets out to battle Turkish invasion army.
1665 Domenico Mazzocchi composer, dies at age 72.
1665 Pierre de Fermat French mathematician (Fermat theorem), dies at age 63.
1670 Honorat de Brueil seigneur de Racan French playwright, dies at age 80.
1677 First medical publication in America (pamphlet on smallpox), Boston.
1683 Anthony Ashley Cooper first Earl of Shaftesbury, dies at age 61.
1683 Death of Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, British politician (b. 1621)
1686 Nicolas-Fran?ois Blondel French architect, dies.
1699 Death of Obadiah Walker, English writer (b. 1616)
1704 Willem B Schepers Dutch merchant/ship owner, dies at about age 83.
1706 Death of Adrien Baillet, French scholar and critic (b. 1649)
1710 Death of Johann Georg Gichtel, German mystic (b. 1638)
1720 Sweden and Prussia sign the Treaty of Stockholm.
1722 Death of Charles Paulet, 2nd Duke of Bolton, English supporter of William III of England (b. 1661)
1731 Death of Thomas Woolston, English theologian (b. 1669)
1732 Russia and Persia sign Treaty of Riascha.
1743 Birth of John Fitch inventor (had a working steamboat years before Fulton).
1746 Birth of Johann H Pestalozzi Zurich Switzerland, educator (Leonard and Gertrude).
1746 Gottfried Kirkhoff composer, dies at age 60.
1751 Birth of Josephus Andreas Fodor composer.
1759 Birth of Johan Valckenaer Dutch politician/patriot.
1762 Birth of Giuseppe Antonio Silvani composer.
1766 Death of James Quin, English actor (b. 1693)
1771 Birth of Arnold A Buyskes Dutch Vice-Admiral/colonial director.
1773 Death of Alexis Piron, French writer (b. 1689)
1774 Death of Mustafa III, Ottoman Sultan (b. 1717)
1774 Mustapha III sultan of Turkey (1957-74), dies at age 56.
1775 Birth of Manuel Garcia composer.
1789 First American novel, WH Brown’s “The Power of Sympathy”, is published.
1789 The first American novel, The Power of Sympathy or the Triumph of Nature Founded in Truth, is printed in Boston, Massachusetts.
1792 Birth of Tsjalling Hiddes Halbertsma Fries story teller (Rhymes and Tales).
1793 After being found guilty of treason by the French Convention, Louis XVI of France is guillotined.
1793 Death of King Louis XVI of France (executed) (b. 1754)
1793 Louis XVI French king (1774-93), beheaded by revolutionaries at age 38.
1793 Prussia and Russia sign partition treaty (Poland divided).
1793 Russia and Prussia partition Poland.
1795 Death of Samuel Wallis, English navigator
1796 Birth of John Gelinde van Blom Frisian notary/author.
1799 Edward Jenner’s smallpox vaccination is introduced.
1801 Birth of Ramon Vilanova y Barrera composer.
1802 Birth of Francis Elias Spinner in German Flats, New York, USA; major general in New York militia, sheriff of Herkimer County (1834-37), Congressman (1855-61), US Tresurer (1861-75).
1804 Birth of Eliza Roxcy Snow, American poet (d. 1887)
1813 Birth of John C FrTmont [Pathfinder], map maker/explorer (western US)/Governor (AZ).
1814 Birth of Thomas Attwood Walmisley composer.
1814 Death of Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, French writer and botanist (b. 1737)
1815 Birth of Horace Wells dentist (pioneered use of medical anesthesia).
1815 M Claudius writer, dies at age 74.
1818 Keats writes his poem “On a Lock of Milton’s Hair”.
1821 Birth of John Cabell Breckinridge (Democrat) 14th US Vice Pressident (1857-61)/Major-General (Confederacy).
1821 Paramaribo Suriname catches fire, four die.
1823 Birth of Alexandre Edouard Goria composer.
1824 Ashantees defeat British at Accra, West Africa.
1824 Birth of Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson, American Confederate Army general (d. 1863)
1825 Birth of Imre Mad�ch, Hungarian writer (d. 1864)
1827 Freedom Journal, first Black paper, begins publishing.
1829 Birth of King Oscar II of Sweden and Norway (d. 1907)
1830 Portsmouth (Ohio) blacks forcibly deported.
1831 Achim versus Arnim writer, dies at age 49.
1831 Death of Ludwig Achim von Arnim, German poet (b. 1781)
1833 Birth of Norman Willis union leader (Britain’s Trades Union Congress).
1840 Birth of Sophia Louisa Jex-Blake pioneer English woman physician.
1846 First edition of Charles Dickens’ “Daily News”.
1848 Birth of Henri Duparc, French composer (d. 1933)
1851 Death of Albert Lortzing, German composer (b. 1801)
1851 Gustav Albert Lortzing composer, dies at age 49.
1853 Envelope-folding machine patented by Russell Hawes, Worcester Massachusetts.
1853 Russell L. Hawes patents the envelope-folding machine.
1855 Birth of John Moses Browning, American inventor (d. 1926)
1859 Birth of Antoni Wincenty Rutkowski composer.
1860 Birth of Karl Staaff, Prime Minister of Sweden (d. 1915)
1861 American Civil War: Jefferson Davis resigns from the United States Senate.
1861 Jefferson Davis of Mississippi and four other southern senators resign.
1862 Bozena Nemcov� [Barnora Panklov�], Czechoslovakian author, dies at age 41.
1863 City of Dublin leases part of Cattle Market for 100,000 years.
1864 The Tauranga Campaign starts during the Maori Wars.
1865 Birth of Heinrich E Albers-Sch�nberg German r�ntgenologist.
1867 Birth of Ludwig Thoma, German writer (d. 1921)
1870 Death of Alexander Herzen, Russian writer (b. 1812)
1871 John J Rochussen Governor-General of Netherlands-Indies (1845-51), dies at age 73.
1872 Birth of Jonkhr Frans Beelaerts van Blokland Dutch foreign minister.
1872 Death of Franz Grillparzer, Austrian writer (b. 1791)
1872 Franz Grillparzer Austrian playwright (Sappho/Libussa), dies at age 81.
1874 Franz Grillparzer’s “Libussa” premieres in Vienna.
1875 Birth of John Lindworsky German jesuit/psychologist (Der Wille).
1877 in De Cewsville, Ontario, a meteorite falls to the ground; no damage or injuries.
1878 Birth of Egon Friedell Austria, journalist/actor/writer (Der Partylowe).
1879 Henrik Ibsen’s “Et Dukkehjem” premieres in Copenhagen.
1880 First US sewage disposal system separate from storm drains, Memphis Tennessee.
1881 Death of Wilhelm Matthias Naeff, Swiss Federal Councilor (b. 1802)
1882 Anton Emil Titl composer, dies at age 72.
1883 Birth of Olav Aukrust, Norwegian poet (d. 1929)
1883 Jacopo Tomadini composer, dies at age 62.
1884 Auguste Franchomme composer, dies at age 75.
1884 Birth of Roger Baldwin, American social activist (d. 1981)
1885 Birth of Leadbelly, American blues and folk musician (d. 1949)
1886 Birth of Gustaaf Sap Belgian minister of Finance/Economy.
1887 Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) forms.
1887 Birth of Georges Vezina, Canadian ice hockey goalie and innovator (d. 1926)
1887 Brisbane receives a daily rainfall of 465 millimetres (18.3 inches), a record for any Australian capital city.
1887 The Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) is formed.
1888 Stephan Hale Alonzo Marsh composer, dies at age 83.
1889 Birth of Bert Collins cricket player (Aussie batsman in the post WWI years).
1890 First issue of Propria Cures, Amsterdam student-weekly newspaper.
1891 Birth of Francisco Lazaro Portuguese runner.
1891 Calixa Lavallee composer, dies at age 48.
1891 Death of Calixa LavallTe, Canadian composer (b. 1842)
1892 John Couch Adams English co-discoverer of Neptune, dies.
1894 Guillaume Jean Joseph Nicolas Lekeu composer, dies at age 24.
1894 Oscar Fredriksen skates world record 500m in 47.8 seconds.
1895 Birth of Crist=bal Balenciaga, Spanish couturier (d. 1972)
1897 Birth of J Carrol Naish New York City, New York; actor (Charlie Chan-Adventures of Charlie Chan).
1898 Birth of Avery Claflin composer.
1899 Opel Motors opens for business.
1901 Clyde Fitch’s “Climbers” premieres in New York City, New York.
1901 Death of Elisha Gray, American inventor (b. 1835)
1903 Harry Houdini escapes police station Halvemaansteeg in Amsterdam.
1903 Hermanus J A M Schaepman Dutch clergyman/politician, dies at age 58.
1903 International Theater (Majestic, Park) opens at 5 Columbus Circle New York City, New York.
1904 Birth of Joseph Ford McGuinn Brooklyn New York; actor (Dick Tracy’s G-Men).
1904 Leos Janacek’s opera “Jenufa” premieres in Brno Czechoslovakia.
1905 Birth of Christian Dior, French fashion designer (d. 1957)
1906 Birth of Igor Moiseyev, father of balletic folk dance
1907 Kenora Thistles sweep Montana Wanderers in two for the Stanley Cup.
1908 August Strindberg’s “Spoksonaten” premieres in Stockholm.
1908 Birth of Bengt Str�mgren G�teborg Sweden, astrophysicist (studied gas cloud).
1908 New York City, New York regulation makes it illegal for a woman to smoke in public.
1908 New York City passes the Sullivan Ordinance, making it illegal for women to smoke in public, only to have the measure vetoed by the mayor.
1909 Birth of Todor Skalovski composer.
1910 Birth of Lord Cayzer British financier/Schweppes magnate/multi-millionaire.
1910 British-Russian military intervention in Persia.
1911 Birth of Stanley William Reed cineaste.
1911 The first Monte Carlo Rally.
1912 Birth of Konrad Emil Bloch, German-born biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 2000)
1913 Aristide Briand forms French government.
1914 Death of Theodor Kittelsen, Norwegian artist (b. 1857)
1915 Kiwanis International founded in Detroit.
1915 Kiwanis International founded in Detroit, Michigan.
1917 Birth of Rohan Butler historian.
1918 Birth of Richard D. Winters, War hero
1919 Birth of Jinx Falkenburg Barcelona Spain, actress (Masquerade Party).
1919 Death of Gojong of Joseon, Emperor of Korea (b. 1852)
1919 Meeting of the First D�il ÿireann in the Mansion House Dublin, Sinn FTin adopts Ireland’s first constitution. The first engagement of Irish War of Independence, Sologhead Beg, County Tipperary.
1919 Sinn Fein proclaims parliament of Free Ireland.
1920 Birth of Donald Cuthbert Coleman economic historian.
1921 Birth of Howard Unruh, American mass murderer
1922 Birth of Paul Scofield, English actor
1922 First slalom ski race run, Mnrren, Switzerland.
1923 Birth of Lola Flores, Spanish singer (d. 1995)
1924 Birth of Telly Savalas, American actor (d. 1994)
1924 Death of Vladimir Lenin, Russian Revolutionary (b. 1870)
1924 Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov Lenin, Russian leader, dies of a stroke at age 54.
1924 Vladimir Lenin dies and Joseph Stalin begins to purge his rivals to clear way for his leadership.
1925 Albania declares itself a republic.
1926 Belgian parliament accepts Locarno treaties.
1926 Birth of Steve Reeves, American actor (d. 2000)
1926 Camillo Golgi, Italian medical research (malaria, Nobel Prize 1906), dies at age 81.
1926 Death of Camillo Golgi, Italian physician, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1843)
1927 Floris H Verster, Dutch painter/cartoonist/etcher, dies at age 65.
1928 Death of George Goethals, American army engineer (b. 1858)
1931 Death of Felix Blumenfeld, Russian composer and conductor (b. 1863)
1932 Birth of Boris Shakhlin in Russia; gymnast (Olympics-gold-1956, 1960, 1964).
1932 Death of Giles Lytton Strachey British writer (b. 1880)
1932 Finland and the Soviet Union sign a five-year Pact of Non-Aggression.
1932 [Giles] Lytton Strachey, British biographer/critic, dies at age 51.
1933 Birth of Itzhak Fuks; Israeli El Al captain, crashed in Amsterdam.
1933 Death of George A. Moore, Irish novelist (b. 1852)
1935 The Wilderness Society is founded.
1936 Birth of Koji Hashimoto, Japanese film director (d. 2005)
1938 Birth of Altair Gomes de Figueiredo, Brazilian football player
1938 Dutch government starts obligatory unemployment insurance.
1939 Birth of Wolfman Jack, disk jockey and actor (d. 1995)
1939 US female Figure Skating championship won by Joan Tozzer.
1939 US male Figure Skating championship won by Robin Lee.
1940 Birth of Jack Nicklaus, American golfer
1940 Foreign correspondents in Netherlands under censorship.
1941 Australian infantry with 16 Matilda tanks attacks Tobruk, Libya, forcing the surrender of 25,000-30,000 Italians and 87 tanks.
1941 Birth of Pl�cido Domingo, Spanish-born tenor
1941 First anti-Jewish measures in Bulgaria.
1941 First commercial extraction of magnesium from seawater, in Freeport, Texas.
1941 World War II: Australian and British forces attack Tobruk, Libya.
1942 Birth of Mac Davis, American musician
1942 Bronx magistrate rules all pinball machines illegal.
1942 Henryk Opienski, Polish composer/musicologist/conductor, dies at age 72.
1942 Japanese air raid on Rabaul, New Britain.
1942 Tito’s partisans occupy Foca.
1943 Soviet forces reconquer Gumrak airport near Stalingrad.
1943 Soviet forces reconquer Worosjilowsk.
1943 Vice-Admiral Cunningham appointed British Admiral of fleet.
1944 447 German bombers attack London, England.
1944 649 British bombers attack Magdeburg.
1944 Gustaaf DFL Schamelhout, Flemish physician/writer, dies at age 74.
1944 US General Dwight Eisenhower accepts the revised plan for Operation Overlord, with five divisions landing on fifty miles of Normandy beaches. Americans are to land on the west, aiming for Cherbourg, Brest, and ports around the Loire estuary. British and Canadian forces are to land on the east near Caen, seizing Caen on the first day. D-Day is set for June 5.
1945 Birth of Andrew Stein; president of New York City council (Democrat).
1945 British troops land on Ramree, near coast of Burma.
1946 Birth of Johnny Oates, baseball player and manager (d. 2004)
1947 Birth of Jimmy Ibbotson in Pennsylvania, USA; country singer (Nitty Gritty Dirt Band).
1948 Death of Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari, Italian composer (b. 1876)
1948 West Indies versus England, Test debut Walcott, Weekes and Jim Laker.
1949 First inaugural parade televised (US President Harry Truman).
1950 Alger Hiss is convicted of perjury.
1950 Birth of Billy Ocean, West Indian musician
1950 Death of George Orwell, British writer (b. 1903)
1950 New York jury finds former State Department official Alger Hiss guilty of perjury.
1951 Babe Didrikson-Zaharias wins LPGA Tampa Women’s Golf Open.
1952 Nehru’s Congress party wins general election in India.
1953 Birth of Paul Allen, American entrepreneur
1953 John Foster Dulles appointed as US Secretary of State.
1954 First gas turbine automobile exhibited (New York City, New York).
1954 The first nuclear-powered submarine, the USS Nautilus, is launched in Groton, Connecticut by Mamie Eisenhower, then the First Lady of the United States.
1955 Birth of Jeff Koons, American artist
1955 Death of Archie Hahn, American athlete (b. 1880)
1955 Maarten P Vrij, Dutch lawyer/criminologist/High Council, dies at age 59.
1956 Birth of Robby Benson, American actor
1956 Death of Sam Langford, Canadian boxer (b. 1883)
1957 Arthur L Bowley, English statistician/economist, dies at age 87.
1957 Birth of Jacob Green; NFL defensive end (Seattle Seahawk).
1958 Birth of Michael Wincott, Canadian actor
1958 Philadelphia Phillies agree to televise 78 games into New York City, New York (doesn’t happen).
1958 The last Fokker C.X in military service, the FAF FK-111 target tower, crashed killing the pilot and winch-operator.
1959 Death of Cecil B. DeMille, American director (b. 1881)
1960 Little Joe 4 suborbital Mercury test reaches 16 km.
1960 Rock fall traps 437 at Coalbrook, South Africa, 417 die of methane poisoning.
1961 Death of Blaise Cendrars, Swiss writer (b. 1887)
1962 AndrT Lhote, French painter/art historian, dies at age 76.
1962 Birth of Marie Trintignant, French actress (d. 2003)
1962 Mickey Wright wins LPGA Sea Island Women’s Golf Invitational.
1963 Birth of Hakeem Olajuwon, Nigerian-born basketball player
1964 Carl T Rowan named director of US Information Agency.
1965 Birth of Jam Master Jay, American disc jockey (d. 2002)
1966 Birth of Chris Hammond; US baseball pitcher (Florida Marlins).
1966 The Beatles’ George Harrison marries model Patti Boyd.
1967 AFL Pro Bowl: East beats West 30-23.
1967 Birth of Ulf Stenlund in Sweden; tennis star.
1967 Death of Ann Sheridan, American actress (b. 1915)
1967 US female Figure Skating championship won by Peggy Fleming.
1967 US male Figure Skating championship won by Gary Visconti.
1968 AFL Pro Bowl: East beats West 25-24.
1968 Birth of Charlotte Ross, American actress
1968 Death of Will Lang Jr., Chief Bureau Director of LIFE Magazine (b. 1914)
1968 NFL Pro Bowl: West beats East 38-20.
1968 One of the most publicized and controversial battles of the Vietnam War war begins the Battle of Khe Sanh.
1968 Simon & Garfunkel release the Original Soundtrack to The Graduate, which quickly goes to #1 on the pop charts and which will bring Simon a Grammy for Best Original Score.
1968 US B-52 bomber with nuclear bomb crashes in Greenland.
1969 22nd NHL All-Star Game: West beat East 3-3 at MontrTal, Quebec, Canada.
1969 An experimental underground nuclear reactor at Lucens Vad, Switzerland, released radiation into a cavern, which was then sealed.
1969 Birth of Ashley Sheppard; NFL linebacker (Jacksonville Jaguars).
1970 Birth of Brennan Little in Saint Thomas, Ontario, Canada; golfer (1994 Western States mini-tour).
1971 Birth of Alan McManus, Scottish snooker player
1971 Richard B Russell, American politician (Senator-Democrat-Georgia), dies at age 73.
1972 Assam’s North East Frontier Agency becomes Arunachal Pradesh territory.
1972 Belgium government of Eyskens-Cools forms.
1972 Birth of Chan Marshall, American musician (Cat Power)
1972 Manipur, Meghalaya and Tripura become separate states of Indian union.
1973 Birth of Bubba Miller; corner (Philadelphia Eagles).
1973 Third NFL Pro Bowl: AFC beats NFC 33-28.
1974 Birth of Jerald Sowell; fullback (New York Jets).
1974 Gold hits record US$161.31 an ounce in London, England.
1974 Jan Arends, Dutch poet/author, dies at age 48.
1974 Ken Viljoen, cricket player (played 27 Tests for South Africa 1930-47), dies.
1974 Lewis L Strauss, head US Atomic Energy Commission (1953-58), dies at age 78.
1974 Silver hits record US$3.97 an ounce in London, England.
1975 28th NHL All-Star Game: Wales beat Campbell 7-1 at MontrTal.
1975 Birth of Nicky Butt, English footballer
1976 Birth of Emma Bunton, English singer (Spice Girls)
1976 Supersonic Concorde, first commercial flights, by Britain and France.
1976 The first commercial service Concorde flight took off.
1977 Birth of Al Baxter, Australian rugby player
1977 Italy legalizes abortion.
1977 President Jimmy Carter pardons nearly all American Vietnam War draft evaders, some of whom had emigrated to Canada.
1977 U.S. President Jimmy Carter grants an unconditional pardon to hundreds of thousands of men who evaded the draft during the Vietnam War.
1978 Bee Gees’ “Saturday Night Fever” album goes #1 for 24 weeks.
1978 Birth of Andrei Zyuzin, Russian ice hockey player
1979 Birth of Brian O’Driscoll, Irish rugby player
1979 Super Bowl XIII: Pittsburgh Steelers beat Dallas Cowboys, 35-31 in Miami, Florida; Most Valuable Player: Terry Bradshaw, quarterback.
1980 Birth of Kevin McKenna; Canadian football player.
1980 Death of Georges Painvin, French cryptographer (born 1886).
1980 Les Henson, Virginia Tech, makes 89-foot 3-inch basketball field goal.
1980 The London Gold Fixing hits its highest price ever, at US$850 a troy ounce.
1981 Birth of Andy Lee, rapper in the korean group Shinhwa
1981 The first De Lorean DMC-12 automobile, a stainless steel sports car with gull-wing doors, rolls off the production line in Dunmurry, Northern Ireland.
1983 Birth of Moritz Volz; German football player.
1983 Bollingen Prize for poetry awarded to Anthony E Hecht.
1983 US President Ronald Reagan certifies El Salvador human-rights abuses have decreased making country eligible for US military aid.
1984 Death of Jackie Wilson, American singer (born 1934).
1984 Jackie Wilson, US singer (“I Get the Sweetest Feeling”), dies at age 49.
1984 US male Figure Skating championship won by Scott Hamilton.
1985 -19 degrees F (-28 degrees C), Caesar’s Head, South Carolina (state record).
1985 -34 degrees F (-37 degrees C), Mount Mitchell, North Carolina (state record).
1985 Barbara Cowsill, rocker (Cowsills), dies of emphysema.
1985 Because January 20 had fallen on a Sunday, Ronald Reagan’s public inaugural ceremony (for his second term as President) was moved to Monday, January 21. Due to bad weather, the ceremony was held indoors in the United States Capital Rotunda.
1985 Bomb attack on Borobudur temple in Java.
1985 Death of James Beard, American chef and author (b. 1903)
1985 Dennis Potvin ties Bobby Orr’s career record of 270 NHL goals.
1986 100 participate in Nude Olympics race in 38 degrees F (3 degrees C), Indiana, USA.
1986 Allison J Brown, age 17 of Oklahoma, crowned fourth Miss Teen USA.
1986 Bomb attack in East-Beirut, 27 killed.
1987 BB King donates his 7,000 record collection to University of Mississippi.
1987 Death of Charles Goodell, American politician (born 1926).
1988 US accepts immigration of 30,000 US-Vietnamese children.
1989 Death of Billy Tipton, American musician (born 1914).
1989 Wayne Gretzky passes Marcel Dionne to become NHL’s second all time scorer.
1990 41st NHL All-Star Game: Wales beat Campbell 12-7 at Pittsburgh.
1990 Bob Goodenow succeeds Alan Eagleson as NHL players association executive director.
1990 John McEnroe becomes the first ever expelled from the Australian Open for throwing a tantrum and swearing at an official.
1990 Patty Sheehan wins LPGA Jamaica Golf Classic.
1990 The East German political party, the Socialist Unity Party of Germany, changes its name to the Party of Democratic Socialism to minimize negative association with East Germany.
1991 Birth of Brittany Tiplady, Canadian actress.
1991 CBS News correspondent Bob Simon captured by Iraqis in Persian Gulf.
1991 Howard “Red” Grange, football’s galloping ghost, dies at age 87.
1991 Richard Bolling, American politician (Representative-Democrat-Missouri)/US civil-rights leader, dies at age 74.
1992 Birth of Logan O’Brien, American actor.
1992 William T “Champion Jack” Dupree, US boxer/pianist, dies at age 81.
1993 Death of Charlie Gehringer, baseball player (b. 1903)
1994 Basel al-Assad, Syrian President Assad’s son, dies in car accident at age 31.
1994 Birth of Marny Kennedy, Australian actress.
1994 Dow Jones Industrial Average passes 3900 (record 3,914.20).
1994 In Halmahera, Indonesia, a magnitude 7.0 earthquake occurs. Seven people killed, 40 injured and 550 houses damaged in the Kau area.
1995 Flavio “Negao” Pires da Conceicao, drug trafficker, dies at age 25.
1995 John Halas, animator, dies at age 82.
1995 Philippe Casado, Moroccan/French cyclist, dies at age 30.
1996 53th Golden Globes: Mel Gibson, Nicole Kidman, John Travolta.
1996 Karrie Webb wins LPGA HealthSouth Inaugural Golf Tournament.
1996 Roman Ciesiewicz, artist/graphic designer, dies at age 65.
1996 Sam Green, industrialist/inventor, dies at age 88.
1996 US male Figure Skating championship won by Rudy Galindo.
1997 Death of Colonel Tom Parker, Dutch-born celebrity manager (Elvis Presley), at age 87 (born 1909).
1997 Dennis Main Wilson, TV/radio producer, dies at age 72.
1997 In Southern Xinjiang, China, a magnitude 5.9 earthquake occurs. At least 12 people killed, 40 injured, and 2,500 families homeless; about 31,000 homes destroyed or damaged.
1997 Michael Duane, educationalist, dies at age 81.
1997 Newt Gingrich becomes the first leader of the United States House of Representatives to be internally disciplined for ethical misconduct.
1997 Newt Gingrich becomes the first Speaker of the United States House of Representatives to be internally disciplined for ethical misconduct.
1998 Death of Jack Lord, American actor (b. 1920)
1998 Pope John Paul II visits Cuba.
1999 Death of Susan Strasberg, American actress (b. 1938)
1999 In one of the largest drug busts in American history, the United States Coast Guard intercepts a ship with over 9,500 pounds (4.3 t) of cocaine aboard, headed for Houston, Texas.
1999 War on Drugs: In one of the largest drug busts in American history, the United States Coast Guard intercepts a ship with over 9,500 pounds (4,300 kg) of cocaine on board.
2001 Death of Byron De La Beckwith, American white supremacist (b. 1921)
2002 Canadian Dollar sets all-time low against the US Dollar (US$0.6179).
2002 Death of Peggy Lee, American singer (b. 1920)
2004 Birth of Princess Ingrid Alexandra of Norway
2004 Canada: The residence of reporter Juliet O’Neill is searched by the RCMP investigating leaks concerning the deportation of Maher Arar.
2004 Death of Yordan Radichkov, Bulgarian writer (b. 1929)
2004 NASA’s MER-A (the Mars Rover Spirit) ceases communication with mission control. The problem lies with Flash Memory management and is fixed remotely from Earth on February 6th.
2005 Death of Don Poier, U.S. play-by-play man for the Memphis Grizzlies (born 1951).
2005 In Belize’s capital city, the unrest over the government’s new taxes erupts into riots.
2005 In Belmopan, Belize, unrest over the government’s new taxes erupts into riots.
2005 Roger Clemens agrees to one-year, US$18 million deal with the Houston Astros, making Clemens the most expensive pitcher in major league history.
2006 Death of Ibrahim Rugova, first President of Kosovo (born 1944).
2007 Death of U;Nee, K-pop singer and actress (born 1981).
2007 Yokozuna Asashoryu wins the Emperor’s Cup at the New Year’s Grand Sumo Tournament (Hatsu Basho) in Tokyo, Japan.
2008 Death of Marie Smith (native name Udachkuqax*a’a’ch), last speaker of the Egak language, at age 89, in Alaska.
2008 Stock market share prices worldwide drop in the worst day of trading since September 11, 2001.
2009 Israel completes its withdrawal from the Gaza Strip. Intermittent air strikes by both sides of the preceding war continue in the weeks to follow.
2009 The U.S. Senate endorses former New York Senator and former first lady Hillary Clinton as Secretary of State.
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Monthly Archive: December Arch
The continuation of the story of how the British archeologist, Sir Arthur Evans, made his own particular interpretation of the ancient Minoan civilization so popular.
I pick up the story of the Ivory ‘Minoan’ Goddess to discuss why the ROM, or indeed anyone, believed that the figurine was genuine (or why she was created, if she is fake).
In museum circles the region of Luristan in the Zagros Mountains has a long association with the antiquities looted from tombs there in the 1920's and 30's. These objects seem to be primarily from the Early Iron Age (circa 1000 BC - 750 BC), and comprise an array of distinctive objects that include horse bridles and other equipment; fittings possibly associated with chariots; and an array of weapons, primarily of bronze.
ROM experts were joined by archaeologists from all over the GTA to celebrate new discoveries and ongoing projects at International Archaeology 2013.
In the 3rd century of the current era the term "Frank" was used by Romans and others to describe a group of Germanic tribes living in the Rhine valley. In the 4th century Franks settled within territory ruled by the Romans and were a recognised kingdom. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire the Frankish kingdom under their Merovingian kings spread over all of France (which to this day is named after this confederation of Germans).
A look at a cast bronze sword hilt, acquired before 1910 in Cairo by Charles Currelly and presently in the Eaton Gallery of Rome.
Weapons are one of the most politically-incorrect subjects there are, associated with brutality and violence. But they are also important, and have often defined the cultures that made them....
Laura Ranieri's experience working with Prof. Barry Kemp CBE of Cambridge University and a small archaeology team as they excavated and partially reconstructed Akhenaten's Great Temple of Aten in Egypt.
Professor Barry Kemp CBE is an esteemed British Egyptologist who has been excavating at Amarna for 35 years. His critically acclaimed book, The City of Akhenaten and Nefertiti, was released in 2012 and is available online and in bookstores. He spoke at the ROM on September 19, 2013. I was lucky enough to spend two weeks at the site of Amarna in February of 2013. During that time, I had the opportunity to interview Prof. Kemp. The following is an edited version of that conversation. All photos copyright Laura Ranieri, 2013.
Ancient Rome & Greece Weekend is over, and I thought I would show you the results of my attempt to create a recreation, re-enactment, or impression of a soldier from Dura-Europos (so this is not really one of the original IV, so to speak, hence it is V of IV). In the group above you can see me on the left, with members of the University of Toronto's Hart House Archery Club, who collectively constitute the ROM's 3rd century Roman army (or ROMan army - it being the ROM, we are posing in front of a dinosaur).
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This study is provided by ICPSR. ICPSR provides leadership and training in data access, curation, and methods of analysis for a diverse and expanding social science research community.
Eurobarometer 52.1: Modern Biotechnology, Quality of Life, and Consumers' Access to Justice, November-December 1999 (ICPSR 2893)
Principal Investigator(s): Melich, Anna, European Commission
This round of Eurobarometer surveys queried respondents on standard Eurobarometer measures such as public awareness of and attitudes toward the European Union (EU), and also focused on applications of modern biotechnology, quality of life and lifestyle, the EC symbol, and consumers' access to justice. Respondents were asked whether they believed that new, developing technologies such as biotechnology and genetic engineering, computers and information technology, telecommunications, the Internet, new materials and substances, solar energy, space exploration, and nuclear energy would improve their lives over the next 20 years. They were also prompted for what came to mind when they thought of modern biotechnology, and if they had a positive or negative opinion about specific areas of biotechnology such as the cloning of animals or humans, health research, and genetically engineered food. Those queried were asked to indicate whether a number of statements having to do with modern biotechnology were true or false, including "There are bacteria that live in waste water" and "Yeast for brewing beer consists of living organisms." They were also asked to agree or disagree that various applications of modern biotechnology are useful, a risk for society, morally acceptable, or should be encouraged. Agreement/disagreement was also sought on a number of statements, such as "Cloning animals will bring benefits to a lot of people," "Genetically modified food will bring benefits to a lot of people," "I would buy genetically modified fruits if they tasted better," and "I feel sufficiently informed about biotechnology." Respondents were asked if they felt that the various entities involved in modern technology (i.e., newspapers and magazines, the biotechnology industry, ethics committees, consumer organizations, environmental groups, the government, shops, farmers, churches, and doctors) were doing a good job for society and which sources, if any, they could trust to tell the truth about modern biotechnology. Regarding quality of life, respondents were asked about their satisfaction with life in general, their health, the health care system, family life, social life, personal safety, their financial situation, employment situation, home, and neighborhood. They were asked how their current satisfaction in these areas compared to two years ago and if they thought they would be more or less satisfied in these areas two years from now. From a list of 15 choices, respondents were asked to select three factors that contributed most to their current quality of life and three that would most improve it. Given a list of places people might visit (e.g., work, a health center, the hospital, the supermarket, etc.), respondents were asked how long it would take to get there and to which places they would walk. Other questions queried respondents about their current standard of living and monthly income, whether they had a healthy lifestyle, had a good diet, exercised, drank alcohol, smoked, or were stressed, whether in the last 12 months they had consulted a family doctor, a dentist, or a medical specialist, whether they had been a patient in a hospital or clinic for overnight or longer, and if they had any long-standing illness, disability, or infirmity that limited their activities. They were also asked what types of leisure activities they participated in and which they would do, or do more of, if they had more time. In addition, respondents were asked if the Internet, personal computers, or mobile phones were positive or negative in terms of their quality of life, if the government should spend more to ensure everyone access to these new technologies, and if respondents had participated in training activities related to these new technologies. Several questions about the poor and the socially excluded asked if respondents had given money, goods, or their time to help these groups and if, in their opinion, housing authorities, employment services, social services, religious institutions, charities, businesses, trade unions, their family, the European Union, or the poor themselves currently provided the most help. Another series of questions asked respondents about the EC symbol -- its meaning, who put it on products, on which items they had seen the symbol, and how often they took the symbol into account when they bought products. They were asked how well informed they felt as consumers, in what form they would like to get information on their rights as a consumer (i.e., an outline, a detailed booklet, a complete description, a videotape, etc.), if they had ever had to complain about a purchase, whom they complained to or would complain to, and whether they complained or would complain in person, by phone, in writing, by e-mail, or in some other fashion. They were asked if they had heard of bodies such as arbitrators, counselors, ombudsmen, etc., that deal with consumer disputes and if they would be willing to bring their problem before one of these agents or if they had fears about them. Further questions queried respondents about whether in the last five years they had had a problem that they could not get resolved, what type of product or service was involved, and what they did when they could not resolve the problem. They were questioned as to the minimum amount it would take to bring the problem to court, why they would not bring it to court for less, whether they had insurance that would cover the legal costs, if they would be more likely to go to court if they joined other consumers with the same problem, what would most encourage them to defend their rights in court, in whom they had the most confidence to defend consumers in court, how much confidence they had in the courts to settle disputes, and who could best protect consumer interests. Similar questions were asked concerning products bought abroad -- the amount it would take to bring the dispute to court, if they had ever had a problem with a product or service bought abroad, if they did anything about the problem, how satisfied they were with the results, and if it would be useful to have one form that could be used throughout the European Union to complain about a product or service problem. Information was also collected on whether anyone in the household owned a color TV, a video recorder, a video camera, a clock radio, a home computer, a still camera, an electric drill, an electric deep-fat fryer, two or more cars, or a second or holiday home. Standard demographic information collected included age, sex, nationality, left-right political self-placement, marital status, age at completion of education, number of people in household, number of children in household, current occupation, previous occupation, religiosity, household income, type of residence, size of locality,region of residence, and nationality.
Series: Eurobarometer Survey Series
These data are available only to users at ICPSR member institutions. Because you are not logged in, we cannot verify that you will be able to download these data.
Melich, Anna. Eurobarometer 52.1: Modern Biotechnology, Quality of Life, and Consumers' Access to Justice, November-December 1999. ICPSR02893-v4. Cologne, Germany: GESIS/Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributors], 2010-05-05. http://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR02893.v4
Persistent URL: http://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR02893.v4
Scope of Study
Subject Terms: attitudes, biotechnology, cloning, economic integration, European unification, European Union, family life, genetic engineering, health care, health status, income, information technology, Internet, leisure, life satisfaction, public opinion, quality of life, social change, social life, standard of living, technological change, technology
Smallest Geographic Unit: country
Geographic Coverage: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Europe, Finland, France, Germany, Global, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom
Date of Collection:
Unit of Observation: individual
Universe: Citizens of the European Union aged 15 and over residing in the 15 EU member countries: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.
Data Types: survey data
Data Collection Notes:
The original data collection was carried out by INRA (International Research Associates [Europe]) on request of the European Commission.
The codebook and setup files for this collection contain characters with diacritical marks used in many European languages.
The documentation and/or setup files may contain references to Norway, but Norway was not a participant in this wave of Eurobarometer surveys. This collection contains no data for Norway.
A split ballot was used for one or more questions in this survey. The variable V700 defines the separate groups.
Sample: Multistage national probability samples.
Weight: Please review the "Weighting Information" section of the ICPSR codebook for this Eurobarometer study.
Mode of Data Collection: face-to-face interview
Extent of Processing: ICPSR data undergo a confidentiality review and are altered when necessary to limit the risk of disclosure. ICPSR also routinely creates ready-to-go data files along with setups in the major statistical software formats as well as standard codebooks to accompany the data. In addition to these procedures, ICPSR performed the following processing steps for this data collection:
- Checked for undocumented or out-of-range codes.
Original ICPSR Release: 2000-06-21
- 2010-05-05 The data have been further processed by GESIS, and the SAS, SPSS, and Stata setup files, and the codebook have been updated. Also, the SAS transport (XPORT) file has been replaced with a SAS transport (CPORT) file, an SPSS portable file has been replaced with an SPSS system file, and a tab-delimited ASCII data file and a data collection instrument have been added.
- 2007-02-12 The data for this study have undergone further processing completed by the Zentralarchiv (ZA). This study has been updated to include the full ICPSR product suite including SAS, SPSS, and Stata setup files in addition to SAS transport (XPORT), SPSS portable, and Stata system files.
- 2002-02-22 The data producer has updated the data and SPSS setup files to include Variables D8 and D11 and to exclude Variables D8_B and D11_B. Also, data for all previously-embargoed variables are now available.
Related Publications (?)
- List all ~20 citations associated with this study
- View citations for the entire series
Most Recent Publications
- Citations exports are provided above.
Export Study-level metadata (does not include variable-level metadata)
If you're looking for collection-level metadata rather than an individual metadata record, please visit our Metadata Records page.
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The University of Michigan is one of only a handful of comprehensive programs in the country dedicated to the neurological concerns of athletes. By drawing on the resources in the health system as well as the rich athletic tradition of a historic NCAA program, we specialize in the treatment and prevention of neurological sports injuries, as well as the management of primary neurological diseases that affect athletic performance.
Our program, Michigan NeuroSport, is made up of experts in the neurological care of athletes – with a special emphasis on concussion. We have three distinct components working in conjunction with each other to provide the best possible care. The Michigan NeuroSport clinic where we treat you the patient; research to help us better treat you and advance the understanding of sport-related neurology; and education for you - the patient - as well as parents, athletes, coaches and healthcare providers to help prevent, recognize and treat concussion, as well as other neurological conditions in athletes.
Leaders in concussion treatment and education
Concussion is extremely common – often it is referred to getting your bell rung. In fact, about 3.8 million concussions occur each year in the U.S. from sports-related injuries. In the past we didn’t know the seriousness of concussions. And, that the mismanagement of a concussion can have life long, possibly fatal consequences.
A concussion is a brain injury that occurs when the brain moves quickly within the skull. This sudden movement interferes with brain function which causes a disruption and affects how parts of the brain communicate. It is not a bruise or bleed in the brain.
Concussions do not require a direct hit to the head - consider a whiplash-type injury. Anytime the brain moves quickly within the skull, a concussion is possible. Concussions are not limited to sports -they can result from a car crash, gym class or slipping on the ice.
Concussions are sometimes referred as a “stealth injury” because there is no specific test to diagnose a concussion; you cannot see a concussion on an MRI or X-ray; concussions vary by person and incident; and the signs and symptoms of a concussion can take minutes, hours or even days to appear.
Michigan NeuroSport is dedicated to providing the best clinical care to professional, collegiate and school aged athletes from across the country. We provide state-of-the-art diagnostic and treatment options with a focus on returning you to competition safely and expeditiously.
Just as each athlete is unique, so is every concussion. We use a customized, gradual, step-by-step process for your safe return to play. This customized approach is based on elements such as your history and nature of your sport.
Research for treatment and prevention of concussions
Michigan NeuroSport is a proud leader in the advancement of concussions and sports neurology. We conduct and participate in ongoing research initiatives that are continuing to change the way we view concussions and other issues in sports neurology.
Treating neurological sports related injuries
Although concussions are a big part of Michigan NeuroSport, we also see many athletes that have other neurologic injuries due to sports. Those include:
- Peripheral nerve injury
- Spinal cord injury
- Other neurological injuries
Make an Appointment / Expert Opinion
- Michigan Neurosport Clinic, 734-930-7400
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Universalism, the doctrine that God will ultimately save all humanity. The adherents of universalism use as a major support Acts 3:21, "Whom the heaven must receive until the times of restitution of all things, which God hath spoken by the mouth of all his holy prophets since the world began." In this passage they find the assertion that everything that God has created will once again be restored to its original state in the creation, whereas most exegetes construe it to refer only to the things foretold by the prophets.
The first proponent of the restoration of all things was Origen. The most important champion of this doctrine in the period of the Reformation was Hans Denck. In his booklet, Wer die Wahrheit wahrlich lieb hat, he makes the reference to it in Gegenschrift 16, 17, and 28. He mentions it also in other writings, as in Vom Gesetz Gottes. His premise is the idea that the nature of God is love and mercy, and that He can therefore not keep His anger forever. His support he took from passages like Isaiah 28:21; Jeremiah 3:21; Romans 5:18; 11:32; 1 Corinthians 15:22; Ephesians 1:10; Colossians 1:20; and 1 Timothy 2:4.
Article 17 of the Augsburg Confession (1530-Lutheran) assumes that all Anabaptists held this doctrine, when it says, "Therefore the Anabaptists are condemned, who teach that the devil and damned persons will not have eternal pain and suffering." But this belief of Denck's was never really accepted in Anabaptist circles. It is found nowhere else except perhaps in Jakob Kautz and Hans Hut. In more recent times, however, some Mennonites in Baden and Württemberg, under the influence of the theologians C. F. Oetinger and Michael Hahn, accepted the doctrine of the restitution of all things and organized a separate church group, the "Hahnische" Mennonites. But even this movement did not reach any considerable proportions. However, a few Mennonite preachers in the German Verband and in Switzerland have occasionally leaned toward this view. (See the polemic written against it by Jakob Vetter, Warum ich die Wiederbringung aller Dinge ablehne, 1911.)
In Russia and America, Mennonite bodies have stood firmly against universalism, and the doctrine is practically unknown, although disciplinary action was taken against an elder on this ground in a Canadian conference (General Conference Mennonite) in 1950. A curiosity is the fact that the refusal of Joseph Stucky to discipline a member in his central Illinois congregation in 1871 for propagating this view was the occasion for the schism that led to the formation of the Central Illinois Conference.
|Harold S. Bender|
Cite This Article
Neff, Christian and Harold S. Bender. "Universalism." Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. 1959. Web. 30 Jun 2016. http://gameo.org/index.php?title=Universalism&oldid=61598.
Neff, Christian and Harold S. Bender. (1959). Universalism. Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. Retrieved 30 June 2016, from http://gameo.org/index.php?title=Universalism&oldid=61598.
©1996-2016 by the Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. All rights reserved.
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Glaciers, Some Basic Ideas
What is a glacier?
A glacier is a perennial mass of ice that is large enough and heavy enough to flow, like a very thick fluid. Glaciers form wherever more snow accumulates than is lost each year. As new snow accumulates, it buries and compresses the old snow. Under the weight of the overlying snow, the old snow is transformed from a fluffy mass of ice crystals into dense, hard ice. This process occurs on the upper part of a glacier, at higher altitudes, where more snow accumulates than is lost each year. This is called the accumulation zone, and is typically covered with snow year-round. The glacier is in constant motion, and the ice in the accumulation zone flows down to lower altitudes, which is called the ablation zone. The ablation zone is located in the lower part of the the glacier where more snow is lost than accumulates. In late summer, when the seasonal snow has melted away from the surrounding valley walls, bare ice of the ablation zone is exposed.
Figure 1 - Cross section of an alpine glacier showing snow being converted into glacier ice (the left side of the figure) and the two major zones of a glaciers surface. The red arrows show the direction and relative speed of different parts of the glacier. The longer the arrow, the faster ice is moving.
The Anatomy of a glacier
All glaciers have accumulation and ablation zones. The boundary between these two zones, the equilibrium line, is the transition where accumulation equals ablation.
The accumulation zone has three major layers. The top layer is snow that thickens further up glacier. The next layer is the firn, or a transitional form between the snow and solid ice below. The bottom layer is ice. During the winter, the ice of the ablation zone is covered with snow, which entirely melts away in summer.
Rock debris covers the ablation zone of some glaciers on Mount Rainier The rocks fall from the valley walls directly onto the glacier and then are carried down valley by the glacier. Eventually the rock is deposited at the end or along the sides of the glacier. Where the rock piles up at the end of the glacier, a ridge forms, which is called a moraine . If the ridge forms on the side of a glacier its called a lateral moraine; if it forms at the end of the glacier its a terminal moraine. The occurrence of moraines are important because they are used to determine the size of glaciers during earlier, colder times. Old lateral and terminal moraines are very common at Mount Rainier.
Meltwater streams flow from the down valley end (terminus) of all the glaciers on Mount Rainier. The streams originate as meltwater and rain on the glacier surface. The water makes its way into the interior of the glacier through crevasses that are commonly found on the ice surface (c) . Occasionally, surface water drops into moulins or circular shafts that descend vertically from the surface into the glacier. Once in the body of the ice water flows in naturally formed cracks or tunnels. Eventually, the water reaches the bottom of the glacier where it flows between the rock and the ice. The water may flow within saturated sediments that are sandwiched between the ice and rock, or in small cavities formed on the downslope side of bumps in the bedrock. The water eventually ends up in tunnels which appear as streams at the end of the glacier. Under certain circumstances, the stream exit can expand into a large ice cave. The most famous of these caves on Mount Rainier, those in Paradise Glacier, disappeared in the 1970's as the glacier retreated. Ice caves are dangerous, however, because they occur where the ice is thin and subject to collapse.
The streams then travel across rock strewn fields, which are stream-modified glacial deposits called outwash plains. Finally, the streams cascade over cliffs into the heavily forested valleys. In some cases these streams flow out of ice caves at the bottom of the glaciers. In nearly all cases, streams flowing from glacier termini are clouded with fine sediment giving the streams a milky appearance. This sediment (glacial flour) is created by the glacier grinding its rocky bed. This happens when rocks carried by the glacier, imbedded in the ice at the glacier bottom, scrape along the bottom and act like sandpaper to grind down other rocks.
Figure 2 - A cross section of an alpine glacier. Click on a green dot next to a feature name to view a photograph of that feature.
Types of glaciers
Most of the glaciers on Mount Rainier are known as valley glaciers. These are glaciers are confined to a valley (usually a former stream valley). Three good examples of this type of glacier are Nisqually, Carbon, and Emmons glaciers. The smallest glaciers on Mount Rainier are cirque glaciers. These are small glaciers that occupy a bowl-shaped basin at the head of a mountain valley. Cirque glaciers are usually the remnants of much larger valley glaciers. An example of this type of glacier is Inter Glacier.
Another type of glacier, called a continental glacier, is a large ice sheet that covers thousands of square kilometers. Although there are no continental glaciers in the Mount Rainier area today, 15,000 years ago much of the Puget Sound west of Mount Rainier was covered with a continental glacier over 1000 m (3300 ft) deep. At least one of the current glaciers on Mount Rainier may been a tributary of this ice sheet.
Figure 3 - A cross section of a mountain and its surroundings showing the three major types of glaciers.
Glaciers as Sculptors
Glaciers have shaped Mount Rainier. First, they have been constantly eroding it, reducing its height by an estimated 300 meters (1000 feet) over a period of 6000 years (c) . Glacier erosion has carved cirques and deep U-shaped valleys in the flanks of the mountain. Glaciers erode in two ways. First, they pluck rocks from the base under the glacier by either freezing on to them or by breaking them off subglacial ledges. The plucked rocks are dragged by the moving ice over the rock remaining in place. The rock studded ice acts like sandpaper to grind bedrock. Aside from grinding the volcano down, the glacier also piles rock into moraines, as explained earlier. One of the best places to see well developed terminal and lateral moraines is at the lower end of Emmons Glacier in White River Canyon. A good place to see the after effects of plucking and abrasion is below Paradise Glacier, where several roche moutannées lie near the edge of a hanging valley.
Another way glaciers have shaped Mount Rainier is by the interaction of ice with volcanic eruptions. Evidence from the margins of cooled lava flows below Paradise Glacier indicate that during major ice ages, erupting lava would flow along the margins of glaciers or in meltwater trenches on the glacier. In some instances lava flows would be temporarily dammed by glaciers until they were able to melt through them (c). One result of this interaction is the high ridges of resistant rock that separate deep valleys. One such ridge, Mazama Ridge, formed along the margin of the ancestral Paradise Glacier.
Figure 4 - A cross section of a glacier showing plucking and abrasion.
Glaciers and the Ecosystem
Glaciers are important regulators of water flow. In dry hot summers glaciers generate lots of meltwater, and during cool wet summers they melt much less (c). Consequently, glacier-fed streams have a relatively small annual variation in streamflow compared to streams from ice-free valleys. This is a particularly important in the Pacific Nortwest where dry summers typify our climate. The ecosystems that develop along the glacier-fed streams are dependent on this steady source of cool stream water, and its habitat is different from that surrounding an ephermeral stream. Glacially fed streams provide important habitat for many native species of fish and amphibians such as Bull Trout, Coastal Cutthroat Trout, and Cascades and Tailed Frogs that are listed as Species of Concern under State and Federal programs. The glacier flour obscuring the clarity of the glacial streams provides lots of nutrients for the aquatic microbial life. However, the flour also reduces the penetration of sunlight in the water which adversely affects some aquatic plant and animal species. Glacier recession, which has been on going since the early 1900s, is opening new habitat (c). Plant and animal colonization of these new areas can be often observed.
Glaciers and Geologic Hazards
One of the significant hazards associated with Mount Rainier are torrential floods of water, rock, and other debris that begin when water periodically bursts out from glacier valleys. Because the mountainsides are made up of highly fractured rock and accumulated rock debris, glacier floods can mix with the rock debris to produce a thick rocky slurry, called a debris flow. These debris flows travel a short distance beyond the base of the volcano carving deep canyons, uprooting trees, and destroying roads, bridges, and trails within the national park. One of the most recent of these debris flows took place on August 15, 2001 when water from the side of Kautz Glacier flowed over a ridge and into Van Trump Creek Canyon, where it converted a clear running stream into a turbulent flow of mud and rocks.
Climate determines how much snow a glacier receives and how fast it melts. The part of the year when glaciers gain more ice than they lose is called the accumulation season. In the Pacific Northwest, the accumulation season is usually from October to May (c). The part of the year when glaciers lose more ice than they gain is the ablation season, generally from June through September. During a cool, wet year, glaciers gain more snow than they lose, causing the glacier to advance. During warm, dry years, they melt more snow and ice than they receive, causing them to retreat.
Although glaciers always flow downhill, the idea of glacier retreat may give the impression that a glacier can move uphill. In fact, a glacier is in retreat when the rate of movement downhill cannot keep up with the rate of melting. The glacier is melting back faster than it is moving downhill, so it is said to retreat. By contrast, when a glacier advances, its downhill flow is greater than the melt at the terminus. Changes in glacier size (advance and retreat) depend on the climate including air temperature and snowfall.
The position, orientation, or elevation of a glacier affects the magnitude of glacier change in response to climate. For instance, south facing glaciers on Mount Rainier have retreated faster than north facing glaciers over the past 80 years. The glaciers on the south side are generally smaller and lower in elevation (on average) than the north side glaciers, making them more susceptible to changes in the freezing level (c).
Another locally determined characteristic is rock cover. The Emmons Glacier experienced a rock avalanche in 1963, which covered part of the glacier with a layer of rock debris. This debris now insulates the ablation zone of the glacier from sunlight and warm air temperatures and the melting of the glacier is smaller than from an otherwise clean glacier. Because melting is reduced, but the ice flow is the same, the glacier is advancing. This response has nothing to do with climate change.
Over the last century the glaciers of Mount Rainier have retreated significantly (c). While the response of each glacier depends on its local conditions, glacier loss seems to be largely the result of a regional tendency toward warmer weather, resulting in less snowfall and high rates of ablation (the loss of snow and ice by melting). The recent retreat of the Mount Rainier glaciers during the late 80's and 90s is primarily caused by warmer than average summer temperatures and drier winters. Prior to the late 80s the glaciers were advancing because of wetter winters and cooler summers. These two factors are the primary driving force behind glacier changes. Summer temperatures control the amount of mass (ice) lost and winter precipitation adds mass (snow) to the upper part of glaciers (c).
For more information on glacier and climate change on Mt. Rainier go to the "Timeline of Glacier Change"
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Earthquake shakes southern New Zealand
U.S. Geological Survey Earthquake Hazards Program
A magnitude-7.6 earthquake rattled the South Island of New Zealand at 8:22 p.m. local time Wednesday. No serious injuries or damages have been reported.
The quake's epicenter was 150 kilometers west of Invercargill, off the coast of New Zealand's South Island at a depth of 12 kilometers, according to the U.S. Geological Survey’s Earthquake Hazards Program. Subsequent to the major tremor, the region has experienced several aftershocks ranging in magnitude from 5 to 5.8.
Following the initial quake, NOAA’s Pacific Tsunami Warning Center in Ewa Beach, Hawaii, issued a tsunami warning, but canceled the warning once the waves were discovered to be less than .17 meters (approximately 7 inches). At this time, the center is predicting no Pacific-wide tsunamis.
Over the past two decades, New Zealand has experienced five earthquakes with magnitudes of at least 6.4. The most recent occurred in August 2003, when a magnitude-7.2 earthquake caused minor damages in Otago and Southland and produced landslides around the Fiordland region.
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Leadership and Management
The Resilience Factor in Leadership
Good leaders are resilient. They bounce back quicker from setbacks or adversity, and keep the team moving in the right direction. Resiliency is sometimes seen as the ability to cope with stress and life’s challenges, and to draw upon the emotional reserves that have been built up for the tough times.
Is resiliency an individual trait, or is it learned behavior? Most recent research shows that resiliency is a process that is the result of individuals interacting with their environments and the processes that promote well-being. Lessons taught in families, schools, and spiritual communities, help build a person’s skills to not only cope with stressful situations, but to recover quicker from adversity.
The American Psychological Association has discovered that several factors are found to modify the negative effects of adverse life situations. Strong relationships at home and work that provide care and support, create trust, and offer encouragement, are critical to developing resiliency. Additional factors are also associated with resilience, like the capacity to make realistic plans, having self-confidence and a positive self-image, developing communication skills and the capacity to manage strong feelings and impulses.
Why is resilience so important in leadership?
So why is this important in today’s world and more specifically in today’s business environment? There are several things to consider as we look at resilience. Research by Sidney Finkelstein, “Why Smart Executives Fail,” indicates that companies that lack the ability to adapt in the face of competition and shifting market cease to exist. As the world becomes more digital, we have lots of industries that have failed to deal quickly enough to market realities, including newspapers, music and books.
What causes a company’s inability to adapt, to be flexible, and to bend? Often leaders don’t make the right decisions when times get tough. Jim Collins in his book on “How the Mighty Fall” identifies resilience as one of the key factors in a leader’s skill set. Do we see what is happening around us as an opportunity to learn, listen, predict and grow or do we see new market and societal realities as a threat, a time to retreat, and just do the same thing, only harder?
How can leaders build their resiliency skills?
Unfortunately there is no class in business programs called Resiliency 101. Families, schools, business and life give us many opportunities to continually develop coping skills and resilience. A colleague who taught himself a good lesson in resiliency gave the example of freezing during a presentation while in a national team competition for MBA students. He did poorly, and it affected the outcome for the team. Initially he was devastated and struggled to overcome feelings of inadequacy. A few years later, as an international consultant, he had to give another important presentation and instead of caving to the memories that plagued him, he did an outstanding job on the presentation. When asked how he overcame those strong memories of failure, he talked about his journey of personal self-discovery and how he learned to handle challenges with a broader perspective. For this particular presentation, he made sure that he prepared well and took care of himself, by getting enough sleep, exercising and eating well, which helped keep him in balance and nurture a positive outlook to handle the presentation with a confidence that he had worked hard to build.
Being aware and consciously working through ways to cope with stress builds resilience. Strong leaders are very self-aware in general, and find ways to continue to build their resiliency skills. Coaching is a resource that can help leaders assess their ability to bounce back and adapt at work, and to continue to build the support needed to tackle the professional and personal challenges we all face in life.
This article was co-written by Mary Shippy and Leanne Smullen of Align Leadership.
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John Foxe (1516 – 8 April 1587) is remembered as the author of Foxe's Book of Martyrs.
Education and Resignation from Oxford[change | change source]
Foxe was born in Boston, Lincolnshire, England into a prominent family. In 1535 Foxe was admitted to Magdalen College School. He became a fellow in July 1539. Foxe resigned from his college in 1545, after referring to it as "a prison." During his time at Oxford he became an evangelical, meaning that he converted to Protestant beliefs not accepted by the Church of England under Henry VIII. As he wanted to leave Oxford, Foxe looked to other evangelicals for help but received only advice and a little money. Foxe married Agnes Randall on February 3, 1547.
Life in London under Edward VI[change | change source]
Marian Exile[change | change source]
In the fall of 1554 Foxe moved to Frankfurt, where he lived with Anthony Gilby in the English colony of Protestant refugees. Foxe then removed to Basel where he lived and worked with John Bale and Lawrence Humphrey.
Return to England[change | change source]
In 1559, when Mary I had died Foxe returned to England. He lived for some time at Aldgate, London, in the house of his former pupil, Thomas Howard. Foxe started publishing works of religious controversy and worked on a new martyrology, which would become the Foxe's Book of Martyrs. Foxe was ordained priest by Edmund Grindal, now Bishop of London, on January 25, 1560, and he moved to Norwich to live with its bishop, John Parkhurst. On March 23 of the following year the first edition of Foxe's Book of Martyrs was published.
Foxe died on 8 April 1587 and was buried at St. Giles's, Cripplegate.
Other websites[change | change source]
|Wikisource has original writing related to this article:|
- Foxe's Book of Martyrs (Actes and Monuments) Variorum Edition Online, from the Humanities Research Institute of The University of Sheffield
- Thomas Freeman, John Foxe: A Biography
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A surgical suture is used to close the edges of a wound or incision and to repair damaged tissue. There are many kinds of sutures, with different properties suitable for various uses. Sutures can be divided into two main groups: absorbable and non-absorbable. An absorbable suture decomposes in the body. It degrades as a wound or incision heals. A non-absorbable suture resists the body's attempt to dissolve it. Non-absorbable sutures may be removed by a surgeon after a surface incision has healed.
Sutures are made from both man-made and natural materials. Natural suture materials include silk, linen, and catgut, which is actually the dried and treated intestine of a cow or sheep. Synthetic sutures are made from a variety of textiles such as nylon or polyester, formulated specifically for surgical use. Absorbable synthetic sutures are made from polyglycolic acid or other glycolide polymers. Most of the synthetic suture materials have proprietary names, such as Dexon and Vicryl. The water-resistant material Goretex has been used for surgical sutures, and other sutures are made from thin metal wire.
Sutures are also classified according to their form. Some are monofilaments, that is, consisting of only one thread-like structure. Others consist of several filaments braided or twisted together. Surgeons choose which type of suture to use depending on the operation. A monofilament has what is called low tissue drag, meaning it passes smoothly through tissue. Braided or twisted sutures may have higher tissue drag, but are easier to knot and have greater knot strength. Braided sutures are usually coated to improve tissue drag. Other sutures may have a braided or twisted core within a smooth sleeve of extruded material. These are known as pseudo-monofilaments. A suture can also be classified according to its diameter. In the United States, suture diameter is represented on a scale descending from 10 to 1, and then descending again from 1-0 to 12-0. A number 9 suture is 0.0012 in (0.03 mm) in diameter, while the smallest, number 12-0, is smaller in diameter than a human hair.
Suture manufacturing comes under the regulatory control of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) because sutures are classified as medical devices. Manufacturing guidelines and testing for the industry is provided by a non-profit, non-governmental agency called United States Pharmacopeia, located in Rockville, Maryland.
Physicians have used sutures for at least 4,000 years. Archaeological records from ancient Egypt show that Egyptians used linen and animal sinew to close wounds. In ancient India, physicians used the heads of beetles or ants to effectively staple wounds shut. The live creatures were affixed to the edges of the wound, which they clamped shut with their pincers. Then the physician cut the insects' bodies off, leaving the jaws in place. Other natural materials doctors used in ancient times were flax, hair, grass, cotton, silk, pig bristles, and animal gut.
Though the use of sutures was widespread, sutured wounds or incisions often became infected. Nineteenth century surgeons preferred to cauterize wounds, an often ghastly process, rather than risk the patient's death from infected sutures. The great English physician Joseph Lister discovered disinfecting techniques in the 1860s, making surgery much safer. Lister soaked catgut suture material in phenol making it sterile, at least on the outside. Lister spent over 10 years experimenting with catgut, to find a material that was supple, strong, sterilizable, and absorbable in the body at an adequate rate. A German surgeon made advances in the processing of catgut early in the twentieth century, leading to a truly sterile material.
Catgut was the staple absorbable suture material through the 1930s, while physicians used silk and cotton where a non-absorbable material was needed. Suture technology advanced with the creation of nylon in 1938 and of polyester around the same time. As more man-made textiles were developed and patented for suture use, needle technology also advanced. Surgeons began using an atraumatic needle, which was pressed or crimped onto the suture. This saved the trouble of threading the needle in the operating room, and allowed the entire needle diameter to remain roughly the same size as the suture itself. In the 1960s, chemists developed new synthetic materials that could be absorbed by the body. These were polyglycolic acid and polylactic acid. Previously, absorbable sutures had to be made from the natural material catgut. Synthetic absorbable suture material is now far more prevalent than catgut in United States hospitals.
The FDA began requiring approval of new suture material in the 1970s. A Medical Device Amendment was added to the FDA in 1976, and suture manufacturers have been required to seek pre-market approval for new sutures since that time. Manufacturers must comply with specific Good Manufacturing Practices, and guarantee that their products are safe and effective. Patents for new suture materials are granted for 14 years.
Natural sutures are made of catgut or reconstituted collagen, or from cotton, silk, or linen. Synthetic absorbable sutures may be made of polyglycolic acid, a glycolide-lactide copolymer; or polydioxanone, a copolymer of glycolide and trimethylene carbonate. These different polymers are marketed under specific trade names. Synthetic nonabsorbable sutures may be made of polypropylene, polyester, polyethylene terephthalate, polybutylene terephthalate, polyamide, different proprietary nylons, or Goretex. Some sutures are also made of stainless steel.
Sutures are often coated, especially braided or twisted sutures. They may also be dyed to make them easy to see during surgery. Only FDA approved dyes and coatings may be used. Some allowable dyes are: logwood extract, chromium-cobalt-aluminum oxide, ferric ammonium citrate pyrogallol, D&C Blue No. 9, D&C Blue No. 6, D&C Green No. 5, and D&C Green No. 6. The coatings used depend on whether the suture is absorbable or nonabsorbable. Absorbable coatings include Poloxamer 188 and calcium stearate with a glycolide-lactide copolymer. Nonabsorbable sutures may be coated with wax, silicone, fluorocarbon, or polytetramethylene adipate.
Suture needles are made of stainless or carbon steel. The needles may be nickel-plated or electroplated. Packaging material includes water-resistant foil, such as aluminum foil, as well as cardboard and plastic.
Sutures are designed to meet many different needs. Sutures for abdominal surgery, for example, are different from sutures used in cataract surgery. Since no one type of suture is ideal for every operation, surgeons and medical designers have come up with sutures with varying qualities. One may be more absorbable but less flexible, while another is exceedingly strong but perhaps somewhat difficult to knot. This gives surgeons many options. Designers of a new suture have to take into account many factors. The rate the suture degrades is important, not only along the length of the suture but at the knot. Some sutures need to be elastic, so that they will stretch and not break. Others need to hold tight. Suture manufacturers use specially designed machines to test and study sutures. New suture designs are also tested by subjecting them to chemical tests, such as soaking them in various solutions, and testing on animals.
The manufacturing of sutures for surgical use is not very different from the production
Sutures, as medical devices, are subject to strict quality control. All the raw materials that arrive at the manufacturing plant are tested to make sure they are what they are supposed to be. Each batch of sutures is tested after the main manufacturing steps for a variety of physical characteristics such as diameter and strength. The suture industry has developed an array of sophisticated instruments for testing special suture characteristics such as knot security and tissue drag. Tests for diameter, length, and strength of the suture are also performed at the finishing plant. The finishing plant must also test how well the needle is attached to the suture. Guidelines for suture quality control are laid down by the independent organization United States Pharmacopeia.
New sutures are being developed all the time, to better respond to particular surgical needs. While not replacing sutures, scientists have also devised alternative methods of wound closure. The first surgical stapler was invented in 1908, but stapler technology developed considerably in the 1990s. Precise machines are able to place absorbable staples, as thin as four human hairs, beneath the top layer of skin to secure an incision with minimal scarring. A related device, first tested on patients in the United States in 2000, is a surgical zipper. A surgeon can place the zipper over a straight incision and zip the wound closed, eliminating the need for suturing. After the wound heals, the patient can wash the zipper off in the shower. Another surgical closure method that is still evolving is surgical glue. Surgical glue is less painful than sutures if a wound must be closed without anaesthetic. The glue may leave less scarring in some cases, and be easier to care for post-operatively.
Mukherjee, D. P. "Sutures." In Polymers: Biomaterials and Medical Applications. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1989.
Planck, H., M. Dauner, and M. Renardy, eds. Medical Textiles for Implantation. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1990.
"Dermabond 'Super Glue' Receives Mixed Reviews." Dermatology Times (October 1999): 1.
Mraz, Stephen J. "From the Jaws of Ants to Absorbable Staples." Machine Design (12 January 1995):70ff.
"Zip-it-y Doo Dah." Nursing (May 2000): 62.
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| 0.950688 | 2,209 | 3.71875 | 4 |
Earth Science Puzzles: Making Meaning From Data
Kim A. Kastens, Margie Turrin 2010 NSTA Press Arlington, VA
This book is a collection of data-rich activities for use in the high school earth science classroom. In addition, there is an introduction that places the exercises in the context of the critical thinking skills that geoscientists use: spatial/visual reasoning, temporal reasoning, quantitative reasoning, and concept-based reasoning. This is an extremely useful resource for pre-service secondary science teaching majors, and can be downloaded at a very low cost from the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA) website.
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| 0.861006 | 129 | 3.390625 | 3 |
YOUNGSTERS were able to get a close-up view of an RAF jet when they toured a North Yorkshire air base to discover more about aviation science and technology.
Pupils from the Richmond School science, technology, engineering and maths group visited RAF Leeming to get a greater understanding of aeronautics and aerodynamics to assist them with a project in which they are creating a model aircraft.
Sergeant Kev Stannard, of 90 Signals Unit, is amongst a small team of ambassadors for the sscience, technology, engineering and maths network at the base and helped arrange the visit for the students.
“I think visits such as these will provide great benefits,” he said.
“There is a lot of interest, a lot of talented youngsters and this will help reinforce what they are learning. They’re asking some great questions and hopefully this will spark further interest and assist with any future choices they need to make regarding education and career options.”
Physics teacher Abigail Hope, said: “The network is all about inspiring the students and helping them realise there is a use for everything they are learning in lessons.
“It’s been great to get the students here to see where they could potentially use science and technology and remove those lab coat stereotypes.”
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http://www.darlingtonandstocktontimes.co.uk/news/11127504.RAF_takes_its_turn_at_teaching/?ref=rss
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| 0.954912 | 273 | 2.9375 | 3 |
A common energy issue I've observed in petroleum refineries is low condensate recovery from steam users. Typical steam condensate recovery ranges from 20–45%, but the recovery potential is around 75%. Steam users such as heat tracer lines, tank farm heating coils and exchangers, and remote heat exchangers generally don't return condensate back to the boiler.
Most of these refineries were designed 30 years ago, when energy prices and boiler feed-water treatment costs were low. Wastewater disposal also wasn't an issue to many remote operations. With present day environmental concerns, sites should put a priority on reconsidering draining reusable, good quality boiler feed water to the wastewater system.
Because heat tracers are supplied with steam at constant pressure without any modulation, collecting and returning the condensate from the tracer traps is a simple task — if the tracer system is organized well. Proper steam supply and condensate collection manifolds can help revamp old and unorganized heat tracing systems. A proper steam tracer system design not only enhances condensate recovery, but also improves system maintenance and helps quickly prevent unexpected process failures that could happen during severe winter storms.
Collecting and returning condensate from tank farm heaters is another energy efficiency improvement. In one Caribbean refinery I worked at, all fresh water, including boiler feed water, was made from distilled sea water. Circulated sea water was used to cool all process heat exchangers. Condensate recovery was still around 20%. Because the return headers and pumps were not maintained, they had become obsolete, resulting in several tank farm heaters collecting the condensate, but draining to the local sewers. In this situation, new condensate pumps and additional pipelines could return the condensate back to the utility plant. Even pumping the condensate to nearby process units for internal fresh water use would save marginally the expensive sea water generation.
When steam users at remote locations use steam at different pressure levels, it's likely that the low-pressure (LP) steam users are draining condensate to the grade. It's typical for the initial utility system design to provide a single condensate return header with limited margins to collect and return the condensate. Over a period of plant expansions with condensate sources at different pressures, the return system wouldn't be able to handle condensate at all pressure levels. In this case, reassess the condensate handling capacity of the return system and make suitable modifications such as adding segregated pipelines, flash tanks and pumps. This reengineering action would not only enhance the condensate recovery, but also help eliminate problems like water hammer and unsafe pipeline ruptures.
To further reduce energy costs and improve energy efficiency, consider reevaluating the low-level (LL) heat rejections to atmosphere from various process units. Exhaust gases from process heaters' heat recovery coils, and distillation column exit streams that need cooling and condensing constitute the LL heat rejection sources. Because the existing heat recovery coils and heat integration exchangers were designed based on temperature limits set decades ago, reevaluating the heat rejection temperatures at the present energy cost levels would be a worthy exercise.
Occasionally, a suitable reuse option for the rejected LL heat may exist in a neighboring process unit. If the fuel gas system consistently contains increased valuable light ends such as propane and butane, better overhead vapors cooling would help recover these light ends from the fuel gas. The rejected LL heat would help run an absorption chiller and improve overhead vapors cooling. Many petroleum refineries, especially in southern states, are considering adding absorption chillers that use the LL heat presently rejected from their process heaters and air-fin condensers.
Reviewing the steam system balance may open up multiple energy-saving opportunities. Petroleum refineries utilize steam at several pressure levels ranging between high and low. To reduce these energy losses, pay close attention to the number of operating steam turbines that lead to LP steam venting, and continuous use of pressure-reducing valves to obtain LP steam from high-pressure headers. Process engineers should give priority to optimizing the steam balance to minimize both situations.
Petroleum refineries offer endless options for energy cost reduction.
VEN V. VENKATESAN is Chemical Processing's Energy Columnist. You can e-mail him at [email protected]
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| 0.94167 | 895 | 2.71875 | 3 |
It looks like you're using an Ad Blocker.
Please white-list or disable AboveTopSecret.com in your ad-blocking tool.
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(visit the link for the full news article)
A tick-borne parasite that causes a potentially deadly infection is hiding in America's blood supply. No FDA-approved diagnostic test can detect its presence. Should we panic?
Well, to adopt the appropriate emotional response, let's first examine some facts about this parasite, named Babesia microti, and Babesosis, its signature sickness. As Reuters reports, Babesiosis infections often lead to "anemia, fever, chills and fatigue," but sometimes causes people's organs to fail, and/or kills them.
Of the 162 cases of Babesia infection caused by blood transfusions between 1979 and 2009, nearly 80 percent occurred between 2000 and 2009. "Babesia microti has become the most frequently reported transfusion-transmitted parasite in the United States," CDC researchers wrote, far outpacing malaria infections, which accounted for 49 cases of transfusion-associated disease during the same period, including just five cases during 2000-2009. Premature infants appear to be especially vulnerable.
There are currently no diagnostic tests approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration that can detect the infection before people donate blood.
Originally posted by Domo1
reply to post by ModernAcademia
I don't think it is similar to Morgellan's. I was under the impression that they didn't even know what caused Morgellans at this point.
A high index of suspicion is necessary to diagnose babesiosis. Babesiosis develops only in patients who live in or travel to an endemic area or receive a contaminated blood transfusion within the preceding 9 weeks, so this aspect of the medical history is vital. Babesiosis may be suspected when a person with such an exposure history develops persistent fevers and hemolytic anemia. The definitive diagnostic test for babesiosis is the identification of parasites on a Giemsa-stained thin blood smear. So-called "Maltese cross formations" on the blood film are essentially diagnostic of babesiosis, since they are not seen in malaria, the primary differential diagnosis. Careful examination of multiple blood smears may be necessary, since Babesia may infect less than 1% of circulating red blood cells and thus be easily overlooked.
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http://www.abovetopsecret.com/forum/thread749476/pg1
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| 0.928059 | 516 | 2.796875 | 3 |
Body Builder: The Anaconda come equipped with a large head and a thick neck. Its
eyes and nostrils are positioned on the top of the head, enabling
the Anaconda to breathe and to see its prey while its stocky body
lays submerged under water. The extremely muscular Anaconda is a
constrictor and is not venomous; however, it still has teeth and
powerful jaws that it utilizes to clench onto its prey. It grabs
its victim and pulls it underwater, drowning the prey.
Specific Diets: They typically feed on large rodents, tapirs, capybaras, deer, peccaries,
fish, turtles, birds, sheep, dogs and aquatic reptiles like caiman.
They have been known to occasionally prey on jaguars and attacks
on humans can be confirmed, although this is rare. Younger Anacondas
feed on mice, rats, chicks, frogs and fish. Most local people kill
these snakes on sight, out of the fear that they are man-eaters.
In most instances, if an Anaconda senses humans in the area, it
will retreat in another direction. Human death by Anaconda is quite
Surprise Attack: Anacondas are usually coiled up in a murky, shallow pool or at
the river's edge. They wait to ambush their unsuspecting prey when
they come down for a drink. Anacondas bite their prey with their
sharp teeth, hold on with their powerful jaws and pull them under
water. The victim may drown first or it may be squeezed to death
in the Anaconda's muscular coils. Anacondas, true to the Boa family,
constrict their hapless victims to death. The snake squeezes tighter
each time its prey breathes out, so the prey cannot breath in again.
Suffocation does not take long. Anacondas swallow their prey whole,
starting with the head. This is so the legs fold up and the prey
goes down smoothly. The Anaconda can swallow prey much bigger than
the size of its mouth since its jaw can unhinge and the jaw bones
are loosely connected to the skull. While the snake eats, its muscles
have wave-like contractions, crushing the prey even further and
surging it downward with each bite.
Need some dental work?: Just about every species of snake on earth has teeth, but the anacondas'
teeth are not used for chewing. Most snakes' teeth are used for
holding onto their prey, preventing them from escaping. Some snakes
have venom in two specially designed, extra long teeth which they
use to kill their prey. Anacondas have teeth, but they are not a
venomous snake. They rely on their enormous size and power to subdue
their victims. It is possible to be bitten by an anaconda, but the
bite itself would not be fatal.
Growth Spurts: An Anaconda, like all large species Boas and Pythons, continue
to grow throughout their lives. Their growth speed reduces after
reaching maturity but these snakes possibly reach 50 or 60 years
of age, some maybe 80.
Like almost all boas, Anacondas give birth to live young.
Giant Anaconda: There are some historical reports of early European explorers of
the South American jungles seeing giant anacondas up to 100 feet
long and some of the native peoples of the South American jungle
have reported seeing anacondas up to 50 feet long. No one has
caught and measured an Anaconda anywhere near that size. Additionally,
it is important to note that there is nothing in their natural habitat
that could satisfy the feeding requirements of an Anaconda that
Excess Wieght Loss: When it sheds, an adult anaconda relieves itself of an average
of 2 pounds of skin. An anaconda's skin can stretch up to 30% larger
than the original size of the snake.
All text is available under the terms
of the GNU Free Documentation License
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| 0.935457 | 865 | 3.59375 | 4 |
Stan Moneymaker needs 15 gallons of t!L . gasoline to top off his automobile's gas tank. If he drives an extra eight miles (round trip) to a gas station on the outskirts of town, Stan can save $0.10 per gallon on the price of gasoline. Suppose gasoline costs $3.00 per gallon and Stan's car gets 25 mpg for in-town driving. Should Stan make the trip to get less expensive gasoline? Each mile that Stan drives creates one pound of carbon dioxide. Each pound of CO2 has a cost impact of $0.02 on the environment. What other factors (cost and otherwise) should Stan consider in his decision making?
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http://www.chegg.com/homework-help/engineering-economy-15th-edition-solutions-9780132554909
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| 0.938396 | 137 | 3.125 | 3 |
Individual differences |
Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology |
Biological: Behavioural genetics · Evolutionary psychology · Neuroanatomy · Neurochemistry · Neuroendocrinology · Neuroscience · Psychoneuroimmunology · Physiological Psychology · Psychopharmacology (Index, Outline)
|Brain: Emboliform nucleus|
|Sagittal section through right cerebellar hemisphere. The right olive has also been cut sagitally. (Emboliform nucleus not labeled, but region is visible.) )|
|Gray's||subject #187 796|
The emboliform nucleus lies immediately to the medial side of the nucleus dentatus, and partly covering its hilus. It is one among the four pairs of cerebellar nuclei, which are from lateral to medial: the dentate, interposed (emboliform and globose), and fastigial nuclei. These nuclei can be seen using the Weigert method staining.
- NIF Search - Emboliform Nucleus via the Neuroscience Information Framework
This article was originally based on an entry from a public domain edition of Gray's Anatomy. As such, some of the information contained herein may be outdated. Please edit the article if this is the case, and feel free to remove this notice when it is no longer relevant.
Human brain, rhombencephalon, metencephalon: cerebellum (TA 14.1.07, GA 9.788)
|This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).|
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http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Emboliform_nuclei
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| 0.716054 | 333 | 3.109375 | 3 |
Math::NumSeq::Expression -- mathematical expression values
use Math::NumSeq::Expression; my $seq = Math::NumSeq::Expression->new (expression => '2*i+1'); my ($i, $value) = $seq->next;
A string expression evaluated at i=0, 1, 2, etc, by Perl or a choice of evaluator modules.
This is designed to take expression strings from user input though could be used for something quick from program code too.
expression_evaluator => 'Perl' evaluates with Perl itself. This is always available. Expressions are run with the
Safe module to restrict to arithmetic (see Safe).
The i index is in a
$i variable and an
i() function. The
i() function is prototyped like a constant.
i+1 2*$i - 2
The functions made available include
atan2 sin cos exp log \ Perl builtins sqrt rand / min max List::Util floor ceil POSIX module cbrt hypot erf erfc expm1 \ j0 j1 jn lgamma_r log10 | Math::Libm log1p pow rint y0 y1 yn / tan asin acos atan \ csc cosec sec cot cotan | Math::Trig acsc acosec asec acot acotan | sinh cosh tanh | csch cosech sech coth cotanh | asinh acosh atanh | acsch acosech asech acoth acotanh /
expression_evaluator => 'MS' selects the
Math::Symbolic module, if available.
The expression is parsed with
Math::Symbolic->parse_from_string() and should use a single variable for the i index in the sequence. The variable can be any name, not just "i"
2*i+1 x^2 + x + 1 # any single variable
$ms->simplify() is applied to perhaps reduce the expression a bit, then
to_sub() for actual evaluation.
expression_evaluator => 'MEE' selects the
Math::Expression::Evaluator module, if available.
The expression should use a single input variable, which can be any name, and takes the i index in the sequence. Temporary variables can be used by assigning to them,
x^2 + x + 1 # any single variable t=2*i; t^2 # temporary variables assigned
The expression is run with
$mee->compiled(). It turns the expression into a Perl subr for actual evaluation.
expression_evaluator => 'LE' selects the
Language::Expr module, if available.
The expression should use a single variable, of any name, which will be the i index in the sequence. See Language::Expr::Manual::Syntax for the expression syntax.
$x*$x + $x + 1
The expression is compiled with Language::Expr::Compiler::Perl for evaluation.
See "FUNCTIONS" in Math::NumSeq for behaviour common to all sequence classes.
$seq = Math::NumSeq::Expression->new (radix => $r, modulus => $d)
Create and return a new sequence object.
$value = $seq->ith($i)
expression evaluated at
Safe.pm seems a bit of a slowdown. Is that right or is it supposed to validate ops during the eval which compiles a subr?
Copyright 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014 Kevin Ryde
Math-NumSeq is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by the Free Software Foundation; either version 3, or (at your option) any later version.
Math-NumSeq is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the GNU General Public License for more details.
You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License along with Math-NumSeq. If not, see <http://www.gnu.org/licenses/>.
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http://search.cpan.org/dist/Math-NumSeq/lib/Math/NumSeq/Expression.pm
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| 0.710467 | 926 | 3.203125 | 3 |
In their article, W. Richard Walker, Ph.D., of Winston-Salem State University and colleagues find two causes for people's recollection of the past to be positively biased. The first cause, according to their review of the research, seems to be due to the simple fact that pleasant events do in fact outnumber unpleasant events because people seek out positive experiences and avoid negative ones. Across 12 studies conducted by five different research teams, people of different racial and ethnic backgrounds and participants who ranged in age from late teens to early 50's consistently reported experiencing more positive events in their lives than negative events.
The other process at work involves our memory system treating pleasant emotions differently from unpleasant emotions. Seven studies reviewed by the researchers provide support for a fading affect for negative emotions. Pleasant emotions have been found to fade more slowly from our memory than unpleasant emotions. One mechanism for this uneven fading may involve a process known as minimization. In order to return to our normal level of happiness, we try to minimize the impact of life events. This minimization process - which occurs biologically, cognitively and socially -- is usually stronger for negative events than for positive events.
"This implies that there is a tendency to 'deaden' the emotional impact of negative events relative to the impact of positive events," according Dr. Walker. "Such deadening occurs directly because people are motivated to view their life events in a relatively positive light."
The research shows that this fading affect bias represents genuine emotional fading rather than a retrospective error in memory, and it should be viewed as evidence of healthy coping processes operating in memory, according to the authors. They add that this should not be confused with repression, a theory proposed by Sigmund Freud. This research suggests that people do remember negative events; they just remember them less negatively.
Of course, life is not pleasant for everyone. Of the 229 participants involved in eight reviewed studies where diary entries were tracked, 17 reported more unpleasant than pleasant events, indicating that the fading affect does not work for everyone. Among those with mild depression, unpleasant and pleasant emotions tend to fade evenly. In a new study to be published by the review authors, 330 participants recalled six emotionally intense memories from their lives and provided a series of ratings for each event. The participants were also assessed on depression levels. The researchers found increased levels of depression were associated with a greater disruption of the fading affect bias.
But for those not suffering from depression, the authors say the bias "suggests that autobiographical memory represents an important exception to the theoretical claim that bad is stronger than good and allows people to cope with tragedies, celebrate joyful moments, and look forward to tomorrow."
Article: "Life Is Pleasant -- and Memory Helps to Keep It That Way!" W. Richard Walker, Winston-Salem State University, John J. Skowronski, Northern Illinois University and Charles P. Thompson, Kansas State University; Review of General Psychology, Vol. 7, No. 2.
Full text of the article is available from the APA Public Affairs Office or at http://www.
Lead author W. Richard Walker, Ph.D., can be reached at 336-750-2624 (Monday-Thursday mornings) or by e-mail at [email protected].
The American Psychological Association (APA), in Washington, DC, is the largest scientific and professional organization representing psychology in the United States and is the world's largest association of psychologists. APA's membership includes more than 150,000 researchers, educators, clinicians, consultants and students. Through its divisions in 53 subfields of psychology and affiliations with 60 state, territorial and Canadian provincial associations, APA works to advance psychology as a science, as a profession and as a means of promoting health, education and human welfare.
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To the Editor:
April 9 was Equal Pay Day. Each year, the date of Equal Pay Day is obtained by computing how far into 2013 women must work to earn what men earned for the year 2012.
In October 2012, AAUW released “Graduating to a Pay Gap: The Earnings of Women and Men One Year after College Graduation.” The report, which uses the latest nationally representative data, compares “apples to apples” by looking at the pay gap after controlling for various factors affecting earnings: occupation, college major, and hours worked. This study reinforces research for the 2007 publication, “Beyond the Pay Gap.”
In spite of widespread efforts to dismiss the pay disparity, the difference cannot be explained away by women’s choices. Are women charged 23 percent less college tuition then men? When women attend college and accept their first jobs, fairness would dictate equal wages. Fair is fair. Support equal pay for everyone based on employment, not on gender.
Co-president, AAUW Crystal Lake area branch
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According to Wan, citras were created by bioengineers to discover genetic traits linked to homosexuality. To that end, 90% of them are homosexual males; the rest, both male and female, were used to propagate the species and were known as "citruses." There are no hermaphrodite citras. Their genetic purity prevents such mutations. When the project lost funding, the entire population was ordered to be destroyed. Threatened with extermination, the citras successfully escaped the facility and now live in the wild. Hunting them has since been outlawed.
A citra colony is generally a very primitive and sylvan affair. They live in citrus groves, tending and surviving off of the fruit they raise. A citra's metabolism is incredibly efficient, utilizing very nearly all of the fruit they consume. The drawback is that the citra's body adapts to that fruit only, even changing color, and it must remain with the colony to survive. A citra that consumes anything else or even another citrus fruit can become extremely ill.
Citra colonies sometimes trade their fruit or other services (dancing and adult entertainment being the most popular) for other items they may need or want. From a description of one of the works by Wan: "The citras are useful in providing entertainment to nearby civilized units, and are paid in physical resources."
Citras and citruses are, overall, similar in appearance to the fennec fox, with long, pointed ears and a bushy tail. They vary in size, but are typically smaller than the standard-sized anthro character. As they grow up, they turn the color of the type of citrus fruit they eat. While a large variety of citras have been portrayed in art, there are five common subspecies, corresponding to the citrus fruit each eats: lime (green), lemon (yellow), grapefruit (light tan), pink grapefruit (pink), and orange (orange). Citras usually range in height from 2' to 3'6" tall. Due to their genetic purity & having been created in a laboratory environment there are few mutations and variant species known to date. Distinctive markings of all citras and citruses include a light patch around their right eye, darker fur on the lower arms, feet, and forepaws, lighter underparts, and two dark rings around the tail.
Citruses retain the tan color of their birth and can usually reach a much greater height than citras.
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| 0.952272 | 512 | 2.96875 | 3 |
[Front Page] [Features] [Departments] [SGAP Home Page] [Subscribe]
The Impact of Fire: An Historical Perspective
Climatic change and the drying out of the Australian environment resulted in the decline of rainforests and the dominance of sclerophyllous vegetation. Fire has been a major component of this process, promoting those plants which could cope with fire at the expense of those which could not. Aboriginal people added to the firing frequency, but maintained low population densities until the last 5,000 years, when fire became an integral component of their economic system. They used fire as a tool to promote and maintain the vegetation associations which were most productive. Once traditional Aboriginal burning regimes ceased following European settlement, the standing fuel increased, resulting in sporadic but more intense fires.
Geological History of Australian Vegetation
To understand the impact of fire on Australian vegetation, it is first necessary to understand the geological history of Australia. Until about 200 million years ago, all of the major continents were held together, locked up in a supercontinent known as Pangaea. This broke into two groups, one in the north, called Laurasia, and one in the south, Gondwana. We know that this supercontinent, Gondwana, consisting of Africa, South America, Australia, Antarctica, and India, existed until around 190 million years ago, when the various components broke up and began to drift in different directions. India drifted northwards, and ran into Asia about 50 million years ago. About the same time, New Zealand separated from Australia.
The post-Gondwana history of Australia is one of relative stability. At it drifted northward into the Pacific, few mountain ranges were built, and those which were created were relatively low. There was not a great deal of tectonic activity, and as a result, Australia eroded and became a relatively flat continent. Where the rainfall was relatively constant, the surface weathered, and the soils became acidic. Laterisation bound up nutrients like phosphorus, impoverishing the soil, and removing some of the trace elements which were essential for many plant species. New landscapes arose only through erosion of old ones. One of the consequences of poor soil fertility was that the vegetation which found itself on the Australian continent diversified, and filled the niches created by poor quality soils. There are more plant species growing on the Hawkesbury sandstone around Sydney than grow in many European countries.
The old Gondwana forests had been dominated by gymnosperms - the conifers, auracaria and podocarps, but just as Gondwana broke up, the angiosperms began to radiate. Because of the large size and climatic diversity which existed within Gondwana, the vegetation associations were varied, and when Australia separated it took with it enough angiosperms to expand and almost fill the entire continent. Nothofagus, the antarctic beech, was one of the early angiosperms which was present on Gondwana when Australia became isolated. Minor families included the Myrtaceae, the grasses, the Xanthorrhoeas, and the chenopods (Pyne, 1991). A few of the genera which were present and which later became important included Eucalyptus, Banksia, Hakea and Melaleuca. A similar vegetation association characterised parts of Antarctica, South America and New Zealand. Where the rainfall was year round and moderately high, rainforests were maintained, but the minor flora adapted and speciated, filling many of the niches in the drier areas.
|"One of the consequences of poor soil fertility was that the vegetation which found itself on the Australian continent diversified...."|
The slow movement to the north and the consequent climatic fluctuations broke up the rainforests into smaller patches. The Australian continent began to dry out. Australian aridity became seasonal, episodic and chronic (ibid:4). It was entrenched in the north as part of the annual wet and dry season. In some places, there would be drought extending over several years. The moisture-loving vegetation became crowded along the coastal fringe, with the Great Dividing Range acting as a barrier to water movement in the atmosphere. To the east of the ranges the annual rainfall was high; to the west it was low. This process continued during the Pleistocene, and the result was that some of the previously minor components of the Australian vegetation became dominant over much of the country. Those plants which could adapt to dry conditions, the scleromorphs, flourished. These were the plants with small tough leathery leaves, which reduced water loss, and allowed the plant to conserve nutrients as well as water.
The Nothofagus and Podocarpus rainforests contracted to the moist cool southeast. Casuarinas replaced auracarias. Grasses replaced ferns in the understorey, forests were replaced by woodlands, dominated by eucalypts and Acacia. It had been the climatic changes, the increasing aridity, which resulted in a massive radiation in the scleromorphs, creating the broad pattern of Australian vegetation much as we know it today.
Aboriginal Use of Fire
By 38,000 years ago the Auracarian rainforests had just about all disappeared, and Casuarina was beginning to be replaced by eucalypts. Around this time, there was a massive increase in the amount of charcoal deposited in lakes and swamps. Pollen cores in several sites across Australia, but most notably Lynches Crater on the Atherton Tableland, clearly show this abrupt change (Kershaw, 1986). The increase in charcoal probably came about because the new sclerophyll vegetation, under dry conditions, provided an abundant source of fuel. Fires to ignite that fuel could occur naturally or could be initiated by Aboriginal people.
Australian vegetation had evolved along with fire. Lightning strikes start fires, and in parts of tropical Australia the vast majority of fires are started this way (Pyne, 1991). Fire results in the rapid recycling of nutrients, an important factor in many of the poor quality soils in Australia. Australian plants respond to fire in different ways. Some have developed the capacity to reproduce vegetatively rather than by seed production. Others, like the Banksias and Hakeas, are fire-dependant, and require fire in order to release their seeds. The fact that the Australian vegetation evolved along with natural fires is generally accepted. What is not so clear is to what extent did anthropogenic fires determine the patterns of vegetation which Europeans found on their arrival in 1788, and to what extent did the cessation of Aboriginal burning influence the subsequent changes in the environment (Dodson, 1992).
Epicormic shoots develop from the stem of a fire-tolerent Eucalyptus species. This is one sort of adaptation for survival in environments which experience fire. Select the thumbnail image or plant name for a higher resolution image (38k).
The large, woody seed pods of Hakea bakeriana contain only two seeds. The pods remain closed on the plant until they are stimulated to open by the death of the plant, usually through fire. Select the thumbnail image or plant name for a higher resolution image (40k).
It was Rhys Jones in 1969 who first proposed the idea of "firestick farming", the implication being that Aboriginal people unintentionally and intentionally modified the environment by the use of fire (Jones, 1969:224). Certainly Aborigines had been observed using fire to burn large tracts of land since the first European settlements, and it was clear that fire was an important tool to Aborigines right across Australia. However, Jones was the one of the first to suggest that this burning was controlled or directed. He saw fire as an important tool in increasing the productivity of the land, by replacing mature forests with open woodlands and grasslands.
Based on knowledge of the use of fire by traditional Aboriginal communities, who see burning the landscape as "cleaning up the country", and to a lesser extent on ethnohistorical accounts, it is clear that fire was used by Aboriginal people primarily while they were hunting (Kimber, 1983; Nicholson, 1981). However, there were other beneficial consequences. Fire would recycle nutrients and promote new growth, which would subsequently attract herbivores. Many plants were favoured by regular low intensity burning. A burning pattern consisting of frequent, low intensity fires removes the woody understorey, and allows many of the grasses, orchids and lilies to flourish. Orchids and lilies often possess underground storage organs or tubers, which were eaten by the Aborigines (Cribb and Cribb, 1975). Studies of the burrawang, Macrozamia communis, in southern NSW showed that fire could increase the productivity of cones 2-3 times, and although the seeds of this plant are poisonous, Aboriginal people had developed the technology to eradicate the toxins by treatment with heat and running water, and Macrozamia seeds were an important food source (Beaton, 1982).
The large fruiting cones of Macrozamia communis break apart when mature to shed their large orange seeds. Select the thumbnail image or plant name for a higher resolution image (40k).
By the time these changes in charcoal deposition were taking place, Aboriginal people were well established in Australia. Their stone tools have been found in rock shelters in Arnhem Land dating back 50,000 years or more (Roberts et al, 1990). They had reached as far south as Perth by 40,000 years ago, and were almost certainly spread right around the coastal margins by this time. Whether the cause of the fires which produced the charcoal was natural or man-made is still a matter of debate.
Some researchers like David Horton from the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies, suggest that "Aboriginal use of fire had little impact on the environment and ... the patterns of distribution of plants and animals which obtained 200 years ago would have been essentially the same whether or not Aborigines had previously been living here." (Horton, 1982). Horton probably underestimates the impact that Aboriginal people have had on Australian environment. Aboriginal burning generally took place at appropriate times of the year, and when weather conditions were right. This ensured that there was a low intensity burn, and therefore little danger of a crown fire developing. Traditional burning patterns maximised the species diversity in any particular area, because burning tended to leave a mosaic of vegetation which had been burned at different times.
This regular firing favoured not only fire-tolerant or fire-resistant plants, but also encouraged those animals which were favoured by more open country. On this basis, it is clear that Aboriginal burning, in many areas at least, did impact on the "natural" ecosystem, producing a range of vegetation associations which would maximise productivity in terms of the food requirements of the Aborigines. Jones goes so far as to say that "through firing over thousands of years, Aboriginal man has managed to extend his natural habitat zone" (Jones, 1969).
Aboriginal burning has been blamed for a variety of environmental changes, not the least of which is the extinction of the Australian megafauna, a diverse range of large animals which populated Pleistocene Australia. Kershaw (1986), among others, has argued that Aboriginal burning may well have modified the vegetation to the extent that the food resources of the megafauna were diminished, and as a consequence the largely herbivorous megafauna became extinct. Indeed, Kershaw is one of a small but growing group of palynologists who suggest that the arrival of Aborigines may have occurred more than 100,000 years ago, fire-stick in hand, eager to burn to the virgin landscape. He suggests that their burning caused the sequences of vegetation changes which he detects through the late Pleistocene. The first to propose such an early arrival for Aborigines was Gurdip Singh from the Australian National University, who found evidence in his pollen cores from Lake George indicating that Aborigines began burning in the lake catchment around 120,000 years ago (Singh and Geisler, 1985).
|"Clearly, Aboriginal people had some impact, but the significance of that impact is far from clear."|
Flannery (1990) believes that the megafauna were hunted to extinction by Aborigines soon after they arrived. He argues that with the rapid extinction of the megafauna, virtually all of which were herbivorous, a great deal of vegetation was left uneaten, increasing the standing crop of fuel. As a consequence, fires became larger and hotter than before, causing the reduction of fire-sensitive plants to the advantage of those which were fire-resistant or indeed fire-dependant. Flannery suggests that Aborigines then began to burn more frequently in order to maintain a high species diversity and to reduce the impact of high intensity fires on medium-sized animals and perhaps some plants. He argues that twentieth century Australian mammal extinctions are largely the result of the cessation of Aboriginal "firestick farming".
Most of these theories implicates Aboriginal use of fire as a component of the changes to both plant and animal communities within Australia during the last 50,000 years. Clearly, Aboriginal people had some impact, but the significance of that impact is far from clear.
It seems likely that the introduction of the intensive use of fire as a tool did indeed follow, but was not directly a consequence of, the extinction of the megafauna. If, as has been suggested, the megafauna remained in some areas until the Holocene, then we should be looking for evidence within the last 10,000 years for changes induced by new Aboriginal burning patterns (Wright, 1986).
The other factor which few of these researchers have considered is the likelihood that Aboriginal population density increased rapidly and dramatically over the last 5-10,000 years (Mulvaney and White, 1987). An increase in Aboriginal burning frequency may have been associated with the introduction or invention of new technologies which allowed Aboriginal people to concentrate on those large resources which were previously so difficult to capture - kangaroos and large wallabies. Fire was initially used to promote and retain the environments which were most suitable for these animals, and fire was subsequently used for maximising the productivity of these areas after the massive Aboriginal population increase which occurred during the late Holocene, probably because of the greater access to this abundant resource.
The stone technology which Aboriginal people had been using with little modification for over 40,000 years diversified and specialised in the last 5,000 years. Spear barbs and tips peaked about 2,000 years ago, and then completely disappeared from the archaeological record in southeastern Australia. They were replaced by technologies associated with the exploitation of smaller animals - shell fish hooks and bone points along the coast for fishing, axes for hunting possums across the woodlands, and adzes for sharpening digging sticks along the banks of the larger rivers where the yams were abundant. The intensive and regular use of fire was an essential component of this late Holocene shift in resource base (Kohen, 1986). The evidence suggests that Aboriginal burning may well have had an impact on Australian vegetation, but that by far the greatest impact has occurred over the last 5,000 years.
European Fire Regimes
When Europeans first settled in Australia in 1788, they found a landscape dominated by eucalypts. Certainly there were some areas of dense vegetation which contained a greater diversity of trees. However, the dominant feature of the landscape was the ubiquitous gum tree. When expeditions began exploring the countryside around Sydney, they encountered a range of vegetation associations very different to those which we see in the National Parks around Sydney today. On soils derived from Hawkesbury sandstone, Wianamatta shale, Tertiary alluvial deposits, and igneous intrusions, they found environments which reminded them of the manicured parks of England, with trees well spaced and a grassy understorey. Peter Cunningham (1827) described the country west of Parramatta and Liverpool as "a fine timbered country, perfectly clear of bush, through which you might, generally speaking, drive a gig in all directions, without any impediment in the shape of rocks, scrubs, or close forest". This confirmed earlier accounts by Governor Phillip, who suggested that the trees were "growing at a distance of some twenty to forty feet from each other, and in general entirely free from brushwood ..." (Phillip, 1789). It is clear that it was primarily Aboriginal burning practices which maintained an open environment dominated by well spaced trees and grass. Once the Aborigines stopped burning, the underbrush returned where none had previously existed. Benson and Howell (1990: 20) suggest that the growth of Bursaria spinosa in the Sydney area in the 1820s may be related to a changed fire regime, the cessation of Aboriginal burning.
|"While Aboriginal people used fire as a tool for increasing the productivity of their environment, Europeans saw fire as a threat."|
While Aboriginal people used fire as a tool for increasing the productivity of their environment, Europeans saw fire as a threat. Without regular low intensity burning, leaf litter accumulates, and crown fires can result, destroying everything in their path. European settlers feared fire, for it could destroy their houses, their crops, and it could destroy them. Yet the environment which was so attractive to them was created by fire. Indeed, it has been suggested that the European settlement of Tasmania followed almost exactly those areas which the Tasmanian Aborigines had regularly burned (Pyne, 1991).
As European settlement spread out from Sydney, traditional Aboriginal burning practices ceased. Once this happened, vegetation associations changes, animals which were once common rapidly declined, and in some cases disappeared altogether. In the more remote areas, this process took longer. In western NSW it happened in the 1840s and 1850s. In parts of Central Australia, the extinctions and declines still continue, although other factors are now involved. However, it can be argued that many of these changes are the result of changed fire regimes. Certainly some of the extinctions of the smaller terrestrial mammals in arid Australia occurred long before the introduction of competitors such as the rabbit and predators like the fox and cat.
The problem for conservationists is whether to burn or not to burn. Regular low intensity burning will promote certain species and vegetation associations at the expense of others. Perhaps the last word should come from Rhys Jones (1969), who recognised the problem almost a quarter of a century ago, when he said:
"What do we want to conserve, the environment as it was in 1788, or do we yearn for an environment without man, as it might have been 30,000 or more years ago? If the former, then we must do what the Aborigines did and burn at regular intervals under controlled conditions".
- Beaton, J.M. 1982. Fire and water: aspects of Australian Aboriginal management of cycads. Archaeology in Oceania 17(1): 51-58.
- Benson, D. and J. Howell. 1990. Taken for granted. The bushland of Sydney and its suburbs. Kangaroo Press in association with the Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney.
- Cribb, A.B. and J.W. Cribb. 1975. Wild food in Australia. Collins, Sydney.
- Cunningham, P. 1827. Two Years in New South Wales. London.
- Dodson, J. (ed). 1992. The Naive Lands. Prehistory and environmental change in Australia and the Southwest Pacific. Longman Cheshire.
- Horton, D. 1982. The burning question: Aborigines, fire and Australian ecosystems. Mankind 13(3): 237-251.
- Jones, R. Firestick farming. Australian Natural History 16: 224-228.
- Kershaw, P. 1986. The last two glacial-interglacial cycles from Northeastern Australia: implications for climatic change and Aboriginal burning. Nature 322: 47-9.
- Kimber, R. 1983. Black Lightning: Aborigines and fire in Central Australia and the Western Desert. Archaeology in Oceania 18(1): 38-45.
- Kohen, J.L. 1986. Prehistoric settlement in the Western Cumberland Plain: resources, environment and technology. Unpublished PhD thesis, Macquarie University.
- Mulvaney, D.J. and J.P. White (eds). Australians to 1788. Fairfax, Syme and Weldon, Sydney.
- Nicholson, P.H. 1981. Fire and the Australian Aborigine - an enigma. In A.M. Gill, R.H. Groves and I.R. Noble (eds). Fire and the Australian Biota. Australian Academy of Sciences, Canberra.
- Phillip, A. 1789. The voyage of Governor Phillip to Botany Bay. London.
- Pyne, S.J. 1991. Burning Bush. A fire history of Australia. Henry Holt and Company, New York.
- Roberts, R.G., R. Jones and M.A. Smith. 1990. Thermoluminescence dating of a 50,000 year old human occupation site in Northern Australia. Nature 345: 153-6.
- Singh, G. and E. A. Geisler. 1985. Late Cainozoic history of fire, lake levels and climate at Lake George, New South Wales, Australia. Philosophical Transactions, Royal Society of London 311: 379-447.
- Wright, R. 1986. New light on the extinction of the Australian megafauna. Proceedings of the Linnaean Society of NSW 109: 1-9.
This article is a reproduction of a paper presented by Dr Jim Kohen at the SGAP 17th Biennial Seminar, Robert Menzies College, Sydney, 27 September to 1 October 1993. Jim is a lecturer in the School of Biological Sciences at Macquarie University, Sydney.
[Front Page] [Features] [Departments] [SGAP Home Page] [Subscribe]
Australian Plants online - September 1996
The Society for Growing Australian Plants
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By Nadia Ismail
Death was big business to the Ancient Egyptians, with their tombs and reliquaries also providing some of the best information on their life and culture. In the intriguing new book, “Mrs Tsenhor: A Female Entrepreneur in Ancient Egypt”, Koenraad Donker van Heel introduces readers to Tsenhor, “sister of Horus”, a strongly spoken and highly independent working woman who made her fortune through the industry of death.
Born in 550 BCE in Karnak, Tsenhor is described as one of a family of chaochytes, hired to bring offerings on behalf of families to the dead in their tombs on the west bank of the Nile. Tsenhor inherited her work from her father, Nesmin, and continued this work alongside her second husband, whom she is described as having married on equal terms.
In exchange for her work, Tsenhor received food items, high quality farm land, foods amongst other things. Such was the demand for the services of chaochytes like Tsenhor, that she amassed not only a house that she could afford to restructure, but she also owned at least one slave and amassed an array of assets to her name. All this was done with little male input.
However, with a good chunk of surviving evidence, either unclear or written in a form of hieroglyphs that only a few Egyptologists can understand, van Heel has a tough job of creating a solid story around Tsenhor.
There is much speculation about whether she may or may not have had a male guardian, in line with Ancient Egyptian law, as well as very little confirmed evidence of what happened to her children who may or may not have died before her. Admittedly, this is due, in no small part, to the wear and tear of the ages, but there is also the slight issue of some scribes not writing dates as well as names disappearing and reappearing from papyri, seemingly at will.
And although the book’s title does suggest a primary focus on Tsenhor, there is almost as much information on other people unrelated to her. The frequent and rather long digressions get in the way of Tsenhor’s story, making it, on occasion, disjointed and broken apart.
The background outlines that Tsenhor was apparently not unusual for her day, with many other women also actively involved in aspects of ownership, forming legally binding contracts and owning slaves. But with such long-winded digressions onto other examples throughout the book, one almost forgets the book is predominantly about Tsenhor. There is a very large detour into the history of the day at several points with very little relation and draw in to how this impacted Tsenhor or her cohorts. The story is then brought back to its protagonist, Tsenhor, by the author giving an almost conversational break and “back-to-business” end to the historical discussion.
What we do learn however, is a very clear and interesting introduction to the industry of looking after mummies at the beginning of the book. One may find it morbid that a culture places so much focus on the dead, yet for Tsenhor and her fellow chaochytes, this was lucrative business, giving her the freedom to decide her own life, including who she married, decide on her “marriage contract” as well as how she divided up her assets in her will.
“Mrs Tsenhor: A Female Entrepreneur in Ancient Egypt” was published by AUC Press in May.
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5 Students Who Lead
Leadership does not come from mere knowledge about what successful leaders do — and it certainly does not come from merely being in a leadership position. John Quincy Adams once said, “You are a leader if your actions inspire others to dream more, learn more, do more and become more.” These five students demonstrate their leadership skills through their commitment, enthusiasm, perseverance and a humble heart to learn from any situation. They are passionate about serving and helping others achieve their goals. From student organizations to international initiatives, these students’ leadership roles pioneered the way to make ideas happen, and thus enabled their peers to pursue their dreams, learn more and do more.
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BANK STRESS TESTS
What Is a Bank Stress Test?
IMF Survey online
July 29, 2010
- Unlikely but plausible scenarios identify risks
- IMF stress tests countries’ banking systems
- New techniques being developed
What if unemployment skyrocketed and economic growth ground to a halt? How would banks fare?
Banks and government officials charged with overseeing banking systems try to answer these types of questions by performing stress tests—subjecting banks to “unlikely but plausible” scenarios designed to determine whether an institution has enough net wealth—capital—to weather the impact of such adverse developments.
Stress tests of banking systems in Europe in 2010 and the United States in 2009 have generated considerable interest given the impact of the global crisis on the health of the financial system as a whole.
Stress tests are meant to find weak spots in the banking system at an early stage, and to guide preventive actions by banks and those charged with their oversight.
Stress test results depend on how pessimistic the scenarios’ assumptions are, and should be interpreted in light of the assumptions made.
In the wake of the 2008 failure of investment bank Lehman Brothers, and of the worst global financial and economic crisis in 80 years, those who design stress tests are taking a long, hard look at what constitutes “unlikely but plausible” scenarios.
Different tests, different purposes
There are many different types of stress tests, with different uses. Some are carried out by banks themselves to help manage their own risks. Some are done by supervisors as part of their ongoing oversight of individual banks and banking systems. Many of these tests are never published.
The IMF has been using stress tests extensively in the last decade to assess the ability of banking systems to withstand major adverse developments. Indeed, virtually all of the Fund’s Financial System Stability Assessment reports include stress tests of banking systems.
There is one thing that almost all stress tests have in common. They are typically carried out to shed more light on a few key types of threats to banks’ financial health: credit and market risk, and most recently, liquidity risk, a problem that reared up during the global crisis.
Credit and market risks
Credit and market risks are key because they affect banks’ profits and solvency.
Credit risks reflect potential losses from defaults on the loans a bank makes, including consumer loans, such as mortgages, and corporate loans. Stress tests for credit risk examine the impact of rising loan defaults, or non-performing loans, on bank profit and capital.
Market risk stress tests gauge how changes in exchange rates, interest rates, and the prices of various financial assets, such as equities and bonds, affect the value of the assets in a bank’s portfolio, as well as its profits and capital. Typically, the test would assume a drop in the value of the various assets in the bank’s portfolio.
The changes in asset prices and default rates are often linked to a negative economic scenario in which, among other things, unemployment climbs and economic growth plummets. Such tests are called macro stress tests, as economic assumptions are used to project by how much a bank’s non-performing loans may increase or how much a bank would bear losses from lower asset prices in its portfolio.
The United States and European authorities chose this approach in their recent stress tests. One benefit of macro stress tests is they communicate more clearly the underlying assumptions. One downside is that the scenarios are more difficult to build and the results are subject to modeling uncertainty, since there is no standard way to link the economic assumptions to default rates or asset prices.
Before the Lehman Brothers collapse, many bank supervisors did not worry too much about how much liquidity—or cash on hand—banks had. As long as a bank was healthy and solvent and could manage regular cash flows, it was seen as unlikely to fall short of cash--and even if it did, it would be able to find cash easily, either by borrowing money from other banks or by selling assets. Deposit insurance could also help to prevent bank runs for fundamentally healthy banks.
All advanced economies have some rules and guidance for banks on liquidity risk management, but the liquidity shocks banks were confronted with in 2008 turned out to be much more widespread and severe than banks and regulators anticipated. Compounding the problem, various other types of non-bank financial institutions that distribute liquidity in the system, such as money market funds, and money market participants more generally, stopped lending to banks.
Many banks found themselves unable to borrow money at reasonable interest rates or get enough cash by selling assets, as many asset prices had collapsed. As a result, authorities had to develop unorthodox ways to inject massive amounts of cash into liquidity-strapped institutions.
Liquidity stress tests generally used before the crisis focused on the impact of deposit withdrawals or on the inability of a bank to refinance, which could be triggered, for instance, by a credit downgrade of the institution.
These turned out to be insufficient to simulate the range of potential liquidity shortages. Recently, efforts to develop more adequate tools have intensified. For example, the Basel committee, which is made up of central bankers and regulators from most members of the G-20 group of advanced and emerging economies, is now focusing on liquidity risk and debating a number of different proposals to address liquidity issues.
New frontiers in stress testing
The global economic crisis has also highlighted the importance of expanding the scope of stress tests beyond the individual risks to banks, to system-wide risks.
Efforts are underway by national supervisors as well as international organizations involved in financial stability, such as the IMF and the Bank of International Settlements, to develop new risk-modeling techniques and stress test methodologies to better identify the risks that trigger widespread economic and financial instability.
One of the risks to identify is the connection between individual financial institutions, and the potential that problems affecting one bank, or a group of banks, may propagate to other institutions and potentially threaten the stability of the financial system as a whole.
Stress tests will also need to take into account the global scale of banks operations, which have the potential to transmit shocks from one country to another on a scale previously unheard of, as seen recently in foreign exchange funding or structured credit and credit derivatives markets.
One of the lessons of the recent crisis is the need to understand and assess the interplay between the financial sector and economic stability. Sophisticated approaches are needed to examine the impact of economic shocks on financial institutions' asset portfolios, as well as the subsequent effects of financial institutions’ distress on the economy, which can continue to feed off one another if not contained.
As stress tests remain at the forefront of the ongoing debate about how to improve the health of the global financial system, banks, regulators and supervisors will continue to develop them as tool for spotting emerging risks, and financial markets will be paying attention to the results.
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Definitions for i samuel
This page provides all possible meanings and translations of the word i samuel
I Samuel, 1 Samuel(noun)
the first of two books in the Old Testament that tell of Saul and David
The numerical value of i samuel in Chaldean Numerology is: 5
The numerical value of i samuel in Pythagorean Numerology is: 8
Sample Sentences & Example Usage
Neither Justice Samuel Alito, nor Chief Justice John Roberts have the same level of commitment to the theory.
During the Samuel Johnson days they had big men enjoying small talk; today we have small men enjoying big talk.
Samuel Rodriguez do n’t just stay home and not vote – Samuel Rodriguez vote, vote for the candidates that best support Biblical truth and Biblical values.
You have your big stars like Denzel Washington or Samuel L. Jackson, who appeal to everyone, but a lot of those guys don't get the recognition they should get.
It is silly to talk about not voting for either candidate. Every single Christian should vote. samuel Rodriguez do n’t just stay home and not vote – Samuel Rodriguez vote.
Images & Illustrations of i samuel
Find a translation for the i samuel definition in other languages:
Select another language:
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The Torah as God's Song
At the end of his life, having given the Israelites at God's behest 612 commands, Moses is instructed to give them the last; command 613:
Now therefore write down for yourselves this song, and teach it to the people of Israel; put it in their mouths, that this song may be my witness within the people of Israel. (Deut. 31:19)
According to the plain sense of the verse, God is speaking to Moses and Joshua and is referring to the song in the following chapter, "Listen, O heavens, and I will speak; Hear, O earth, the words of My mouth." Oral tradition, however, gave it a different and much wider interpretation, understanding it as a command for every Jew to write - or at least take some part in writing - a Sefer Torah, a scroll of the law:
Said Rabbah: even though our ancestors have left us a scroll of the Torah, it is our religious duty to write one for ourselves, as it is said: "Now therefore write this song, and teach it to the people of Israel; put it in their mouths, that this song may be a witness for me against the people of Israel." (Sanhedrin 21b).
The logic of the interpretation seems to be, first, that the phrase "write down for yourselves" could be construed as referring to every Israelite (Ibn Ezra), not just Moses and Joshua. Secondly, the passage goes on to say (31: 24): "Moses finished writing in the book the words of this law from beginning to end." The Talmud (Nedarim 38a) offers a third reason. The verse goes on to say: "that this song may be My witness within the people" - implying the Torah as a whole, not just the song in chapter 32.
There is something poetic about this being the last of the commands. It is as if God were saying to the Israelites: "It is not enough that you have received the Torah from Moses. You must make it new again in every generation." The covenant was not to grow old. It had to be periodically renewed.
So it is to this day, that Torah scrolls are still written as in ancient times, by hand, on parchment, using a quill - as were the Dead Sea Scrolls two thousand years ago. In a religion almost devoid of sacred objects (icons, relics), the Torah scroll is the nearest Judaism comes to endowing a physical entity with sanctity - and this is an understatement. The Torah is less like an object than a person. In its presence we stand as if it were a king. On Simchat Torah we dance with it as if it were a bride. If one is, God forbid, damaged or destroyed we bury it as if it were a human; we mourn as if we had lost a relative. Judaism is the story of a love affair between a people and a book, the Book of Books.
What though - if we take the command to refer to the whole Torah and not just one chapter - is the significance of the word "song" [shirah]: "Now therefore write down for yourselves this song"? The word shirah appears five times in this passage. It is clearly a key-word. Why? On this, two nineteenth century scholars offered striking explanations.
Netziv (R. Naftali Zvi Yehudah Berlin) interprets it to mean that the whole Torah should be read as poetry, not prose (the word shirah in Hebrew means both a song and a poem). To be sure, most of the Torah is written in prose, but it has, argues Netziv, two characteristics of poetry. First, it is allusive rather than explicit. It leaves unsaid more than is said. Secondly, like poetry, it hints at deeper reservoirs of meaning, sometimes by the use of an unusual word or sentence construction. Descriptive prose carries its meaning on the surface. The Torah, like poetry, does not. (Kidmat Davar, preface to Ha'amek Davar, 3).
In this brilliant insight, Netziv anticipates one of the great twentieth century essays on biblical prose, Erich Auerbach's 'Odysseus' Scar'. Auerbach contrasts the narrative style of Genesis with that of Homer. Homer uses dazzlingly detailed descriptions so that each scene is set out pictorially as if bathed in sunlight. By contrast, biblical narrative is spare and understated. In the example Auerbach cites - the story of the binding of Isaac - we do not know what the main characters look like, what they are feeling, what they are wearing, what landscapes they are passing through:
The decisive points of the narrative alone are emphasized, what lies between is non-existent; time and place are undefined and call for interpretation; thoughts and feelings remain unexpressed, are only suggested by the silence and the fragmentary speeches; the whole, permeated with the most unrelieved suspense and directed toward a single goal . . . remains mysterious and "fraught with background".
A completely different aspect is alluded to by R. Yechiel Michal Epstein, author of the halakhic code Arukh ha-Shulchan (Choshen Mishpat, introduction). Epstein points out that the rabbinic literature is full of arguments, about which the sages said: "These and those are the words of the living God." This, says Epstein, is one of the reasons the Torah is called "a song" - because a song becomes more beautiful when scored for many voices interwoven in complex harmonies.
I would suggest a third dimension. The 613th command is not simply about the Torah, but about the duty to make the Torah new in each generation. To make the Torah live anew, it is not enough to hand it on cognitively - as mere history and law. It must speak to us affectively, emotionally.
Judaism is a religion of words, and yet whenever the language of Judaism aspires to the spiritual it breaks into song, as if the words themselves sought escape from the gravitational pull of finite meanings. There is something about melody that intimates a reality beyond our grasp, what William Wordsworth called the "sense sublime / Of something far more deeply interfused / Whose dwelling is the light of setting suns / And the round ocean and the living air." Words are the language of the mind. Music is the language of the soul.
Music is central to the Judaic experience. We do not pray; we daven, meaning we sing the words we direct toward heaven. Nor do we read the Torah; instead we chant the weekly portion, each word with its own cantillation. Even rabbinical texts are never merely studied; we chant them with the particular sing-song known to all students of Talmud. Each time and text has its specific melodies. The same prayer may be sung to half-a-dozen different tunes depending on whether it is part of the morning, afternoon or evening service, and whether the day is a weekday, a Sabbath, a festival or one of the High Holy Days. There are different cantillations for biblical readings, depending on whether the text comes from the Mosaic books, the prophetic literature, or the Ketuvim, 'the writings.' Music is the map of the Jewish spirit, and each spiritual experience has its own distinctive melodic tonality.
The 613th command - to make the Torah new in every generation - symbolizes the fact that though the Torah was given once, it must be received many times, as each of us, through our study and practice, strives to recapture the pristine voice heard at Mount Sinai. That requires emotion, not just intellect. It means treating Torah not just as words read, but also as a melody sung. The Torah is God's libretto, and we, the Jewish people, are His choir, the performers of His choral symphony. And though, when Jews speak they often argue, when they sing, they sing in harmony, as the Israelites did at the Red Sea, because music is the language of the soul, and at the level of the soul Jews enter the unity of the Divine which transcends the oppositions of lower worlds. The Torah is God's song, and we collectively are its singers.
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Banzai Babe Ruth
The literal translation of the Japanese word banzai is “ten thousand years.” But the Japanese use it like the French use vive or the English “long live.” To think that the Japanese in 1934, amid crumbling relations with America, would come out by the thousands to apply that honorific to Babe Ruth and other major leaguers is a fascinating and little-known story. Banzai Babe Ruth is far more than just a sports story. It is, as Robert K. Fitts writes, a story of “sports diplomacy, espionage, infidelity, attempted murder, and an attempt to overthrow the Japanese government.” Whew.
By the 1930s, besuboru, as baseball was known in Japan, was already wildly popular. On a number of occasions, ending in a diplomatic near-disaster in 1931, the United States had been sending professional baseball all-star teams to Japan with the fleeting hope to bring the two countries closer through a shared love of the game. (In 1931, racist comments from the American dugout were overheard by an English-speaking Japanese coach and relayed to the Japanese press, who had a field day.)
But in 1934, two men decided to give it another go. One was an enterprising Japanese newspaper owner, Matsutaro Shoriki, who thought, rightly, that sponsoring an American all-star tour would increase sales; the other, and the real hero of Fitt’s book, was major leaguer Lefty O’Doul, who had been to Japan in 1931, loved the country, and would eventually form the first Japanese pro baseball teams.
Banzai Babe Ruth isn’t really so much about The Babe, although he lurks around every corner like an accident waiting to happen. It’s more about O’Doul, and the banjo-hitting catcher Moe Berg, who, it was said, “could speak twelve languages and can’t hit in any of them.” Berg was never without his camera, and may well have been an American spy. It’s also the story of Eiji Sawamura, a young pitcher who initially adored, then ultimately hated, America.
No one could have told this incredible story better than Robert K. Fitts. The greatest expert on Japanese baseball in America, Fitts has written two previous books on the subject, including Remembering Japanese Baseball: An Oral History of the Game. With Banzai Babe Ruth, Fitts reveals the social, historical, and cultural traditions of a country with which we shared a common interest in baseball, and little else.
Some of the rare photographs, including one of Babe Ruth in the outfield, a glove in one hand and a Japanese umbrella in the other, are alone worth the price of the book. Banzai Robert K. Fitts.
Disclosure: This article is not an endorsement, but a review. The author provided free copies of his/her book to have his/her book reviewed by a professional reviewer. No fee was paid by the author for this review. Foreword Reviews only recommends books that we love and make no guarantee that the author will receive a positive review. Foreword Magazine, Inc. is disclosing this in accordance with the Federal Trade Commission’s 16 CFR, Part 255.
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Learn something new every day
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"Aggregate demand" is a term used to describe the total amount of demand for products that exists within a defined economic situation, such as the economy of a nation. This type of demand can be influenced by a number of factors, including some that will lead to decreases in aggregate demand and make a significant impact on the overall economy. Some of these factors include shifts in exchange rates, the distribution of income among consumers within the economy, changes in governmental economic policies that impact consumer demand, and even shifts in customer needs and wants.
One of the more common reasons for decreases in aggregate demand have to do with changes in the distribution of income within the economy. If the wages and salaries of consumers who normally spend a great deal of disposable income on certain products should be adversely impacted by unemployment or reduction in wages due to a recession, then the demand for those products will decrease noticeably. Unless prices are lowered to a point that consumers can afford those products once more, there is a good chance that the demand will remain at a low level until the distribution of income is restored.
Decreases in aggregate demand may also occur when exchange rates between the currencies of different nations shift. Should that shift have an adverse effect on the buying power of consumers, they are likely to reduce their spending, which in turn means the demand for certain goods and services will decrease, lowering the overall or aggregate demand in that nation. This type of phenomenon may be short-lived, since exchange rates tend to shift regularly and those same consumers may soon find their currency is able to purchase more, which will normally trigger an increase in the overall demand.
Changes in governmental laws and regulations regarding trade can also lead to decreases in aggregate demand. When buyers find that those new regulations are prohibitive, essentially making it more expensive to acquire certain products, chances are they will buy less. For this reason, many nations strive to maintain some balance when it comes to trade regulations, seeking to find the perfect balance between regulating the flow of trade and keeping impediments to that trade within reason.
Shifts in the wants and needs of consumers may also trigger decreases in aggregate demand. This is especially true if newer technology is supplanting a product that was once a prominent part of the economic community. As consumers decide that certain products are no longer useful or desirable, the demand for those products decreases. Should those consumers choose to limit their consumption of alternatives due to cost or other factors, this could mean the overall demand for certain types of products decreases and remains so for some time.
Isn't one of the larger factors that cause aggregate demand to decrease the availability of credit? In the most recent recession, we saw tightening credit standards as a response to record mortgage defaults, an uptick in bankruptcies and other events that made it clear that credit was too freely available in some instances.
Lenders tightened their standards, thus reducing the amount of credit available and slowing down sales on houses, cars and all sorts of consumer goods.
One of our editors will review your suggestion and make changes if warranted. Note that depending on the number of suggestions we receive, this can take anywhere from a few hours to a few days. Thank you for helping to improve wiseGEEK!
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A new study published today in the journal Child Development (e-publication ahead of print) finds that having a poor "gut sense" of numbers can lead to a mathematical learning disability and difficulty in achieving basic math proficiency. This inaccurate number sense is just one cause of math learning disabilities, according to the research led by Dr. Michele Mazzocco of the Kennedy Krieger Institute.
Approximately 6 to 14 percent of school-age children have persistent difficulty with mathematics, despite adequate learning opportunities and age-appropriate achievement in other school subjects. These learning difficulties can have lifelong consequences when it comes to job success and financial decision-making. Heightened interest in the nature and origins of these learning difficulties has led to studies to define mathematical learning disability (MLD), identify its underlying core deficits, and differentiate children with MLD from their mathematically successful counterparts.
The new Kennedy Krieger study showed that children with a confirmed math learning disability have a markedly inaccurate number sense compared to their peers. But Dr. Mazzocco said students without a MLD who were below average in achievement performed on the number sense tasks as well as those considered average. For them, number sense doesn't seem to be the trouble.
"Some children have a remarkably imprecise intuitive sense of numbers, and we believe these children have math learning disability, at least in part, due to deficits in this intuitive type of number sense," said Dr. Mazzocco, Director of the Math Skills Development Project at Kennedy Krieger. "But other students who underperform in math do so despite having an intact number sense. This demonstrates the complexity of determining precisely what influences or interferes with a child's mathematical learning. Difficulty learning math may result from a weak number sense but it may also result from a wide range of other factors such as spatial reasoning or working memory. While we should not assume that all children who struggle with mathematics have a poor number sense, we should consider the possibility."
To gauge their sense of numbers, Dr. Mazzocco and colleagues tested 71 children who were previously enrolled in a 10-year longitudinal study of math achievement. The students, all in the ninth grade, completed two basic number sense tasks. In the number naming task, they were shown arrays of dots and asked to judge how many dots were present, without allowing enough time to actually count them. In the number discrimination task, the children were shown arrays of blue dots and yellow dots and asked to determine whether the blue or yellow array had more dots, again, without time to count them.
The researchers then compared the performance of four groups of students, who over the 10-year study, consistently showed having either a MLD, below average, average or above average math achievement.
Students with MLD performed significantly worse than their peers on both of the number tasks. The study findings suggest that an innate ability to approximate numbers, an intact ability present in human infants and many other species, contributes to more sophisticated math abilities later in life, while a less accurate ability underlies MLD. Additionally, the findings reveal that a poor number sense is not the only potential source of math difficulties, reinforcing that a 'one size fits all' educational approach may not be the best for helping children who struggle with math.
"A key message for parents and teachers is that children vary in the precision of their intuitive sense of numbers. We might take for granted that every child perceives numbers with roughly comparable precision, but this assumption would be false. Some students may need more practice, or different kinds of practice, to develop this number sense," Dr. Mazzocco said. "At the same time, if a child is struggling with mathematics at school, we should not assume that the child's difficulty is tied to a poor number sense; this is just one possibility."
|Contact: Colleen Butz|
Kennedy Krieger Institute
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The food you eat may change your genes for life
NewScientist | November 17 2005
By Alison Motluk
IT SOUNDS like science fiction: simply swallowing a pill, or eating a specific food supplement, could permanently change your behaviour for the better, or reverse diseases such as schizophrenia, Huntington's or cancer.
Yet such treatments are looking increasingly plausible. In the latest development, normal rats have been made to behave differently just by injecting them with a specific amino acid. The change to their behaviour was permanent. The amino acid altered the way the rat's genes were expressed, raising the idea that drugs or dietary supplements might permanently halt the genetic effects that predispose people to mental or physical illness.
It is not yet clear whether such interventions could work in humans. But there is good reason to believe they could, as evidence mounts that a range of simple nutrients might have such effects.
Two years ago, researchers led by Randy Jirtle of Duke University Medical Center in Durham, North Carolina, showed that the activity of a mouse's genes can be influenced by food supplements eaten by its mother just prior to, or during, very early pregnancy (New Scientist, 9 August 2003, p 14). Then last year, Moshe Szyf, Michael Meaney and colleagues at McGill University in Montreal, Canada, showed that mothers could influence the way a rat's genes are expressed after it has been born. If a rat is not licked, groomed and nursed enough by its mother, chemical tags known as methyl groups are added to the DNA of a particular gene.
The affected gene codes for the glucocorticoid receptor gene, expressed in the hippocampus of the brain. The gene helps mediate the animal's response to stress, and in poorly raised rats, the methylation damped down the gene's activity. Such pups produced higher levels of stress hormones and were less confident exploring new environments. The effect lasted for life (Nature Neuroscience, vol 7, p 847).
Now the team has shown that a food supplement can have the same effect on well-reared rats at 90 days old - well into adulthood. The researchers injected L-methionine, a common amino acid and food supplement, into the brains of well-reared rats. The amino acid methylated the glucocorticoid gene, and the animals' behaviour changed. "They were almost exactly like the poorly raised group," says Szyf, who announced his findings at a small meeting on environmental epigenomics earlier this month in Durham, North Carolina.
Though the experiment impaired well-adjusted animals, the opposite should be possible, and Szyf has already shown that a chemical called TSA that is designed to strip away methyl groups can turn a badly raised rat into a more normal one.
No one is envisaging injecting supplements into people's brains, but Szyf says his study shows how important subtle nutrients and supplements can be. "Food has a dramatic effect," he says. "But it can go both ways," he cautions. Methionine, for instance, the supplement he used to make healthy rats stressed, is widely available in capsule form online or in health-food stores - and the molecules are small enough to get into the brain via the bloodstream.
Rob Waterland from Baylor College of Medicine in Houston, Texas, who attended the meeting, says Szyf's ideas are creating a buzz, as they suggest that methylation can influence our DNA well into adulthood. A huge number of diseases are caused by changes to how our DNA is expressed, and this opens up new ways of thinking about how to prevent and treat them, he says.
But Waterland points out there is still much work to be done. Substances like methionine and TSA are, he says, a "sledgehammer approach", in that they are likely to demethylate lots of genes, and we don't even know which they will affect. But he speculates that techniques such as "RNA-directed DNA methylation", so far tested only in plants but theoretically possible in mammals, may allow us to target such methylation much more precisely.
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Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge | Cambridge, MA
For his key discoveries that underlie our understanding of three-dimensional structures and function of RNA and DNA molecules. His work has led to appreciation of the conformational versatility of the nucleic acids and the manner in which nature uses these properties. The breadth and versatility of his contributions routinely influence and guide investigators who study, manipulate and use nucleic acids.
2000 Bower Science Award Theme: Structural Biology
A renowned researcher in the field of structural molecular biology, Alexander Rich's work furthered understanding of the roles of DNA abd RNA in heredity. In 1979, Rich and his team made a shocking discovery: "left-handed" DNA. This screw-shape form was dubbed Z-DNA, and Rich later discovered a biological role in making modifications to genetic material.
This and other groundbreaking work in structural biology earned Rich international honors. Rich is a member of the National Academy of Sciences, the Philosophical Society, the French Academy of Sciences, the Russian Academy of Sciences, and the Pontifical Academy of Sciences. Rich has received the Rosenteil Award in Basic Biomedical Research, the Presidential Award of the New York Academy of Sciences, and the National Medal of Science.
Information as of 2000
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| 0.919439 | 257 | 2.6875 | 3 |
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