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Worm infections may afflict both humans and domestic animals, benzimidazole derivatives refer to a class of drugs that can often be used to treat roundworm, or nematode, cases as well as those due to flatworms, or trematodes. This class of worm medicine has been used for decades, and remain a fairly common treatment in many cases because of their efficacy. Benzimidazole derivatives are so named because they are derived from a single compound, known as benzimidazole.
Drugs in this family tend to have similar chemical structures, but differ in their dosing and other physical properties, such as how well they dissolve in water or are absorbed by the body. They include albendazole, oxibendazole, mebendazole, and flubendazole. Of this class, triclabendazole cannot be used to treat roundworms, and a few compounds, like albendazole and netobimin, may be used to treat liver fluke infections.
These benzimidazole derivatives have a common mechanism of action. They interfere with the construction of cell structures in worms known as microtubules. Microtubules require constant maintenance in order to remain effective, and they are a necessary part of growth and cellular division. Benzimidazole and its related compounds cap off one end of these structures, preventing them from extending, and causing them to disintegrate; this action not only allows these drugs to prevent worms from growing and reproducing, but they can also directly kill the worms through cellular damage.
Often, these pharmaceutical drugs are used in veterinary medicine, but they may also be used in humans as well. Most commonly, they can be used as worm medicine in cases that affect ruminants, such as cows, as well as horses. Benzimidazole derivatives are somewhat less effective when treating infections in other animals, but are sometimes used in cases involving cats, birds, and dogs and may occasionally used in treating both worm and fungal conditions in humans.
Most benzimidazole derivatives are only minimally soluble in water, so they may be applied as a paste or in a liquid suspension. To overcome the fact that these drugs can sometimes have difficulty absorbing into the body, they may be taken in repeated doses, twice a day, for lengths of time lasting as long as several weeks. Consistent dosing in this manner can often effectively treat a variety of worm infections, including those that might be resistant to other medications. This potent efficacy is the reason that many types of benzimidazoles continue to be used, despite their common issues of absorption and solubility.
One of our editors will review your suggestion and make changes if warranted. Note that depending on the number of suggestions we receive, this can take anywhere from a few hours to a few days. Thank you for helping to improve wiseGEEK!
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More Fangs in the Forest
Montana is home to higher numbers of large carnivores today than any time since the 19th century. Now what?
This story is featured in Montana Outdoors September-October 2013 issue
If Montanans ever decide on a new motto, they might consider something like Terra Multi Fera (“Land of Abundant Wild Animals”). Owing to Montana’s intact, healthy habitats and science-based conservation practices, the state has long been known as a place teeming with wildlife such as elk, bighorn sheep, pronghorn, mule deer, prairie grouse, and waterfowl.
Now add large carnivores to the mix.
Across much of Big Sky Country, meat eaters are multiplying. The wolf population has grown from just a few dozen animals a decade ago to at least 625 today. Lion numbers have increased steadily after high harvests in the late 1990s. Grizzlies are more abundant than at any time in the last century. And Montana is home to roughly 13,000 black bears, most of them, like the other big carnivores, living west of the Continental Divide.
Whether people welcome or curse this abundance depends on their values and interests. Hunters dislike competing with carnivores for elk and deer, and ranchers see predators as threats to their bottom line. Yet houndsmen are glad for additional mountain lions to chase. And more hikers, campers, and wildlife watchers than ever—many hunters among them—are enjoying the sight of a grizzly feeding on berries or hearing the haunting howls of a wolf pack at sundown.
One thing is certain: Having such healthy populations of black and grizzly bears, lions, and wolves combined with so many other wildlife species is unique to Montana among the lower 48 states. For many Montanans and visitors, it’s another example of why the state stands apart.
Montana’s carnivore abundance didn’t occur out of the blue. By ending the long practice of poisoning, bounties, and other unregulated killing, federal and state laws provide protection. Just as important, the state’s healthy big game populations provide protein. Tolerance by hunters and livestock operators also contributes to Montana’s carnivore abundance. “Because we’re actively managing mountain lion, wolf, and bear populations in part to reduce impacts to prey populations and livestock, most hunters and ranchers don’t seem to mind having some carnivores out there,” says Ken McDonald, head of the Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks Wildlife Division. “Many people don’t understand that without that tolerance, we wouldn’t have nearly as many [large carnivores] as we have.”
In light of Montana’s wildlife conservation tradition, it’s not surprising the big meat eaters would eventually return. “Large carnivores reflect a broad-based wildlife restoration movement originally set in motion nearly a century ago,” says McDonald. “It started with elk and other big game animals, then carried on with raptors like peregrine falcons and bald eagles. Lions, wolves, and bears are a natural continuation of that movement.”
Today Montana is home to more large carnivores than at any time since statehood. The question now is what to do about it. Some say do nothing; let the animals be. A more reasoned response, taken by FWP, recognizes that large carnivores can pose a threat to human and pet safety, disrupt ranching operations, and take a bite out of deer and elk populations. “Obviously, management is essential,” says McDonald.
Not an easy fix
Essential, yes, but by no means simple.
Deer and elk numbers in parts of western Montana are down in recent years, as is hunter harvest. Because wolves, mountain lions, and bears eat deer and elk, it’s logical to conclude that large carnivores are responsible for the prey population declines. And, by extension, that the solution to rebuilding deer and elk herds is to reduce the number of fangs in the forest.
But it turns out things are not so straightforward. The main reason: It’s difficult to know for certain what causes what.
For instance, though much public attention lately has centered on wolves, the wild canids are only one reason prey numbers and hunter harvests can decline. Habitat is critical. So is winter and summer weather. Then there’s the growing tendency of deer and elk to find refuge on private land closed to public hunting. Add to all this two new studies in Wyoming and Montana showing that mountain lions and bears eat more elk than wolves do in some areas.
That all this is complicated should come as no surprise to hunters. Hunting itself is not much different. Hunters know firsthand that failure to fill a tag could be due to any combination of bad luck, hunting pressure, lack of snow, poor physical fitness, inadequate scouting, elk moving onto lands posted “No Trespassing,” and more. “As in hunting, large carnivores are just one more factor in an already complex management equation,” says McDonald. “There’s no question we need to manage them, but we can’t do that without also considering all the other components that drive prey populations.”
Willing to act
When FWP officials talk about large carnivore “management,” they mean a combination of activities: research that figures out what’s happening on the ground, monitoring to determine the size and trend of populations, preventative measures such as livestock guard dogs, and regulated hunting (and in some cases trapping) harvest. “FWP is committed to maintaining healthy, viable populations of wolves, bears, and lions,” says McDonald. “But there’s a point where too many can occur in some places, and that’s where we need to reduce or moderate numbers.”
In response to growing carnivore populations, FWP has
- liberalized wolf harvest methods,
extended seasons, lowered nonresident
license costs, and taken other measures to reduce wolf numbers in targeted areas;
- increased lion harvest in dozens of western Montana hunting districts;
- lengthened the black bear season to increase harvest in western Montana;
- temporarily curtailed cow elk hunter harvest in key areas (such as the upper Bitterroot, Gardiner, upper Gallatin, and Big Hole Valley) to allow populations to recover; and
- worked with federal agencies and Indian tribes toward delisting grizzly bears in the Northern Continental Divide (NCDE) and Greater Yellowstone Ecosystems.
In addition, wildlife biologists have begun devising customized prescriptions, or strategies, for solving predator-prey problems in parts of western Montana. For instance, in the hunting district on both sides of I-90 between Butte and Missoula—which has a relatively high elk density, a low carnivore density, and lots of private land—FWP is liberalizing wolf harvest to prevent numbers from increasing, while maintaining existing lion and bear seasons. And in the upper Bitterroot—with a relatively low elk density, high combined carnivore densities, and abundant forested public land—the department has temporarily increased female lion harvest and limited cow elk hunting opportunities until elk population numbers improve.
“The idea is to customize quotas and seasons to reflect what’s actually going on in each hunting district,” says Mike Thompson, FWP regional wildlife manager in Missoula.
Research scientists are monitoring the prescriptions to see if they require adjustment. Though strategies in the areas cited above have shown early signs of success, Thompson says it’s too early to draw conclusions about their effectiveness.
In some areas, FWP may also try to grow the overall size of deer and elk populations to overwhelm the effects of predators. “But for that to work, there has to be strong public support, and we’d need to work closely with landowners to provide more available habitat,” says Thompson.
Another idea is to find new ways for hunters to access private land currently off-limits to public hunting. “Do most hunters simply want us to eliminate predators, or is their goal really about having more and better deer and elk hunting opportunities?” says McDonald. “We think there might be ways to achieve the latter without going overboard with carnivore control and jeopardizing the delisting of wolves and grizzly bears.”
FWP officials note that not all areas will respond to even the most carefully devised strategies. “In many parts of our region,
native predators take much of the harvestable prey surplus following severe winters,” says Jim Williams, FWP regional manager in northwestern Montana, home to most of the state’s wolves as well as high lion, black bear, and grizzly bear densities. “We’ll always have good bull and buck hunting here, and in some years we’ll be able to issue antlerless tags. But it’s unlikely we’ll see doe and cow hunting in much of this region like we had in the old days before the restoration of large carnivores.”
Growing body of carnivore research
It often makes sense to pare down carnivore numbers in some areas. But which species? And by how much? That’s where research comes in. Without solid scientific data, wildlife managers can’t know if they are removing enough carnivores or too many—or even whether carnivores are the main factor in prey declines. Preliminary results of an eight-year study begun in 2011 found that, contrary to expectations, lions are responsible for more calf deaths in the upper Bitterroot and Big Hole Valleys than wolves and black bears combined. “I was surprised myself,” says Mark Hebblewhite, a University of Montana assistant professor working with FWP on the study. “Like a lot of people, I assumed wolves were killing all the elk in these areas. But we were wrong. It’s mainly lions.”
A recently released study by the University of Wyoming and Wyoming Game and Fish, funded in part by the Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation and Safari Club International, looked at factors related to elk population declines in a popular northwestern Wyoming herd. Scientists found that the combination of grizzly predation and the loss of nutritious natural vegetation due to drought took a far greater toll on elk than wolves did. “Habitat quality determines elk body fat, which is critical in a cow’s ability to rear calves and survive winter, regardless of predators,” says lead researcher Arthur Middleton. Though wolves kill elk, Middleton found that grizzly bears remove far more of the ungulates—preying primarily on newborn calves—than wolves do, a finding that supports an earlier National Park Service study of elk in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. “That’s not to say wolves couldn’t have a significant impact in other areas,” the biologist adds.
The upshot? Killing more wolves may not necessarily give prey populations the boost hunters hope it will.
Among other significant large carnivore research findings in recent years:
- Scientists figured out a way to estimate black bear population densities based on precipitation patterns. The study also showed that Montana’s bear harvest was not harming the population and could be increased.
- A current study is determining if the NCDE grizzly bear population (estimated now at roughly 1,000) is decreasing or, as results show so far, increasing. The information will further the process of federal delisting and restoring state management that could include hunting.
- In a major mountain lion study, researchers found that raising hunting quotas can rapidly knock down lion numbers, and that lowering quotas can help lion populations recover quickly.
- In another lion study, just finished,
scientists found a way to estimate populations in various parts of the state based on the capacity of habitat to support the species, allowing wildlife biologists to more accurately predict mountain lion numbers in various parts of the state.
- Results of a northwestern Montana study showed that more than 50 percent of whitetail fawn deaths were caused by lions and coyotes.
- During several studies, scientists have found more accurate ways to determine wolf numbers and the effects of various harvest scenarios on population size.
“Without reliable information from these and other applied research projects, we’d risk wasting hunter license dollars on management that ended up not doing what it was supposed to do,” says Justin Gude, head of FWP wildlife research programs.
There’s that word again: “management.” Like “control,” “balance,” and “healthy,” there’s no agreement among Montanans on what the terms mean when referring to large carnivore population size or distribution. Certainly it’s FWP’s job to manage large carnivores and big game, to understand the various factors affecting those populations, and to figure out how to raise or lower populations, primarily with public hunting. But is it up to wildlife officials to decide how many wolves, bears, and lions should live in certain parts of Montana?
FWP won’t let large carnivore populations expand to where they unduly harm ranching operations and suppress deer and elk populations. And the agency is bound by law and mission to prevent extinction and maintain viable large carnivore populations. Between those two extremes, however, there’s plenty of room for discussion and negotiation among various interests. FWP can provide science-based advice and guidance. But as to the actual size and mix of meat eater populations across the state, that may ultimately be up to Montanans to decide, collectively, for themselves.
Tom Dickson is editor of Montana Outdoors.
[ BACK TO TOP ]
Both new and complex
Weather, habitat, wildlife behavior, population dynamics, and land ownership are just some of what complicates FWP’s ability to bring large carnivore and big game populations into better balance. For instance, the department must consider a wide range of needs and interests. Hunters want more deer and elk. Houndsmen ask for more lions. Wildlife watchers in the Yellowstone area oppose wolf hunting around the national park. And many livestock operators who think western Montana already has too many elk shudder to think of FWP trying to increase herd sizes in some areas to overwhelm the effects of large carnivores. Add to that the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, which maintains authority over grizzly bears and, with wolves, will allow the state to reduce populations only so far before the species becomes eligible for relisting under the Endangered Species Act.
Then there’s the issue of wide-ranging carnivore movement. “Wolf and lion populations operate on a huge scale, sometimes spanning several states or into Canada,” says Justin Gude, head of FWP wildlife research. “Increasing a carnivore harvest quota doesn’t necessarily mean we reduce local numbers. If we want to reduce carnivores in a particular area, we may need to commit to a high harvest for a long time, which means Montana has to be willing to kill a lot of wolves and lions there.”
Another factor, adds Gude, is that “reducing numbers of one species, like lions, might just make it that much easier for another species, like wolves, to eat what the lions were eating. And does removing wolves simply open the door for more coyotes, which take a huge toll on fawns?”
Other factors include:
- Weather: “Along with habitat, it’s rainfall, snow depth, winter temperatures, and other weather conditions that drive elk and deer populations, just as they did 20 years ago before we had all these carnivores,” says Gude.
- Elk finding refuge on private land: In some parts of Montana, populations may not be down as much as hunters believe. Elk have simply learned to move onto the growing number of private ranches off-limits to public hunting.
- Ranchers wanting fewer elk: Several years ago, livestock operators frustrated by increasing depredation convinced the Montana Legislature to require FWP to lower elk numbers using high antlerless harvests, even as carnivore numbers were increasing.
- The newness of large carnivore management: “We are just coming out of the gate managing large carnivores and big game in combination,” says Gude. “For instance, we’ve had only three full wolf harvest seasons to look at. That’s why it’s essential to study various management strategies so we can better predict what might happen under different scenarios. It’s one thing the upper Bitterroot study is looking at. First we did baseline research, which ends this year. Now we’ve liberalized carnivore regulations to reduce wolf and lion numbers. Next we’ll see the effects on both carnivores and big game prey.”
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Alarming signs that the earth is warming faster than predicted
This Saturday, Dec. 22, the solstice will occur at 1:08 a.m. local time, marking the beginning of winter in the Northern Hemisphere. Saturday will also be the shortest day of the year.
The solstice happens just twice a year - when the sun reaches its greatest distance from the celestial equator. The summer solstice occurs in June.
As we prepare for the arrival of winter, scientists this week are reporting that in 2007 the melting of arctic sea ice has accelerated at an alarming rate. The ice melt is happening three times faster than originally thought. Scientists say the Arctic Ocean could be ice free by the summer of 2012, instead of 30 years from now as orginally thought.
Of big concern, some experts say, is whether the earth has reached the "tipping point." That's when the earth passes the point of no return, when there is no longer enough polar ice to reflect the sun's energy and the heat goes into the oceans causing those great bodies of water to warm.
Then the warming spiral becomes just about unstoppable.
Of course all of these predictions are just that. We don't really know what will happen. But we can make make some fairly accurate guesses.
We know that as the ice melts the water level in the oceans must rise. Should Greenland's ice cover melt, the oceans are expected to rise by 22 feet. That would reduce the size of Conanicut Island by about half.
A warmer climate will severely impact our food supply. We will not be able to grow the same crops in the same places.
Plant and animal species will move to new environments. Some species may become extinct as the globe gets warmer. Consider the fate of the polar bears.
More drastic, destructive weather patterns are anticipated as the earth warms. Some scientists believe we are already experiencing the beginning of unstoppable climate change. Our winter weather won't be the same.
Most scientists agree the warming trend is caused by greenhouse gasses produced by burning fossil fuels such as oil and coal.
The crisis is global, so what can we as individuals do? Plenty.
Start at home. Drive less. Walk or ride a bicycle whenever possible. Use public transportation. Think "green" when making purchases for your home. Use energy efficient appliances and light bulbs. Make sure your home is properly insulated. You'll need less fuel to heat your home.
We can also encourage our Town Council to approve a resolution requiring our island government to operate in an energy responsible manner. The town is already researching the use of wind turbines to produce electricity. We can do more. When town vehicles need to be replaced, let's purchase hybrids or electric vehicles. Can we replace our street lights with more efficient lamps? An energy audit might help determine where the town could reduce its carbon footprint.
The future of the earth is up to us. We can continue at the current pace or we can become pro-active.
As the saying goes, "Think globally, act locally."
- Jeff McDonough
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BOSTON Functional electrical stimulation (FES) was developed to help return lost function to patients with upper and lower extremity injuries and spinal cord injuries, among other applications. However, the devices, which work by stimulating neuronal activity in nerve-damaged patients, have a potential shortcoming in that the electrical currents needed for the treatment to work can also send errant signals to surrounding nerves, resulting in painful side effects.
Earlier this fall, a plastic surgery research team at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center (BIDMC) and an engineering team from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), described a new method of nerve stimulation that reduces the device's electrical threshold by 40 percent, compared with traditional FES therapy. Reported in the October 23 Advance On-line issue of the journal Nature Materials, the findings could help researchers develop a safer, more efficient FES therapy with fewer side effects.
"This new device works by manipulating the concentration of charged ions surrounding the nerve," explains co-senior author Samuel J. Lin, MD, a surgeon in BIDMC's Divisions of Plastic Surgery and Otolaryngology and Assistant Professor of Surgery at Harvard Medical School. "This could potentially mean reduced risk to surrounding nerves because less electrical current is required to stimulate the affected nerve." The researchers additionally discovered that they could use the device to block signals in nearby nerve fibers, which could help prevent unwanted muscle contractions.
The research team, led by Lin and MIT Associate Professor Jongyoon Han, PhD, determined that by altering calcium ion concentrations in the fluid surrounding the nerves they could adjust the electrical impulses.
"Nerve fibers fire their signals based on the message they receive from the interaction of ions, or charged particles," explains coauthor Ahmed M.S. Ibrahim, MD, a Research Fellow in BIDMC's Divisions of Plastic Surgery and Otolaryngology. "We wanted to achieve the lowest current possible that would still result in positive results." After testing the manipulation of sodium and potassium ions, the researchers determined that consistent results could be achieved by removing positively charged calcium ions from the fluid surrounding the nerves.
The newly designed method not only prevents electrical impulses from traveling along a nerve but also uses significantly less current required by existing FES therapy. "This could be of particular benefit for the treatment of patients with various forms of paralysis," explains Lin. "The nerves that control movements and the sensory nerves that carry pain signals are extremely close together, so existing FES therapy has had limitations."
The researchers conducted their study of this new electrochemical-stimulation method in the nerves of frogs and plan to later test it in mammalian nerves.
"This is an important step towards the design of a device to aid in helping patients suffering from nerve paralysis and chronic neurological conditions," say Lin. "By bringing together biomedical and engineering research teams we have been able to successfully develop this new technique. Going forward, these types of collaborations will be absolutely crucial to creating new clinical treatments and enhancing patient care."
|Contact: Bonnie Prescott|
Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center
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Early-maturing Group 4 soybeans planted in Arkansas the second to third week of May are having problems. The third week of August saw some plants shutting down about two weeks prematurely.
When the soybeans began drying down, “many growers thought the situation was natural,” says Scott Monfort, Arkansas Extension plant pathologist. “It wasn't until consultants and county Extension agents began checking closely that they found beans weren't filled out and shouldn't be drying. The tops of the plants didn't have anything but BBs in pods.”
Some situations “are pretty bad and farmers could see an estimated 10 to 15 percent reduction in their yields. That's not a certainty, but it looks that way, right now.
“It's hard to say precisely how badly yields will be hurt. I've looked at some of this problem in Prairie County (in central Arkansas) and it doesn't seem as bad as it is farther north. The pods there are already full to the top although they're ‘sitting down’ earlier than they should.”
What's being seen in the soybeans is likely a complex of factors, not a single problem. Early in the season, from late April into May, soybeans received quite a bit of rain. That allowed the plants to expend energy on things other than root systems. Since water was near the surface they didn't need to search deeper for moisture.
Then, at the beginning of July, as the soybeans reached reproductive stage at R-2 (a sensitive time for soybeans), the rains tailed off. The crop wasn't equipped to handle the moisture shut-off.
“I believe we had stress on both extremes: too much water up front and not enough during the critical bloom stage. That led to some root damage. Even though it wasn't severe damage, it was enough to hurt the crop.”
Without water, root tips will burn or dry out and plants will begin to decline.
“A lot of diseases beginning to pop up normally don't cause us widespread problems. Since the root systems were so stunted, even short times between irrigations allowed the plants to dry out. That stressed the plants during pod-fill.”
The plants had been so stressed that when irrigated, “they were shocked. That made many of these problems worse. That's certainly different than what we were expecting.”
In some of the worst hit areas, “by the time the crop was filling pods, the plants were simply unable to keep up and they shut down. That's why the crop is drying out so early.
“When the plants got stressed so badly some pathogens moved in and started working on the crop. Those include some Fusarium, charcoal rot and that sort of thing.”
Asked if the range of symptoms in the crop has been seen before, Monfort says the range of stresses may be the better place to start an investigation.
“I'm new in the state, but I understand Group 4s haven't been grown in Arkansas widely until the last five to 10 years. Group 4s don't seem to do as well as Group 5s under these extreme stress conditions.
“I suspect this type of thing normally happens in pockets and doesn't raise eyebrows. But the thing is, since 1980 we haven't had four straight weeks of 100-plus degree temperatures. This is not a typical season — once every 25 years, or so.”
At the same time, both Mississippi and Louisiana have reported odd maladies in their soybean crops.
“Cliff Coker (Arkansas Extension plant pathologist) traveled to Mississippi to check some of the mystery disease problems in their soybeans. He diagnosed a lot of it as charcoal rot.
“And, to some degree, that's what we're seeing here in Arkansas. Charcoal rot is definitely in the fields. But the extreme drought and heat in August are the chief culprits here, I think.”
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Intellectual property rights (IPR)
Intellectual property (IP) refers to the rights associated with creations of the mind like inventions, literary and artistic works, symbols, and designs. IP is usually divided into two categories: copyright and industrial property. Industrial property rights include patents for inventions, trade marks, industrial designs, plant variety rights, and, of course, geographical indications. The holder of Intellectual property rights (IPR) has a legally recognized capacity to authorize and/or prevent others from acting in certain ways with respect to his/her intellectual property.
What is the EU policy on IPR in general?
On 16 July 2008, the European Commission adopted a Communication on an industrial property rights strategy to ensure Europe has a high quality industrial property rights system in the years to come. The EU needs IPR to protect its quality policy and innovations in order to remain competitive in the global economy and to fight against counterfeiting and piracy.
What types of IPR are most important for the agriculture sector?
The most important types of IPR in agriculture are geographical indications and Community plant varieties (CPV) rights. Protection granted by geographical indications focuses on preventing misuse of names which could mislead consumers as to the origin of agriculture products and their quality or characteristics.
Useful links on IPR
- Internal Market
- Enterprise and Industry
- Office for Harmonization in the Internal Market (Trade Marks and Designs) (OHIM)
- Community Plant Varieties Office (CPVO)
Search-engine for trade marks:
IP issues within EU funded projects:
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From Uncyclopedia, the content-free encyclopedia
Masculism is a belief that women were designed only for sexual matters. While this theory has been proven true, many girl parts have objected to it. Masculists and (the two straight) feminists will visit each other, but strictly for sex. Masculists like this set-up, because they get sex, and it's evidence for their theory. Feminists like it because they just need a lil' lovin'.
Masculism has changed meanings throughout the years. Harry Peters comes from an era where only women used to have sex, and men were completely unaware of what it was. One day, Harry oversaw tribaldism, and his curiosity was peaked. He went up to the women, and they were offended. He asked what they were doing, and they explained. Harry didn't understand how that could feel good (he was unaware of the female anatomy). The women were confused, and asked to see Harry's peter. He wasn't embarrassed because he was unaware of sexual acts, so he stripped away his clothes. The women looked at each other in confusion. Then something happened to Harry. [Censored]
edit The Movement
In 1395, around the era of the first color television, TV porn became a staple of all-'Merican homes. This finally caused men (as well as more women) to think about sex more. Men now understood why people wanted sex, and were quite frustrated with the fact that for centurions they had semen removed directly from the testicle, and inserted into a woman to inseminate her. Needless to say, this caused the support for the theory of masculism to sharply increase. Unfortunately, some conservatives thought the idea of making procreation pleasurable took the magic away from it. More drastic measures had to be taken.
edit Suburbia riots
In 1397, political unrest was causing great tensions among the pro-sexreation and the more traditional sects of 'Merica. Masculistswanted to be able to have sex, and felt that for this to work, women would have to focus solely on sex. Older members of the community were upset with the younger generation's obsession over "sexual intercourse", and young people were upset with old people's inability to accept something different. Hell was about to be raised. Thursday, January 23, 1398, a riot broke out in the small metropolis of Suburbia. Old people were going to there early-bird specials, but a group of young masculists were blocking their path. Normally the masculists would have easily overtaken the old geezers, but that day masculists learned something: Don't fuck with old people during the early-bird special. Thousands of people, young and old, were hospitalized. The mayor made a statement of distress: "Can't we all just fuck?" This only made things worse, as the old anti-masculists felt patronized. But in the meantime, masculists realized what was at stake: sex.
These sent a re-energizing boost of fervor through the hearts and genitals of the masculists, and the population of elderly people in Suburbia was almost eliminated.
Following the aftermath of the Suburbia Riots, lawmakers and officials realized that masculists meant business, and were to be taken seriously. Realized the inevitability of popularized sex, conservatives decided to give it a try. They were impressed, but mandated hat it could only be done between a boy and girl. Many say this was so they could feel like they hadn't lost the war of traditionalism. After the victory of the masculists' movement, all appeared to be well throughout the world.
edit Backlash and the birth of Feminism
And so it went, men ran the world and raised the children. Women . . . had sex. Women began to feel insignificant, as the only part of life they partook in was sex. They wanted more of a purpose. They began to rebel against men, and men couldn't understand why, since women were always the ones who supported masculism. After much turmoil, the women won. They finally had to vote and get jobs, as well as take care of children. feminism was born.
edit Masculism today
These days, masculism is nearly obsolete. Only a very small population of the world still believes in it. However, masculism is the movement that discovered heterosexual sex, so its influence upon the world today is unquestionable.
edit Shaming language
A masculist however, avoids shaming language tactics most commonly seen by women, liberals, kitten huffers and other progressive philosophy otaku. None of these are real arguments, just snark filled red herrings that would get you laughed at in a group full of men.
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Information about major world developments from 1750 to the present, with close attention to social, economic, cultural, and political topics. Contains articles on world events; countries; organizations; regions; ethnic groups; and themes such as social history, demography, family life, politics, economics, religion, thought, education, science and technology, and culture. It offers coverage of standard geographic and ethnic units"”such as Scandinavia, Korea, or the Gypsies"”in the modern period. Significant institutions such as the International Red Cross and the League of Nations are treated at length. Each article includes an up-to-date bibliography; the text is complemented by 700 images and 50 maps.
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How to Research Your Child’s Social Media Platform
Even though social media sites created specifically for children typically follow rules in place to protect children, you should research each platform before allowing your children to create an account. You should also use the parental monitors created by each site to keep an eye on your children’s activity and select appropriate account settings.
Social media online ratings systems and reviews
Unlike the Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB), there is no official ratings system for social media, including social media for kids. The best source of ratings and reviews for these platforms is Common Sense Media. Common Sense Media is a not-for-profit organization that rates and reviews movies, TV shows, songs, books, video games, apps, and websites. All site reviewers are trained to adhere to child development guidelines for their evaluations.
Common Sense Media’s reviews including those of social media for children, contain the following main ratings guidelines:
Age: Ranging from ages 2 to 17, this category also includes color coding to help guide parents.
Quality: This rating lets parents know whether the quality of the content is worthwhile.
Common Sense Media also provides a rating in each of the following additional categories:
Drinking, drugs, and smoking
Privacy and safety
Additionally, many technology blogs review new sites when they are released, providing information about the quality, usability, and safety of the platform. In the quickly changing social media landscape, sites change often. Read updated reviews of your children’s favorite sites from time to time to stay up to date on changes and how they affect your child’s experience online.
Social media privacy policies
Compliance with the Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA)
Details about age guidelines for users
A list of what information the site will collect about your child
Specifics regarding how the site will use that information, including whether they will share any of it with advertisers
A description of how the site is moderated and by whom
Site rules regarding parent accounts and ways that parents may monitor and/or restrict their children’s site usage
Advertising policies, especially any use of third-party cookies, that will be placed on your computer’s web browser
Rules about closing an account, including whether you can remove your child’s information from the site after an account has been created
Particulars about account holder’s ability to change privacy settings
Even with privacy settings in place, anything your children post online could end up being seen and shared. If they don’t want something to get out, they should not post it anywhere on the Internet.
Sometimes social media account holders who have been added to Friend or buddy lists by your child may share your child’s posts and information with their own lists.
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Medical Questions? Ask a Doctor Online!
The views expressed by me are for educational purposes only and do not establish a doctor patient relationship.
Thanks for your question.
Dromedary hump is a radiological term for normal kidney tissue molded by the adjacent organs.
This is most commonly seen in the left kidney caused by the spleen.
Since this looks like camel's hump on the film, this is called dromedary hump.
this is a normal finding.
Does this indicate a probem with the spleen?
no not at all.
The patient also has a blood problem for with he has to have a procrite (sp) shot about every two weeks to keep his hemoglobin level at at least 11.0. Could the two conditions be related?
the patient should have a CT scan or MRI to rule out any enlarged spleen.
Sometimes, enlarged spleen can cause anemia and also may press on the kidney.
Besides enlarged spleen any other mass or tumor also should be ruled out.
Thanks so very much for your help.
Please click ACCEPT, if you do not have any other question, so that I get rewarded for my time & effort. Thank you!
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There's something in the California air
Wednesday 24 August 2011
UC scientists built and worked in towers as part of the largest single atmospheric research effort in the state. The data they've collected will guide policymakers dealing with air pollution.
When geologists want to catalogue California’s rock layers, they bring a few axes, a compass and broad-brimmed hats. When biologists want to understand birds, they need decent binoculars and good hiking boots. But when scientists catalogue California’s air pollution, they bring planes, a large ship and instrument-equipped towers, some as tall as 1,500 feet.
At least that was the case with CalNex, the largest single atmospheric research endeavor in California history. The effort partnered the California Air Resources Board (ARB), the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and numerous universities and research teams throughout the country, including many in the UC system. “It approaches the largest field study that we’ve been involved in,” says David Parrish, a lead NOAA scientist for CalNex.
The idea behind the project was to create a massive database of the state’s air over an intensive six-week period to focus on air pollution problems in its most affected regions. On the American Lung Association’s list of America’s most polluted cities last year, four of the top five spots were in California.
For those who live in places like Bakersfield, Los Angeles and Fresno, the air pollution means high levels of emphysema, asthma and cancer. Yet the project also offers opportunities to study the complex relationships between chemicals in the atmosphere as well as to lessen health effects. CalNex was an opportunity for the best atmospheric minds in the country to assemble, further their understanding of the skies and offer solutions to policymakers desperately in need of guidance.
“No group has the capability to measure all these parameters,” says Jochen Stutz, an atmospheric scientist at UCLA. “So the only way we can really do cutting-edge science is by getting together — everybody specializing in a certain type of measurement — and then combining all our efforts into these huge data sets.”
Stutz’s tower, which he co-managed with CalTech and NOAA, held 70 different monitoring devices used by 40 independent teams. Located in Pasadena, it was designed to monitor urban air pollution.
Just over the Tehachapi Mountains, Allen Goldstein and Ron Cohen of UC Berkeley lead a similar facility, this one in the agricultural Central Valley, near Bakersfield. Both towers were equipped with some of the newest and most sensitive sampling equipment in the world, as were Sutro Tower in San Francisco and another dizzying 1,500-foot-tall steel tower just south of Sacramento. Many of those devices were carefully sniffing out organic chemicals, which are largely responsible for forming ozone and aerosols, the main components of smog causing the health effects associated with air pollution.
“When people study the health effects of these pollutants, these aerosols — or ‘particulate matter’ as the EPA calls them — are the ones that kill the most people by far,” says Jose-Luis Jimenez, a University of Colorado researcher also involved with the Pasadena site.
Aerosols largely are chemicals that arose from the reaction in the atmosphere of other compounds either released from human activities or from plants. The reactions of these chemicals has proved one of the most mysterious and important questions in atmospheric science today. Unlike carbon dioxide, which lasts for decades and has a relatively simple effect on climate, aerosols come in a dizzying array, last for about a week and may either warm or cool their surroundings.
Making things even more complicated, the air is not stagnant. The haze around Bakersfield or Los Angeles has changed and reacted so many times that it is hard to say where it all started.
Stutz and Goldstein say it is crucial to find the place where the emissions originate and how it they transform in the atmosphere to create a picture of how the air pollution forms and how to improve it. So the towers are placed in key locations where gases from plants are mixing with those from industry or transportation to form smog.
But, of course, the sky is a pretty big laboratory. So in addition to the highly sensitive and precise sniffers attached to towers, CalNex used four planes and a large 270-foot ship called Atlantis to create a dynamic image of how pollution moves. The planes flew both day and night as high as an airliner and as low as a crop duster to try and capture the complex dynamic of mixing and reacting air. Meanwhile, Atlantis trolled about along the coast, through San Francisco Bay and up the Sacramento River delta to collect some of the most accurate measurements ever taken of California’s offshore and inland pollution.
Data sets on this scale are different from those collected by an average university team. In essence, it’s a comprehensive look at that moment in time of the state’s air — a sort of library that future scientists can look at from hundreds of angles undreamed of by the original teams.
“My guess is that we have thought of maybe half the things we are going to be doing with the data. As we learn from the data we will discover more that we should investigate,” says Goldstein.
Another question is nitrogen oxides, the yin to the organic aerosol yang. Without nitrogen oxides, the off-gassing from crops and trees would not form deadly ozone and aerosols. But unlike many previous studies, CalNex was not just focused on the pollution that makes the sky gray and children sick. It was also focused on a more ambitious goal — understanding the role of California’s air pollution in climate change.
“The combination of trying to look at air quality and climate is sort of the new aspect of CalNex that we haven’t seen before in California,” says Eileen McCauley, a manager at the state’s ARB.
“These two issues are closely related,” says Parrish. “Ozone is an important air pollutant but it’s also the third most important greenhouse gas, depending on how you count.”
Carbon dioxide and methane are undoubtedly the dominant engines of climate change and their role is well understood. But other pollutants like aerosols and ozone are trickier. For instance, black carbon — a dirty brown sort of aerosol — enhances the sun’s energy, trapping it and spreading it around like a cast iron pot. But most other aerosols are lighter colored and thus reflect heat, reducing by as much as half the effects of climate warming due to greenhouse gases.
But how long will they do that? What happens when the cooling aerosols are outpaced by warming gases? And most importantly, since these aerosols are a health risk, what happens to the climate if we drastically reduce them?
These are some of the questions that the CalNex’s massive database will endeavor to answer. The data were collected in May and June of 2010 (one plane made a slight detour in order to collect crucial data from above the Deepwater Horizon oil spill). One year later, in May, the scientists gathered to share their first results and brainstorm about what else to do with the data.
All results will be merged together onto one timeline so that any scientist can immediately see all the sites at once. In addition that data will be merged with a cooperative simultaneous project called Carbonaceous Aerosol and Radiative Effects Study (CARES) funded by the Department of Energy.
All of this data will result in a series of official papers as early as mid 2012 aimed at informing policymakers. Others will simply focus on basic science questions.
“I really do think that we’re going to write a paper that says, ‘If you want to make the San Joaquin Valley cleaner, here are your choices.’ That honestly is what I am excited about,” says Cohen. “In fact, I spent this morning talking to my grad student about the shape of that paper.”
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Air pollution - National Responses (Croatia)
- Air pollution
The main targets for the protection and improvement of air quality and the long-term measures for the achievement of these targets have been adopted within the Environmental Strategy and the National Environmental Action Plan (Official Gazette 46/02). Air Quality Protection and Improvement Plan for the Period 2008-2011 , as an implementation document of the national environmental strategy, elaborates the targets and mid-term measures by sectors with priorities, deadlines and actors (http://narodne-novine.nn.hr/clanci/sluzbeni/339583.html).
The Programme for Gradual Reduction in Emissions of Certain Pollutants in the Republic of Croatia to end of 2010 with Emission Projections for the Period 2010-2020 (Official Gazette 152/09) specified measures by key sectors and emission projections for the 2010-2020 period with measure proposals by key sectors, and sets 2020 pollutant emission ceilings for Croatia.
Croatian Environment Agency: Annual Report on Air Quality Monitoring on the Territory of the Republic of Croatia for 2005-2008
Meteorological And Hydrological Service: Draft Report on the State of the Environment in the Republic of Croatia 2005-2008, Air Section.
Croatian Environment Agency: Emission of Air Pollutants on the Territory of the Republic of Croatia in 2008 (according to the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution)
Programme for Gradual Emission Reduction of Certain Pollutants in the Republic of Croatia for the period until the end of 2010 with Emission Projections for the Period 2010-2020 (Official Gazette 152/09)
Regulation on Emission Ceilings for Certain Pollutants in the Republic of Croatia (Official Gazette 141/08)
Air Quality Protection and Improvement Plan of the Republic of Croatia for the Period 2008-2011 (Official Gazette 61/08)
Croatian Environment Agency: Emission of Air Pollutants on the Territory of the Republic of Croatia in 2003
For references, please go to www.eea.europa.eu/soer or scan the QR code.
This briefing is part of the EEA's report The European Environment - State and Outlook 2015. The EEA is an official agency of the EU, tasked with providing information on Europe's environment.
PDF generated on 02 Jul 2016, 10:00 AM
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Would you drink water that has been processed from your urine? That was what Singapore’s NEWater company did a fair number of years ago, and achieved much success within the city-state – which is a crucial component to ensure that the country that small does not get held ransom by its neighboring country that supplies it with fresh water sometime down the road. If such recycled water does not sound palatable to you, how about drinking water that has been processed from sweat? Sure, it is going to be a whole lot harder to harvest sweat compared to urine, but at least it sounds more palatable, right? After all, I am quite sure that many of you who tend to sweat it out at the gym have tasted your own sweat before.
This sweat-extraction machine was specially developed in order to promote a campaign by Unicef in Sweden. How does it work its “magic”? For starters, it will take any sweat-laden clothes, transforming the moisture from that pile of laundry and turning it into drinking water. This is done by spinning and heating the material in order to remove the sweat, before it passes the vapor via a special membrane which was specially designed to let nothing but water molecules get through. It has been touted that the liquid is cleaner than local tap water, and while that might be true, it is the psychological barrier that needs to be broken beforehand.
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Owning a dog comes with many responsibilities, from brushing their fur to brushing their canines. Unfortunately, while many pet owners are diligent about good grooming, they don't regularly tend to Fido's teeth.
As with humans, lack of dental care has its repercussions. According to the American Veterinary Dental Society, "more than 80 percent of dogs develop periodontal disease by three years of age." To stem the tide of tartar, various dog treats have appeared in recent years, such as Greenies Canine Dental Chews and Natural Balance Dental Chews, that purport to positively impact a pooch’s oral health. But do they actually work?
"They can certainly have a positive impact," says Dr. Michael Tuder, owner and director of four animal hospitals in Hudson County, N.J. "If that’s the only thing an owner will do, at least it’s something. The way these dental treats are produced, they have a matrix that allows them to microscopically rub against the teeth and remove debris."
Recently another product appeared on shelves, Milk-Bone Brushing Chews dental treats, that representatives claim, if fed daily, are “clinically proven to be as effective as brushing a dog’s teeth twice per week based on the reduction of tartar and bad breath.”
The chews were released following the first clinical trials to determine the baseline efficacy of brushing a dog’s teeth, says the company.
"The Veterinary Oral Health Council (VOHC) recommends daily brushing for optimal effectiveness, twice daily even better," says Dr. Jan Bellows, DVM, a board certified veterinary dentist in Weston, Fla. and a paid consultant for Milk-Bone. "While daily brushing is the gold standard for a dog’s oral care, I know that brushing a dog’s teeth is not exactly an easy or pleasant task for the pet or pet parent."
In those cases, the chews can "improve a dog’s dental health, helping to prevent dental disease," says Bellows, who is also president of the American Veterinary Dental College.
Shaped like a bone with a 75 degree twist, "along with nubs and ridges designed to help clean down to the gum line like the bristles on a toothbrush," the chews also tout themselves as a low-calorie option.
"With every treat comes calories," says Tuder, who also recommended checking the mineral content of treats for potential conflicts. "A pet owner needs to consider, 'will the treats impact the balance of the diet for the medical effect they are trying to achieve?' and then consult with their veterinarian."
Another concern of note to pet owners is the product's origin and safety.
"An ideal dental chew or diet must be digestible, effective in decreasing tartar, and good tasting," says Bellows. "Pet parents should avoid feeding their dogs bones, hoofs, antlers, nylon toys and any product without the Veterinary Oral Health Council’s Seal of Acceptance. They may taste good to the dog but may cut the gums or break teeth."
Pet owners should also note that even seemingly harmless homemade treats and toys can cause potential damage to a dog's teeth.
"Large ice cubes can also fracture teeth and should be avoided," says Dr. Alexander M. Reiter, head of the Dentistry and Oral Surgery Service at the University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine. "Tennis balls are a popular toy for many dogs; however, they are very abrasive to teeth because they collect tiny particles of dirt and sand and will wear down the teeth and occasionally cause pulp exposure."
Reiter also recommends scheduling a professional examination to ensure optimum oral health in man's best friend.
"Your pet should have an annual oral examination performed by a professional to document the presence of abnormal conditions such as periodontal disease, fractured or decayed teeth, tumors, ulcers, etc.," he says. "Ultimately, there is no replacement for daily toothbrushing and periodic professional treatment at your vet."
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Teaching Teens the "How to" of Chores
Be sure that your chores transcend gender barriers. If you've taught your son some basic repair skills, your daughter should be taught them as well. And your son should be as capable with a frying pan and an iron as your daughter is. Most families assign chores that perpetuate gender stereotyping. Studies indicate that girls are more likely to do dishwashing, clothing care, and cleaning chores; boys are more likely to be assigned maintenance, yard, car, and pet-care chores. (Some teens may actually prefer chores that perpetuate the stereotype, but be certain that both genders know how to do all chores.) And there's a big disparity in the time spent on chores, too. (This should be no surprise to mothers.) Girls log in 6.1 hours weekly, to boys' 4.2 hours.
Believe it or not, it's perfectly possible to be alive for 15 years and not have any idea how to make a grilled cheese sandwich.
Once you give your teen a new chore, assume that she knows nothing about how it should be done. (Anyone who has ever watched a teenager “wipe the counter” by using a sopping wet sponge to push the crumbs onto the floor will know that is not a bad assumption to make.) An obvious benefit to teaching the chore carefully is that eventually it will be done more or less the way you would like it to be.
Here's how to introduce your teen (and younger children) to a new chore:
- Explain the job. Why do you sort laundry by color? What kind of soap do you use? What does loading the washer “evenly” mean? (Nothing is too basic to explain, but don't talk down to your teen—after all, you want to teach, not to lecture.)
- Break the job down into steps and demonstrate it. A full vacuuming of the family room, for example, is going to involve removing couch cushions to vacuum for crumbs, putting the cushions back, and then switching vacuum attachments to do the floor. (Make sure you demonstrate how to switch attachments.)
- Show her where any supplies are kept. It doesn't ease your burden (or put her in charge) if she has to come and ask where things are.
- Keep an eye out for how she's doing, and compliment her regularly and often.
More on: Teen Behavior and Discipline
Excerpted from The Complete Idiot's Guide to Parenting a Teenager © 1996 by Kate Kelly. All rights reserved including the right of reproduction in whole or in part in any form. Used by arrangement with Alpha Books, a member of Penguin Group (USA) Inc.
To order this book visit Amazon's web site or call 1-800-253-6476.
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Google Brings Web Access to Remote Areas Using High-Altitude Balloons
Google's Project Loon balloon-powered Internet project is getting under way this month in New Zealand with testing and trials.Google is experimenting with a series of high-altitude balloons over New Zealand to build a high-speed Internet network that could be used to bring affordable Internet service to far-flung locations around the world for the first time. The experiment, called Project Loon, is being touted as a high-tech way to create Internet connections for two-thirds of the people in the world who currently don't have Internet access due to high costs and the difficulty of stringing connections in rural and far-flung parts of the world, Mike Cassidy, project lead, wrote in a June 14 post on The Google Official Blog. "There are many terrestrial challenges to Internet connectivity—jungles, archipelagos, mountains," wrote Cassidy. "Solving these problems isn't simply a question of time: it requires looking at the problem of access from new angles. So today we're unveiling our latest moonshot from [the secretive Google research lab] Google[x]: balloon-powered Internet access." The idea, wrote Cassidy, is to use a series of high-altitude balloons that could provide Internet access to even the most remote areas of the planet.
"We believe that it might actually be possible to build a ring of balloons, flying around the globe on the stratospheric winds, that provide Internet access to the Earth below," he wrote. "It's very early days, but we've built a system that uses balloons, carried by the wind at altitudes twice as high as commercial planes, to beam Internet access to the ground at speeds similar to today's 3G networks or faster. As a result, we hope balloons could become an option for connecting rural, remote and underserved areas, and for helping with communications after natural disasters."
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Roget's Int'l Thesaurus
Fowler's King's English
The King James Bible
Brewer's Phrase & Fable
Frazer's Golden Bough
Shelf of Fiction
Woman and the New Race
> IV: Two Classes of Women
Woman and the New Race.
Two Classes of Women
far we have been discussing mainly one class in America; the workers. Most women who belong to the workers families have no accurate or reliable knowledge of contraceptives, and are, therefore, bringing children into the world so rapidly that they, their families and their class are overwhelmed with numbers. Out of these numbers, as has been shown, have grown many of the burdens with which society in general is weighted; out of them have come, also, the want, disease, hard living conditions and general misery of the workers.
The women of this class are the greatest sufferers of all. Not only do they bear the material hardships and deprivations in common with the rest of the family, but in the case of the mother, these are intensified. It is the man and the child who have first call upon the insufficient amount of food. It is the man and the child who get the recreation, if there is any to be had, for the mans hours of labor are usually limited by law or by his labor union.
It is the woman who suffers first from hunger, the woman whose clothing is least adequate, the woman who must work all hours, even though she is not compelled, as in the case of millions, to go into a factory to add to her husbands scanty income. It is she, too, whose health breaks first and most hopelessly, under the long hours of work, the drain of frequent childbearing, and often almost constant nursing of babies. There are no eight-hour laws to protect the mother against overwork and toil in the home; no laws to protect her against ill health and the diseases of pregnancy and reproduction. In fact there has been almost no thought or consideration given for the protection of the mother in the home of the workingman.
There are no general health statistics to tell the full story of the physical ills suffered by women as a result of too great reproductivity. But we get some light upon conditions through the statistics on maternal mortality, compiled by Dr. Grace L. Meigs, for the Childrens Bureau of the United States Department of Labor. These figures do not include the deaths of women suffering from diseases complicated by pregnancy.
In 1913, in this country at least 15,000 women, it is estimated, died from conditions caused by childbirth; about 7,000 of these died from childbed fever and the remaining 8,000 from diseases now known to be to a great extent preventable or curable, says Dr. Meigs in her summary. Physicians and statisticians agree that these figures are a
Think of itthe needless deaths of 15,000 women a great underestimate! Yet even this number means that virtually every hour of the day and night two women die as the result of childbirth in the healthiest and supposedly the most progressive country in the world.
It is apparent that Dr. Meigs leaves out of consideration the many thousands of deaths each year of women who become pregnant while suffering from tuberculosis. Dr. S. Adolphus Knopf, addressing the forty-fourth annual convention of the American Public Health Association, in Cincinnati in 1916, called attention to the fact that some authors hold that 65 per cent of the women afflicted with tuberculosis, even when afflicted only in the relatively early and curable stages, die as the result of pregnancy which could have been avoided and their lives saved had they but known some means of prevention. Nor were syphilis, various kidney and heart disorders and other diseases, often rendered fatal by pregnancy, taken into account by Dr. Meigs survey.
Still, leaving out all the hundreds of thousands of women who die because pregnancy has complicated serious diseases, Dr. Meigs finds that in 1913, the death rate per 100,000 of the population from all conditions caused by childbirth was little lower than that from typhoid fever. This rate would be almost quadrupled if only the group of the population which can be affected, women of childbearing ages, were considered. In 1913, childbirth caused more deaths among women 15 to 44 years old than any disease except tuberculosis.
From what sort of homes come these deaths from childbirth? Most of them occur in overcrowded dwellings, where food, care, sanitation, nursing and medical attention are inadequate. Where do we find most of the tuberculosis and much of the other disease which is aggravated by pregnancy? In the same sort of home.
The deadly chain of misery is all too plain to anyone who takes the trouble to observe it. A woman of the working class marries and with her husband lives in a degree of comfort upon his earnings. Her household duties are not beyond her strength. Then the children begin to comeone, two, three, four, possibly five or more. The earnings of the husband do not increase as rapidly as the family does. Food, clothing and general comfort in the home grow less as the numbers of the family increase. The womans work grows heavier, and her strength is less with each child. Possiblyprobablyshe has to go into a factory to add to her husbands earnings. There she toils, doing her housework at night. Her health goes, and the crowded conditions and lack of necessities in the home help to bring about diseaseespecially tuberculosis. Under the circumstances, the womans chances of recovering from each succeeding childbirth grow less. Less too are the chances of the childs surviving, as shown by tables in another chapter. Unwanted children, poverty, ill health, misery, deaththese are the links in the chain, and they are common to most of the families in the class described in the preceding chapter.
Nor is the full story of the womans sufferings yet told. Grievous as is her material condition, her spiritual deprivations are still greater. By the very fact of its existence, mother love demands its expression toward the child. By that same fact, it becomes a necessary factor in the childs development. The mother of too many children, in a crowded home where want, ill health and antagonism are perpetually created, is deprived of this simplest personal expression. She can give nothing to her child of herself, of her personality. Training is impossible and sympathetic guidance equally so. Instead, such a mother is tired, nervous, irritated and ill-tempered; a determent, often, instead of a help to her children. Motherhood becomes a disaster and childhood a tragedy.
It goes without saying that this woman loses also all opportunity of personal expression outside her home. She has neither a chance to develop social qualities nor to indulge in social pleasures. The feminine element in herthat spirit which blossoms forth now and then in women free from such burdenscannot assert itself. She can contribute nothing to the well-being of the community. She is a breeding machine and a drudgeshe is not an asset but a liability to her neighborhood, to her class, to society. She can be nothing as long as she is denied means of limiting her family.
In sharp contrast with these women who ignorantly bring forth large families and who thereby enslave themselves, we find a few women who have one, two or three children or no children at all. These women, with the exception of the childless ones, live full-rounded lives. They are found not only in the ranks of the rich and the well-to-do, but in the ranks of labor as well. They have but one point of basic difference from their enslaved sistersthey are not burdened with the rearing of large families.
We have no need to call upon the historian, the sociologist nor the statistician for our knowledge of this situation. We meet it every day in the ordinary routine of our lives. The women who are the great teachers, the great writers, the artists, musicians, physicians, the leaders of public movements, the great suffragists, reformers, labor leaders and revolutionaries are those who are not compelled to give lavishly of their physical and spiritual strength in bearing and rearing large families. The situation is too familiar for discussion. Where a woman with a large family is contributing directly to the progress of her times or the betterment of social conditions, it is usually because she has sufficient wealth to employ trained nurses, governesses, and others who perform the duties necessary to child rearing. She is a rarity and is universally recognized as such.
The women with small families, however, are free to make their choice of those social pleasures which are the right of every human being and necessary to each ones full development. They can be and are, each according to her individual capacity, comrades and companions to their husbandsa privilege denied to the mother of many children. Theirs is the opportunity to keep abreast of the times, to make and cultivate a varied circle of friends, to seek amusements as suits their taste and means, to know the meaning of real recreation. All these things remain unrealized desires to the prolific mother.
Women who have a knowledge of contraceptives are not compelled to make the choice between a maternal experience and a marred love life; they are not forced to balance motherhood against social and spiritual activities. Motherhood is for them to choose, as it should be for every woman to choose. Choosing to become mothers, they do not thereby shut themselves away from thorough companionship with their husbands, from friends, from culture, from all those manifold experiences which are necessary to the completeness and the joy of life.
Fit mothers of the race are these, the courted comrades of the men they choose, rather than the slaves of slaves. For theirs is the magic powerthe power of limiting their families to such numbers as will permit them to live full-rounded lives. Such lives are the expression of the feminine spirit which is woman
and all of her
not merely art, nor professional skill, nor intellect; but all that woman is, or may achieve.
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Scientists confirm abundant water in lunar crater
Posted: November 13, 2009
The Centaur rocket stage NASA dispatched on a suicidal plunge into the moon last month uncovered buckets of water inside a frigidly-cold, permanently-dark crater at the lunar south pole, scientists announced Friday.
"Yes, we found water," said Tony Colaprete, the LCROSS mission's principal investigator at Ames Research Center. "We didn't find just a little bit. We found a significant amount."
"In our field of view, which is some fraction of the 20-meter crater we made...we had about 25 gallons or so of water," Colaprete said.
That number is just a lower limit on the total quantity of water from the crater, and there could be more ice revealed upon further analysis, scientists said.
Cabeus holds more water than soil in the Atacama Desert, a barren stretch of land in South America known as the driest place on Earth, according to Colaprete.
"Many have said we've all of what we needed to learn about the moon from the Apollo missions. LCROSS is demonstrating that there's much more to learn, and there always is," said Doug Cooke, associate administrator for NASA's exploration systems mission directorate.
"This is not your father's moon," said Mike Wargo, chief lunar scientist for the exploration prorgam. "This is not a dead body but one with an awful lot of dynamism in it."
Near-infrared, visible and ultraviolet spectrometers mounted on a shepherding spacecraft observed the Centaur's impact and detected a cloud of material, including water vapor, rise above the lunar surface.
NASA chartered the $79 million LCROSS mission to determine if water ice exists inside craters at the moon's poles. The craters have been robbed of sunlight for eons and temperatures dip to almost -400 degrees Fahrenheit, according to scientists.
The Lunar Prospector satellite detected evidence of polar hydrogen concentrations during its mission a decade ago. A neutron sensor on the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter also found strong indications of hydrogen earlier this year.
"A decade ago, we knew from Lunar Prospector measurements that there was a large amount of hydrogen in the polar regions of the moon," said Gregory Delory, senior fellow at the Space Sciences Laboratory at the University of California at Berkeley.
"Because of the ambiguity of the measurements, there was no consensus," Delory said. "LCROSS has now made that definitive discovery."
The findings are a boon to researchers and engineers alike.
"It's so valuable to us for so many different reasons, for the scientific reasons for the exploration reasons. That water coule be the key for exploration," Wargo said.
Future astronauts living on the moon could harvest ice for drinking water, breathing air and rocket fuel.
"The team has been working, I think, about 28 hours a day," Worden said. "I'm amazed that they look as bright-eyed and bushy-tailed as they are."
LCROSS released the Centaur less than 10 hours before striking the moon, fired its thrusters to back away, and turned on its instruments to watch the impact.
The rocket smacked into the moon less than 700 feet from its aimpoint.
"The precision of the impact was incredible," Cooke said. "The instruments performed exceptionally well, and now we're seeing remarkable results that are beyond our expectations."
Last month's smash produced no apparent fireball or obvious cloud of debris, as some scientists and a flock of Earth observers hoped.
Instead, scientists had to carefully analyzed processed data before spotting visual evidence of the ejecta cloud rising between 6 and 8 miles above the surface and spreading hundreds of yards around the crater.
But spectral instruments on the LCROSS shepherding satellite collected a heap of data on the chemical make-up of the material excavated by the Centaur. Scientists spent the last month analyzing "squiggly lines" that tell a much deeper story than images about the composition of the crater.
Researchers knew the signature of water and hydroxyl, another hydrogen-bearing compound, and tried to fit the expected fingerprint of those molecules to what the LCROSS sensors observed.
"That was the eureka moment," Colaprete said. "I was convinced there was water. I've got two independent people working independent problems, and they both came to the same conclusion."
I'm pretty impressed by the amount of water in our little 20-meter crater," Colaprete said.
Scientists are still in the early stages of analyzing data from LCROSS, and officials could not quantify the exact concentration of water in lunar soil at Cabeus.
Future research will also determine the source of the water and how it is distributed across the lunar surface. Other missions have measured trace amounts of water spread far from the moon's poles in areas that receive much sunlight.
Colaprete believes LCROSS detected enough water to indicate it is not all absorbed into the surface, but actually contained in ice itself.
"What we need to do next is actually take all the information, the amount of ejecta, the size of the crater, how this all changed over time, and actually reconstruct the entire event, understand how it all fits back into the ground, along with all the other things that we've seen in the ejecta plume, to really understand this whole thing in its entirety," Colaprete said.
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© 2014 Pole Star Publications Ltd.
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| 0.948178 | 1,169 | 3.0625 | 3 |
|Location||Egypt, South Sinai|
|Central coordinates||33o 40.00' East 28o 10.00' North|
|IBA criteria||A1, A4iv|
|Altitude||0 - 100m|
|Year of IBA assessment||2001|
Site description The site is a wide plain that flanks the South Sinai mountain massif on the west and separates it from the Gulf of Suez. It is elongate, with a north-west to south-east axis, being more than 100 km long and 20 km wide. The IBA is mostly concerned with the coastal portion of the plain, and extends from Wadi Feiran in the north to Ras Mohammed in the south, where migratory birds tend to concentrate and often land in vast numbers. The plain is dissected by many wadis that flow from the mountains of Sinai into the Gulf of Suez. To the north of El Tor a narrow mountain range separates the plain from the Gulf of Suez. This mountain, immediately overlooking the Gulf, is thought to be a very important departure point for many of the soaring birds that attempt to cross the Gulf of Suez in autumn. Sparse scrub vegetation and scattered Acacia trees cover sizeable sections of the plain. The town of El Tor is located within the area of concern and is the only major human settlement in the region.
Key Biodiversity See Box for key species. This IBA has a similar role and importance to migratory soaring birds as that of Gebel El Zeit (IBA EG031). The area is a major corridor for hundreds of thousands of migratory soaring birds in both autumn and spring. Almost 70% of Ciconia ciconia counted at Ras Mohammed in autumn 1998 actually make the crossing over the Gulf of Suez further north towards the town of El Tor. In a study of bird migration across the Middle East, all Ciconia ciconia, monitored by means of satellite transmitters, were observed to make the critical crossing of the Gulf of Suez over the El Qa Plain. The area probably holds one of the largest remaining breeding populations of Chlamydotis undulatan macqueenii in Egypt.
Non-bird biodiversity: Mammals: Gazella dorcas (VU) is present in small numbers, probably representing the largest remaining population in Sinai.
|Species||Season||Period||Population estimate||Quality of estimate||IBA Criteria||IUCN Category|
|Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni||passage||1998||uncommon||-||A1||Least Concern|
|Eastern Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca||passage||1998||present||-||A1||Vulnerable|
|Pallid Harrier Circus macrourus||passage||1998||uncommon||-||A1||Near Threatened|
|A4iv Species group - soaring birds/cranes||passage||1998||200,000 individuals||medium||A4iv|
|Land-use||Extent (% of site)|
References Celmins and Baha el Din (in prep.).
Contribute Please click here to help BirdLife conserve the world's birds - your data for this IBA and others are vital for helping protect the environment.
Recommended citation BirdLife International (2016) Important Bird and Biodiversity Area factsheet: El Qa plain. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 26/06/2016
To provide new information to update this factsheet or to correct any errors, please email BirdLife
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| 0.829447 | 748 | 3.203125 | 3 |
GrowUp: the future of food - "The new concept of commercial aquaponics, argue Hofman and Webster, has a much-reduced environmental impact. Companion farming fish and crops dates back to the Aztecs, but it took until the 2010s, in Chicago, to move it indoors at any scale. In the UK, only eco-smallholdings have so far attempted it, and the only European aquaponics farms of note use purpose-built greenhouses. GrowUp's model, by contrast, is to fit out empty urban buildings, use no chemicals, employ LED lights, source 100 per cent renewable energy and, crucially, be based within five miles of its customer base in a dense urban area."
FINLAND: New Government Commits to a Basic Income Experiment - "The Finnish government of Juha Sipilä is considering a pilot project that would give everyone of working age a basic income."[1,2,3] (via) [more inside]
New global population predictions published in Science today says that world population stabilisation is unlikely this century, with an 80% probability that world population, now 7.2 billion, will increase to between 9.6 and 12.3 billion in 2100, greatly exceeding previous consensus figures that settled around 9 billion, and is expected to keep growing next century. More in the Guardian.
Alan Weisman's new book argues that we should not only slow population growth, we should decrease the world's population to 2 billion. In the New Yorker, Elizabeth Kolbert considers his argument for the 2 billion person world in the context of a long history of Malthusian and neo-Malthusian arguments over population growth and resource limits. “Before artificial nitrogen fertilizer became widely available, the world’s population was around 2 billion. When we no longer have it—or if we ever decide to stop using it—that may be a number to which our own naturally gravitates.” For more context, see Paul Sabin's new book The Bet: Paul Ehrlich, Julian Simon, and Our Gamble Over Earth’s Future. [more inside]
"The world now has a very clear choice. We can choose to address the twin issues of population and consumption... Or we can choose to do nothing and to drift into a downward vortex of economic, socio-political and environmental ills, leading to a more unequal and inhospitable future." Sir John Sulston, Royal Society Fellow on the Society's recent report "People and the planet". [more inside]
How to feed 9 billion people: The global food supply is starting to get tight, with increasing sensitivity to droughts and floods causing price spikes and food shortages. The UK commissioned a report to examine how to feed a planet with a population that is set to increase to 9 billion by 2050. [more inside]
Hans Rosling, who helped usher in TED talks way back when using stunning visuals, envisions how the world will look in 50 years as global population grows to 9 billion. To check further population growth, which might have disastrous consequences, he exhorts us to raise the living standards of the poorest. [more inside]
Governments around the globe are opening up their data vaults allowing us to check out the numbers for ourselves. This is the Guardian’s gateway to that information. Search for government data here from the UK, USA, Australia and New Zealand — and look out for new countries and places as they are added. Read more about this on the Datablog. [more inside]
In Lester R. Brown's new book Plan B 3.0: Mobilizing to Save Civilization (2008, full-text)) - an update to Plan B 2.0: Rescuing a Planet Under Stress and a Civilization in Trouble (2006, full-text) - he calls for a war-time mobilization (ch.13) to save global civilization (already showing Early Signs of Decline (ch.6)) from Deteriorating Oil and Food Security (ch.2), Rising Temperatures and Rising Seas (ch.3), Emerging Water Shortages (ch.4), and Natural Systems Under Stress (ch.5)
New Kiribati "...will future climate change refugees become a new caste of service sector workers inhabiting a sort of Floating Hotel & Duty Free Mall ... ?" Small island states are on the front line.
The Voluntary Human Extinction Movement "Phasing out the human race by voluntarily ceasing to breed will allow Earth's biosphere to return to good health. Crowded conditions and resource shortages will improve as we become less dense." More inside...
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| 0.91086 | 954 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Electronic-cigarettes have become nearly as controversial as the real thing. The e-cigarettes work when liquid nicotine is heated up by a battery-charged coil. There's no tobacco burned. Users inhale and instead of smoke there's a steam-like vapor. They've been in the United States for less than a decade, and increasingly big tobacco companies are manufacturing them. Limited research has been done in the health impact.
"You can also make the case that there's never going to be enough science, that there always going to be room for another study," said Amy Fairchild of Columbia University's school of public health. "It's the dire urgent public health need. This is one of the most important public health problems we face."
But she argues E-cigarettes must be federally regulated and not marketed to kids. Some states have age requirements on sales but not all. CDC data shows nearly two million middle and high school students tried E-cigarettes last year, more than double the number in 2011.
"E-cigarettes can potentially help some people, but they have got serious potential harms that we know about. If they get kids to start smoking that's really bad. And if they re-glamorize the act of smoking that's really bad," said Tom Frieden with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
E-cigarettes are not regulated by any federal body and they're not an FDA-approved method to quit smoking. Critics point out they can keep users hooked on nicotine.
"Cautious optimism with a number of caveats," said Thomas Glynn with the American Cancer Society. "What we don't want to do is take something out of the hands of people which could in fact stop people from using the traditional burn cigarette which is the enemy."
Bill Anderson owns Precision Vapor in Lexington. He says it's always the goal of his business to get people to stop smoking cigarettes. He says he's had much success and his company is growing. Anderson says the equipment used has improved greatly in the past few years.
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| 0.979252 | 415 | 2.703125 | 3 |
The Sun powers our solar system, so could it power all our Earthly needs, too? And if it someday could, where would all those solar panels go?
According to a graduate thesis by Technical University of Braunschweig student Nadine May, the number of solar panels needed to supply the entire world's energy needs would fill just 25,000 square miles – or an area only slightly larger than the state of West Virginia.
That doesn't seem like very much, unless you live in West Virginia. If the amount of solar panels needed were divided evenly in every country, they would take up just 127.5 square miles in each. (Granted, that would be asking a lot of smaller countries like Bahrain, whose total land measurement is only 295 square miles.)
Caption: Amount of land needed to power the world with solar panels by the year 2030
So larger countries would have to host more panels – maybe even on a per-capita basis. This graphic is a good projection of a possible disbursement of panels worldwide for energy demands in the year 2030. The graphic places about a quarter of all panels in the baking hot Saharan Desert.
Why not just put all of the panels in the sunny Sahara or someplace similar? A few reasons. The more evenly distributed the panels are, the better; localization would help diversify infrastructure, reduce the inevitable power losses that occur over long transmission distances, and allow more countries to share the burdens of installation and maintenance.
There's also the argument against centralizing our main energy source, which is where the world is currently with oil. According to this article, out of the current top 10 leading oil-producing countries, at least two are in current conflict and the political situation in five of the others is considered "unstable."
Throughout history, the desire for commodities – oil, metals, food, etc. – has been a frequent cause of wars. So while it's interesting to imagine the land space needed to build enough solar panels to power the world, it's even better to imagine every country achieving, or at least approaching, energy autonomy thanks to a renewable source like solar power.
While sunny countries would have an advantage, northern hemisphere countries like Germany are proving that solar power is just as viable. Even with only about 65 days of sunlight per year, Germany has been called the world's "unlikely leader in solar power." This past June, Germany got more than half of its total energy from solar power. Solar power generation is up by 34 percent this year.
But while there's a lot of good news about the potential of solar energy to scale up, the reality is that the technology to enable the creation of a worldwide solar energy grid isn't here yet. Current solar panels can only capture 20 percent of the Sun's energy, and to become a viable, wide-scale source of energy for the world, they would need to capture much more than that.
Our power needs aren't going anywhere, though, and neither is the Sun. So it's an idea whose time may yet come.
More from The Motley Fool: Warren Buffett Tells You How to Turn $40 into $10 Million
Written by Amy Gleich of Oilprice.com
Try any of our Foolish newsletter services free for 30 days. We Fools may not all hold the same opinions, but we all believe that considering a diverse range of insights makes us better investors. The Motley Fool has a disclosure policy.
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| 0.952384 | 709 | 3.890625 | 4 |
Special Curriculum Credit
Switched on! is a resource to support the use of soundbeam in school. The booklet contains a range of practical activities to expand children's experiences with the soundbeam beyond basic exploratory work.
Planning music for children with learning difficulties is a booklet written for teachers working in special schools, looking for effective ways to plan and deliver a music curriculum.
The booklet contains five main sections:
Why Music? Looking at the value of using music with our special children
Music When? Looking at ways of integrating music into other areas of the curriculum
What Music? Guidance for effective planning (including the Special Skills Development Overview and planning documents)
Exemplification of skills - practical ideas and activities to support musical learning at P levels 1 - 3
Waterquest: a musical about the different states of water. This is a musical written for special schools, but it is also appropriate for mainstream infant schools. The idea of this musical is for the schools to make it their owne and add in as many of the optional music and dance idea, including the children's own work, as they feel are appropriate. The sonds use simple melodies and the words are often repetitive makin ghtem easy to learn. The songs are to encourage everyone to be involved in singing together and the Joining Song could be used as one for audience partiticpation. There are also suggestions for suitable percussion accompaniments.
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| 0.951783 | 291 | 3.609375 | 4 |
A Hittite proselyte to Yahwism (as indicated by his Yahwistic name), who served as an officer in David's army. David arranged to have him killed in battle in order that he could marry his wife Bathsheba ((2 Sam. 11).
Citation styles are based on the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th Ed., and the MLA Style Manual, 2nd Ed..
"Uriah." In A Dictionary of the Bible. Ed. W. R. F. Browning. Oxford Biblical Studies Online. Jun 26, 2016. <http://www.oxfordbiblicalcstudies.com/article/opr/t94/e1980>.
"Uriah." In A Dictionary of the Bible. , edited by W. R. F. Browning. Oxford Biblical Studies Online, http://www.oxfordbiblicalcstudies.com/article/opr/t94/e1980 (accessed Jun 26, 2016).
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|Marquis de Condorcet|
AKA Marie-Jean-Antoine-Nicolas de Caritat
Birthplace: Ribemont, France
Location of death: Bourg-la-Reine, France
Cause of death: unspecified
Remains: Buried, Panthéon, Paris, France
Race or Ethnicity: White
Occupation: Philosopher, Mathematician
Executive summary: French Enlightenment philosopher
French mathematician, philosopher and Revolutionist, was born at Ribemont, in Picardy, on the 17th of September 1743. He descended from the ancient family of Caritat, who took their title from Condorcet, near Nyons in Dauphin, where they were long settled. His father dying while he was very young, his mother, a very devout woman, had him educated at the Jesuit College in Reims and at the College of Navarre in Paris, where he displayed the most varied mental activity. His first public distinctions were gained in mathematics. At the age of sixteen his performances in analysis gained the praise of Jean le Rond d'Alembert and A. C. Clairaut, and at the age of twenty-two he wrote a treatise on the integral calculus which obtained warm approbation from competent judges. With his many-sided intellect and richly-endowed emotional nature, however, it was impossible for him to be a specialist, and least of all a specialist in mathematics. Philosophy and literature attracted him, and social work was dearer to him than any form of intellectual exercise. In 1769 he became a member of the Academy of Sciences. His contributions to its memoirs are numerous, and many of them are on the most abstruse and difficult mathematical problems.
Being of a very genial, susceptible and enthusiastic disposition, he was the friend of almost all the distinguished men of his time, and a zealous propagator of the religious and political views then current among the literati of France. D'Alembert, Turgot and Voltaire, for whom, he had great affection and veneration, and by whom he was highly respected and esteemed, contributed largely to the formation of his opinions. His Lettre d'un laboreur de Picardie à M.N... (Necker) was written under the inspiratiqn of Turgot, in defense of free internal trade in corn. Condorcet also wrote on the same subject the Réfiexions sur le Commerce des blés (1776). His Lettre d'un Theologien, etc., was attributed to Voltaire, being inspired throughout by the Voltairian anticlerical spirit. He was induced by D'Alembert to take an active part in the preparation of the Encyclopédie. His Éloges des Académiciens de l'Académie Royale des Sciences morts depuis 1666 jusqu'en 1699 (1773) gained him the reputation of being an eloquent and graceful writer. He was elected to the perpetual secretaryship of the Academy of Sciences in 1777, and to the French Academy in 1782. He was also member of the academies of Turin, St. Petersburg, Bologna and Philadelphia. In 1785 he published his Essai sur l'Application de l'Analyse aux Probabilités des Decisions prises à la Pluralité des Voix, a remarkable work which has a distinguished place in the history of the doctrine of probability; a second edition, greatly enlarged and completely recast, appeared in 1804 under the title of Élements du Calcul des Probabilités et son Application aux Jeux de Hazard, à la Loterie, et aux Jugements des Hommes, etc. In 1786 he married Sophie de Grouchy, a sister of Marshal Grouchy, said to have been one of the most beautiful women of her time. Her salon at the Hotel des Monnaies, where Condorcet lived in his capacity as inspector-general of the mint, was one of the most famous of the time. In 1786 Condorcet published his Vie de Turgot, and in 1787 his Vie de Voltaire. Both works were widely and eagerly read, and are perhaps, from a merely literary point of view, the best of Condorcet's writings.
The political tempest which had been long gathering over France now began to break and to carry everything before it. Condorcet was, of course, at once hurried along by it into the midst of the conflicts and confusion of the Revolution. He greeted with enthusiasm the advent of democracy, and labored hard to secure and hasten its triumph. He was indefatigable in writing pamphlets, suggesting reforms, and planning constitutions. He was not a member of the States-General of 1789, but he had expressed his ideas in the electoral assembly of the noblesse of Mantes. The first political functions which he exercised were those of a member of the municipality of Paris (1790). He was next chosen by the Parisians to represent them in the Legislative Assembly, and then appointed by that body one of its secretaries. In this capacity he drew up most of its addresses, but seldom spoke, his pen being more effective than his tongue. He was the chief author of the address to the European powers when they threatened France with war. He was keenly interested in education, and, as a member of the committee of public instruction, presented to the Assembly (April 21 and 22, 1792) a bold and comprehensive scheme for the organization of a system of state education which, though more urgent questions compelled its postponement, became the basis of that adopted by the Convention, and thus laid the foundations on which the modern system of national education in France is built up. After the attempted flight of the King, in June 1791, Condorcet was one of the first to declare in favor of a republic, and it was he who drew up the memorandum which led the Assembly, on the 4th of September 1792, to decree the suspension of the King and the summoning of the National Convention. He had, meanwhile, resigned his offices and left the Hotel des Monnaies; his declaration in favor of republicanism had alienated him from his former friends of the constitutional party, and he did not join the Jacobin Club, which had not yet declared against the monarchy. Though attached to no powerful political group, however, his reputation gave him great influence. At the elections for the Convention he was chosen for five departments, and took his seat for that of Aisne. He now became the most influential member of the committee on the constitution, and as "reporter" he drafted and presented to the Convention (February 15, 1793) a constitution, which was, however, after stormy debates, rejected in favor of that presented by Hérault de Séchelles. The work of constitution-making had been interrupted by the trial of Louis XVI. Condorcet objected to the assumption of judicial functions by the Convention, objected also on principle to the infliction of the death penalty; but he voted the King guilty of conspiring against liberty and worthy of any penalty short of death, and against the appeal to the people advocated by the Girondists. In the atmosphere of universal suspicion that inspired the Terror his independent attitude could not, however, be maintained with impunity. His severe and public criticism of the constitution adopted by the Convention, his denunciation of the arrest of the Girondists, and his opposition to the violent conduct of the Mountain, led to his being accused of conspiring against the Republic. He was condemned and declared to be hors la loi. Friends, sought for him an asylum in the house of Madame Vernet, widow of the sculptor and a near connection of the painters of the same name. Without even asking his name, this heroic woman, as soon as she was assured that he was an honest man, said, "Let him come, and lose not a moment, for while we talk he may be seized." When the execution of the Girondists showed him that his presence exposed his protectress to a terrible danger, he resolved to seek a refuge elsewhere. "I am outlawed," he said, "and if I am discovered you will meet the same sad end as myself. I must not stay." Madame Vernet's reply deserves to be immortal, and should be given in her own words: "La Convention, Monsieur, a le droit de mettre hors la loi: elle n'a pas le pouvoir de mettre hors de l'humanité; vous resterez." From that time she had his movements strictly watched lest he should attempt to quit her house. It was partly to turn his mind from the idea of attempting this, by occupying it otherwise, that his wife and some of his friends, with the co-operation of Madame Vernet, prevailed on him to engage in the composition of the work by which he is best known -- the Esquisse d'un Tableau Historique des Progrès de l'Esprit Humain. In his retirement Condorcet wrote also his justification, and several small works, such as the Moyen d'Apprendre à Compter Sûrement et avec Facilité, which he intended for the schools of the Republic. Several of these works were published at the time, thanks to his friends; the rest appeared after his death. Among the latter was the admirable Avis d'un Proscrit à sa Fille. While in hiding he also continued to take an active interest in public affairs. Thus, he wrote several important memoranda on the conduct of the war against the Coalition, which were laid before the Committee of Public Safety anonymously by a member of the Mountain named Marcoz, who lived in the same house as Condorcet without thinking it his duty to denounce him. In the same way he forwarded to Arbogast, president of the committee for public instruction, the solutions of several problems in higher mathematics.
Certain circumstances having led him to believe that the house of Madame Vernet, 21 rue Servandoni, was suspected and watched by his enemies, Condorcet, by a fatally successful artifice, at last baffled the vigilance of his generous friend and escaped. Disappointed in finding even a night's shelter at the chateau of one whom he had befriended, he had to hide for three days and nights in the thickets and stone-quarries of Clamart. Oh the evening of the 7th of April 1794 -- not, as Carlyle says, on a "bleared May morning", -- with garments torn, with wounded leg, with famished looks, be entered a tavern in the village named, and called for an omelette. "How many eggs in your omelette?" "A dozen." "What is your trade?" "A carpenter." "Carpenters have not hands like these, and do not ask for a dozen eggs in an omelette." When his papers were demanded he had none to show; when his person was searched a Horace was found on him. The villagers seized him, bound him, haled him forthwith on bleeding feet towards Bourg-la-Reine; he fainted by the way, was set on a horse offered in pity by a passing peasant, and, at the journey's end, was cast into a cold damp cell. Next morning he was found dead on the floor. Whether he had died from suffering and exhaustion, from apoplexy or from poison, is an undetermined question.
Condorcet was undoubtedly a most sincere, generous and noble-minded man. He was eager in the pursuit of truth, ardent in his love of human good, and ever ready to undertake labor or encounter danger on behalf of the philanthropic plans which his fertile mind contrived and his benevolent heart inspired. It was thus that he worked for the suppression of slavery, for the rehabilitation of the chevalier de La Barre, and in defense of Lally-Tollendal. He lived at a time when calumny was rife, and various slanders were circulated regarding him, but fortunately the slightest examination proves them to have been inexcusable fabrications. That while openly opposing royalty he was secretly soliciting the office of tutor to the Dauphin; that he was accessory to the murder of the duc de la Rochefoucauld; or that he sanctioned the burning of the literary treasures of the learned congregations, are stories which can be shown to be utterly untrue.
His philosophical fame is chiefly associated with the Esquisse... des Progrès mentioned above. With the vision of the guillotine before him, with confusion and violence around him, he comforted himself by trying to demonstrate that the evils of life had arisen from a conspiracy of priests and rulers against their fellows, and from the bad laws and institutions which they had succeeded in creating, but that the human race would finally conquer its enemies and free itself of its evils. His fundamental idea is that of a human perfectibility which has manifested itself in continuous progress in the past, and must lead to indefinite progress in the future. He represents man as starting from the lowest stage of barbarism, with no superiority over the other animals save that of bodily organization, and as advancing uninterruptedly, at a more or less rapid rate, in the path of enlightenment, virtue and happiness. The stages which the human race has already gone through, or, in other words, the great epochs of history, are regarded as nine in number. The first three can confessedly be described only conjecturally from general observations as to the development of the human faculties, and the analogies of savage life. In the first epoch, men are united into hordes of hunters and fishers, who acknowledge in some degree public authority and the claims of family relationship, and who make use of an articulate language. In the second epoch -- the pastoral state -- property is introduced, and along with it inequality of conditions, and even slavery, but also leisure to cultivate intelligence, to invent some of the simpler arts, and to acquire some of the more elementary truths of science. In the third epoch -- the agricultural state -- as leisure and wealth are greater, labor better distributed and applied, and the means of communication increased and extended, progress is still more rapid. With the invention of alphabetic writing the conjectural part of history closes, and the more or less authenticated part commences. The fourth and fifth epochs are represented as corresponding to Greece and Rome. The middle ages are divided into two epochs, the former of which terminates with the Crusades, and the latter with the invention of printing. The eighth epoch extends from the invention of printing to the revolution in the method of philosophic thinking accomplished by Descartes. And the ninth epoch begins with that great intellectual revolution, and ends with the great political and moral revolution of 1789, and is illustrious, according to Condorcet, through the discovery of the true system of the physical universe by Newton, of human nature by Locke and Condillac, and of society by Turgot, Richard Price and Rousseau. There is an epoch of the future -- a tenth epoch -- and the most original part of Condorcet's treatise is that which is devoted to it. After insisting that general laws regulative of the past warrant general inferences as to the future, he argues that the three tendencies which the entire history of the past shows will be characteristic features of the future are: (1) the destruction of inequality between nations; (2) the destruction of inequality between classes; and (3) the improvement of individuals, the indefinite perfectibility of human nature itself intellectually, morally and physically. These propositions have been much misunderstood. The equality to which he represents nations and individuals as tending is not absolute equality, but equality of freedom and of rights. It is that equality which would make the inequality of the natural advantages and faculties of each community and person beneficial to all. Nations and men, he thinks, are equal, if equally free, and are all tending to equality because all tending to freedom. As to indefinite perfectibility, he nowhere denies that progress is conditioned both by the constitution of humanity and the character of its surroundings. But he affirms that these conditions are compatible with endless progress, and that the human mind can assign no fixed limits to its own advancement in knowledge and virtue, or even to the prolongation of bodily life. This theory explains the importance he attached to popular education, to which he looked for all sure progress.
The book is pervaded by a spirit of excessive hopefulness, and contains numerous errors of detail, which are fully accounted for by the circumstances in which it was written. Its value lies entirely in its general ideas. Its chief defects spring from its author's narrow and fanatical aversion to all philosophy which did not attempt to explain the world exclusively on mechanical and sensational principles, to all religion whatever, and especially to Christianity and Christian institutions, and to monarchy. His ethical position, however, gives emphasis to the sympathetic impulses and social feelings, and had considerable influence upon Auguste Comte.
Madame de Condorcet (b. 1764), who was some twenty years younger than her husband, was rendered penniless by his proscription, and compelled to support not only herself and her four years old daughter, but her younger sister, Charlotte de Grouchy. After the end of the Jacobin Terror she published an excellent translation of Adam Smith's Theory of Moral Sentiments; in 1798 a work of her own, Lettres sur la Sympathie; and in 1799 her husband's Éloges des Acadmiciens. Later she co-operated with Cabanis, who had married her sister, and with Garat in publishing the complete works of Condorcet (1801-04). She adhered to the last to the political views of her husband, and under the Consulate and Empire her salon became a meeting-place of those opposed to the autocratic regime. She died at Paris on the 8th of September 1822. Her daughter was married, in 1807, to General O'Connor.
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Erasing painful memories of a failed launch five years ago, a Kennedy Space Center-led team on Wednesday delivered a NASA science satellite to orbit from California to begin its study of climate change.
A rocket mishap in 2009 doomed the original Orbiting Carbon Observatory mission, devastating its scientists and KSC's Launch Services Program, which manages launches of NASA science payloads.
But within an hour after a Delta II rocket's liftoff from Vandenberg Air Force Base at 5:56 a.m. EDT Wednesday, a camera showed the replacement Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2 spacecraft float safely away from the rocket toward a bright sun, about 430 miles up.
"Now we're celebrating," said Tim Dunn, the launch director from KSC. "There was pure joy in the mission director's center at spacecraft (separation), I can tell you that."
"It's very difficult to put this in words," added Ralph Basilio, the project manager from NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
Basilio said scientists were eager to tackle the $468 million mission's "unfinished business" of precisely measuring levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas that is the leading human contributor to climate change.
Over at least two years, the polar-orbiting spacecraft will study the sources of the 40 billion tons of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere each year, and how forests and oceans act as natural "sinks" that have absorbed roughly half of that.
Understanding seasonal and annual variations in that carbon cycle — described as the Earth breathing — will improve long-term climate change forecasts and help policymakers respond to a warming planet.
"Seldom do we get a second chance to be able to do a mission like this," said Geoff Yoder of NASA's Science Mission Directorate in Washington. "This mission will help humankind."
The successful launch marked the return to flight of United Launch Alliance's Delta II rocket after nearly three years off.
NASA chose it for the do-over mission after the 2009 failure by Orbital Sciences Corp.'s Taurus XL rocket, which also lost the agency's Glory science mission in 2011. In both cases, the rocket's payload fairing did not separate.
ULA had discontinued production of the workhorse Delta II, but had parts available for five more rockets. NASA has bought four of those, with the second expected to launch from Vandenberg in November.
Dunn said the rocket "performed like a champ" Wednesday.
While Orbital Sciences provided the ill-fated rocket in 2009, it also built the spacecraft for both missions.
Mike Miller, senior vice president for the company's science and environmental satellite program, said the loss of the first mission was "very much like losing a close family friend or member."
"So we're very happy to see this new day," he said after Wednesday's pre-dawn flight, "this still dark morning, but bright for all of us."
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Those of us of a certain age remember a time before Google Maps. A time before the maps that came before Google Maps. A time when we unfolded large pieces of paper in a car while driving at high speed — or, worse, as a tourist in a faraway land — gazed at the mysterious symbols and hoped we knew which way we were pointed in the first place.
Those were the dark ages.
In February 2005 Google launched Google Maps. And today it's an integral part of our daily lives, to say nothing of the Google experience. At its simplest, it's a way to figure out where you are, or where you're going. But it's grown into so much more than that. Google Maps now ties into your search results. Looking for, say, Chinese food? You'll see recommendations. Or, even better, is that you might see your friends' recommendations, thanks to integration with Google+.
And what Google did from the top down with satellites it's also done from the driver's seat. Google has a fleet of cars worldwide that maps the roads and highways, ensuring accuracy and — and this is the really cool part — taking 360-degree "Street view" pictures, so you can actually see where you're going and what it will look like before you get there.
Google Maps made the transition from web browser to mobile, of course, and it's now an indispensable part of our online lives.
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Viewing Guide for Videotaped Classes: Improving Your Teaching Through Self Examination
- Questions to Ask BEFORE viewing your videotape
- Getting the Larger Picture
- Focusing on Learning
- The Best Way to Teach
- Primary Questions
- Specific Questions
Kenneth Eble wrote about teaching, "It is attention to the particulars that brings any craft or art to a high degree of development" (1988, p. 6). Viewing your videotape will hopefully uncover the "high degree of development" embodied in the particulars of classroom practice. What is it that good teachers in the different disciplines and interdisciplines know and can do in the classroom?
1. What did you hope students would be able to do intellectually or physically as a result of this session (e.g., recall, recognize, understand, apply, analyze, synthesize, evaluate, perform, or practice a craft or technique)? Did you hope to change any attitudes? Why did you decide to use these practices to promote these learning objectives? How does reaching today's objectives help students achieve the larger, or final, course objectives? You will probably benefit from taking notes on your answers to these questions and keeping those notes in mind as you watch the tape. Did the class session go as planned or deviate from your design? How so? Why? Did you change direction to take advantage of some new opportunity, to get around an obstacle, to deal with a new circumstance?
2. What context is needed to understand the sample? What questions are you trying to help students learn to answer? What larger questions will these answers illuminate? What reasoning or other abilities are you trying to help students develop? Where are we in the unfolding of this help? What have you and the students been doing up to this point in the term? What topics have you considered? What will you do in the days and weeks to follow? What will you ask students to do?
3. What verbs best describe your intentions (e.g., inform, clarify, inspire, simplify) in conducting the class?
II. If you are unaccustomed to seeing yourself on a videotape or believe that you may feel uncomfortable watching yourself, I recommend that you, first, watch the tape for a few minutes without making any mental or physical notes, simply observing without comment or judgment. Avoid fixating on small, and often insignificant gestures and actions. Concentrate on the larger picture. Play the role of student. What are you learning from this class? Participate mentally as a student, rather than as an observer.
III. When you are ready to observe the tape, rewind it to the beginning and start there. As you watch the tape, you must keep the learning objectives constantly in mind. Will your actions (lecturing, discussion leading, and so forth) motivate and help students to achieve those objectives? Would other methods help even more? How do people learn to do what you want your students to do?
Because you might have any one of several possible learning objectives in mind, no guide of this type could speak to every need. But let's assume, for the sake of illustration, that you want students to understand an interpretation, an argument and its evidence, or some basic principle. Let's assume also that you ultimately want students to learn to use the ideas and information to solve problems; that you want them to know how to take the arguments apart, to identify and distinguish their constituent parts (analyze); that you want them to be able to draw from a variety of sources of evidence and ways of looking at that evidence to build their own arguments and conclusions (synthesize); and that you want them to be able to apply consistent criteria in comparing and evaluating conflicting ideas. In short, you want them to think critically and creatively, not just memorize data. If so, here are some questions you might pose about your videotaped class. These questions reflect recent research on human learning, but they do not suggest a formula you can follow to achieve success. No recipe will always work. You might "break all of the rules" and still have enormous success in helping and encouraging students to learn.
IV. What's the best way to teach? It depends! It depends on your students, on you, on your discipline, on what you hope the students will be able to do intellectually, physically, or emotionally as a result of your instruction, and perhaps on other factors as well. Hopefully, you will find at least some of these questions helpful. They come to me from a variety of people who have viewed themselves teaching, and who have shared with me the questions they asked themselves.
V. Primary Questions: Have you helped and encouraged students to learn? What should they be able to do intellectually (or physically or emotionally) as a result of attending this class? How have you helped them achieve those abilities?
A. Do you begin by posing the big question for the day, the problem you want students to tackle? People learn by trying to solve problems. You can motivate learning by defining the problem, framing the question in a way that intrigues and puzzles and compels.
B. Do you help students understand and appreciate the significance of the questions or problems under consideration or help them recapture some previously developed understanding and appreciation? Have you shared with students (either in this session or in some previous session) why you and other scholars regard these questions or problems as significant? Does your manner convey your own excitement and interest in these matters?
C. Have you done as much as you can to help students understand and value the learning objectives?
D. Does the conduct of the class (the lecture method, the discussion method, etc.) encourage students merely to listen or to grapple with the ideas and information? Have you created an active learning environment? Does your style suggest that you are engaging in a conversation with the students (even if it is a conversation you dominate), or simply making a presentation to which student simply listen?
E. Do you make strong eye contact with students? Do you talk to and with your students rather than at them?
F. When you ask questions to which you expect students to respond orally, do you pause sufficiently (at least ten seconds) for someone to answer? Do you tend to answer your own question, thus discouraging students from answering in the future?
G. In devising your explanations, have you thought about the level of understanding of your students, selecting words and illustrations that will make sense to them?
H. Does your manner invite questions? Do you explicitly solicit questions? Do you walk toward students who ask questions or make comments? Does your body language say you are listening and considering? Do you stop and carefully formulate answers to students' questions to promote understanding? Listen to your answers carefully. Are you likely to enlighten the novice? The advanced student?
I. If you are making explanations (lecturing in any sense), try taking notes. Can your students take notes and develop an understanding? Do you provide them with any clues about what is most significant? Can they "hear" your outline?
J. How are you getting feedback from students as you talk? How do you know what they are thinking? What do you know about how they are interpreting the material? Do you maintain any "two-way talk" with them? Are you reading their eyes and body language? Are you adjusting to what you see? Have you considered stopping the class a few minutes early and asking each student to respond on paper to the following questions: 1) what major conclusion have you drawn from this lecture; 2) what major questions remain in your mind?
K. How are you providing feedback to students in advance of your evaluation of their work? Do they have an opportunity to get feedback, to try again, to improve before they face an evaluation of their efforts?
L. Do you make any adjustments to compensate for the "fifteen-minute" rule, the research that suggests that the quality of students' notes and their ability to recall information or use problem solving techniques declines severely after the first fifteen minutes of class unless there is a change of pace, an opportunity to stop and think and to digest.
M. Have you stopped at any point and asked students to discuss ideas with each other, to work in pairs to rework their notes, to solve a problem? Have you invited questions and comments? Have you paused at least ten seconds after inviting questions and comments?
N. If you are leading a discussion, does your manner invite participation? Do you dominate the discussion? Do you call on students to answer each other's questions and to respond to each other's arguments?
O. Do you obviously treat students' ideas seriously? Do you evaluate students' contributions honestly and conscientiously? Do you allow and encourage students to do the same for your ideas?
P. What kind of questions are you posing (e. g., exploratory questions--what are the facts, what is the problem, what are the key definitions; testing questions--are there good solutions; relational questions--what solutions have we considered, how do we compare solutions; priority questions--which is the best solution; concluding questions--what have we learned here)? Do you have some plan for developing the conversation, for using different types of questions at different points in that development?
Q. Have you kept any one student from dominating the conversation? What have you done to invite everyone into the conversation? Have you been sensitive to non-participating, shy students? Do you listen attentively to students' comments, setting an example for students to do the same for each other? Does your body language say that you are listening?
R. Have you avoided "dead-end" and inexact questions (e. g., does anyone know. . . ?; who can tell us. . . ?; tell us about. . . .; yes or no questions)?
S. Have you created a comfortable environment for discussions? Have you allowed and encouraged students to get to know each other and to form a community of inquirers? Have you generated curiosity and a sense of anticipation? Have you allowed students to discuss in small groups before speaking in the larger class?
T. Have you routinely responded the same way to both genders? Have you favored either gender? Have you made any special efforts to ensure that both genders participate equally?
U. Have you communicated well? Have you talked to the board or to the students? Have you made strong and frequent eye contact with students? Have you looked at all parts of the room? Are your boards or other visuals clear? Have you erased boards too quickly? Have you planned your boards? Have you talked too fast or too slow? Have you used a monotone? Have you varied the tone, inflection, pace of delivery, etc.?
V. Would others in your field be likely to teach this topic/concept/procedure differently? Are you trying something new? Something you will continue to work at and improve? Do you like what you see?
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The first Tibetan refugee group arrived in Switzerland 50 years ago. To commemorate the date, the Dalai Lama is visiting Switzerland. The Dalai Lama is well-known there, but the Swiss people living in China have a completely different view of the Dalai Lama.
Christoph Müller, who is from a Swiss German-speaking area, has lived in Beijing for seven years and owns a travel agency there. He has his own view on the Tibet issue.
"The so-called cultural extinction is completely nonsense," Müller.
Although he's been to Tibet only once, he is very familiar with the situation in Tibet. He stressed that with the support from the Chinese government, the Tibetan traditions have been respected.
"All the Tibetan text is written in both Tibetan and Chinese, new buildings must be in harmony with local buildings, and Tibet's infrastructure development is very fast," he said briefly.
Thanks to tap water and heating supply, the Tibetan people who have led nomadic lives for generations are now able to settle down.
A man running a travel agency
Müller also dismissed rumors on China's policy of turning Tibet into a Han Chinese-dominated region, because Tibetan people account for 93 to 95 percent of Tibet's total population, and China's official figure stands at 92 percent.
Data from other media agencies shows the percentage of the Han Chinese in Tibet exceeds 10 percent. Numerous Han Chinese are willing to take on work that local people are unwilling to do. Müller said that many Tibetan people highly valued the arrival of the Han Chinese.
"More than one-half of the Tibetan people are leading well-off lives, with their living standard is even higher than that of residents in towns around Beijing," said Müller.
In his eyes, all westerners are the victims of the Dalai Lama's inciting actions. He felt that the information provided by China is more reliable. He also believes that the Dalai Lama has attained the world peace and environmental protection awards through illegal means.
"The Tibetan people enjoy full freedom of religious beliefs, just the same as people living in other parts of China," said Ivan Salamin, head of the China Branch of Alcan Aluminum Corporation.
His wife Catherine Salamin explained it more clearly, "I have not seen any signs of cultural extinction in Tibet. You know, the traditional culture and buildings in Tibet are all well-protected."
The couple believes that although there are still some problems in the daily lives of the Tibetan people, it is not a result from pressure by the Central Government, but a result of moral consciousness.
They arrived in China three years ago and had a long journey to Tibet in 2008. They took many photographs there, and one photo caption reads, "Travelers find truth and become pilgrims."
They also had many prejudices against China when they first arrived.
"As time went by, we learned more about China, and found out that we were completely wrong," Mrs. Salamin said.
Many foreign tourists have the same feelings.
"After visiting China in person, most of the tourists find China much better than they thought," said Müller.
As is mentioned before, a large number of Swiss people have changed their views on China through their personal experiences in the country. They have realized that the Dalai Lama makes use of Westerners' prejudice against China to give credibility to the "Tibetan government-in-exile."
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Slugs, a common garden pest, are snails without a shell. Size can vary from one-fourth inch to two inches depending on age and species. They spend the winter as pearl-like eggs in protected places, usually under plant debris. The eggs hatch in 2-4 weeks and can grow for up to 2 years before reaching maturity.
Feeding occurs primarily in the evening and on dark, cloudy days. Slugs are very destructive and are difficult to control. They eat irregularly-shaped holes in tender plant tissues, leaving a slime trail behind.
Slugs require a cool, moist environment and won't survive long under dry, warm conditions. Slug populations thrive under frequent irrigation, heavy shade and high plant densities that keep soil cool and moist.
Several cultural practices can help manage slug problems. For example, slugs can be quickly eliminated by creating a drier, warmer soil surface. Drip irrigation, plant spacing and increased air circulation are recommended management tools. New research from the USDA shows that a 2% solution of caffeine (coffee) kills slugs while a weaker solution takes away their appetite. Maintain permanent walkways of clover, sod or stone mulches to encourage predatory ground beetles. Repel slugs with copper strips fastened around trunks of trees or shrubs. Encircle tend and young seedlings with a protective barrier of crushed eggshells
Good yard sanitation that eliminates daytime hiding places helps control slugs. Or, you can create hiding places that serve as traps. Simply place wet newspapers or boards in the garden. The slugs hiding underneath should be destroyed each morning.
Beer or yeast traps also are effective and easy to make. Just bury a shallow can or bowl to the rim of the container and fill it with beer or a yeast mix. Slugs are attracted to the yeast, fall in and drown. You will need to clean out the traps frequently and replenish them with beer or yeast mix.
When using commercial slug baits, apply them to cool, moist soil in protected places, like under plants. It's important to note that commercial baits are toxic to children, birds, dogs and cats that may be attracted to the product. Consider using baits containing iron phosphate. These commercial products are less injurious to pets.
Gardening techniques that help dry and warm the soil surface between plants are most effective for managing slug problems.
For more information, see the following Colorado State University Extension fact sheet(s).
Do you have a question? Try Ask an Expert!
Updated Thursday, May 05, 2016
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According to a compelling new study from The EAR Foundation and Clarity® that looked at the occurrence, cause and impact of hearing loss on baby boomers—those born between 1945 and 1964—half of the nearly 76 million boomers in the US are experiencing some degree of hearing loss…and very few are doing anything about it.
The results of the Baby Boomer Hearing Loss Study indicate that hearing loss is more widespread than previously estimated, potentially affecting 38 million people between the ages of 40 and 59. Earlier estimates from the National Health Interview Survey by the National Center for Health Statistics indicated 16 million people, or 20 percent, in a comparable age group were suffering from hearing loss.
Not only did the study find that half of those surveyed said they had difficulty hearing at times, it also revealed that most people experiencing hearing loss are not seeking help to remedy their hearing issues. Only one of every three, or 34 percent, individuals surveyed had gotten their hearing tested. It also revealed that the majority of boomers who report hearing loss blame it on exposure to noise.
“This study indicates that baby boomers are losing their hearing at a more rapid pace than past generations,” said Dr. Michael Glasscock, founder of The EAR Foundation. “Whether because of apprehension or denial, boomers are not seeking the help they need to alleviate the affects of hearing loss. Hearing loss is a serious yet often overlooked issue, and this study will help bring it into the national spotlight so we can help this generation take the next steps on the road to better hearing.”
The Causes Of Hearing Loss
The study reports that 51 percent of people who reported trouble hearing attributed their hearing loss to noise pollution, either on the job or during recreational activities—sources include exposure to loud noise, like construction equipment, rock concerts, jet planes, automobile engines or even lawn equipment.
“Baby boomers are the first generation of rock and roll,” said Dr. Glasscock. “They have a very active lifestyle and they are used to getting what they want, from careers to family to recreation. This lifestyle lends itself to experiencing an increased amount of noise and that is why we believe boomers have encountered more noise pollution than any other generation.”
Outside of noise pollution, the next most common cause reported was aging, at 37 percent. Only 18 percent said their hearing loss was due to a medical condition.
The Impact Of Hearing Loss
The study revealed that difficulty hearing can often create obstacles at home, in the workplace or in social situations. Almost half—46 percent—of those who reported having some difficulty hearing said they were most affected by the loss at home, while nearly as many—44 percent—said that hearing loss caused problems for them in social situations.
Hearing loss also can have a significant impact on how you communicate with others: 35 percent said they have difficulty hearing and understanding telephone conversations, 24 percent said their hearing loss made them feel misunderstood and 9 percent said they felt isolated.
“Whether it’s having to turn up the TV at home, asking your child to repeat themselves at dinner or not understanding a friend during a telephone conversation, hearing loss can affect your normal routine in many ways,” said Dr. Glasscock. “People with hearing loss will often ignore the issue and tread through difficult situations. These results confirm that hearing loss is impacting people’s lives, and it should no longer be ignored.”
Getting Help For Hearing Loss
Admitting a problem doesn’t necessarily translate to finding a solution. Most of the individuals who said they had difficulty hearing were doing very little to find appropriate care or products to alleviate their hearing issues.
The study indicated that only one in every six individuals has been medically diagnosed and only one in three has gotten his or her hearing tested. This indicates that many of those with hearing loss are not seeking appropriate hearing health care, such as meeting with an audiologist or discussing hearing with their primary care physician.
Although the survey shows that a large majority of the individuals who reported having difficulty hearing are not actually seeking treatment, it did find that most baby boomers are well informed in general about products that can improve hearing.
Almost all—97 percent—of the respondents said they were aware of hearing aids and almost 80 percent were aware of amplified telephones, which boost high-frequency sounds often missed during telephone conversations.
“Baby boomers need to take advantage of both audiology testing and the wealth of products for better hearing that are available to them,” said Carsten Trads, president of Clarity. “There is no need for either boomers or their loved ones to literally suffer in silence. We urge anyone who thinks they may be experiencing hearing loss to contact an audiologist and seek information about the many convenient and economical devices, from hearing aids to amplified telephones to assistive listening technology, on the market today.”
The research was conducted by an independent research company, Prince Market Research, a member of the Council of American Survey Research Organizations. The research methodology was designed to ensure that the results are accurate within a margin of error of plus or minus five percent at a 95 percent confidence level. To access the full report, visit www.clarityproducts.com/boomer.
About The EAR Foundation
The EAR (Education and Auditory Research) Foundation was established by Dr. Michael E. Glasscock III in 1971. This association of physicians, educators and concerned citizens exists for three basic purposes:
- To provide the general public support services that promote integrating people with hearing and balance impairments into mainstream society.
- To provide practicing hearing specialists with continuing medical education courses and related programs specifically addressing rehabilitation and hearing preservation.
- To educate young people and adults about hearing preservation and early detection of hearing loss, enabling them to prevent hearing and balance disorders at an early age.
The mission of the organization is to provide information and resources to people of every age who are hearing impaired. For more information on The EAR Foundation, visit www.earfoundation.org.
Clarity®, a Division of Plantronics Inc. (NYSE:PLT), (www.clarityproducts.com) is a leading supplier of amplified telephones, notification systems, assistive listening devices and other communications devices for the hearing loss and deaf markets. A leader in sound amplification, Clarity’s patented technology, Clarity® Power™, provides customized solutions for customers who otherwise could not communicate easily and effectively with the outside world. As more people begin to address their hearing needs, Clarity will continue to provide effective technologies that are simple and easy to use. The company began in 1969 as a telecommunications manufacturer, and was acquired in 1986 by Plantronics, Inc., a leading provider of headsets to business and individual consumers worldwide. Plantronics introduced the first lightweight communications headset in 1962 and is recognized as the world leader in communications headsets. Plantronics headsets also are used widely in many Fortune 500 corporations and have been featured in numerous motion pictures and high-profile events, including Neil Armstrong's historic "One small step for man" transmission from the moon in 1969.
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- Easier - Aztecs
were a wandering Native American tribe who came to
Mexico during the 13th century. There they built a
great civilization including cities, pyramids, and
temples. In 1519 Spanish conquistadors arrived in
Mexico and defeated the Aztecs.
- Harder - Aztec
comes from the word Azteca, which is derived from
Aztlán ("White Land"). Aztlán is
believed to have been the northwestern region of
today's Mexico. Aztlán is the land where,
according to Aztec tradition, their tribe
originated. According to Aztec legend at the
beginning of the 12th century until the 13th
century, the Aztec peoples migrated south to the
Valley of Mexico in search of a place to
- By the 1400's and into the early 1500's, the
Aztecs had established one of the most advanced
civilizations in the Americas. Some of their cities
at that time were as large as any in Europe. Aztec
peoples practiced a religion that affected every
part of their lives. To honor their gods, they
constructed towering temples, huge sculptures, and
held ceremonies that included bloody human
sacrifices. The Aztec empire was destroyed by the
Spaniards, who conquered it in 1521. But the Aztecs
have made a lasting mark on Mexican culture.
- Here you find information about the Aztecs and
links to several other related websites.
Ancient Aztecs (TrackStar, grade
- This website has photos of temples, sculptures
and glyphs,eyewitness accounts of ritual human
sacrifice, poems in Nahuatl -- the language of the
Aztecs (translated to English),an extensive listing
of the gods and goddesses worshiped, and more.
- This essay is an interesting history of the
- Read descriptions of the history, religion,
economy, society, and writings of this culture that
dominated the Valley of Mexico in the fifteenth and
- After exploring Aztec cultures through
some of the resources provided, complete
one or more of these projects.
- Create A Timeline of the Aztec
Culture. After visiting websites like
Aztec and Mexica:
Aztecs, create a timeline that
identifies and dates the important events
of Aztec history.
- Write An Aztec Story. Find out
what Aztec life was like at The
Ancient Aztecs, and other websites.
See if you can find out what they ate,
what their houses were like, and what
typical activities they had. Then write a
short story featuring the daily life of an
- Draw Aztec Art. Create a
drawing or painting that focuses on some
part of Aztec life or history. You may
want to include the people and their
clothing. You might feature a dwelling, or
village, or their temple. Your artwork
could focus on the different agriculture
methods that Aztec farmers employed; slash
and burn, terracing, hanging gardens, etc.
Or you might focus on their village life
showing crafts, trade, and religion.
- Complete An Aztec WebQuest.
Adapt or follow the procedures found at
one of the following webQuest sites. You
may find the links on the page are no
longer active; however, the links below
will provide plenty of online resources.
- 1) Searching for the Aztecs
- 2) The Aztec Adventure http://www.umeedu.maine.edu/coehd/aztec/
- 3) Aztecs: The Conquest by Monica
- Websites By Kids For Kids
- Here are student reports and artwork on the
- A few people may mistake the Mayas for Aztecs.
This website explains how the Aztecs built their
holy temples, houses, the Emperor's palace, as well
as a very religious temple.
Aztec World With Mr. Burnett
- Internet links, activities, research, and
- The website includes information about Aztec
rulers, daily life, technology, culture, religion,
the Spanish conquest, and has a timeline, glossary,
web links, and bibliography.
from the Empires Past website
- Website provides information about the Aztecs
society and governmental structure, their
scientific advances in the areas of astronomy and
medicine, religion,and interest in the arts,
agriculture and social conditions of their time.
Also learn about Cortez and the Spanish conquest of
- More Aztec Websites
Account of the Conquest of Mexico
- In 1519 Hernan Cortés sailed from Cuba,
landed in Mexico, and made his way to the Aztec
capital. Here you can read accounts by the Aztecs
written shortly after the conquest.
Lessons Stories at Trek Teachers'
- Read Aztec myths about the founding of their
capital city: 'The Heart of Copil' and 'The Evil of
of Mexico/ The Aztecs
- The Aztecs were in Mexico in the 13th
- Get information on Aztec origins, lifestyles,
religion, mythology, and art.
Mirror: Conflict of the Gods
- This website describes Cortés'
expedition to Mexico beginning in 1519 and ending
with his conquest of the Aztecs in 1521.
Conquest of the Aztec Empire: Hernando Cortes
(University of Calgary)
- Here you can learn of Cortes and get
information about the conquest of the Aztecs.
- There is not just one Aztec calendar, there are
two more or less independent systems. A 365 day
calendar, called the xiuhpohualli, describes the
days and rituals related to the seasons,. The other
calendar has 260 days. In Nahuatl, the language of
the Aztecs, it is called the tonalpohualli or, in
English, the day-count. Most information on this
Internet-site refers to the tonalpohualli, which is
the sacred calendar.
Formation and Structure of the Aztec
- Here is a description of how the Aztecs viewed
their gods and the universe.
- Websites for Teachers
Aztec: Markets, Maize, and
- Lesson plan incorporates the Aztec unit,
quahuitl, in calculating perimeter and area.
Aztecs: From Aztlan to Tenochtitlan at Trek
- This website contains lesson plans for Mexico
Meet the Spanish (Grade 6-8)
- It is the year 1527 and an Independent Counsel
has been chosen by the Roman Catholic Church to
determine a policy for the Church toward future
exploration, conquest and conversion of the native
people of Mexico.
Mythology by Lorna Dils (Grade 4-5)
- This lesson on Aztec mythology provides an
understanding of the basics of the Aztec's
- Created by
1/99, Updated, 12/99:
Update by Nancy
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Ancient DNA in ceramic artifacts
Determining original contents
|Enlarge ImageDrs. Theotokis Theodhoulou, Dimitris Kourkoumelis, Maria Hansson, and Brendan Foley investigate the original contents of "empty" amphoras, by amplyfing ancient DNA trapped in the ceramic jars. (P. Vezirtis, Ephorate of Underwater Antiquities)
|Enlarge ImageHellenic Ministry of Culture maritime archaeologist Dr. Dimitris Kourkoumelis collects a ceramic sample from the interior of a 4th century BC amphora from Chios. (Brendan Foley)
|Enlarge ImageOnly a small amount of material is needed to extract DNA. (Brendan Foley)
|Enlarge ImageMolecular biologist Dr. Maria Hansson runs a gel to detect ancient DNA in samples collected from a Classical Greek amphora. (Tom Kleindinst, WHOI)
OverviewTo read our peer-reviewed articles on ancient DNA identified in amphoras, see:
Brendan P. Foley, Maria C. Hansson, Dimitris P. Kourkoumelis, Theotokis A. Theodoulou, "Aspects of Ancient Greek Trade Re-evaluated with Amphora DNA Evidence" Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012):389-398 doi: 10.1016/j.jas.2011.09.025
M. Hansson and B. Foley, "Ancient DNA fragments inside Classical Greek amphoras reveal cargo of 2400-year-old shipwreck" Journal of Archaeological Science 35.5 (May 2008): 1169-1176.
For popular looks at this ongoing research program, see:
Nature Ancient Greek ships carried more than just wine
Science Will DNA Swabs Launch CSI Cargo?
ScienceNews Jars of Plenty
Boston Globe State Police DNA Techniques Unlock Mediterranean Secrets
See also Archaeology Volume 62, Number 4: July/August 2009
"The Latest Underwater Discoveries: Submerged DNA, Chios, Greece"
London Daily Telegraph: Message in a 2400-year-old bottle
Ancient DNA can reveal the original contents of empty ceramic archaeological artifacts. In 2007 we conducted proof-of-concept trials by applying molecular biology procedures to two 2400 year-old ceramic jars recovered from the Greek shipwreck located between Chios and Oinousses. Miniscule ceramic samples collected from inside the amphoras yielded short (≤100 base pair) ancient DNA fragments of olive and oregano in one jar from Chios; and DNA of the Pistacia genus, possibly P. lentiscus (mastic) in the other unattributed amphora. These preliminary results are very encouraging, and we are now working to advance these molecular archaeology techniques. The specific methods include preparation and refinement of species-specific oligonucleotide primers for chloroplast DNA markers, polymerase chain reaction, cloning, and DNA sequencing. When perfected, these ancient DNA investigations of archaeological artifacts will allow a broad range of scholars to routinely identify ceramic vessels' original contents. This opens entirely novel avenues of scientific inquiry.
This is a powerful new tool for archaeology. Ceramic artifacts are ubiquitous on terrestrial and underwater archaeological sites. In the ancient Mediterranean, specially designed ceramic shipping containers (amphoras) carried a wide range of goods. Cultures beyond the Mediterranean produced ceramic vessels for both everyday use and elaborate religious rites. For instance, people of the Mesoamerican Maya culture deposited ceramic objects in cenotes and underwater caves. Until now, determining the original contents of all these ceramic objects has been difficult, aided only occasionally by physical evidence (e.g. olive pits, hardened resins, seeds, chocolate residue) found inside excavated jars or on graffiti on their exteriors. With this DNA method, archaeologists will be able to identify artifacts' contents even when no physical remains are apparent.
As we refine this technique, we have specific objectives in mind: to establish which species can be identified by ancient DNA analyses of ceramic artifacts; to determine the factors that affect survival of ancient DNA within the ceramic matrices of artifacts; and to refine DNA retrieval methods from artifacts using different sampling techniques.
Modern molecular analyses of ceramic artifacts can provide unprecedented insights into the ancient past. If the full potential of this method is realized, it may be possible to determine the original contents of nearly any ceramic archaeological artifact recovered from underwater or terrestrial sites. This will allow new scientific questions to be posed regarding ancient agricultural production, as well as the preparation and preservation of food products and other organic material. Molecular analyses of archaeological artifacts will generate new knowledge of ancient contact networks, and the trade and economies of early civilizations. DNA evidence may allow scholars to discern the introduction of certain crops across regions and through time. Since some plants and crops can flourish only within limited water requirements and temperature constraints, these techniques may even provide data about ancient climate conditions.
WHOI Oceanus article
The southern portion of Chios island
is known as the 'mastichora'. It was the primary and perhaps sole source of high-quality mastic in the
ancient world, as first recorded by the Roman natural philosopher Pliny, circa 60 A.D. Modern scholars have
hypothesized that mastic resin preserved the famous Chian wines and provided their
distinctive flavor. If the resin in the unattributed amphora recoverd from the Chios-Oinousses wreck is indeed mastic, it is the first
direct suggestion for mastic cultivation in the Classical era. This would shift the
suspected origins of mastic production back in time at least 400 years. Because
the source of mastic was so highly localized in the southern part of Chios Island,
this suggests that this particular jar and by association the others in its
class were produced either on the island itself or at a site nearby. Similarly
to oregano, species in the Pistacia genus
have been experimentally demonstrated to possess strong antioxidant and
antimicrobial abilities, containing several different substances which prevent
oxidation processes and microbial activity. This could have facilitated
preservation of the jars' ancient contents, as well as the genetic material
within the amphora walls.
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|Rangeland Ecology & Management|
Grazing is a major land use in Australia’s rangelands. The ‘safe’ livestock carrying capacity (LCC) required to maintain resource condition is strongly dependent on climate. We reviewed: the approaches for quantifying LCC; current trends in climate and their effect on components of the grazing system; implications of the ‘best estimates’ of climate change projections for LCC; the agreement and disagreement between the current trends and projections; and the adequacy of current models of forage production in simulating the impact of climate change. We report the results of a sensitivity study of climate change impacts on forage production across the rangelands, and we discuss the more general issues facing grazing enterprises associated with climate change, such as ‘known uncertainties’ and adaptation responses (e.g. use of climate risk assessment).
We found that the method of quantifying LCC from a combination of estimates (simulations) of long-term (>30 years) forage production and successful grazier experience has been well tested across northern Australian rangelands with different climatic regions. This methodology provides a sound base for the assessment of climate change impacts, even though there are many identified gaps in knowledge. The evaluation of current trends indicated substantial differences in the trends of annual rainfall (and simulated forage production) across Australian rangelands with general increases in most of western Australian rangelands (including northern regions of the Northern Territory) and decreases in eastern Australian rangelands and south-western Western Australia.
Some of the projected changes in rainfall and temperature appear small compared with year-to-year variability. Nevertheless, the impacts on rangeland production systems are expected to be important in terms of required managerial and enterprise adaptations.
Some important aspects of climate systems science remain unresolved, and we suggest that a risk-averse approach to rangeland management, based on the ‘best estimate’ projections, in combination with appropriate responses to short-term (1–5 years) climate variability, would reduce the risk of resource degradation.
Climate change projections – including changes in rainfall, temperature, carbon dioxide and other climatic variables – if realised, are likely to affect forage and animal production, and ecosystem functioning. The major known uncertainties in quantifying climate change impacts are: (i) carbon dioxide effects on forage production, quality, nutrient cycling and competition between life forms (e.g. grass, shrubs and trees); and (ii) the future role of woody plants including effects of fire, climatic extremes and management for carbon storage.
In a simple example of simulating climate change impacts on forage production, we found that increased temperature (3°C) was likely to result in a decrease in forage production for most rangeland locations (e.g. –21% calculated as an unweighted average across 90 locations). The increase in temperature exacerbated or reduced the effects of a 10% decrease/increase in rainfall respectively (–33% or –9%). Estimates of the beneficial effects of increased CO2 (from 350 to 650 ppm) on forage production and water use efficiency indicated enhanced forage production (+26%). The increase was approximately equivalent to the decline in forage production associated with a 3°C temperature increase. The large magnitude of these opposing effects emphasised the importance of the uncertainties in quantifying the impacts of these components of climate change.
We anticipate decreases in LCC given that the ‘best estimate’ of climate change across the rangelands is for a decline (or little change) in rainfall and an increase in temperature. As a consequence, we suggest that public policy have regard for: the implications for livestock enterprises, regional communities, potential resource damage, animal welfare and human distress. However, the capability to quantify these warnings is yet to be developed and this important task remains as a challenge for rangeland and climate systems science.Additional keywords:
The Rangeland Journal 31(5184) 1–29 http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/RJ08068
Submitted: 3 December 2008 Accepted: 6 February 2009 Published online: 26 March 2009
Climate change has been identified as a major issue for the world’s rangelands (e.g. Harle et al. 2007; Henry et al. 2007; Howden et al. 2008; Wei et al. 2008). The interim Garnaut Climate Change Review (Garnaut 2008a , p. 22) highlighted the risk that Australia, with a climate that is ‘already hot, dry and variable’, faces under global warming. Grazing with domestic livestock (mainly sheep and cattle) is the major land use of Australian rangelands. The number of animals that can be sustained without irreversible damage to the soil and vegetation resource is strongly controlled by climate, particularly rainfall and its seasonal distribution (Wilson and Harrington 1984). To achieve sustainable use, state agencies have developed quantitative approaches to estimate grazing capacity using combinations of grazier experience, land-type attributes, historical climate data and simulation of forage production (e.g. Condon 1968; Johnston et al. 1996a ).
IPCC (2007, p. 8) states that warming of the global system is occurring and that further warming and other climate changes (increase in drought) are likely to occur as human-induced greenhouse emissions increase. Thus, the assessment of current climatic trends/fluctuations and future climate change projections is an important challenge for graziers, public policy and rangeland science in addressing issues of current and future rangeland use by livestock.
In this paper, we have adopted the following approach in reviewing the challenge, concentrating on northern Australia. We first review the definitions and procedures of modelling forage production developed since the early 1990s (after Scanlan et al. 1994) to define and calculate livestock carrying capacity (LCC). We then re-evaluate the climate-driven components of LCC from the viewpoint of how they are likely to be influenced by climate change. To quantify climate change impacts on forage production and LCC, we consider two questions: what has happened in the recent past (i.e. last 15–30 years) and what is likely to happen in the future? Hence, in this paper we: (i) document current changes concentrating on important components of the grazing system (soil moisture, forage production, surface cover and hydrology); (ii) briefly describe current projections; and (iii) compare current trends and future projections.
In northern Australian rangelands, simulation models of the grazing system are being used to assess likely impacts of climate change (e.g. Hall et al. 1998) including the effects of increased CO2 on forage production and water use. We review some of the known uncertainties that need to be addressed to better quantify climate change impacts on the rangeland grazing system. We present a simple example of simulating combinations of climate change (rainfall, temperature and CO2) on forage production, demonstrating the importance of quantifying the net impacts of factors operating in opposing directions (i.e. increase or decrease in forage production).
Graziers, their advisers and public policy face a difficult task in adapting to climate change. We briefly discuss a wide range of issues that are likely to influence decisions on the number of livestock grazed at an enterprise level. In particular, we discuss the importance of current developments in climate systems science and the use of climate risk assessment (and seasonal climate forecasting) in the adaptation process to achieve sustainable rangeland use.
The aims of this paper are to:
Grazing is an extensive land use in the rangelands (Bastin et al. 2008). Despite high year-to-year variability in rainfall, many grazing enterprises are based on a nucleus of self-replacing herds and flocks. The concept of a safe LCC was developed (e.g. Condon 1968; Scanlan et al. 1994; Johnston et al. 1996a , 2000; Johnston and Garrad 1999) to estimate the capacity of the pasture resource to sustainably carry livestock (and other herbivores) in the long-term (>30 years).
Implicit in the meaning of the words ‘long-term’ is the responsibility of resource managers to achieve sustainable resource use over much greater time intervals (thousands of generations) than the duration of individual manager’s life. Many of the degradation processes (e.g. soil erosion, woodland thickening) which are accelerated by over-utilisation operate episodically or inexorably (e.g. Pringle et al. 2006) and, hence, managerial vigilance is required to reduce the risk of degradation. The nominated timeframe of ‘>30 years’ matches the period of responsibility of an individual manager (i.e. one generation) and the challenge of managing multi-decadal variability in rainfall. Throughout this paper, we use the term ‘long-term’ to refer to a period of time >30 years.
While some graziers maintain relatively constant property stock numbers (e.g. Stone et al. 2003), others vary stocking rates from year-to-year as part of livestock management in response to drought or above-average conditions (e.g. Scanlan et al. 1994). Based on successful experience of managing climate and resource variability, many graziers were prepared to document a ‘safe’ LCC for individual land units (and land-types), and these were used to formulate objective systems to calculate LCC (e.g. Johnston et al. 1996a , 1996b ). These calculations allow extrapolation of the successful ‘solutions’ to the problem of highly variable climates and land resources to other grazing enterprises or new managers. In the following section, we will show that this systems approach also provides a basis for calculating climate change impacts.
Johnston et al. (1996a), p. 246; after Scanlan et al. 1994) defined the ‘safe’ grazing capacity (LCC) as the number of animals [e.g. dry sheep equivalents (DSE) or beef equivalents] that ‘can be carried on a land system, paddock or property in the long-term without any decrease in pasture condition and without accelerated soil erosion.’ Johnston et al. (1996a) indicated that LCC is a strategic, i.e. long-term, estimate of stock numbers.
Mathematically, Johnston et al. (1996a) indicated that a ‘safe’ grazing capacity (i.e. LCC) can be represented as:
Thus, the calculation of LCC involves estimates of forage production and the safe level of forage utilisation. These components of LCC will be discussed later. The above terms and formulae are not to be confused with the procedures for the calculation of short-term (<1 year) stocking rates based on appropriate utilisation of standing forage elsewhere described as the ‘responsive’ strategy to grazing management (e.g. McKeon et al. 2000).
In the rangelands, LCC is a major determinant of the gross value of production (i.e. dollars per ha from mainly cattle and sheep, McKeon et al. 2008a ), resource condition (Friedel et al. 1990; McKeon et al. 2004) and enterprise viability (Foran and Stafford Smith 1991). At the large spatial scale of Statistical Divisions (58 in Australia), the gross value of production from sheep, cattle and wool was highly correlated with livestock carried (ABS census 2001, r 2 = 0.83). Similarly, for rangeland and adjacent Statistical Divisions with relatively short growing periods (% growth index days <30, McKeon et al. 2008a ), there was also high correlation between gross value of production and LCC (r 2 = 0.80, n = 18). Many studies have indicated that spatial variation in LCC is strongly related to interactions of land-type attributes (e.g. soil properties and tree density) and climatic variation (Condon 1968; Johnston et al. 1996a ). Climate factors (and CO2) interact with land-type attributes to affect forage (including shrub) production and woody plant competition. Similarly, land-type and climate factors affect many components of the grazing system, potential forage utilisation, animal production per head (liveweight gain and wool cut), choice of breed, enterprise type, animal husbandry and supplementation requirement, calendar of operations, and the impact of grazing on resource components such as cover, soil erosion, fire frequency and pasture species composition.
The 11 Statistical Divisions that constitute the arid and semi-arid interior of Australia (72% of the area of national rural holdings), carry 28% of Australia’s sheep and cattle (expressed as beef equivalents, BE) and generate 20% of the ‘gross dollar value of production’ attributed to sheep, cattle and wool (McKeon et al. 2008a , p. 6). LCC is also important in terms of greenhouse gas emissions. Methane from sheep and cattle (excluding dairy) was 9% of Australia’s greenhouse gas emissions in 2006 (National Greenhouse Gas Inventory 2008). Tree clearing which is conducted mainly for maintaining or improving pastoral production was 11% of Australia’s greenhouse gas emissions (interim estimate for 2006, National Greenhouse Gas Inventory 2008). From 1990 to 2006, there has been a substantial reduction (54%) in emissions from the land-use change sector (National Greenhouse Gas Inventory 2008). Woodland ‘thickening’ has also been a major process in grazed woodlands (Anon. 1969; Burrows et al. 2002). Burrows et al. (2002) estimated that the change in carbon stocks in Queensland’s (Qld) grazed woodlands (over an average 14 years timeframe), as a result of woody vegetation thickening, was equivalent in magnitude to ~25% of total estimated national net emissions in 1999.
Importance of estimating safe livestock carrying capacity for resource condition
Over the last 150 years of rangeland use, graziers and public policy have had difficulty determining a LCC at a property scale. This difficulty has had important implications for the resource condition in rangelands (e.g. Tothill and Gillies 1992). McKeon et al. (2004, p. 34) listed 17 degradation episodes that have been documented in Australia’s rangelands since the 1880s. A detailed analysis was carried out for eight of these episodes. The episodes comprised a general sequence of degradation and partial recovery in which: (i) the population of livestock and other herbivores (i.e. rabbits, goats and macropods) built up during sequences of years with above-average rainfall; (ii) resource damage occurred due to the high herbivore numbers and intermittent drought; (iii) rapid decline in commodity prices for beef and wool occurred devaluing herds and flocks and increasing the difficulty of destocking; (iv) severe and extended drought led to heavy utilisation of forage and further resource damage; and (v) partial resource recovery did not occur until a sequence of above-average rainfall years, which was sometimes decades after the degradation episode (McKeon 2006, p. 17).
After the initial expansion of grazing in rangelands in the mid–late 1800s, it took many decades to develop the skill of managing for climatic variability that is required to estimate long-term LCCs. Graziers at the time (1880s and ’90s) did not have the advantage of long historical records of rainfall or experience in the variability in forage production of the rangeland resource. In fact, it is only with the benefit of over 100 years hindsight (and historical rainfall records) that we are able to define the late 1880 to the early 1890s as ‘above average’. It could be argued that rangeland producers and public policy are now (2009) in a similar state of uncertainty about future climate (particularly rainfall) as those graziers of the late 19th century. Furthermore, in some regions (e.g. western Qld) property managers may have a relatively short experience (e.g. 10–15 years) at a particular location (e.g. Reynolds and Carter 1993) and, hence, have not experienced the range of historical variability in rainfall. If the LCC of the resource is over-estimated or economic conditions prevent appropriate destocking during drought, then resource damage is likely to occur with loss of future productivity and downstream effects (e.g. McKergow et al. 2005). Thus, it is important to assess climate change projections in terms of their implications for future LCC and the risk of resource degradation.
Climate drivers of recovery from drought-degradation episodes
Drought/degradation episodes have been followed by periods of potential recovery. For the degradation episodes in eastern and central Australia that occurred in the 1890s, 1920s and 1940s, partial recovery took place during the above-average years of the 1950s and ’70s (e.g. Pickard 1993). These above-average rainfall years were associated with La Niña episodes (i.e. cool water anomalies in the eastern and central equatorial Pacific Ocean), in combination with the cool phase of the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) (Mantua et al. 1997; Folland et al. 1998; Power et al. 1999; McKeon et al. 2004). The resilience of the resource has also been attributed to many factors (e.g. soil and vegetation properties, property development, better grazing and pest management, as well as above-average rainfall, Condon 1986). Nevertheless, the future behaviour of La Niña and PDO (e.g. Cai and Whetton 2000, 2001, p. 3353) has important implications for the resilience of rangelands in eastern and central Australia (and some smaller regions of western and northern Australia). Furthermore, for these regions, Cai and Whetton (2000, p. 2579) suggested that a more ‘El Niño-like warming pattern’ was likely to develop through the 21st century. However, models vary considerably in their capability to simulate changes in ENSO amplitude and frequency (in the 21st century, CSIRO-BoM 2007, p. 106) and, hence, this emerging but currently uncertain component of climate research will have important implications for rangeland management.
During the 1960s and ’70s, objective approaches to estimating LCC were developed to account for climate and land-type factors based on: (i) grazier experiences, (ii) land resource assessments (Condon et al. 1969), and (iii) formal field experiments (termed grazing trials, e.g. Roe and Allen 1993). With the development of ecosystem simulation models, feed year planning and field experiments in the 1960–70s, it was hypothesised that spatial variation in LCC should be directly related to forage production, which determines the flow of edible dry matter in the grazing system.
The term ‘percentage utilisation’ has been commonly but loosely used since the 1970s (see review by Hunt 2008). However, for calculating LCC, it is used here to indicate the proportion of forage production that can be consumed in the long-term. Safe long-term utilisation rates were derived by comparing LCCs reported by expert graziers for different land-types and average forage production calculated from forage production models (Johnston et al. 1996a ; Hall et al. 1998).
For Qld’s native pastures, estimates of forage production accounted for a high (>80%) proportion of the variation in LCC across a wide range of land-types, properties and regions (south-west, north-east and south-east Qld, Hall et al. 1998).
Forage production has been calculated for different pasture communities from: (i) simple functions of rainfall (Foran 1984; Robertson 1987); (ii) rainfall use efficiencies (e.g. Scanlan et al. 1994; Johnston et al. 1996a ); or (iii) soil water – forage production models such as GRASP (e.g. Day et al. 1997a , 1997b ; McKeon et al. 2000; Rickert et al. 2000) which account for year-to-year climatic variability, soil attributes and tree density. Forage production can be calculated from historical rainfall as: ‘average’ (e.g. Johnston et al. 1996a ; Hall et al. 1998); ‘median’ (e.g. Cowley et al. 2008; C. Chilcott, pers. comm.); or ‘Decile 3’ (i.e. 30% percentile of forage production, Scanlan et al. 1994).
Safe utilisation rates across Qld range from 15 to 25% of average annual forage production, with vegetation communities that are located on more fertile (and/or resilient) landscapes or with a more continuous growing season, having higher values (for example, fertile Mitchell grasslands, Gidgee pastures, Johnston et al. 1996a , p. 249; and coastal Qld native pastures, Hall et al. 1998, p. 192). This approach has also been tested in the Victoria River District (VRD) of the Northern Territory (NT) by Cobiac (2007), Cowley et al. (2008) and Hamilton et al. (2008). In this region, it was important to correctly account for the area grazed based on watering points. Cowley et al. (2008) found that for 12 cattle properties in the VRD, utilisation averaged 18 and 25% when grazed areas from water points <5 and <3 km were considered, respectively. The consistency of safe utilisation rates across such a wide range of climatic environments suggests that this approach can also be used to calculate an impact of climate change through effects on forage production.
Forage production models for calculating livestock carrying capacity from climatic factors
The GRASP model (McKeon et al. 2000; Rickert et al. 2000) has also been used to simulate year-to-year variation in forage production in a wide range of rangeland and sown pasture environments (e.g. dry monsoonal in the VRD district of the NT, Dyer et al. 2001; Cobiac 2007; Cowley et al. 2008; semi-arid pastures in central Australia, western NSW, Richards et al. 2001; sown pastures in central NSW, Tupper et al. 2001; native and sown pastures in Qld, Day et al. 1997a ; McKeon et al. 1998a ). In a study on Qld native pastures, rainfall accounted for 41% of variation in forage production, while simulated growth accounted for 72% (Day et al. 1997a , p. 41).
In addition, the AussieGRASS model (Carter et al. 2000, 2003) has been developed as a spatial (5 × 5 km) implementation of GRASP including tree densities and soil attributes (available water range) with a comprehensive parameterisation of 185 pasture communities across Australia’s grazing lands. For rangeland Statistical Local Areas (SLA, i.e. local government areas), average forage production simulated by AussieGRASS was compared with reported livestock numbers (SLA-LCC). The simulation of forage production greatly improved the variation explained in SLA-LCC (r 2 = 0.64, n = 118), compared with annual rainfall (r 2 = 0.07, n = 118). The analysis indicated lower utilisation rates (i.e. ratio of LCC to forage production) in the NT, WA, SA and western Qld. The lower utilisation rates were likely to be due to a range of factors, such as less intense property development (e.g. Bastin et al. 2008), lack of availability of preferred fertile land units and dryness of the winter–spring period. Thus, the GRASP model and AussieGRASS parameters provide a well tested explanation of the climatically-induced variability in forage production across the rangelands and hence are suitable for assessing some of the relative effects of the impact of current trends and future climate change projections.
In summary, grazier estimates of LCC integrate a wide range of factors such as management of climatic variability, land-type fragility and resilience, and animal nutrition. The modelling approach we use in a later section is based on: (i) the high correlation between forage production and grazier-derived LCC; and (ii) a mechanistic understanding of the impact of heavy utilisation derived from grazing trials and supporting models. The approach has been used at the different spatial scales: individual benchmark properties (Johnston et al. 1996a ); grazier surveys (Scanlan et al. 1994); expert knowledge (Day et al. 1997b ); regional estimates (Hall et al. 1998); and census statistics (Crimp et al. 2002; McKeon et al. 2008a ).
Before considering the effects of current and future climate change on forage production, we review the current climate trends and projections of climatic variables of particular importance to Australia’s rangelands. In the arid and semi-arid rangelands of inland Australia, rainfall is, by definition, a major limitation for forage production and LCC. Forage production is determined by soil moisture and fertility, temperature and solar radiation with the rate and efficiency of transpiration determined by evaporative demand (vapour pressure deficit, potential evapotranspiration). In particular, potential evapotranspiration is regarded as a key climatic variable in determining the frequency, duration and intensity of drought (e.g. EPA 2008a ; Hennessy et al. 2008).
Major changes in the climate and economic forces that affect grazing enterprises have been occurring since 1970 and, hence, trends in rainfall from this time are particularly important. Since 1970, the major human-induced climate forcings have been greenhouse gas emissions, stratospheric ozone depletion, Asian aerosols and land cover change in Australia, (Pittock 2003; Henry et al. 2007). The major economic developments have been in property infrastructure, higher livestock numbers in some regions, and increased economic pressures (declining prices and increasing costs) on enterprises.
We evaluated recent changes/trends in rainfall using alternative analytical approaches:
With the exception of the gulf region of Qld, the two approaches were similar, and in the following analysis we concentrate on the latter approach. However, the statistical issue of how best to identify and quantify trends in highly variable climates with large multi-decadal variability (White et al. 2003b ) is unresolved.
The 30 year period 1961–90 has been used as a common base for many studies on climate change (e.g. CSIRO 2001) and was used here to provide a measure of change since 1990 that can be compared with rainfall projections (e.g. CSIRO-BoM 2007, p. 67, 71). For temperature, the base period 1980–99 was used for ‘IPCC global warming best estimates’ and in constructing temperature projections (CSIRO-BoM 2007, p. 51).
Trends in rainfall
Trends in rainfall have been analysed across Australia by the Bureau of Meteorology (2008a ).
Over the last 38 years (1970–2007) there have been strongly contrasting trends in rainfall across the continent with substantial declines (e.g. 50 mm/decade in north-eastern Qld) and increases (50 mm/decade) in north-western Australia. In eastern Australia, and some regions of WA, the severity of the 2001–06 drought (in terms of rainfall deficit and high temperatures) has emphasised the decline in rainfall from the wetter decades of the 1950s and ’70s (McKeon 2006; EPA 2008a , p. 132; Productivity Commission 2008, p. 65). However, in the context of the last 100 years, there is an important difference in the interpretation of these contrasting trends. In eastern Australia, the decades of the 1950s and ’70s were anomalous compared with period from 1900 to 2007. Furthermore, across eastern Australia as a whole, average rainfall (from 1978 to 2007) has been close to the long-term average (from 1900 to 2007). However, in the case of north-western Australia, the recent anomalous wetter period (1995–2001) was greater than previous historical variability (compared with the period 1900–94). Thus, care has to be taken when interpreting current trends given the impact of the starting year on analysis and historical rainfall variability.
The changes/fluctuations in rainfall have affected pasture and shrub growth (e.g. Watson et al. 2007), and, hence, LCC (e.g. McKeon et al. 2004; Bastin et al. 2008; EPA 2008a , p. 127). The above-average periods of the early 1950s and early ’70s may have biased expectation of LCC in central and eastern Australia. In eastern Australian rangelands, rainfall since 1977 has been less favourable (including severe drought periods of the early 1990s and early 2000s) and has placed potential ecological (Stone et al. 2003; EPA 2008a ) and economic hardship on grazing enterprises (e.g. wool industry in western Qld, Hall 1996).
The major feature of the spatial patterns of seasonal rainfall trends since 1970 and the percentage changes since 1990 are the strongly contrasting patterns of increasing rainfall in the western Australian rangelands and decreasing rainfall in the central and eastern Australian rangelands. Because of the strongly contrasting patterns of trends in rainfall across the continent, we use the general terms ‘western Australian rangelands’ to refer to inland WA and northern or ‘top end’ of the NT; and ‘eastern Australian rangelands’ for central and eastern Qld, western NSW and north-eastern SA.
For western Australian rangelands, rainfall has increased in summer and autumn. This increasing trend in warm season rainfall also occurred in the winter-dominant rainfall zone of the southern rangelands of WA. In contrast, winter and spring rainfall in the latter zone declined. In eastern Australian rangelands and central Australia, rainfall has declined in summer and autumn over much of these regions, particularly coastal Qld. The spatial pattern of decline was more general in autumn than in summer. Increases in winter rainfall have occurred in some regions of eastern Australia (NSW, northern and inland Qld). The directions of trends in spring rainfall have been spatially variable across Australia.
For seasons and locations, two analytical approaches (trend and percentage change patterns) were broadly consistent in indicating the direction of change. However, spring was an exception with trends since 1970 indicating extensive areas of decrease, while the percentage change patterns indicated increased rainfall since 1990 throughout much of inland Australia due to wetter conditions in the late 1990s.
Trends in temperature
In general terms, low temperatures limit plant growth in winter, while high temperatures restrict growth in summer in association with high vapour pressure deficits.
Over the whole continent, average annual temperatures warmed at 0.16°C per decade since 1950 (CSIRO-BoM 2007, p. 17). However, as with rainfall trends, there were contrasting patterns of temperature change between western and eastern Australian rangelands. From 1970 to 2007, annual minimum temperatures in central and north-eastern Australia increased by 0.35 to 0.50°C per decade, while maximum temperatures increased at slower rates (from 0.25 to 0.35°C per decade). In western Australian rangelands, the rate of temperature change was lower. For annual minimum temperatures, rates ranged from decreases (–0.125°C per decade) in north-western Australia to increases (+0.125°C per decade) in south-western Australian rangelands. Maximum temperature increases ranged from +0.075°C per decade for north-western regions to +0.25°C per decade in south-western Australian rangelands.
In terms of seasonal trends in temperature, there was considerable spatial variation in direction (increase and decrease) across seasons. The strongly contrasting directions of summer rainfall trends were also apparent in summer maximum temperature, with decreases in western rangelands and increases in eastern regions. In winter, minimum temperatures increased (0.10–0.50°C per decade) across most of eastern and southern rangelands, but decreased (–0.175 to –0.025°C per decade) in central WA, northern Australia and western NSW.
Trends in potential evapotranspiration
Potential evapotranspiration (PE) is an important (but often underrated) climate variable determining the rate and efficiency of water use in pastures and crops in arid and semi-arid environments (e.g Fischer 1979; Hammer et al. 1987). In general terms, the ratio of rainfall (or actual evapotranspiration) to pan evaporation has provided a useful index of moisture availability: (i) delineating the rangelands (Fitzpatrick and Nix 1970); and (ii) ranking current periods (e.g. 2001–06 drought) relative to historical variability (EPA 2008a , p. 132).
PE is currently measured as Class A Pan evaporation. Trends in annual pan evaporation since 1970 (Bureau of Meteorology 2008a ) indicated increases of up to 7.5 mm/decade in central Australia and central Qld. In contrast, over most of western Australian rangelands, western NSW and northern Australia, trends in pan evaporation were constant or declined (by up to 7.5 mm/decade). The regions of declining pan in the western Australian rangelands were consistent with increased rainfall (more cloud cover) and decreasing maximum temperature in summer and autumn. However, in eastern Australian rangelands, where annual rainfall declined and maximum temperatures increased, there were contrasting regions of increasing (e.g. central Qld) and decreasing pan evaporation (inland NSW).
PE is the result of a complex interaction of different climatic elements: solar radiation, vapour pressure deficit (VPD) and wind run (e.g. Roderick et al. 2007). VPD is a function of minimum and maximum temperature and humidity. Generally, as maximum temperature increases without associated major increases in dew point temperature, VPD and PE would be expected to increase and pasture/crop transpiration efficiency (i.e. growth kg/ha per mm) to decrease (Tanner and Sinclair 1983). However, decreases in wind speed in some regions of Australia have reduced PE despite increases in temperature (Rayner 2007).
McVicar et al. (2008) analysed trends in wind speed data since 1975 and found a general decrease (termed ‘stilling’, Roderick et al. 2007) across most (88%) of the continent. Although the trend was small (~0.5% per year), Rayner (2007) and Roderick et al. (2007) nevertheless found that much of the decline in pan evaporation was due to declining wind speed. Central Australia was an important exception where there was an increase. However, if the analysis was commenced in 1980, there was no change in wind speed.
The explanation of regional trends in pan evaporation in the rangelands will require further research and improved networks of instruments, especially with regard to trends in solar radiation and wind run. Without this understanding, expectations of a warmer and drier climate (e.g. Hennessy et al. 2008, p. 12) may not necessarily imply increasing evaporative demand across the rangelands.
Trends in wind speed and dust storms
The decline in wind speed over much of Australia has implications for frequency of dust storms and risk of wind-driven soil erosion in the rangelands. Time series of dust storm frequency for selected rangeland locations (data from G. McTainsh, reported by McKeon et al. 2004, p. 79) indicated reduced frequencies since the widespread drought periods of the mid 1960s and early ’80s. Declining wind speeds are likely to reduce the frequency of wind-driven soil erosion, although the risk has remained high during the extended drought period commencing in 2001 (Leys et al. 2008). Major events (e.g. 23 October 2002 in eastern Australia) have occurred during this period (McTainsh et al. 2005). For western Qld’s rangelands (EPA 2008b , p. 104), a comparison of the period from 2002 to 2006 and the previous drought period from 1992 to 1995 suggested an overall small decline. A dust storm index developed by McTainsh and Tews (2002) declined from 0.91 to 0.73 over this period.
In summary, important but spatially variable and complex trends have occurred in the climate variables that affect forage production and other rangeland ecosystem processes. However, as described below, the implications of changes in different climate variables are best assessed through monitoring vegetation response (Bastin et al. 2008; Donohue et al. 2008; EPA 2008a ) and simulation models such as AussieGRASS (Carter et al. 2003).
AussieGRASS includes several information layers which affect forage production and other variables (soil available water range, pasture community attributes such as temperature response, pasture fertility, tree density). The impact of climate trends (rainfall and other climatic variability) was assessed for the variables: soil moisture, forage production indices, surface cover and ‘flow-to-stream’ (i.e. hill-slope runoff and drainage) using the AussieGRASS model and parameter set (Carter et al. 2000, 2003; Fig. 1). The ‘recent’ period 1991–2007 was compared with a commonly used base period 1961–90 (Hall et al. 1998; CSIRO 2001; CSIRO-BoM 2007).
Soil moisture and forage growth index
AussieGRASS simulates soil moisture at a daily time step and hence, integrates changes in daily rainfall distribution, intensity and pan evaporation. In eastern Australia where rainfall has declined (–20 to –5%), the decline in average available soil moisture was greater (–40 to –10%). In northern Australia, and much of WA, where rainfall has increased, the percentage increases in soil-water were of similar magnitude to percentage changes in rainfall. The forage growth index (after Fitzpatrick and Nix 1970; McKeon et al. 1980) provided a simple index integrating effects of rainfall, temperature, solar radiation, and pan evaporation with spatial variability in pasture communities, tree density and soil attributes. The growth index was mainly a climatic construct including the effects of tree water use and soil texture and depth. However, it did not include the effects of soil fertility limitation on forage production. Patterns of changes in the forage growth index were similar to rainfall changes in many regions with substantial exacerbation of relative rainfall decline in inland SA and south-west Qld. For regions with increasing rainfall (most of inland WA, the top end of the NT and north-western Qld), percentage changes in growth index were similar to percentage rainfall changes. In northern Australia, the growth index did not increase as much as rainfall, reflecting the overriding constraints of the limited duration of the wet season in this region. Further simulation studies are required to evaluate effects of individual climate variables.
Simulated forage production included the effects of spatial variation in soil fertility. For some of the regions where reductions in rainfall have occurred (Fig. 1a ), the percentage declines in forage production were larger, (i.e. exacerbated 2-fold). For arid regions of WA where rainfall increases have occurred, there was also some amplification in terms of increases of forage production. However, in regions where soil nutrients were likely to limit forage production, percentage changes in forage production were smaller than rainfall changes.
The simulation of changes in surface cover was not possible in northern Australia as spatially complete remotely-sensed records of savannah burning were only available since 1997. However, in other regions where fire has not been a widespread or frequently used management tool, simulated cover has been in close agreement with observed or remotely sensed cover (EPA 2008a , p. 136). For inland areas (south-west Qld, western NSW, eastern SA and central coastal Qld), the relative reductions in pasture cover were greater than the relative decline in rainfall.
AussieGRASS calculated ‘flow-to-stream’ as the addition of daily hill-slope runoff and through-drainage. Flow-to-stream is a function of surface cover, antecedent soil moisture, rainfall intensity (including seasonal factors) and available water range, and was validated at a drainage basin level (Carter et al. 2003, p. 156). Across the continent, the magnitude of percentage changes in flow-to-stream (–60 to +80%) were substantially greater than the changes in rainfall. In central coastal Qld, simulated flow-to-stream increased in contrast to the decrease in rainfall. Thus, a likely consequence of declining rainfall with the retention of grazing pressure is reduced cover and increased hill-slope runoff when rainfall has occurred (Scanlan et al. 1996; Fraser and Waters 2004; McKergow et al. 2005), with increased downstream risk of sediment transport to the Great Barrier Reef Lagoon (McKergow et al. 2005; Cobon et al. 2007).
In conclusion, the AussieGRASS simulations of forage production, surface cover, and flow-to-stream indicated the amplification or exacerbation of the rainfall changes that were likely to have occurred since 1990. The simulations indicated that even relatively small percentage changes in rainfall (e.g. –10 to 0%) have had greater impacts on forage production (and, hence, LCC). In particular, those rangeland regions with a 5–20% decline in rainfall (south-east Australia and coastal WA) had a much greater reduction (<–40 to –10%) in simulated forage production. The pasture resource is likely to have been more heavily utilised where grazing pressure from livestock and other herbivores (macropods and feral animals) has been maintained (e.g. EPA 2008a , p. 134) and as indicated by observations (EPA 2008a , p. 138).
CSIRO-BoM (2007) have documented in detail projections in rainfall, temperature and other climatic variables that have been derived from the analysis of 23 global circulation models (GCMs) considering different greenhouse gas emissions scenarios over the 21st century as well as other human-induced and natural climate forcings (CSIRO-BoM 2007, p. 40). However, there is considerable variation between the models in terms of the natural and human-induced forcings (in addition to greenhouse gases) that were included in the simulations. The projections were derived by weighting individual GCMs based on performance relative to current patterns of precipitation, surface air temperature and sea level pressure (CSIRO-BoM 2007, p. 51). However, as discussed in greater detail below, GCMs had a wide range of projected rainfall for Australia’s rangelands (CSIRO-BoM 2007, p. 71; Hennessy et al. 2008; Preston and Jones 2008). Variation between models had a greater effect than variation between emissions scenarios even later in the 21st Century (e.g. 2050; CSIRO-BoM 2007, p. 71). The main variation in modelled rainfall results from the uncertainty in simulating small scale (<50 km scale) convective rainfall, precipitation in tropical regions, as well as large scale phenomena such as Madden Julian Oscillation (MJO), ENSO, and quasi and inter-decadal variability in ocean and atmospheric processes (e.g. Preston and Jones 2008, p. 760). Approaches using different criteria to select GCMs with better performance (e.g. Hennessy et al. 2008) or higher resolution models (Preston and Jones 2008, p. 758) are yet to demonstrate reduced uncertainty in rainfall projections.
Climate change projections for Australian rangelands
CSIRO-BoM (2007, p. 67) reported ‘best estimates’ (median) of projected changes in Australian precipitation for 2030 as a percentage of rainfall from 1961 to 1990. For medium emissions scenario A1B, the ‘best estimate’ changes are smaller for summer and autumn (varying from –7.5 to +2.5% across the continent) compared with the larger projected changes (–10 to +1%) for winter and spring. For the high emissions scenario (A1FI), the ‘best estimate’ of changes in annual rainfall for 2070 vary spatially from little change (±2%) in northern Australia, to a 20% decrease in central and WA.
The range in rainfall projections is large. For example, for the high emissions scenario in 2050, the 10th and 90th percentiles of projected changes range from –20 to +15% for much of Australia’s rangelands. This large range provides an indication of the variability in simulating rainfall in GCMs.
The ‘best estimate’ of annual warming over Australia is ≈1.0°C for 2030 (compared with 1990). Later in the 21st century, projected warming is more dependent on greenhouse gas emissions scenarios. For example, by 2070, temperature is expected to increase by 1.0 to 2.5°C for low emissions scenario and 2.2 to 5.0°C for high emissions scenario (CSIRO-BoM 2007, p. 9). By 2070, the risk of exceeding 4.0°C is greater than 30% over inland Australia under the high emissions scenario (A1FI, CSIRO-BoM 2007, p. 57).
Climate change projections suggest small changes in solar radiation, relative humidity and wind (CSIRO-BoM 2007, pp. 76–79). In the case of PE (CSIRO-BoM 2007, p. 81), for high emissions scenario A1FI in 2070, ‘best estimate’ projections are for a 8–12% increase in northern and eastern rangelands, and a 4–8% increase for the remainder of the continent. The projected increases would exacerbate any decline in rainfall, increasing moisture stress for rangeland ecosystems. For example, a 10% decline in rainfall in combination with a 10% increase in PE would result in an 18% decline in a simple moisture index based on the ratio of rainfall to PE (EPA 2008a , p. 132).
In rangelands, daily rainfall intensity has been identified as an important component of hill-slope runoff and hence, soil erosion (Scanlan et al. 1996; Fraser and Waters 2004). Rainfall intensity is expected to increase as temperature and moisture content of the atmosphere increase (CSIRO-BoM 2007, fig. 5.25). Preliminary simulations (G. Fraser, unpublished data) indicate that increased rainfall intensity could become an important component of climate change impacts and pose a major risk of increased soil erosion in rangeland landscapes.
Comparison of trends with climate change projections
There is some agreement between the direction of current trends and projected rainfall changes in eastern Australian rangelands for summer and particularly for autumn. However, in western and north-western Australian rangelands, there are substantial differences between current increasing rainfall trends and the ‘best estimate’ projections of decreases or little change in northern Australia.
For winter and spring, the projections are for relatively large declines in rainfall across eastern and western rangelands, and particularly the Gascoyne region of WA. In some regions of WA and south-east Qld, there is some agreement between the directions of ‘best estimate’ projections and current changes. However, over much of inland Qld, NSW and SA, average rainfall for spring from 1991 to 2007 has been greater than for the period from 1961 to 1990.
The analysis by CSIRO-BoM (2007, p. 71) indicates less range in estimates of rainfall change for southern latitudes of the continent compared with the tropics. However, this latitudinal gradient in the ‘reliability’ of projections contrasts with the longitudinal difference in lack of agreement between current and projected changes indicated above (with the western rangelands increasing and eastern rangelands declining in rainfall).
In addition to greenhouse gas emissions, other human-induced forcings that could be contributing to current climate change (Burroughs 2003; Pittock 2003) are stratospheric ozone depletion (Syktus 2005; Cai 2006), Asian aerosols (Cai and Cowan 2007; Rotstayn et al. 2007) and regional land cover change (McAlpine et al. 2007). Natural variability at quasi-decadal and inter-decadal time scales, and changes in solar radiation and volcanic dust can also contribute to variability in the climate system. Global climate models provide an experimental basis for evaluating contributing effects.
Of particular importance for understanding the increase in summer/autumn rainfall in western Australian rangelands is the simulation study by Rotstayn et al. (2007). They suggested that Asian anthropogenic aerosols have contributed to increased meridional temperature gradient between Asia and Australia, and as a consequence, increased rainfall in north-western Australia. However, subsequent analyses (Shi et al. 2007) have indicated some of the difficulties in simulating northern Australian rainfall with GCMs and stated that ‘the impact of aerosols on Australian rainfall remains an open question’.
The lack of agreement between current trends of increasing summer/autumn rainfall and ‘best estimate’ projections of declining rainfall in western Australian rangelands suggest that current trends in rainfall cannot be depended on to continue. Appropriate conservative management responses will be required should rainfall trends change in the direction of ‘best estimate’ projections.
We have used three main approaches to interpret climate change projections:
Estimating climate change impacts using current experience in space and time
A major challenge in communicating the importance of the projected changes in temperature and rainfall is how to relate them to the experience of rangeland managers. Although projected temperature changes of the order of 2.5-5°C (e.g. for 2070 with high emissions scenario) are small compared with daily or seasonal changes, nevertheless, they are large when the spatial range in climatological averages across the continent is considered. For example, for locations with similar annual rainfall, average temperature at Charters Towers (north-east Qld) is 23.8°C, compared with 27.2°C at Kidman Springs (VRD, NT). These spatial differences are associated with substantial differences in climatic effects on vegetation, animals, and humans (e.g. McKeon et al. 1988). Howden et al. (1999c) calculated heat stress using a temperature-humidity index across the continent. Compared with north-eastern Qld, north-western Australia had a substantially higher proportion of days with heat stress (65 compared with 35%). Field measurements with cattle in north-western Australia (Petty 1997) have indicated the importance of heat stress in limiting potential animal production when high quality pastures were available. Similarly, studies with sheep have indicated that high temperatures reduce growth (Thomas et al. 2008) and reproductive performance (Hopkins et al. 1978).
For rainfall, projected decreases of the order of 10% also appear ‘low’ when compared with year-to-year variability, or even the difference between average of El Niño and La Niña years (e.g. ~–20 to +20%, respectively, in eastern Australian rangelands, McKeon et al. 2004, p. 48). However, when the historical range of variation in 20-year moving average of rainfall is considered (Fig. 2), then these projected changes are relatively high. For example, the 20-year moving average of rainfall across Qld’s grazing lands has fluctuated between –10 and +7% since 1890. The extended periods of lower (20-year average) rainfall have been associated with extensive droughts and degradation episodes (Gibbs and Maher 1967; Day et al. 2003a , p. 144; McKeon et al. 2004). Fig. 2 also demonstrated the substantial variability (± 35%) at a quasi-decadal timescale (5-year moving average, White et al. 2003b ). The combination of long-term rainfall decline and continued quasi-decadal variability (CSIRO-BoM 2007, p. 69) is likely to episodically place severe stress on rangeland ecosystems, grazing enterprises and rural communities.
The extent to which current trends in rainfall can be attributed to increases in greenhouse gas concentration is the subject of debate. Nevertheless, changes in landscape processes in response to anomalous rainfall/drought episodes provide examples of likely impacts. The increased summer and autumn rainfall in most rangeland regions of western and central Australia is associated with, or causing, substantial changes in landscape hydrology, vegetation and stocking rate, for example:
Implications of climate change projections for livestock carrying capacity
The LCCs developed by property owners represent the result of years of experience in dealing with economic, climatic and ecological variability. Average annual forage production explained a high proportion of variation between properties and regions, and in a later section, we evaluate the climate change projections in terms of relative changes in simulated forage production. However, estimates of the likely climate change impacts on LCC also need to consider components other than forage production.
The levels of forage utilisation associated with LCC result in several beneficial factors (financial, animal and resource) by:
The above analysis of the components of LCC allows qualitative assessment of important climate change impacts (summarised in Table 1). The ‘best estimate’ projections are for declining rainfall (with the exception of far northern Australia) and the majority of climate change impacts listed in Table 1 are likely to be detrimental to LCC. Thus, adaptive responses to reduce animal numbers, in line with declining forage production, will be required.
The assessment of property LCC has important implications for economic viability and in some cases, property values. The financial viability of properties has generally been assessed as the number of animals (sheep or cattle) that are required to maintain a family (i.e. a ‘living area’).
Long-term declining trends in forage production due to declining rainfall would create problems as graziers attempt to maintain livestock numbers under declining LCC. The benefits of safe utilisation described above will be, reduced and the risk of financial difficulties and resource damage increased. So, the implications of the projected climate changes, which result in lower forage production, are for lower LCC, increased living area requirement, and in some cases, lower property market values. In these circumstances, major challenges for graziers (and their advisers) will be to develop and implement better management options to compensate for the reduced LCC. Cobon et al. (2009, this issue) review the adaptations available to graziers and procedures for assessment of enterprise vulnerability. Similarly, public policy should have regard for the risk of: (i) enterprise failure with implications for regional communities (Drought Policy Review Expert Social Panel 2008; Productivity Commission 2008); (ii) potential resource damage (e.g. Stone et al. 2003; McKeon et al. 2004); and (iii) human distress involving the risk of increased mortalities (including suicides) in rural communities (Miller and Burns 2008; Sartore et al. 2008).
The long-term stability of perennial grasslands is strongly dependent on maintaining grass basal cover of desirable perennial species (Hodgkinson and Cook 1995; Ash et al. 2002). Grass basal cover is greatly reduced under conditions of high utilisation and dry growing conditions (McKeon et al. 2004, p. 70). For example, analysis of a 10-year grazing trial in black speargrass communities (south-east Qld, Scattini 1973) indicated that damage to perennial grass basal cover occurred when utilisation exceeded 30% of forage in ‘dry’ growing seasons (McKeon et al. 1990, p. 365). Similarly, grazing trials in north-eastern Qld (Ash et al. 2002, p. 21, 25) showed that composition of preferred ‘3P’ grasses (perennial, productive and palatable) could be maintained or increased (even in dry years) by adjusting stock numbers to maintain a constant level of forage utilisation (25%) independent of climatic variability.
Average low utilisation rates allows relatively constant stock numbers to be run (e.g. Stone 2004) despite high year-to-year variability in rainfall. Constant stocking rate results in heavy utilisation of perennial grasses during inevitable drought periods. Nevertheless, the proportion of years in which damage to perennial grass basal cover occurs has been less than the proportion of years in which recovery can occur (e.g. McKeon et al. 1990; Stone 2004). For example, a simulation of a native pasture at Charters Towers (north-east Qld), grazed at a constant stocking rate equivalent to 20% average annual forage utilisation, showed that the likely threshold for damage was exceeded in only 30% of years. Thus, in modelling LCC, Scanlan et al. (1994) used Decile 3 rainfall rather than average or median rainfall to calculate forage production. Stone (2004) analysed detailed historical (>70 years) livestock records for two properties in good condition in western Qld and concluded that, for both properties, there were low (~30%) proportions of years when resource damage was likely to occur.
Thus, a major challenge in adapting to climate change will be to manage for the changing frequency of damaging and recovery events. However, climate change projections have so far concentrated on changes in the ‘mean climate system’ and hence, do not yet provide information on projected changes in inter-annual and decadal variability (CSIRO-BoM 2007, p. 69; Preston and Jones 2008, p. 773).
The above review of the interaction of climate and components of LCC indicates that climate variables such as decadal variability, severity of drought, daily rainfall distribution and rainfall intensity (Table 1) are important for assessing climate change impacts. In a later section we report example simulation case studies of impacts on forage production.
A risk management framework is being developed (Cobon et al. 2009, this issue) to assess the potential impact of climate change on the grazing industry at a regional scale. This will address the issue of planning for climate change including the uncertainties associated with projected rainfall. A difficulty in risk assessment is that climate factors such as increasing temperature can have both beneficial and detrimental effects on components of the grazing system (Table 2). For example, at locations where there is winter rainfall or occurrence of frosts, higher temperatures can increase the length of the growing season and improve pasture/diet quality (Wilson and Mannetje 1978). In contrast, increasing temperatures in the growing season can increase evaporative demand (depending on changes in wind speed), so reducing forage yield and decreasing forage digestibility (Wilson 1982).
The development of simulation models
Simulation models have been developed to estimate the effects of climate variability and projected climate change on forage production and other components of the grazing system. These models represent an important distillation of rangeland science conducted since the 1930s through forage production studies (e.g. Elderslie Station in north-western Qld in 1935, Davies et al. 1938) and grazing trials (e.g. Gilruth Plains Station in south-western Qld in the 1940s, Roe and Allen 1993). A perceived strength of the models is their ability to explain much of the current spatial and temporal variation in key attributes, particularly LCC (Crimp et al. 2002). However, a weakness is that many of the climate change projections involve climate factors and CO2 concentrations outside current experience leading to uncertainties in predicting how different species of plants and animals will respond to future unprecedented climate change and CO2 concentrations. For example, potential climate extremes of moisture deficit are likely to cause the death of long-lived perennial plants (trees and perennial grasses) as demonstrated by recent episodes in northern Australian rangelands (Fensham 1998; Fensham and Holman 1999; Orr and Phelps 2006).
Nevertheless, the fact that these models explain to some extent the effects of spatial variation in climate suggests that they can be used to quantify some of the effects of climate change, particularly change in forage production.
There are many uncertainties (‘known uncertainties’, Table 3) that limit the ability to predict the impacts of a given climate change on the grazing system. Major uncertainties exist regarding the effect of CO2 on plant growth, diet quality, and tree-grass balance.
Furthermore, the potential variation in plant species response in native grasslands provides a major challenge in predicting the impact of climate change, especially given the very limited number of measurements on the effects of increased CO2 (Stokes et al. 2005, 2008a , 2008b ) and the large number of plant species across Australia’s rangelands (e.g. Tothill and Gillies 1992).
The effects of current and future increases in CO2 represent a particularly difficult problem. The general physiological effects of reduced transpiration rate, slower decline in soil moisture, increased deep drainage, and increased transpiration and radiation use efficiencies are well known (Howden et al. 1998, 1999a ; Morgan et al. 2004). Field trials using the FACE methodology (e.g. Stokes et al. 2005, 2008a ) suggest that other effects are: (i) greater relative increase in forage production in years with some moisture stress compared with years when moisture is not limiting; (ii) little benefit under extreme drought conditions; (iii) dilution of leaf nitrogen and reduced grass digestibility; (iv) greater benefit in temperate compared with tropical pastures; and (v) likely relative benefits to woody species over grasses. However, unlike other climate variables such as temperature and rainfall, there are no spatial examples that allow the effects to be quantified at large grazing trial or property scales.
Although CO2 has increased from 280 to 385 ppm since 1880 (IPCC 2007), the expected effects on dry matter production over this period are within the bounds of error in observed measurements of vegetation response, as well as year-to-year and decadal variability in rainfall (Campbell et al. 2000). Furthermore, the past effects of increased CO2 are difficult to separate from other climatic changes (temperature, pan evaporation, rainfall) and changes in grazing management (frequency of burning, increased livestock stocking rates, change in livestock species).
CO2 effects are also likely to vary between plant species and appear to be more variable under defoliation (Stokes et al. 2008a ). Field trials also suggest that the beneficial effect of CO2 in stimulating plant production may decline over time due to reduced photosynthesis (as a result of re-allocation of nitrogen by the plant away from photosynthetic enzymes) and progressive nitrogen limitation. However, such declines in CO2 effects may be an experimental artefact of the ‘shock effect’ of a sudden experimental step increase in CO2 temporarily tying up inorganic nitrogen in organic form (until the carbon and nitrogen cycles return to equilibrium). The secondary effects of reduced transpiration rate on increasing plant canopy temperatures may also need to be considered at larger regional scales (Pollard and Thompson 1995; McAlpine et al. 2007).
Change in woody plant cover
There is uncertainty in attributing causes to historically-observed changes in perennial land cover (trees and shrubs) given the number of factors involved (e.g. climate variability and trends, increasing CO2, grazing management, frequency of pasture burning and wild fires, and severity of intermittent drought). Although many of the climatic and managerial effects on rangelands have been well documented (Archer et al. 1995; Noble 1997a , 1997b ; Scholes and Archer 1997; Dyer et al. 2001), the effects of increasing CO2 on tree/grass balance are just beginning to be studied, particularly for the tropical C4 dominated grasslands of northern Australia (e.g. Stokes et al. 2008a ). If C3 woody plant species are favoured over C4 grasses (in the absence of fire) then increasing CO2 would be expected to contribute to woodland thickening and an increase in perennial land cover (Morgan et al. 2007).
However, in the case of the open woodlands of northern Australia, the perceived reduction in pasture burning has also been regarded as the major factor contributing to woodland thickening (Dyer et al. 2001; Burrows et al. 2002). The frequency of burning is dependent on the interaction of climate variability and grazing pressure. For example, increased rainfall at decadal timescales has supported increased livestock numbers over time, reducing forage yields, opportunities for pasture burning and the control of woody plants (Anon. 1969; Noble 1997a ; Burrows et al. 2002; McKeon et al. 2004). Climate changes that result in lower rainfall and lower forage yields would also be expected to reduce burning opportunities.
The major effect of climate change on the role of woody plants in rangelands may in fact result from policy decisions. For example, Garnaut (2008b , p. 557) indicated that Australia had the largest area of woodlands and forest per capita among OECD countries and a high potential for ‘carbon removal’. However, the short-term benefits of promoting broad-scale increases in woody vegetation across Australia’s rangelands need to be carefully considered in association with several trade-offs and risks.
An increase in the woody plant component in the landscape can benefit rangeland production and sustainability through greater water retention reducing downstream impacts (Ryan 2007), and positive feedback effects on regional climate. The latter may ameliorate the impact of climate change through reduced surface temperature, surface wind and evaporative demand, and potentially increased rainfall (McAlpine et al. 2007). Some studies assessing the role of tree strips (shelter belts) in southern Qld have indicated that the retention of trees (e.g. 20% of area) involved relatively less loss in forage production (5–10% reduction, e.g. McKeon et al. 2008b ). Thus, it is possible that the short-term economic, ecological and social benefits of increasing tree density strategically in the landscape may outweigh the reduction in LCC due to increased competition for forage production (Burrows et al. 1990) and reduced stream flow (Huxman et al. 2005). However, long-term impacts, including the effects of climate change on potential woody plant density and increased competition under drier conditions (Burrows et al. 1990), will need to be considered in any evaluation of alternatives in landscape design.
From the detailed model development of grazing systems conducted over the last 40 years, an example list of known uncertainties of climate change impacts has been developed (Table 3). The major unknowns relate to the effects of CO2 increase on pasture species and the likely response of trees to climate change and CO2. The investment of time and money into research of these unknowns will be determined by their perceived relative importance in aiding decision-making for graziers and policy makers. As yet, a detailed sensitivity study has not been conducted but the process described by Cobon et al. (2009, this issue) is beginning to indicate the major research needs from graziers’ perspectives.
A major issue relates to the most likely effect of increasing temperature on the severity of drought. As discussed earlier, increases in temperature are not necessarily linked to increases in PE. However, other hypotheses of how soil evaporation occurs (Rose 1968) indicate that increased rates of soil drying are likely to occur with higher temperatures. We suggest that this is an important area of research (e.g. Hennessy et al. 2008), given that increases in temperature are very likely to occur and have potentially large impacts across the rangelands. The severity of drought could well influence other major uncertainties, namely the survival of long-lived perennial tree and pasture species (Fensham 1998; Orr and Phelps 2006) and soil fauna which are important for infiltration and other aspects of ‘soil health’ (e.g. Hunt and Dawes-Gromadzki 2008).
A significant conclusion from the analysis of uncertainties is that rangeland science will have to monitor and understand the effects of climate change as they occur if the community wishes to anticipate rather than just respond to changes. As part of this process, there will be a need to attribute the observed impacts on biophysical systems (e.g. death of long-lived perennial plants) between climate variability, climate change and management. To meet this requirement, ongoing eco-physiological research will be required to understand the observed changes and make future projections. This information will support the risk management approach leading to improved adaptation responses (Cobon et al. 2009, this issue).
In the previous sections, we have highlighted the importance of forage production as a determinant of LCC and as an integrator of the consequences of changes in different climate variables (e.g. rainfall, temperature and PE). In the following case study, we evaluate general climate change impacts on forage production across the rangelands.
Pasture parameters in the GRASP model include forage production response to temperature, potential growth rates, transpiration efficiency, and minimum forage nitrogen concentration for plant growth. In the AussieGRASS implementation of GRASP (Carter et al. 2000, 2003), these parameters were derived by calibrating the model output with observed time series of remotely-sensed cover and estimates of standing dry matter using the rapid mobile data collection method developed by Hassett et al. (2000, 2006). Crimp et al. (2002) found that some pasture community parameters could be related to climate elements.
We describe below approaches to modelling the following major uncertainties associated with temperature increase: (i) the possible changes in species composition with associated plant attributes (e.g. temperature limitations, frost sensitivity, nutrient dilution); and (ii) the effects on PE.
Simulating climate effects on pasture community temperature responses
Australian rangelands cover a very wide range of climatic zones including ‘summer dominant with dry winter’, ‘winter dominant and dry summer’, ‘arid’ and ‘uniform’ regions with rainfall occurring at any time of the year (Bureau of Meteorology 2008b ). Thus, there is a very wide seasonal distribution in the timing of the main growing season between southern to northern rangeland regions. A key pasture species attribute that determines the response to rainfall is the threshold temperature required for plant growth (Fitzpatrick and Nix 1970). In parameterising the AussieGRASS model, Carter et al. (2003) used satellite measurements of green cover (NDVI time series from 1981 to 1996) to determine the threshold temperature for each pasture community. Crimp et al. (2002) found that across pasture communities, threshold temperatures for growth were highly correlated with minimum temperature of the region suggesting adaptation of existing vegetation to long-term climate attributes. We hypothesise that as rainfall and temperature regimes change, there will be a change in pasture composition towards species/ecotypes better adapted to the new climate (e.g. Howden et al. 1999b ).
Other factors such as CO2 effects on different species, climatic interactions with soil attributes (texture, depth, fertility), variable tree density, and climatic effects on nutrient availability (Moore 1970) also have a major role in determining vegetation response. In this study, we have simulated forage production without woody vegetation and with average soil attributes, in order to solely evaluate the spatial effects of climate variation on forage production.
Simulating climate change effects on PE
Following the approaches by McKeon et al. (1998a), Hall et al. (1998) and Rayner (2007), daily PE (i.e. pan evaporation, mm/day) was calculated as a function of VPD (VPD, hPa) and solar radiation (MJ/m2/day). This approach assumes that the effects of temperature increase on PE under climate change will be consistent with the existing (1980–99) average relationship between these climatic variables. However, the effects of climate change on wind speed will need to be considered in future sensitivity studies and representation of climate change projections (Rayner 2007). We have used a general equation derived from locations across Australia: pan evaporation = min (0, –1.378 + 0.1647VPD + 0.2180solar radiation). VPD was recalculated for each temperature scenario, assuming that the relative humidity associated with minimum temperature remained constant. This approach calculated similar increases in PE to those indicated by CSIRO-BoM (2007, p. 81); for example, an increase in temperature of 3°C resulted in a +5 to +10% increase in pan evaporation, depending on location.
Simulating the impact of increasing CO2
The representation of CO2 in forage production models such as GRASP involves several uncertainties:
In this simulation example we used previous estimates of plant response to increased CO2 (Hall et al. 1998; Howden et al. 1999a , 1999b ; Crimp et al. 2002). For CO2 increase, pasture parameters (radiation use efficiency, potential regrowth, transpiration use efficiency, yield for 50% cover and nitrogen uptake per 100 mm of transpiration) were changed for C3 and C4 pasture communities. The main effects of doubling CO2 (700 ppm) were to increase transpiration efficiency and reduce potential transpiration for C3 and C4 pastures by 32 and 40%, respectively. However, we add the caveat that model development to include more recent experimental work relevant to the rangelands is yet to be carried out (e.g. Morgan et al. 2004; Stokes et al. 2005, 2008a ; Morgan et al. 2007).
Simulation of climate change impacts on forage production across Australian rangelands
We regard the following simulation study as a ‘sensitivity’ test, not as an evaluation of climate change projections. Furthermore, in evaluating projections it is important to recognise that climate variables such as rainfall, temperature, radiation, humidity and pan evaporation need to be linked consistently (CSIRO-BoM 2007, p. 114). However, in the following case we have concentrated on evaluating interactions of combinations of CO2, temperature and rainfall.
We evaluated the combination of a temperature increase of 3°C and increased CO2 (650 ppm) to simply represent a high emissions scenario. We also examined a range of rainfall changes including –10 or +10% as well as the larger range (–30% and +20%) as indicated by CSIRO-BoM (2007, p. 70). Our aim was not to represent the regional variation in climate change projections, but rather to evaluate the sensitivity of forage production, across the rangelands as a whole, to the same combination of climate changes in CO2, temperature and rainfall.
Several locations (192) were simulated including two locations for each Statistical Division across Australia, as well as an additional 76 locations in the 11 arid/semi-arid Statistical Divisions. The effects on forage production of single factors such as doubling CO2 (from 350 to 650 ppm), increasing temperature by 3°C and changing rainfall by –10 or +10% are shown in Fig. 3a–d . The combination of these factors, i.e. doubling CO2, temperature increase of 3°C and changes in rainfall, including the wide range indicated in projections (–30 to +20%, CSIRO-BoM 2007, p. 69) are given in Fig. 3e–h .
Doubling CO2 (from 350 to 650 ppm) resulted in a ~25% increase in forage production across most of the arid and semi-arid zone. The response was smaller (10–20%) in higher rainfall areas, and there was little response in south-east Australia where native pasture production was simulated to be limited by soil fertility.
Increasing temperature by 3°C resulted in (i) beneficial effects in forage production response to temperature; and (ii) detrimental effects of decreasing transpiration efficiency and increasing pan evaporation. The net response was an overall decrease of 10 to >20% in forage production across much of the arid and semi-arid zones and dry monsoonal regions. In south-eastern Australia, where temperature was likely to limit growth (Fitzpatrick and Nix 1970), there was a net benefit (0–10%) of increasing temperature on forage production. Across most of the arid and semi-arid zones, temperature increase exacerbated or reduced the –10 or +10% changes in rainfall, respectively. There was less effect of temperature increase in the wetter south-eastern and northern regions where native pasture production was simulated to be limited by soil fertility (after Moore 1970; Cobiac 2007).
Increasing temperature by 3°C, doubling CO2 and rainfall increase by 10% increased forage production by 15–30% over most of Australia’s rangelands. There was less effect (0–10%) in the dry monsoonal regions of northern Australia, where soil fertility would be expected to limit forage production (Cobiac 2007).
For increasing temperature by 3°C, doubling CO2 and rainfall decrease by 10%, the decline in forage production was slightly greater than the decrease in rainfall over much of inland Australia. Thus, the effects of increased temperature and decreased rainfall generally outweighed the likely benefits of increasing CO2.
Increasing temperature by 3°C, doubling CO2 and rainfall increase by 20% substantially amplified forage production (compared with rainfall) in the very dry inland of Australia, with less amplification over much of the rangelands.
For increasing temperature by 3°C, doubling CO2 and rainfall decrease by 30%, there was a greater decrease over most of Australia’s rangelands (–50 to –30%). There was greater impact on forage production in the drier regions of central Australia (SA, western NSW and south-west Qld).
Simulations of forage production (Table 4) were averaged (unweighted) for the 90 rangeland locations where average annual forage production was less than 2500 kg/ha/year (i.e. where nutrient availability was less likely to limit production). The percentage changes in average forage production for individual components were: doubling CO2 +26%; 3°C temperature increase –21%; 10% increase in rainfall +15%; and 10% decrease in rainfall –15%. The combination of increases in CO2 and temperature resulted in no net change. The combinations of the increases in CO2 and temperature with changes in rainfall (–10 or +10%, –30 and +20%), were similar to the effects of changes in rainfall alone. Without the beneficial effects of CO2, increased temperature exacerbated the decrease in rainfall, or reduced the potential beneficial effect of increased rainfall (Table 4).
This simulation study, as well as previous studies (Hall et al. 1998; McKeon et al. 1998a ; Crimp et al. 2002), has highlighted the importance of uncertainties in: (i) CO2 effects, particularly where nutrient availability limits forage production; (ii) changes in temperature and associated PE; and (iii) daily and seasonal rainfall distribution in calculating impacts on forage and animal production. However, at this stage of model development, it is not possible to indicate the relative importance of these uncertainties.
The effects of climate change on LCC need to be considered within the broader context of issues associated with climate change. The major issues for the rangeland community that have to be addressed under climate change are: (i) mitigation to contribute to the nation’s international commitments; (ii) the assessment of climate change impacts on the grazed resource, production, biodiversity and communities; and (iii) the development of adaptation options and responses, and analysis of vulnerabilities and possible policy actions.
Current research projects that address mitigation are aimed at reducing emissions and quantifying potential changes in carbon stocks from grazing and fire management options. The reduction in methane emissions from animals is being addressed in terms of understanding the fundamental mechanisms of methane production in sheep and cattle, and comparing animal breeds and the impact of nutrition (e.g. MLA 2008). Current research on quantifying rangeland carbon stocks includes: the role of fire in tree/grass balance; the use of trees/shrubs in pastures; and changes in soil carbon due to grazing and fire management (e.g. Howden et al. 1994; Howden et al. 2003; Bray and Golden 2008).
Garnaut (2008b , p. 168) indicated that the ratio of permit costs to the value of production (in 2005) was highest for beef cattle and sheep, compared with other agricultural and industry sectors. The future role of grazing in rangelands as a source and possible sink for greenhouse gas emissions (and implication for LCC) is a subject of current debate. The position of agriculture with regard to the Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme will be reviewed in 2013 (Commonwealth of Australia 2008; MLA 2008).
Monitoring the impact of climate change on forage production
A range of proven field options are available to measure the impact of climate change, such as long-term grazing trials, producer demonstrations and on-property monitoring. Of these options, grazing trials, which include measuring forage and animal production using defined experimental procedures (e.g. O’Reagain et al. 2008, 2009), are important to separate the different impacts of climate variability (e.g. year-to-year rainfall) and management (stocking rate). Simulation models developed from grazing trial data are allowing the effects of climate and management to be separated. In several cases, grazing trials have also been supported by forage production measurements across northern Australia using a similar field methodology (GUNSYNpD, McKeon et al. 1990; SWIFTSYNpD, Day et al. 1997a ). This methodology concentrates on the measurement of above-ground net primary production, pasture water use and nitrogen uptake, and hence, if conducted over time could reveal the impacts of increasing CO2 concentration and temperature on soil water balance, forage production and quality, and species composition. However, a major challenge for rangeland science is the long-term continuity of field research, so as to monitor, understand and anticipate impacts.
Although this approach concentrates on impacts on production, other approaches will be required to measure impacts on resource condition, biodiversity and population dynamics of important plant species (Orr and Phelps 2006; Watson et al. 2007). Nevertheless, the major scientific challenge of separating climate and management effects will remain.
Developing adaptation options
The historical success of agricultural science has been due to the development of a wide range of options for graziers to improve grazing management, forage production, and animal survival and production (Howden et al. 2008). Many previous solutions to technical and managerial problems have been the result of combining grazier and scientific expertise (Leslie 1993; Johnston et al. 1996a , 1996b ). Some examples involving substantial changes to the grazing industry of the rangelands over the last hundred years are: calculation of LCC, change in cattle breed from Bos taurus to Bos indicus, animal supplementation including medicated delivery through water supply, early weaning, development of pest and disease prevention, and the introduction of improved pasture species such as buffel grass and pasture legumes (McKeon et al. 1988; Hall et al. 1998). However, some of these changes have resulted in detrimental impacts on the rangeland resource and hence, they highlight the need for care in making substantial changes to grazing management and production systems.
Current projects anticipating climate change include research on animal genetics, choice of breeds (e.g. sheep meat animals), new pasture species, agroforestry, use of browse/leucaena, monitoring and control of weeds, and emerging response plans for disease and pest outbreaks.
A key component of adoption of new technologies and practices is the accessibility and transparency of new information. In this regard, extension processes such as ClimEd (George et al. 2007), Grazing Land Management Education Package (MLA 2003) and on-property demonstration trials play a necessary role.
Assessing vulnerability and response
The most likely impacts of current and future climate change across most of the rangelands are: (i) a reduction in LCC for individual grazing properties; and (ii) increased severity of drought. These changes may be beyond the capacity of adaptation for individual graziers resulting in financial and human distress (Miller and Burns 2008; Sartore et al. 2008) and long-term damage to the resource (McKeon et al. 2004). Depending on markets and costs of production, the viability of existing properties is likely to be reduced. Furthermore, some studies (e.g. Hennessy et al. 2008) suggest that droughts are likely to be more frequent and warmer (i.e. by implication more severe impacts on plants, animals and people), increasing the need for tactical responses from graziers and public policy when enterprises are pushed to breaking point. Public policy can play some part in reducing the vulnerability by supporting communities in property amalgamation (e.g. South West Strategy in Qld, Hewitt and Murray 1999, and Gascoyne Murchison Strategy in WA, WADA 2004) and providing support during extreme drought episodes (Botterill 2003; Day et al. 2005; Drought Policy Review Expert Social Panel 2008; Sartore et al. 2008). How this support should be delivered in a changing climate is a subject of current review (Productivity Commission 2008).
Thus, in addressing current and future climate change, there is an increasing emphasis on graziers being ‘expert’ at sustainably managing the resource, as well as maintaining forage and animal production. To achieve these goals, graziers will need to be supported by a sound scientific, educational and technological effort to provide the options, knowledge and skills necessary for adaptation to climate change (George et al. 2007; Howden et al. 2008; Nelson et al. 2008). With regard to the uncertainty of the direction of future rainfall, it will be important for managers, and the agencies that support them, to maintain a range of options that can be used for a range of rainfall conditions.
Managing uncertainty of future rainfall using seasonal climate risk assessment
A major limitation to forecasting the impacts of climate change on rangeland production and management is the wide range in direction of rainfall projections (e.g. –30 to +20% by 2070 for a high emissions scenario, CSIRO-BoM 2007, p. 69). Two approaches to address this uncertainty include:
We discuss the basis of these emerging approaches below.
The above analysis of climate trends and projections has indicated some major issues for rangeland managers namely: in western Australian rangeland regions, the current trends (after 1990) in rainfall are not aligned with the direction of ‘best estimate’ of projections. There are several human-induced forcings as well as natural variability that could explain current trends, and the scientific understanding of the climate system is still rapidly changing (Henry et al. 2007; Table 5). For example, when the first climate change scenarios were developed in the late 1980s (e.g. Pittock 1988), the best described source of year-to-year variability in Australia’s rangelands was El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO, e.g. Pittock 1975; Allan 1985). Variability at longer timescales was regarded as random fluctuations. Since that time, the understanding of the sources of climate variability and climate change has increased rapidly (Table 5).
However, the interpretation of current trends and future projections is just beginning to bridge the gap in public understanding of how these climate changes relate to the new findings on the climate processes that affect rangeland rainfall (e.g. Syktus 2005; McAlpine et al. 2007; Cai and Cowan 2008). Thus, rangeland managers and scientists are working in a complex information and managerial environment where climate change and increasing scientific understanding are rapidly occurring at the same time.
Agricultural extension agencies have developed various education programs to communicate the developing understanding of climate systems science to rangeland managers (e.g. Clewett et al. 1994, 2000, 2003; MLA 2003; Cobon et al. 2005; Meinke and Stone 2005; Henry 2006; Clewett and Clarkson 2007; George et al. 2007; Cobon et al. 2008). Various surveys have indicated that this information is used in management, (e.g. Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry Australia 2003; Keogh et al. 2004; Keogh et al. 2005; Cobon et al. 2008). For example, Marshall (2008, p. 53) surveyed 100 graziers in Dalrymple Shire (north-east Qld). Fifty-two percent of graziers agreed that they made ‘good use of the Southern Oscillation Index’ for grazing and business management. Similarly, an innovative grazier, R. Landsberg (QCL 2008) has detailed how he uses climate forecasting tools in a large number of management decisions. However, it has taken 20 years of agricultural agency extension to rangeland communities (e.g. Clewett et al. 1988, 1994, 2000; McKeon and White 1992; Stone et al. 1996b ; Meinke and Stone 2005; Ash et al. 2007; Clewett and Clarkson 2007; George et al. 2007) to communicate and achieve this level of use of seasonal climate forecasting information. Given the rapidly changing understanding of the climate system, as well as climate fluctuations and trends at longer timescales, there remains a major challenge to communicate this complexity to rangeland managers and to continue to develop ‘climate literacy’ in the rangeland community, particularly for new managers. The understanding of climate variability and climate change will be fundamental to underpin a new philosophy for management and public policy in the rangelands (e.g. Productivity Commission 2008).
One adaptation to managing uncertainty with regard to the direction of future rainfall is to link management decisions to seasonal climate risk assessment (McKeon et al. 1993; Stokes et al. 2008b ). Over the last 20 years, various statistical systems based on historical rainfall data have been developed and are operational for different rangeland regions (e.g. McBride and Nicholls 1983; Coughlan 1988; Clewett et al. 1994, 2003; Stone et al. 1996b ; Cobon et al. 2005). A simpler more compatible approach with public information is to consider the likelihood of El Niño or La Niña events occurring (Henry et al. 2004, 2007). Following the work of Allan et al. (1996) and Power and Smith (2007), we have used the SOI from June to November to classify historical years. From 1876 to 1977, there were an equal number of El Niño and La Niña events (26). However, since 1978 there have been ten El Niño events (1982, 1987, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1997, 2002, 2004, 2006) compared with five La Niña events (1988, 1996, 1998, 2000, 2008). The 2007–08 La Niña event did not develop until summer and is not included in this classification. This difference between the number of El Niño and La Niña events is anomalous in terms of the last 100 years, although the ‘values are within the bounds of what could be expected from random variation alone’ (Power and Smith 2007, p. 4). ENSO has global impacts contributing to rainfall variability in other rangeland regions across the world (e.g. Stone et al. 1996b , southern Africa, Day et al. 2003b ). Thus, the approaches in using ENSO information in the management of Australian rangelands may have wider global application.
In Australia, the SOI and other aspects of the ENSO system have been publicly available since the mid 1980s (McKeon and White 1992) and information regarding the effects of ENSO on local rainfall have been publicly extended to the rural community in Qld since 1991 (e.g. Clewett et al. 2000). This information has been supported by weekly media reports. Thus, linking management decisions involving expectations of seasonal rainfall to ENSO development would have led to a more realistic view of likely rainfall in the rangelands regions affected by ENSO (McBride and Nicholls 1983; Clewett et al. 1994; Henry 2006). The change in frequency of El Niño and La Niña, in combination with other Pacific Ocean indices, explains to some extent, the declining rainfall across Qld’s grazing lands which has occurred since the mid-1970s (Crimp and Day 2003).
One issue that needs to be resolved for the future use of ENSO information, is the stability of the relationship between ENSO phases and rainfall (McBride and Nicholls 1983; McKeon et al. 1998b ; Risbey et al. 2009). Recent research has indicated that components of the climate system operating at different timescales (ENSO and decadal) interact affecting rainfall across Australia’s rangelands (Power et al. 1999; Crimp and Day 2003; White et al. 2003b ). An operational system for summer rainfall in north-eastern Australia has been developed to include this additional understanding, using year-by-year indicators of both ENSO and the Inter-decadal Pacific Oscillation (SPOTA-1, Day et al. 2000, 2007; Crimp and Day 2003). Such developments may allow more effective ‘tracking’ of climate change.
Use of global climate models in seasonal climate forecasting
A major question with regard to the future use of seasonal forecasting is whether historical relationships between sea surface temperature/atmospheric indices and rainfall are likely to continue as global temperatures increase and human-induced forcings change climate over the next 30–50 years. One approach to address these issues has been the development of GCMs coupled with regional climate models (RCMs) to provide ‘real-time’ forecasts of rainfall using current and predicted sea surface temperatures on a seasonal to annual timescale (e.g. Goddard et al. 2003; Syktus et al. 2003). Forecasts at present concentrate on eastern Australian rangelands where ENSO is the major source of year-to-year variation, and, hence, there is a need to also provide forecasts in regions and seasons where/when ENSO is not the major source of rainfall variability or trends (Nicholls 2009; Ummenhofer et al. 2009).
In summary, we suggest that both statistical (using historical data) and GCM/RCM approaches will continue to provide year-by-year climate risk assessment which may allow adaptation of rangeland management to occur, despite the uncertainties of the future direction of rainfall. However, a major challenge is to develop a similar capability for rangeland regions including western and central Australia, and in neutral ENSO years for eastern Australian rangelands (McKeon et al. 2004).
A risk-averse approach in using climate change projections
The ‘best estimate’ projections indicate lower rainfall for most of the rangelands with little change indicated for monsoonal regions of northern Australia. Thus, the projections support a risk-averse view (i.e. expectation of reduced forage production and LCC), where rainfall has been declining in summer/autumn in eastern Australian rangelands, and in winter in southern rangelands of WA.
However, the wide range in rainfall projections (e.g. –30 to +20% for 2070 high emissions scenario), and the lack of agreement in western Australian rangelands between current wetter trends (in summer and autumn rainfall since the 1990s) and drier ‘best estimate’ projections, are unresolved scientific issues. Hence, future planning in the rangelands, especially in estimating current and future LCC, should continue to closely monitor scientific developments in these areas.
Improved scientific understanding and capacity to simulate the climate system, and the past and future impact of other human-induced climate forcings is occurring in parallel with current climate changes and fluctuations (Table 5). Thus, a major challenge for climate systems science is to provide greater understanding of recent trends (e.g. Nicholls 2009) and to update regional projections (as has occurred over the last 20 years, e.g. Pittock 1988, CSIRO-BoM 2007). Similarly, eco-physiological rangeland science faces the task of predicting and detecting the impact of increasing CO2 and temperature increases on rangeland ecosystems, in particular, forage production.
Despite these uncertainties, the ‘best estimate’ projections should be carefully considered in resource planning as they represent the well researched review of a global scientific endeavour (IPCC 2007). A risk-averse approach would be based on a generally drier (or little change in far northern Australia) expectation of future rainfall during the 21st century, depending on the region. In the case of western Australian rangelands, this approach would assume that the current wetter trends in summer and autumn will not continue indefinitely, and that in fact, they may reverse.
In general terms, planning should consider the range of climate change scenarios including the need for monitoring natural resource condition and the findings of an improving climate systems science capability. Planning should aim to maintain flexibility (e.g. resource in good condition, sufficient financial reserves, and an ability to diversify production systems), to allow the necessary responses to drier conditions should, or when, they occur. The detailed risk management procedures described by Cobon et al. (2009) provide a more formal approach in managing for the uncertainties of, and assessing the vulnerabilities resulting from, the future direction of rainfall trends.
We conclude that:
We also briefly reviewed a broader range of issues affecting the impacts of climate change on LCC such as the need for mitigation of greenhouse emissions from rangelands; the difficulty of monitoring and detecting climate change effects in variable rangeland climates; and the emerging importance of seasonal climate risk assessment as a useful management tool in some rangeland regions.
Given that the ‘best estimate’ of climate change across the rangelands is for a decline in rainfall and an increase in temperature, we anticipate decreases in LCC. As a consequence, we suggest that public policy have regard for: (i) the risk of enterprise failure with implications for regional communities; (ii) potential resource damage; and (iii) human distress including the risk of increased mortality. However, the capability to quantify these warnings is yet to be developed and this important task remains as a challenge for rangeland and climate systems science.
We gratefully acknowledge the support of A. Peacock and T. Van Bruggen in preparing the document. We also appreciated the comments of L. Pahl, A. Panjkov, P. Pinjuh, N. Treloar, N. Toombs, G. Whish, and B. Zhang. The important insights of J. Clewett, J. Scanlan, A. Pressland, A. Lauder and several anonymous referees were extremely valuable in dealing with the complexities of the paper. The senior author gratefully acknowledges the support a Land & Water Australia Senior Research Fellowship.
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July 29, 2013
Alumnus uncovers how cuckoo's feathers shimmer
Before Todd Harvey, Ph.D. ’12, was a graduate student at Cornell studying how light shimmers off feathers of the African emerald cuckoo and other birds, he spent 10 years as a computer animator and digital cinematographer implementing algorithms that made Gollum’s skin look real in “The Lord of the Rings” movies and gave King Kong’s fur its lifelike luster in the 2005 production.
In his industry job for Weta Digital, Harvey read science studies to understand how to simulate biological organisms on the screen. This self-education led him back to school, where he applied his computer skills to the field of zoology.
Now, a July 2013 study based on his doctoral thesis appears in Interface, a journal of the Royal Society, to explain why the colors in such iridescent birds as the African emerald cuckoo change from green to black depending on the viewer’s angle.
Shimmering plumages evolved in birds for communication and camouflage. Harvey and Kim Bostwick, curator of the Cornell Museum of Vertebrates, and Steve Marschner, Cornell associate professor of computer science, have found that branches of the cuckoo’s feather vanes have a microscopic zigzag structure that affects the direction of reflected light – and shift color – based on the viewer’s angle and the feather’s orientation to a light source.
The findings are relevant for bird behavioral studies to better understand avian signaling and courtship. Future work may lead to tools that field ornithologists would use to predict where a female might need to be to receive a signal from a flashy male bird, Harvey said. Also, material scientists may now examine the feather’s morphology to make new materials, and computer animators may develop new algorithms to make feathers more realistic on the big screen.
“As scientists we want to know why the world works the way it does,” said Harvey, a postdoctoral researcher in ecology and evolutionary biology at Yale University. “The appearance of things comes from structures that are smaller than the eyes can see,” he added.
Harvey and colleagues used Cornell’s microscale computed tomography scanner to obtain data of the African emerald cuckoo feather’s structure, which were then reconstructed into 3-D images. They also measured reflectance from hundreds of directions to quantify how a feather appears from any viewing or illumination angle, Harvey said.
The 3-D data revealed that the feather’s herringbone zigzag structure has branching hairlike filaments, called barbules, that are raised from the plane of the feather. Also, the cross sections of the barbules are curved. The combined morphology produces two cones of reflected light, each centered on a barbule branch, which is tilted by the angle of the zigzag. A green reflection appears when the viewer’s eyes are in line with the light cones, but if the cones are not within the viewer’s perspective, then the appearance is black. This explains the shimmering, due to changes in the orientation of the light cones, which are dependent on feather structure, angle of the light source and location of the viewer.
“I believe that as we extend our research to additional species, we will find similar correlations between morphology of the iridescent barbule and the direction of its reflectance,” said Harvey.
The research was supported by the National Science Foundation.
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Diesels less efficient than petrols at curbing climate change, study shows
The results of the study, conducted by Dr Eckard Helmers at Trier University with Michel Cames of the University of Luxembourg, were presented to the European Parliament this week by environmental action group Green Budget Europe. These showed Europe’s diesel-dominated fleet was emitting significantly more CO2, on average, than petrol and hybrid-heavy markets.
Despite the steep decline in Europe’s new car CO2 emissions over the last 20 years, Japan has recorded a lower average since 2006, and the gap is growing. In 2013, new cars in Japan (where hybrids have a 22% market share and diesels 1.8%) emitted an average of 108g/km CO2, compared to 128g/km in the European Union, where diesel has a 53% share and 1.4% were petrol hybrids.
Although the results were not adjusted to reflect differences between the Japanese and European test cycles, Helmers said that the difference could be even higher. Laboratory figures derived under the European test cycle have shown increasing deviation from ‘real-world’ economy, according to a 2015 study by the ICCT, he added.
Meanwhile, the gap between petrol and diesel models in Europe was 1.6g/km in 2013, which Helmers noted was largely due to vehicle size. However, he pointed out that the new Toyota Prius emits 73g/km CO2, compared to 90g/km for the similarly-sized Skoda Octavia Greenline diesel, adding that Japanese carmakers now also have an advantage in terms of developing fully electric models.
The study also pointed out that black carbon emissions, another greenhouse gas, are higher for diesel vehicles and aren’t considered with the CO2 output. Although these are almost completely removed by particulate filters, there is only a requirement for emission control systems to work for 160,000km (around 100,000 miles) in Europe, compared to 150,000 miles in the United States.
Based on the results, Green Budget Europe is recommending that policymakers end preferential treatment for diesel engines, including weaker NOx emissions limits and lower tax, to encourage development of hybrid and electric models. The UK has already retained 3% Benefit in Kind levy for diesel engines, and is the only Member State not to have lower tax for diesel fuel per litre.
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Group hopes to build replica of Doddridge's Fort
When winter broke in late-18th century western Pennsylvania, those who settled in the region would gather their belongings and head to the nearest fort.
They knew that warm weather would bring American Indians from the west, and the fort would be the only way to protect themselves from an attack.
Families would spend months behind the walls of the fort until the weather turned cold again.
"You can imagine the conditions during that time, socially, emotionally and physically," said Bryan Cunning, an archaeologist and member of the Washington County Historical Society.
"That's the kind of thing we hope to bring to life," said society President Patrick Cooper.
The society plans to recreate the experience of life in the late 1700s by building a replica of one of the county's 44 frontier forts, complete with a log cabin settlement and a log palisade.
Washington County commissioners will lease about 25 acres of land in Cross Creek County Park to the historical society for the structure, to be called The Washington County Frontier Experience Center.
Cooper said they hope to have the first phase of the project complete in time for an Indian summer celebration at the site later this year.
"We hope someday to have school tours, living history events and people on site to bring history to life," Cooper said.
To do that, members of the society's fort committee spent hours researching what the fort might have looked like.
"There's not a blueprint of any of these forts, so to speak," said Jim Ross, director of the historical society.
They chose to pattern the fort after Doddridge's Fort, built in 1764 by John Doddridge.
The society used a book written by Doddridge's son Joseph about his experience growing up on what was then the frontier of expansion in the New World.
Joseph Doddridge's details of the fort built by his father laid the groundwork for the society's renderings, and offered them details they never would have thought of, Cunning said.
Instead of doors, for example, Doddridge's fort had a hinged gate, connected at the top of the fort and kept open by two wooden posts.
Cooper said the center could be a future site for a French and Indian War encampment, which could draw hundreds of re-enactors and thousands of visitors to the area.
Next year marks the 250th anniversary of the French and Indian War
Many events center around the military forts in the region that played a major part in the war, including Fort Necessity in Fayette County and Fort Pitt and Fort Ligonier in Westmoreland County.
Mark Tallarico, director of the Washington County Tourism Promotion Agency, said the society's fort would provide another perspective into that period.
"It wasn't all military forts," he said. "There are a couple of military forts in the vicinity, but this is truly more of what the frontiersmen would have lived in."
Andy Masich, the president and chief executive officer of the Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania, said that while many people in the region are interested in history, their knowledge of the period this fort would replicate is limited.
"Any effort made by local history organizations... anything they can do to further the knowledge of people of the history that took place right in their own backyards is admirable," he said.
Along with donations and in-kind services from private groups, the Washington County Tourism Promotion Agency has given the project a $10,000 grant and pledged more money to improve the access road to the site.
"We are hoping this will have a very big impact "on Washington County tourism, Tallarico said. "It is so much a part of our American heritage and it really is truly a part of Washington County heritage."
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Painting in 17th-century Italy was an international endeavor. Large numbers of artists traveled to Rome, especially, to work and study. They sought not only the many commissions being extended by the Church but also the chance to learn from past masters. Most of the century was dominated by the baroque style, whose expressive power was well suited to the needs of the Counter-Reformation Church for affecting images.
The drama and movement that characterized the baroque—in sculpture and architecture as well as painting—can be first seen, perhaps, in the work of Caravaggio, who died in 1610. His strong contrasts of light and dark and unblinking realism were taken up by many artists, including the Italian Orazio Gentileschi, the Spaniard Jusepe de Ribera, and the Frenchmen Valentin de Boulogne and Simon Vouet, all of whom worked in Italy. Other artists carried Caravaggio’s so-called tenebrist style to northern Europe.
The more classical approach of the Carracci and their students Guercino and Domenichino was also an important force in 17th-century painting. It provided a foundation for the rational clarity that structured the work of French artists Nicolas Poussin and Claude Lorrain, both of whom worked in Rome for most of their lives.
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| 0.97949 | 281 | 3.984375 | 4 |
A Laboratory Exercise To Understand the Importance of Enzyme Technology in the Fruit-Processing Industry: Viscosity Decrease and Phenols Release from Apple Mash
Publication: Research - peer-review › Journal article – Annual report year: 2011
In a 4-h laboratory exercise, students accomplish a series of enzymatic macerations of apple mash, assess the viscosity of the mash during the maceration, extract the juice by centrifugation, and measure the levels of antioxidant phenols extracted into the juice after different enzyme treatments. The exercise shows the impact of enzyme-catalyzed plant cell-wall degradation on the viscosity of apple fruit mash and on the extraction of antioxidant phenols into experimentally prepared apple juice. The exercise also demonstrates that pectinolytic and cellulolytic enzymes have different effects on the viscosity of apple mash. Depending on the academic skills and background of the students, various aspects of quantitative enzyme activity assessment and advanced data analysis of decay curves can be included in the postexercise discussions and reporting of the data.
|Citations||Web of Science® Times Cited: No match on DOI|
- Agricultural Chemistry, Enzymes, Bioanalytical Chemistry, Phenols, Food Science
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| 0.882921 | 257 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Introduction to Pteridophytes
Pteridophytes are the
first land plants and are called 'Vascular Cryptogams' ,because they have the vascular tissue
namely the xylem and phloem. They are the highly advanced group among cryptogams and they
include both living and fossil plants. The carboniferous period was called the 'Age of the
The plants are
generally Sporophyte and is differentiated into root, stem, and leaves-that is called
"Cormophyte". Branching may be dichotomous (or) monopodial, the leaves are of two
types, one is microphyllus (ex: Lycopodium) and another is megaphyllus (fern leaf) and when
the leaves are young they exhibit circinate venation. The function of the leaf is
photosynthesis but in fern like Nephrolopis the leaves are both photosynthetic and
reproductive; in the mature stage they bear the structure called 'Sori'. The plant is attached
to the substratum by means of roots.
Presence of stele in the root and
stem of pteridophytes have the vascular tissue, the xylem, phloem and pith are called
'stele'. The stele types varies from Protostele to a Dictyostele. Secondary thickening was
commonly seen among fossil plants. In the present day pteridophytic plants only two
plants alone show a kind of secondary thickening - Isoetes and Botrychium.
Pteridophytes are classified
into two types by the spores; some are Homosporous (ex: lycopodium;). They produce only
one type of spores, the other one is heterosporous (ex: selaginella). They produce two
different kinds of spores, the smaller one is micro spore and the larger one is megaspore.
The ferns exhibit alternation of
generation with separate multi-cellular spore-forming (sporophyte) and gamete forming
(gametophytes) stages in their life cycle. Various living and fossil ferns are exhibited in
the Systematic Botany Gallery.
The word 'Equisetum', comes from the Latin word equus
"horse" and saeta, "bristle". It is a pteridophytic plant belonging to the
division 'Phenophyta'. It is commonly called "Horsetails". The genus equisetum has
about 15 species. It grows mostly in wet, marshy habitats and are small. They are widely
distributed throughout the world. It has true roots, stems and leaves. Their hollow jointed
stems are impregnated with silica, which gives them a gritty feelings; it is attached to the
substratum by means of rhizomes that also bear wiry roots. The scale-like leaves, which are
small megaphyllus are fused in whorls at each node and are quite small. The green stem is the
main organ of photosynthesis.
It is a genus of tree fern, belonging to the family
'Cyathiaceae'. It is a perennial plant, which live in moist shady places, particularly in
mountainous region. It has an erect stem that may grow to heights of 23 metres and have
leaves 5 metres (or) more in length. The leaves are well-developed, often of very large size
which are rolled in- wards as buds, strengthening out as they mature. The plant is exhibited
in the Systematic Botany Gallery.
It is a 'Pteridophyte', plant and is a fern. The Genus
'Osmunda' consists of 14 species which are cosmopolitan in distribution. It is commonly called
the lower fern. The plant is a 'sporophyte' and grows in moist shady places. It has got an
underground stout rhizome, which has completely covered a mantle of roots. The rhizome at the
top bears a crown of pinnately compound leaves. The leaves when young exhibit circinate
vernation. The vernation of leaflets is open dichotomous.
The plant is displayed as herbarium in the Systematic Botany Gallery.
It is a pteridophyte plant belonging to the family
'Gleicheniaceae'. It usually occurs in exposed localities and form dense and bushy growths. In
India, it is found in Western Ghats, Eastern Himalayas and Kumanon hills. The plant
is sporophyte and is distinguished into long, dichotomously branched, prostrate and
subterranean rhizome; it bears leaves on the upper surface and adventitious roots on the lower
(or) under surface. The leaves of this genus are characteristic which arise at longer
intervals to be borne in three rows. They range in length from a few feet to more than 50
The plant is kept as herbarium in the Systematic Botany Gallery.
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Løes, Anne-Kristin; Koesling, Matthias; Roos, Gun; Birkeland, Liv and Solemdal, Liv (2008) Organic and conventional public food procurement for youth in Norway. Bioforsk Organic Food and Farming, Tingvoll, Norway.
Online at: http://ipopy.coreportal.org/?page_id=18
In Norway, public procurement of food to youth is not well developed in comparison to many other European and Scandinavian countries. School meals are only offered in very few primary schools, and the common school meal is a packed lunch (sandwiches) brought from home, consumed in the class room. Subscription schemes for milk were introduced around 1970, and for fruit around 1995. Organic milk and fruit is offered only in some regions. Since 2007, fruit is served without payment in all schools with a lower secondary level (class 8-10 or 1-10). This effort was introduced as a first step to develop a free school meal in all public schools, which is a goal of one of the political parties in the current government. As in many other European countries, free school meals were offered
(especially to poor children) in schools in the larger Norwegian cities around 1900. However, these meals were criticised for being unhealthy, and replaced by whole grain bread, milk and vegetables around 1930. Increasing private wealth, and increased demand for investments in school buildings, books etc changed the public priority and free school meals disappeared in Oslo around 1960. Today, there is not a general agreement about the optimal school meal composition, and whether or not the meals should be funded by the public. However, the increasing length of the school day and unsatisfactory scores of Norwegian pupils in international comparison tests (e.g. PISA) makes the school meal sector highly relevant in the public debate.
Three cases that will be studied in a research project about public organic food procurement for youth are briefly described: The municipality of Trondheim, Øya music festival in Oslo and the Air Force Academy. (Increased) serving of organic food is an important aim in all these cases, and young people are an important target group.
The report is produced within the project “innovative Public Organic food Procurement for Youth”, iPOPY, and will be updated and revised during the project period (2007-2010).
|Keywords:||Organic food, youth, public procurement, health, school meal systems, iPOPY|
|Subjects:||"Organics" in general > Country reports|
Food systems > Produce chain management
|Research affiliation:|| Norway > SIFO - National Institute for Consumer Research|
European Union > CORE Organic > iPOPY
Norway > Bioforsk - Norwegian Institute for Agriculture and Environmental Research > Bioforsk Organic Food and Farming Division
|DOI:||Vol 3 No 43|
|Related Links:||http://orgprints.org/11210/, http://ipopy.coreportal.org/, http://www.bioforsk.no/ViewPPP.aspx?view=project&id=868&viewLanguage=English|
|Deposited By:||Koesling, Matthias|
|Deposited On:||06 May 2008|
|Last Modified:||12 Apr 2010 07:37|
|Additional Publishing Information:||iPOPY discussion paper 4/2008|
Repository Staff Only: item control page
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The cardinal that feeds in your backyard is in jeopardy. So are the robins, warblers and migratory birds that call Ohio home for at least part of the year.
The culprit? Those cats you see roaming the neighborhood.
In fact, these felines are stone-cold killing machines, according to new research.
A study published yesterday in the journal Nature Communications estimates that cats kill as many as 3.7 billion birds and 20.7 billion mammals in the United States each year. The mammals include mice, rats, voles and chipmunks. The majority are killed by feral cats. The study’s estimates are much higher than previous studies have suggested.
Ohio is feeling the impact, said Jim McCormac, an avian expert with the Ohio Division of Wildlife. He said birds play a huge role in the ecosystem, and cats are throwing things out of balance.
“Birds are pest-control agents,” McCormac said. “So if there were no warblers, for example — a huge bird population that comes through Ohio — caterpillars would run completely amok, and we’d have an ecological catastrophe on our hands.”
Scientists from the Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service performed the research and concluded that cats are the single-greatest source of bird and mammal mortality, out-killing all other sources combined.
The study is based on a review of 90 previous studies and offers the most comprehensive analysis of information on this issue, according to the researchers.
The loss of birds also affects Ohio’s economy, said Kim Kaufman, director of the Black Swamp Bird Observatory in northwestern Ohio. She said bird-watchers bring more than $30 million to the lake-shore area each spring.
“The bird migration through here is really spectacular and a wonderful thing for tourism, so these cats could have a significant impact on the global species that pass through Ohio on their migration,” Kaufman said.
A 2010 University of Nebraska Extension study estimated that cats cause $17 billion a year in damages to bird-watchers, hunters and wildlife. The $17 billion is based in part on estimates that the 60 million stray and feral cats that live in the United States kill six to eight birds per year. There are as many as 88 million domestic cats, many of which spend time outdoors.
Donald Burton, a veterinarian and CEO of the Ohio Wildlife Center, said cat attacks are the leading cause of admissions for the 5,000 animals the center treats each year.
Burton, Kaufman and McCormac said there is an easy solution: Keep cats indoors. All three said they own cats but don’t allow them outdoors.
“Once a cat enters the outdoors, it becomes an invasive species because they don’t have a natural role in our ecosystem,” McCormac said.
Linda Granger, a Granville resident, said her cat, Woody, brings home birds and rabbits.
“I don’t like that he hunts, but he was a feral cat and we saved him,” she said. “Once they start hunting, they have a desire to do that.”
Granger, who also has two indoor cats, said Woody was neutered.
Burton said licensing regulations should be as strict on cats as they are on dogs, which are not allowed to roam free.
Feral cats are a harder problem to tackle, Kaufman said. She said people should think twice about feeding them.
“I know it’s easier to relate to cats that we take into our homes as pets than to small birds people often never see, so we need to give these birds a voice, too,” Kaufman said.
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Researchers found a backlash effect when presented with scientific evidence that vaccines don’t cause autism
It’s been 20 years since the Vaccines for Children (VFC) program provided free immunizations to all US youngsters. How well has the program done?
The Learning Channel’s website yanked a story that was riddled with mistruths and flat-out errors — but only after major medical organizations complained.
In the U.S., 2011 was the worst measles year in 15 years, but worldwide, deaths from the disease have plummeted over the past 10 years.
Measles was declared eliminated in the United States in 2000. But a report released Thursday by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) says infections have risen: last year the U.S. reported the highest number of …
So far this year, 118 cases of measles have been reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) — the highest number for the January-to-May period since 1996 and double the median number of yearly cases …
The global outbreak of measles is continuing to spread, with cases rising in Europe and certain parts of the U.S., including California.
If there’s one great truth of political debate, it’s this: when noise trumps knowledge, someone’s going to get hurt.
It took nearly six months but the General Medical Council (GMC) in the U.K. has pulled Dr. Andrew Wakefield’s license to practice medicine in the United Kingdom.
Wakefield is the researcher who nearly single-handedly fueled parental concerns about the link between vaccines and autism. In 1998, he published a paper in the medical …
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| 0.937651 | 350 | 2.671875 | 3 |
Living life while unable to hear or speak must be one of the most difficult ways to exist. While you may have sign language, speech is used so regularly that it must be disheartening to be left unable to engage others in the same manner. It's saddening, and then it's also worse for the person unable to use these basic human functions. They have to learn sign language. It doesn't matter whether they are naturally interested in languages. It's a matter of having no choice other than to learn it. Speech is something we take for granted, but wouldn't it be great to see those rendered unable to speak given the ability to express their thoughts with their voice?
Enter QuadSquad; a team of Ukrainian students who entered Microsoft's Imagine Cup. Their entry is called EnableTalk, and it just might change communication drastically. There are already solutions for those rendered deaf or mute; we covered one example of how one of these apps could help a family. The downside to the solution outlined there is that it relies on having an iPad with you at all times, and having the app installed as well. EnableTalk has a different approach. Rather than having to carry something around, their idea is to work the concept into gloves.
The gloves are fitted with flex sensors, touch sensors, gyroscopes, accelerometers and solar cells for improved battery life. With all of these items fitted, the gloves can render sign language as speech, sending the information to a smartphone via BlueTooth. It doesn't completely remove the need for additional electronics, but smartphones are so common now that this is almost a non-issue.
You'd better dip into the bank account though, because these gloves surely won't be cheap. Or, perhaps not. According to the team responsible for the gloves, similar products use wired connections, fewer sensors, and no integrated software solutions, yet still cost around $1,200. Have a guess at how much the EnableTalk team's prototype costs. You'll be very surprised.
$75. That's potentially cheaper than the smartphone you would go on to hook them up to. The Imagine Cup is hosted by Microsoft, so obviously the EnableTalk project is forced to use more Microsoft hardware. It's running on Windows Mobile 6.5, as Windows Phone 7 doesn't allow developers access to its Bluetooth stack. Remember "WinMo"? Microsoft would prefer you didn't, and yet something like this has had to resort to operating on it.
Communication is something we take for granted, and people who are deaf or mute likely would be very appreciative of this. While sign language is extremely useful for these people, not everyone understands it. Then you also have variations in it. Variation in sign language only makes it more complex to understand, for differences change and you won't know unless you have studied it. It's a difficult job to learn a sign language, and then you also have to put up with the fact that it isn't completely consistent either. Hopefully Microsoft will take this idea further and get it working, since it seems like it could be a real game-changer.
Obviously, the price will change from the prototype to the finished product but the students responsible have a good base to work from as it is. An increase now should still leave them undercutting their competitors by a considerable margin.
Interested in Imagine Cup? Want to learn more or even register your team for the 2013 challenges? Head on over to Imagine Cup's website to stay updated on all the events for the 2013 competition.
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Lessons & Chapters
Lessons 13 & 14 How did all the animals fit on Noah’s Ark?and How did freshwater and saltwater fish survive the Flood? (Chapters 13 & 14)
The Creation Answers Book Study Guide
Lesson 1: Does God exist?
Text: The Creation Answers Book, chapter 1
What is the biblical definition of a ‘fool’?
Using an on-line concordance, look up other Bible verses with the word ‘fool’ in them. What else does the Bible say about ‘fools’?
What does the Bible say about those who are ‘wise’?
What is the connection between denying God’s existence and the increasing lack of morals we see in today’s society? (See also Evolution and Morality.)
What would you say to someone who accused Christians of doing evil things during the Crusades (for example)? (See also Genocide, evolution and the Bible.)
Section: Biblical evidence for the existence of a divine author
Specifically, what are some archaeological finds that affirm biblical accuracy? (See also Q&A: Archaeology.)
List and explain (in your own words) five biblical evidences for the existence of God.
How is God revealed in Jesus Christ?
Section: Other evidence for the Creator-God of the Bible
How do the laws of thermodynamics confirm the existence of God? (See also Q&A: Quantum Mechanics and Thermodynamics.)
How is evidence for a young Earth/universe consistent with God’s existence?
List and explain four non-biblical evidences of God’s existence.
Section: The myth of atheism and science
When did scientific disciplines begin to flourish? Why?
Research the lives, credentials, qualifications, etc. of past and present creationist scientists. Write a report on a scientist that you are interested in.(See also the book In Six Days or Busting Myths.)
Section: Is it Science?
Distinguish between ‘operational science’ and ‘origins science’. Which leaves more room for personal bias to influence conclusions? Why?
List the following scientific disciplines. Tell one aspect of each that falls under ‘operational science’ and one that falls under ‘origins science’ For example, for Astronomy, studying/counting the stars or galaxies is operational science while theorizing about star formation or the beginning of the universe is origins science. (See also Naturalism, Origins and Operation Science.)
Section: Who created God?
Why does God not have—or need to have—a beginning in time?
What is the law of cause and effect?
In the light of this, discuss the reasonableness of those who say that the universe had no cause.
Section: The Christian knows God!
- How can a person have a personal relationship with God?
How would you would respond to the question:
“I read with interest your article about atheism, in which you state it is self-refuting. In its basic form, atheism consists of the lack of belief in a God. This can hardly be deemed self-refuting. Furthermore, it is simple enough to demonstrate that belief in God is absurd and irrational. An atheist needs do no more. An atheist does not need to prove that God does not exist—the theist must demonstrate that God does exist. Since this is not possible, belief in God is irrational, particularly when no theist is capable of providing a coherent definition of what God is.”
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Category:Bilba terms derived from Proto-Central-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian
|Recent additions to the category|
|Oldest pages ordered by last edit|
» All languages » Bilba language » Terms by etymology » Terms derived from other languages » Austronesian languages » Malayo-Polynesian languages » Central Malayo-Polynesian languages » Proto-Central-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian
Terms in Bilba that originate from the Proto-Central-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian language.
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Posts Tagged ‘experiments’
by Loralee Leavitt
When you pop them in your mouth, Pop Rocks fizz, sizzle, and explode. These experiments show you why–and how to have fun with them.
Bubbling Pop Rocks
Why do Pop Rocks pop in your mouth?
It’s because they have a secret ingredient.
You’re looking at the secret ingredient — carbon dioxide that’s pumped into the candy when it’s still melted, trapping bubbles.
Do Pop Rocks Bubble, Or Don’t They?
Pour water into one glass, and pour cooking oil into a second glass. Then add Pop Rocks to each glass. Do the Pop Rocks in water bubble and fizz? What about the Pop Rocks in oil?*
Pop Rocks are made of sugar, which dissolves in water. As the Pop Rocks dissolve, they release tiny trapped bubbles of carbon dioxide, which make the bubbles and the noise. But sugar doesn’t dissolve in oil, so the Pop Rocks in oil don’t dissolve or release bubbles.
This is why Pop Rocks can be mixed with chocolate and still keep their bubbles, such as in S Chocolate’s Exploding Chocolate Frogs, or in Chocolate Pop Rocks (sometimes available from www.candyfavorites.com). They don’t dissolve until you eat them!
Jumping Pop Rocks
To see Pop Rocks in action, pour a small amount of hot water (about 140 F) into a clear soda bottle. (If you use a glass instead of a soda bottle, prepare for a mess and wear safety glasses.) Then dump in Pop Rocks and see if any of them jump!
Why do the Pop Rocks pop up?
The hot water dissolves the candy so fast that the air bubbles explode, making the Pop Rocks shoot up like popcorn.
Whether you soak your Pop Rocks, drop them in oil, or explode them like popcorn, candy experiments help you enjoy Pop Rocks in all sorts of ways. There’s only one thing left to know: why are the “Blue Razz” Pop Rocks green? That’s a question not even candy experiments can answer.
Loralee Leavitt destroys candy for the sake of science at www.candyexperiments.com. Find more crazy experiments, like growing giant gummies, making candy crystals, or turning cotton candy into slime, in her book Candy Experiments.
*Experiment adapted from the Science Sparks blog
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Temporal range: Upper Jurassic
150.8 – 148.5 mya
as visualized by Nobumichi Tamura
Archaeopteryx is one of the most important fossils ever discovered. It is a bird from the Upper Jurassic, about 150 million years ago. It shows the evolutionary link between theropod dinosaurs and birds. The first Archaeopteryx was found in 1860 near Solnhofen in Bavaria, Germany. Today, ten skeletons and one feather of Archaeopteryx have been found.
Archaeopteryx looked like a small carnivorous dinosaur with wings and feathers. It had a mouth with teeth, claws on the hands and a long tail. Today, it is known that dromaeosaurs, and possibly most theropods, looked like birds and that many had feathers. When they are born, today's South American hoatzin have claws on their wings when they are young, just like Archaeopteryx.
The analysis[change | change source]
Thomas Henry Huxley ("Darwin's bulldog"), who was a comparative anatomist, made a study of this nearly 150 years ago. He compared Archaeopteryx with a small theropod dinosaur, Compsognathus. These two fossils came from the same place: Solnhofen in Bavaria, Germany. The strata come from the end of the Jurassic period, about 144 million years ago. He showed that the two were very similar, except for the front limbs and feathers of Archaeopteryx.
Huxley's study showed the basic relationship between birds and reptiles. He united them under the title of Sauropsida. His papers on Archaeopteryx and the origin of birds were of great interest then and still are. Huxley concluded that birds evolved from small carnivorous dinosaurs.
Status today[change | change source]
Only one dinobird has been found from a time before Archaeopteryx. It is called Anchiornis huxlei, from 160 to 155 million years ago. It had feathers on both front and rear legs, and could certainly glide. It may or may not have had some ability to fly. This discovery means we cannot say Archaeopteryx is the first known bird, but its contribution to science has been huge. We now know for sure that a whole group of small theropod dinosaurs had feathers, and that flight was a later, secondary, use of feathers. The first use of feathers was temperature regulation, and probably also signalling (see Epidexipteryx).
Directly ancestral or not?[change | change source]
It may be that Archaeopteryx is not directly ancestral to all birds, but it is still a fine transitional fossil.
- "Archaeopteryx, for example, is not necessarily directly ancestral to birds. It may have been a species on a side-branch. However, that in no way disqualifies it as a transitional form, or as evidence for evolution. Evolution predicts that such fossils will exist, and if there was no link between reptiles and birds then Archaeopteryx would not exist, whether it is directly ancestral or not".
Related pages[change | change source]
Further reading[change | change source]
- Chambers P. 2002. Bones of contention: the fossil that shook science. London: John Murray. ISBN 0-7195-6059-4
- Shipman P. 1998. Taking wing: Archaeopteryx and the evolution of bird flight. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-84156-4
References[change | change source]
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Archaeopteryx|
- Mayr, Gerald et al 2007. The tenth skeletal specimen of Archaeopteryx. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 149 (1), 97–116.
- Paul G. 2002. Dinosaurs of the Air, the evolution and loss of flight in dinosaurs and birds. p171–224 Johns Hopkins, Baltimore. ISBN 0-8018-6763-0
- Foster, Michael and Lankester, E. Ray (eds )1898–1903. The scientific memoirs of Thomas Henry Huxley. 4 vols and supplement, Macmillan, London ISBN 1432640119
- Hu, D; Hou, L.; Zhang, L. & Xu, X. (2009), "A pre-Archaeopteryx troodontid theropod from China with long feathers on the metatarsus", Nature 461 (7264): 640–643, doi:10.1038/nature08322, PMID 19794491
- Theunissen, Lionel 1997. TalkOrigins Archive
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By Reed Noss
Not all conservation objectives can be met on public lands reserved as open space for conservation or other purposes – there simply will not be enough of such lands. Given escalating land values, conservationists cannot compete with the larger and richer real estate development industry.
Recognizing the enormous development pressures in many parts of the United States and the world, the shortage of funds for land acquisition, and the general weakness of land-use regulations, conservationists have shown increasing interest in alternative ways of protecting biodiversity, including formal land protection that results directly from development.
Conservation development refers to an approach that combines new residential construction and land protection and generates revenue while accomplishing conservation goals. Although often discussed in terms of clustered, high-density housing – as opposed to sprawl – conservation development can include many other types of projects, depending on their particular conservation goals and outcomes. Thus, conservation buyer and limited development projects often qualify as conservation development projects, whereas master planned communities and cluster developments may or may not qualify, depending on the conservation benefits they provide (Milder 2007).
A review of 10 conservation and limited development projects in the eastern United States showed that they greatly outperformed conventional subdivisions and baseline scenarios, in terms of protecting biodiversity and associated ecosystem functions (Milder et al. 2008). Conservation development projects therefore offer an attractive alternative to conventional conservation or conventional development projects, particularly where the funds for land acquisition or other forms of protection from development are not available.
Mechanisms and incentives for conserving land and biodiversity while pursuing economic development vary greatly country by country, state by state, and even county by county. An example of legislation that has fostered conservation development, with variable success but generally positively, is California’s Natural Community Conservation Planning Act (NCCP). Coupled with the Habitat Conservation Planning (HCP) provision of Section 10(A) of the U.S. Endangered Species Act, NCCP -- which is significantly stronger than Section 10(A) with respect to biodiversity conservation -- has limited the impacts of development and, in some cases, seems to be leading to substantial conservation outcomes in several regions of California.
Milder, J.C. 2007. A framework for understanding conservation development and its ecological implications. BioScience 57:757-768.
Milder, J.C., J.P. Lassoie, and BL. Bedford. 2008. Conserving biodiversity and ecosystem function through limited development: an empirical evaluation. Conservation Biology 22:70-79.
Reed Noss, the Davis-Shine Professor of Conservation Biology at the University of Central Florida, has been one of the lead voices in conservation biology for nearly three decades. He has served as President of the Society for Conservation Biology, Editor-in-Chief of its journal, Conservation Biology, and was a co-founder of the Wildlands Project.
Go Straight to Your State
Learn about conservation and open space in your state.
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Classless Inter-Domain Routing
Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR, pronunciation: // or //) is a method for allocating IP addresses and routing Internet Protocol packets. The Internet Engineering Task Force introduced CIDR in 1993 to replace the previous addressing architecture of classful network design in the Internet. Its goal was to slow the growth of routing tables on routers across the Internet, and to help slow the rapid exhaustion of IPv4 addresses.
IP addresses are described as consisting of two groups of bits in the address: the most significant bits are the network address (or network prefix or network block), which identifies a whole network or subnet, and the least significant set forms the host identifier, which specifies a particular interface of a host on that network. This division is used as the basis of traffic routing between IP networks and for address allocation policies. Classful network design for IPv4 sized the network address as one or more 8-bit groups, resulting in the blocks of Class A, B, or C addresses. Classless Inter-Domain Routing allocates address space to Internet service providers and end users on any address bit boundary, instead of on 8-bit segments. In IPv6, however, the interface identifier has a fixed size of 64 bits by convention, and smaller subnets are never allocated to end users.
CIDR notation is a syntax for specifying IP addresses and their associated routing prefix. It appends a slash character to the address and the decimal number of leading bits of the routing prefix, e.g., 192.168.2.0/24 for IPv4, and 2001:db8::/32 for IPv6.
During the first decade of the Internet after the invention of the Domain Name System (DNS) it became apparent that the devised system based on the classful network scheme of allocating the IP address space and the routing of IP packets was not scalable.
To alleviate the shortcomings, the Internet Engineering Task Force published in 1993 a new set of standards, RFC 1518 and RFC 1519, to define a new concept of allocation of IP address blocks and new methods of routing IPv4 packets. A new version of the specification was published as RFC 4632 in 2006.
An IP address is interpreted as composed of two parts: a network-identifying prefix followed by a host identifier within that network. In the previous classful network architecture of Internet Protocol Version 4, IP address allocations were based on the bit boundaries of the four octets of an IP address. An address was considered to be the combination of an 8, 16, or 24-bit network prefix along with a 24, 16, or 8-bit individual or node address. Thus, the smallest allocation and routing block contained only 256 addresses—too small for most enterprises, and the next larger block contained 65536 addresses—too large to be used efficiently by even large organizations. This led to inefficiencies in address use as well as routing because the large number of allocated small (class-C) networks with individual route announcements, being geographically dispersed with little opportunity for route aggregation, created heavy demand on routing equipment.
As the initial TCP/IP network grew to become the Internet during the 1980s, the need for more flexible addressing schemes became increasingly apparent. This led to the successive development of subnetting and CIDR. The network class distinctions were removed, and the new system was described as being classless, with respect to the old system, which became known as classful.
Classless Inter-Domain Routing is based on variable-length subnet masking (VLSM), which allows a network to be divided into variously sized subnets, providing the opportunity to size a network more appropriately for local needs. Variable-length subnet masks are mentioned in RFC 950. Accordingly, techniques for grouping addresses for common operations were based on the concept of cluster addressing, first proposed by Carl-Herbert Rokitansky.
CIDR encompasses several concepts. It is based on the VLSM technique with effective qualities of specifying arbitrary-length prefixes. CIDR introduced a new method of representation for IP addresses, now commonly known as CIDR notation, in which an address or routing prefix is written with a suffix indicating the number of bits of the prefix, such as 192.168.2.0/24. CIDR introduced an administrative process of allocating address blocks to organizations based on their actual and short-term projected needs. The aggregation of multiple contiguous prefixes resulted in supernets in the larger Internet, which whenever possible are advertised as aggregates, thus reducing the number of entries in the global routing table.
CIDR notation is a compact representation of an IP address and its associated routing prefix. The notation is constructed from an IP address, a slash ('/') character, and a decimal number. The number is the count of leading 1 bits in the routing mask, traditionally called the network mask. The IP address is expressed according to the standards of IPv4 or IPv6.
The address may denote a single, distinct interface address or the beginning address of an entire network. The maximum size of the network is given by the number of addresses that are possible with the remaining, least-significant bits below the prefix. The aggregation of these bits is often called the host identifier.
- 192.168.100.14/24 represents the IPv4 address 192.168.100.14 and its associated routing prefix 192.168.100.0, or equivalently, its subnet mask 255.255.255.0, which has 24 leading 1-bits.
- the IPv4 block 192.168.100.0/22 represents the 1024 IPv4 addresses from 192.168.100.0 to 192.168.103.255.
- the IPv6 block 2001:db8::/48 represents the block of IPv6 addresses from 2001:db8:0:0:0:0:0:0 to 2001:db8:0:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff.
- ::1/128 represents the IPv6 loopback address. Its prefix size is 128, the size of the address itself.
Before the implementation of CIDR, IPv4 networks were represented by the starting address and the subnet mask, both written in dot-decimal notation. Thus, 192.168.100.0/24 was often written as 192.168.100.0/255.255.255.0.
The number of addresses of a subnet may be calculated as 2address size - prefix size, in which the address size is 128 for IPv6 and 32 for IPv4. For example, in IPv4, the prefix size /29 gives: 232-29 = 23 = 8 addresses.
A subnet mask is a bitmask that encodes the prefix length in quad-dotted notation: 32 bits, starting with a number of 1 bits equal to the prefix length, ending with 0 bits, and encoded in four-part dotted-decimal format: 255.255.255.0. A subnet mask encodes the same information as a prefix length, but predates the advent of CIDR. In CIDR notation, the prefix bits are always contiguous, whereas subnet masks may specify non-contiguous bits. However, since IP addresses are almost always allocated in contiguous blocks a subnet mask has no practical advantage over CIDR notation.
CIDR is principally a bitwise, prefix-based standard for the representation of IP addresses and their routing properties. It facilitates routing by allowing blocks of addresses to be grouped into single routing table entries. These groups, commonly called CIDR blocks, share an initial sequence of bits in the binary representation of their IP addresses. IPv4 CIDR blocks are identified using a syntax similar to that of IPv4 addresses: a dotted-decimal address, followed by a slash, then a number from 0 to 32, i.e., a.b.c.d/n. The dotted decimal portion is the IPv4 address. The number following the slash is the prefix length, the number of shared initial bits, counting from the most-significant bit of the address. When emphasizing only the size of a network, the address portion of the notation is usually omitted. Thus, a /20 block is a CIDR block with an unspecified 20-bit prefix.
An IP address is part of a CIDR block, and is said to match the CIDR prefix if the initial n bits of the address and the CIDR prefix are the same. The length of an IPv4 address is 32 bits, an n-bit CIDR prefix leaves 32-n bits unmatched, meaning that 232-n IPv4 addresses match a given n-bit CIDR prefix. Shorter CIDR prefixes match more addresses, while longer prefixes match fewer. An address can match multiple CIDR prefixes of different lengths.
CIDR is also used for IPv6 addresses and the syntax semantic is identical. The prefix length can range from 0 to 128, due to the larger number of bits in the address. However, by convention a subnet on broadcast MAC layer networks always has 64-bit host identifiers. Larger prefixes are rarely used even on point-to-point links.
Assignment of CIDR blocks
The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) issues to regional Internet registries (RIRs) large, short-prefix CIDR blocks. For example, 220.127.116.11/8, with over sixteen million addresses, is administered by RIPE NCC, the European RIR. The RIRs, each responsible for a single, large, geographic area, such as Europe or North America, subdivide these blocks and allocate subnets to local Internet registries (LIRs). Similar subdividing may be repeated several times at lower levels of delegation. End-user networks receive subnets sized according to the size of their network and projected short term need. Networks served by a single ISP are encouraged by IETF recommendations to obtain IP address space directly from their ISP. Networks served by multiple ISPs, on the other hand, may obtain provider-independent address space directly from the appropriate RIR.
For example, in the late 1990s, the IP address 18.104.22.168 (since reassigned) was used by www.freesoft.org. An analysis of this address identified three CIDR prefixes. 22.214.171.124/11, a large CIDR block containing over 2 million addresses, had been assigned by ARIN (the North American RIR) to MCI. Automation Research Systems, a Virginia VAR, leased an Internet connection from MCI and was assigned the 126.96.36.199/22 block, capable of addressing just over 1000 devices. ARS used a /24 block for its publicly accessible servers, of which 188.8.131.52 was one. All of these CIDR prefixes would be used, at different locations in the network. Outside MCI's network, the 184.108.40.206/11 prefix would be used to direct to MCI traffic bound not only for 220.127.116.11, but also for any of the roughly two million IP addresses with the same initial 11 bits. Within MCI's network, 18.104.22.168/22 would become visible, directing traffic to the leased line serving ARS. Only within the ARS corporate network would the 22.214.171.124/24 prefix have been used.
IPv4 CIDR blocks
|IP/CIDR||Δ to last IP addr||Mask||Count
to other block sizes
|Restrictions on a/b/c/d
(0..255 unless noted)
|a.b.c.d/31||+0.0.0.1||255.255.255.254||2||1/128 C||d = 0 ... (2n) ... 254|
|a.b.c.d/30||+0.0.0.3||255.255.255.252||4||1/64 C||d = 0 ... (4n) ... 252|
|a.b.c.d/29||+0.0.0.7||255.255.255.248||8||1/32 C||d = 0 ... (8n) ... 248|
|a.b.c.d/28||+0.0.0.15||255.255.255.240||16||1/16 C||d = 0 ... (16n) ... 240|
|a.b.c.d/27||+0.0.0.31||255.255.255.224||32||⅛ C||d = 0 ... (32n) ... 224|
|a.b.c.d/26||+0.0.0.63||255.255.255.192||64||¼ C||d = 0, 64, 128, 192|
|a.b.c.d/25||+0.0.0.127||255.255.255.128||128||½ C||d = 0, 128|
|a.b.c.0/23||+0.0.1.255||255.255.254.000||512||2 C||c = 0 ... (2n) ... 254|
|a.b.c.0/22||+0.0.3.255||255.255.252.000||1,024||4 C||c = 0 ... (4n) ... 252|
|a.b.c.0/21||+0.0.7.255||255.255.248.000||2,048||8 C||c = 0 ... (8n) ... 248|
|a.b.c.0/20||+0.0.15.255||255.255.240.000||4,096||16 C||c = 0 ... (16n) ... 240|
|a.b.c.0/19||+0.0.31.255||255.255.224.000||8,192||32 C||c = 0 ... (32n) ... 224|
|a.b.c.0/18||+0.0.63.255||255.255.192.000||16,384||64 C||c = 0, 64, 128, 192|
|a.b.c.0/17||+0.0.127.255||255.255.128.000||32,768||128 C||c = 0, 128|
|a.b.0.0/16||+0.0.255.255||255.255.000.000||65,536||256 C = 1 B|
|a.b.0.0/15||+0.1.255.255||255.254.000.000||131,072||2 B||b = 0 ... (2n) ... 254|
|a.b.0.0/14||+0.3.255.255||255.252.000.000||262,144||4 B||b = 0 ... (4n) ... 252|
|a.b.0.0/13||+0.7.255.255||255.248.000.000||524,288||8 B||b = 0 ... (8n) ... 248|
|a.b.0.0/12||+0.15.255.255||255.240.000.000||1,048,576||16 B||b = 0 ... (16n) ... 240|
|a.b.0.0/11||+0.31.255.255||255.224.000.000||2,097,152||32 B||b = 0 ... (32n) ... 224|
|a.b.0.0/10||+0.63.255.255||255.192.000.000||4,194,304||64 B||b = 0, 64, 128, 192|
|a.b.0.0/9||+0.127.255.255||255.128.000.000||8,388,608||128 B||b = 0, 128|
|a.0.0.0/8||+0.255.255.255||255.000.000.000||16,777,216||256 B = 1 A|
|a.0.0.0/7||+126.96.36.199||254.000.000.000||33,554,432||2 A||a = 0 ... (2n) ... 254|
|a.0.0.0/6||+188.8.131.52||252.000.000.000||67,108,864||4 A||a = 0 ... (4n) ... 252|
|a.0.0.0/5||+184.108.40.206||248.000.000.000||134,217,728||8 A||a = 0 ... (8n) ... 248|
|a.0.0.0/4||+220.127.116.11||240.000.000.000||268,435,456||16 A||a = 0 ... (16n) ... 240|
|a.0.0.0/3||+18.104.22.168||224.000.000.000||536,870,912||32 A||a = 0 ... (32n) ... 224|
|a.0.0.0/2||+22.214.171.124||192.000.000.000||1,073,741,824||64 A||a = 0, 64, 128, 192|
|a.0.0.0/1||+127.255.255.255||128.000.000.000||2,147,483,648||128 A||a = 0, 128|
In routed subnets larger than /31 or /32, the number of available host addresses is usually reduced by two, namely the largest address, which is reserved as the broadcast address, and the smallest address, which identifies the network itself.
IPv6 CIDR blocks
The large address size used in IPv6 permitted implementation of world-wide route summarization and guaranteed sufficient address pools at each site. The standard subnet size for IPv6 networks is a /64 block, which is required for the operation of stateless address autoconfiguration. At first, the IETF recommended in RFC 3177 as a best practice that all end sites receive a /48 address allocation, however, criticism and reevaluation of actual needs and practices has led to more flexible allocation recommendations in RFC 6177 suggesting a significantly smaller allocation for some sites, such as a /56 block for home networks.
CIDR provides the possibility of fine-grained routing prefix aggregation. For example, sixteen contiguous /24 networks can be aggregated and advertised to a larger network as a single /20 route, if the first 20 bits of their network addresses match. Two aligned contiguous /20 blocks may be aggregated to a /19, and so forth. This results in reduction of the number of routes that have to be advertised.
- RFC 1518, An Architecture for IP Address Allocation with CIDR, Y. Rekhter, T. Li (September 1993)
- RFC 1519, Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR): an Address Assignment and Aggregation Strategy, V. Fuller, T. Li, J. Yu, K. Varadhan (September 1993)
- RFC 1517, Applicability Statement for the Implementation of Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR), R. Hinden, Ed., (September 1993)
- RFC 4632, Classless Inter-domain Routing (CIDR): The Internet Address Assignment and Aggregation Plan, V. Fuller, T. Li (August 2006)
- RFC 950, Internet Standard Subnetting Procedure, J. Mogul, J. Postel, Eds. (August 1985), Section 2.1
- Carl-Herbert Rokitansky, "Internet Cluster Addressing Scheme and its Application to Public Data Networks", Proc. 9th International Conference on Computer Communication (ICCC' 88), pp. 482-491, Tel Aviv, Israel, Oct./Nov. 1988
- Cluster Addressing and CIDR in the mail archives of the IEFT
- RFC 922, Broadcasting Internet Datagrams in the Presence of Subnets, J. Mogul (Ed.), October 1984, Section 7.
- RFC 1812, Requirements for IP Version 4 Routers, F. Baker (Ed.), June 1995, Section 126.96.36.199
- RFC 4862
- RFC 3177, IAB/IESG Recommendation on IPv6 Address Allocations to Sites, IAB/IESG (September 2001)
- RFC 6177, IPv6 Address Assignment to End Sites, T. Narten, G. Huston, L. Roberts (March 2011)
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Bullhead Sharks — 9 species
- snout pig-like, deep nasoral groove connecting nostrils to mouth corners
- prominent ridge above each eye; eyes without nictitating fold
- five pairs of gill slits, the last three above the pectoral fin base; spiracles tiny
- a stout spine on the forward margin of both dorsal fins
- presence of an anal fin (which serves to distinguish them from the spiny dogfishes, order Squaliformes)
- in adults, molar-like crushing teeth in rear of the jaws that are very different from the conical grasping teeth in front (hence the group's scientific name, which means "different teeth")
- oviparous; egg case auger-shaped, conical with two broad flanges spiraling from apex to base
- bottom-dwellers in shallow coastal waters (usually less than 300 feet or 100 metres); exclusively marine, inhabiting warm temperate and tropical parts of the western and eastern Pacific and western Indian oceans
- a single genus (Heterodontus) in the family Heterodontidae
The heterodontoids just don't get the respect they deserve as card-carrying, union-member sharks. It's not their fault — they are victims of their own appearance. Bullhead sharks have a pig-like snout and a small puckered mouth, a surprised expression punctuated by bovine brow-ridges, and a chubby little body sparkling with over-sized scales. Bullheads move with an endearing clumsiness — either clambering over the bottom on large, paddle-like pectoral fins or swimming with an exaggerated wriggle, resembling fat-bellied pollywogs. An embodiment of piscine cuteness, bullheads seem an ideal antidote to the pernicious image with which all sharks have been saddled since JAWS.
Heterodontoids are nocturnally active predators; juveniles feed on buried worms, adults on small fishes, crustaceans, and molluscs. Bullhead shark table manners range from unrefined to downright comical. When consuming hard-shelled invertebrate prey, bullheads typically grind up the food and swallow it — shell and all — regurgitating the hard parts later. Off California, the Horn Shark (Heterodontus francisci) has a definite predilection for red sea urchins, which often results in its teeth being stained reddish-brown - like the tongue of a child that has just finished a grape popsicle. Horn sharks apparently also appreciate interactive novelty snacks, as some have been observed to 'pounce' on sea anemones, nipping off a mouthful of tentacles before the hapless invertebrate could retract them.
Horn Shark (Heterodontus francisci)
Bullheads are smallish sharks, the various species growing to lengths of 4 to 5.6 feet (1.2 to 1.7 metres). Their modest size renders bullheads vulnerable to predation. The characteristic fin spines of bullheads are an effective anti-predator device, discouraging larger fishes from eating these snack-sized sharks. On several occasions, Pacific Angel Sharks (Squatina californica) off California have been filmed swallowing juvenile Horn Sharks, only to disgorge them with much haste and what looks for all the world like abject disgust. There is even a report from Australia of a Port Jackson Shark (Heterodontus portusjacksoni) stuck in the mouth of a dead wobbegong, which was apparently asphyxiated by its prickly last meal.
The egg cases of bullhead sharks are among the most wonderfully bizarre in all of Nature. They are auger-shaped: more-or-less conical and surrounded by two broad spiral flanges. This shape enables a mother bullhead to wedge her eggs (usually laid two at a time) into crevices, preventing removal by most would-be predators without benefit of opposable thumbs. The Crested Bullhead, (Heterodontus galeatus) has egg cases with a pair of tendrils, which readily tangle around kelp structures, anchoring them. The Japanese Bullhead (Heterodontus japonicus) apparently uses communal nesting sites — with as many as 15 eggs deposited in the same patch — using them as a kind of heterodontoid day care. Due to their awkward shape, each bullhead egg case requires several hours to rotate out of the mother shark's cloaca. Even in the very serious matter of perpetuating their lineage, heterodontoids are less-than-dignified.
Bullhead eggs hatch after a gestation period of 5 to 12 months, depending upon species and water temperature. Size at birth varies with species, ranging from 5.5 to 9.5 inches (14 to 24 centimetres) in length. Recent studies by Wesley Strong off California indicate that adult horn sharks utilize a home range of up to 10,760 square feet (1,000 square metres); tagging studies in eastern Australia have revealed that the Port Jackson Shark makes annual migrations of up to 525 miles (850 kilometres) along the coast. Bullheads do well in private and public aquaria, the Horn Shark both breeding and holding the record for longevity in captivity at 25 years.
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The Santa Fe Trail was the first of America's great trans-
Mississippi routes. The trail, including the Mountain and Cimarron routes, traversed more than 1,200 miles from Franklin, Missouri, to Santa Fe, New Mexico.
From 1821 to 1880, it was an important two-way avenue for commerce and cultural exchange among Spanish, American Indian, and American cultures. The area around the Santa Fe Trail boasts more than 20 historic districts and 30 individual sites that are recorded on the National Register of Historic Places.
Archaeological Qualities of the Santa Fe Trail
The Santa Fe Trail offers many archaeological sites, including some with early excavations. From 1915 to 1927, Pecos was the subject of one of the first organized excavations of a Southwestern ruin.
Pioneer American archaeologist Alfred V. Kidder analyzed the stratigraphy (the sequence in which the archaeological remains of the pueblo were deposited). He noted changes in the artifacts, especially the pottery, from the lower, older layers of occupation through the upper, younger layers. Kidder used the relative ages of the pottery remains to establish relative dates of occupation at Pecos. Based on that information, he and his colleagues devised the Pecos Classification, a sequence of eight prehistoric cultural periods that applied to sites throughout the Southwest.
In 1965, Congress and the president authorized the establishment of Pecos National Monument. In the summer of 1966, National Park Service archaeologists began excavation of the church and convent; their findings not only cast new light on the history of the Southwest but also substantiated reports of 17th-century writers whose words had been held suspect.
Both the church and the convent were puzzling. The 17th-century ecclesiastics had described the church as being large, splendid, magnificent, and of unusual design, but the remaining adobe walls are of a church that had none of those characteristics. However, it was discovered that the convent was much larger than a church of modest size.
In the summer of 1967, the project archaeologist discovered stone foundations resting on bedrock and fragments of burned adobe walls. Under and around the ruins of the known church, further excavations uncovered the foundations of an earlier church that was nearly 170 feet long, 90 feet wide at the transept, and 39 feet wide inside the nave. The building was typical of the fortress churches of Mexico. It had bastioned nave walls and subsidiary chapels in thick-walled, cruciformlike (cross-shaped) arms near the sanctuary. Only 18 such structures were known in the Americas until the Pecos find, and none were north of Mexico City.
It is now clear that the large church and convent were constructed in the 1620s and later destroyed during the Pueblo Revolt of 1680. The convent was then reconstructed, and a new church was built following the Reconquest, probably in the early 1700s.
The archaeological survey now in progress is designed to locate small sites showing evidence of activities on which the Pecos livelihood was based. Evidence of agriculture field systems, including check dams, farming terraces, and overnight houses, has been uncovered. Rock art and hunting camps have also been identified, including Apache tipi ring sites that verify historical reports of Apache encampments for trade with the Pecos people. Some evidence suggests that the Pecos area may have been at least a marginal site for human occupation for several thousand years.
Recent excavations have uncovered two large semi-subterranean houses on the grassy flats south and west of monument headquarters. These pithouses, the first to be reported from the Upper Pecos River area, were built in the 9th century. They were probably part of a village that may have been occupied on a seasonal basis. The architecture is similar to that of both the Anasazi people of the Rio Grande Valley and the Mogollon of southern New Mexico.
Cultural Qualities of the Santa Fe Trail
The Santa Fe Trail was the first trail of commerce between the Southwest and the United States. From 1821 to 1880, the Santa Fe Trail was an important two-way avenue for commerce and cultural exchange among Spanish, Native American, and American cultures. You can see evidence of this abounding culture in many of the events and activities on the byway.
Historical Qualities of the Santa Fe Trail
The Santa Fe Trail was the first international trade route, carrying needed materials from Missouri to northern Mexico and taking back silver, furs, mules, and wood to Missouri.
As early as the 1700s, Pueblo and Plains Indian trade fairs at Pecos and Taos introduced Spanish residents to native products. Yet trade between New Mexico and other settlements throughout the West was banned because New Mexico was a colony of Spain and could trade only with the mother country.
Beginning in 1810 and succeeding in 1821, uprisings in Mexico gave New Mexico freedom to trade with anyone. November 16, 1821, is recognized as the start of legal international trade between New Mexico and the United States; this date also marks the beginning of the Santa Fe Trail.
The Santa Fe Trail passed through the territories and ranges of many Native American nations, including the Pawnee, Arapaho, Cheyenne, Comanche, and the Kiowa, so American Indian traders used it as a commercial route.
After the Mexican War (1846-1848), the Jicarillas, Comanches, Kiowas, and other nations became increasingly threatened by the traffic on the trail. With the American promise to the people of New Mexico to subdue the various American Indian nations, an intermittent war began that ended in the mid-1870s. The American Indian nations of New Mexico were then confined to reservations.
After the Mexican War (and with New Mexico a U.S. Territory), the trail became mainly a military road. It supplied goods to the large contingent of troops in the Southwest, and mercantile goods were still carried into Mexico and New Mexico. After the Civil War, railroads began laying tracks to the West. By 1879, the first locomotive reached Las Vegas, New Mexico, and in 1880, the railroad reached Lamy, essentially ending wagon traffic across the 900 miles of plains.
Natural Qualities of the Santa Fe Trail
The Santa Fe Trail offers an array of flora and fauna. Vegetation ranges from small pockets of tall grass prairies to the buffalo and blue grama grass found on the short grass plains east of the Sangre de Cristos Mountains.
South and east of Las Vegas, the trail enters the pinon pine and juniper vegetation zones as the elevation increases in the mountains. Antelopes, coyotes, elks, and bears are prevalent in the area. Bird life is profuse, including small mountain bluebirds, hawks, bald eagles, and golden eagles. Many species of reptiles also inhabit the area, including the prairie rattlesnake and the western diamondback rattlesnake.
From its easternmost point at Old Franklin, Missouri, the trail traveled west to Cimarron, Kansas, where it split into two routes. The original trail, the Cimarron Route, headed southwest across Colorado, Oklahoma, and New Mexico. The Mountain Route headed west into Colorado and then went south to New Mexico. The routes joined again at Watrous.
The Cimarron National Grassland near Elkhart, Kansas, contains 23 miles of the trail's Cimarron Route, the longest trail segment on public land. A 19-mile companion trail, a mowed swath across the prairie, parallels the actual trail route. Point of Rocks, a large outcropping of rock that rises above the prairie, was visible for long distances from both directions along the trail. Today, you can drive to the top to enjoy this view.
A short distance east of Point of Rocks is Middle Springs, a small oasis on the prairie where water rises from an ever-flowing artesian spring. It was the only reliable watering spot for 30 miles each way along the trail. This welcome resting spot along the trail now has a picnic area and walking trail for your enjoyment.
The winding ribbon of the Cimarron Route crosses the Kiowa National Grassland 15 miles north of Clayton, off Highway 406. Time, weather, and erosion have not erased the deep wagon ruts stretching across two miles of this grassland.
The Mountain Route coursed northwest after splitting from the main trail at Cimarron, Kansas. Along its length, it unraveled the Aubry Cutoff a few miles east of the Kansas/Colorado line and the Granada Fort Union Road just west of the state line.
As it continued its westward path, the Mountain Route curved to the north, tracing what is now Route 50. Here, the changing horizon from plains to mountains was a major milestone on the journey, surely causing great excitement among the travelers. The mountains may have also produced apprehension as travelers anticipated having to climb with heavily laden wagons.
Recreational Qualities of the Santa Fe Trail
You'll find many recreational activities along the Santa Fe Trail, including fishing, camping, skiing, mountain biking, and hiking. Several state parks and recreational areas are located in northeastern New Mexico. As a matter of fact, outdoor recreation is one of the top four reasons people visit New Mexico.
Find more useful information related to New Mexico's Santa Fe Trail:
- New Mexico Scenic Drives: The Santa Fe Trail is just one of the scenic byways in New Mexico. Check out the others.
- Cimarron, Clayton, Las Vegas, Santa Fe: Find out what there is to do in these cities along the Santa Fe Trail.
- Scenic Drives: Are you interested in scenic drives beyond New Mexico? Here are more than 100 scenic drives throughout the United States.
- How to Drive Economically: Fuel economy is a major concern when you're on a driving trip. Learn how to get better gas mileage.
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Membrane Applications in Water Plants
Although it is considered "conventional" in many parts of the world, membrane technology is beginning to get serious attention by U.S. water suppliers as one of the newest treatment alternatives for high-quality drinking water production. The interest is well-deserved as water suppliers grapple with layer upon layer of water supply issues. As with any technology-and especially those with limited U.S. application to serve as reference-keen interest must be balanced with prudence. When it comes to drinking water, there is no room for technologies that don't deliver results. And, when it comes to spending public money, there is little tolerance for "innovations" that carry excessive price tags.
Over the past couple of years, several water suppliers in the U.S. have selected membrane technology for new or upgraded water systems Although each system inevitably is confronted by individual conditions, one water supplier-Plantation, Florida, which relies on wells for its source-faced issues that are familiar to water suppliers around the country. The work of the city and its consultant, Metcalf & Eddy, to address those interconnected issues illustrates the factors that must be considered and accommodated in the selection of a membrane treatment process. Not surprisingly, those factors begin with the water supply and end at the tap.
Looking To Upgrade
Like water supply systems across the country, Plantation's East Water Treatment Plant was approaching the end of its useful life. The plant's three Dorr-Olive clarifier/filters, lime-handling system, clearwells, and 0.6 million gallon storage tank were built between 1955 and 1965. A 1.0 million gallon storage tank was added in 1967 and a 3.0 million gallon tank constructed in 1984. Treatment equipment for sludge dewatering, chlorination, hydofluosilicic acid feed, a second lime-handling system, and a 6 mgd Infilco softener and Greenleaf filter were installed in 1977. Although an ammonia handling system was added in 1984, that system, as well as the Dorr-Oliver treatment units and the original lime storage/feed system, had not been used in recent years.
The nominal capacity of the treatment system was 13 MGD. With actual production during the past three years between 2 and 6 mgd, the East Plant was relegated to serving as a peaking facility for Plantation's water system, which centered on the recently-renovated Central Treatment Plant.
The broad issues facing the city were not uncommon: deteriorated equipment, increased service demand, and heightened treatment requirements inflicted by new or anticipated Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) controls on pathogens and disinfection/disinfection by-products (D/DBP). Technical choices available ranged from replacing existing equipment with upgraded lime softening to employing membrane softening. Potential upgrades to the lime-softening system included incorporating ozonation, activated carbon, ultraviolet irradiation, or a combination of those. Based on earlier experience with membrane technology at its Central Treatment Plant, Plantation initiated a program to upgrade the East Treatment Plant using membrane technology. A need for flexibility and cost-efficiency fueled the decision to develop all the support facilities that would be required for the full build out of a 12 mgd facility, but to limit initial installation of new membrane treatment units to those required for 6 mgd production capacity initially. Until the new system was operable, the existing lime-softening system and all essential support systems had to remain in service.
The city's utility director, Mel Entus, wanted to use as much of the existing system as possible in the new design. Still, the new reverse osmosis (RO) softening system selected required a new building with approximately 16,000 sq ft of floor space on one level. Constructing this facility required the demolition of the north Dorr-Oliver treatment unit, the washwater recovery basin, the lime sludge lagoon, the sludge thickener, the vacuum filter, and the sludge-dewatering building. The demolition, in turn, required the use of a temporary lime sludge lagoon and backwash recovery basin to maintain the Infilco lime-softening system in service. The 5-mgd Dorr-Oliver unit was converted for sludge storage and the 0.6 million gallon storage tank was assigned to backwash recovery.
Unlike many selection processes where the optimal treatment technology is the result of extensive evaluations of alternative technologies, Plantation's upgrading project began with deciding on a scheme capable of achieving very high treatment levels. Targeting reverse osmosis was not the last step in the process; rather, it was Plantation's first step, based on previous experiences with RO. And, like any first step, the effects and needs triggered by Plantation's decisions extended far beyond the treatment process.
The Starting Point: Water Supply
Three primary water supply issues were identified immediately: raw water quality, adequate quantity, and the withdrawal/transmission system. Each factor could be expected to affect the applicability, design and performance of an RO system.
Jay Ameno, M&E Project Director, explained, "Many people are familiar with the fouling potential of membrane systems and of the effect raw water quality will have on that potential. What is less often recognized, though, is the expected effect of an RO system on withdrawal capacity or the interdependence of the treatment and supply facilities. Assessing the water supply system goes far beyond identifying raw water quality parameters."
In fact, the assessment extended beyond gathering water quality data, both chemical and biological, to include the following: configuration of original wells, materials of construction, pumps, piping, valving, electrical components, geology, hydrogeology, capacity, well efficiency, sand and colloidal material, maintenance history, age and life expectancy of wells, and permitted capacity. After each well was investigated, the wellfield and the raw water transmission system as a whole required evaluation.
Water Quality: The nature of membrane softening triggers particular concern over raw water quality because of the potential for membrane biofouling. Identifying the source and type of any biological contamination also was critical here in assessing the potential remediation of wells or the wellfield. Seven of the ten wells serving the East Plant are located within approximately 50 ft of the East Holloway canal. Under current regulations issued by the Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP), the South Florida Water Management District (SFWMD), and Broward County, these wells would not be permitted because of that proximity. The canal, which acts as a source of recharge, could have a hydraulic connection to the wells, with the possibility of biological contamination from a surface water source. Exacerbating that possibility is the Miami Limestone Formation, a very porous formation through which the canal is cut. Finally, the species of biological contaminant was of critical concern, not only for well protection, but also for the protection of the cartridge filters and membranes.
Supply System: The existing supply system showed signs of deterioration. Some well pumps showed leaking packing glands, which allowed the development of algal, bacteriologic and fungal growths on the outside of the wells. One pump bowl assembly, which had been left on the pad of a well, showed severe corrosion, indicating galvanic incompatibility between the water and well materials. In addition, concerns about water hammer arose. This could possibly cause silting and sanding problems, and even contamination from the nearby canal.
Based on the analysis, the newest existing 1 mgd well was to be modified, and joined by seven new 2.4 mgd wells with 100 hp submersible, stainless steel pumps to provide a minimum pressure in the 50p;60 psi range in the RO feed-pump suction header. The new wells are approximately 150 ft deep, cased for the first 110 ft with a 24-in. diameter, 1-in thick PVC casing. The open hole portion has the ability to have a stainless steel screen installed if required, according to project hydrogeologist G. M. Witt.
Permitting: Groundwater withdrawals in Broward County are controlled by two regulatory agencies: SFWMD, which regulates the quantity of water that can be withdrawn by any individual entity from a given area and issues FDEP permits for well construction, repair and abandonment; and Broward County, which controls the placement of wells and wellfields through the county's Wellfield Protection Ordinance.
The Plantation utility already had a consumptive use permit for its wellfield but several other permitting issues emerged.
First, the city's SFWMD permit, with an expiration date of June 10, 1998, had a 1995 permitted allocation of 4.451 billion gallons per year, with a maximum daily allocation of 16.33 million gallons. For 1998, the allocation shows a 21 percent increase, for an annual withdrawal of 5.631 billion gallons a year. Although this is adequate to meet projected service demands, an RO system would be expected to show a loss of approximately 15 percent of the supply as concentrate, or brine. To obtain the 12 mgd of finished water required by the city from the East Plant, 14 mgd of raw water is needed.
The Back End: Waste Disposal
The use of membrane technology in Plantation depended on the city's ability to dispose of the brine, or concentrate, generated by the membrane process. Concentrate from any RO process is classified by the FDEP and the USEPA as an industrial waste by-product, and its disposal requires an industrial discharge permit from the state. In addition, the concentrate quality must be compatible with the receiving body's water quality standards-and RO concentrate typically contains at least one constituent that exceeds acceptable water quality standards for surface water discharge. For drinking water, the parameters that may exceed acceptable levels include hydrogen sulfide, total dissolved solids, dissolved oxygen, calcium/magnesium carbonates, pH, specific conductance, chlorides, radionuclides, fluoride, and metals.
Plantation considered several options for concentrate disposal. Discharging directly into the ocean was unlikely, so consideration shifted to tapping into an existing ocean outfall. However, the nearest outfall systems are located at least 12 miles away from the treatment plant. Other surface water disposal possibilities included the withdrawal of canal water from the East Holloway Canal, mixing the concentrate with the canal water, and discharging the mixture back into the North New River Canal; or, mixing the concentrate with the canal water and incorporating it into a reuse system.
Deep well injection is a viable alternative when surface water discharges are not feasible due to such conditions as receiving water body acceptability, source availability, or regulatory constraints. Because of its classification as an industrial waste, RO concentrate requires a Class I injection well for disposal, defined by the FDEP as a well used to inject hazardous waste beneath the lower-most formation containing an underground source of drinking water within one quarter mile of the well bore.
A Class I well requires certain subsurface conditions, including a highly permeable injection zone that has been classified by the FDEP as suitable for waste injection. In southeast Florida, the Lower Oldsmar Formation, or Boulder Zone, has been used successfully as an injection zone. To protect the potable and potentially potable water supplies of the Biscayne and Floridan aquifers, brine concentrate disposal wells have to be constructed with approximately seven strings of casing in various diameters. Each casing string must be completely cemented in place, with the exception of the pit casing and the monitor zones of the intermediate casing, using API Class H cement and lost circulation additives to ensure a good bond. The final selection of casing depths, monitor zones, and injection zones depends on information collected during the drilling, sampling, and testing of a mandatory pilot hole.
Although Plantation was using an RO concentrate injection well at the Central Water Treatment Plant, the geology at that site differed significantly from the geology at the East Plant's proposed injection well site -just as the raw water feeding the two plants differed.
The Centerpiece: Treatment
The East Treatment Plant's existing processes included lime precipitation, clarification, gravity filtration, and chlorine disinfection. Raw water was extracted from the Biscayne aquifer. Three of the clarifier/filter units, representing about half the 13 mgd capacity of the plant, had reached the end of their useful lives. At the very least, they required major renovation or replacement. Even with that type of response, however, the resulting system would have been incapable of meeting the SDWA rules for D/DBP and organics control. To meet the requirements the existing lime-softening system would have to be upgraded. Candidate technologies to accomplish this included ozonation, activated carbon, ultraviolet irradiation, or combinations such as ozonation/GAC.
Because of the city's successful experience with the Central Plant, which had been upgraded with a membrane system, Plantation's interest in using similar technology at the East Plant was understandable. Yet, different considerations affected selection of the appropriate solution for each facility, precluding a "twin" design.
Three major differences deserve mention. First, the Central plant had an existing wellfield designed around lime softening, whereas the East plant has a wellfield developed specifically for membrane processing. Second, lime facilities at the East plant were in good condition, allowing conversion from quicklime to hydrated lime for pH and alkalinity control. This change enables the East plant to produce a stable finished water, reducing the need for much additional treatment for scale prevention or corrosion control. Third, a wider selection of membranes is available now than at the time the Central Plant was upgraded with a membrane system.
Despite these broad differences, there was considerable interest in maintaining reasonable uniformity between the membrane softening systems at the two plants, which led to Metcalf & Eddy's development of an upgrade design for the East Plant that shared as many characteristics as possible with the Central facility. Among these were the size and capacity of the membrane modules (standard 8-in. diameter by 40-in. spiral wound membrane modules with 360 sq ft or more of effective surface area); the pretreatment equipment (depth-type, plain-end, 40 in. polyethylene cartridge filter elements in industrial style housings located ahead of the membrane softening arrays); and the Allen-Bradley programmable logic controller hardware and software.
The similarities between the two systems were accompanied by significant differences, based on the different design considerations of the two plants. For example:
- The East Plant was to be equipped with 2 mgd arrays instead of the 3 mgd arrays in the Central Plant. Normal maintenance activities (such as membrane cleaning) remove a smaller fraction of the plant's capacity from service with the smaller arrays in place.
- Side-entry pressure vessels were used at the East Plant rather than the end-entry vessels installed at Central. Side-entry, fiberglass-reinforced, thermosetting resin pressure vessels were not commercially available when the Central Plant was upgraded. They are easier to maintain.
- The arrays at the East Plant are top-fed to maintain a wetted condition for the membranes during idle periods.
- Single-stage, horizontal split-case centrifugal pumps are used at the East Plant instead of the multi-stage vertical turbine type installed at the Central Plant. The relatively low head requirements for softening type membranes can be satisfied by standard ANSI design, split case, or API pumps that have lower capital and operational costs, and that are readily available in all-stainless construction. The vertical turbine units used at Central were designed for the higher head requirements of cellulose acetate and brackish water thin-film composite membranes, and to accommodate a lime-softening process with a low-head requirement. The East plant, on the other hand, was designed to provide a higher head, which was needed for membrane applications.
- In-line static mixers are employed in the new East Plant process scheme to ensure uniform dispersion of chemical additives. The other plant depends on the natural turbulence created in the piping and pumping components. This has a slow response and corresponding difficulty in controlling the process.
- Raw well water is used at the East Plant instead of membrane-softened water for flushing membranes on shutdowns. The membrane array is equipped with special control valves to eliminate the need for a separate flush-water system.
- The standby generator installation at East Plant qualifies the facility for a load-control rate from the electric power utility. Application of such a rate can reduce power costs by about 15 percent. Anticipated savings are $30,000 to $40,000 per year.
- The upgraded treatment scheme (see diagram) begins with an acid/antiscalent addition and proceeds to cartridge filtration, membrane softening, sequesterant addition, and forced draft degas. The degassified water is transported to the existing clearwells for blending with hydrated lime for pH control, fluoride, and chlorine for disinfection.
Site Specific Applications
Even small differences in water quality or existing design parameters can have a profound effect on the selection of appropriate treatment technology. Membranes come in various configurations, materials of construction, and removal efficiencies, and designing an effective system is a complex process of addressing issues that range from raw water quality and volume to finished water taste. Although the two water treatment processes at Plantation share several components and characteristics, they are different.
Just a few miles away, in Hollywood, Florida, a completely different system, also designed by Eddy, was built. That city's original water supply, like that of Plantation, was the Biscayne aquifer, but a growing population demanded additional supplies. Because of the withdrawal limits imposed on Southeast Florida water users, the city was forced to seek out new water supplies to supplement its existing allotment from the Biscayne Aquifer. The Floridan Aquifer, a deeper and poorer-quality source, proved adequate in quantity. Since the city's existing lime-softening equipment had reached the end of its expected lifespan and was incapable of meeting upcoming SDWA regulations, Hollywood set about developing a new system.
The design response in that community was vastly different from that in Plantation, involving two separate treatment trains to augment the existing lime-softening system. The first new section used nanofiltration, while the second train (reserved for use on the poor-quality Floridan Aquifer water) employed reverse osmosis. The more "obvious" design response to the two-source raw water supply would have been to combine the flow from the two sources and subject it to one treatment process. In the case of the combined Biscayne and Floridan water, that single treatment process would have been reverse osmosis, which is the most intensive method-and usually the most expensive. Instead, the designers chose to treat each separate raw water supply according to its specific needs, and then to blend the finished water prior to distribution for a uniform taste and odor. The innovative, parallel treatment response produced considerable savings for the client and ensured that the finished water would be virtually indistinguishable from that previously provided by the city's lime-softening system.
Because membrane technology is relatively new in the United States, especially for drinking water applications other than desalination, many water suppliers are unfamiliar with the intricacies of membrane design and application. That unfamiliarity is counteracted by an understandable interest in the technology, based on its ability to address such critical drinking water issues as pathogen and D/DBP control. It deserves note that the technology's promise as the treatment technology of choice for many water utilities must be balanced with a recognition that its application is site-specific, dependent on variables that include raw water quality, required treatment levels, existing infrastructure, disposal methods, and cost.
In fact, "membrane technology" is not a single product or system, but a category of systems, processes, materials and products. The four primary types of membrane technology-ultrafiltration, microfiltration, nanofiltration and reverse-osmosis (also called hyperfiltration)-are available in a variety of configurations and materials of construction. Any specific membrane type may or may not require pretreated water. The selection of the wrong type, configuration, or material for any individual application is likely to trigger problems ranging from frequent fouling to unacceptable removal efficiencies.
It is because of these variables that membrane technologies-perhaps more than treatment techniques with which we in the U.S. are more familiar-virtually demand front-end testing in bench-scale, pilot-scale, or both. Without doubt, membranes represent a significant advance in drinking water technology and are likely to play a growing role in the U.S. water industry. When properly selected, designed and installed, they outperform many conventional processes and virtually eliminate the potential for pathogen breakthrough. But, as with any technology employed in the unforgiving business of providing safe drinking water-and as those of us in the industry realize on a day-to-day basis -the success of any individual application rests as much on the capabilities of the designers as on the structure of the equipment and facilities: the "thinking" is as critical as the "constructing."
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Military officer, b. in Dungannon County Tyrone, Ireland, 12 Dec., 1810; d. at Ottumwa, Iowa, 1 June, 1879. He emigrated to the United States in 1826 where he at one proceeded to study law and began practicing at Kaskaskia, Ill., in 1832. He was elected to the state Legislature in 1836; became state auditor in 1839 and judge of the state supreme court in 1843. He was fulfilling his duties as commissioner of the general land-office when war with Mexico was declared, and he was commissioned brigadier general by President Polk, 1 July 1846. General Shields served with distinction under Taylor, Wool, and Scott, and gained the brevet of major-general at Cerro Gordo, where he was shot through the lung. He was again severely wounded at Chapultepec, and was mustered out in 1848. The same year he was appointed Governor of the Territory of Oregon, which office he soon resigned to represent Illinois in the United States Senate as a democrat. After the expiration of his term he removed to Minnesota and was United States senator from that state from 1858 to 1860, when he removed to California. On the breaking out of the Civil War, he was appointed brigadier-general of volunteers, 19 August, 1861. He fought gallantly in the Shenandoah Valley campaign, opening hostilities at Winchester, though severely wounded the preceding day in a preliminary engagement. While in command at Port Republic he was decisively beaten by General Jackson and resigned his commission, 28 March, 1863. He returned to California whence he removed to Carrollton, Mo., where he continued the practice of law. He subsequently served his state as a railroad commissioner and was a member of the Legislature from 1874-79. He was United States senator from Missouri at the time of his death. A monument was erected to him in St. Mary's Cemetery at Carrollton, which was unveiled by Archbishop Glennon on 12 Nov., 1910.
The Catholic Encyclopedia is the most comprehensive resource on Catholic teaching, history, and information ever gathered in all of human history. This easy-to-search online version was originally printed between 1907 and 1912 in fifteen hard copy volumes.
Designed to present its readers with the full body of Catholic teaching, the Encyclopedia contains not only precise statements of what the Church has defined, but also an impartial record of different views of acknowledged authority on all disputed questions, national, political or factional. In the determination of the truth the most recent and acknowledged scientific methods are employed, and the results of the latest research in theology, philosophy, history, apologetics, archaeology, and other sciences are given careful consideration.
No one who is interested in human history, past and present, can ignore the Catholic Church, either as an institution which has been the central figure in the civilized world for nearly two thousand years, decisively affecting its destinies, religious, literary, scientific, social and political, or as an existing power whose influence and activity extend to every part of the globe. In the past century the Church has grown both extensively and intensively among English-speaking peoples. Their living interests demand that they should have the means of informing themselves about this vast institution, which, whether they are Catholics or not, affects their fortunes and their destiny.
Copyright © Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company New York, NY. Volume 1: 1907; Volume 2: 1907; Volume 3: 1908; Volume 4: 1908; Volume 5: 1909; Volume 6: 1909; Volume 7: 1910; Volume 8: 1910; Volume 9: 1910; Volume 10: 1911; Volume 11: - 1911; Volume 12: - 1911; Volume 13: - 1912; Volume 14: 1912; Volume 15: 1912
Catholic Online Catholic Encyclopedia Digital version Compiled and Copyright © Catholic Online
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| 0.972907 | 785 | 2.515625 | 3 |
In a previous post, I indicated that the NYT article on the spinal-tap test for Alzheimer's contained insufficient data for readers to fully buy its supposedly super predictive ability. Reader Chris P. looked up the specificity, and found it rather lower than we would have thought. This doesn't mean the test is bad, it is just not "perfect".
Now, let us assume the test is good enough. Let's think about the implications.
There are two basic ways by which the spinal tap proteins could be related to Alzheimer's. Either that there is a direct causal path, or that some underlying process causes both the deposit of spinal tap proteins and Alzheimer's. The article mentions a "prevailing hypothesis" that amyloid and tau accumulation are necessary for Alzheimer's. That would be consistent with the first possibility.
There is a second possibility, which is that what we observe is only correlation, not causation. This could happen if some other mechanism causes Alzheimer's but that mechanism also creates spinal tap proteins.
The researchers reported that of all those known to have Alzheimer's, almost all of them have spinal-tap protein deposits. This raises the spectre of reversing the causal path. What if these protein deposits are a result of having Alzheimer's?
The point is that establishing the cause of a disease is no easy matter. In Chapter 2, I looked at tracing foodborne disease outbreaks; explaining other diseases are no less challenging.
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Most people think of Halloween as a time for fun and treats. However, roughly four times as many children aged 5-14 are killed while walking on Halloween evening compared with other evenings of the year. Falls are also a leading cause of injuries among children on Halloween. Many of these injuries can be prevented if parents closely supervise school-aged children during trick-or-treat activities.
Following are a few tips to help make this holiday as safe as possible: Children should only go to well-lit houses and remain on porches rather than entering houses. Traveling in small groups, accompanied by an adult, is always a good idea. Every year, many children do get lost, so it is important to have their names and phone numbers attached to their costumes if they are too young to remember. Someone in the group should be carrying a cell in case of an emergency.
Make sure they bring all treats home before eating so parents can inspect them. Although the risk that your child’s Halloween candy has been tampered with is extremely low, there is also the chance that his candy is unwrapped or spoiled. Use costume knives and swords that are flexible, not rigid or sharp.
When walking in neighborhoods, they should use flashlights, stay on sidewalks and avoid crossing yards. Wear clothing that is bright, reflective and flame retardant. Try to consider using face paint instead of masks, as they can obstruct a child’s vision. Avoid wearing hats that could slide down over their eyes as well as long, baggy costumes and oversized shoes.
If you are driving with or without trick-or-treaters, proceed slowly and watch for children in the street and on medians. Exit driveways and alleyways carefully and have your kids get out of the cars on the curb side – not on the traffic side. As a parent, supervise any and all children under the age of 12 and establish a curfew for older kids.
Finally, prepare your own home for trick-or-treaters by clearing porches, lawns and sidewalks. Avoid giving choking hazards such as gum, peanuts, hard candy or small toys as treats to young children.
HAVE A HAPPY AND SAFE HALLOWEEN!
"I had the opportunity to work with Jason Jones, Owner of Trinity Safety Group, in my capacity as an owner's safety representative. I found Jason to be thorough and forward-thinking. I whole-heartedly endorse Jason as a Safety Manager/Professional."
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Pictures taken from orbit in recent months show that North Korea continues to make headway in building of a light-water atomic reactor at the Yongbyon complex, according to an analysis issued on Tuesday by the Washington-based Institute for Science and International Security (see GSN, Aug. 13).
"Satellite imagery spanning May and June 2012 shows construction progressing apace at the Yongbyon experimental light water reactor (LWR)," the report says. "New construction material has been placed on and near the reactor building. This building has yet to be covered with the dome that has been resting adjacent to the building since November 2011. Apart from the dome, other major external work on the reactor and adjacent building seems to be complete with most of the activity occurring inside the reactor building."
An image taken on May 3 reveals heavy lifting equipment alongside the reactor building. A picture snapped roughly one month later shows a tall quadrilateral shaped edifice has been built next to the north side of the reactor. As of June 24, two new beams seemed to have been installed over the top of the reactor, which still lacked a roof.
An atomic reactor specialist who analyzed the images predicted the reactor might be finished in the last six months of next year.
A building in the Yongbyon fuel production complex also seems to have been finished, with work ongoing for two other structures in the complex, according to a June 5 picture.
North Korea claims the experimental light-water reactor would use uranium enriched at the nearby facility to generate atomic energy for peaceful purposes.
There are concerns, though, that the North instead intends to refine uranium to nuclear weapon-grade levels. Plutonium produced by the reactor could also be used to fuel atomic bombs.
The North's nuclear weapons program to date has relied on plutonium, but some experts have said the regime could use a uranium-powered device in a possible follow-up to its 2006 and 2009 nuclear tests (see GSN, Aug. 7; Albright/Avagyan, Institute for Science and International Security, Aug. 14).
Pictures taken from orbit in recent months show that North Korea continues to make headway in building of a light-water atomic reactor at the Yongbyon complex, according to an analysis issued on Tuesday by the Washington-based Institute for Science and International Security.
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Most people associate guide dogs with aiding the visually impaired. But dogs can also be trained for assisting people with a variety of other conditions.
A dramatic new commercial from Dutch organization KNGF shows how trained dogs can help those suffering from Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), particularly in the case of veterans. The English translation here is a heartstrings-tugger: that service dogs are “not only for people who cannot see, but also for the people who have seen too much.”
These dogs will wake up their owners from a nightmare. Incredible.
Using dogs for trauma isn’t an altogether new concept, but it’s certainly not as commonly recognized as “seeing-eye dogs.” Psychiatric service dogs, as they’re sometimes called, can help treat the aforementioned PTSD.
The American Humane Society has a program called Service Dogs for Veterans, in which they help pair veterans with service dogs. According to their website:
When a veteran is identified by a mental health professional as possibly benefiting from the continuing and ongoing use of a service dog as a tool in the treatment of PTSD, traumatic brain injury, panic attacks, anxiety, depression or a bi-polar disorder, American Humane Association will assist the veteran in adopting and training a shelter dog as a service dog.
They recognize the high cost of mental health care, and present this as a cost-effective alternative for veterans in need of some help and TLC.
There’s also another program [adorably] called Operation Freedom Paws that helps pair veterans with any sort of health/medical issue with an appropriate service dog, and help restore their independence.
But really the main takeaway was summed up by one wise Reddit user: dogs rule, cats drool. “You don’t see cats doing that shit.”
Ain’t it the truth.[via Reddit]
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SAN FRANCISCO, May 29 (UPI) -- Researchers at the University of California, San Francisco, suggest antibiotics may be overused for children with asthma.
Senior author Dr. Michael Cabana, chief of general pediatrics at UCSF's Benioff Children's Hospital, says nearly 9 million U.S. children have asthma. Medications do help prevent asthma attacks and control symptoms.
However, national health guidelines do not currently recommend antibiotics for asthma, Cabana says.
Cabana and first author Dr. Ian Paul of the Pennsylvania State College of Medicine assessed how frequently antibiotics were prescribed to children age 18 and younger who were seen for asthma-specific complaints from 1998 to 2007.
The study, published online in the journal Pediatrics, found of the 5,198 outpatient visits studied, antibiotics were prescribed during nearly one in six visits, or about 1 million antibiotic prescriptions for U.S. children and teens with asthma annually.
The findings raise concerns about breeding drug resistance in children and underscore the need for pediatricians to take a more prudent approach when prescribing antibiotic medications, Cabana says.
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Cherubim of Glory Overshadowing the Atonement Cover (Hebrews 9:1-5)
“Now the first covenant had regulations for worship and also an earthly sanctuary. A tabernacle was set up. In its first room were the lampstand, the table and the consecrated bread; this was called the Holy Place. Behind the second curtain was a room called the Most Holy Place, which had the golden altar of incense and the gold-covered ark of the covenant. This ark contained the gold jar of manna, Aaron’s staff that had budded, and the stone tablets of the covenant. Above the ark were the cherubim of the Glory, overshadowing the atonement cover. But we cannot discuss these things in detail now” ( Hebrews 9:1-5 )
Worship as directed under the first covenant was very detailed. Everything was laid out according to the pattern Moses was shone on the mountain. Everything included in the temple worship had special meanings and significance. Even the items themselves which were placed within the Most Holy Place represented God’s supernatural ability to care for and lead the Israelites.
Behind the second curtain was the Ark of the Covenant, where God dwelt with the people. Inside the Ark was the gold jar of manna, a reminder of the bread that fed the Israelites for years while wandering through the desert in disobedience, Aaron’s staff, which God used after a rebellion to show that Aaron and the Levites were His chosen priests ( Numbers 17 ). And lastly, the Ark contained the stone tablets of the Ten Commandments to remind the Israelites of their Covenant.
Guarding the ark and the Most Holy Place were cherubim of glory. The Israelites could not enter because these creatures protected this area. In fact, only the High Priest could enter this room, and only once a year with blood which He poured on the mercy seat making atonement for the sins of the people. The priest made this offering directly before God. We know this from Moses’ account inside the tent, “When Moses entered the Tent of Meeting to speak with the LORD, he heard the voice speaking to him from between the two cherubim above the atonement cover on the ark of the Testimony. And he spoke with him” ( Numbers 7:89 ).
The writer of Hebrews is drawing attention to all of these details, but notice the last statement in verse 5 declaring that these things cannot be discussed any longer. Why? Because the creatures guarding the way into the Most Holy Place where God dwelt among His people are no longer there. This is an amazing truth! After Jesus entered into the more perfect tabernacle in heaven to make perfect atonement for us, there was no longer a need for warrior angels to protect the way to God. Jesus opened this up so that we could have direct access to God the Father ( Hebrews 10:19-22 ). In fact, we are now to approach the throne of grace in confidence ( Hebrews 4:16 ) in a way the Israelites never could.
This makes perfect sense considering the last verse of chapter 8, “By calling this covenant “new,” he has made the first one obsolete; and what is obsolete and aging will soon disappear” ( Hebrews 8:13 ). Jesus brought with Him a new way of approaching God. We can approach Him in faith washed clean by the body of Christ, unafraid of anything standing in our way because anything that could condemn or harm us has been removed by the blood of Jesus. Our covenant of grace is vastly superior and Jesus is the one who will forever protect and guarantee the way into the presence of the Father Himself.
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Image from Alpha Building Consultants
According to The Times of India, in 2010 a group of German physicists claimed “to have measured the shortest-ever time interval by discovering the tiniest duration an electron takes to leave the atom.”
The scientists found that “when light is absorbed by atoms, the electrons become excited and get ejected from the atom if the photons carry sufficient energy.” However, when electrons are separated from atoms there is a time delay of 20 attoseconds, “which they claim is the shortest time interval measured to date.”
Reasonably, it is a bit difficult for us to wrap our heads around such a short interval of time, so consider this: one attosecond is one billionth of one billionth of a second. It can be written as 1 as, 0.000000000000000001 seconds, 10-18 seconds, or described as one quintillionth of a second. Still fuzzy?
To really help us envision this length of time, the BBC News painted this picture: “If 100 attoseconds is stretched so that it lasts one second, one second would last 300 million years on the same scale.”
Posted in Uncategorized Tagged 10-to-minus18, atom, attosecond, BBC News, electron, energy, light, million, photons, quintillionth, scale, The Times of India, time
from Scale of the Universe, an interactive website
As many of you know, Charles and Ray’s film Powers of Ten takes the viewer on an adventure of magnitudes. It is a journey that shouldn’t be missed.
This blog, which is based on the Eameses’ film, is another way to look at the relative size of things in the universe. It explores powers of ten through the lens of current events, scientific discoveries, and even the mundane–say, the amount of caffeine in your average cup of coffee (which happens to be 10-04 kg).
If you want to consider scale in another way still, check out a remarkably fun, visual and interactive website called Scale of the Universe, developed by Cary Huang at htwins. This site allows you to “zoom from the edge of the universe to the quantum foam of spacetime and learn about everything in between.”
Posted in Uncategorized Tagged 10-to-minus04, Cary Huang, charles and ray eames, htwins, magnitude, Powers of Ten, quantum foam, scale, Scale of the Universe, spacetime, Universe
Three Gorges Dam, Sandouping, Hubei Province, China. Photograph by w:User:Nowozin. File from Wikimedia Commons
China’s Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River is the world’s largest hydroelectric project. Built from 30 million cubic meters of concrete (10+07), it stands 606 feet tall (10+02) and spans 1.5 miles across.
While the Dam’s construction employed 60,000 workers (10+04), it also displaced 1.3 million people (10+06), leveled 1,350 towns (10+03) and destroyed 1,200 existing archeological sites–along with another 8,000 that were yet to be explored.
It was estimated in 1992 that the Dam would cost $8.3 billion to build. However, at the time of its 2009 completion, China reported to have spent $23 billion (10+10), while others say the figure might have been as high as $88 billion.
The Three Gorges Dam holds back 10 trillion gallons of water (10+13) and produces roughly 84 billion kilowatt-hours of clean electricity a year. That’s enough energy for one tenth of China’s entire population; nonetheless, this controversial project continues to raise concerns about the social, environmental and public safety impacts of such a large-scale venture.
Hats off to: Facts and Details, The Design Observer Group, and the Smart Museum of Art, whose curator, Wu Hung, organized the exhibition Displacement: The Three Gorges Dam and Contemporary Chinese Art.
Posted in Uncategorized Tagged 10-to-plus02, 10-to-plus03, 10-to-plus04, 10-to-plus06, 10-to-plus07, 10-to-plus10, 10-to-plus13, billion, China, dam, Displacement: The Three Gorges Dam and Contemporary Chinese Art, electricity, energy, Facts and Details, feet, gallons, hydroelectric, miles, million, Smart Museum of Art, The Design Observer Group, Three Gorges Dam, trillion, water, Wu Hung, Yangtze River
A detailed image of Messier 9, a globular star cluster. Image credit: NASA & ESA
“The NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope has produced the most detailed image so far of Messier 9, a globular star cluster located close to the center of the galaxy. This ball of stars is too faint to see with the naked eye, yet Hubble can see over 250,000 [10+05] individual stars shining in it.
Messier 9, pictured here, is a globular cluster, a roughly spherical swarm of stars that lies around 25,000 light-years [or 1.47 x 10+17 miles] from Earth, near the center of the Milky Way, so close that the gravitational forces from the galactic center pull it slightly out of shape.
Globular clusters are thought to harbor some of the oldest stars in our galaxy, born when the Universe was just a small fraction of its current age. As well as being far older than the sun—around twice its age [and therefore 9 billion or 10+09 years old]—the stars of Messier 9 also have a markedly different composition, and are enriched with far fewer heavier elements than the sun.”
Learn more about Messier 9 at NASA.gov by clicking here.
Posted in Uncategorized Tagged 10-to-plus05, 10-to-plus09, 10-to-plus17, billion, Earth, ESA, galactic, galaxy, globular star cluster, gravitational forces, Hubble Space Telescope, Messier 9, miles, Milky Way, NASA, stars, Sun, Universe, years
Image courtesy of openclipart.org
On March 22, 2012, people across the globe celebrated World Water Day. Below are some interesting water facts from PBS.org and treehugger.com.
2.2 million (10+06) people die every year from diseases related to unsafe drinking water.
On average, humans consume 16,000 gallons (10+04) of water in a lifetime–that’s 256,000 8oz glasses (10+05).
The surface area of the Earth is 5.1006 x 10+08 km2. 70% of Earth is covered by water, but only 2.5% of that is fresh water while the other 97.5% is salt water.
1.2 billion people (10+09) don’t have access safe drinking water and half the world’s population is without adequate water purification systems.
500,000 tons (10+05) of pollutants enter U.S. lakes and rivers every single day. That’s 365 billion pounds (10+11) each year.
Out of 191 of our world’s nations, 10 of them share 65% of the world’s annual water resources. Americans take the cake, using 2,500 cubic liters of water each year, or double the world’s average. That is enough water to fill an Olympic-sized swimming pool for each and every one of us.
Posted in Uncategorized Tagged 10-to-plus04, 10-to-plus05, 10-to-plus06, 10-to-plus08, 10-to-plus09, 10-to-plus11, Americans, Earth, fresh water, gallons, H2O, humans, openclipart.org, pbs.org, pollutants, pounds, salt water, surface area, swimming pool, tons, treehugger.com, U.S. billion, water, World Water Day
Using German marks as wallpaper, image courtesy of Bundesarchiv
Due to hyperinflation in the 1920s, one dollar was the equivalent of one trillion (10+12) German marks. Learn more at pbs.org.
Can you help us identify these images? Go to the Eames Office Facebook page to learn more and share your insights!
The Eames Office is calling upon you to help with an exciting project. You might call it a treasure hunt—and it’s most certainly an opportunity to flex your cultural, art historical and mathematical muscles!
In the 1960s, the Eameses’ created a beautiful timeline of the history of mathematics from 1000 AD to the present as part of their exhibition Mathematica: A World of Numbers . . . and Beyond. IBM gave away the timelines to schools around the world for over 20 years. Teachers still swear by it, and the Eames Office gets frequent requests for it from people who assume it was made recently. The original version includes about 1000 images and other graphical elements.
For years, the Eames family has hoped to make this educational resource available to the general public in digital form. The advent of iPads and other tablets has created the logical means. Thanks to programming support from IBM, we are turning Charles and Ray’s original timeline into an interactive version called Minds of Modern Mathematics.
Now, here’s where you come in: if you visit the Eames Office Facebook page, you’ll see about two-dozen images posted that we need your help in identifying. We need to obtain the rights for all of these works or prove that they are in public domain, but before we can do that we have to track down the images themselves.
Our deadline is quickly approaching, so start looking now! We can calculate the order of magnitude of our collective knowledge once the app is complete, but in the meantime, you should know that our gratitude for your assistance is immeasurable.
Huli Wigmen in Papua New Guinea; Photograph by Chris Rainier, Click on image for more information
According to the National Geographic, “Every 14 days a language dies. By 2100, more than half of the 7,000 (10+04) languages spoken on Earth—many of them not yet recorded—may disappear, taking with them a wealth of knowledge about history, culture, the natural environment, and the human brain.” How can we attribute a specific Power of Ten to such a loss?
The National Geographic’s Enduring Voices Project (conducted in collaboration with the Living Tongues Institute for Endangered Languages), seeks to preserve endangered languages. Click here to read the National Geographic article. You’ll learn about the travels of the Enduring Voices team, and the group’s efforts to identify and document “the most unique, poorly understood, or threatened indigenous languages” across the globe.
Posted in Uncategorized Tagged 10-to-plus04, culture, Earth, Enduring Voices Project, history, Huli Wigmen, indigenous, language, Living Tongue Institute for Endagered Languages, National Geographic, Power of Ten
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The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard high-level protocol that allows a user to log onto a remote computer, and retrieve text, graphics, audio, or computer program files, and transfer the desired files back to its computer. The FTP allows computers connected to the Internet to exchange files, regardless of the computer platform.
How it works Edit
FTP is based on a client-server model. Any computer can act as either a client or a server. "FTP users may authenticate themselves using a clear-text sign-in protocol but can connect anonymously if the server is configured to allow it."
Some common FTP client programs include Web browsers, WS-FTP (Light Edition & Pro), War FTP Daemon, CuteFTP, BulletProof FTP, and FTP Voyager. The client-server model is similar to a central file cabinet in an office where people can access documents.
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Petal: Often brightly coloured and scented. Many have nectaries make nectar. Draws attedtion of insects and animals. Protects soft stamen and pistil.Stamen: Male reproductive system. Also called the androecium. Each one is made up of two parts: a) Anther. b)Filament.
Anther: Structures that produces pollen grains. Pollen grains consist of the male gametes.Filament: A long stalk which supports the anther.Stigma: A sticky structure at the apex of the style . Place where pollen grains adhere.
Style: A stalk that joins the stigma to the ovary. Connects the stigma to the ovary. Holds the stigma in the air to collect pollen. May nourish pollen tube following pollination.Ovule: Contains female gametes. Form the seeds.
Pedicel: Supports the flower in the best position for pollination.
Ovary: Structures that protects ovules. Forms the fruits. Stores one or more ovules from which the female gametes develop.Receptacle: Supports ovary. It may swell and encloses the ovary to form the certain part of fruits. Examples: apple and strawberry.
1) Pollen grains are formed in the anther.2) Each pollen mother cell will go through meiosis to produce four haploid microspores (n).
3) A tube nucleus and generative nucleus formed after the nucleus of each microspore divides by mitosis.4) The microspores develop into pollen grains. Eventually the microspores develop into pollen grains.
5) Pollination is the process in which mature pollen grains from the anther are transferred to the stigma of a flower.
Formation of Embryo Sac in the Ovule1) The ovule develops from the ovarian tissue at the base of the carpel.2) It has a diploid embryo sac mother cell (2n).3) Every ovule has a protective outer layers of cells named the integuments.
4) The embryo sac mother cell (2n) goes through meiosis to form megaspores (n) which is a row of four haploid cells.5) The four megaspores are linearly arranged.6) Usually one becomes funtional and develops further.
7) Three of four megaspores will degenerate, leaving one in the ovule.8) The remaining one haploid cell develops to form the young embryo sac.9) The megaspore will grow and enlarges, filling up most of the ovule.
10) The megaspore divides mitotically 3 times to form 8 nucleatic gametocytes and embryo sac, 8 nuclei within the cytoplasm of a single cell have no cell walls.11) Antipodal cells are produced after the migration of the 8 nuclei to one end of the cell.
During the growth of the pollentube, the generative nucleus whichfollows closely behind the tube nucleusdivides by mitosis to produce two malegamete nuclei.Pollen tube grows down the style into thestigma and towards the ovule.
Double fertilisation means aprocess where a diploid zygote andtriploid nucleus are formed.In the embryo sac, one malegamete nucleus fuses with the egg cellforming a diploid zygote (2n) .The other male gamete nucleus fuseswith the two polar nuclei forming atriploid (3n) .
Thus, in an embryo sac,2 fusions takeplace simultaneously.After fertilisation, the diploid zygotedivides by mitosis forming theembryo.The triploid zygote also undergoesrepeated mitotic division to form theendosperm which becomes the ediblepart of the fruit.
Upon reaching the micropyle, the tubenucleus disintegrates.Besides, the tip of the tube burstsopen, the male nuclei then enter theembryo sac.Double fertilisation is unique toangiosperms which occur in the ovule.
The division of triploid nucleus is veryimportant to give rise to theendosperm that nourishes the embryoand growing seedling.It also helps to form the foodstoring tissue of the seed.The synergid cells and the antipodalcells degenerate.
Ensures the genetic informationof the parent plants is passeddown to the next generation.Existing variation among the nextgeneration.Ensures the survival of the species.
For protection of the seed and aids inthe dispersal of the seeds.Ensures the survival of floweringplants in changing environment.Ensures the successful germination ofa seed into a new plant.Ensures the continuity of the plantspecies.
Growth in Multicellular OrganismsGrowth: Is a permanent process (irreversible) with an increase in the body mass, size and number of cells. Involves quantitative changes in solid matter, dry mass and the amount of cytoplasm.
Development: The changes in shape, function and complexity associated with growth. Involves qualitative changes that are related to differentiation and specialisation to perform specific functions.
Cell division stage: The number of cells of an organism rises by mitosis. One cell divides by mitosis in geometric progression. For example : 1 2 4 8 16 cells, and so on.
Cell enlargement stage: Also known as cell elongation. Vacuolation is important in cell enlargement of plants. The volume and size of cells increase through the intake of water and other substances from the environment by osmosis and diffusion.
Cell differentiation stage: Cells growth begins to differ from each other to form specialised and permanent cells with specific functions. For instance, the neurones and specific types of blood cells in animals, the xylem and phloem cells in plants.
The process of GrowthInvolves elongation and branchingof roots and shoots.Brought about by apical meristems.Importance :- produces xylem andphloem .
Cells of the primary meristem continue todivide, thereby elongating the root. Cells of the primary meristem stopdividing and cease to be meristematic. Cells elongate and expandthrough absorbing nutrients and water through osmosis.Cells differentiate into particular tissue types which is also called zone of maturation.
Nucleus Small vacuoles Cytoplasm Vacuoles enlarging Small vacuoles fuse to form a large central vacuoleCytoplasm and nucleus push towards the cell margin
Thanks to: Pn Prema a/p Kuttam Pillai (GPM SMK Aminuddin Baki, Chemor) Liew Bih Ling (Thinkquest Manager) Gan Wan Yeat, Exploring, Penerbitan Fajar Bakti Sdn. Bhd, Shah Alam, 2006.
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Welcome to dickblick
Same palette of traditional colors the great masters used a century ago. Liquid-poured means semi-moist pans respond instantly to a wet brush. 24 pans in plastic case. Also individual pans.
Color Swatches created using heavy application/diluted application and were applied on cold press watercolor paper (150 lb) material.
Fe2O3 • H2O
Yellow Ochre provides artists with earthtones from cream to brown. It has good hiding power, produces a quick drying paint, and can be safely mixed with other pigments. Its transparency varies widely from opaque shades to more transparent ones, which are valued for their use as glazes. If gypsum is present, Yellow Ochre is not suitable for frescoing. (See Brown Ochre, PY43.) PY42 is made from synthetic iron oxides. PY43 is made from natural iron oxide.
Yellow Ochre has excellent permanence because ochres are some of the most permanent pigments available.
Yellow Ochre is non-toxic unless it contains manganese.
Ochre comes from the Greek word ochros, meaning pale yellow. It was one of the first pigments to be used by human beings, and evidence of its use has been found at 300,000 year old sites in France and the former Czechoslovakia.
Chamois, Iron Yellow, Mars Orange, Mars Yellow, Minette, Ochre, Sil, Yellow Earth, Yellow Oxide. Varieties of Yellow Ochre include Brown Ochre, Flesh Ochre, Roman Ochre, Spruce Ochre, and Transparent Gold Ochre.
Pigment Red PR187 is a transparent red with a bluish tone, part of the Naphthol AS family of red pigments.
Pigment Red PR187 has excellent lightfastness and weather fastness in most applications.
Naphthol Reds are not considered toxic. They may cause eye, skin, or respiratory irritation. Contact with dry pigment should be avoided.
Pigment Red PR187 is one of the most widely used synthetic red pigments. It has been used to color latex, plastics, paints, resins, and printing inks. Because it is somewhat transparent, it has sometimes been used in metallic automotive finishes.
Permanent Pink, Naphthol Red 187.
Lamp black is a very opaque, heavily staining black pigment that does not have much covering or tinting power. It is typically the most opaque black in watercolor form. Though a very pure black, it tends to muddy slightly in mixtures. Natural sources may be brownish or bluish in tone because of impurities. When used in oil paints, it is one of the slowest drying pigments, and should not be used in underpainting or applied in layers underneath other colors.
Lamp Black is very lightfast and absolutely permanent. It is used in all techniques in permanent painting.
Carbon itself is not considered hazardous, however other combustion products that are hazardous are often present as impurities when Lamp Black is produced from natural materials. For this reason, commercial preparations of the pigment should be considered slightly toxic. Avoid skin contact and inhalation. Where such impurities are present, Lamp Black is a possible human carcinogen.
Lamp Black is a carbon based black traditionally produced by collecting soot (known as lampblack) from oil lamps. It has been used as a pigment since prehistoric times. It is the black found in Egyptian murals and tomb decorations and was the most popular black for fresco painting until the development of Mars Black.
Carbon Black, Channel Black, Furnace Black, Oil Black, Vegetable Black. Flame Black is an impure version of Lamp Black. An alternate spelling is Lampblack, in which the first syllable is stressed and the two words are elided to form a closed compound.
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Material Safety Data Sheet
® Yarka is a registered trademark.
Dick Blick Art Materials®, Blick®, Blick Studio®, and Artists Pick Blick® are registered trademarks of Dick Blick Holdings Inc.
© Copyright 1999-2015 Dick Blick Holdings Inc. All rights reserved.
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The first is CRT and LCD monitors connected directly to PCs running off-the-shelf, Windows-based, human-machine interface (HMI) software. Operator input is via touchscreens, keyboards and pointing devices such as a mouse.
A custom-built command-and-control center with multiple flat-screen displays is the second choice. This is obviously a much more expensive option, but these centers provide concrete benefits.
A command-and-control center incorporates mimic panel benefits, including provision of overview information, readability from a distance and simultaneous display of real-time and historical data. It also can overcome mimic board limitations, such as the difficulty of making changes to reflect plant additions or improvements in operating procedures.
A PC monitor can display nearly limitless information and accommodate constant changes, but overview information is hard to present. The relatively small screen size of PC monitors forces users to create hundreds of display pages, each capable of being crammed with excessive detail.
Some PC monitor display problems are due to poor design, but others, such as text size and lack of overview information, are inherent limitations of PC monitors.
“End users often provide too much detail and too many alarms. They may have little human-factor knowledge and incorporate too many colors. Another mistake is single coding with color only, rather than using shape, text and color combinations like the lowly but effective stop sign,” says Ian Nimmo, PE, president of User Centered Design Services. “Text is often too small to read from operating positions because most end users are unaware that text needs to be 1 inch high for every 10 feet away from the display. Other end users try to just use trends, making it hard for operators to orientate with just a glance.”
But PC monitors have their advantages. Great detail, which can be used to diagnose problems, predict failures and optimize processes, is available to those willing and able to dive down into the innards of the HMI program.
A system that uses multiple large displays for overview, combined with smaller displays for detail, can combine the advantages of mimic boards and PC monitors. However, putting these systems together is not for the faint of heart.
Karl Johnson, general manager of networked imaging products at Electrosonic Systems, explains some of the complexity of a modern command-and-control system. “We use video/graphic image controllers to present multiple video and graphic inputs on electronic displays, such as LCD panels, LCD or DLP front- or rear-projection systems or a combination of both. Visualization of complex systems requires the capability to view multiple visual images from many sources to present an overview of system conditions.”
System integration of these components is complex and detailed upfront design is necessary. “The biggest challenge in designing control rooms is definition of client requirements,” according to Matko Papic, manager of engineering and product development at Evans Consoles.
“Two critical questions need to be answered before laying pen to paper: Who are the users and what are their requirements? These questions should be answered collectively by key stakeholders, including operators, managers, IT personnel and plant engineers,” adds Papic.
What are the benefits of a command-and-control system? “Large projection displays improve total system awareness and offer more social decision-making by removing individuals from stovepipe focus,” says Johnson.
Jim Gavolski, director of product management for control room and video wall solutions at Christie, adds, “Video walls can provide large amounts of data and imaging information with extremely high resolution on virtual displays comprised of multiple flat screens seamlessly tiled together. Display systems can be configured in the form factor that best supports the visual content. Overall process information can be shared among many, but each user can have his or her own local displays with content specific to a sub-component of the system.”
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Monarchs in Hibernation
April 21, 2013
Photographer: Steve Spiegel; Steve's Web site
Summary Authors: Steve Spiegel; Jim Foster
As shown above, the monarch butterfly population is so dense in their mountainous, winter residence of central Mexico that they cover the trees like leaves. Some branches noticeably sway from the weight of the myriad monarchs even though they each weigh less than a gram. Many of the butterflies on this tree have journeyed 3,000 mi (5,000 km) or further to get to this several-hundred-acre colony, near the village of Michoacan. They overwinter until March before winging their way north to the U.S. and Canada, where they’ll feed, most often on milkweed, until late summer. They begin their southern migration in early fall, and by the first few days of November, virtually all of them have arrived in Michoacan. The butterflies that make this arduous circuit are the great-great-grand-butterflies of the ones that left the subtropics the previous spring! Genetic programming related to the monarchs’ internal circadian clock guides them, likely using the Sun as a navigation aid, to their winter destination. Photo taken on February 10, 2009.
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- Least concern
- Average life span in the wild:
- 25 years
- Height at the shoulder, 3.5 to 5 ft (1.1 to 1.5 m)
- 440 to 990 lbs (200 to 450 kg)
- Group name:
- Size relative to a 6-ft (2-m) man:
No animal has a more distinctive coat than the zebra. Each animal's stripes are as unique as fingerprints—no two are exactly alike—although each of the three species has its own general pattern.
Why do zebras have stripes at all? Scientists aren't sure, but many theories center on their utility as some form of camouflage. The patterns may make it difficult for predators to identify a single animal from a running herd and distort distance at dawn and dusk. Or they may dissuade insects that recognize only large areas of single-colored fur or act as a kind of natural sunscreen. Because of their uniqueness, stripes may also help zebras recognize one another.
Population and Herd Behavior
Zebras are social animals that spend time in herds. They graze together, primarily on grass, and even groom one another.
Plains (Burchell's) zebras are the most common species. They live in small family groups consisting of a male (stallion), several females, and their young. These units may combine with others to form awe-inspiring herds thousands of head strong, but family members will remain close within the herd.
Zebras must be constantly wary of lions and hyenas. A herd has many eyes alert to danger. If an animal is attacked, its family will come to its defense, circling the wounded zebra and attempting to drive off predators.
The loss of animal species is irreversible and potentially catastrophic, not to mention heartrendingly sad. Where do we stand? Face the facts with this quiz.
The Hawaiian monk seal is one of the oldest species of seal on the planet. But their tenure in paradise is perilously close to its end; only about 1,100 seals remain in the wild.
They’re rarely seen. Even less often photographed. Bryde’s whales rocket through Pacific shallows to gorge on fish. Dive in for more.
Find out what National Geographic Society is doing to save animals all over the world, and learn what you can do to help.
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| 0.942516 | 493 | 3.53125 | 4 |
Oxygen Optional Carp
The long, cold winters of Scandinavia not only freeze the lakes, but pile so much snow on the lake ice that no light can penetrate to the cold, unfrozen water beneath. This means that the creatures below the ice can use up all the oxygen in the lake water.
As a result of the lack of oxygen, lactic acid builds up in the bodies of these creatures as they metabolize sugar to get energy. However, turtles can stand levels of lactic acid in their systems that would kill you or me, and they lower their heartbeat to 10 percent of normal. The Crucian carp, similar to a goldfish, takes a unique approach to this lack of oxygen. As the oxygen disappears, the carp slows its heartbeat. The fish then changes its entire metabolic chemistry to a process that can get energy from sugar without oxygen. This oxygen-free metabolism turns the lactic acid into ethanol, which the fish releases through its gills. The members of this carp family are the only vertebrates that can continue normal life without oxygen.
That God's wonders seem without number and often seem impossible tells us of God's unlimited creativity and His ability to do anything. His plan of salvation in which His Son, Jesus Christ, carried our sin on the cross makes us thankful for His creativity and wisdom.
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400 North Capitol Street, NW
Washington, DC 20001
- Toll Free 1.888.564.6273
- Local 202.783.3870
Summary. Every year, the federal government considers over 4,000 regulations, some of which can cost billions. The scientific and research data used to make decisions about these regulations must be of the highest quality in order to ensure that proposed regulations will actually benefit the public. However, it is often the case that the people who ultimately pay for the research, the taxpayers, do not have access to the research upon which a proposed government regulation based.
Summary. Every year, the federal government considers over 4,000 regulations, some of which can cost billions. The scientific and research data used to make decisions about these regulations must be of the highest quality in order to ensure that proposed regulations will actually benefit the public. However, it is often the case that the people who ultimately pay for the research, the taxpayers, do not have access to the research upon which a proposed government regulation based. As a result, it is difficult for individuals and other private interests to confirm or verify the science and research data the federal government uses to draft regulations. Without such data, any potential challenge to a proposed regulation is extremely difficult.
What is the Shelby Provision? The fiscal year 1999 Omnibus Appropriations Act contained a sunshine-in-government provision — known as the Shelby provision — that would allow access to federally funded scientific data used to support regulations that have an impact on the economy and the health of all Americans. Specifically, the Shelby provision requires the Director of OMB to amend Section _.36 of OMB Circular A-110 "to require Federal awarding agencies to ensure that all data produced under an award will be made available through the procedures established under the Freedom of Information Act."1
Why is Data Access Needed? The federal government funds a significant portion of all the research conducted in the United States. The results of this research often serve as the basis for decisions that effect almost every aspect of daily life — from social and economic policy decisions concerning education, taxes, crime, and drugs; to environmental, health and safety regulations. Without access to the raw data from government-funded research, the public is severely limited in its ability to understand the basis of a proposed rule or the validity of decisions made by government. Under the new law, the public would have the ability to challenge the regulating agency based on the facts and research, not just the conclusions of that research or the information the agency elects to include in the public record.
Exhibit A: The EPA. A case in point is the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). In July 1997, EPA issued new air quality regulations designed to reduce levels of atmospheric ozone and fine particulates. The agency, however, was never able to make a compelling public-health case to support issuing the new rules. Despite repeated requests from individuals, Congress and other outside groups for access to the so-called "Six Cities" study, EPA refused to release the data. On May 14, 1999, a U.S. appeals court overturned the new standards for what it concluded was an unconstitutional delegation of legislative power. The unconstitutionality ruling was based in part on the EPA’s inability to articulate the "intelligible principle" upon which the rules were based. In other words, the agency had no real scientific data to prove the new rules would actually be beneficial to the public. EPA’s standard for soot and other airborne particles was, therefore, ruled "arbitrary and capricious."
Data Access Aids Good Rulemaking. Full disclosure of the published research data used in the rulemaking process is essential to accountability and external quality review. We are seldom certain that the results of a given study are valid without outside testing or corroboration. In the case of EPA’s proposed changes to the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), further investigation of the data in the two studies underlying EPA’s could have helped determine the actual exposure levels to the two pollutants and the impact of potential confounding variables — for example, extraneous health factors such as smoking or respiratory disease. A scientific challenge to the rules based on total access to the underlying data during the public comment period could have prevented their promulgation and precluded the need to waste millions of taxpayer dollars in a court case over their necessity.
Invasion of Privacy? Concerns have been raised by some in the scientific and medical communities about the viability of federally funded medical research and the privacy of personal medical information that may be part of that research. Such concerns are, in fact, baseless. Under the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), federally funded research data that falls under any of nine specific categories — including trade secrets and privileged or confidential information — are clearly exempt from public release.
The FOIA provisions are specifically intended to protect the medical privacy of individuals and to protect proprietary research. The FOIA’s exemption (b) (6) provides for the protection of "personnel and medical files and similar files the disclosure of which would constitute a clearly unwarranted invasion of personal privacy." Exemption (b) (4) withholds "trade secrets and commercial or financial information" from disclosure.2 The Shelby amendment, further, gives the granting agency total discretion in defining what constitutes "data," and in determining the applicability of FOIA exemptions.
Conclusion. It is only fair in a democracy that the taxpayers who fund this research have a chance to review it to ensure that their money is being well spent, and that the freedoms they must often sacrifice for the sake of new regulations are worth the benefits. In the past, certain government agencies have relied upon the results of research where analysis and underlying data have not been available for public scrutiny. The implementation of the Shelby provision will help improve both the transparency of government and the effectiveness of government regulation.
1Office of Management and Budget. Notice of Proposed Revision to OMB Circular A-110, Uniform Administrative Requirement for Grants and Agreements with Institutions of Higher Education, Hospitals, and Other Non-Profit Organizations, 2/4/99.
2Freedom of Information Act
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en
| 0.94776 | 1,260 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Elsewhere $145.95 $105.00 Save $40.95 (28%)
Free shipping Australia wide
|Format: ||Paperback, 800 pages, 8th International ed Edition|
|Published In: ||United States, 18 July 2008|
Long considered THE standard text in child development, the Eighth Edition of this best-selling topical approach to child development continues its tradition of being the most current and comprehensive text available. Laura Berk, renowned professor and researcher in the field of child development, has revised her Child Development text, adding new pedagogy, a heightened emphasis on the interplay between biology and environment, expanded coverage of culture, and an enhanced focus on education, health, and social issues, including many social policy topics addressed throughout the text. Berk's revision provides contemporary and cohesive coverage on contexts for development, including but also extending beyond the family to peers, schooling, media, neighborhoods, communities, and societal values and priorities.
Table of Contents
I. THEORY AND RESEARCH IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT. 1. History, Theory, and Applied Directions. 2. Research Strategies. . II. FOUNDATIONS OF DEVELOPMENT. 3. Biological Foundations, Prenatal Development, and Birth. 4. Infancy: Early Learning, Motor Skills, and Perceptual Capacities. 5. Physical Growth. III. COGNITIVE AND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT. 6. Cognitive Development: Piagetian, Core Knowledge, and Vygotskian Perspectives. 7. Cognitive Development: An Information-Processing Perspective. 8. Intelligence. 9. Language Development. IV. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT. 10. Emotional Development. 11. Self and Social Understanding. 12. Moral Development. 13. Development of Sex Differences and Gender Roles. V. CONTEXTS FOR DEVELOPMENT. 14. The Family. 15. Peers, Media, and Schooling.
About the Author
Laura E. Berk is a distinguished professor of psychology at Illinois State University, where she has taught child and human development to both undergraduate and graduate students for more than three decades. She received her bachelor's degree in psychology from the University of California, Berkeley, and her master's and doctoral degrees in child development and educational psychology from the University of Chicago. She has been a visiting scholar at Cornell University, UCLA, Stanford University, and the University of South Australia. Berk has published widely on the effects of school environments on children's development, the development of private speech, and most recently, the role of makebelieve play in development. Her research has been funded by the U.S. Office of Education and the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. It has appeared in many prominent journals, including Child Development, Developmental Psychology,Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, Development and Psychopathology, and Early Childhood Research Quarterly. Her empirical studies have attracted the attention of the general public, leading to contributions to Psychology Today and Scientific American. Berk has served as research editor for Young Children and consulting editor for Early Childhood Research Quarterly and the Journal of Cognitive Education and Psychology. She is a frequent contributor to edited volumes on early childhood development, having recently authored chapters on the importance of parenting, on make-believe play and self-regulation, and on the kindergarten child. She has also written the chapter on development for The Many Faces of Psychological Research in the Twenty-First Century (Society for the Teaching of Psychology), the chapter on social development for The Chicago Companion to the Child, the article on Vygotsky for the Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science, and the chapter on storytelling as a teaching strategy for Voices of Experience: Memorable Talks from the National Institute on the Teaching of Psychology (Association for Psychological Science). Berk's books include Private Speech: From Social Interaction to Self-Regulation, Scaffolding Children's Learning: Vygotsky and Early Childhood Education, and Landscapes of Development: An Anthology of Readings. In addition to Infants, Children, and Adolescents, she is author of the best-selling texts Child Development and Development Through the Lifespan, published by Allyn and Bacon. Her book for parents and teachers is Awakening Children's Minds: How Parents and Teachers Can Make a Difference. Berk is active in work for children's causes. In addition to service in her home community, she is a member of the national board of directors of Jumpstart, a nonprofit organization that provides early literacy intervention to thousands of low-income preschoolers across the United States, using college and university students as interveners. Berk is a fellow of the American Psychological Association, Division, 7: Developmental Psychology.
Praise for Child Development, 8/e "I remember having Laura Berk's text on Child Development in my own undergraduate class. I thoroughly enjoyed the text then, walking away with a deeper appreciation of child development. Reading the latest version just confirms my original view of the text, and having devoted my graduate and professional life to the study of developmental issues, I find the text to be nuanced, engaging and stimulating." - Geoff Navara, Trent University, Canada "This text is my favorite in the field and I plan to continue to use it. The book is current, accurate, comprehensive, balanced, and well written." - Rebecca Bigler, University of Texas at Austin "!I enjoy teaching with this book!.I have used this textbook for many years and find the coverage most appropriate, including the balance between theory, research, and practical issues." - Cecilia Wainryb, University of Utah "The overall organization and coverage of Berk's text are excellent. The chapters cohere and interweave quite nicely. Each chapter opens with an appealing, almost personal invitation to explore that chapter's content. I like all the features used throughout the text. The text is multicultural without losing sight of the universals in child development. Each edition of Child Development features cutting-edge material." - John Gibbs, Ohio State University "I would adopt this textbook and advocate its adoption to colleagues." - Tracy Vaillancourt, McMaster University, Canada "I think Berk's book offers our professors and students the most comprehensive coverage of child development!This book well reflects Dr. Berk's scholarship. It covers the most important issues, trends and cutting-edge topics in the field of child development!" - Wenfan Yan, Indiana University of Pennsylvania "Berk has a long-standing reputation as a strong text for developmental courses, students always rate it highly, and the text and graphics are a pleasure to read and view." - Doug Symons, Acadia University, Canada "This is a great book from which to teach![it] covers a great deal of territory and is very comprehensive. .. the material is well organized and I like the developmental approach that is taken within each of the main topics. Berk has addressed the most important issues, trends and cutting edge topics very well! The visuals in the text are clear, appropriate, informative, and appealing. ! The material is presented at an appropriate reading level; it is interesting, clear and well organized." - Nina Howe, Concordia University, Canada "Berk has always done an admirable job of covering the essentials and adhering to the latest research on each and every topic!I have always been impressed with Dr. Berk's choices for coverage! I really like how the text is organized with a diverse array of things to appeal to the distracted undergraduate reader. Berk has a gift for summarizing a great deal of the most relevant research and still making it accessible to students. .. It pushes students but does not overwhelm them. It is well written and therefore accessible!Dr. Berk is remarkably responsive to suggestions for further enhancement; each edition is improved in a judicious manner. - David Nelson, Brigham Young University "The overall organization of the material is excellent; it is clear and logical." - Lorinda Camparo, Whittier College "The text is very well written and researched, and I would recommend it to a colleague!" - - Ellen Altermatt, Hanover College Praise for Multicultural/Diversity coverage: "The depth and breadth of the coverage of diversity and multicultural issues were excellent." - Wenfan Yan, Indiana University of Pennsylvania "I loved the [diversity and multi-cultural issues] sections -- they were among my favorites because I felt I really learned something." - Scott P. Johnson, New York University "A clear and obvious effort has been made to cover issues in cross-cultural research and to be inclusive of diversity!Good inclusion of gender similarities and differences." - LorraineTaylor, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill "I think that cross-cultural research is increasingly a substantial portion of the research on child development!she has done a good job of being sensitive to many of these issues." - David Nelson, Brigham Young University "The text has given? multicultural examples from other countries including non-Western ones, and not just cultural groups within the U.S." - Doug Symons, Acadia University, Canada Praise for Pedagogy: "The stories and vignettes provide students with real-world examples of various theoretical or empirical constructs. Students comment specifically that connecting abstract constructs to real-world behaviors is especially effective and engaging! The summaries are comprehensive and the italicized essay-type questions for various sections within the summary may be used as effective study guides for students as they organize reading material conceptually!Social Issues boxes, Cultural Influence boxes, and Biology and Environment boxes are current and may be used to foster discussion and debate. ![Milestones Tables are] wonderful! My students and I find the visual material to be helpful without being overwhelming or distracting." - Lorinda Camparo, Whittier College "[Stories and Vignettes About Children] Love this!! It gives a nice concrete example of a topic(s) discussed in the chapter. It helps [students] understand the relevant material. It also sets up the chapter well. ![Ask Yourself questions] Great part of the chapter!! A nice way for the students to quiz themselves on the material they just read or studied. I definitely think this is very helpful for my students!.[Biology and Environment boxes] !these boxes help bring these concrete concepts to the forefront and make it more meaningful to the students." - Catherine J. Massey, Slippery Rock University "Stories and Vignettes About Children] Great! They really help to keep the book easy to read and interesting. [Chapter Introductions and End-of-Chapter Summaries] Very helpful! It is a good way to preview and review what was covered in the chapter. I especially like the format of the end-of-chapter summaries. It starts with questions (or tasks) followed by the answers. This not only summarized major concepts of the chapter, it also provided a good writing example for undergraduate students. [Applying What We Know] Very Important. I think students learn more when they see connections of what they know with the 'real world' with useful strategies." - Wenfan Yan, Indiana University of Pennsylvania "I especially appreciate the sections on 'From Research to Practice', 'Social Issues', 'Ask Yourself questions' and 'Applying What We Know' -- they always give me great ideas for fostering in-class discussions that help students see how the research and theory they study are manifested in the real world. My students always appreciate the stories and vignettes embedded in the text." - Cecilia Wainryb, University of Utah ." ..The end of chapter summaries are great; students love these. [Social Issues boxes] provide additional perspectives on topics that students generally find relevant in the real world, so they are a nice touch!The photos and tables make the material interesting and personal." - Lorraine Taylor, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill "[Stories and Vignettes About Children] are particularly effective as they bring the concepts to life. [Chapter Introductions and End-of-Chapter Summaries]!are great so that the reader can at a glance review the central concepts of the chapter![Social Issues boxes] are particularly helpful in understanding how central concepts apply to everyday life. They also make clear how complex child development issues tend to be." - David Nelson, Brigham Young University "The boxed items take complex issues and present them in clear, concise and interesting ways. Ask Yourself review sections!raise pertinent questions that highlight the critical issues, but also get the student to think beyond the immediate question to how it might be applied and connected to other material in the book. Also, by getting students to reflect on their own life experiences, they can make a clearer link to the issues." - Nina Howe, Concordia University, Canada "Stories and Vignettes About Children -- These are great, and capture students' interest and attention... Students love the photos and tables and illustrations are excellent!Chapter Introductions and End-of-Chapter Summaries, Social Issues boxes, Cultural Influences boxes, Biology & Environment boxes, From Research to Practice Tables, Applying What We Know, In-Text Key Terms with Definitions, End-of-Chapter Term List and End-of-Book Glossary -- ALL excellent. - Simone Nguyen, University of North Carolina, Wilmington "[Ask Yourself questions] are well-written and should help instructors guide their students toward more sophisticated thinking. From Research to Practice tables link research to practice which is critical in enhancing student engagement." - Ellen Altermatt, Hanover College Praise for coverage of Research: "The research is relevant, current, accurate and well-integrated in the text. Berk does an excellent job of cross referencing information across the text and reminding students about theory and research that is relevant across different chapters. There is also a nice integration of appropriate statistics and graphs to explain various findings." - Nina Howe, Concordia University, Canada "I am very impressed by Dr. Berk's effort to bring the students up-to-date research. She has done an excellent job integrating the current, relevant research throughout the text. The references provide thorough coverage of information presented in the text." - Wenfan Yan, Indiana University of Pennsylvania "!presents complex theories and research in a way that is accessible to students!presents a very thorough view of each of the theories, and discusses in depth recent research that either confirms or presents evidence inconsistent with the theory." - Beth Casey, Boston College "Berk has always done an admirable job of covering the essentials and adhering to the latest research on each and every topic." - David Nelson, Brigham Young University "![research] is one of the best features of this textbook!and this is one of the main reasons!why I keep going back to this text year after year." - Cecilia Wainryb, University of Utah "Research selected is very appropriate, well presented, and an excellent - orientation to developmental literature." - Doug Symons, Acadia University, Canada "I find the research current, relevant, accurate, and well integrated!: - Laura DeRose, Adelphi University Praise for Individual Chapters: "I find Chapter 1: History, Theory, and Applied Directions, a chapter focused on history, classic issues, and theories of child development, to be well written and organized." - David Nelson, Brigham Young University "Chapter 4: Infancy: Early Learning, Motor Skills, and Perceptual Capacities. I think it's a great chapter. It is comprehensive but doesn't feel overly long. The book does a great job balancing the controversies surrounding use of visual preference measures, including habituation and imitation." - Scott P. Johnson, New York University "Chapter 5: Physical Growth. One of the reasons I specifically chose Berk's texts over other texts is due to her comprehensive and exhaustive coverage of physical development from preschool to late childhood! excellent coverage of each area of development." - Lorinda Camparo, Whittier College "Chapter 5: Physical Growth. The chapter is very comprehensive, and the tables and figures are effective for students, especially visual learners." - Laura DeRose, Adelphi University "Chapter 6: Cognitive Development: Piagetian, Core Knowledge, and Vygotskian Perspectives. I would rate the organization and coverage of the chapter quite highly. It presents a very thorough review of each of the theories, and discusses in depth recent research that either confirms or presents evidence inconsistent with the theory." - Beth Casey, Boston College "Chapter 6: Cognitive Development: Piagetian, Core Knowledge, and Vygotskian Perspectives. The coverage of Piaget is excellent. I especially like the critical evaluation of the theory, and the section on Piaget and education." - Scott P. Johnson, New York University "Chapter 8: Intelligence. The organization of the chapter is very good. The material is presented in a logical way and the content is more than appropriate." - Tracy Vaillancourt, McMaster University, Canada "Chapter 10: Emotional Development. Excellent! The progression from the functions of emotion, to the development of emotional expression, to more social aspects of emotion, and finally to attachment, is logical and maximizes students' ability to follow natural developmental sequences." - Lorinda Camparo, Whittier College "Chapter 10: Emotional Development is an excellent chapter with definitive research cited in the appropriate areas!" - Doug Symons, Acadia University, Canada "Chapter 10: Emotional Development. This is one of the most comprehensive chapters on emotional development that I have come across and all the topics covered are relevant, well-researched, and clearly explained!the material discussed in this chapter is well-organized, described clearly, and research and theories were relevant, accurate, and well-integrated" - Laura K. Zimmermann, Shenandoah University "Chapter 12: Moral Development. There are many positive features in the organization of this chapter: [It] begins with a story/vignette that students can easily 'digest'!throughout, the chapter includes many cross-references to other chapters in the book. - Cecilia Wainryb, University of Utah "Chapter 12: Moral Development. As far as research, the chapter is exceptionally strong." - Geoff Navara, Trent University, Canada "Chapter 13: Development of Sex Differences and Gender Roles. Organization: Excellent. Research: I love the chapter. I found it to be very up-to-date, accurate, and balanced. Content: Again, this chapter is great." - Rebecca Bigler, University of Texas at Austin "Chapter 14: The Family is very well organized and laid out in ways that make conceptual sense to me in terms of topics. It is guided by theory on family systems and is a very comprehensive review of issues related to the family. I like that it starts with a short historical perspective on families and Berk goes a good job of relating information back to theory and other research discussed previously in the book." - Nina Howe, Concordia University, Canada "Chapter 15: Peers, Media, and Schooling. Great organization and nice coverage! I think this chapter does a great job of focusing on the role of peers, media and schooling in child development!The overall organization of the material is Excellent!" - Wenfan Yan, Indiana University of Pennsylvania "Chapter 15: Peers, Media, and Schooling is very well done. The chapter is easy to read and the sections and sub-sections are well arranged." - Catherine J. Massey, Slippery Rock University
26.9 x 21.2 x 2.6 centimetres (1.52 kg) |
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| 0.927038 | 4,022 | 3.015625 | 3 |
|Location||United Arab Emirates, Abu Dhabi|
|Central coordinates||52o 43.00' East 24o 23.00' North|
|IBA criteria||A1, A4i, B1i, B2, B3|
|Altitude||0 - 5m|
|Year of IBA assessment||1994|
Site description These three islands in the south-eastern Arabian Gulf are north and east of the large inshore island of Sir Bani Yas. Umm al Kirkum is low and rocky, c.2 km long in a U-shape. The mouth of the U is partly closed off by a sandbar, forming a lagoon where a few mangrove Avicennia trees grow; the remainder of the island is covered in sparse salt-tolerant shrubs and grass. Ghasha is low, flat and sandy, with slab sandstone rocks on its eastern and northern aspect. Most of this island is fairly thickly covered in salt-tolerant bushes, with some sparse grass; the centre of the island is more thinly vegetated. Umm Qaser is 2 km east of Umm al Kirkum and is more or less circular, surrounded by a 3-4 m high rocky cliff and a few narrow, steep sand beaches. All the islands are ringed by coral reefs.
Key Biodiversity See box for key species. These islands are an important seabird breeding site, although only once surveyed in any detail (July 1991). Pandion haliaetus also breeds (min. 2 pairs).
Non-bird biodiversity: None known to BirdLife International.
|Species||Season||Period||Population estimate||Quality of estimate||IBA Criteria||IUCN Category|
|Socotra Cormorant Phalacrocorax nigrogularis||breeding||1992||200 breeding pairs||poor||A1, B2||Vulnerable|
|Saunders's Tern Sternula saundersi||breeding||1992||24 breeding pairs||good||B3||Least Concern|
|White-cheeked Tern Sterna repressa||breeding||1992||2,250 breeding pairs||good||A4i, B1i, B3||Least Concern|
|Bridled Tern Onychoprion anaethetus||breeding||1992||2,800 breeding pairs||medium||B1i||Least Concern|
|IUCN habitat||Habitat detail||Extent (% of site)|
|Land-use||Extent (% of site)|
Acknowledgements Data-sheet compiled by Colin Richardson (per Adrian Chapman).
References Chapman (1991).
Contribute Please click here to help BirdLife conserve the world's birds - your data for this IBA and others are vital for helping protect the environment.
Recommended citation BirdLife International (2016) Important Bird and Biodiversity Area factsheet: Islands off Sir Bani Yas island. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 29/06/2016
To provide new information to update this factsheet or to correct any errors, please email BirdLife
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| 0.752625 | 660 | 2.515625 | 3 |
TAMIU Lecture Explores Medical Mystery of
Dr. Jane Unzeitig
Texas A&M International University students and members of the community at large will have a rare opportunity to travel back in time to review the state of medicine in the 1700s when local physician and guest lecturer Dr. Jane Unzeitig presents “Medical Triumphs and Tribulations in the 1700s,” on Monday, Feb. 22 at 7 p.m. at TAMIU’s Student Center room 236.
The lecture, hosted by the Daughters of American Revolution (DAR), is the inaugural event of the DAR Historical Lecture Series and is offered free of charge.
A local allergist and member of the Lucy Meriwether Chapter of the National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR), Dr. Unzeitig has presented medical history lectures to local DAR members.
“When asked to give a presentation several years ago, I naturally gravitated towards the subject of medicine in revolutionary times,” Unzeitig explained, “The New England Journal of Medicine that year published a chilling account of the calamitous events surrounding the medical care and subsequent death of George Washington. “Further research on events in that era focused on illnesses that have long been eradicated and on treatments that had been used for centuries and had absolutely no benefit for the patient,” she noted.
Among penetrating questions raised by the well-researched lecture: Did the efforts of the finest physicians in 1799 actually hasten the death of the Father of our Country? Why was the only physician to sign the Declaration of Independence accused of killing more patients than he cured? Why was he on trial for malpractice on the day of the death of George Washington?
Unzeitig has been practicing medicine for over 29 years with specialties in pediatrics, allergy and immunology. She graduated from Northwestern University Medical School (Chicago) and completed her residency training in pediatrics and her fellowship training in adult and pediatric allergy at Children’s Hospital of Los Angeles.
For more information, contact the TAMIU Office for Institutional Advancement at 326-4483.
Journalists who need additional information or help with media requests and interviews should contact the Office of Public Relations, Marketing and Information Services at [email protected]
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| 0.940299 | 483 | 2.515625 | 3 |
This paper highlights geographic regions gaining and losing investment and social security income (collectively referred to as nonearnings income) through migration of baby boomers and their predecessors. There is a consistent Rustbelt to Sunbelt shift in nonearnings income due to migration, as well as movement down the urban hierarchy into nonmetropolitan destinations. The analysis further indicates migration of those over age 55 contributes to greater levels of economic disparity across space. Regions like the Plains are losing a higher proportion of well- to-do migrants in this age group, as individuals move to high amenity destinations in the Rocky Mountains. Such destinations are likely to enjoy significant economic benefits as these new sources arrive. The places of origin, however, are left with less-well-off populations posing significant social and economic problems. In contrast, baby boomer migration appears to benefit nonmetropolitan territories in all regions, and baby boomers with higher levels of per capita economic resources appear to be responsible for these nonmetropolitan income gains.
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<urn:uuid:f0582044-9cf0-4cfb-b40e-18a011d6c67b>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://crr.bc.edu/working-papers/nonearnings-income-migration-in-the-united-states-anticipating-the-geographical-impacts-of-baby-boom-retirement/
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en
| 0.934624 | 201 | 2.859375 | 3 |
Although the UK’s official religion is Christianity, the UK is a multi-faith society where other religions are widely welcomed.
In the UK, it is against the law to discriminate against anyone because of their race, nationality, or religion. You will be respected for your own beliefs and will be expected to respect other people’s beliefs in return. Find out more on the gov.uk website.
According to the Office for National Statistics (ONS) 2001/2011 census for England and Wales:
- Around 33 million people describe themselves as Christian. This includes Protestants, Catholics, Methodists and Baptists and other groups.
- The other main religious groups include Islam (2,750,566 people), Hinduism (823,022), Sikhism (429,949), Judaism (270,159) and Buddhism (255,106).
- 14.1 million people said they do not follow a religion.
In the UK, it is common for people to wear their chosen religious dress (e.g. a head covering, long skirts, etc.) and to observe religious festivals, such as Christmas, Eid, Diwali or Hanukkah.
In large towns and cities across the UK, you will find churches, mosques, temples, synagogues, gurdwaras and other places of worship for all the major faiths.
In small towns, you may find only Christian churches. However, the UK is a small country and you are never far from a large city.
Public places such as hotels, hospitals and airports often have prayer rooms that anyone can use, as do most schools, colleges and universities. Your school, college or university may also have a religious social group, where you can worship with other students.
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| 0.950959 | 360 | 3.046875 | 3 |
The designs stamped on coins are known as types. These functioned at the
most basic level to identify their issuing authority, which could be an individual
city-state, a ruler or, more rarely, a league or federation. The types also
served a wide range of additional and occasionally overlapping purposes. Some
of the most commonly encountered coin types are those that feature city emblems,
punning images, local deities and heroes, myths and foundation legends, animals,
war commemorations, or ruler portraits.
ca. 394-304 BC
A rose, the Greek word for which is rhodon and thus a punning reference
to Rhodes, the issuing agent.
Dia. 20.0 mm. Photo courtesy Registrar's Office, Univeristy of Pennsylvania
ca. 342-336 BC
Philip II of Macedon
Young naked rider on a walking horse, carrying a long victory palm. This
commemorates Philip's victory in the horse race at Olympia in 356 BC.
Inscribed PHILIPPOU or "coin of Philip."
Dia. 26.0 mm. Photo courtesy D. White. (116k)
ca. 415-387 BC
Head of a lion. Whether because of their perceived characteristics, such
as beauty, wildness, ferocity, swiftness, or wisdom, or because animals
played some part in the issuing city's history or makeup, many different
kinds of animals were used as coin types with frequently beautiful effect.
Dia. 24.0 mm. Photo courtesy Registrar's Office, University of Pennsylvania
ca. 324 BC
Alexander the Great, Babylon mint
Head of Alexander-Heracles in a lionskin helmet. The first coins portraying
Greeks, whether living or dead, developed only after the death of Alexander
the Great in 323 BC His own coin portraits are therefore posthumous; the
coins struck for Alexander during his lifetime in which his features are
merged with those of his ancestral hero Heracles cannot be counted as
Dia. 25.0 mm. Photo courtesy Registrar's Office, University of Pennsylvania
ca. 302-301 BC
Enthroned Zeus holding a Nike or personification of Victory in his outstretched
right hand. The coin type is based, at least in a generalized way, on
the Phidian cult statue of Zeus at Olympia, which by the end of the 4th
century BC was perhaps the most famous statue in the Greek world. Nothing
of these colossal images has survived antiquity intact. Of Phidias's masterpieces
all that has been preserved with certainty are a few sculptor's tools,
molds and bits of ivory excavated from his workshop at Olympia.
Photo courtesy Mediterranean Section, University of Pennsylvania Museum.
ca. 400-375 BC
Racing four-horse chariot with a flying Nike personifying Victory crowning
the driver. The space below is filled with captured Punic arms. This spectacular
coin may commemorate the victory of Dionysius I over the Carthaginian
general Himilcon and the deliverance of Syracuse from its Punic siege
in 396 BC The reverse of the coin is signed by Euaenetus, one of the most
renowned coin designers of antiquity. Commemorative types became especially
popular in the Hellenistic period after Alexander's death in 323 BC
Dia. 34.0 mm. Photo courtesy Registrar's Office, University of Pennsylvania
© Copyright 2002
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http://www.penn.museum/sites/Greek_World/types.html
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| 0.903816 | 719 | 3.328125 | 3 |
Leave the Bugs Out in the Cold When You Bring Your Houseplants Into the Warmth
More Bugs: Soft-shell scale, mealy bugs, spittle bugs, spider mites and cyclamen mites
A number of insects feed unnoticed on houseplants until perplexing changes alert you. Yellowing leaves are often seen as an indication that the plant is hungry and needs a dose of fertilizer. Yellowing leaves can also mean soft-shell scale insects are feeding on your rubber tree, crotons, philodendrons or related foliage plants. In sufficient numbers, these insects can cause leaves to turn yellow and appear deficient in nutrients.
Look for scale insects on stems, veins in leaves and leaf tissues between the veins.
Treat scale insects on houseplants by spraying the foliage thoroughly with horticultural oil at a two percent concentration. If the plant is small, dunk its foliage in the horticultural oil solution. By dunking and shaking the foliage in the solution, you thoroughly cover all infested tissue. If the plants cannot be dunked, then you must spray thoroughly. This may require moving the plant outdoors on a warm day.
Crotons are extremely susceptible to another plant pest, mealy bugs. These bugs appear as a small, grey-white, mealy-looking glob the size of a pea. The waxy coating protects the insect hidden inside. When plants are heavily infested with mealy bugs, the best treatment is moving them outdoors and spraying thoroughly with a strong blast of water from the garden hose. After the plant is brought back indoors, monitor weekly and remove newly formed mealy bugs as they appear.
Spittle bugs favor begonias and hibiscus. These small insects appear as blobs of spit, most often in the axils of leaves and stems. Spittle bugs are the least harmful of all plant insects, but their presence detracts from the appearance of the plant. Spraying with plant-shine is often sufficient to control a light infestation. A strong spray of water works for heavy infestations.
Smaller than a grain of salt, spider mites often go unnoticed until you see tiny webs connecting leaves, stems and flower buds. Spider mites favor miniature roses, marigolds, African violets, orange trees and some of the plants used in making bonsai.
If you suspect spider mites, place a white sheet of paper under the plant and tap it several times with your hand. If spider mites are present, you will see small specks moving about on the paper.
Control spider mites on houseplants by spraying or dunking the plants with horticultural oil at a two percent concentration. The oil will kill both adult mites and eggs. However some of the eggs drop to the soil, so these persistent pests will reappear and multiply rapidly.
If you are growing cyclamen, there is a good possibility that your plants are infested with unnoticed cyclamen mites. Cyclamen grow from a tuber that provides ample opportunities for the mites to hide.
Greenhouse growers treat their tubers in 120-degree water before planting. This requires a very accurate thermometer because water temperatures above 122 degrees will kill the tuber. The tubers are placed in the hot water and swirled around for exactly one minute before being dunked in a two percent horticultural oil solution.
Ask Dr. Gouin your questions at [email protected]. All questions will appear in Bay Weekly. Please include your name and address.
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http://www.bayweekly.com/articles/bay-gardener-dr-francis-gouin/article/leave-bugs-out-cold-when-you-bring-your-houseplants-w?page=3
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| 0.930514 | 728 | 3.46875 | 3 |
Vaccinating half of kids under 5 would prevent 650,000 hospital visits, U.S. study finds
FRIDAY, Sept. 7 (HealthDay News) -- Getting the flu shot for a young child protects both the little one and his or her family from getting sick this season, research shows.
In fact, if half of U.S. children between six months and five years old got their flu shots, more than 2,000 hospitalizations and up to 650,000 outpatient visits due to flu could be prevented.
"We found that only 12 to 42 children need to be vaccinated to directly prevent one outpatient visit for the flu," study author Dr. Elizabeth Lewis, of MassGeneral Hospital for Children, Boston, said in a prepared statement. "And since the vaccination of some children in a preschool or daycare setting also reduces the chance that unvaccinated children would be exposed to the flu virus, the effects of vaccination are probably even greater than we found."
The American Academy of Pediatrics currently recommends flu shots for all children in this age group. Older siblings and family members should also get the flu shot to keep younger children protected during flu season. Lewis points out that when children are vaccinated against the flu, they also provide protection for the older adults in their home.
The study assumed a moderate flu season and a good match between the flu vaccine and the flu strains for the year.
For the current study, the authors analyzed existing data from several sources reporting on flu-related outpatient visits or hospitalizations covering several flu seasons. These included years in which the flu season was relatively mild as well as those in which flu was widespread and caused more serious illness.
Each year's flu vaccine needs to be designed in advance, based on which strains of virus are anticipated to be prevalent in the coming year. Because the accuracy of that prediction varies, the effectiveness of the flu vaccine also varies from year to year. To account for that variation, the research team calculated results based on several potential rates of vaccine efficacy.
"If the match is better or the flu season is more severe, then more visits would be prevented," senior researcher Dr. Katherine Poehling, of Wake Forest University Medical Center, in Winston-Salem, N.C., said in a prepared statement. "This is a very conservative estimate. We only account for direct protection by the flu shot. We do not account for the indirect protection to other children and adults who are less likely to be exposed to the flu when persons around them are vaccinated. This tells us that flu shots are an effective means to prevent illness and doctor visits from the flu each winter."
Flu vaccines do not contain live viruses, so children are not at risk for getting the flu from the shot itself, the researchers said.
The study is published in the September issue of Pediatrics.
To learn more about the flu vaccine, visit the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
-- Madeline Vann
SOURCES: Wake Forest University Baptist Medical Center, news release, Sept. 4, 2007; Massachusetts General Hospital for Children, news release, Sept. 4, 2007
All rights reserved
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| 0.966935 | 644 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Halloween may be one of the spookiest nights of the year, but the holiday should also be a happy and healthy one. With these 13 tips for a safer Halloween, you can protect your children and have a ghoulishly good time.
1. Serve a Healthy Dinner
Before trick-or-treating commences, fill little tummies with the healthy foods that growing bodies need. Chili with whole-grain pumpkin muffins is a popular Halloween meal for many families.
2. Consider Costumes Carefully
Children can easily trip over long capes, so always shorten any costume that trails on the ground. According to One Step Ahead, a leading provider of Halloween costumes for children and infants, "falls are the leading cause of accidental injuries on the holiday."
3. Opt for Face Paint
Masks can decrease vision substantially, so face paint is often a safer choice, particularly for young children. The good news? It's easy to make your own!
4. Watch the Weather
Be prepared to add coats, gloves, and long pants to costumes. They may not look nice, but they will prevent frostbite if a cold front moves through on Halloween night.
5. Go Green With Reusable Treat Bags
By investing in reusable trick-or-treat bags such as the ones available at One Step Ahead, you can skip the plastic grocery bags — and protect the environment.
6. Light Up the Night
Trick-or-treating usually occurs in the dark, so always use flashlights or glow sticks to increase your visibility — especially near busy streets.
7. Plan Age-Appropriate Activities
Avoid activities that may be too frightening, especially with younger children. Some families find that a low-key Halloween party is perfect for toddlers.
8. Avoid Allergic Reactions
Halloween can be scary for parents of children with food allergies, but it doesn't have to be if you're properly prepared. Read How to Have an Allergy-Free Halloween for ideas on how to trick-or-treat safely.
9. Talk About "Stranger Danger"
Remind your children not to get in the car with a stranger or enter a stranger's home without a parent's permission, especially on Halloween night.
10. Drive Carefully
With so many adults and children walking in the dark, you can never be too careful behind the wheel. Slow down, pay attention, and whatever you do, do NOT drink and drive.
11. Monitor Tweens and Teens
Older children might be too old to trick-or-treat with mom and dad, but thanks to Halloween smartphone apps, you can still be sure they're celebrating safely.
12. Check the Candy
Your neighbors probably aren't planning to poison your kids, but it doesn't hurt to play it safe. Make sure all wrappers are sealed, and throw away items that look suspicious.
13. Remember Oral Health
There's no way around it — Halloween candy isn't good for your teeth. Try to limit candy consumption when possible, and remember, there are plenty of ways to use leftover Halloween candy that don't involve eating it.
Disclosure: I received reusable trick-or-treat bags from One Step Ahead. The larger Candy Corn Treat Bag is perfect for older, more ambitious trick-or-treaters who plan to get as much candy as they can carry, while the smaller Pumpkin and Spider Treat Bags (which are pretty tiny) are ideal for infants and toddlers. As always, opinions are my own.
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http://parentingsquad.com/safety-first-13-tips-for-a-happy-and-healthy-halloween
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en
| 0.930242 | 733 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Consumers have always been divided on the subject of blue cheese. Traditionally, they either love it or they hate it. Increasingly, however, as those who lay claim to the latter are exposed to the diverse range of blues available today, the line has become blurred. Additionally, as Americans continue to seek bolder flavors in all of their food, the category of blue-veined cheeses gets hotter and hotter.
How is it Made?
Variations occur in technique, as well as in the cultures used, but most blue cheese is made in roughly the same way. Mold spores, typically those of Penicillium roqueforti, are added to the milk in the early stages of the cheesemaking process. In most cases, the cheese is pierced with long stainless steel needles to create pathways for the mold to grow along. Oxygen is also necessary and so it's important that the curds remain loosely packed in order to leave tiny air pockets for the mold. For this reason, blues are never pressed but instead are turned regularly to let the weight of the curds force out the remaining liquid. Finally, the cheese needs to ripen in a room with low temperatures and high humidity.
- The discovery of blue cheeses was surely the result of an accident. The popular and logical story has a hapless shepherd forgetting his lunch of curds and bread in a cave for several days. When he returned, he found the curds had developed blue streaks (from the bread mold) and upon tasting it, he found it to be quite delicious.
- The mold that grows on bread -- Penicillium roqueforti -- and is used to make blue cheese is the same one that produces penicillin.
- Loaves of rye bread are still left to mold in the caves in which Roquefort is aged. The bread is then ground to a powder, which is then added to fresh curds for cheesemaking.
What do the blue veins do for the cheese?
Besides their striking appearance, the blue veins affect the taste of the cheese. The culture breaks down the fats and proteins, thus developing a more aromatic flavor and a smoother texture. The mold also transforms the acids in the cheese, which takes away any sour, milky flavor, and leads to more pronounced flavors.
How long have blue cheeses been around?
No one knows for sure, but we do have some clues. Written descriptions of this type of cheese came out of monasteries in about 800 A.D., and it is believed that Gorgonzola dates back at least to the 10th century. Roquefort was documented in the 15th century, but it is believed to have been in existence for hundreds, if not thousands of years before that time. Stilton gained fame in the 1700's, but is surely much older as well. Denmark began making blue cheese in 1874, and developed their successful Danablu, or Danish Blue, in 1927.
Are all blue cheeses the same?
All blue-veined cheeses have certain characteristics that unite them as a family, but there are great differences in texture, taste, and appearance among the world's great blues. They range from sweet, creamy, mild varieties to very assertive and crumbly ones. The color also varies from pale to deep burnt orange, and in some cases, the blue veins hardly show up at all, leaving only a distinctive flavor. It's best to try several varieties and decide which is best suited to your tastes and their desired usage.
Are blue-veined cheeses good for cooking?
Many of them make excellent cooking cheeses, as they bring bold flavor to sauces, dips, soups, and fillings for pasta, meat, and vegetables. For example, try Danish Blue with yogurt, lemon juice, and olive oil for a wonderful salad dressing. Melted Roquefort and caramelized onions can transform a simple steak, and blue cheeses can also create a surprising new flavor profile for macaroni & cheese, cheeseburgers, and all sorts of casseroles.
Can you eat blue cheese if you're allergic to penicillin?
The main culture used to make blue cheese blue, Penicillium roqueforti, is the same culture that produces penicillin. However, the enzymes present in the cheese break down the penicillin and render it neutral, thereby making it quite safe. However, for the same reason, if you are taking penicillin, you should avoid eating blue cheese for the prescription's duration or it might make your medicine ineffective.
Click here to see our selection of cheeses.
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| 0.955942 | 960 | 3.1875 | 3 |
August 2, 2010
Novel Bee Venom Derivative Forms A Nanoparticle ‘Smart Bomb’ To Target Cancer Cells
New research in the FASEB Journal shows that a peptide derived from bee venom can deliver liposomes bearing drugs or diagnostic dyes to specific cells or tissues
The next time you are stung by a bee, here's some consolation: a toxic protein in bee venom, when altered, significantly improves the effectiveness liposome-encapsulated drugs or dyes, such as those already used to treat or diagnose cancer. This research, described in the August 2010 print issue of the FASEB Journal (http://www.fasebj.org), shows how modified melittin may revolutionize treatments for cancer and perhaps other conditions, such as arthritis, cardiovascular disease, and serious infections."This type of transporter agent may help in the design and use of more personalized treatment regimens that can be selectively targeted to tumors and other diseases," said Samuel A. Wickline, Ph.D., a researcher involved in the work from the Consortium for Translational Research in Advanced Imaging and Nanomedicine (C-TRAIN) at the Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, Missouri.
To make this discovery, Wickline and colleagues designed and tested variations of the melittin protein to derive a stable compound that could be inserted into liposomal nanoparticles and into living cells without changing or harming them. They then tested the ability of this protein, or "transporter agent," to attach to different therapeutic compounds and enhance drug therapy without causing harmful side effects. In addition, their results suggest that the base compound which is used to create the transporter agent may improve tumor therapy as well.
"Our journal is abuzz in a hive of bee-related discoveries. Just last month, we published research showing for the first time how honey kills bacteria. This month, the Wickline study shows how bee venom peptides can form "smart bombs" that deliver liposomal nanoparticles directly to their target, without collateral damage," said Gerald Weissmann, M.D., Editor-in-Chief of the FASEB Journal.
On the Net:
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http://www.redorbit.com/news/health/1899403/novel_bee_venom_derivative_forms_a_nanoparticle_smart_bomb_to/
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| 0.911927 | 448 | 2.609375 | 3 |
A credit limit is the maximum amount a person is allowed to borrow from a financial institution or other lender. Credit limit is also sometimes called credit line.
People are usually familiar with the term credit limit due to credit cards, since credit cards are one of the most common forms of easily available credit lines nowadays.
The credit limit extended by the financial institution depends of a variety of factors, including the borrower’s credit history and credit rating. A person with a good credit history and score usually gets larger credit limit since the lenders feel like they can trust such a person.
Another important factor considered by lenders is the person’s ability to pay back the loan, reflected by a person’s income or salary. Aside from the salary, a person’s ability to pay is affected by any current liabilities such as other outstanding loans. The higher a person’s disposable income is, the larger the credit limit usually is.
However, as time goes by, the payment record of the borrower in that specific lending institution begins to outweigh the other factors. Someone with a good payment record can then expect to be approved when he/she applies for a higher credit limit.
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http://www.businesspundit.com/encyclopedia/accounting-2/credit-limit/
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| 0.965357 | 240 | 3.140625 | 3 |
Together with researchers of Charité University Medicine Berlin they were able to demonstrate the existence of an inner clock in human skin cells, which controls skin regeneration amongst other things.
Skin care future
Dr. Jörn Hendrik Reuter, head of the General Skin Care Laboratory at Beiersdorf says “the findings from our collaborative research could have a large influence on the skin care of the future.”
The Nivea skin care maker says the results of the collaborative research project open up completely new possibilities for the skin care of the future.
"The findings about the influence of Klf9 on cell division, for example, could be the impetus of the development of a new kind of anti-ageing care. We could try to bring skin that is out of synch back into rhythm with its inner clock or perhaps we can address problems caused by lifestyle with skin care that targets chronobiology," adds Reuter.
The research team studied the circadian rhythms of the stress hormone cortisol present in the skin in 20 test subjects at Beiersdorf's Test Center in Hamburg.
Furthermore, in the Berlin sleep lab cell samples were taken from 20 volunteer subjects in four-hour intervals over the course of 24 hours. The analysis of these samples showed that about 10 per cent of the genes in skin cells follow their own rhythm.
According to the researchers, these most likely correspond to the respective chronotypes. The molecule "Krüppel-like-factor 9" (Klf9) stood out in the samples: "We observed that Klf9 is mostly active during the day. When it was inactive more rapid cell division was observed," says Reuter.
When the research team increased the concentration of Klf9 in the samples, cell division was significantly slower.
The first results were published in the professional journal "Proceedings of the Academy of Science" (PNAS).
Florian Spörl, Thomas Blatt, Achim Kramer et al (2012): Krüppel-like factor 9 is a circadian transcription factor in human epidermis that controls proliferation of keratinocytes. In: Proceedings of the Academy of Science (PNAS), Jul 3; 109(27):10903-8. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1118641109.
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.cosmeticsdesign-europe.com/Hot-Topics/Anti-Ageing/Beiersdorf-discovery-holds-potential-for-skin-care-of-the-future
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| 0.928331 | 471 | 2.6875 | 3 |
On the western edge of the Everglades and deep in the heart of the 10,000 Islands, Chokoloskee Island has been called one of Florida’s last frontiers. At the Historic Smallwood Store you will learn the story of the pioneers who tamed this vast wilderness. Human Habitation of Chokoloskee Island began approximately 2,000 years ago when a mound dwelling people began altering the landscape with mounds and canals. The canals were about 15 feet wide, 3 feet to 6 feet deep, and were used by the Calusa for traveling in dugout canoes until the mid-1700s, when the tribe disappeared from Florida. Subsequent influxes of Native Americans expanded the mounds and they fished, hunted and farmed the rich fertile soil. Moving south from conflict in North Florida and Georgia, the Seminole Indians were the last native peoples to make the Everglades their home. White settlements in the Chokoloskee Bay Area began near the end of the 19th century. Plume, hide and fur hunters as well as archaeologist were the first to visit. They were quickly followed by families who combined seasonal hunting, fishing and farming to make a living like their native predecessors.
Settlement brought a need for goods and mail and that need was met by the Smallwood Store. Established in 1906 by Ted Smallwood, this Trading Post served a remote and isolated area buying hides, furs, and farm produce in exchange for providing the goods required to survive. Ted Smallwood’s Store was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974, it remained opened until 1982. When the doors were shut, 90% of the original goods remained in the store. In 1990 Ted’s granddaughter reopened the store as a museum and today it serves as a time capsule of Florida pioneer history. The center section of the building remains as Ted would have known it. The hide room has been turned into exhibit space, telling the history of Southwest Florida’s pioneers.
Come take a walk back in time and experience the unique history of the 10,000 Islands.
Open 7 DAYS A WEEK!
Dec – Apr….10am-5pm
May – Nov….11am-5pm
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| 0.974309 | 463 | 3.125 | 3 |
This thesis consists of two separate but related studies on the notion of presupposition as it occurs in philosophy and linguistics. In the first study I examine the theory of logical presupposition found in the work of Gottlob Frege. In the second I examine the theories of
Deirdre Wilson and Lauri Karttunen. These theorists reject the notion of logical presupposition in favor of pragmatic and non-logical conceptions. There are important problems with all three theories. Frege's theory fails to account for the presupposition of compound sentences. Wilsons's and Karttunen's fail to demonstrate conclusively that the presupposition of simple sentences and their negations are non-logical.
Frege's theory of presupposition:
Frege's theory of presupposition is a consequence of his more general semantic theory. In Part 1 I show how two different notions of presupposition can be reconstructed from his semantics; one applies directly to sentences, and the other applies directly to thoughts. This distinction is used to clarify Frege's discussion of presupposition in "On Sense and Reference".
In Part 2 I maintain that a speaker who utters a sentence with a false presupposition typically succeeds in making a statement. I argue against those who interpret Frege as denying this and show how a proper understanding of his semantics eliminates one of the main problems that have led theorists to erronenous interpretations.
In Part 3 I examine the relationship between negation and presupposition. I show that Frege's account of internal negation is inadequate and must be supplemented with an account of external negation. However, when external negation is introduced, his theory of logical presupposition conflicts with his theory of truth. Finally, I show that Frege's theory makes incorrect predictions about the presuppositions of compound sentences. This undermines his view that sentences are special kinds of "proper names".
In the essay on Frege I also consider certain issues that apply to any theory of logical presupposition. I argue that logical presupposition in natural languages should not be defined in terms of what is entailed by a sentence and its negation. I also argue that redundancy theories of truth and falsity conflict with theories of logical presupposition.
Two theories of non-logical presupposition
In the second essay I investigate Wilson's and Karttunen's theories of non-logical presupposition. These theorists hold the following two theses:
A. Theories of natural languages require an account of non-logical presupposition.
B. The notion of logical presupposition should be eliminated from theories of natural languages. (A) is correct, but the arguments for (B) are not conclusive.
In Part 1 of this essay I present Karttunen's notion of presupposition that applies to conjunctions, disjunctions, and conditionals. In Part
2 I argue that this notion is non-logical, but that this result is compatible with restricted theories of logical presupposition based on simple sentences and their negations. In Part 3 I examine the importance of negation for such theories and evaluate Wilson's argument that negative sentences do not bear logical presupposition.
Parts 4 and 5 are concerned with the pragmatic accounts of Wilson and
Karttunen. In Part 4 I demonstrate that Wilson's theory is incorrect and argue that it cannot be repaired. In Part 5 I indicate several difficulties with Karttunen's view and propose modifications to resolve them.
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| 0.940867 | 703 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Prepared by Elisabeth Lindsay.
Patterns are elements that repeat in a predictable manner, the logical sequence or recurrence of actions or events. Children are often taught mathematics by the use of patterns, odd and even numbers, for example. Patterns are found in virtually every aspect of life. Identifying and recognizing patterns is central to learning. Patterns may also be viewed as trends, revealing what was popular at a particular time.
Searching for and recognizing patterns can help researchers find direction. Migration patterns, for example, may show the typical path people took out of and into a particular location. Naming patterns or naming conventions are practices in giving children a particular name, often based on their birth order. One might find patterns of behavior, health patterns, economic patterns, or patterns of type, to name a few. Taking a broader perspective often helps to identify patterns; rather than focusing solely on a single individual or family, looking at the broader community may help to identify commonalties and patterns.
<< The Genealogy Guide
<< Archived Materials
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| 0.952159 | 212 | 3.9375 | 4 |
The Susan B. Anthony House [NY]
The Susan B. Anthony House presents the life and impact of Susan B. Anthony (1820-1906), one of the strongest voices for women's right to vote, abolition of slavery, and temperance. Anthony was closely involved with the political programs of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Frederick Douglass. The structure was Anthony's home between 1866 and 1906 and the site of her 1872 arrest for voting despite her sex. In addition to displaying Anthony's own possessions, the house offers an exhibit on women's suffrage.
The house offer exhibits, period rooms, lectures, tours, and an educational program on women's suffrage which meets state education standards. Groups of more than 12 require reservations.
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| 0.958524 | 152 | 2.96875 | 3 |
Vladimir Mikhaylovich Komarov was born in Moscow
on March 16, 1927.
While serving with the Soviet
Air Force, he was accepted into the Soviet Cosmonaut
program on March 7, 1960.
He was the pilot of Voskhod 1
, the world's first craft to carry more than one human into space.
The other cosmonauts on the mission were scientist/engineer Konstantin Feoktistov
(1926-) and physician Boris Yegorov
Voskhod 1 lifted off from the Soviet Union
launch facility at 0731 GMT on October 12, 1964.
The capsule and cosmonauts returned safely to earth on October 13th after completing 16 orbits of the earth with a mission duration of 24 hours 17 minutes.
The mission was rushed into space in order to beat the first Gemini launch (i.e. the first American spacecraft to carry more than one human).
Numerous risks were taken including no spacesuits, no ejection seats and no escape tower.
Soyuz 1 / Soyuz 2
The Soyuz 1
and Soyuz 2
missions were joint missions planned to practice the rendezvous
of two spacecraft in orbit.
The plan was for the three seat Soyuz
1 craft to lift off first with Komarov alone and at the controls.
The three seat Soyuz 2 craft with Valeri Bykovsky
(1934-), Yevgeni Khrunov
(1933-2000), and Aleksei Yeliseyev
(1934-) on board would then launch the next day and rendezvous with Soyuz 1.
Khrunov and Yeliseyev would then space walk
over to Soyuz 1 and return to earth with Komarov.
If successful, the mission would achieve the first orbital rendezvous and the first crew transfer between crafts in orbit.
Soyuz 1 with Komarov at the controls lifted off from Baikonur at 0040 GMT on April 23, 1967.
Problems started to develop immediately after orbital insertion when the solar panels failed to deploy.
The decision to abort the Soyuz 1 mission and cancel the Soyuz 2 mission was made.
The first attempt to leave orbit failed when an automatic system didn't fire a retro-rocket when required.
A decision was made to fire the retro-rocket manually on the next orbit.
As the spacecraft would be on the night side of the earth when the retro-rocket needed to be ignited, a manual system of aligning the spacecraft on the moon was used to time the firing of the retro-rocket (Apollo 13 used a similar navigational technique a number of years later on their way back from the moon after an explosion on their command module forced them to abort their mission).
The rocket fired on time and the spacecraft left orbit.
Unfortunately, the craft's parachute failed to deploy correctly and the capsule plummeted to earth.
Komarov became the first human to die during a space mission on April 24, 1967 when his capsule crashed into the earth near Novoorsk, Orenburg Oblast, Russia.
Like the Voskhod 1 mission, the Soyuz 1/2 missions were rushed in order to beat the Americans.
Komarov's backup on Soyuz 1 was Yuri Gagarin.
Komarov and Gagarin are reported to have believed that the flight was doomed even before lift off due to the intense pressure from Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev to launch "on time".
- Komarov gave a speech in Japan on July 10, 1966.
In the speech, he announced that the Soviet Union would beat the Americans to the moon by one year.
- The Soviet Union announced their lunar flight assignments on September 1, 1966.
Although the assignments changed frequently, Komarov was included in all announced lunar flight assignments from the original announcements on the 1st of September, 1966 until his death on April 24, 1967.
Postscript (written in April of 2011)
A just published book claims that NSA
analyst Perry Fellwock recorded Komarov's final words as he screamed in rage at the people who put him in a known-to-be-defective craft. The book also claims that Komarov knew that the capsule was not space-worthy prior to the flight but chose to fly anyways as if he refused then his close friend Yuri Gagarin would fly (and die) in his place.
Needless to say, establishing the credibility of this claim is problematic. Comments in an article describing the claim and the book at http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1367857/US-intercepted-Russian-cosmonaut-Vladimir-Komarovs-final-words-rage.html (last accessed in April of 2011) cast doubt on aspects of the story. Personally, I will remain skeptical of the claim unless/until it is corroborated from reliable sources.
The book is Starman - the truth behind the legend of Yuri Gagarin by Jamie Doran and Piers Bizony. It was published in April of 2011 by Walker & Company (ISBN-10: 0802779506; ISBN-13: 978-0802779502).
The information in this writeup is almost entirely based on material gleaned from a dozen or more pages on the www.astronautix.com
web site (i.e. this is NOT a cut-and-paste writeup although it is somewhat single-sourced).
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| 0.960347 | 1,155 | 3.25 | 3 |
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) sets up a legal regime for the sea and oceans and thus represents the attempt by the international community to regulate all aspects of the resources of the sea and uses of the ocean. In terms of the environment, UNCLOS establishes material rules concerning environmental standards and enforcement provisions regarding pollution of the marine environment. UNCLOS was adopted in 1982 in Montego Bay, Jamaica and entered into force in 1994. It currently has 149 Parties.
Objectives and approach
The major features of the Convention include navigational rights, territorial sea limits, economic jurisdiction, legal status of resources on the seabed beyond the limits of national jurisdiction, passage of ships through narrow straits, conservation and management of living marine resources, protection of the marine environment, a marine research regime and a binding procedure for settlement of disputes between States.
The Parties are to have sovereign rights in the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) for the purpose of exploring and exploiting, preserving and managing its natural resources, as well as other rights and duties (article 56). The coastal State is to exercise over the continental shelf sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring it and exploiting its natural resources (defined in article 77). Freedom of the high seas is to comprise inter alia freedom of navigation, of overflight, of laying submarine cables and pipelines, and of fishing and of scientific research, subject to the provisions of parts VI and XIII. Land- locked states are to enjoy the right of access to and from the sea and freedom of transit (articles 124 to 132). The Area (the seabed and ocean floor and subsoil thereof, beyond the limits of national jurisdiction) and its resources are to be the common heritage of mankind (article 136) while the resources of the Area are to be developed (articles 150 to 155). International rules and national legislation are to be developed for the prevention, reduction and control of pollution of the marine environment, and provisions set out concerning enforcement and responsibility and liability. Finally rules are set out to govern marine scientific research, the development and transfer of marine technology and the settlement of disputes.
The Convention establishes the International Seabed Authority, through which Parties organize and control activities in the Area (see above). The principal organs of the Authority are the Assembly, the Council and the Secretariat. In addition, the Enterprise is the organ of the Authority, which carries out activities in the Area directly as well as the transporting, processing and marketing of minerals recovered from the Area.
The Secretary-General is convening Meetings of State Parties. The meetings address issues such as the election of the members of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea and of the members of the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf as well as budgetary and administrative matters of the Tribunal.
UNCLOS has enabled a number of agreements such as the Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, which was adopted in 1995 and entered into force in 2001.
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| 0.932387 | 652 | 3.765625 | 4 |
For the clients in this article, the only path planning needed is the ability to steer along a straight line. Given a line and periodically its own position, the client's goal is to eventually be travelling precisely parallel to the line within a certain distance from the line. This distance, or the tolerance, is a parameter, but throughout this article it is set to 5 units. Since the agent's width is 20 units, this tolerance allows the client to strike the ball as expected.
The client begins by computing its distance from the line as well as its offset from the correct heading (the slope of the line). If the client's distance is greater than the tolerance, then the agent steers sharply towards the line. In particular, it sets its steering in proportion to its distance from the line minus the tolerance. If the distance is no more than the tolerance (or once it has become so), then the client steers towards the line with a force proportional to its heading offset. Thus, when the client is heading parallel to the line, its wheel is centered.
Although this method does not force the client to travel exactly along the given line, it does allow the client to be moving in precisely the right direction. Thus it is able to reliably strike the ball in a particular direction.
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| 0.959269 | 259 | 3.4375 | 3 |
Community – Search the World of Mathematics
Financial Mathematics (also mathematical finance) is the branch of mathematics focused on financial markets. The content of mathematical finance is the development of mathematical models arising from financial economics and their mathematical treatment, e.g. the portfolio theory of Markowitz or the famous Black Scholes option prize formula.
Statistics is one of the largest fields in the mathematical sciences. It deals with the collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data. Statistics is applied to many other disciplines such as the physical and social sciences, business and government. This page intends to help you find relevant data dealing with the subject statistics in our databases and the web.
Mathematics is one of the oldest disciplines in science. It begins in almost all cultures with basic mathematics, counting and measuring. The evolution of mathematics was varying in different countries and times: centuries of stagnation alternate with centuries of major advancements. Another specific feature of mathematics: there are rarely outdated theories, theorems or proofs. The geometry of Euclid or the equations of Gauss are today as correct as they were at the time of their development. So older work is valuable not only for historians, laymen, teachers and students but also for the current researcher in mathematics.
In our daily life and profession usage of mathematics grows in many respects, so as well mathematical education becomes more and more important. Research in mathematics education has two main purposes: First to understand the nature of mathematical thinking, teaching, and learning, and second to use such knowledge in practice for learning and teaching mathematics. In Europe mathematics education research is also known as "didactics of mathematics". Other disciplines such as sociology, psychology, anthropology, and philosophy are involved with it. Recreational and popular mathematics is also referenced here.
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| 0.953652 | 356 | 2.953125 | 3 |
Berlin (Jul. 20)
The Jews of Great Britain as well as those of other countries are accused in today’s newspapers of increasing the world’s ill feeling toward Germany.
In an article on England and the Jewish problem, the Berliner Weekly Ring declares that Jews have without a doubt contributed greatly towards the antagonism now prevailing in England against Germany.
A long article in the Dresdener Anzeiger charges that Jewish influence in France is preventing that country from adopting an unbiased attitude towards Germany.
The Deutschefront of Saarbrucken affirms that the strained relations that have recently developed between Germany and the Scandinavian countries, where recent events in the Reich are unanimously condemned by the entire Scandinavian press, especially Sweden, are attributable directly to the Jews, “who understand how cleverly to stimulate public opinion against the new Germany.”
“DOLLFUSS SOLD OUT TO JEWS”
An article in the Konigsberger Allgemeine Zeitung assumes that Dollfuss sold himself to the international Jewish influence and is therefore now fighting anti-Semitism in Austria more eagerly than hitherto.
The Oldenburgische Staatszeitung establishes that the highly increased anti-German attitude in Rumania, which is causing suppression of German Nazi groups there, is due to news sent from Berlin “by Jewish correspondents of Rumanian newspapers.” The newspaper demands the deportation from Germany of all Rumanian newspaper correspondents who are Jews.
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| 0.921691 | 305 | 2.515625 | 3 |
04 Feb 2010
In the Mountains of the Moon, A Trek to Africa’s Last Glaciers
The shrinking ice cap atop Mount Kilimanjaro is Africa’s most famous glacier. But the continent harbors other pockets of ice, most notably in the Rwenzori Mountains of western Uganda. And as temperatures rise, the Rwenzori’s tropical glaciers — located as high as 16,500 feet — are fast disappearing.
I am hiking through a moss-draped forest more than 10,000 feet above sea level in the Rwenzori Mountains in western Uganda, not far from the border of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The trail ahead is steep as a ladder and slippery with mud, and every few minutes my guide and I stop to rest.
Most people who come to this part of Africa do so for its wildlife, especially the endangered mountain gorilla. I have made the journey for another reason. I am looking for a glacier.
In the popular imagination, glaciers and Africa intersect at one location: Mt. Kilimanjaro, the iconic dormant volcano that rises from the grasslands of Tanzania and whose shrinking snowcap has become a symbol of climate change.
But there are glaciers in steamy Uganda, too, hidden in the eaves of jagged 16,000-foot peaks that are lost in the clouds most of the year. And these
Photo by Tom Knudson
The glacier atop 16,080-foot Mount Speke in Uganda’s Rwenzori Range covered roughly 540 acres a century ago. Today, after decades of warming, only a few dozen acres of the glacier remain.
glaciers have a climate change story to tell, too — one that scientific research suggests better reflects the impact of global warming than the fading snows of Kilimanjaro.
But their story is also nearing its close. In just two decades, scientists expect the Rwenzori glaciers — as well as Africa’s few other remaining ice fields — to be gone. Kilimanjaro has already lost 84 percent of its ice since 1912, and what’s left is not expected to last more than a couple of decades. The Lewis glacier on Mount Kenya is also expected to wink out soon.
That prognosis comes as no surprise to my guide, a local Bakonjo tribesman named Baluku Josephat, who has guided climbers through the Rwenzori range since 1982 and has seen the consequences of global warming firsthand.
“If you go to Mount Baker,” he says, referring to a massive, ship-like peak in the center of the range where glaciers have already melted, “you can now go without crampons. It was not that way in the past. Now people just walk over rocks.”
And not all of the impacts are playing out in the snow zone. Two years ago, Josephat spotted something in a brushy thicket at 10,900 feet that startled him — an upwardly mobile chameleon.
“Chameleons are supposed to be at lower elevations. Now they are moving up and up,” he said, echoing an observation scientists have made about animals and plants in other mountain ranges worldwide. “When I found that chameleon, I was puzzled. I thought, ‘My God, what is happening?’”
With its snow-capped peaks looming over the tropics, the Rwenzori are a geographical marvel that has haunted the Western imagination for centuries. As early as 500 B.C. the Greek dramatist Aeschylus wrote about
The most astonishing sight of all is the snow hovering above the tropical landscape.
“Egypt nurtured by the snows.” In 150 A.D., Claudius Ptolemy, the most distinguished geographer of his time, produced a celebrated early map of Africa that fanned speculation about a snowy source of the Nile. Without ever setting foot in Africa, he sketched an icy range rising from the heart of the continent that he called Lunae Montes — the Mountains of the Moon — a name widely used for the Rwenzori today.
But it wasn’t until 1888 that the American explorer Henry Stanley proved Ptolemy correct. Looking up from a camp in the Congo, he spotted what he first thought was a silver cloud in the shape of a mountain.
“Following its form downward, I became struck with the deep blue-black color of its base,” Stanley wrote. “Then I became for the first time conscious that what I gazed upon was not the semblance of a vast mountain, but the solid substance of a real one with its summit covered with snow.”
Even today, hiking into the Rwenzori range is like stepping into a lost world. Fewer than 2,000 people a year visit the place. For long stretches, you see no one. And there are surprises by the hour, from worms as long as your walking stick, to iridescent greenish-purple sunbirds and the elusive, brilliant-blue Rwenzori turaco.
Photo by Tom Knudson
A mountaineering guide stands near the former terminus of the Speke Glacier, which once snaked down the side of Mount Speke for 1,600 feet.
Also astonishing is the kaleidoscope of chlorophyll, the staircase of forest zones that clings to the range from the foothills at 5,400 feet to the treeline around 13,500 feet. On our second day, we entered a forest of giant heather so ensnarled in moss it was hard to see the sky. “No forest can be grimmer and stranger than this,” wrote Filippo de Filippi in his epic account of the first expedition to thoroughly explore the range and climb its major peaks, led by the Italian mountaineer and adventurer, Prince Luigi Amedeo of Savoy, Duke of the Abruzzi, in 1906.
As we climbed higher, the heather disappeared, replaced at 11,200 feet with something stranger: two species that looked like cactus, but weren’t — the torch-like giant lobelia and the giant groundsel, which reaches upward with woody branches topped by enormous cabbage-like leaves.
But the most astonishing sight of all is the snow you begin to glimpse hovering above the tropical landscape. When Abruzzi tramped through the range a century ago, ridges and mountains were shellacked with snow and glaciers. He discovered glaciers on six peaks and estimated their total size at 2.5 square miles.
“Members were full of excitement and satisfaction,” wrote de Filippi, describing the expedition’s initial ascent into the alpine zone. “The place was rough and wild. A cold and biting wind blew off the glacier and suggested surroundings very different from those usually associated with Equatorial Africa.”
Today, less than half a square mile remains. On three peaks, glaciers have disappeared altogether.
In the Andes and Himalaya, the melting of high-altitude glaciers is expected to trigger water shortages downstream in coming decades. But Uganda’s ice is much too small to have such an impact. Nonetheless,
Ice is disappearing so swiftly that much critical scientific information may already have been lost.
Josephat and his fellow tribe members are worried. For them, melting glaciers are an economic threat.
“The snow and ice you are seeing are a tourist attraction,” said our cook, Donald Philly, over dinner one evening. “Clients come to see the snow and we get employment opportunities.”
And when the snow is gone, he added, jobs will vanish. Standing nearby, Josephat said the Bakonjo would simply have to adapt — like the chameleons. “We are going to train our guides on rock climbing,” he said.
Precipitation patterns are also changing.
“Years ago, it would rain cats and dogs, from morning to evening, for seven days straight,” Josephat said. “Rivers were flooded. There would be a lot of fog, even down to the lower elevations. These days, that is not happening.”
Such changes, he believes, are contributing to a rise in mortality he has observed among the iconic giant lobelia. “The trees are withering at a rapid speed,” Josephat said. And as they die, he said, other plant and moss species are likely to suffer, too.
Ultimately, Josephat said, he fears climate change may set off a domino effect of forest decline that could one day diminish the range’s ability to soak up and store water, putting downstream villages at risk. The Bakonjo guides take the threat so seriously they have recently formed an organization to plant more trees around the base of the range, both to battle deforestation and increase carbon sequestration.
Yale Environment 360
The Rwenzori Mountains are located in western Uganda, not far from the border of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
The changes here also pose a challenge to climate scientists. Inside the Rwenzori’s receding glaciers are specks of pollen and dust that could unlock secrets about past climatic upheavals. But there’s a problem: no one has managed to access to the glaciers amid the daunting terrain. Seven years ago, Lonnie Thompson — the well-known U.S. scientist who has sampled high-altitude tropical glaciers worldwide and uncovered evidence of dramatic pre-Incan climate swings from ice core samples high in the Andes — was scheduled to work in the Rwenzori. But he had to cancel his trip because of security concerns in East Africa at the start of the Iraq war.
Time is running short.
“The whole atmosphere is warming in the tropics,” Thompson told Science News
. “But the greatest risk is taking place at the highest elevations — on the order of 0.3 C (0.5 F) per decade.”
Ice in the Rwenzori is disappearing so swiftly that much critical information may have already been lost. “There is a lot of concern about whether there is even a viable [ice] core,” said Richard Taylor, a hydrologist at University College in London. Without such solid evidence, he added, scientists can’t even determine the age of the range’s glacial cover.
Taylor is the lead author of a 2006 study in Geophysical Research Letters
that links the melting glaciers in the Rwenzori more directly to rising temperatures than the shrinking snowcap on 19,340-foot Mount Kilimanjaro.
: Watch local guide Baluku Josephat talk about the loss of the glaciers.
“The ice fields on Kilimanjaro are substantially higher” than the Rwenzori and therefore less prone to melting, Taylor told me by phone from London. “The glaciers that still exist in the Rwenzori reside somewhere between 4,800 meters and 5,050 meters” — 15,750 to 16,570 feet — making them “more vulnerable to fluctuations in temperature.”
By contrast, the shrinking snowcap on Kilimanjaro is likely due to decreasing humidity, not rising temperatures, he said, adding, “The Rwenzori mountains are the icon of global warming — not Kilimanjaro.”
But as I climb higher into the Rwenzori, it’s clear that getting close to even one African glacier is going to be more of an ordeal than I expected. And it’s not just the steep trails and thin air that conspire to halt my progress. It’s the mud. Never have I seen mud in such quantity or variety. Sludge-like in places, syrupy in others, it filled two enormous high-altitude bogs. In spots, a boardwalk helped. But where it ended, chest waders would have come in handy, too.
Finally, after scrambling up a nearly vertical wall of rock and moss, I stepped onto a ledge at 14,400 feet, where a century ago Abruzzi encountered a nine-story-high wall of ice known as the Speke glacier, named for the British explorer — John Hanning Speke — who discovered the source of the Nile at Lake Victoria.
More from Yale e360Retreat of Andean Glaciers
Foretells Global Water Woes
Bolivia accounts for a tiny fraction of global greenhouse gas emissions. But it will soon be paying a disproportionately high price for a major consequence of global warming: the rapid loss of glaciers and a subsequent decline in vital water supplies.
In Abruzzi’s day, the glacier snaked down the side of 16,080-foot Mount Speke for 1,600 feet before ending abruptly near the rocky cliff face where he — and now I — stood. A century ago, the glacier covered about 540 acres, and de Filippi recounts listening to the roar of gigantic columns of ice crashing into the valley below.
In the thickening mist, I searched for ice but saw none. Instead, I looked out on the ghost of a glacier, a rubble of smooth slate-gray stone sloping up from a small green lake, formed by glacial melt. Here and there, giant groundsels were starting to grow between rocks that not long ago were entombed in ice.
Then the sky opened up to reveal a narrow band of silver and white more than 1,000 feet up the mountain — the last receding remnant of the Speke glacier, which has now shrunk to just a few dozen acres.
A few seconds later, the clouds zippered back up and it was gone.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
writes about natural resources and the environment for the Sacramento Bee
. Over the years, his reporting has been singled out for numerous journalistic honors, including two Pulitzer Prizes and a Reuters-I.U.C.N. Global Environmental Media Award. In a previous article for Yale Environment 360
, he wrote about the impact of the biofuel boom on Indonesia's rain forests
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There is promising news for people at risk of heart failure after US researchers found stem cell therapy in humans has been surprisingly successful in replacing damaged muscle and getting the heart to pump better.
The research revealed at the American Heart Association's annual conference in Florida could revolutionise the way heart failure is treated.
Even when people survive heart attacks the damage is quite severe. Scar tissue means the heart cannot pump as well, and about 50 per cent of people die within five years.
It is these patients who may benefit from the stem cell treatments being trialled.
One treatment was led by Emerson Perin from the Texas Heart Institute. His team took stem cells from an adult's bone marrow and injected it into 60 patients.
"All the cells are obtained for one healthy donor in which they build bone marrow and then they pick out a certain stem cell and that stem cell then is expanded and you can expand that stem cell to create 1,000 doses if you wanted," he said.
"So all the patients got treated with basically the same cells from the same healthy young patients and so this is very much like a blood transfusion."
The researchers did not expect the therapy to be so effective - they were just trying to make sure it was safe.
"We saw some of the hearts pumping better and some of the volumes of the heart getting smaller and patients able to walk further," he said.
Dr Perin said the most impressive results of the trial were from the clinical events, known as major adverse cardiac event (MACE).
He said there was a significant decrease in the adverse clinical events, including cases of death.
"Three in 15 patients - with the controlled patients - there were three cardiac deaths, and in 45 of the treated patients there was only one cardiac death.
"Even though the numbers are small, there is a very significant difference in mortality from heart causes in these patients."
Boosting heart function
The conference also heard about a separate study by researchers in Kentucky and California in which 16 patients were treated with their own stem cells.
Chief medical adviser of the Heart Foundation, James Tatsoulis, says the success of the treatment could be due to the fact it was using the patients' own stem cells.
"We've known a bit about stem cells in heart disease for about the last 10 years but the results have been fairly mixed. But this is the first study that's really been conducted in humans using... the patients' own heart stem cells," he said.
"In the study these cells boosted the heart function by about 15 to 20 per cent and they also were also able to reduce the area of heart muscle damage by about 25 per cent. So these are findings never seen before."
Professor Tatsoulis expects the treatment could be available within five years.
"There's a lot still to be researched as to what the correct number of cells to be injected is, whether the timing is correct, whether we need to do it on repeated occasions and those sorts of issues," he said.
"But it's incredibly promising and all the techniques which are used are readily available, and in fact will be accessible for many people that actually have heart failure."
More than 300,000 Australians suffer from heart failure.
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The other reason for the success of the Indo-Arabic system is that its decimal, meaning you can combine the same ten symbols to form any number you want. Turns out the ancient Mayans had this concept down too, although their system has twenty digits rather than ten. My guess is the Indians only counted their fingers while the Mayans included their toes. Had history and geography played out a little differently, we could easily be using the Mayan's system rather than the Indian's.
The coolest thing about the Mayan system is that its really intuititve and easy to learn. All you need to know is four rules:
- The little conch shell is a zero
- The dot is a one
- The line is a five
- Mayans count in groups of 20, not 10!
Oh yeah, and Mayans write up the page, not down it.
The tricky part is that when you get to 20, you use the symbols for one and zero, not for two and zero. Then you start all over under the dot until you get to 40, which is two dots over a zero. And that's it! Three symbols, twenty digits, and you too can count like an ancient Mayan.
*Check out a web app that converts "normal" numbers to Maya numerals here: http://www.michielb.nl/maya/math.html
**Image comes straight out of the good ol' wikimedia commons: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Maya.png
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This week the Pew Hispanic Center released a new report detailing Latino voter turnout in the 2012 general election. While a record number of Latinos turned out to vote in November’s election, a little over half of the Latinos who could vote did not show up to the polls. 48% of eligible Hispanics voted in 2012, which is slightly down from 49.9% in 2012.
Only three Hispanic subgroups had higher voting turnout in 2012. Naturalized immigrants who arrived in the 1990s increased their turnout from 41.2% in 2008 to 47.2% in 2012. Those in the 65 year old and over subset increased their turnout from 56% to 59.9% in 2012, and Puerto Ricans increased their turnout from 49.7% in 2008 to 52.8% in 2012.
Education levels also influence turnout as it does for other groups in the traditional high socioeconomic, high turnout model. 70.8% of Hispanics with a college degree voted in 2012, while only 35.5% of those with less than a high school diploma turned out to vote.
Young voters are helping to increase the number of Latino eligible voters, as 3.8 million Latinos became eligible to vote between 2008 and 2012. Younger Latino voters in the 18-29 group posted a lower voter turnout in 2012 than they did in 2008 (36.9% from 40.8% in 2008).
In terms of Latino family origin, Cuban Americans, as a group, had the highest voter turnout at 67.2% in 2012. Central/South American origin Latinos followed with 57.1% turnout in 2012. Following the Cuban Americans and Central/South Americans were the other Spanish origin group (53.7%), Puerto Rican origin (52.8%), and Mexican origin group (42.2%).
This data shows that there is plenty of room to increase Latino voter turnout, especially in the 12.1 million people who are eligible to vote but aren’t showing up to the polls. 52% of Latinos who are eligible to cast ballots are not voting, whereas 66.6% of blacks and 64.1% of whites voted in 2012.
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Crying is a normal part of communication for babies and may signal that they are too hot or cold, that they need to be fed, changed or held. Crying can be frustrating for parents and caregivers, as it is not always clear what the baby needs or wants. Sleep deprivation and the stress of having an infant can also lead to frustrations when a baby is crying. Parents or caregivers may doubt their abilities to adequately care for the child and may feel helpless and incompetent when they cannot get the baby to stop crying.
As frustrations mount, caregivers may be driven to shake a baby to stop the crying. This is extremely dangerous and can cause serious harm to the baby or even death. A baby’s head is very heavy and its neck muscles are not strong enough to support it. Therefore, when a baby is shaken, his or her head is thrown back and forth very quickly, causing the brain to hit the skull repeatedly. This damages the blood vessels, which leads to bleeding and swelling inside of the skull. Shaking a baby can lead to permanent disability or death.
Shaken Baby Syndrome is the result of being shaken as an infant and is a type of Abusive Head Trauma. Up to one third of the victims of Shaken Baby Syndrome die while others may suffer lifelong disabilities. If nothing seems to be working to calm the infant, the caregiver should gently place the baby in a safe place and take a few minutes to relax and calm herself before attempting to console the baby again.[/column]
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Warriors among the Kwara’ae, a collection of tribal communities indigenous to the Solomon Islands, sacrificed pigs before battle. The tradition granted the combatants, so the belief went, aid from heroic ancestral spirits—like the mighty A’orama, a fierce fighter in Kwara’ae folklore. For every man who prepared to shed blood, a hog met its end.1
Any non-superstitious observer might regard this ritual as a costly habit. Why give offerings when one can eat them instead? This puzzle is not unique to the Kwara’ae. Why pray? Or erect and attend churches, mosques, temples? Or observe holidays and fast? All that time and energy could be spent more practically.
But maybe these acts are actually extremely practical. Shared beliefs and rites may serve an important social function: promoting cohesion.
Unlike bees, ants and other insects, which form large, complex groups with their close cousins and siblings, humans do so with complete genetic strangers—at huge scale. Doing so requires a special kind of cohesion.
“For thousands of years all human beings lived in foraging societies—in small hunter-gatherer bands—egalitarian, face-to-face societies,” says Ara Norenzayan, a professor of social psychology and religious studies at the University of British Columbia in Canada. “Then they started to scale up in the Holocene [an era that began about 12,000 years ago] and that scaling up continues to now.” He believes religion and ritual have played an integral role in making this happen.
In his 2013 book Big Gods, Norenzayan argues that civilizations grew in conjunction with systems of belief, and that big gods—“powerful, omniscient, interventionist deities concerned with regulating the moral behavior of humans”—enabled more complex societies. Bigger gods, in his view, built bigger groups.
To test this hypothesis, researchers in New Zealand have turned to a new tool: Called Puloto (“abode of the gods”), it consists of a database focused exclusively on Austronesian cultures, or civilizations in the South Pacific.
“The Pacific is really interesting because it’s this natural laboratory of all these different islands that have been semi-independent for hundreds of years,” says Quentin Atkinson, a cultural anthropologist at the University of Auckland, who collaborated on the project. “These little experiments,” as he calls them, can be used “to test hypotheses.”
So Atkinson and Joseph Watts, a PhD candidate at the University of Auckland, analyzed Puloto using a statistical approach called the Bayesian phylogenetic method to pose the following question: Does a belief in big gods spur societal complexity, or do big gods simply emerge in complexity’s wake?
By parsing related words in various language groups, the team mathematically determined the distances between cultures along the roots, limbs, and offshoots of the Austronesian family tree. This allowed them to make sure they were comparing cultures that were independent from each other. Then, they ranked each culture on a spectrum of political complexity—“low” complexity for local community rulers, “high” for multiple strata of chiefdoms.
Of the 96 cultures examined, 37 used broad supernatural punishment, 22 displayed high political complexity, and only six—clustered predominantly in Southeast Asia—demonstrated belief in big gods, which the researchers call moralizing high gods. Contra Norenzayan, their data suggested that belief in big gods does not propel political complexity, but arises instead from cultural exchange among already complex societies.
It is not big gods alone that catalyze complexity, the team argued, but a belief in what it calls “broad supernatural punishment” which includes big gods but also “fallible localized ancestral spirits and inanimate processes like karma.”
The team appropriated the concept of broad supernatural punishment from Dominic Johnson, a professor of evolution and religion at Oxford. Johnson maintains that the idea ghost cops makes evolutionary sense because they are cheaper to maintain than actual police forces. And when someone commits a crime, immaterial authorities don’t need to drum up evidence to prosecute a suspect; they automatically know the culprit and deliver justice accordingly—a potent deterrent.
“I loved the method,” Johnson says in praise of the New Zealand teams’ work with Pulotu. “We did not have until now a really good ethnographic cross-cultural database from which people could draw that concerned supernatural punishment.” Unlike other databases, Johnson notes, Pulotu includes a temporal element as it allows one to follow the growth of the Austronesian family tree’s branches. That addition, he says, “was a big step forward.”
Like Johnson, Norenzayan praises the model’s inclusion of a time element. “Historical data is really neat,” he says. “Knowing what came first helps a lot with the question of how things developed, and which causal direction is more plausible.” However, he finds the results of the study to be “broadly consistent” with his own view: Local spirits and karmic forces of the kind found in the broad supernatural punishment hypothesis are to be generally regarded as “precursors” to his big gods, like those of the Abrahamic faiths. Pulotu may have simply found a group of societies in which big gods developed more slowly. “You have to be careful looking at one place, one historical region. Cultural evolution can be different in different places.”
Whatever the case may be, both sides agree that supernatural punishment plays a vital role in the growth of societies. Threats motivate groups to coalesce and cooperate, and phantom forces encourage and maintain social order.
Even if the pork goes uneaten.
Robert Hackett is a reporter for Fortune @rhhackett
1. Burt, B. Tradition and Christianity: The Colonial Transformation of a Solomon Islands Harwood Academic Publishers Society, Chur, Switzerland (1994)
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Controlling static does not have to be a hair-raising experience.
Talking about static – and the different places it comes from – might cause one to reminisce back to middle school science class. And some might even recall an inventive (or lazy) student rubbing a balloon on his head as his science project.Converting and packaging professionals are quite familiar with static electricity, and controlling it is part of day-to-day operations. H. Sean Fremon, of Cole Static Control, in the Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology, provides a concise but scientific definition, and discusses static’s relationship to packaging and converting: “Static is the excess or deficit of electrons on a material. A regular nonpolar atom has a nucleus with a positive charge and negatively charged electrons orbiting it. When one atom comes in close proximity to another, electrons from the orbit draw or tear away electrons, leaving one atom with an excess of electrons and the other with a deficit. This process, called ionization, leaves the atom with the excess carrying a negative charge, while the one with the deficit carries a positive charge. Static in packaging manufacturing is caused by friction, separation, heat change and improper grounding. Packaging and material handling equipment often incorporate a combination of these to accomplish its function."
Regardless of the cause, label converters are well aware of the negative effect static can have: machine jams, material waste, operator shocks, or decreases in product quality and productivity. In worse case scenarios, static electricity can injure employees, cause fires, and even explosions.
Though you cannot see, touch, taste or smell static charges, they become quite evident when they affect profitability and productivity. For the narrow web converter, there’s a wide range of products and machinery that prevents static from doing just that.
Simco, headquartered in Hatfield, PA, USA, offers several static control products, and has recently added to its offerings, having acquired Ion Industrial, a move that makes for a comprehensive product portfolio.
Simco’s PerforMAX IQ Remote Monitor gives operators real-time system feedback no matter where they are in the plant.
“One of our newest and most effective systems is the PerforMAX IQ. Ideal for various converting applications, this innovative system maximizes the controlled removal of static charge on films, paper and nonwovens. With static bars specifically engineered for high-speed webs, long-distance neutralizing, or hybrid installations, the PerforMAX IQ can be perfectly matched to the application. When combined with an IQ communication module, downstream static charge monitor, and optional remote control, operators have an extremely efficient system ideal for any narrow web slitting/rewinding operation,” says West.
Another product West says is popular among label converters is the PerforMAX Easy static neutralization system. “This rugged system is very compact, yet powerful. It consists of a high-efficiency static bar (available in various lengths) and an integrated high-voltage power supply. The bar’s reinforced profile makes it extremely durable and easy to clean without risk of bending and damaging the bar. PerforMAX Easy systems are also readily matched to high-speed as well as long-range applications for optimum static neutralization,” she says.
For converting applications that require a temporary static charge during production, the Chargemaster VCM is a good fit. “Depending on the application, the Chargemaster creates a powerful positive or negative charge to get one material to adhere to itself or another material,” says West. Common charging applications include pinning blown-in post cards during bindery, web-to-core leading edge pinning during continuous winding operations, pinning labels in molds prior to plastic injection, and pinning high-speed printed webs to chill rolls to eliminate unwanted condensate.
The programmable Chargemaster VCM can be paired with different charging applicators and bars to provide the best method of applying the electrostatic charge for the process, maximizing the efficiency of the application.
“Converters keep raising line speeds to yield higher productivity. As the web moves faster, however, more electrostatic charges get created. As lines run faster, more web material is put at risk should a process problem arise. Thus, controlling static charges becomes even more critical.”
The best solutions are the ones tailored to do the job effectively, West adds. “For example, Simco offers different systems engineered for neutralizing webs running speeds up to 3,000 fpm and distances up to 30" away. Closed loop systems monitor static charges on high-speed webs and automatically adjust neutralizing output. Portable communicators, like the PerforMAX IQ Remote Monitor, give operators real-time system feedback no matter where they are in the plant. Likewise, static control systems that easily integrate into process PCs or PLCs provide greater control over production quality.
“Regardless of line speeds, converters need the most efficient static neutralizing and static charging systems in order to meet today’s profitability goals, to keep workers safe, and to achieve optimum product quality without fail,” West says.
Exair, Cincinnati, OH, USA, offers multiple static control systems for the narrow web market. And according to Kirk Edwards, application engineer, choosing the best product for the application generally depends on two characteristics of the application. “First,” he says, “do you need compressed air assistance due to high speeds or distance from the target? Second, what size area do you need to cover with the static eliminating ions?”
Edwards notes that non-air assisted products like Exair’s Ion Bars and the Ion Point should be mounted within 2" of the target. “They are typically best for slower web speeds and are offered from 3" to 96" lengths. These products do well on narrow webs because they have a small footprint and can be mounted in the tight quarters of many narrow web applications.”
For applications that run at high speeds, or when products cannot be mounted within 2" of the target, some air assistance is necessary, Edwards says. “The Super Ion Air Knife, Ion Air Cannon and Ion Air Jet are air assisted and supply air flow to break the boundary layer of air created by the high speed web. They are also capable of covering larger areas than an Ion Point or Ion Bar. Choosing the product to cover the right sized area is the next simple step – A Super Ion Air Knife to cover the width of your web or an Ion Air Cannon mounted remotely to flood an area where operators are getting shocked,” he says, adding that Exair’s most popular items for narrow web applications are Ion Bars and Super Ion Air Knives.
Exair’s SuperIon Air Knife
As more a narrow webs and labels are coated or made from films and run at higher speeds, Edwards believes static will continue to be on the rise. He says, “And since static electricity will cause a variety of problems, including contamination, reduced ink quality and improper web feeding, static elimination will continue to be high on your priority list. If you want to keep up in this highly competitive market, the quality of your product may depend upon removing static from your process.”
Meech, with global headquarters in Witney, Oxfordshire, UK, has been around since 1907, and for the last 50 years has specialized in static control equipment.
David Rogers, business unit director, static control, points out that static control equipment has improved greatly over the past 10 years.He says, “Modern, resistively-coupled ionizing bars are several times more powerful than their predecessors and can control charges on the fastest of presses. In fact, they are regularly fitted to converting machinery capable of web speeds in excess of 800 m/min.
The Meech Model 915 is used on the web path
at points where charges need controlling.
Rogers says that for the label market, long range pulsed DC ionizingbars are particularly effective on unwinds and rewinds. “The Meech model 976 will control the charges that otherwise would cause dust attraction and operator shocks. Short range ionizing bars, like the Meech model 915, are used on the web path at points where charges need controlling.Both Meech bars are designed to operate effectively for long periods between cleaning operations. Despite being among the most powerful bars in their class, shockless emitter points make them safe for the operators to use,” Rogers says.
According to Rogers, RFID tags require particular expertise when it comes to static control. “The application and lamination of the tags is highly sensitive to static. Levels of static that would normally go unnoticed will damage the tags and lead to very low yield levels. Careful control of the charges on the web at each stage of the process is vital to raise productivity.This is an area where specialized help from experienced suppliers is required.”
Staticure, Marblehead, MA, a division of Alpha Innovation, focuses on static control products that are simple and easy to use.
Staticure’s StopStatic Rod
High static attracts dust to substrates, Larkin says, causing repeating defects on labels. The challenge is that the substrate needs to be kept static-free throughout the unwinding over several rollers before printing. “The Static String brand cord can be draped over the unwinding substrate and after each roller that generates static attraction. With attention to placement, attraction of dust can be eliminated. The ionRod has a magnetic mounting base so it is simple to position and move to where the static is generating. And when it comes to dealing with shocks to operators near statically charged materials, the ion360 rods can be placed near the substrate to eliminate the static,” he says.
Larkin emphasizes that unlike electric static bars and tinsel, Staticure customers enjoy how easy it is to move the products around to different locations. “It’s all about performance, ease of use and low cost,” he says. Consistency is another attribute. “The Stopstatic Cords and ion360rods are more consistent during use because they do not attract dust to points like the active electrical bars. They offer consistent performance because they do not need to be maintained or replaced,” Larkin adds.
“Simple is always better when it works,” says Larkin.“The Stopstatic products perform without high voltage transformers with little maintenance. Placement is very important, and this is our biggest advantage.”
NRD, Grand Island, NY, USA, manufactures a linear ionizer called the Nuclestat Bar. And what sets this device apart is that it’s self-powered. All the end user needs to do is properly place the bar and connect its ground strap.
“The Nuclestat Bar has no moving parts, nothing to fail, no points to clean as with traditional powered ionizers,” says Greg Gumkowski, director of sales and marketing. “It's like Ron Popeil’s favorite saying, ‘Just set it and forget it!’
The Nuclestat Bar will operate continuously for 12 months, he adds. “At the end of the 12 months, the end user can order a replacement and simply change-out the device.”
For high speed applications, the Nuclestat Bar can be ordered with “passive” stainless steel ionization brushes that are incorporated into the front protective grid.
“Another interesting facet of the Nuclestat Bar is that because it is self-powered, it is intrinsically safe for use around solvent based applications,” Gumkowski says.
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Despite what your parents may have told you, you don't get warts from frogs. Contrary to popular belief, warts are actually caused by the human papillomavirus (HPV). [source: WebMD]. Although they can be unsightly and uncomfortable, warts are generally harmless. They form when HPV forces your body to make excess skin cells. This seems innocuous, but there's no place for those cells to go; as a result, they form bumps on your skin or grow inward, which can be painful.
There are several different types of warts. The most common warts are those that form on the hand or knee; these are known as verruca vulgaris. They develop as hard bumps on the skin and tend to be pink or brown in color. They can develop as a single entity or in small groups [source: Bupa].
Flat warts are exactly what you think they are: They're flat in shape and can be darker in color or similar to a person's normal skin tone. These warts are more common in women and can be spread to other parts of the body simply by shaving [source: Visual DX Health].
Filiform warts grow on the face around the mouth and nose, while periungual warts develop around the nails and affect their growth [source: WebMD]. Genital warts, on the other hand, are actually considered a sexually transmitted disease (STD). Believe it or not, that isn't the scariest thing about genital warts: what's particularly frightening about them is that you could contract them without your knowledge. Genital warts can look like verruca vulgaris or flat warts, but people who have genital warts often don't have any symptoms at all. Unfortunately, a person with this STD can still pass it on to a partner during sexual intercourse without showing any signs of the disease [source: CDC].
Plantar warts grow on the soles of the feet. Like other warts, they develop as hard bumps, but plantar warts often have black dots in the center due to clotted blood vessels. Plantar warts are often overlooked because they can closely resemble calluses. Occasionally, these warts will grow inward instead of outward, which can cause pain [sources: Skin Care Guide, WebMD].
If you get a wart, you can see a doctor to have it removed, but you may have to make several visits. Most warts will eventually go away without treatment, but this can take up to two years.
Keep reading to find out lots more information on warts.
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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Parents are their child's most important teacher and what you say and what you do will help mold your child's future.
Often it is through observing others that children learn about basic rules of etiquette. Consequentially, it is important that adults model the behavior that they would like for their child to have. In addition, you can help expand your child's knowledge and understanding by read books together and then talking.
When children learn the importance of how to act and how to treat others they are provided a gift that will serve them throughout their entire life.
Dora's Book of Manners by Christine Ricci
Everyone's favorite explorer teaches children how to stay safe in the great outdoors! Dora and Boots show children what they need to do when they are playing outside: Look both ways before crossing the street. Wear a helmet when you ride your bicycle. Wear a life jacket when you're in the water. These tips and more are included in this Super Chubby board book that's great for summer display tables and all year long! The Grumpy Old Troll was mean to his friend Mouse--and now he needs help from Dora and Boots so Mouse will forgive him. But what should he say? Join Dora and Boots in this refreshed edition of a Dora tale as they help the Troll…and learn all about manners along the way!
Suppose You Meet a Dinosaur: A First Book of Manners by Judy Sierra
In this funny story, told in lilting read-aloud rhyme, the girl has numerous opportunities to be helpful to the clumsy shopping dino and demonstrate when to say "thank you," "excuse me," "I'm sorry," "You're welcome," and other niceties of life. Tim Bowers's whimsical illustrations bring an extra dimension of fun to Judy Sierra's hilarious picture book fantasy. Altogether, Suppose You Meet a Dinosaur is an entertaining and painless way to show preschoolers why basic manners are a good thing to have.
The Berenstain Bears Say Please and Thank You Jan Berenstain
Sister, Brother, and Honey Bear practice using their very best manners in many different situations.
Clifford's Manners Norman Bridwell.
The circus is in town, but everything is going wrong. Emily Elizabeth and Clifford offer to help. Clifford and the circus acts work together to save the show-and the day!
Mind Your Manners Samantha Brooke
Winnie-the-Pooh is so excited to go to Christopher Robin's picnic that he forgets his manners. He doesn't wait his turn or say ?please,? ?thank you,? or ?excuse me.' Will Winnie-the-Pooh ever learn the right thing to do?
Achoo! : Good Manners Can Be Contagious! Mij Kelly
Achoo! is a delightfully funny combination of verse and color pictures that will keep kids laughing, even as they learn that good manners and good health practices are closely interrelated. Along with covering one's mouth, children learn the importance of washing their hands, wiping their nose with a tissue instead of their hands, brushing their teeth, and many more basic rules of hygiene and good manners.
Being a Pig Is Nice : A Child's-Eye View of Manners by Sally Lloyd-Jones
A hilarious picture book about manners, turned upside down! Why do animals get to misbehave, while humans have to act so prim and proper all the time? From the New York Times bestselling author comes a book about manners, all from the point-of-view of a little girl. In her refreshingly subversive world, monkeys must always use their fingers when they eat or get in trouble, elephants are encouraged to squirt and splatter everywhere, and pig parents ask their children to get muddy before they go to bed. Of course, if you're a pig, you smell, and that's not nice. Still, the girl can see that behaving like an animal could be fun. . .
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| 0.956823 | 823 | 3.59375 | 4 |
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