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How are you faring during this cold and flu season? The answer depends, at least in part, on how your body’s immune system is protecting you from the many viral and bacterial illnesses that gets passed around every winter.
A strong immune system is crucial to our ability to fight off potential illness-causing pathogens, and there are several ways in which the body fortifies its defenses. “Innate immunity is what we’re born with, and includes the normal barriers that we have, such as our skin or the lining of our digestive tract, and even some of the secretions in our sinuses and airways that help protect us and keep bacteria and viruses out,” says Washington University Clinical Associate Dr. Matthew Bonzelet, a physician specializing in internal medicine with Maryland Medical Group. “We also have some cells and proteins that are our first responders to infections. They’re called to sites where we’ve had (bacterial or viral) invaders to set up our first line of defense and to call upon more specialized defense cells to come and lend a hand,” Bonzelet adds.
Acquired immunity develops through exposure to specific pathogens. This is the type of immunity built through vaccinations, such as the flu vaccine, which exposes the body to the same antigens or parts of antigens that cause disease. While the antigens delivered via vaccine are not strong enough to cause the actual disease, they do stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies against them.
A third type of immunity, passive immunity, develops through antibodies passed from mother to child during pregnancy and via breastfeeding. This type of immunity helps babies defend against illness in the first months of life.
Besides what we’re born with and what we can achieve via vaccines, maintaining a strong immune system is largely a matter of good self-care. “The best thing to do is stay as healthy as you can,” says Dr. Sarah George, associate professor of infectious diseases at Saint Louis University. “Eat a good, balanced diet with plenty of fruits and vegetables, exercise regularly, keep within a normal body weight, and get good sleep. It’s been reasonably well shown that people who are not getting enough sleep, who are extremely fatigued or extremely overweight have weaker immune systems and are more prone to infection.”
George notes that the mechanisms around these findings have not been thoroughly explained, but studies indicate that children who eat a diet containing a lot of fast or processed food and sugar experience more respiratory infections.
Over-the-counter immunity boosters crowd drugstore shelves, but Bonzelet and George agree that little to no real evidence exists to support manufacturer claims. “We do know that a lot of the substances that are in these products, like vitamin C and zinc, are important in the role of the immune system, but we haven’t seen that people who have normal levels of vitamin C and zinc have any benefit by increasing the amount that they have,” Bonzelet says. He adds that some studies have been touted to support claims that products shorten the duration of a cold or help prevent the common cold. “But when these studies are looked at more closely, they’re not great studies,” he explains. “The jury’s out. We’re not convinced that this works well.”
Although George is “dubious” about over-the-counter immune-boosters, she has a final word of advice: “Get your flu shot, please. It’s still effective and available, so if you haven’t had it, please get it.”
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Changing Climate on Climate
AFTER THE coming election, President Bush is likely to face a Congress more apt than the current one to take strong action on climate change. He will then face a fateful choice: Does he want to spend his final two years in office blocking action and pretending that voluntary curbs on greenhouse gases will solve the problem of global warming, or does he want to help shape solutions? At some point, conservatives will need to reconcile themselves to the problem of climate change. Some leading Republicans -- Arizona Sen. John McCain and California Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger, most notably -- have already taken strong stands on the question. Indeed, it is difficult to imagine that the intransigence of Mr. Bush's administration on climate change will long survive his tenure, no matter who succeeds him. Will he take a hand in developing America's response to this global problem, or will he go down as the president who fiddled while Greenland melted?
An engaged president could do much to change the political climate on climate -- which is already changing around Mr. Bush. It will take presidential leadership to put in place the sort of regulatory infrastructure necessary, over the long run, to move away from fossil fuels. Federal policy must put a price on emitting carbon into the atmosphere so that companies have an incentive to sequester carbon emissions and to develop energy sources that don't increase atmospheric greenhouse concentrations. This probably can't happen without a president willing to put his prestige and time into the issue.
Even short of a dramatic new initiative, Mr. Bush could alleviate the country's addiction to carbon by encouraging energy efficiency. His administration has already taken constructive steps on fuel economy standards, but those standards remain insufficiently ambitious. Likewise, a huge percentage of buildings in this country will be refurbished or replaced in the coming decades; aggressively pushing design features that maximize energy savings would reduce energy use enormously without much pain.
Ultimately, strong steps have to be taken; the chances of catastrophic consequences of global warming are too high to ignore. The longer policymakers wait, the more wrenching economically and culturally the steps are likely to prove. Mr. Bush spent his first six years emphasizing the undeniable need for more research; in his final two years, he could finally embrace the need to act.
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In an international study of lung cancer after Hodgkin lymphoma (HL), dose to the specific location in the lung where cancer developed was estimated. Quantitative data on both chemotherapy and tobacco use were obtained from medical records. The estimated excess relative risk (ERR) of lung cancer per Gy was 0.15 (95% CI: 0.06-0.39). There was an interaction between radiation and chemotherapy and between radiation and smoking.
A study of breast cancer following radiotherapy for HL found that a radiation dose of 4 Gy or more delivered to the breast was associated with a 3.2-fold increased risk, compared with the risk in patients who received lower doses and no alkylating agents. Increased risks persisted for 25 or more years following radiotherapy. Treatment with alkylating agents alone resulted in a reduced risk of breast cancer, and combined alkylating agents and radiotherapy in a slightly increased risk. The high radiation-related risk, which did not diminish at the highest doses or the longest follow-up, suggests the need for lifetime surveillance and programs of patient and public awareness.
The cumulative absolute risk of breast cancer following HL was computed, using modified standardized incidence ratios to relate cohort breast cancer risks to those in the general population, enabling application of population-based breast cancer rates, and allowing for competing risks mortality rates in female HL survivors. Breast cancer projections varied considerably by type of HL therapy, time since HL diagnosis, and age at end of follow-up. These estimates are applicable to HL survivors treated with regimens of the past and can be used to counsel such patients and plan management and preventive strategies. Projections should be used with caution, however, in patients treated with more recent approaches, including limited-field radiotherapy and/or ovary-sparing chemotherapy.
The risk of developing acute myeloid leukemia (AML) after treatment for Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) has decreased over the last three decades. To determine whether patients treated after 1984 have decreased risks for AML, the researchers analyzed data on more than 35,000 1-year Hodgkin lymphoma survivors who were reported to population-based cancer registries in North America and in Nordic countries between 1970 and 2001. The risks were higher for patients over age 35 at the time of their HL treatment, and if that treatment occurred between 1970 and 1984 (versus 1985-2001). The decline over time in the risk of secondary AML was particularly apparent among HL survivors who initially received any chemotherapy. The analysis showed that excess absolute risk for secondary AML was highest during the first 10 years after HL diagnosis but remained elevated thereafter.
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in coastal regions and in small islands
Extract from UNESCO Sources (131) published February, 2001, page 10 - 11
How universal are “best practices” for coastal management - and best for whom? A global internet Forum (username: csi; password: wise) provides some answers.
Some 3.2 billion people, or more than half the current global population lives on, or within 200 kilometers of, a coastline. By 2025 that number is expected to increase to 6.3 billion or 75% of the then global population. Ironically, the great wealth of coastal areas – whether in terms of fishing, tourism, international trade or natural resources – contains the seeds of its own destruction. This is why, over the past few decades, scientists have recognised the need for integrated coastal management (ICM) – in other words, planning that seeks to balance development needs, the livelihood of local residents and conservation.
But, despite a rapid increase in coastal management programmes (now being implemented in more than 130 countries), there is little consensus on what works, what fails and why. What, for example, are the biological, economic, and socio-political parameters that matter most to those concerned with a given coastal area? What are the trends over time? What is natural and what is due to human influence? Without answers to these questions and how they relate to (often changing) public expectations, it is very hard to know what tools we should be using to reach social objectives for these areas - whether they are oriented towards conservation or development. In the field of ICM there are few agreed “best practices” like those used in fields like engineering or forestry. And there is no clear mechanisms for determining what makes a practice “good”, “wise” or “best”.
On top of this, coastal managers have done a relatively poor job of demonstrating the benefit of integrated coastal management, or communicating what it involves to the people to whom it matters most - coastal residents. Much of the available information on ICM is written in a general, conceptual language only. As a result, ICM has not become a mainstream environmental management profession in the same league as, for example, environmental planning or impact assessment. Not surprisingly, governments and decision-makers therefore have problems understanding and applying ICM concepts.
To date for example, little of the $400 million invested in ICM projects in Indonesia has had any demonstrable impact on the health of coastal ecosystems. So it is not surprising that government officials ask why they should invest more. At the same time, recent surveys show that Indonesians rank sea pollution as the 6th most important issue in the nation, above crime, poverty and public transport. Clearly there is a disconnection between what government has been addressing and what the community expects. Mean-while, a 1994 study in Australia showed that the public is generally more knowledgeable about coastal management needs and issues than they are given credit for. Failure to recognise this was a root cause of conflict in coastal planning issues there.
Perhaps more seriously, residents of coastal areas find it hard to access the body of experience that has developed from the relatively few global coastal areas where ICM has been tried out. Yet they have the most vested interest in the subject and have the greatest potential to change coastal areas.
Getting information to local resource users and other stakeholders is essential to stabilise or reverse a global decline in coastal ecosystems and quality of life. But what sort of information do they need and who can judge if it is appropriate? Second generation coastal management programmes such as those being implemented in nations like Australia, Canada and the USA, for example, typically deal with more informed constituencies and are implemented by more experienced managers than first generation programmes such as those in countries like India, Kenya and Brazil.
These key questions underpinned the design of the UNESCO Wise Coastal Practices for Sustainable Human Development Forum (username: csi; password: wise) when it was initiated in 1999. The Forum explicitly recognised that significant information barriers and other inequalities make it hard to apply ICM, even in its most rudimentary forms.
For example, throughout the Asia-Pacific region, many countries have put a priority on agricultural development over the past century, often with little regard to subsequent impacts on coastal ecosystems, such as increased sedimentation and eutrophication1. It has been difficult for fishers to convince decision-makers that such downstream issues need to be taken into account in the design of agricultural projects. Key funding agencies for infrastructure programmes such as the Asian Development Bank and World Bank have only relatively recently begun to take an interest in the health of coastal and marine ecosystems and to build this into new projects.
Sharing experience and knowledge
The UNESCO CSI Wise Coastal Practices Forum (username: csi; password: wise) creates a vehicle to share experience, linking that knowledge to specific programmes of action through pilot projects and university teaching and research initiatives. This kind of integration, particularly on a global scale, sets the Forum apart as an ambitious but also as a very powerful endeavor.
The power of the Forum is that it is driven by those engaged in the many practical aspects of coastal management. Over the past two years, it has been relatively easy to participate in the Forum as time and interest permits. It has been even easier to be a passive participant in this extraordinary global dialogue. Distinctive email announcements simply appear on a regular basis on the screens of those of us fortunate enough to have a computer, good internet connections and to be “in the loop” of global ICM activities.
It is not always easy to meet all these requirements, though. In Indonesia for example, less than one percent of the population have computers and the 200 million residents who live outside the greater Jakarta area (90% of the population) have very limited, relatively expensive and frequently disrupted internet access. The 4000 participants in the Forum therefore represent an informed ICM elite who have made the effort to engage with UNESCO. They are just the tip of the ICM iceberg that could be using the Forum.
Ian M. Dutton
Project Leader, Proyek Pesisir, Indonesia
1 An increase in nutrients that deprives water of the oxygen needed for life.
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“There Goes Another Piece Of Our Valuable Coastal Louisiana Marsh” (Video)
One year ago on April 20, 2010, the Deepwater Horizon exploded, killing 11 workers. Two days later, the burning rig sank. The ensuing oil gusher would eventually release more than 200 million gallons of oil, costing thousands of jobs along the Gulf Coast and leading to the deaths of thousands of birds, hundreds of endangered sea turtles, and more than 100 dolphins.
On Tuesday, I took a boat trip across the windy waters of Louisiana’s Bay Jimmy with the National Wildlife Federation’s Dr. Doug Inkley and Maura Wood to see the lingering effects of the oil disaster. Far from “gone,” a layer of oil remains in many coastal marshes, and attempts to remove it may be doing more harm than good. Watch:
Speak Up for Gulf Restoration
Please take a moment right now to ask your members of Congress to pass oil disaster response legislation that devotes fines and penalties to coastal wetlands restoration.
Learn more about the National Wildlife Federation’s response to the Gulf oil disaster at NWF.org/OilSpill.
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How does gravity work in space?
There is gravity everywhere. It gives shape to the orbits of the planets, the solar system, and even galaxies. Gravity from the Sun reaches throughout the solar system and beyond, keeping the planets in their orbits. Gravity from Earth keeps the Moon and human-made satellites in orbit.
It is true that gravity decreases with distance, so it is possible to be far away from a planet or star and feel less gravity. But that doesn't account for the weightless feeling that astronauts experience in space. The reason that astronauts feel weightless actually has to do with their position compared to their spaceship. We feel weight on Earth because gravity is pulling us down, while the floor or ground stop us from falling. We are pressed against it. Any ship in orbit around the Earth is falling slowly to Earth. Since the ship and the astronauts are falling at the same speed, the astronauts don't press against anything, so they feel weightless.
You can feel something very like what the astronauts feel for a moment in a fast-moving elevator going down or in a roller coaster, when you start going down a big hill. You are going down rapidly, but so is the roller coaster or the elevator so for a second you feel weightless.
What is an orbit?
What is gravity?
How do objects in space travel?
Is there energy in space?
What is escape velocity?
What is mass?
What role does the Sun play in space missions like DS1's?
Why do mass and distance affect gravity?
What's a gravity well?
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The computer mouse is one of the most used gadgets in today's age of Internet surfing. Learn how to draw a computer mouse with these easy to follow steps.
1Draw a big diagonal oval. Make the sides slightly squared.
2Sketch a diagonal line 2/3 of the way down the oval.
3Draw a line separating the bottom 1/3 in half. Draw a flat hexagon.
4Add an oval at the middle of the hexagon. Then draw the wire using 2 curved lines.
5Ink your drawings. Erase the sketch.
6Color your drawing.
- Computer mouses come in different shapes and sizes. If you want to make a different kind, try following the above steps with a different beginning shape.
Categories: Drawing Household Objects
In other languages:
Thanks to all authors for creating a page that has been read 25,357 times.
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New method for fluorinating compounds
17 August 2009
Researchers have developed an easy and cost-effective way to add fluorine atoms to a variety of compounds, a discovery that could impact the design and production of new drugs and agricultural chemicals, and improve scanning techniques such as PET (positron emission tomography).
Fluorine atoms are incorporated into aromatic organic compounds for many reasons, including their ability to increase metabolic stability, solubility and bioavailability. About 25 per cent of all pharmaceuticals on the market now contain at least one fluorine atom, including top-selling treatments like cholesterol-lowering drug Lipitor (atorvastatin) and the anti-depressant Prozac (fluoxetine). However, getting fluorine atoms into aromatic organic compounds has remained extremely challenging.
Now, for the first time, a team of chemists led by Stephen Buchwald at Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the US, has identified conditions under which reductive elimination occurs to form the carbon-fluorine bond in the catalytic process. 'This particular catalytic transformation has been one of the missing reactions that people in the pharmaceutical industry have been asking about quite a bit,' says Buchwald.
Prozac contains a trifluoromethyl group, containing three fluorine atoms
The team developed a simple and efficient technique using a palladium(II) catalyst to attach a fluorine atom to aromatic compounds. A triflate leaving group, which is attached to the aromatic compound, is removed by the palladium catalyst, and is replaced with a fluorine atom taken from a simple fluoride salt.
'A lot of people, including us, had tried to do this for a long time,' Buchwald explains. 'But there was work in the literature that indicated that trying to do it [this way] would be difficult or impossible.' Buchwald believes the key was the development of new types of ligands that facilitated the hardest step in the overall catalytic cycle - the reductive elimination to form the carbon-fluorine bond.
'Buchwald and colleagues have solved a long standing problem of carbon-fluorine reductive elimination from palladium(II) by using the phosphine ligand that was developed in his lab,' says Tobias Ritter, an organometallic chemist at Harvard University in Cambridge, US. 'This contribution is a fantastic advance for the development of practical fluorination reactions and it will change the way we think about making carbon-fluorine bonds in the future,' he adds.
Ritter envisages these findings having an immediate impact in medicinal chemistry and the pharmaceutical industry. 'Given the importance of fluorine in pharmaceuticals, this method now allows us to make many molecules that before we could not readily make and thereby it could have a huge impact on the availability of potential drugs,' Ritter explains. The method may also have applications in the development of agrochemicals, materials, and as tracers in PET and magnetic resonance imaging scanning.
However, Buchwald acknowledges that his team's work is only the first step of many and that more work needs to be done in order to make the process faster, more efficient, user-friendly and more generalised. 'We hope we're at the beginning of something that's going to be really important but it's obviously too early for us to tell. But it's certainly a step in the right direction.'
Interesting? Spread the word using the 'tools' menu on the left.
D A Watson et al, Science, 2009, DOI: 10.1126/science.1178239
Also of interest
14 June 2006
Researchers have isolated a cluster of bacterial genes responsible for the biochemical processing of fluorine.
31 May 2009
How to bias high throughput screening libraries
Comment on this story at the Chemistry World blog
Read other posts and join in the discussion
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Archaeologists discover the fossil of a monstrous rodent that lived eight million years ago.
How can dogs eat anything from homework to food wrappers and still be ok?
Bullying is bad. Those who are bullied suffer either physical or mental anguish, and often both. Except if you're a yellow bellied marmot.
You'd need a massive trap and whole wheel of cheese to catch this 13.2-pound beast.
Sure your cat's whiskers are cute but do they serve a more practical purpose?
Do you believe Big Foot exists? If Big Foot exists, then why doesn’t anyone have genuine proof? How could a creature so big manage to hide so well that humans can’t get a good glimpse of it, much less study it and classify it? Well, just that does happen frequently in nature.
What is the largest rodent to ever live as far as we know?
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TUSCANY, region in central Italy. No information on Jews in Tuscany during the Roman era is available but it is likely that a Jewish community existed then at least in *Florence. The first reliable data comes from Benjamin of *Tudela who found Jews in *Pisa and in *Lucca (c. 1159). There were Jews in *Siena by 1229. Jews presumably engaged in moneylending in Tuscany in the 13th century. In 1309 three Jewish loan bankers were invited to San Gimignano; the negotiations with them and others did not succeed, but in 1392 the first agreement regulating Jewish loan banking activities (condotta) there was concluded. Until 1437 Jewish moneylenders were excluded from Florence itself, but not from the provincial cities under its sovereignty. In 1393 a condotta was concluded at San Miniato with a group of Jewish bankers headed by members of the Min ha-Keneset or Min Bet-El (Della Sinagoga) family of Rome. A concession to maintain a loan bank in San Gimignano was granted in 1410, and in 1423 a similar license was extended to the city of Pisa, again to this family. At the beginning of the 15th century the family also engaged in moneylending in Pescia, Prato, Colle Val d'Elsa, and perhaps in Pistoia; authorization to permit Jews to engage in moneylending was also extended to the cities of *Arezzo, Montepulciano, Castiglion Fiorentino, Volterra, Castrocaro, and Empoli. In exchange, the central authorities demanded a tax which varied between 50 and 250 florins yearly, according to the importance of the locality.
In 1416 representatives of the communities of Tuscany took part in the Council of *Bologna. The establishment of Christian loan banks (*Monti di Pieta) in the 16th century caused some difficulty to Jewish moneylenders in Tuscany, but there was no conspicuous change in their situation, though there was an unsuccessful attempt to excommunicate the Jews of Empoli. The reign of Duke Cosimo de' Medici was originally beneficial for the Jews. In 1553 however he yielded to papal pressure and ordered the burning of the *Talmud. In 1551 he had issued an invitation to merchants from the Levant, including Jews, to settle in Tuscany and do business there; previously, Marranos also had been permitted to settle in Tuscany. In 1557 and before, he gave asylum to Jewish refugees from the Papal States. The same year he refused to implement the anti-Jewish restrictions issued by Pope *Paul IV or to hand over the Jews to the jurisdiction of the Inquisition. But when Cosimo wished to gain the support of Pope *Pius V for his aspirations to the title of grand duke, his attitude toward the Jews changed. In 1567 he rigorously applied the obligation to wear the Jewish *badge. Refugees from the Papal States who wished to settle in Volterra were not accepted. In 1570 information was collected on the Jews in Pisa, Cortona, Foiano, Pieve-Santo-Stefano, Arezzo, Prato, Anghiari, Castrocaro,
At the end of the 16th century a new community was established in Pitigliano, which served as a haven for the Jews from the Papal States. This community prospered mainly in the 18th century, when the Jewish population reached 300. In the 17th century Jews settled again in Arezzo, Monte San Savino, Borgo San Sepolcro, and Lippano, although in 1680 Cosimo III intensified the papal anti-Jewish restrictions which were now strictly enforced. At the end of the 17th century the preaching of the apostate Paolo Medici led to anti-Jewish riots, and serious disturbances occurred in Borgo San Sepolcro. A marked improvement in the conditions of the Jews in Tuscany began in the 18th century under the Lorraine dynasty. Leopold I (later Emperor Leopold II of Austria), who reigned in Tuscany from 1765 to 1790, granted all the Jews there the same rights as the Jews of Leghorn. In 1779 he permitted Jews to sit on the municipal councils, and in 1789 to hold official positions.
In 1798 the French occupied Tuscany and granted the Jews full rights of citizenship. These were abrogated in 1799 after the retreat of the French forces. In the wake of the reaction, there were serious anti-Jewish disturbances, especially in Siena and in Monte San Savino and the community ceased to exist. In 1801, on the establishment of the kingdom of Etruria by Napoleon, the Jews in Tuscany were again granted full rights. Between 1810 and 1814, when Tuscany was incorporated in the French Empire, the communities were organized on the lines of the French *Consistory. Jews began to acquire land and to enter middle-class society.
After the Restoration, however, the situation reverted to much the same as before, but Jews were no longer required to live in the ghettos, although most continued to reside there. The House of Lorraine continued its liberal policy, and consequently Tuscany attracted many Jews in poor economic circumstances from Rome. Jews were permitted to attend public schools and universities in Tuscany. They took part in all branches of the economy in business and industry. Only government positions, military service, and the legal profession remained closed to them. On April 30, 1859, Tuscany was incorporated in the kingdom of Sardinia (later the kingdom of Italy) and the principle of equal rights without discrimination on religious grounds was introduced there also. Henceforth the history of the Jews of Tuscany does not differ from the general history of Italian Jewry. Concerning the organization of the communities, legislation of the House of Lorraine remained in force. This obliged every Jew to belong to the community and pay dues to it. However, between 1865 and 1905 the communities successively dispensed with levying compulsory dues. The Italian law of 1931 regulating the organization of the Jewish communities applied to Tuscany, and the principle of compulsory taxation was again introduced. The provincial Tuscan communities dwindled in the 19th century like most of the small communities of Italy. In 1969 there were only a few fully organized communities in Florence, Pisa (including Viareggio and Lucca), and Leghorn (Livorno), and partially in Siena.
U. Cassuto, Ebrei a Firenze nell'età del Rinascimento (1918); Roth, Italy, index; Milano, Italia, index; De Rubertis, in: RMI, 18 (1952), 10–20; J.E. Rignano, Sulla attuale posizione giuridica degl'israeliti in Toscana … (1847).
[Menachem E. Arom]
Source: Encyclopaedia Judaica. © 2008 The Gale Group. All Rights Reserved.
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en
| 0.968045 | 1,503 | 3.359375 | 3 |
The insecticide fipronil poses a high acute risk to honeybees when used as a seed treatment for maize, EFSA has concluded in a report requested by the European Commission. EFSA was asked to perform a risk assessment of fipronil, paying particular regard to the acute and chronic effects on colony survival and development and the effects of sublethal doses on bee mortality and behaviour.
EFSA’s pesticide risk assessment experts examined the potential risk to bees from the active substance through a number of exposure routes. They concluded the following:
- Risk from dust drift: A high acute risk was identified for maize. For other field crops, including sunflower, full risk assessments could not be completed so the level of risk from exposure to dust originating from seed drilling could not be established.
- Nectar and pollen: The available studies – field and semi-field – had weaknesses and thus were insufficient to establish the level of risk to honey bees from the use of fipronil as a treatment for sunflower and maize seed. However, there was deemed to be a low risk to honey bees from the authorised use of fipronil on vegetables, as these cannot be foraged for pollen and nectar.
- Several gaps were identified in the available data related to other potential routes of exposure.
The conclusions were reached using the EFSA Scientific Opinion on the science behind the development of guidance for the risk assessment of plant protection products on bees, which was published last year. EFSA’s experts used data submitted for the approval of fipronil at EU level and for the authorisation of plant protection products containing fipronil at Member State level. They also considered the previous EFSA Conclusion on fipronil (2006) and the Authority’s statement on the Italian APENET project, as well as data from studies, research and monitoring activities that were considered relevant.
In January 2013, EFSA published risk assessments examining the effects on bees of the neonicotinoids clothianidin, imidacloprid and thiamethoxam.
- Fipronil is a broad-use insecticide that belongs to the phenylpyrazole chemical family. It is used to control various soil insects during their larval growth stage and acts through contact and ingestion.
- Drilling is a sowing technique by which seeds are mechanically placed in the soil and then covered. Before the introduction of drill machines, seeds were commonly planted by hand.
- Semi-field studies are also known as cage or tunnel studies.
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<urn:uuid:add85994-5a84-4c79-b1e2-6c4b62b2c810>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/press/news/130527
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00182-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.969955 | 523 | 2.9375 | 3 |
Listen to Phoenix descend
With data recorded on board Mars Express, you can hear Phoenix descend on to the surface of the Red Planet. After being processed by the Mars Express Flight Control Team, the sounds of Phoenix descending are audible, loud and clear.
The data from the Mars Express Lander Communication system (MELACOM) that tracked Phoenix was received on Earth soon after the Phoenix landing.
As Mars Express flew over
This animation shows the signal of Phoenix’s descent, recorded by MELACOM.
The spike in the animation, between frequencies of 7 and 8 kiloHertz, shows the transmission from Phoenix itself.
The lander can be seen in the animation starting from about 342 s after the start time and disappears at about 1085 s. This shows Mars Express picking up on the Phoenix signal and tracking it while closing in on the lander; the closest Mars Express got to Phoenix was 1550 km.
As Mars Express flew away, the lander deployed its parachute, separated from it and landed, the signal from the lander was cut off.
The shift of the spike seen in the animation, is due to the so-called Doppler effect, which is very similar to what we hear when listening to the whistle of a passing train.
The signal was tracked successfully, even during the expected transmission blackout window of the descent, until the lander was out of Mars Express’s view. The transmission blackout window is caused because of ionisation around the probe, which builds up as the lander descends through the atmosphere and only very weak signals come through.
The rest of the recording, the start and the end, contains background noise generated by Mars Express itself.
During the descent, all of the capabilities of Mars Express were focussed on tracking Phoenix with MELACOM. Unfortunately, the science observations carried out during the descent did not lead to the anticipated results.
Apart from these observations, the Planetary Fourier Spectrometer (PFS) on board Mars Express has been collecting relevant data since 8 May this year in anticipation of the Phoenix landing. This includes information on the physical conditions of the Martian atmosphere (temperature, pressure and density) above the expected the landing site. This data was provided to NASA in support of their observations of the physical conditions in the atmosphere prior to landing.
Over the next few days, Mars Express will monitor Phoenix using MELACOM 15 more times; at least one of these will be used to demonstrate and confirm that the ESA spacecraft can be used as a data relay station for NASA, receiving data from the surface and transmitting test commands to the lander.
Detailed information about the descent and landing will be available once the data from all the fly-overs is processed and analysed over the next few weeks.
Notes for editors:
The processing and interpretation of the data by the Mars Express Flight Control Team is the result of the joint work of the signal processing team of ESA’s Ground Stations Systems division and with the Flight Dynamics team at ESA's European Space Operations Centre.
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<urn:uuid:658e73d0-f6c2-4c76-925d-1de3805b1a3a>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Science/Mars_Express/Listen_to_Phoenix_descend
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00197-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.940008 | 627 | 3.703125 | 4 |
An estimated 1 in 14 women worldwide is sexually assaulted by someone other than a partner, a new study has found.
The researchers reviewed articles and reports published between 1998 and 2011, and consulted international databases and surveys to find estimates of sexual violence against women, including girls older than 15.
They found that, worldwide, 7.2 percent of women reported non-partner sexual violence during their lifetimes. [4 Ways Women Can Protect Themselves from Predators]
The global picture varied widely: the highest rates of sexual violence were seen in central and southern Sub-Saharan Africa, including Namibia, South Africa and Zimbabwe, with 21 percent in Democratic Republic of Congo.
Rates were about 16 percent in New Zealand and Australia, 13 percent in the United States and Canada, 11.5 percent in Western European regions and 8 percent in Eastern European countries.
The lowest rates were seen in India, Bangladesh and Turkey, where rates were 3 percent to 4.5 percent, according to the study published today (Feb. 11) in the journal Lancet. The results are not comprehensive, because, for many countries, the researchers were unable to find any data.
"Sexual violence is a common experience for women worldwide, and in some regions is endemic, reaching more than 15 percent in four regions," study researcher Naeemah Abrahams, from the South African Medical Research Council in Cape Town, said in a statement.
"These data probably underestimate the true magnitude of the issue because of the stigma and blame attached to sexual violence that leads to under-reporting," the researchers said.
While it is tempting to view highly publicized rapes and murders of young women in India and South Africa as isolated events, those cases are part of a larger, daily reality of sexual violence against women, the researchers said.
The scientists included 77 studies in their review, compiling data on 412 estimates of violence from 56 countries. More than half of the estimates were derived from dedicated studies of violence against women. Most studies used one broad question to ask women about their experiences of non-partner sexual violence. For instance, researchers asked, "Were you ever forced to have sex or to perform a sexual act when you did not want to, with someone other than your partner."
Non-partner sexual violence includes cases in which a person has been forced to have sex or to perform a sexual act when he or she did not want to, by anyone other than an intimate partner, for example colleagues, family members, police, teachers or strangers.
Studies have shown that sexual violence can lead to short- and long-term health consequences, particularly mental health disorders, such as depression, anxiety and alcohol abuse.
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<urn:uuid:b6d975e8-9b88-4eb8-8220-95c09a4a3481>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.livescience.com/43305-high-sexual-assault-rates-globally.html
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|
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| 0.971237 | 543 | 2.828125 | 3 |
Background Education for Providers
Children who present with a BMI in the 85th percentile or greater are considered overweight or obese. Their elevated weight puts them at an increased risk for a variety of weight-related medical conditions. Certain medical conditions may also contribute to the child’s increased weight. Therefore, it is important that providers be aware of the possible disorders that contribute to obesity, and the weight-related medical conditions that can be a consequence of obesity. In addition, it important to understand that there is a strong genetic contribution to the development of obesity and weight-related conditions. Weight-related conditions such as high BMI, cardiovascular disease, and insulin resistance are particularly heritable and are especially prevalent in families of non-European ancestry. It is strongly recommended that clinicians obtain a family history to determine the child’s susceptibility to obesity and obesity-related conditions.
Contributing Factors to Obesity:
There are single-gene disorders that may result in extreme obesity; however, these are very rare. The most well-known disorders that may cause obesity include: Prader-Willi Syndrome, Bardet-Biedl Syndrome, Alstrom Syndrome, and Cohen’s Disease. If a genetic disorder is suspected, the child should be referred for genetic testing. Listed below are the characteristic signs of these disorders.
- Prader-Willi Syndrome: Short stature, acromicria, characteristic facies, hypotonia, developmental delay
- Bardet-Biedl Syndrome: Short stature, developmental delay, retinitis pigmentosum, polydactyl
- Alstrom Syndrome: Photophobia, sensor neural, insulin resistance
- Cohen’s Disease: Developmental delay, microcephaly, hypotonia, myopia, retinal dystrophy, hyper mobility, characteristic facial features.
Hypothyroidism is a condition that is often a concern of parents who have overweight children. However, this condition is relatively uncommon (effects 1 in 1000 children) and does not usually cause severe obesity. Hypothyroidism can be suspected if the child presents with the following symptoms: fatigue, diminished school performance, cessation of linear growth, and goiter.
Obesity can exacerbate many medical conditions and can also cause new weight-related conditions. Below are listed some of the more common weight-related issues that are seen in obese children:
- Sleep Problems: Obstructive Sleep Apnea, Obesity Hyperventilation Syndrome
- Respiratory: Asthma
- Note: Asthma often results in shortness of breath and exercise intolerance, and it should be managed in order for the child to not be limited in their physical activity.
- Gastroenterology: Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver (NAFL), Gallstones, GERD, Constipation.
- Endocrinology: Type II Diabetes, Hypothyroidism, Primary Cushing Syndrome, Extreme early onset of Puberty
- Nervous System Disorders: Pseudotumor Cerebri
- Cardiovascular: High blood pressure, Lipid level abnormalities
- Orthopedics: Blount’s Disease (Bow-Legged), Slipped Capital Femoral Epiphysis
- Acanthosis Nigricans
Screening for these conditions has not been shown to cause any harm to the child. In fact, it has been shown that obesity screening may actually increase healthy eating behaviors.
Instructions for Provider
- Complete a full family history that includes the medical history of both the parents and grandparents. Most importantly, it should focus on the presence of high BMI, Cardiovascular disease, and insulin resistance to assess for the future risks for these conditions and future comorbidities. It may be helpful to develop a checklist of symptoms and family history forms for parents to complete at the appointment.
- If a genetic disorder is suspected, providers should refer child for genetic testing.
- Complete a standard physical evaluation that covers all of the systems to assess for all weight-related conditions.
- If a specific weight-related condition is suspected and treatment is needed, the patient should be referred to a specialist in the field.
- If the child has a BMI in the 85th percentile or above, the child should be referred for a fasting lipid profile, fasting glucose test, AST, and ALT, in order to test for Type II Diabetes.
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<urn:uuid:459b0692-63bb-4cb7-9028-54381bb79170>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.mcw.edu/NDTN/Overweight/IllnessMedicalInterventions.htm
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391634.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00172-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.919445 | 888 | 3.203125 | 3 |
January 28, 2009 By Jennifer Donovan
Photo: Local residents watch as Jill Bruning (seated) tests a pumping location in central Nicaragua.
Volcanic ground is a challenging place to drill water wells. In central Nicaragua, situated on volcanic bedrock, only 3 of every 10 wells drilled produce sufficient water for even one household.
That's because, in volcanic rock, groundwater flows primarily through fracture zones that can't be seen on the earth's surface. Locating those underground fractures can improve the well-drilling success rate dramatically. But up to now, there has been virtually no funding for groundwater exploration and little research into using remote sensors such as satellite images to identify the location of subsurface faults and fractures.
As part of a larger, National Science Foundation-funded research project titled "Remote Sensing for Hazards Mitigation and Resource Protection in Latin America," a Michigan Technological University graduate student in geological and mining engineering and sciences designed a map using remote sensing images to locate underground fractures.
Jill Bruning, who recently received her Master's degree from Michigan Tech; faculty advisor John Gierke, an associate professor of geological and mining engineering and sciences; and other students then took the map to Nicaragua for field testing. The goal of their research was to determine which data-processing tools work best with various types of remotely sensed images, field observations and other data to create an effective, efficient method for identifying the best places to drill in challenging terrain.
Bruning's research asked and answered three questions:
o What type of image or combination of image types will best detect lineaments, which are surface characteristics that reveal subsurface structures?
o What processing and interpretation techniques enhance the surface appearance that indicates fracturing below ground?
o How do lineaments identified from remotely sensed images compare to field observations?
She used several kinds of satellite images and several data-processing techniques, overlaying the results to find areas of coincidence between lineament interpretations from the different images. In addition to developing the method, Bruning determined that RADARSAT-1 products are superior to other types of satellite images because they maximize the topographic or surface features of the ground.
No single type of satellite image identified all the lineaments in the final map. However, says Bruning, the method of employing images from multiple sensors is a low-cost, non-invasive way to improve groundwater exploration in remote and geologically challenging areas.
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<urn:uuid:2a57fba2-5336-4e86-9d68-3c7771abacc2>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.digitalcommunities.com/articles/Locating-Drinking-Water-Under-Challenging-Conditions.html
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|
en
| 0.930821 | 495 | 3.5 | 4 |
Git has become the ubiquitous version control tool. A big community has grown around Git over the years. From its origins with the Linux kernel community to GitHub, the popular project hosting service, its core design has scaled. Well it needed to since from day one the Linux source tree and commit history was large by most standards.
I consider Git one of the innovations (like BitTorrent and Bitcoin) that come along every few years to change the way we do things. These tools didn't necessarily invent brand new algorithms but they applied them in a way that was more effective than previous approaches. They have designs worth studying and have something we can learn from.
This post explains the internals of how git show 365e45161384f6dc704ec798828dc927d63e3b22 fetches the commit object for this SHA1. This SHA1 lookup is the main query operation for all object types in Git including commits, tags, and trees.
Let's start with a simple repo:
$ mkdir test && cd test $ git init . Initialized empty Git repository in /tmp/test/.git/ $ echo 'Hello world' >test.txt $ git add test.txt && git commit -s
Here is the initial commit:
$ git show --format=raw commit 365e45161384f6dc704ec798828dc927d63e3b22 tree 401ce7dbd55d28ea49c1c2f1c1439eb7d2b92427 author Stefan Hajnoczi <[email protected]> 1463158107 -0700 committer Stefan Hajnoczi <[email protected]> 1463158107 -0700 Initial checkin Signed-off-by: Stefan Hajnoczi <[email protected]> diff --git a/test.txt b/test.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..802992c --- /dev/null +++ b/test.txt @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +Hello world
The function to look up an object from a binary SHA1 is struct object *parse_object(const unsigned char *sha1) in Git v2.8.2-396-g5fe494c. You can browse the source here. In Git the versioned data and metadata is stored as "objects" identified by their SHA1 hash. There are several types of objects so this function can look up commits, tags, trees, etc.
Git stores objects in several ways. The simplest is called a "loose object", which means that object 365e45161384f6dc704ec798828dc927d63e3b22 is stored zlib DEFLATE compressed in its own file. We can manually view the object like this:
$ openssl zlib -d <.git/objects/36/5e45161384f6dc704ec798828dc927d63e3b22 commit 241tree 401ce7dbd55d28ea49c1c2f1c1439eb7d2b92427 author Stefan Hajnoczi <[email protected]> 1463158107 -0700 committer Stefan Hajnoczi <[email protected]> 1463158107 -0700 Initial checkin Signed-off-by: Stefan Hajnoczi <[email protected]>
There! So this little command-line produces similar output to $ git show --format=raw 365e45161384f6dc704ec798828dc927d63e3b22 without using Git.
Note that openssl(1) is used in this example as a convenient command-line tool for decompressing zlib DEFLATE data. This has nothing to do with OpenSSL cryptography.
Git spreads objects across subdirectories in .git/objects/ by the SHA1's first byte to avoid having a single directory with a huge number of files. This helps file systems and userspace tools scale better when there are many commits.
Despite this directory layout it can still be inefficient to access loose objects. Each object requires open(2)/close(2) syscalls and possibly an access(2) call to check for existence first. This puts a lot of faith in cheap directory lookups in the file system and is not optimal when the number of objects grows.
Git's solution to large numbers of objects is found in .git/objects/pack/. Each "pack" consists of an index file (.idx) and the pack itself (.pack). Here is how that looks in our test repository:
$ git repack Counting objects: 3, done. Writing objects: 100% (3/3), done. Total 3 (delta 0), reused 0 (delta 0) $ ls -l .git/object/pack/ total 8 -r--r--r--. 1 stefanha stefanha 1156 May 13 10:35 pack-c63d94bfadeaba23a38c05c75f48c7535339d685.idx -r--r--r--. 1 stefanha stefanha 246 May 13 10:35 pack-c63d94bfadeaba23a38c05c75f48c7535339d685.pack
In order to look up an object from a SHA1, the index file must be used:
The index file provides an efficient way to look up the byte offset into the pack file where the object is located. The index file's 256-entry lookup table takes the first byte of the SHA1 and produces the highest index for objects starting with that SHA1 byte. This lookup table makes it possible to search only objects starting with the same SHA1 byte while excluding all other objects. That's similar to the subdirectory layout used for loose objects!
The SHA1s of all objects inside the pack are stored in a sorted table. From the 1st SHA1 byte lookup we now know the lowest and highest index into the sorted SHA1 table where we can binary search for the SHA1 we are looking for. If the SHA1 cannot be found then the pack file does not contain that object.
Once the SHA1 has been found in the sorted SHA1 table, its index is used with the offsets table. The offset is the location in the pack file where the object is located. There is a minor complication here: offset table entries are only 32-bits so an extension is necessary for 64-bit offsets.
The 64-bit offset extension uses the top-most bit in the 32-bit offset table entry to indicate that a 64-bit offset is needed. This means the 32-bit offset table actually only works for offsets that fit into 31 bits! When the top-most bit is set the remaining bits form an index into the 64-bit offset table where the actual offset is located.
Each object in the pack file has a header describing the object type (commit, tree, tag, etc) and its size. After the header is the zlib DEFLATE compressed data.
Although the pack file can contain simple zlib DEFLATE compressed data for objects, it can also contain a chain of delta objects. The chain is ultimately terminated by a non-delta "base object". Deltas avoid storing some of the same bytes again each time a modified object is added. A delta object describes only the changed data between its parent and itself. This can be much smaller than storing the full object.
Think about the case where a single line is added to a long text file. It would be nice to avoid storing all the unmodified lines again when the modified text file is added. This is exactly what deltas do!
In order to unpack a delta object it is necessary to start with the base object and apply the chain of delta objects, one after the other. I won't go into the details of the binary format of delta objects, but it is a memcpy(3) engine rather than a traditional text diff produced by diff(1). Each memcpy(3) operation needs offset and length parameters, as well as a source buffer - either the parent object or the delta data. This memcpy(3) engine approach is enough to delete bytes, add bytes, and copy bytes.
Git objects can be stored either as zlib DEFLATE compressed "loose object" files or inside a "pack file". The pack file reduces the need to access many files and also features deltas to reduce storage requirements.
The pack index file has a fairly straightforward layout for taking a SHA1 and finding the offset into the pack file. The layout is cache-friendly because it co-locates fields into separate tables instead of storing full records in a single table. This way the CPU cache only reads data that is being searched, not the other record fields that are irrelevant to the search.
The pack file format works as an immutable archive. It is optimized for lookups and does not support arbitrary modification well. An advantage of this approach is that the design is relatively simple and multiple git processes can perform lookups without fear of races.
I hope this gives a useful overview of git data storage internals. I'm not a git developer so I hope this description matches reality. Please point out my mistakes in the comments.
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<urn:uuid:6adb7af9-0391-4752-a556-675e8dc957e9>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://blog.vmsplice.net/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00120-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.865492 | 1,982 | 2.625 | 3 |
Johann Friedrich Franz Burgmüller
Friedrich Burgmüller (Johann Friedrich Franz Burgmüller, 4 December 1806 – 13 February 1874) was a German pianist and composer. He was born in Regensberg, Germany, to a musical family. In 1832, he settled in Paris and adopted the French musical style. He wrote many works for piano, especially etudes for children that are still played today. His best known work is probably the Peasant pas de deus (originally Souvenirs de Ratisbonne) in Adolphe Adam's ballet Giselle (1841). It is not known how this music came to be inserted into the ballet.
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<urn:uuid:77a5970a-f012-4f5a-afc2-5b97231ef9c4>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Franz_Burgm%C3%BCller
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|
en
| 0.966122 | 148 | 2.890625 | 3 |
We’ ve been hearing a lot recently about the need for a code of practice to guide our students in their use of web 2.0 and social media when part of their learning programme. This was a recurrent theme at last week’ s Teaching & Learning Showcase event on ‘Using technologies to engage students in their learning’ , hosted by the Centre for the Development of Teaching & Learning (CDoTL) here at the University of Reading.
Speakers Kat Bicknell, Gerry Leonidas and Simon Burke shared their experiences of students collaborating on group wikis, taking part in a live poll, and using social media such as Facebook, Twitter and Yammer – and had a tale or two to tell.
Student feedback on such innovative uses of technology in T & L has been overwhelmingly positive, with active and enthusiastic participation from students in online activities. Yet some of the students’ online behaviour has been suprisingly anti-social and unprofessional, with some students less willing to share, overly critical, immature or downright rude.
Simon Burke, who hosted a debate where students were able to contribute via text message using Poll Everywhere and have their comments displayed live on the presentation screen, shared some of the messages that had to be filtered out by the moderator. With almost 50% of students’ comments unsuitable for public consumption, he clearly had his work cut out for him.
Our students may be confident users of sites such as Facebook in their social lives but perhaps less sure about appropriate ways of sharing information online when it comes to their learning and professional activities. Many institutions now publish general guidance on ‘netiquette’ – see the Open University’s advice on ‘Working with others online’ for an example, or our own ‘Expectations surrounding the use of Web 2.0’ which touch on social conduct as well as ethical and legal considerations.
Published just today, this blog post by Jane Adams on ‘Facebook saints vs. Facebook sinners ’ offers her personal reflections on getting the most out of your interactions with family and friends on social media networks. But many of her points are actually about common sense and good manners. Her rough guide to Facebook habits – general tips and advice on posting basic information, status updates, photos, and ‘likes’ – applies equally to learning experiences and professional environments. A positive presence is as important online as it is in any other sphere of human interaction – it is, in fact, a life skill.
We are collating thoughts from our speakers and others to create draft ideas for a code of practice on the use of digital media – for colleagues to adapt to suit the learning outcomes and needs of their students. If you have any thoughts, suggestions or good examples to share, please post them in the comments box or email Maureen Martin at [email protected].
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<urn:uuid:1ea571ef-da87-4418-a355-ae46093d1412>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://blogs.reading.ac.uk/digitallyready/2012/05/01/facebook-saints-or-sinners/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400031.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00127-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.950772 | 590 | 2.625 | 3 |
Educational system in Russia
Russians have always shown a great concern for education. The right to
education is stated in the constitution of the Russia Federation. It's
ensured by compulsory secondary schools, vocational schools and higher
education establishment. It is also ensured by the development of extramural
and evening courses and the system of state scholarship and grants.
Education in Russia is compulsory up to the 9th form inclusive. The stages
of compulsory schooling in Russia are: primary education for ages 6-7
to 9-10 inclusive; and senior school for ages 10-11 to 12-13 inclusive,
and senior school for ages 13-14 to 14-15 inclusive. If a pupil of secondary
school wishes to go on in higher education, he or she must stay at school
for two more years. Primary and secondary school together comprise 11
years of study. Every school has a "core curriculum" of academic
After finishing the 9th form one can go on to a vocational school which
offer programmes of academic subjects and a programme of training in a
technical field, or a profession.
After finishing the 11th form of a secondary school, a lyceum or a gymnasium
one can go into higher education. All applicants must take competitive
exam. Higher education institution, that is institutes or universities,
offer a 5-years programme of academic subjects for undergraduates in a
variety of fields, as well as a graduate course and writes a thesis, he
or she receives a candidates degree or a doctoral degree.
Higher educational establishments are headed by Rectors. Protectors are
in charge of academic and scientific work. An institute or a university
has a number of faculties, each specializing councils which confer candidate
and doctoral degrees.
The system of higher and secondary education in Russia is going trough
a transitional period. The main objectives of the reforms are: to decentralize
the higher education system, to develop a new financial mechanism, to
give more academic freedom to faculties and students. All secondary schools,
institutes and universities until recently have been funded by the state.
Now there is quite a number of private fee-paying primary and secondary
schools, some universities have fee-paying departments.
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<urn:uuid:67cb0c62-a0fb-4e0a-b7fa-2dcb8da080a5>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://russian-crafts.com/customs/education.html
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397842.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00074-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.956546 | 465 | 3.1875 | 3 |
- Being the biggest brain in the room didn't always make you the best decision maker. The Google founders have yet to learn that lesson, but they will.
But, why doesn't the biggest brain entitle you to make all the decisions? Because it just doesn't matter. It's a fundamental misconception about the nature of intelligence that smart people can make decisions in the absence of information. You see this all the time in bad SciFi books or poorly written movies. The genius solves the crime without any evidence. The brainiac learns to speak French after hearing a few sentences of the language. But this isn't how intelligence works. Intelligence is an ability to process, understand, and synthesize information.
So, a big, juicy, chess-club brain doesn't help you if you lack information. In terms of management, this means that the people with the most information are usually in the best position to make a decision. And the people with the most information are usually the people closest to the problem, the ones on the ground, the ones trying to build something, not the people in upper management.
This is why pushing down authority results in better decision making. You make better decisions with better information. Pushing down authority allows people with the information to make the decisions.
Update: Looking at the trackbacks on this post, I don't want to get into a debate about whether the biggest brains are in management. I very much doubt it, but that's not the point. The point is that, if you are a manager, even if you think you're the smartest person in the room (regardless of whether this is true), you should still delegate decision making to the people with the most information. Your team will make better decisions that way.
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| 0.952875 | 356 | 2.546875 | 3 |
|Title:||Genetic Control of Fusarium Mycotoxins to Enhance Food Safety|
The overall goal of this research project is to enhance food safety by developing methods to reduce levels of trichothecenes and other mycotoxins that occur in grain crops as a result of infection by Fusarium graminearum (sexual stage, Gibberella zeae) and related trichothecene-producing species of Fusarium. FHB is a world-wide threat to grain producers and consumers, due to the loss in yield and to the presence of trichothecenes and other mycotoxins in the grain. As the world’s population continues to increase, the need to reduce mycotoxins in grain will increase. Development of methods to reduce mycotoxin contamination in grain will be enhanced through elucidation of the molecular genetic mechanisms that control mycotoxin production in F. graminearum and related fusaria, that control plant-fungal interactions, and that detoxify or otherwise modify mycotoxins. The objectives and proposed research are as follows:
Objective 1: Identify and characterize mycotoxin detoxification genes as a mechanism to reduce/eliminate the toxins in grain-based food and feed;
Objective 2: Determine the genetic bases and ecological significance of variation in types of trichothecene mycotoxins produced by Fusarium;
Objective 3: Identify and characterize plant genes that affect biosynthesis of trichothecenes and other mycotoxins produced by Fusarium.
Approach: With a growing world population, access to safe food for all consumers, both domestic and international, will continue to be a global priority. In recent years, the world has experienced an increase in mycotoxin contamination of grains due to climatic and agronomic changes that encourage fungal growth during cultivation. One approach to reduce mycotoxin contamination of food and feed is to prevent preharvest infection of crop plants by mycotoxin-producing fungi. An alternative approach is to modify mycotoxins present in crops in order to render them nontoxic and safe for consumption by humans and animals. Fusarium head blight (FHB) is one of the most important diseases of wheat and other cereal grains worldwide. It reduces yield and quality and results in contamination of grain with trichothecene mycotoxins. The disease is caused by Fusarium graminearum as well as other trichothecene-producing species of Fusarium. The primary goal of the proposed research is to reduce levels of trichothecenes and other mycotoxins through studies that reveal how plants, the fungus Fusarium, and mycotoxins interact during infection. We expect to identify novel genes that modify, detoxify, or otherwise confer resistance to mycotoxins and to study the physiological and molecular role of mycotoxin production on the ability of Fusarium to infect wheat and other crops. We also will examine the genetic bases and ecological significance of variation in types of mycotoxins produced by Fusarium. Knowledge from these studies will contribute to development of strategies to control FHB, thereby protecting our food supply from mycotoxins. This technology will ultimately benefit other scientists, small grain breeders, stakeholders in the food and feed industry, and regulatory agencies such as the Center for Disease Control, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Federal Grain Inspection Service, and Food Safety Inspection Service.
|Funding Source:||United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Agricultural Research Service (ARS)|
|Institutions:||USDA/ARS - Midwest Area|
|Project Reports:||2013 Annual Report|
2012 Annual Report
2011 Annual Report
ARS (NP 108):
Novel aspinolide production by Trichoderma arundinaceum with a potential role in Botrytis cinerea antagonistic activity and plant defence priming
Malmierca MG, Barua J, McCormick SP, Izquiero-Bueno I, Cardoza RE, Alexander NJ, Hermosa R, Collado IG, Monte E, Gutierrez S.
Environ Microbiol. 2014 Jun 25. [Epub ahead of print]
Production of trichodiene by Trichoderma harzianum alters the perception of this biocontrol strain by plants and antagonized fungi
Malmierca MG, McCormick SP, Cardoza RE, Alexander NJ, Monte E, Gutierrez S.
Environ Microbiol. 2014 May 12. [Epub ahead of print]
The arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus, Glomus irregulare, controls the mycotoxin production of Fusarium sambucinum in the pathogenesis of potato
Ismail Y, Mccormick SP, Hijri M.
FEMS Microbiol Lett. 2013 Nov;348(1):46-51.
Functional roles of FgLaeA in controlling secondary metabolism, sexual development, and virulence in Fusarium graminearum
Kim H, Lee S, Jo S, Mccormick SP, Butchko R, Proctor R, Yun S .
PLoS One. 2013 Jul 16;8(7):e68441.
Relevance of trichothecenes in fungal physiology: Disruption of tri5 in Trichoderma arundinaceum
Malmierca MG, Cardoza R, Alexander NJ, Mccormick SP, Collado IG, Hermosa R, Monte E, Gutierrez S .
Fungal Genet Biol. 2013 Apr;53:22-33.
Greenhouse studies reveal increased aggressiveness of emergent Canadian Fusarium graminearum chemotypes in wheat
Foroud NA, McCormick SP, MacMillan T, Badea A, Kendra DF, Ellis BE, Eudes F.
Plant Disease. 2013 Jan;35(1):37-45.
Glucosylation and other biotransformations of T-2 toxin by yeasts of the Trichomonascus clade
McCormick SP, Price NP, Kurtzman CP.
Appl Environ Microbiol. 2012 Dec;78(24):8694-702.
Transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana expressing a barley UDP-glucosyltransferase exhibit resistance to the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol
Shin S, Torres-Acosta JA, Heinen SJ, McCormick S, Lemmens M, Paris MP, Berthiller F, Adam G, Muehlbauer GJ.
J Exp Bot. 2012 Aug;63(13):4731-40.
Involvement of Trichoderma trichothecenes in the biocontrol activity and induction of plant defense-related genes
Malmierca MG, Cardoza RE, Alexander NJ, McCormick SP, Hermosa R, Monte E, Gutiérrez S.
Appl Environ Microbiol. 2012 Jul;78(14):4856-68.
Trichothecene mycotoxins inhibit mitochondrial translation--implication for the mechanism of toxicity
Bin-Umer MA, McLaughlin JE, Basu D, McCormick S, Tumer NE.
Toxins. 2011 Dec;3(12):1484-501.
Elimination of damaged mitochondria through mitophagy reduces trichothecene mycotoxin mediated mitochondrial oxidative stress and enhances survival of Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Heterologous expression of tri5 gene in Trichoderma harzianum: Effect of trichodiene production on Trichoderma environmental interactions - (Abstract Only)
Trichothecene exposure leads to mitochondrial ROS-mediated cell death in yeast - (Abstract Only)
An Arabidopsis non-specific lipid transfer protein provides enhanced resistance to a trichothecene mycotoxin by reducing oxidative stress - (Abstract Only)
Transgenic wheat carrying a barley UDP-glucosyltransferase exhibit high levels of Fusarium head blight resistance by detoxifying trichothecenes - (Abstract Only)
Lipid transfer protein-mediated resistance to a trichothecene mycotoxin – Novel players in FHB resistance - (Abstract Only)
Accepted Publication (06-Dec-12)
Developing Fusarium head blight resistant wheat - (Abstract Only)
Accepted Publication (06-Dec-12)
The role of trichothecenes in the Triticeae-Fusarium graminearum interactions - (Abstract Only)
Muehlbauer, G.J., Boddu, J., Gardiner, S., Shin, S., Jia, H., Cho, S., Mccormick, S.P., Schweiger, W., Lemmons, M., Berthiller, F., Hametner, C., Kovalsky Paris, P.M., Torres-Acosta, J.A., Adam, G. 2012. The role of trichothecenes in the Triticeae-Fusarium graminearum interactions. American Phytopathological Society Abstracts.
Identifying and characterizing barley genes that protect against trichothecenes - (Abstract Only)
Shin, S., Torres-Acosta, A., Lemmens, M., Paris, P., Berthiller, F., Adam, G., Mccormick, S.P., Muehlbauer, G.J. 2011. Identifying and characterizing barley genes that protect against trichothecenes. National Fusarium Head Blight Forum Proceedings. Session3,p.96.
An activation tagging screen to identify novel genes for Fusarium head blight (FHB) resistance - (Abstract Only)
Mclaughlin, J., Bin Umer, A., Basu, D., Mccormick, S.P., Tumer, N.E. 2011. An activation tagging screen to identify novel genes for Fusarium head blight (FHB) resistance. National Fusarium Head Blight Forum Proceedings. Session3,p.90.
Trichothecene mycotoxins inhibit mitochondrial translation- Implication for FHB resistance - (Abstract Only)
Bin-Umer, M.A., Mclaughlin, J., Basu, D., Mccormick, S.P., Tumer, N.E. 2011. Trichothecene mycotoxins inhibit mitochondrial translation- Implication for FHB resistance. National Fusarium Head Blight Forum Proceedings. Session3,p.81.
Identification of a trichothecene gene cluster and description of the harzianum A biosynthesis pathway in the fungus Trichoderma arundinaceum - (Abstract Only)
Malmierca, M.G., Hermosa, R., Alexander, N.J., Mccormick, S.P., Proctor, R., Rumbero, A., Monte, E., Gutierrez, S., Cardoza, R.E. 2011. Identification of a trichothecene gene cluster and description of the harzianum A biosynthesis pathway in the fungus Trichoderma arundinaceum. Meeting Abstract. PS6:51.
Identifying and characterizing barley genes that protect against trichothecene mycotoxins - (Abstract Only)
Shin, S., Torres Acosta, A., Berthiller, F., Schweiger, W., Adam, G., Mccormick, S.P., Muehlbauer, G. 2011. Identifying and characterizing barley genes that protect against trichothecene mycotoxins. Meeting Abstract.
|Food Safety Categories:||Government Policy and Regulations|
|Return to Search Results|
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http://fnic.nal.usda.gov/nal_web/fsrio/printresults.php?ID=7044
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| 0.746211 | 2,516 | 3.1875 | 3 |
The main reason to pass parameters by value is to improve performance, which is somewhat of a paradox, because this is also one of the main reasons to pass by reference.
The truth is that either method can improve performanceit just depends on the situation. Passing a parameter by reference avoids copying all the data members onto the stack, which could take a lot of resources if you've got a lot of members or you're going to be calling the recipient function frequently. It also saves the time and memory required to allocated pointer members; allocating on the heap is much slower than pushing onto the heap.
If the parameter being passed is small, it's possible that the compiler will place the entire value in a register for its whole lifetime. This is especially the case for built-in types or classes that contain one or two members that are also built-in types.
If you pass a register variable by value, depending on the processor and the compiler, the parameter may be passed in a register, which is very fast. If you pass it by reference, the compiler will have to store the object in RAM so that its address may be takenreferences are usually implemented as RAM addresses. Essentially they are pointers that are automatically dereferenced for you, although I don't think the ISO standard requires they be implemented in any particular way.
Suppose an object could have been stored in a register, and you pass it as a reference or pointer. This causes the compiler to copy the register to the stack, pass the stack address, and then possibly copy it back into a register after the call. This definitely slows you down.
Again, this is only permissible if slicing is not a problem. The recipient function expects the exact same type as the type you are passingnot its base class. This is often the case for simple classes like geometric points or numerical values.
If the copy constructor for the class you are passing is inlined, it may be faster to pass it by value.
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|The Aleppo Citadel (circa 1870) by French photographer|
Félix Bonfils (1831-1885)
|"Poor Jewish family in Aleppo" (circa 1912)|
See also here
A Jewish community existed in Aleppo for almost two millennia. The "Great Synagogue" dated back to the fifth century and stored one of the most important Jewish Biblical texts, the Aleppo Codex.
When the UN voted for the 1947 partition plan establishing a Jewish state, anti-Jewish pograms were launched against the Jewish community. Some 6,000 Jews emigrated.
|The city of Aleppo seen from the Citadel|
The Library of Congress archives contain dozens of antique photographs of Aleppo, many of them dated between "1898 and 1946," the years the American Colony photographers were active. More likely, the pictures were taken during 1903 or 1912 expeditions to Syria by the American Colony photographers.
The photograph at the top of the page was taken approximately 140 years ago by the French photographer Félix Bonfils (1831- 1885). Several of his pictures can also be found in the Library of Congress archives.
|"One of the finest mosques|
and the citadel in Aleppo"
(circa 1912) See also here
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Judaculla—or Jutaculla— Rock is one of the greatest archaeological mysteries in the United States. The largest petroglyph in North Carolina, and one of the largest in the Southeast, is named for a Cherokee legend about its formation. Judaculla Rock sits in the Caney Fork Creek valley in Jackson County, outside of Cullowhee. The details of the petroglyph’s formation, as well as its origin and purpose, are unknown to scientists.
Artist rendition of Judaculla Rock engravings.
The soapstone slab is about sixteen feet long by eleven feet wide. The designs on it appear to have been produced in a variety of manners, including incising, pecking, and smoothing. These methods are evident upon close examination, but are becoming more difficult to identify with the continued erosion of the rock.
In the late 19th century, Cherokee groups were known to hold ceremonial assemblies around the rock. Additional outcrops of soapstone, used by Cherokees then to sculpt pipes, beads, bowls, and bannerstones, are located near the Judaculla Rock. Archaeologists think the Cherokees camped at, or near, the rock when they came to quarry soapstone. Furthermore, due to recent excavations of the areas surrounding Judaculla, scientists now postulate that the rock was part of a larger grouping of soapstone creations.
James Mooney, a researcher at the Smithsonian Institution, recorded the Cherokee legend of Judaculla Rock in the 1880s. According to Mooney’s story, a being named Judaculla (called by the Cherokee Tsul-ka-lu or Tsu’ Kalu— the Great Slant-eyed Giant) was the greatest of all the Cherokee mythical characters, a giant hunter who lived on the southwestern slope of Richland Balsam Mountain at the head of the Tuckaseegee River in Jackson County.
Judaculla was very powerful and could control the wind, rain, thunder, and lightning. He was known to drink whole streams down in a single gulp and stomp from mountain to mountain as one might over ant hills. (In fact, according to Sequoyah’s Cherokee translation of the Bible, the word ‘Goliath’ was renamed Judaculla.) Written by David Tabler
Cherokee Legend -- In the beginning of this world when life was new, all manner of new creatures came into this world. There was awi the deer, yvna the bear, tsista the rabbit, gi:hlithe dog, suli the buzzard, and many others. Last of the creatures born was a strange new animal called man.
In those days every living thing could communicate with one another because they spoke a common language. People could talk to animals or the water, the plants, the fire or the stones. All beings respected and understood each other and took only what each needed to live. But gradually within man something began to change.
People forgot they were a part of one Great Life. They neglected to maintain a harmonious way of being (duyukta) they would take more than they needed and showed disrespect for other creatures. Instead of taking one deer, they would kill an entire herd, taking only the choice meat and leaving the rest to rot. They poisoned whole pools of fish instead of catching a few. They trampled insects and other small creatures through dislike or carelessness.
As people continued to separate themselves from the rest of the Great Life and disregard the Laws of Nature, they forgot how to speak the original language.
When the animal nations came together in council, they would ask "What do we do about the problem of man?" The bear nation held a council and the Great White Bear asked his people this question. Their answer was to declare war on man.
To give themselves a chance against the more numerous and aggressive man, they decided to make themselves a bow and arrow. When it was made, one of the warrior bears drew back the bow and fired. The arrow flew wildly, landing nowhere near the target. The bear offered to chop off his claws so he could be a better bowman, but the Great White Bear stopped him, reminding the bears that the Great Life had provided the bears with their claws and teeth to feed and defend themselves. If they tried to change what they were, then they became no better than man.
Hearing this, all the bears agreed and the council disbanded. Over the years, other animal nations held their councils but they, too, could come to no conclusion what to do about the problem of man.
Finally, the creeping, crawling nation--the insects--held a council and they decided to give man disease. As they shouted out the name of each disease--liver disease, heart disease, pain in the joints, fever--these illnesses came into the world. Every man, woman and child was afflicted, and many died, but a few began to recover.
So, in order to rid themselves of man completely, the chief of the insects, the White Grubworm went to the chief of the Green People, Grandfather Ginseng (yvwi usdi). He asked Grandfather Ginseng to help the insects totally destroy mankind.
The plants are a patient people and the ginseng plant asked for four days to pray and think about the decision. After four days Grandfather Ginseng said, "We have heard your words and there is much truth in them. People have hurt and abused us as much or more than they have you.
But, we also understand that man is still young and foolish, and we are all part of the same Great Life. So we have decided that if people come to us in a good way, a sacred way, we will help them by giving them the cure for every disease which you, the insects, have made.
This is a promise made to us by the Green People and to this day they honor their pledge by providing us with food and medicine. It is still a common practice among Cherokee herbalists to walk through the woods allowing the needed medicine to announce itself by unusual shaking or other obvious signs.
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How to Use a Multimeter (AKA Multitester)
Continued from page 1
Described below are three common resistance tests; continuity, ground fault and resistance.
Testing for Continuity
This test should be done when current is NOT present. Always unplug the device or turn off the main circuit breaker before attempting a continuity test.
A continuity test is done to determine whether a circuit is open or closed. To test the continuity of a circuit requires the use of a multimeter or multitester.
Set the multimeter to the ohm setting. The symbol for ohm is , the Greek letter omega. If there is more than one ohm setting, choose X1.
Note that while the probes are not touching anything, the multimeter will indicate a reading of infinity. A reading of infinity indicates that the circuit is open and cannot conduct current. When you touch the two probes together, the reading changes to zero. A reading of zero indicates that the circuit is closed and can conduct current. Touch each probe to one of the terminals (or poles) of the device. If the reading changes to zero the device has continuity.
To test a switch, place a probe on each pole of the switch. When you move the switch from the off to the on position, the meter reading should change from infinity to zero, which implies that the switch is working. To test a component such as a motor, touch a probe to each pole. A reading of zero indicates that motor has continuity and current can pass through it.
page 2 of 3
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Definitions for kennewickˈkɛn ə wɪk
This page provides all possible meanings and translations of the word kennewick
a town in southern Washington on the Columbia River
Kennewick is a city in Benton County in the southeastern part of the U.S. state of Washington, near the Hanford nuclear site. It is the most populous of the three cities collectively referred to as the Tri-Cities. Kennewick is located along the southwest bank of the Columbia River, opposite Pasco and just south of the confluence of the Columbia and Yakima rivers. The population was 73,917 at the 2010 census. April 1, 2012 estimates from the Washington State Office of Financial Management put the city's population at 75,160. The nearest commercial airport is the Tri-Cities Airport in Pasco, a regional commercial and private airport. Forbes magazine named Kennewick the #2 area in the United States for job growth, while nearby Yakima was named #1. The article cites the number of scientists employed by the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory and area farmland for this outlook.
The numerical value of kennewick in Chaldean Numerology is: 7
The numerical value of kennewick in Pythagorean Numerology is: 5
Sample Sentences & Example Usage
The Kennewick Man's closest living relatives are Native Americans.
Images & Illustrations of kennewick
Find a translation for the kennewick definition in other languages:
Select another language:
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Book: Why Johnny Can't Add
Chapter 3: The Origin of the Modern Mathematics Movement.
Chapter 4: The Deductive Approach to Mathematics.
Chapter 5 & Chapter 6: (Rigor & The Language of Mathematics)
Chapter 7 & Chapter 8: (Mathematics for Mathematics' Sake & The New Contents of the New Mathematics)
Chapter 9: The Testimony of Tests.
Chapter 10: The Deeper Reasons for the New Mathematics.
The Proper Direction for Reform.
Copyright © Helen M. Kline & Mark Alder 2000
This version 22nd March 2001
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Anemia, Heinz Body in Cats
This is a condition in which red blood cells are destroyed. The "Heinz body" can be seen under a microscope. This type of anemia can occur as a reaction to certain medications, or as a result of eating onions. It is more likely to occur in cats than dogs, and is usually caused by something the pet has eaten or drunk. Hyperthyroidism, lymphoma, and diabetes may also bring on this condition.
- Sudden onset of weakness
- Loss of appetite (anorexia)
- Reddish brown urine if the case is severe
- Pale mucous membrane (e.g., lips, mouth, gums)
- Discoloration of the skin
- Ingestion of toxins: wilted red maple leaves, kale, turnips, zinc, onions, garlic
- Drugs: acetaminophen, vitamin K, Phenothiazine, Benzocaine, Phenacetin
- Inherited disorders
First, your veterinarian will do a complete blood count to determine the cause of the symptoms. If Heinz bodies are identified, a course of treatment will be recommended. A methylene blue, or other type of stain to look for Heinz bodies, will be used to determine their exact count. If your cat is very pale, a methemoglobin test will be conducted to measure oxygen in the blood.
It is also important to note that cats may have a significant number of Heinz bodies in their blood without having anemia.
If the source of the Heinz body reaction can be identified, the first step will be to treat the underlying cause. For example, if the offender is acetaminophen, drugs will be prescribed to counteract its effects. Often, this is a sufficient course of treatment.
If the anemia is severe, your cat will be hospitalized and given a blood transfusion and oxygen. It is important that the cat be kept calm while it is sick.
Living and Management
Prognosis is positive once the crisis has been dealt with. Once you know what has caused this illness, you can take steps to keep it from happening again. For example, avoid feeding cats anything with onions or garlic in it. Even flavoring that contains onion or garlic will cause problems (e.g., garlic or onion salt). In addition, be very careful about other people foods your give to your cat. Finally, you will need to take your cat to the veterinarian for occasional monitoring of the clinical measures.
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Adularescence The shimmering light or whitish opalescence which glides over the surface of some gems such as moonstone. Interference phenomena of the layered structure is the cause of this effect.
Amorphous Gemstones without a crystal structure are referred to as amorphous. These include gems such as amber, coral, opal and pearl.
Beryllium Treatment A form of heat treatment for sapphire that adds the element beryllium to the heating process. Beryllium is an element well known in the gem world, since it is an essential constituent in many gemstones, including emerald, beryl, and aquamarine. When sapphires are heated with beryllium, the result is a reduction in blue tones. Thus bright yellow or orange sapphire can be produced from weak yellow or greenish gems. Some stunning colors have been produced using this method.
Birefringence Some gemstones are singly refractive: they have only one refractive index. Other gemstones (in fact, most) are doubly refractive: they have two different refractive indices. When a beam of light enters a doubly refractive gem, it is split into two beams, each travelling at a different speed and on a different path through the crystal. Birefringence is a measurement of the difference between the two refractive indices in gems that are doubly refractive, and it ranges from a low of .003 to a high of .287. Very few gemstones are singly refractive; in fact, the only well-known gems with that property are diamond, spinel and garnet.
Birthstone The association of gemstones with astrology goes back centuries. More recently, jewelers have adapted this tradition to create the current list of official birthstones.
Calibrated (size) Many gemstones are sold in calibrated or standard sizes that will fit commercial jewelry settings. Standard sizes are calibrated in millimeters for a number of different gem shapes.
Cat's Eye See Chatoyancy.
Center Stone The center stone is the prominent center piece in a jewelry setting that has multiple gemstones. See also Side Stone.
Chanthaburi The city in southeastern Thailand famous as one of the world centers for gemstone processing and trading. Chanthaburi is also famous for its weekend gemstone market.
Chatoyancy The cat's eye effect sometimes seen in gemstones such as chrysoberyl, apatite and tourmaline is known by the technical name of chatoyancy. The effect is caused by tiny parallel inclusions that give the appearance of a narrow line similar to a cat's eye. Often a gemstone needs to be viewed in natural light to see the chatoyancy effect.
Clarity Referring to a stone's lack of inclusions or other visual defects.
Cleavage The plane of weakness of some gems where they will split apart with smooth surfaces. Gems with perfect cleavage are likely to break when being cut or faceted.
Color Used in the evaluation of a gem. The quality of a gem can based on either the presence or the absence of color.
Color Change (gemstones) Color change gems change color due to changing light conditions (such as alexandrite or color change sapphire) or when viewed from different angles (such as andalusite or iolite).
Concave Cut Traditional gem facets are flat or two-dimensional. Concave cutting creates facets that are curved or three-dimensional. These curved facets refract more of the ambient light and return it to the eye as brilliance. Concave cutting is a recent innovation dating back to the early 1990s. It requires considerable expertise and results in higher weight loss to the rough stone, since more material must be cut away to create the curved facets.
Copper-bearing Gemstones that contain traces of copper are very rare and typically have a intense blue, blue-green or violet color. There was considerable excitement in the gem world when the first copper-bearing gemstones were discovered in 1989. See also Paraiba.
Corundum A crystalline form of aluminum oxide known in the gemstone world as ruby and sapphire. It is naturally clear, but can have different colors when impurities are present. Corundum is much admired for its hardness (9.0 on the Mohs scale), brilliance and excellent wearability.
Cubic zirconia A lab created diamond simulant, often abbreviated as CZ. While CZ is a transparent stone, trace elements can be added to the manufacturing process, producing a wide range of colors. On the Mohs scale of hardness, CZ is harder than other gemstones except for diamond, ruby, sapphire and chrysoberyl. Not to be confused with zircon, a natural gemstone.
Cuprian See Copper-bearing.
Demantoid Demantoid is a rare and valuable andradite garnet. It exhibits a range of greens from dull to bright emerald green and on rare occasions displays yellow. On the Mohs scale of hardness, demantoid is relatively soft at 6.5. It has an adamantine luster.
Density The ratio of a gemstone when compared to the weight of an equal volume of water. This means how heavy a gemstone is compared to the same volume of water. Also known as "specific gravity" for solids.
Diffusion Treatment A form of heat treatment that adds one or more chemicals to the heating process to change the color of a gemstone. Typically the treatment does not penetrate deep into the stone, so gems treated in this way cannot be recut. Diffusion treatment is a standard treatment to increase the asterism in star sapphire.
Dispersion The separation of light into the seven spectral colors, causing the "fire" of a gemstone, which is refracted by the internal facets. Diamond has a very high dispersion, hence its high amount of "fire".
Doublet A doublet is a gemstone composed of valuable gemstone material in combination with other materials. It is found most often in opal, where an opal doublet contains a slice of opal glued to common opal, glass or other material. A triplet contains a slice of opal glued between a base and a crystal or a glass top. Triplets are usually less expensive than doublets, and both are less expensive than natural opals. Doublets may occasionally be found with sapphire or other expensive gemstones.
Facet The cut and polished flat plane of a gemstone. There can be dozens of facets on a stone.
Fancy Cut Sometimes used to refer to a gemstone cut in any shape other than the standard round cut, but also used to refer to gemstones that are cut in a shape other than the well known shapes of round, oval, pear, trillion, marquise, etc.
Fire The rainbow of colors that light rays form as they move through a gemstone. This is another word for dispersion.
Fissure A surface crack on a gemstone. Gems with fissures may be fracture filled.
Fracture Filling Small cracks or fissures in a gemstone can interrupt the flow of light through the stone, creating white or "dead" spots in the color of the stone. Sometimes these fractures will be filled with material that will allow the light to pass through smoothly. Different materials are used; oil, wax, glass, epoxy, and borax are common materials. The most commonly filled stones are emerald, turquoise and ruby.
Heat Treatment The application of high heat to a gemstone in order to improve its color and clarity.
Hue Refers to the position of a color on the color wheel, or the dominant wavelength of color attributed to a gemstone. There are six primary hues: violet, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red. In between these primary hues are secondary hues, such as blue-green. See also tone and saturation.
Inclusions Foreign matter that is "included" within a stone. This may be a foreign body such as a crystal, a gas bubble or a pocket of liquid. There are many varieties of inclusions and they are important visual clues for identifying the type of gemstone and for identifying the origin of the stone.
Karat Karat (as distinguished from Carat) is a measure of the purity of gold. Most gold jewelry is actually made from a gold alloy containing gold and another metal or metals. 18K gold, for example, is 75% pure gold.
Lab created Refers to gemstones created in a laboratory rather than by nature. A lab created gemstone is typically the same material chemically as its natural counterpart, as in the case of corundum produced by flame fusion or quartz grown using the hydrothermal method.
Loupe Clean A gemstone is said to be loupe clean when no inclusions or defects are visible when the gem is viewed with 10 times magnification. See also Eye Clean.
Luster The outward appearance of a gem or organic material. The quantity and quality of light that is reflected from the surface of a stone. Luster is important especially when evaluating the quality of pearls.
Metallic (luster) One of the technical terms used to refer to the luster of a gemstone. A gemstone that is reflective like polished metal is said to have a metallic luster. Hematite is one of the rare examples.
The Mohs Hardness Scale A numerical scale ranging from 1 to 10 developed by Friedrich Mohs that assigns a rating to a gem according to its ability to resist scratching. The hardest is 10 (diamond) and the softest is 1 (talc).
Synthetic Moissanite A lab-created diamond simulant based on the structure of natural moissanite. On the Mohs scale of hardness, moissanite is 9.5. It has more brilliance, fire and luster than any hard jewel on earth, including diamond.
Oiling Oiling infuses colorless oils, resins or waxes into tiny surface-breaking fissures to hide them and give certain gemstones a cleaner appearance. This long-practiced clarity enhancement is used mainly for emerald and jade. The oils used are either natural or have a natural counterpart. If coloring agents are added to the oil, the stones are classified as dyed rather than oiled.
Opaque A term used for gemstones that light cannot be seen passing through. Lapis lazuli and malachite examples of opaque gemstones.
Organic (gemstone) Most gemstones are minerals with a crystal structure but some gems, such as amber and pearl, are organic rather than mineral, being formed by plants and animals. See also Amorphous gemstones.
Padparadscha Derived from the Sinhalese term for "lotus flower," padparadscha refers to a lush pink and orange sapphire resembling the color of the lotus. Padparadscha is also sometimes used to refer to other types of gemstones, such as topaz and tourmaline, with this unique coloration.
Paraiba A rare copper-bearing tourmaline with an intense blue or blue-green color, first found in the state of Paraiba in Brazil in 1989. There have been recent finds in Nigeria and Mozambique of similar material, and the term "paraiba" is now used to refer to all examples of this copper-bearing tourmaline. See also Copper-bearing.
Phenomenal Gems Gems that display unusual optical properties such as color change, chatoyancy, asterism or iridescence.
Pigeon's Blood Refers to the most prized color of red in rubies. Pigeon's blood red is thought to be a pure red with a hint of blue. It is associated most with rubies from Burma, though any ruby could be this color.
Portuguese Cut The Portuguese cut refers to a particular type of faceting where the gem is cut with three rows (simple cut = two rows) of rhomboidal and two rows of triangular facets above the girdle (crown) and four rows of rhomboidal and one row of triangular facets below the girdle (pavilion). The Portuguese cut thus has an extra row of facets on the crown, and this style enhances the brilliance of the gem. The Portuguese cut is one of the most popular fancy cuts in the market and you'll find many varieties of gems cut in this style.
Precious (gemstone) Traditionally, the four precious gemstones are diamond, ruby, sapphire and emerald. But other gems have also been labelled precious at times, including opal and amethyst. Today, the distinction between precious and semi-precious gems has been rejected by some gem trade associations. See also Semi-Precious gemstones.
Rubellite Used to refer to the red variety of tourmaline, including the color range from pink to red. More of a marketing than a gemological term; these days gemologists tend to use simply "red tourmaline."
Rutile Needle-like inclusions (or foreign matter) within stones. These can produce some gem phenomena such as asterism (star) or cat's eye (chatoyancy).
Saturation Saturation is one of three characteristics used to describe the appearance of color. Saturation (also known as intensity) refers to the brightness or vividness of a color. See also hue and tone.
Semi-precious (gemstone) Traditionally, the four precious gemstones are diamond, ruby, sapphire and emerald. Semi-precious gemstones include everything else. But other gems have also been labelled precious at times, including opal, amethyst and pearl. Today, the distinction between precious and semi-precious gems has been rejected by some gem trade associations. See also Precious gemstones.
Sheen This effect resembles luster, and is caused by light reflection from inclusions or texture inside the gem. Luster is light reflected from the surface of the gem and sheen is reflection from inside the gemstone.
Single Refraction Most gemstones are doubly refractive; they have two refractive indices. Only a few gemstones have a single refractive index, specifically diamond, spinel and garnet. See also Birefringence.
Species The term used to designate a family of gemstones. For example, corundum is a species that contains the varieties sapphire and ruby. The quartz family contains amethyst, citrine, and chalcedony, to name a few.
Specific Gravity see density
Synthetic (gemstone) A synthetic gemstone is man-made rather than mined from the earth. Natural gemstones that are treated by industry-accepted methods such as heat or irradiation are not classified as synthetic.
Translucent A quality of a gemstone transmitting light imperfectly so that one cannot see through the stone clearly. Star sapphire is an example of this quality.
Transparent There are several ways a light travels through a stone. In a transparent stone, the light travels through stone with virtually no distortion. Transparent stones are clear and easy to see through. See also Translucent and Opaque.
Treated stone A stone that has been heated, dyed, irradiated, or stained in order to improve the color or the clarity. Also pertains to gems that have their cracks or fractures concealed by filling the material.
Trillion Cut A faceted cut in a triangular shape with 44 facets.
Window In a well cut faceted gem, the pavilion facets (those on the lower half of the stone) should reflect light back out the top or table of the stone. If the facets are cut below the critical angle for the particular material, light will pass right through the stone instead of being reflected back toward the eye. When this happens the gem will lack sparkle and brilliance.
Zoning (color zoning) A term that describes the uneven distribution of color in a gemstone. Zoning is best seen when looking at the stone through the top table facet.
- First Published: October-23-2006
- Last Updated: September-25-2014
- © 2005-2016 GemSelect.com all rights reserved.
Reproduction (text or graphics) without the express written consent of GemSelect.com (SETT Company Ltd.) is strictly prohibited.
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Area students are being given the opportunity to learn about nature through art as a part of the McLean Project for the Art’s Art Reach program. Elementary school students are touring the current exhibit at the Emerson Gallery, called Two Natures, to learn about the natural word through the eyes of artists.
“A couple times a year there’s an exhibit that ties in with SOL,” said MPA’s Dabney Courtina. “They get to talk about what this art is then tie it into what they’re learning.”
After touring the exhibit the children “act out the nature cycles of plants,” said Nancy Perry, the executive director of MPA. “The kids get to do a skit on photosynthesis with props. It’s cute, nothing big but they love it,” said Courtina. Students also have a chance to sketch out their ideas on what nature is after the tour of the exhibit.
“What makes this unique is that we get to target Excel programs for at-risk schools. We pay for bussing and all the stuff so they don’t have to pay. So many of these kids have never been in a gallery before,” said Courtina.
“We have about 2,000 kids that will come through here. We’re doing two tours a day of about 120 kids a day,” said Perry.
Two Natures is currently on exhibit at the Emerson Gallery in the McLean Community Center. The exhibit features the work of a local husband and wife team who produce independent works centered on nature. The exhibit is open to the public.
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The pretext was English-language instruction, but the goal seems to have been segregation.
Until the early 1940s, Topeka operated a separate primary school for Mexican-American children in facilities that were significantly worse than those provided for their black and white peers.
Located at S.E. 2nd and S.E. Madison, the Branner Annex was a makeshift building with outhouses where the city’s Mexican-American students attended their first four years of schooling, including kindergarten, says Nick Murray, an educator at the Brown v. Board of Education National Historic Site. Most of its teachers were white.
The annex seems to have been in use sometime around the early 1920s and lasted until pressure from Hispanic parents fighting segregation finally prompted the city to commit in 1942 to shutting it down and including its students in Topeka’s all-white classrooms.
Topeka resident Lupe Perez, 80, remembers attending the Branner Annex during the last two years of its existence.
“I did not know why, when the neighborhood was a mix of white, black and Mexican, we had to go to different schools,” Perez recalls of her time at Branner Annex. “I would ask, and my mother would say, ‘That’s the way it is.’ ”
The history of educating Hispanic students separately is often forgotten, says Murray, but is another part of the story of segregation, and shows integration was “a step-by-step process.”
The early 1940s saw both the integration of the Branner Annex students and the opening of Topeka’s all-white junior highs to black students, the latter of which was ordered by the Kansas Supreme Court. But complete integration of Topeka schools wouldn’t come until more than a decade later, once a separate lawsuit against the city’s school board, Brown v. Board of Education, had made its way to the U.S. Supreme Court.
De facto segregation
During the days of school segregation, Kansas law allowed cities with populations of 15,000 or more to educate black and white students separately, says Murray. That included Topeka.
But the city also kept Hispanic children away from white classrooms by placing them at Branner Annex under the pretext that it was a school for non-English speakers.
“It was supposed to be there to teach Mexican-American students English language skills,” he says, “but even if they had them, they would still send them to that school.”
Perez’s experience, which she wrote about in a personal essay for The Topeka Capital-Journal, reflects just that. She recalls feeling frightened upon arriving at Branner Annex, where she found herself attending school with classmates who spoke Spanish, a language she barely knew at the time. But the teachers and students were welcoming, she says, and the friendships she made there helped her learn her parents’ native tongue.
Murray says Mexican-American families began protesting the placement of their children at the Branner Annex by the 1930s. In addition to the building itself being inferior to other Topeka schools, the Branner Annex also tended to have larger classes, less experienced teachers and more classrooms where teachers taught more than one grade at the same time, he says.
Though the facilities and resources were worse, he says, court rulings at the time on the matter of resource equalization addressed equity between black and white schools, not equity for Mexican-Americans.
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The tobacco industry has used its economic power, lobbying and marketing machinery, and manipulation of the media to discredit scientific research and influence governments in order to propagate the sale and distribution of its deadly product, it says further.
According to this report, furthermore, the tobacco industry continues to inject large philanthropic contributions into social programs worldwide to create a positive public image under the guise of corporate social responsibility. This document describes the spectrum of tobacco industry practices that interfere with tobacco control. As an outcome of the first meeting of tobacco industry monitoring experts convened by WHO in October 2007, this report exposes these practices and provides the Contracting Parties to the global tobacco treaty - formally known as WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC) - and other WHO Member States the background and contextual information that may assist in implementing the WHO FCTC Article 5.3 guidelines against tobacco industry interference with tobacco control.
On 22 November 2008, 160 countries had adopted strong guidelines of WHO FCTC Article 5.3 to block tobacco industry interference in global health policies and the implementation of the global tobacco treaty. Since it took effect in 2005, implementation of the FCTC, has been systematically obstructed by Big Tobacco. The abuses of corporations like Philip Morris International (PMI), British American Tobacco (BAT) and Japan Tobacco have ranged from attempting to write tobacco control laws, blocking the passage of smokefree legislation, and using so-called "corporate social responsibility" to circumvent ad bans. Tobacco industry interference has been the number one obstacle to the treaty's implementation, and ratifying countries now see protections against this interference as the backbone of the treaty.
The new guidelines are designed to give teeth to Article 5.3 of the treaty which states, "in setting and implementing their public health policies with respect to tobacco control, Parties shall act to protect these policies from commercial and other vested interests of the tobacco industry in accordance with national law."
The guidelines include the following recommendations, rooted in the principle that the tobacco industry has a fundamental and irreconcilable conflict with public health:
- governments should reject partnerships with the tobacco industry;
- conflicts of interest such as the "revolving door" between the tobacco industry and public health offices, government investments in the tobacco industry and tobacco industry representation on tobacco control bodies should be avoided;
- government interaction with the tobacco industry should be strictly limited and transparent;
- the tobacco industry should be required to be transparent about its activities, a measure which will help to counter interference by Big Tobacco's front groups and allied organizations.
Effective tobacco control is, almost by definition, antithetical to the economic interests of the tobacco industry, associated industries, and entities or persons working to further the tobacco industry's agenda, says the preface of this report.
Those interests depend largely on the prosperity of the tobacco industry and its means for ensuring its real or perceived commercial well-being. The primary goal of tobacco control is to prevent tobacco-caused disease and death. In the hierarchy of objectives for reaching this goal, preventing the uptake of tobacco use and assisting tobacco users in ceasing use of all forms of tobacco rank highest. Similarly, efforts designed to reduce exposure to second-hand smoke are most effective when smoking is prohibited in public areas, further reads the preface of this report.
This triumvirate of objectives-preventing uptake, maximizing cessation and prohibiting smoking in public places-stands in direct opposition to the commercial objectives of the tobacco industry, says the report.
Although the industry sometimes makes expedient public statements to the contrary, it routinely seeks to maximize uptake of tobacco use, do all that is possible to ensure that tobacco users continue to be consumers and prevent the erosion of smoking opportunities by restrictions known to reduce smoking frequency and promote cessation.
Thus, when tobacco control succeeds, the tobacco industry fails. People employed by the tobacco industry have fiduciary responsibilities to their shareholders or government owners to take all legal steps possible to maximize profits. It is therefore entirely predictable that the tobacco industry does what it can to ensure that effective tobacco control policies fail.
To download this WHO report, click here or go to: click here
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World Health Organization suggests just 5% of calories from sugar
The World Health Organization (WHO) is launching a public consultation on its draft guideline on sugars intake, recommending that sugars should be less than 10% of total energy intake per day. It further suggests that a reduction to below 5% of total energy intake per day would have additional benefits.
Five per cent of total energy intake is equivalent to around 25 grams (around 6 teaspoons) of sugar per day for an average adult.
The suggested limits on intake of sugars in the draft guideline apply to all monosaccharides (such as glucose, fructose) and disaccharides (such as sucrose or table sugar) that are added to food by the manufacturer, the cook or the consumer, as well as sugars that are naturally present in honey, syrups, fruit juices and fruit concentrates.
“I brought here some examples of food that has a high content of free sugar. You see, this is an average soft drink, it’s a soda, and an average serving contains up to 35, this particular one contains 35 grams of sugar, so its equivalent of 35 grams of sucrose.” – said Branca.
When finalized, the guideline will provide countries with recommendations on limiting the consumption of sugars to reduce public health problems like obesity and dental caries commonly referred to as tooth decay.
“We know that dietary risk factors are very important factors for the risk of non communicable diseases. We have an epidemic of non communicable diseases, we have at the moment 36 million people dying from non communicable diseases, most of them in the developing world, 80%. We have a projection of 50 million for 2030. So it’s huge and the dietary risk factors as well as tobacco are one of the main determinants of those diseases. I mean if you remove the risk factors then a lot of those deaths can be preventable.” – said Branca.
Comments on the draft guideline will be accepted via the WHO web site from 5 through 31 March 2014. Anyone who wishes to comment must submit a declaration of interests. An expert peer-review process will happen over the same period. Once the peer-review and public consultation are completed, all comments will be reviewed, the draft guidelines will be revised if necessary and cleared by WHO’s Guidelines Review Committee before being finalized.
The draft guideline was formulated based on analyses of all published scientific studies on the consumption of sugars and how that relates to excess weight gain and tooth decay in adults and children.
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Posted by Amy on Friday, April 5, 2013 at 1:05pm.
Mandy interviewed a source who told about how she was illegally treated by the police. Using her information in the speech is an example of:
A. facts and statistics.
D. hypothetical example.
i'm confused between B & C
2. An advantage of using narratives in your speech is that they:
A. explain abstract concepts.
B. calm emotions.
C. create excitement.
D. clarify technical ideas.
is it B
3. When using statistics to support a speech, it is best to do all of the following EXCEPT:
A. use statistics to quantify ideas.
B. use statistics to explain.
C. present statistics with charts or graphs so it is easier for listeners to grasp.
D. use a lot of statistics in a speech to make the speech exciting.
i'm confused between B & D
4. When conducting research for supporting materials, it is imperative to remember:
A. there is one right source for certain information.
B. always to take notes and record.
C. always do a personal interview.
D. use only the most current source of information.
is it B
- English - Ms. Sue, Friday, April 5, 2013 at 1:35pm
1. I don't know.
2. I disagree.
4. I agree.
- English - Amy, Friday, April 5, 2013 at 1:52pm
Answer to question 2 is A
- English - Ms. Sue, Friday, April 5, 2013 at 1:54pm
- English - price, Monday, July 8, 2013 at 11:02pm
2. is wrong its not B man
Answer This Question
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| 0.936465 | 583 | 3.296875 | 3 |
Before discussing the various financial debt ratios, we need to clear up the terminology used with "debt" as this concept relates to financial statement presentations. In addition, the debt-related topics of "funded debt" and credit ratings are discussed below.
There are two types of liabilities - operational and debt. The former includes balance sheet accounts, such as accounts payable, accrued expenses, taxes payable, pension obligations, etc. The latter includes notes payable and other short-term borrowings, the current portion of long-term borrowings, and long-term borrowings. Often times, in investment literature, "debt" is used synonymously with total liabilities. In other instances, it only refers to a company's indebtedness.
The debt ratios that are explained herein are those that are most commonly used. However, what companies, financial analysts and investment research services use as components to calculate these ratios is far from standardized. In the definition paragraph for each ratio, no matter how the ratio is titled, we will clearly indicate what type of debt is being used in our measurements.
Getting the Terms Straight
In general, debt analysis can be broken down into three categories, or interpretations: liberal, moderate and conservative. Since we will use this language in our commentary paragraphs, it's worthwhile explaining how these interpretations of debt apply.
- Liberal - This approach tends to minimize the amount of debt. It includes only long-term debt as it is recorded in the balance sheet under non-current liabilities.
- Moderate - This approach includes current borrowings (notes payable) and the current portion of long-term debt, which appear in the balance sheet's current liabilities; and, of course, the long-term debt recorded in non-current liabilities previously mentioned. In addition, redeemable preferred stock, because of its debt-like quality, is considered to be debt. Lastly, as general rule, two-thirds (roughly one-third goes to interest expense) of the outstanding balance of operating leases, which do not appear in the balance sheet, are considered debt principal. The relevant figure will be found in the notes to financial statements and identified as "future minimum lease payments required under operating leases that have initial or remaining non-cancel-able lease terms in excess of one year."
- Conservative - This approach includes all the items used in the moderate interpretation of debt, as well as such non-current operational liabilities such as deferred taxes, pension liabilities and other post-retirement employee benefits.
Investors may want to look to the middle ground when deciding what to include in a company's debt position. With the exception of unfunded pension liabilities, a company's non-current operational liabilities represent obligations that will be around, at one level or another, forever - at least until the company ceases to be a going concern and is liquidated.
Also, unlike debt, there are no fixed payments or interest expenses associated with non-current operational liabilities. In other words, it is more meaningful for investors to view a company's indebtedness and obligations through the company as a going concern, and therefore, to use the moderate approach to defining debt in their leverage calculations.
So-called "funded debt" is a term that is seldom used in financial reporting. Technically, funded debt refers to that portion of a company's debt comprised, generally, of long-term, fixed maturity, contractual borrowings. No matter how problematic a company's financial condition, holders of these obligations, typically bonds, cannot demand payment as long as the company pays the interest on its funded debt. In contrast, long-term bank debt is usually subject to acceleration clauses and/or restrictive covenants that allow a lender to call its loan, i.e., demand its immediate payment. From an investor's perspective, the greater the percentage of funded debt in the company's total debt, the better.
Lastly, credit ratings are formal risk evaluations by credit agencies - Moody's, Standard & Poor's, Duff & Phelps, and Fitch - of a company's ability to repay principal and interest on its debt obligations, principally bonds and commercial paper. Obviously, investors in both bonds and stocks follow these ratings rather closely as indicators of a company's investment quality. If the company's credit ratings are not mentioned in their financial reporting, it's easy to obtain them from the company's investor relations department.
Debt Ratios: The Debt Ratio
InvestingLearn to use the composition of debt and equity to evaluate balance sheet strength.
MarketsLong-term debt is any debt or liability that is due in more than one year.
InvestingThe debt ratio divides a company’s total debt by its total assets to tell us how highly leveraged a company is—in other words, how much of its assets are financed by debt. The debt component ...
InvestingLarge amounts of debt can cause businesses to become less competitive and, in some cases, lead to default. To lower their risk, investors use a variety of leverage ratios - including the debt, ...
InvestingNoncurrent liabilities are financial obligations a company owes a year or more into the future.
InvestingBorrowed funds can mean a leg up for companies or the boot for investors. Find out how to tell the difference.
InvestingTotal Debt to total assets, also called the debt ratio, is an accounting measurement that shows how much of a company’s assets are funded by borrowing. In business, borrowing is also called leverage.
InvestingDebt service is a measure of a person or entity’s use of cash to pay interest and principal on debt obligations.
InvestingA company’s long-term debt to total assets ratio shows the percentage of its assets that are financed with long-term debt.
InvestingThe current portion of long-term debt is the part of a company’s long-term debt that must be repaid within the next year.
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Landmark flight for ESA’s microgravity research
The first of two ESA parabolic flight campaigns organised for this year takes place this week in Bordeaux, France. On board the modified Airbus A-300 aircraft will be a suite of 10 microgravity experiments provided by European scientists in cooperation with scientists from Canada and the United States.
The emphasis of ESA's 48th Parabolic Flight Campaign is on the study of heat transfer. This is a key scientific problem which is the subject of extensive research. ESA sponsors several projects in this field that are run by consortia of European institutes and laboratories where these parabolic flight experiments are developed.
The ultimate aim of this research is to improve the efficiency of many systems relying on heat transfer, spanning from the generation of energy, through to high power electronics. In the general context of rising energy costs and global warming, this research is clearly of high importance.
“The aim is to gain a basic understanding of the different processes involved, and their interrelation. This will help to improve existing systems and develop new ideas or designs for future systems,” said Vladimir Pletser, Project Manager of the ESA Parabolic Flight Campaigns. “Such research is important because, for example, we need to understand and improve heat removal from integrated circuit boards or other spacecraft systems.”
“Unfortunately, we could not accommodate all of the experiment teams that applied to fly on this campaign because most of them require a lot of power. Some had to be deferred until the next parabolic flights that will take place in October or November,” added Pletser.
All of the instruments flown on this campaign are extensions and adaptations of those used previously as scientists learn from their results. Furthermore, these experiments often prepare for longer duration investigations on the International Space Station (ISS).
The majority of these experiments exploit the fact that a liquid absorbs a much larger amount of heat when it boils. The situation becomes more complicated compared to a simple liquid and still requires much research to be accurately described, and then predicted.
An experiment prepared at TU Darmstadt by the group of Professor Peter Stephan will measure the temperatures around a single boiling bubble stabilised at a hot spot. At the Polytechnic of Marseille, the group of Professor Lounès Tadrist developed a system enabling to quantitatively investigate the growth of vapour bubbles when boiling occurs in a confined space, which is almost in two dimensions.
An experiment developed at ENEA, Rome, under the leadership of Professor Gian Piero Celata, looks at the efficient quenching of hot tubes. This issue is particularly relevant to the thermalisation of cryogenic rocket motors. It involves using a boiling liquid to lower the temperature of pipes under microgravity conditions and comparing the results with similar experiments on the ground.
Preparations for the 48th Parabolic Flight Campaign began on 11 March, with the arrival of the experimental teams in Bordeaux. After completion of the final ground preparations, the experiments will be installed in the aircraft, with final safety checks on 17 March.
Over the following three days, the Airbus is scheduled to take off from Bordeaux-Mérignac airport and head out over the Bay of Biscay – weather permitting. Once the first 'warm up' ascent and descent is completed, the experimental programme will begin. Over the next three hours, the aircraft and its occupants will experience 30 parabolas, each providing about 20 seconds of microgravity.
French company Novespace owns and operates the A300 Zero-G aircraft, and is in charge of the preparation of the flight campaigns. ESA sponsors the flight opportunity.
ESA has a permanent announcement of opportunity open for researchers wanting to take advantage of the agency’s parabolic flight campaigns. Applications may be put forward at any time. The proposals undergo a peer review by experts from outside ESA and are selected on scientific merit.
The next ESA Parabolic Flight Campaign is scheduled to take place in October - November 2008.
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Duanwu Festival Articles More >
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Dragon Boat Festival - 5th day of the 5th lunar month
The Dragon Boat Festival, also called the Duanwu Festival, is celebrated on the fifth day of the fifth month according to the Chinese calendar. For thousands of years, the festival has been marked by eating zong zi (glutinous rice wrapped to form a pyramid using bamboo or reed leaves) and racing dragon boats. |
The festival is best known for its dragon-boat races, especially in the southern provinces where there are many rivers and lakes. This regatta commemorates the death of Qu Yuan , an honest minister who is said to have committed suicide by drowning himself in a river.
Qu was a minister of the State of Chu situated in present-day Hunan and Hubei provinces, during the Warring States Period (475-221BC) He was upright, loyal and highly esteemed for his wise counsel that brought peace and prosperity to the state. However, when a dishonest and corrupt prince vilified Qu, he was disgraced and dismissed from office. Realizing that the country was now in the hands of evil and corrupt officials, Qu grabbed a large stone and leapt into the Miluo River on the fifth day of the fifth month. Nearby fishermen rushed over to try and save him but were unable to even recover his body. Thereafter, the state declined and was eventually conquered by the State of Qin.
The people of Chu who mourned the death of Qu threw rice into the river to feed his ghost every year on the fifth day of the fifth month. But one year, the spirit of Qu appeared and told the mourners that a huge reptile in the river had stolen the rice. The spirit then advised them to wrap the rice in silk and bind it with five different-colored threads before tossing it into the river.
During the Duanwu Festival, a glutinous rice pudding called zong zi is eaten to symbolize the rice offerings to Qu. Ingredients such as beans, lotus seeds, chestnuts, pork fat and the golden yolk of a salted duck egg are often added to the glutinous rice. The pudding is then wrapped with bamboo leaves, bound with a kind of raffia and boiled in salt water for hours.
The dragon-boat races symbolize the many attempts to rescue and recover Qu's body. A typical dragon boat ranges from 50-100 feet in length, with a beam of about 5.5 feet, accommodating two paddlers seated side by side.
A wooden dragon head is attached at the bow, and a dragon tail at the stern. A banner hoisted on a pole is also fastened at the stern and the hull is decorated with red, green and blue scales edged in gold. In the center of the boat is a canopied shrine behind which the drummers, gong beaters and cymbal players are seated to set the pace for the paddlers. There are also men positioned at the bow to set off firecrackers, toss rice into the water and pretend to be looking for Qu. All of the noise and pageantry creates an atmosphere of gaiety and excitement for the participants and spectators alike. The races are held among different clans, villages and organizations, and the winners are awarded medals, banners, jugs of wine and festive meals.
Duanwu Festival Flowers and Gifts to China - Same day.
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The strangest, most seemingly alien place on Earth, at least to surface dwellers such as humans, has to be the deep ocean. Back in the mid-1970s, scientists discovered a particularly strange spot — the hydrothermal vents that penetrate a mile-and-a-half (2 kilometers) into the ocean floor near the Galapagos Islands in the South Pacific.
Inside the vents, water heated by volcanic activity sometimes reaches 750 degrees Fahrenheit (400 degrees Celsius), thanks to the intense pressure from the water above that keeps it from boiling away. That hot water dissolves metals and salts as it moves along rocks, eventually rising and pouring out into the bitter cold, pitch-black darkness. The vents also spout hydrogen sulfide, a gas which is poisonous to most land-based life. Even so, the vents are home to bacteria, which have evolved to use the seeming poison as an energy source. Scientists think these microbes may closely resemble the earliest life-forms in Earth's oceans [source: Trivedi].
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The 104th Psalm is a beautiful hymn about creation that complements the information given to us in Genesis and elsewhere in the Bible. Here, as in other Scriptures, the origin of the universe and our planet is not pictured as a massive explosion (such as a Big Bang) but as an orderly series of events in which everything was crafted by the hands of an artisan, a Master Builder.
Before the Fall
The early earth after creation is nowhere pictured as a place of smoking volcanoes, sulfureous fumes and violent quakes. The Apostle Peter quite simply says that the earth "was formed out of water and by means of water" (2 Peter 3:5). The whole purpose of creation was to produce an environment-a habitat-for man. In fact, the universe was designed for man to manage and govern (Gen 1:26-31, Heb 2:6-8). All this has changed as far as we are concerned-Adam forfeited his rightful place as steward over the creation. The world we live in has been ruined, and the human race in its ongoing rebellion against God continues to require interventions by God when He calls men into courts of judgment. God's last major judgment was the Flood of Noah-and this great disaster was actually not very long ago in the history of our race.
Seventy-one percent of the earth's surface today is indeed water-the oceans average 3.8 kilometers deep. Only 29% of the earth's surface is land-whose average elevation is only 623 meters! If all the continents and land masses were leveled into the sea using a giant bulldozer, nearly two miles of water would cover our entire earth. Glaciers and ice caps hold about two percent of earth's water; were they all to melt, sea levels around the world would rise 40 meters-a big problem for many large sea-level cities should this happen. The earth's atmosphere today holds only about two inches of precipitable water-this is constantly being replenished by the hydrologic cycle.1
Before the Flood
The earth before the Flood of Noah was a very different place! Our long years of educational brainwashing in the mythology of evolutionary theory and an old-earth has numbed us to the clear testimony of the Bible that God's intervention in human affairs during the time of Noah, the tenth man from Adam, changed things forever on our planet.2 Since Old Testament chronologies are actually quite complete, we can date the Flood as most likely occurring between 2500 B.C. and 3400 B.C.- depending on our choice of the Masoretic Hebrew text or the Greek Septuagint of the Old Testament, respectively. The earth before the Flood seems to have possessed a uniform sub-tropical climate. There may have been no rainfall, no ice and snow, and no major seasonal changes. (For instance, palm tree fossils have been found in Alaska, frozen warm-climate mammoths in Siberia, and coal in Antarctica.) The oceans would have been much warmer, and earth's rivers and streams may well have originated in powerful springs-such as the spring that supplied the four rivers of Eden.
I personally subscribe to a vapor canopy model of earth's atmosphere before the Flood, which could have provided the greenhouse effect for a worldwide mild climate. But vapor canopy models are very limited by basic thermodynamic considerations. In his classic pioneering study,3 Joseph Dillow suggested a pre-Flood atmospheric pressure at sea level twice the present value-a big help to the extinct flying reptile Pteranadon, who would probably not get off the ground in today's atmosphere. But too much water vapor in the upper atmosphere before the Flood would obscure the stars, and even the sun and moon, because of perpetual cloud cover. And for the atmosphere to support the weight of additional water vapor, the surface temperature would have to rise rapidly toward the boiling point of water. Condensation of water vapor during very heavy, prolonged rainfall would release enormous amounts of latent heat of condensation.
However, in spite of these difficulties, a modest vapor canopy - perhaps holding 40 feet of rain water - may have existed prior to the deluge of the Flood.
Most of the water for the great Flood of Noah came from the so-called "fountains of the great deep" (Gen 7:11). This source of water is mentioned before the rain from the "windows of heaven."
During the formation of the earth on the second and third days of creation, large quantities of water were evidently placed between the earth's crust and mantle in what might be called giant subterranean reservoirs. This water was probably under high pressure to begin with (causing artesian springs and geysers to abound), but after the fall of man and the angels-when some of the heavier atomic elements were apparently made unstable by reduced nuclear binding forces so that radioactive decay commenced - the shorter-lived isotopes could well have heated the subsurface to a point of criticality where it could scarcely be contained by the strength of the overlying crust. We mentioned this in last month's article as a possible cause for the explosion of a planet where the asteroid belt now is found.
Extensive volcanic activity may have occurred at the same time-the fountains of the great deep were thus broken open and volcanic ash hurtling into the stratosphere could have collapsed the vapor canopy by dispersing condensation nuclei around which raindrops formed.4
[Incidentally, gravitational compaction of the earth at the time of earth's formation would not have raised the interior temperature above 1000 degrees C, yet the earth's core-present temperature about 4300 degrees-has evidently melted and overturned in the past. Radioactive heating is believed to have supplied the extra energy needed - see http://www.ldolphin.org/Early.html]
The Flood in Noah's time was certainly a direct act of judgment by God on a world which had become thoroughly and continually evil:
"Then the Lord saw that the wickedness of man was great on the earth, and that every intent of the thoughts of his heart was only evil continually. And the Lord was sorry that He had made man on the earth, and He was grieved in His heart. And the Lord said, 'I will blot out man whom I have created from the face of the land, from man to animals to creeping things and to birds of the sky; for I am sorry that I have made them.'" (Genesis 6:5-7)
Since God is in full control of nature-there are no "accidents" in God's universe-the exact mechanisms the Lord used to initiate the Flood need not preoccupy our attention. Erudite scientific models for the geophysical processes that accompanied the Flood have been presented at three Pittsburgh International Conferences on Creation5- the proceedings are available and highly recommended. Dr. Walter Brown's outstanding book on the Flood, which can be found on the Internet,6 especially concentrates on possible mechanisms for the bursting open of the fountains of the great deep.
Was the Flood Global?
The Hebrew language has several words to describe ordinary floods, but Genesis 7-11 uses the unique word mabbul (found only elsewhere in Psalm 29:10). When Hebrew scholars put the Old Testament into Greek, they chose the Greek word kataklusmos, from the verb "to inundate," in place of the Hebrew mabbul. All the language of Genesis, and especially the words of the Apostle Peter, give us the clearest possible picture of a worldwide, cataclysmic, universal disaster from which only eight human beings escaped with their lives. Warning of false teachers and strong-willed skeptics, Peter tells us:
"For if God did not spare angels when they sinned, but cast them into hell and committed them to pits of darkness, reserved for judgment; and did not spare the ancient world, but preserved Noah, a preacher of righteousness, with seven others, when He brought a flood upon the world of the ungodly... Know this first of all, that in the last days mockers will come with their mocking, following after their own lusts, and saying, 'Where is the promise of His coming? For ever since the fathers fell asleep, all continues just as it was from the beginning of creation.' For when they maintain this, it escapes their notice that by the word of God the heavens existed long ago and the earth was formed out of water and by water, through which the world at that time was destroyed, being flooded with water. But the present heavens and earth by His Word are being reserved for fire, kept for the day of judgment and destruction of ungodly men..." (2 Peter 2:4-5, 3:3-7)
Noah and his sons (and perhaps some hired hands) probably had less than 76 years to build the Ark in which Noah's family and selected animals were to find refuge from the Flood. We know the size of the Ark from Genesis 6:14-16, and many fine books have been written in recent years7 analyzing the design and adequacies of this great barge. The Ark is said to have landed on the Mountains of Ararat in Eastern Turkey after the Flood. Many amazing search expeditions<8 have been launched in our century, though all have thus far been inconclusive.
There would be no need to labor many decades building a boat to escape a local flood-simple flight to the next valley or to a nearby mountain would have sufficed. Nor would a local flood require such an elaborate plan to save representative animal species.
Scripture is clear: the purpose of the Flood was to judge and destroy a decadent, thoroughly evil human civilization that probably numbered some billions of individuals - along with their cities and all the infrastructures.
Noah escaped not because he was blameless (justified by his faith as we are), but because he (and his family) responded to God's mercy and grace. A good many other individuals who lived in the 1655-2255 years between Adam and Noah no doubt responded to the gospel preached by Adam, by Enoch, and by others who knew the Lord. But by the time of the Flood, apparently the entire "civilized" world had become totally unresponsive to the offer of God's free salvation. Crazy Noah kept on building his weird boat on dry land-far from the ocean-in a country where it never rained! He probably endured constant mocking, scorn and ridicule up until the end. Noah's friends were welcome to find refuge on the Ark by faith in God, but no one else believed God's clear warnings.
"And all flesh that moved on the earth perished, birds and cattle and beasts and every swarming thing that swarms upon the earth, and all mankind; of all that was on the dry land, all in whose nostrils was the breath of the spirit of life, died. Thus He blotted out every living thing that was upon the face of the land, from man to animals to creeping things and to birds of the sky, and they were blotted out from the earth; and only Noah was left, together with those that were with him in the ark. And the water prevailed upon the earth one hundred and fifty days...." (Genesis 7:21-24)
The Ark finally landed on the very same day of the Hebrew calendar that Jesus Christ would be raised from the dead about three millennia later in history, taking into account the calendar change in Exodus 12. The subterranean caverns of the great deep collapsed, so that the waters receded into what are now our deep ocean basins.
With the tremendous weight of water removed from the land, isostatic rebound allowed great mountains, capped with sediments, to "float" up on the underlying mantle below the crust. (Mountains before the Flood were most likely much lower than they are now.) Seeds sprouted, life began again, and Noah and his family left the Ark to repopulate the earth under a new covenant with God (Gen 8:18-9:17). Four men and four women, who knew and loved the living God personally, began to repopulate the earth. They started with only meager resources and animals from the Ark - plus the bountiful grace of God
After the Flood
The post-Flood climate was now very different - assuming the collapse of the vapor canopy. An ice-age followed. Earth's original one continent broke up and spread apart (rapid continental drift)- either during the Flood-or as some believe during the days of Peleg, perhaps 100-600 years later.9 The dinosaurs, once contemporary with men, rapidly died out, quite possibly from a separate disaster not long after the Flood. Storms, natural disasters and great seasonal weather changes set in during the years immediately following the Flood as well.
Everything was different, yet life survived, recovered and proliferated. Great civilizations were built up again in a matter of only hundreds of years.
Next month our plan is to look at world population statistics and growth rates for both the ancient world and for the past few hundred years, especially guided by the vast pre-Flood knowledge accumulated by the eight Flood survivors with life spans of 300+ years and the long life experiences of post-Flood peoples with similar longevities. The mathematics and census data lead to an inescapable conclusion: Our earth has surely again reached a critical time on God's calendar of events for world history. Another great and terrible judgment most certainly lies just ahead. As God provided an Ark of Refuge in the Days of Noah, so He invites all to find eternal safe harbor and refuge through a personal relationship with His Son, Jesus Christ the Lord. We are invited to come "into" the Body of Christ by faith and thereby to find rescue and everlasting life.
"And just as it happened in the days of Noah, so it shall be also in the days of the Son of Man: they were eating, they were drinking, they were marrying, they were being given in marriage, until the day that Noah entered the ark, and the flood came and destroyed them all. It was the same as happened in the days of Lot: they were eating, they were drinking, they were buying, they were selling, they were planting, they were building; but on the day that Lot went out from Sodom it rained fire and brimstone from heaven and destroyed them all." It will be just the same on the day that the Son of Man is revealed." (Luke 17:26-30)
Time is running out!
* * *
- Michael J. Oart, An Ice Age Caused by the Genesis Flood, Institute for Creation Research, Box 2667, El Cajon, CA 92021, 1990 ( http://www.icr.org/ ).
- For a history of how evolutionary theory and old-earth geology developed as parallel world-views that sought from their inception to replace a Biblical world-view, see Ian T. Taylor, In the Minds of Men: Darwin and the New World Order, Bible-Science Association, PO Box 260, Zimmerman, MN 55398-0260 (1-800-422-4253).
- Joseph Dillow, The Waters Above: Earth's Preflood Vapor Canopy, Moody Press, Chicago IL, 1982.
- Setterfield, Barry, Creation and Catastrophe, 80-page monograph plus color wall chart. Summary: http://www.ldolphin.org/catastrophe.html.
- Proceedings of the [1st, 2nd, and 3rd] International Conference(s) on Creationism, Creation Science Fellowship, 362 Ashland Ave., Pittsburgh, PA 15228.
- 6. Walter Brown, Ph.D., In the Beginning: Compelling Evidence for Creation and the Flood, Center for Scientific Creation, on-line or in book form: http://www.indirect.com/www/wbrown/.
- John Woodmorappe, Noah's Ark: A Feasibility Study, Institute of Creation Research, Box 2667, El Cajon, CA 92021, 1990 (http://www.icr.org).
- Noah's Ark Home Page (B. J. Corbin), http://www.beachin.net/~bjcorbin/noahsark/; The Search for Noah's Ark (Matthew Kneisler), http://users.aol.com/mkneisler/noah/nahome.htm ; The Noah's Ark Project (Douglas Peterson), http://user.mc.net/dougp/noahs_ark/ : Christian Information Ministry (Noah's Ark, Creation, Theology; Richardson, TX) http://www.fni.com/cim/index.html .
- Watson, John A., "The Division of the Earth in Peleg's Day: Tectonic or Linguistics," Creation Ex Nihilo Technical Journal, Vol 11, Part 1, 1997, P.O. Box 6302, Acacia Ridge, D.C. Queensland 4110, Australia.
Flood Related Web Sites:
Creation Evidence Museum (Dr. Carl E. Baugh), http://www.creationevidence.org/ ;
Creation, Dinosaurs and the Flood (Charlie Liebert), http://www.sixdaycreation.com/ ;
The Paluxy Dinosaur/Man track Controversy (Glen J. Kuban), http://members.aol.com/Paluxy2/paluxy.htm .
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This report summarizes the history and current status of sustainable human development in China, focus attention on the outstanding challenges to be overcome, and make broad policy recommendations for tackling them.
This report is devoted to the concept of human development. This encompasses a broader perspective than the UNDP concept of human development. For example, the report includes such issues as religious faith and devotion, morality and value systems.
The 1996 Bangladesh report gives equal weight to two different approaches to assess human development and poverty, an analytical study by academics using data and survey results and a comprehensive participatory appraisal by poor people themselves.
The report presents the level of human development in the districts of Madhya Pradesh, provides a calculation of a district-level HDI and provides a database of outcomes, allowing the authors to set human development goals and targets.
The Philippines is slowly emerging from the social ruins caused by decades of economic mismanagement and political dictatorship. The government can now afford to consider national goals besides mere survival. The concept of human development has been advanced precisely to address this.
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This project examines the way in which the United States forms its asylum and refugee policies. Specifically, it examines the case of asylum and refugee policy towards Nicaragua from 1979 to 1989. The question posed is the following: Why and how does the United States government create asylum and refugee policies? Traditionally the United States’ asylum and refugee policies have largely been understood as being “receptionist” to individuals fleeing states deemed hostile by the United States government and “restrictionist” to individuals fleeing states deemed non-hostile. The case of Nicaragua complicates this picture, though, as asylum and refugee acceptance rates throughout the early 1980s remained low compared to asylum seekers from other “hostile” states. Still in the mid to late 1980s, these same asylum and refugee numbers increased markedly to levels higher than any other national group applying for asylum status within the United States during that period of time. While this statistical evidence may initially lead one to assume that the notion that the United States’ asylum and refugee policies are tied to its foreign policy considerations is false, this is not the case. Instead this project finds that foreign policy considerations as envisioned by key governmental actors significantly impact how asylum and refugee policies are formed. In addition, due to the changing nature of these foreign policy considerations as envisioned by governmental leaders, there are also changes in asylum and refugee policy, which is found in the case of Nicaragua from 1979 to 1989.
Jensen, Anthony, "Fleeing North: An Examination of U.S. Refugee and Asylum Policy towards Nicaragua" (2012). Political Science Student Work. Paper 2.
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Muscle is harder to build and maintain as we age. In fact, most of us start losing muscle around age 30, with a 3- to 8-percent reduction in lean muscle mass every decade thereafter.
This is due to lower testosterone levels in men and lower estrogen levels in women — both hormones that help build muscle — as well as changes in nerve and blood cells and the body not converting amino acids to muscle tissue as efficiently, among other factors. But muscle loss doesn't need to be inevitable: For adult men and women, regular resistance training exercises are key to building and keeping muscle.
Strength Training and Health
Strength training is an important piece of the fitness equation. Men and women should participate in muscle strengthening activities that work the major muscle groups (legs, hips, back, chest, abdomen, shoulders and arms) at least two times each week. Examples of strength training include lifting weights, using resistance bands and doing push-ups, pull-ups and sit-ups. Even everyday activities such as carrying groceries, playing with your kids and gardening can strengthen muscles.
One of the best ways to support strength building is good nutrition. An eating pattern that includes five to six small, balanced meals per day fuels muscle growth. Protein, carbohydrates and fat play a major role, as does getting enough calories throughout the day. Read on to find out how each macronutrient can help you bulk up — and how much to eat every day.
Protein and Muscle Building
When building muscle, the more protein the better, right? Not necessarily. While you're working to build muscle with exercise, protein should make up 10 to 35 percent of total calories for adults. Research shows there is no benefit to eating more protein than this amount and it can be harmful.
Keeping muscle mass, on the other hand, requires a lot less protein than building new muscle. For example, the needs of a sedentary adult are 0.37 grams per pound of body weight, and that equals about 46 grams of total protein for an adult woman and 56 grams of total protein for an adult man per day. A typical day that includes 3 servings of low-fat or fat-free dairy plus 3 servings of protein foods (such as lean meat, poultry, fish or beans) will provide quality sources of protein to help reach that goal. Grains, especially whole grains, also provide some protein but may not be enough to meet dietary needs.
Protein levels of common foods:
- 1 large egg = 6 grams
- 1 cup low-fat milk = 8 grams
- 1 cup plain low-fat yogurt = 12 grams
- ½ cup low-fat cottage cheese = 14 grams
- 2 tablespoons peanut butter = 8 grams
- 1 cup quinoa = 8 grams
- 3 ounces of lean ground beef = 22 grams
- 3 ounces skinless, baked chicken = 26 grams
- 3 ounces grilled salmon = 21 grams
Carbohydrates and Muscle Building
Carbohydrates are an important group of foods for fueling your muscles. That's because carbs are partially converted to glycogen, which is stored in muscle to power your workouts. Men and women who are strength training at least twice a week need at least half of their calories from carbohydrates per day. That doesn't mean you should be loading up on pizza and bagels. Try adding in good quality carbohydrates that are low in fat, such as whole-grain breads and cereals for the best strength-training boost. Low-fat milk and yogurt and fruits and vegetables are also good options and provide some carbohydrates in our diet. When planning your meals and snacks, it is recommended to stay away from higher fiber foods prior to or during exercise.
Fat and Muscle Building
Contrary to the fat-free trend, you actually need fat in your daily diet. Your body relies on fat to supply energy to muscles during activity, and how much fat a person needs can vary. As a general guideline, fat should make up 20 to 35 percent of your total calories.
For overall health and muscle strength, focus on the heart-healthy fats, including extra-virgin olive oil, canola oil, walnuts, pistachios, almonds, avocados and fatty fish such as salmon, halibut, mackerel, sardines and trout.
Fat contains twice the number of calories as carbohydrates and protein, so it is important to monitor serving sizes. For example, 1 tablespoon of olive oil has 120 calories and 1 ounce of walnuts (about 14 nuts) has 185 calories. If possible, measure and count before eating.
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Books by Brights
Dark Cosmos: In Search of Our Universe's Missing Mass and Energy
Everyone knows that there are things no one can see, for example, the air you're breathing or a black hole, to be more exotic. But not everyone knows that what we can see makes up only 5 percent of the Universe. The rest is totally invisible to us.
The invisible stuff comes in two varieties—dark matter and dark energy. One holds the Universe together while the other tears it apart. What these forces really are has been a mystery for as long as anyone has suspected they were there, but the latest discoveries of experimental physics have brought us closer to that knowledge. Particle physicist Dan Hooper takes his readers, with wit, grace, and a keen knack for explaining the toughest ideas science has to offer, on a quest few would ever have expected: to discover what makes up our dark cosmos.
About the Author
Dan Hooper is an associate scientist in the theoretical astrophysics group at the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory at an assistant professor of astronomy and astrophysics at the University of Chicago. His research investigates topics such as dark matter, supersymmetry, neutrinos, extra dimensions, and cosmic rays. Dr. Hooper received his PhD at the University of Wisconsin and was a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Oxford in the United Kingdom. He is the author of Dark Cosmos: In Search of our Universe's Missing Mass and Energy, a SEED magazine Notable Book, and of Nature's Blueprint: Supersymmetry and the Search for a Unified Theory of Matter and Force.
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There are 4 color morphs of northern fulmars: very dark, dark, light, and very light. Color morphs seem to differ in their distribution during the breeding season and in the timing of their molt. The 3 recognized subspecies are distinguished by differences in bill length and thickness and the proportion of the different color morphs, although the subspecies do have individuals of multiple color morphs generally. Individuals of different color morphs seem to mate indiscriminantly, although breeding colonies tend to be made up mainly of a single color morph. Immature individuals cannot be distinguished from adults. Most molting occurs in July. Molting seems to make some populations unable to fly, but not others. Males are slightly larger, on average 835 g whereas females average 700 g (range of masses is 450 to 1000 g). The sexes are similar in overall appearance. Northern fulmars are from 45 to 50 cm long with wingspans of 102 to 112 cm.
Northern fulmars have thick, yellow to gray bills with darker areas over the "tubes." Their legs and feet are flesh-colored to gray. Dark color morphs are more common in the southern portions of their range in the Atlantic and the northern portions of their range in the Pacific. Light color morphs are more common in the northern portion of the range in the Pacific. Atlantic populations tend to have robust bills and are almost exclusively light color morphs, whereas Pacific populations have bills that are more slender and exhibit the full range of color variation. Light morphs are uniformly pale, with head, neck, and ventral surfaces white and with their backs and wings being gray. Dark morphs are uniformly dark gray. Nearly all individuals of any color morph have a light to white patch on the dorsal surface of their wings formed by the exposed lighter portion of their primaries, this is only lacking in the darkest of individuals. Individuals can vary between the very dark ("double dark") and light ("double light") morphs described above. Variation is more of less continuous, but is divided into 4 morph categories for convenience.
Northern fulmars can be confused with pink-footed shearwaters (Puffinus creatopus) or flesh-footed shearwaters (Puffinus carneipes), but can be distinguished by their thick, rounded heads and stubby bills.
Range mass: 450 to 1000 g.
Average mass: 700 to 835 g.
Range length: 45 to 50 cm.
Range wingspan: 102 to 112 cm.
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry ; polymorphic
Sexual Dimorphism: male larger
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Student Questions from Passaic, New Jersey
By Anna Mazzaro
April 7, 2003
We have received many questions from students in response to our experiences in the tropical rainforest on Barro Colorado Island. We would like to share with you what others have asked and also some of Anna's responses. You can read the responses colored green and can also read the student's questions.
The questions come from the Science Club students in Public School #9 in Passaic.
Jasmine asks: How did you find and capture the wild animals?
Your question is very interesting. Personally, I didn't capture any wild animals. But the scientists that work on the island of Barro Colorado that work with the animals have different methods of trapping the animals. The scientists put out different types of traps according to the size of the animal they are studying. They are constantly checking the traps to see if there are any animals inside. As soon as an animal is caught, they inject them to calm them down or make them sleep. Later, they attach a collar with a radio transmitter. This transmitter allows the scientists to obtain important information such as where the animals are located at certain times and when they are most active. Once the animals have the radio transmitters, they are set free. The scientists never keep the animals in captivity, but just try to learn as much as they can so as to better help the animals. See the section of our website under "Background" --see the homepage--- and click on the item #8 "How We Study Mammals."
Javier asks: What is the amount of rainfall in the tropical rainforest?
Very good question. The amount of rainfall varies in the rainforest according to the type of rainforest. For example, in the Amazon it rains much more than in the tropical rainforest. In BIC, it rains 80 inches a year, while in other rainforests it rains from 200 to 300 inches a year. There are other rainforests that receive even more rain annually.
Hazael asks: Where do you stay when it rains?
Although you may not believe this, when we are in the rainforest and it begins to rain, rather than protect ourselves, we want to get wet. This may seem ironic or strange but you will see it is not. As you know, the rainforest is very humid and hot, when we walk in the rainforest we are very hot and sweaty, and then when it begins to rain we are very happy because it is refreshing. After the rain we know that there will be a pleasant and refreshing breeze. If it rains too much we bring our ponchos to protect us.
I don't want you to think that we are always outdoors. We have bedrooms and rooms built with bricks just as you have here. These houses have strong roofs and bathrooms and beds where we can sleep and rest. What a pleasure to sleep in your own bed when it is raining!
Alexander asks: What did you see when the plane flew over Panama?
One of the things I enjoy when I travel by plane is to see and appreciate the beauty of the clouds. They are so beautiful and look so soft! In addition to the clouds, as we approach Panama, you can see the tall buildings of Panama City. You can see a great deal of the ocean and the boats and ships waiting to cross the Panama Canal. It's amazing to see so many boats waiting to cross from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean and vice versa.
Mayra asks: What do you do in the tropical rainforest?
Mayra I'm glad that you asked this question. The scientists on Barro Colorado Island study the ecosystem and conduct experiments. I am a teacher and went there to learn what the scientists do when they are investigating ecosystems. Some scientists study plants, others study seeds and flowers, insects, mammals, the weather, and many other things. Doctor Willis and her assistants conduct census studies on mammals. You understand what the census of a human population is: it is the number of people in a town, a city, or a country. The same is done with the mammals. We study the number of mammals on an island and their habitats and the behavior of these animals and what influences their lives. This is why, in addition to conducting a census on the mammals, we also examine the fruits of certain trees that the mammals feed on.
Our work involves going out in the morning, and at times in the afternoon and evening, to see what mammals we can find. In a notebook, we record where we saw the animals (the name of the trail and the distance), at what time, and what they were doing (eating, drinking water, resting, etc.). All this data is collected and then compared with data of previous years. Maintaining this registry of information we can analyze the behavior and feeding patterns of the animals. We can also examine changes in the population of certain animals and what are the factors that contribute to these changes.
This is very interesting work that has helped us learn about the animals that live on the island.
Wilfredo asks: How do the scientists attach the collars on the animals?
It appears that this question intrigues many of the students in your class. I have already answered this question and perhaps you could read the response that was given to your other classmates.
For your information, the easiest way to attach collars on the animals is to catch them in a trap. The size of the trap depends on the size of the animal. Sometimes the traps are made of wood and others are made of wire or other materials. Once the animal is captured, it is injected with a tranquilizer to calm them or make them fall asleep. Then either a collar is put around the neck, or a numbered tag is put in the outer ear or on another part of the body. The collar has to be adjusted to fit to the proper neck size of the animal so that it will not fall off but also will be comfortable. Radio transmitters are attached to many of the animals. This allows us to monitor where they are, what they are doing and many other things.
Mariana asks: a. What are your favorite animals in the rainforest? b. What animals sleep at night? c. Could you tell me the name of some plants?
Thank you for all these very interesting questions. I like all the animals in the rainforest but my favorite ones are the anteaters and sloths. These two animals are very cute. Anteaters are fairly small animals. They like to eat ants and termites. They have very strong claws to help them climb up and down the trees. They are very protective of their babies. Sloths are bigger, furry animals. They feed on leaves and live in the tops of the trees. They come down to the forest floor only once a week to go to the bathroom.
They move very slowly and are very shy. They spend their lives hanging upside down. I’ve been very lucky in having the opportunity to see both animals. When you see them, the first thing you want to do is to try to hold them. They are very nice animals.
Many animals get to sleep at night. The two that I just mentioned are animals that sleep at night, but may also be active at night. Also sleeping at night are some monkeys, birds, lizards, and many other animals. There are also many animals that like to sleep during the day, and these are called "nocturnal" animals. They look for their food at night. Night monkeys, geckoes, owls, and opossums are good examples.
There are many different kinds of plants in the rainforest. Many of the plants are not familiar to us, but I would like to mention some of them that can be familiar to you because some are houseplants. These plants include: orchids, bromeliads, heliconias, ferns, rubber trees, fig trees, and philodendrons, just to mention some of the rainforest plants that are used as houseplants.
I want to thank you all for so many interesting questions. I hope you enjoyed your journey through the Rainforest Connection and have learned a lot. Look for the journal entries that are coming up soon. Hasta pronto,
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10 / The Natural World
|Artist / Origin||
Joachim Patinir (Netherlandish, d. 1524)
Period: 1400 CE - 1800 CE
Oil on wood
|Dimensions||(Central panel) H: 46 ¼ in. (117.5 cm.), W: 32 in. (81.3 cm.) (overall, with engaged frame); (Each wing) H: 47 ½ in. (120.7 cm.), W: 14 in. (35.6 cm.) (overall, with engaged frame)|
|Location||The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, NY|
|Credit||Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Fletcher Fund|
|Larry SilverProfessor of the History of Art, University of Pennsylvania|
The Penitence of St. Jerome (triptych)
Landscape painting actually began in the Netherlands, but it didn’t really begin with pictures we think of as landscapes. It often included very important figures in the corner, or in the foreground, usually figures who were saints or other objects of real attention. The landscape extends behind them, but it wasn’t the sole reason for the picture.
In a lot of early landscapes, mountains have a tendency to be the place that you go to. Part of that is biblical. Mount Sinai was where the Ten Commandments came from and the artists were all pretty familiar with their Bible. The mountains in the distance provide really the ultimate contrast, not only to the place where the saint is lodged, but also to the background cities.
The earliest landscapes had a tendency to be artificial, constructed out of lots of different parts. Those are the ones that modern-day scholars call ‘world landscapes’ because they have mountains next to valleys; they have farmlands next to cities; they have almost a cross-section of all the kinds of places you could have in a picture. What’s exciting about the early phase of landscape is sometimes how little the landscape looks like what they could have experienced. For the most part they made these things back in the studio. And that’s why the earliest landscapes don’t have any problem with the kind of artificiality and constructed nature of those really thick forests, those mountains next to flat plains, those places you wouldn’t actually see. It didn’t matter that they imagined landscape because they weren’t trying to represent an actual place. They were trying to construct a place appropriate to the figures that were in the picture. It’s really only with what we think of as Dutch Realism in the seventeenth century that artists increasingly tended to paint pictures of the places that they knew and loved and lived in.
If any artist deserves to be considered the father of landscape painting, in Europe at least, that man would be Joachim Patinir, who was active in the busy port city of Antwerp in the early sixteenth century. And Patinir’s image of St. Jerome in a landscape has most of the features that we think of as his inventions. It has an emphatic interest in contrasting the saint with a world full of other kinds of places—cities, farmlands, mountains—as well as the environment in the foreground that he’s chosen to make his little wilderness hut. And the saint here is really an integral part of the picture. Patinir’s invention of landscape is really an outgrowth of late medieval images that turn their back on the world and say the only really true response to temptation is to go away from it.”
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Greater Miami is the only metropolitan area in the United States whose borders encompass two national parks. You can hike through pristine Everglades National Park or ride on glass-bottom boats across Biscayne National Park.
Saint Augustine is the oldest European settlement in North America.
The name Punta Gorda, which means, "fat point" when translated from Spanish. The moniker was given to the city because a broad part of the land in Punta Gorda juts into Charlotte Harbor. The harbor itself is somewhat unique, as it is the point where the Peace River meets the ocean.
Orlando attracts more visitors than any other amusement park destination in the United States.
New England Congregationalists who sought to bring their style of liberal arts education to the state founded Rollins College, the oldest college in Florida, in Winter Park in 1885.
Cape Canaveral is America's launch pad for space flights.
Florida is not the southernmost state in the United States. Hawaii is farther south.
A museum in Sanibel owns 2 million shells and claims to be the world's only museum devoted solely to mollusks.
The Benwood, on French Reef in the Florida Keys, is known as one of the most dived shipwrecks in the world.
Safety Harbor is the home of the historic Espiritu Santo Springs. Given this name in 1539 by the Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto. He was searching for the legendary Fountain of Youth. The natural springs have attracted attention worldwide for their curative powers.
Niceville is home to the famous Boggy Bayou Mullet Festival celebrated the third weekend in October.
The United States city with the highest rate of lightning strikes per capita is Clearwater.
Gatorade was named for the University of Florida Gators where the drink was first developed.
Young aviator Tony Jannus made history on January 1, 1914 when he flew the world's first scheduled passenger service airline flight from St. Petersburg's downtown yacht basin to Tampa.
Dr. John Gorrie of Apalachicola invented mechanical refrigeration in 1851.
Miami Beach pharmacist Benjamin Green invented the first suntan cream in 1944. He accomplished this development by cooking cocoa butter in a granite coffee pot on his wife's stove.
Neil Smith and his brother of Montverde developed the first Snapper riding lawn mower.
Key West has the highest average temperature in the United States.
The Saint John's River is one of the few rivers that flows north instead of south.
The largest lake in Florida is Lake Okeechobee.
May 20, 1970 Florida lawmakers passed and sent to the Governor a bill adopting the moonstone as the official state gem. Ironically, the moonstone is not found naturally in Florida...nor was it found on the moon.
In 1987 the Florida legislature designated the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) the official state reptile. Long an unofficial symbol of the state, the alligator originally symbolized Florida's extensive untamed wilderness and swamps.
Miami installed the first bank automated teller machine especially for rollerbladers.
Ybor City was once known as the Cigar Capital of the World with nearly 12,000 tabaqueros (cigar-makers) employed in 200 factories. Ybor City produced an estimated 700 million cigars a year at the industry's peak.
Plant City, the Winter Strawberry Capital of the World, holds the Guinness record for the world's largest strawberry shortcake. The 827 square-foot, 6,000 pound cake was made on Feb. 19, 1999 in McCall Park.
The Sunshine Skyway Bridge is a cable-stayed concrete bridge. Opened in 1987 the bridge coasts through the clouds at 190 feet above water. Its bright yellow support cables spread from the two center pillars. The structure gives drivers unobstructed view of the water during the 4.1 mile trip over Tampa Bay.
Nearly 80 percent of the states intake of sweet Atlantic white shrimp is harvested in Amelia Island waters. Two million pounds of shrimp are delivered to Fernandina docks annually.
A swamp such as the Fakahatchee Strand in the Everglades functions in three major ways. First, its vegetation serves as a filter to clean the water as it makes its slow journey southward. Secondly, it's a major habitat for wildlife and plant life. Finally, it actually prevents flooding by slowing down the flow of water after heavy rains.
DeFuniak Springs is home to one of the two naturally round lakes in the world.
The Morikami Museum and Japanese Gardens at Delray Beach is the only museum in the United States dedicated exclusively to the living culture of Japan.
Fort Lauderdale is known as the Venice of America because the city has 185 miles of local waterways.
Fort Meade is the oldest settlement in Polk County. It dates back to 1849 when a settlement grew up around the United States Cavalry fort during the Seminole Indian Wars.
The Fred Bear Museum in Gainesville is a tribute to the accomplishments of Fred Bear a promoter of proper wildlife management and the founder of Bear Archery Company.
The Hawthorne Trail a part of Florida's Rails to Trails program and attracts many outdoor enthusiasts to walk, cycle, or ride horseback through its 17-mile length.
Just north of Haines City is the Baseball City Stadium the spring training home of the Kansas City Royals. Haines City is known as The Heart of Florida.
The city of Hypoluxo's name comes from the Seminole expression water all 'round -- no get out.
Islamorada is billed as the Sports fishing Capital of the World.
Key Largo is known as the Dive Capital of the World.
Marathon is home to Crane Point Hammock, a 63.5 acre land tract that is one of the most important historical and archaeological sites in the Keys. The area contains evidence of pre-Colombian and prehistoric Bahamian artifacts, and once was the site of an entire Indian village.
Fort Zachary Taylor in Key West was built between 1845 and 1866. Controlled by the Union during the Civil War, the fort was the home base for a successful blockade of Confederate ships that some historians say shortened the conflict by a full year. The fort also was active during the Spanish-American War, World War I, and World War II.
The first graded road built in Florida was Old Kings Road in 1763. It was named for King George of England.
During the 1991 Gulf War the busiest military port in the country was Jacksonville. From this location the military moved more supplies and people than any other port in the country.
When first completed in 1989 the Dame Point Bridge became the longest cable-stayed span in the United States, the longest concrete span of its type in the Western Hemisphere, and the third longest cable-stayed bridge in the world.
The longest river sailboat race in the world is the Annual Mug Race. The event runs 42 miles from Palatka to Jacksonville along the St. Johns River.
The Olustee Battlefield State Historic Site commemorates the largest battle fought in Florida during the American Civil War.
Venice is known as the Shark Tooth Capital of the World. Collecting prehistoric sharks teeth has been a favorite pastime of visitors and residents of the Venice area for years
The Florida Museum of Hispanic and Latin American Art in Coral Gables, is the first and only museum in the United States dedicated to the preservation, diffusion, and promotion of Hispanic and Latin American Art.
The Pinellas Trail, a 47 mile hiking/biking trail connecting St. Petersburg with Central and north Pinellas County, is the longest urban linear trail in the eastern United States.
Titusville, known as Space City, USA, is located on the west shore of the Indian River directly across from the John F. Kennedy Space Center.
Florida is the only state that has 2 rivers both with the same name. There is a Withlacoochee in north central Florida (Madison County) and a Withlacoochee in central Florida. They have nothing in common except the name.
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A Gift From Japan
The capital's first Japanese cherry trees arrived in the early years of the 20th century as a gift from Tokyo mayor Yukio Ozaki in recognition of the relationship between Japan and the U.S. The Japanese have for centuries revered blossoming cherry trees, or sakura. During the spring blooming period, called hanami, many Japanese make special trips to view cherry trees from a distance, especially in combination with nearby shrines or temples. Holding a picnic beneath cherry trees is another highly popular activity, allowing viewers to revel in the beauty directly overhead. Cherry blossom festivals take place throughout Japan in the springtime.
Eliza Scidmore's Dream
The impetus for Washington’s now world-famous spring festival came from one woman who, despite years of discouragement, never abandoned her dream of bringing a bit of Japan to America. Eliza Ruhamah Scidmore (pronouned Sidmore), born in 1856, was a journalist, photographer and inveterate traveler who would eventually gain distinction as the first woman to serve on the board of the National Geographic Society. Upon her return from the first of many trips to Japan, Scidmore in 1885 was seized with the idea of planting Japanese cherry trees in her home town of Washington D.C. She had been captivated by the beauty of Japan’s cherry blossoms and envisioned such trees beautifying the swampy Tidal Basin area of the capital.
Scidmore’s detailed plans, accompanied by her photographs of Japan’s trees, did little to sway officials. Washington park superintendents repeatedly rejected her proposals. But Scidmore’s persistence eventually paid off in 1909, 24 years after her initial vision. With help from botanist David Fairchild and new First Lady Helen Taft, the cherry tree beautification project finally gained momentum. After learning of the plan, the city of Tokyo offered to provide an additional 2,000 trees. Upon inspection by the Department of Agriculture, the original 1910 shipment of trees from Japan was discovered to be infested with agricultural pests and disease. President Taft ordered them burned, lest they infect domestic trees. Japanese officials responded by sending another 3,020 trees of 12 different cultivars, whose lineage included some of Japan's finest stock.
Washington’s Cherry Trees
In a quiet ceremony on March 27, 1912, Mrs. Taft and Viscountess Chinda, wife of the Japanese ambassador, planted the first two of the now historic trees on the north bank of the Tidal Basin. (These two original trees, marked with a bronze plaque, remain standing a few hundred yards west of the John Paul Jones Memorial at the terminus of 17th Street, SW.) The planting was commemorated by school children in 1927, but it was not until 1935 when civic groups first organized a “Cherry Blossom Festival.”
With emotions running high in wartime, the festival was temporarily suspended during World War II, but resumed in 1947. The cherry trees along the Arakawa River near Tokyo, source of the parent stock for Washington’s trees, fell into decline because of the war. In 1952, the U.S. National Park Service responded to Japan’s request for assistance by sending budwood to help restore the famed grove. More recently, in 1997 the U.S. National Arboretum assisted in taking cuttings from those cherry trees documented as being among the original 1912 shipment, to ensure the maintenance of their particular genetic line. In 2011, the National Park Service presented the Japan Cherry Blossom Association with 120 trees propagated from the 1912 survivors, helping to guarantee the survival of this especially beautiful strain.
The capital's floral display became significantly more impressive in 1965, when First Lady Ladybird Johnson accepted another generous gift from the Japanese -- 3,800 more trees, this time American-grown. Mrs. Johnson, well known for her dedication to the beautification of America, reenacted the planting ceremony of 1912 with Mrs. Ryuji Takeuchi, wife of the Japanese ambassador. Many of these trees now enhance the grounds of the Washington Monument.
Cherry Tree Varieties
Of the 12 varieties of cherry originally planted, two types now predominate -- Yoshino and Kwanzan. Yoshino, the type encircling the capital’s Tidal Basin, produce many single white blossoms. Mingled among the Yoshino cherries and blooming at the same time are Akebono cherry trees, a mutation of the Yoshino, which bear single blossoms of pale pink.
The Kwanzan variety, one of the showiest of the cherries, produces long-lasting large pink double flowers that open two weeks later than that of the Yoshino. You can see these trees in the East Potomac Park along with cultivars Fugenzo, with double rosy-pink blossoms, and Shirofugen, with double white flowers that age to pink.
Interspersed among these varieties is the lovely weeping Japanese cherry tree or Higan cherry tree. Blossoms of the weeping type vary in color from white to dark pink and may be single or double. The weeping Japanese cherry blooms about one week prior to the Yoshino. Other varieties featured in Washington are the autumn flowering cherry tree, with semi-double pink blooms; the Sargent cherry, with single dark pink flowers; and the Usuzumi cherry, which bears whitish-gray flowers.
Festival Events and Blossom Viewing
America’s National Cherry Blossom Festival is officially opened by the lighting of a 2-ton, 8-foot-high granite Japanese lantern. The lantern was presented by the Japanese ambassador to the City of Washington in 1954, in commemoration of the first peace treaty between the U.S. and Japan, signed by Commodore Mathew Perry in 1854. The two-week-long festival begins on the last Saturday of March. Festival activities include a kite festival, a sushi and saki celebration, art exhibits, cultural performances, a parade and fireworks.
The average date of the cherry trees’ peak bloom in Washington, D.C. is April 4, but unusually warm, cool or rainy springs can alter the date by as much as two weeks. The National Park Service offers an up-to-date bloom schedule.
Thumbnail of cherry trees and Washington Monument from Wikimedia, in the public domain
Blossoms and Jefferson Memorial from Wikimedia from the Al Jazeera Creative Commons Repository
Eliza Scidmore from Wikimedia Commons in the public domain
Ladybird Johnson from Wikimedia Commons in the public domain
DG Member Photos:
Yoshino cherry and akebono cherry by growin
Kwanzan cherry by hczone6
Shirofugen cherry by GardenGuyKing
Weeping cherry by bootandall
(Editor's Note: This article was originally published on April 3, 2012. Your comments are welcome, but please be aware that authors of previously published articles may not be able to respond to your questions.)
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This is an excerpt from EERE Network News, a weekly electronic newsletter.
Army Unveils First Military Fuel Cell Fleet
The U.S. Army unveiled on February 22 a fleet of 16 hydrogen fuel cell vehicles that the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marines in Hawaii are testing in an effort to research renewable energy sources and reduce dependence on oil. The zero-emission vehicles were funded by the Army Tank Automotive Research Development Engineering Center, Office of Naval Research, and Air Force Research Laboratories. The fuel cell vehicles, powered by renewable hydrogen, travel up to 200 miles on a single charge and refuel in five minutes.
The fleet of fuel cell vehicles is the latest effort of the Hawaii Hydrogen Initiative, a partnership of 13 agencies, companies, and universities. The group is also testing hydrogen infrastructure elements so that other states can adopt a similar approach. DOE's Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy is providing technical and economic analysis of the vehicles. DOE has been funding the research and development of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies, such as catalysts and membranes, over the last decade. Such technologies are enabling the deployment of fuel cell vehicles and stations like those in Hawaii. See the Army press release and DOE's Fuel Cell Technologies Program website.
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Handing down an artistic tradition
His magnificent photography is the result of a...
Bright future for wind industry fuels wind energy center at JMU
A little more than two hours west of...
Alaskan landscape shaped by volcano inspires professors' collaboration
Gary Freeburg's photographs of the Valley of...
James and Gladys Kemp Lisanby Museum Exhibition
Mon, 1 Apr 2013 10:00 AM - Fri, 3 May 2013 4:00 PM
During regular building hours
Lower level of the Festival Conference and Student Center
This exhibit focuses on the role of iterative processes, such as storytelling, in the Shenandoah Valley folklife in connection to the works of John L. Heatwole, a Valley native and artist. Heatwole carved pieces and shared stories that reflect Valley folk culture. Each of his works harks back to a particular 19th century tradition, role in society or superstition. Even in his staining technique, Heatwole utilized the methods of period artisans. He became the Valley’s contemporary minstrel through sharing his own portrayals of folk culture and lore. For information, contact the director of the Madison Art Collection, Kathryn Stevens at [email protected]; free.
- No Related Videos
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| 0.913417 | 259 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Library of the future: 8 technologies we would love to see
Libraries lead the way to digital citizenship. They should be the first places where most advanced technologies are implemented.
Today, libraries are not only about lending books. They are creative spaces, not only for individuals, but also teams. They are economic incubators and learning hubs.
Most of all, the libraries are the entry points to the digital world. They are the way to embrace technology and avoid digital exclusion.
Therefore, to improve technological literacy of local communities, libraries should be equipped with relevant technologies.
In this articles you won’t find examples of how to use Google Hangouts for library meetings, or Pikochart to create library infographics.
Instead, I would like to go one step further and present technologies – some of them in a concept phase – that could be used in the future.
And instead of general ideas, like wearables or augmented reality, you’ll see here real examples.
Some of these technologies seem to eat budgets dozens of times bigger than a public library can afford, but it’s not the point of this article.
The article is designed to spot technologies that will be relevant and useful in the libraries as they move along their digital roadmaps.
Read also 20 most delightful library-themed gifts
Here are the library gifts ideas, if you want to thank your librarian or share the love for libraries.
8 technologies we would love to see in libraries
1. Library bookmark and guide
An interesting concept from a Chinese design company Toout. This little tiny device is in the first place a regular bookmark. But on top of that it also has features that could make using the library much easier.
First of all, the device would be a perfect companion when navigating through the library, by giving turn-by-turn directions to the book the patron wants.
The device could also keep track of all borrowed books, as well as remind the user of the return dates.
Finding a book easily without knowing the Dewey Decimal Classification system? Sounds like a good idea of where the library card could evolve.
2. Augmented reality app
librARi is a concept of an image based augmented reality application, created by Pradeep Siddappa.
A lot has been said about using augmented reality in libraries, but there are few examples that would let us actually see it.
The video explaining how librARi works (AR in the name stands for “augmented reality”) is very decent, but it’s a benefit. It clearly highlights the best use of AR in libraries – locating the books on the shelves and navigating to them.
The app would point you to the new arrivals. It would also be able to find and point to similar books. Simple, but useful, and very probable.
3. Book delivery drone
To get the book from a library, you can either go and find it, or you can let it find you.
The future belongs to unmanned flying machines, and just like Amazon drones can deliver the goods to customers, libraries could deliver the books to patrons.
Library drone is not even the close future. It’s already happening. Australian start-up Flirtey has teamed up with a book rental service Zookal to create – the first in the world – textbook delivery system.
The system is using hexacopters, drones with six rotors, to deliver ordered textbooks. Now, the smart thing is that the drone can find you by the location of your smartphone, so there is no need to give a fixed address.
Just imagine. You are sitting in a reading room of the New York Public Library, in the middle of writing an essay, and want to get another book. Stay where you are, and use the app to order a book. The drone will come, just like this one. Pull out the book from the box, and put the one or ones you don’t need any longer. The drone will place them where they belong.
I would personally add an option to deliver latte from a library cafeteria.
4. Digital interface for print books
Anyone who tried ebooks would never give up the convenience of a digital interface and all other helpful tools.
Searching the content of the book (including smart search), looking for a reference on the web, getting an instant translation, writing notes, or collecting book passages – all this can be done on the same device that we use to read an ebook.
We can obviously borrow an ebook instead of a print book, but here is a better idea – enhance the print book with a digital interface.
FingerLink is a project currently developed by Fujitsu that will let you use digital tools to work with a printed book.
It’s a stand you can put on a library desk. It includes two elements: a camera to read the info from the real world, and the projector to display digital info in the real world.
Simply, place the book on a table under the stand, and you’ll see extra options, available for the book. It’s because everything what FingerLink “sees” can be available and editable in a digital form.
Now let’s push the imagination a bit further.
Nimble is a concept of an advanced library augmented reality tool.
Designed by a London-based interactive designer and Google engineer Sures Kumar, Nimble does not only offer digital enhancement of a print book, but also incorporates the idea featured earlier in the post – the turn-by-turn library guide.
All these features can be accessed using the smart library card. An all-in-one solution to let patrons use the digital books to work with whichever content they want.
5. Library utensils
Obviously, introducing a system like FingerLink will exceed library’s yearly budget several times. There is a cheaper alternative. A library could offer patrons a variety of small utensils they could borrow to use in the reading room.
In the picture above you see Ivy Guide, a concept device, that you can put on your pen to use for translating words found in the print book.
It’s just an example showing that such concepts are being created. The only thing is to find the most useful task for the library use.
For me, it could be a simple pen that would let patrons make digital highlights. One condition – it should be done in a simplest possible way.
Here is the idea. The real-to-digital highlighter would be connected to a computer. When you highlight something – move along the text in a print book – it will immediately appear in the notepad app on a computer. All your highlights would be collected in a single text document.
When you are finished, simply send this note to your email address. The note will self-destruct the moment you close it.
Such library utensils would be useful for less tech-savvy library patrons or those who don’t use advanced apps (for instance the ones with OCR – optical character recognition) on their phones.
6. Mobile library center
Sometimes, to engage local communities, or reach people in remote locations, the library would want to physically leave the library building.
The Ideas Box is a revolutionary concept developed by Librarians Without Borders, with the aim to reach people in refugee camps and impoverished countries, but could be also used any time the idea of a mobile library is considered.
The most thrilling thing about this modern library center is that it can be assembled in less than 20 minutes.
The Idea Box is a portable toolkit – standardized, easy to transport and set up. The kit consists of six boxes (including library and internet access), fits on two palettes, and creates a space of 1,000 square meters.
The library box includes 250 paper books, 50 e-readers with thousands of ebooks, and a variety of educational apps.
7. Print on demand machines
Bookless libraries, where you can’t find a single print book, launch regularly. They obviously won’t kill traditional libraries, just like ebooks don’t kill print books. The digital-only route has its disadvantages.
To me, every digital-only library should offer their patrons the ability to instantly make a print version of the book. Let’s put aside the question who is going to pay for this. The most important question is that sometimes the book has to be real to make use of it.
Espresso Book Machine (EBM) is a real product. Manufactured by Xerox, it’s sold by On Demand Books. It can make a paperback book while you wait, printing up to 150 pages per minute.
The machine is connected to an online catalog of over seven million in-copyright and public domain books, but institutions using EBM can also print custom titles.
8. Access to library via commonly used app
This sounds like an super simple idea, but it doesn’t exist yet, and I’m not sure whether it will.
All the concepts presented above were about special devices or solutions designed for special use in a library.
Nowadays, if you want to borrow an ebook from a library you need to have a special app from a digital content provider, like OverDrive. But not all the libraries cooperate with OverDrive – and it’s where problems begin. The more special something is, the fewer people will use it.
The thing is that to borrow a print book from a library, you don’t need anything special besides the library card.
Imagine that many of the features described above would be accessible from a simple app – a browser on your mobile phone. You’d need it to browse the library, borrow a book, get notifications when it’s due, and finally, be able to read it.
Maybe there would be an option to take a virtual walk through the library. We’re close, just look at the libraries using Google Street View tours. Maybe there would be an option to make notes and highlights. Maybe there would be an option to recognize the printed text and turn it to editable notes.
Yes, all these features are available, but they are delivered by special apps, and these special apps are not meant to be used in libraries.
The idea (utopian?) is that everybody could use the library, and no extra knowledge and software would be needed for that.
Google is leading the way to unify online experience. No extra sign ups. All you need is to be signed in to your Gmail account on Google Chrome.
• • •
Recent posts about libraries:
- Escape room set in a public library in Cracow, Poland (pictures)
- 20 wonderful home library ideas
- How libraries can help improve your health (infographic)
- A railway station turned into a modern library and cultural center
- Librarian Rhapsody (video)
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Polystyrene beads are often mistakenly referred to as STYROFOAM™ beads. The puffing of EPS resin, creating the puffed polystyrene beads is the first step in producing EPS (expanded polystyrene) blocks. Puffed polystyrene beads are used for several different applications besides the manufacture of EPS blocks. Two of the most common are the production of bean bag chairs and the production of lightweight concrete.
To create the puffed beads the EPS resin is puffed by applying steam to the resin in an enclosed chamber. The Pentane gas in each bead expands from the heat causing the beads to grow by 30 to 35 times their original size. When they are fully puffed the beads are primarily made up of air. The puffed beads are then transferred to a drying chamber where they are subjected to dry air and from there into large poly bags for shipping. For very large applications the puffed beads can be blown directly into a 53’ trailer. Most people are familiar with bean bag chairs. They were very popular in the 60’s and in recent years have seen a resurgence in popularity during the past couple of years. When the puffed beads arrive at the chair manufacturer they are blown into the shell using special equipment and the shell is sealed.
The puffed EPS beads are economical filler with unique properties that could not be obtained using any other material. In construction, the most common use of polystyrene beads is in the production of lightweight concrete. Standard concrete weighs 150 lbs per cubic foot. Puffed polystyrene beads weigh just under 1 lb per cubic foot. There are applications when the strength of concrete is needed but the weight of the concrete is a problem. One solution is to mix puffed polystyrene beads into the concrete mix. As the puffed beads displace the other components of the concrete mix the material becomes lighter. The more beads are added, the less strength the concrete has also, so the final portions are governed by the application of the concrete.
Another application in construction for polystyrene beads is retrofit insulation of un-insulated exterior walls. In this application, the puffed beads are poured into the wall cavity between the studs by drilling a hole in the top of the wall. If the puffed beads fill the cavity the space can obtain R-values close to that of fiberglass insulation. The problem with this method is the installation. Polystyrene beads are full of static electricity and they stick to everything. It is impossible to determine if the space has been filled or if there are large pockets of air remaining. This method of insulation can also be very messy for the same reasons.
E-Mail Les Rush
Universal Foam Products, LLC
EPS | STYROFOAM™ | Solutions
410.825.8300 ext 226 PHONE | 410.825.5050 FAX
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| 0.947972 | 585 | 2.875 | 3 |
Death and Afterlife
Overview of conceptions of death and afterlife in a variety of Asian religious contexts, such as Hindu, Jain, Buddhist, Shinto, and Daoist. Students will examine how religious communities conceptualize death and dying, manage the process of death, and re-create worlds of meaning, as well as how these implicate values concerning status, gender, and age. Examples of symbols explored include: Hindu rites of passage, Buddhist relic veneration, Chinese mummifications, Daoist thaumaturgy and funerary rites, Japanese Mizuko Kuyo (memorials for aborted fetuses), and others.
Introduction to Buddhism
Examining the doctrines, practices, and communal life of the Buddhist religious tradition. Beginning with the origins of Buddhism in India, its spread and transformation through Asia and to the West. Exploring the various interpretations about Buddhology, the meaning of Dharma and how it becomes embodied in practice. Studying the Buddhist perspectives and approaches to issues and challenges Buddhist face in the modern world.
East Asian Buddhism
Aspects of East Asian Buddhism, focusing on the Bodhisattva model. The development of early Indian Buddhism and its role in the debate between early Buddhist schools and the emergent Mahayana views. The role of this model in the hagiographic traditions of Buddhist monks, nuns, founders, and saints. Special attention given to the pantheon of Bodhisattva Savior figures, such as Guan Yin (Kannon), Dizong (Jizo), and Milo (Maitreya).
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| 0.90861 | 317 | 3.625 | 4 |
Activity 3C (Reading and Interactive)
What Is Synthesis?
|Lesson Overview||This lesson describes chemical synthesis in terms of building or breaking down molecules and discusses the value of chemical synthesis. Students will have a chance to play an interactive game that is analogous to the process of chemical synthesis.
To show students what the work of many chemists consists of, on a molecular level. To show students that chemical synthesis often requires multiple steps and that each new part of the new compound must “fit” with the new substance.
|Materials Required||Computer access.|
|Skills Required||Basic computer skills.|
|Time Required||Allow 1015 minutes for the reading and 1520 minutes for the interactive.|
|Student Ability Level and Grouping||
This activity is appropriate for average middle school students.
Explain to students that after the reading they will be playing a game on the computer. The objective of the game is to put together a screwdriver in the fewest steps possible. The handle of the screwdriver is given as the basis for the “synthesis.” The “bit” of the screwdriver does not match the handle. The students’ task is to insert adapters so that the bit can be added to the handle.
The point of the simulation is that students are “synthesizing” a complete screwdriver. They begin with a “starting material” (the handle). The “compound” that they are trying to synthesize is the complete screwdriver. Students have to add adapters to the handle in order to be able to attach the bit. The addition of each adapter represents a separate chemical reaction in the overall synthesis. The challenge for students is to build the screwdriver in as few steps as possible. The simplest method requires three adapters.
This activity meets the following National Science Education Standards (Grades 5-8) and Curriculum Standards for Social Studies.
National Science Education Standards (Grades 5-8)
Science As Inquiry
Science and Technology
History and Nature of Science
Curriculum Standards for Social Studies
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[In Their Words: A Chronology of the Civil War in Chicot County, Arkansas and Adjacent Waters of the Mississippi River by Don Simons (Wise Publications, 2000). Softcover, maps, notes, bibliography, Pp. 202 $20.00]
In Their Words is a valuable collection of primary source materials dealing with the lesser known Civil War in southeastern Arkansas. Sprinkled with plentiful maps, photos, and drawings, the book provides a chronology of events as written in the diaries, letters, and reports of the participants—male, female, civilian and military alike. The main focus is military, though, and much of the text recalls repeated interdiction attacks by Confederate regular and guerrilla forces on both sides of the Mississippi River, and the Federal naval and land response to those attacks.
The book is organized by date with chapters on major events like the Vicksburg Campaign, Cypress Bend and Deer Creek Expeditions, Red River Campaign, Battle of Ditch Bayou, and the Bayou Bartholomew Expedition. Author Don Simons wields a very restrained [probably too much so] editorial hand, preferring to include many reports verbatim with only a few words of introduction. This is both a positive and negative depending on the reader’s expectations. While researchers will appreciate the multitude of complete primary reports from both sides covering the same action, some readers may tire of the frequent repetition and lack of narrative flow.
In sum, In Their Words is a useful assemblage of materials detailing the Civil War battles and skirmishes from a backwater front that nonetheless had a noticeable impact on the major campaigns further south. With the Civil War Arkansas literature centered in the northern sections of the state, such attention paid to the neglected southeast in much welcomed. Simons' work is impressive in the level of detail provided and is also an admirable example of local history.
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The Royal Cemetery was a challenge to excavate. Burials were cut into a trash dump, consisting of sloping layers of soft soil. Woolley dubbed the layers “Seal Impression Strata” (SIS) because they contained hundreds of clay lumps with cylinder seal impressions. The large number of cross-cutting burials made accurate recording difficult.
- Leonard Woolley
By careful observation, Woolley was able to distinguish earlier and later groups separated by debris varying in thickness and composition. The earlier burials, including the royal tombs, were cut into lower SIS layers (SIS 8-5) that contained cuneiform tablets, sealings, and pottery typical of the first part of the Early Dynastic period (ca. 2900–2600 BCE). These earlier burials, then, had to be later than 2600 BCE. Upper SIS layers (SIS 2-1) sealed the earlier burials from the later ones. Artifacts in these upper layers had the names of an historically attested king and his queen, providing a terminus ante quem or date after which the earlier burials would have been dug. As a result, we know that the earlier burials belong to the first half of the later Early Dynastic period (ca. 2500 BCE).
[stextbox id=”grey”]Woolley used groups of superimposed burials to put the individual burials he uncovered in a relative sequence.[/stextbox]
Dating the cemetery’s later burials was easier because two of the graves contained inscribed cylinder seals that name officials of Enheduanna, the daughter of Sargon, who founded the Dynasty of Agade (2334–2154 BCE).
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The briefing will be held at the Sacramento Convention Center in Sacramento.
Audio of the event will be streamed live at: http://www.nasa.gov/newsaudio
At 11:15 a.m. PST on Tuesday, NASA scientists will be available to respond to questions from the public via social media using the hashtag #askNASA.
Following two consecutive years of drought conditions, 2014 is shaping up to be one of California's driest years on record. In January, California Governor Edmund G. Brown Jr. declared a Drought State of Emergency outlining specific responses to the critically dry conditions. NASA and the California Department of Water Resources (DWR) are collaborating to apply NASA's unique satellite and airborne remote sensing resources and research to the drought's challenges.
The briefing participants are:
-- Jeanine Jones, Interstate Water Resources Manager, DWR, Sacramento
-- Lawrence Friedl, director, Applied Sciences Program, NASA Headquarters, Washington
-- Forrest Melton, senior research scientist with the Cooperative for Research in Earth Science and Technology, NASA's Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, Calif.
-- Tom Painter, principal investigator, Airborne Snow Observatory, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), Pasadena, Calif.
-- Tom Farr, geologist, JPL
-- Duane Waliser, chief scientist, Earth Science and Technology Directorate, JPL
NASA monitors Earth's vital signs from land, air and space with a fleet of satellites and ambitious airborne and ground-based observation campaigns. The agency shares this unique knowledge with the global community and works with institutions in the United States and around the world that contribute to understanding and protecting our home planet.
A link to relevant graphics will be posted at the start of the briefing at: http://www.nasa.gov/earthrightnow
For more information about NASA's Earth science activities in 2014, also visit:
News Media ContactAlan Buis
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif.
NASA Headquarters, Washington
DWR Public Affairs Office, Sacramento, Calif.
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Michael Chabon's Laptop
Imagine that you could have a conversation with Michael Chabon's laptop. What do you think it would say? What questions would you ask?
The Mystery of Pittsburgh Soundtrack
Research the music of the late-1980s and create a CD which could be a background for the lives of Art and the other characters.
Write a Poem or Song
Write a poem or song about some aspect of the novel.
Re-Name the Characters
The author names his characters to embody their personalities and the time in which they lived. What alternate names can you suggest for the main characters if they were to live in the 21st century?
The Art of Being Art
Create a portrait of what you think Art looks like using whatever medium you like.
Write a Film Script
Write a movie script for an abridged version of the novel.
This section contains 539 words
(approx. 2 pages at 300 words per page)
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Trans Lunar Research (TLR) is a tax exempt 501(c)(3) non-profit corporation founded in 1996. TLR's primary goal is to set up the first manned Lunar Station on the surface of the Moon. The "cheap" hardware required to achieve this goal is under development in-house at Trans Lunar Research and at various locations around the world. Providing cash grants to selected organizations, TLR functions as a private space agency supporting space technology development. Trans Lunar Research believes that in order to make space attractive to the masses, it is imperative that humans not only colonize, but also industrialize space. For this reason we are promoting the development of deep space survival hardware such as more efficient rocket propulsion systems, lightweight radiation protection, Lunar and planetary oxygen extraction equipment, Moon and space-based energy production stations, and other technologies that will allow people to live self-sufficiently in space. These technologies will provide the preliminary infrastructure required to make space a commercially viable and profitable industrial zone. Once space becomes a profitable place to do business, it will attract the masses.
Colonization of the Moon will be the start of humankind's expansion into space. The Moon is an ideal staging point for the initial human habitation of space for these and many more reasons:
» The Moon is a three or four day trip from the Earth. Compare this with a trip to Mars which takes up to six months each way.
» The Moon provides all of the raw materials required for human to live such as water, oxygen, nitrogen and raw materials such as aluminum, iron, and titanium. There are preliminary indications of fissionable materials for nuclear energy production as well as an abundant supply of Helium III to fuel future nuclear fusion reactors.
» The Moon provides a unique alien environment for expanding the limits of human survival and adaptation through technology development and exploration.
» The Moon provides a clean, safe environment for carrying out astronomical, medical, and other scientific research.
» The Moon is an ideal location to develop "off-world" mining technology. Valuable raw materials such as titanium and Helium III are abundant on the Moon. In addition, the natural vacuum of the Moon provides an ideal setting for mineral extraction.
» The Moon provides a low-gravity manufacturing zone.
» The Moon's low-gravity also provides an ideal staging area for the further exploration of the solar system. This includes asteroid mining and the colonization of Mars. Launch hardware could be built on the surface of the Moon using indigenous Lunar materials. Such vehicles would be only a fraction of the size required for a comparable mission launched from Earth.
» The Moon provides a nearby off-world "island" for human preservation in the event of a catastrophic event on Earth, whether it be natural or unnatural.
The Moon is the ideal location for an off-world solar energy farm to supply cheap clean energy to the
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How Does Trans Lunar Research Fund This Effort? TLR relies completely on the public to pay for hardware and mission development. The hardware and mission development efforts include earth-moon transportation systems, mission scenarios, colony site analysis, colony structures, life-support systems, space suits, lunar material processors for oxygen, metal, and propellant production, radiation protection, lunar landscaping equipment, and solar and nuclear energy production. Grants and contracts are being given to various companies and research groups to carry out these projects. Our primary sources of funding are the proceeds from private sector donations, advertising, sales of merchandise through the TLR Moonshop, and through an ongoing raffle. The legal Trans Lunar Raffle give you the chance to win an Orbital Vacation.
Join the private sector deep space movement! Your donations, whether outright or through the purchase of Trans Lunar Raffle Tickets, will be invested in mankind's effort to colonize the Moon.
Humans will not truly become spacefarers until they learn to live beyond low earth orbit.
Copyright © 2009 Trans Lunar Research All Rights Reserved
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Lots of new parents fear exposing their babies to germs, but the truth is that some exposure to germs can make the body more resilient to certain viruses and allergies. In either event, a sick baby is always a miserable situation to deal with. Taking a few preventative measures can go a long way.
It's a losing battle, but what defenses can one use for the war on germs?
· Germ prevention is literally in your hands. Be vigilant (and teach your kids to be vigilant in turn) about hand washing when you get home from the outside world, before meals, after using the restroom and always before handling a baby. Be sure it's done right - scrub thoroughly for a slow count to ten to kill as much bacteria as you can.
· Hand sanitizer is a quick and easy germ buster for grownups and kids over the age of 18 months. Pop it into your purse and apply liberally after your child handles the jungle gym, coin-operated kiddie rides, or ball pits at the mall.
If someone in your house is sick, spray or wipe the phone, doorknobs, remotes, toys, and other items your children touch throughout the day.
· In the kitchen, wash all utensils and cutting boards with soap and hot water, and spray counter tops with disinfectant to prevent salmonella and E. coli.
For babies over a year old, here's a tasty treat made of bacteria fighting yogurt and berries full of antioxidants - Mother Nature's immunity boosters!
Berry Good Germ Buster
1 cup organic plain yogurt
½ cup raspberries
½ cup blueberries
½ cup apple juice
Combine yogurt, raspberries and blueberries in Cuisinart PowerPrep Plus 14-Cup Food Processor. Add 1/2 cup of juice and blend to smooth consistency. If mixture is too thick, add more juice, one tablespoon at a time, until you reach the desired consistency. Enjoy!
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Individual differences |
Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology |
The Elliott wave principle is a form of technical analysis that some traders use to analyze financial market cycles and forecast market trends by identifying extremes in investor psychology, highs and lows in prices, and other collective factors. Ralph Nelson Elliott (1871–1948), a professional accountant, discovered the underlying social principles and developed the analytical tools in the 1930s. He proposed that market prices unfold in specific patterns, which practitioners today call Elliott waves, or simply waves. Elliott published his theory of market behavior in the book The Wave Principle in 1938, summarized it in a series of articles in Financial World magazine in 1939, and covered it most comprehensively in his final major work, Nature’s Laws: The Secret of the Universe in 1946. Elliott stated that "because man is subject to rhythmical procedure, calculations having to do with his activities can be projected far into the future with a justification and certainty heretofore unattainable." The empirical validity of the Elliott Wave Principle remains the subject of debate.
The Elliott Wave Principle posits that collective investor psychology, or crowd psychology, moves between optimism and pessimism in natural sequences. These mood swings create patterns evidenced in the price movements of markets at every degree of trend or time scale.
In Elliott's model, market prices alternate between an impulsive, or motive phase, and a corrective phase on all time scales of trend, as the illustration shows. Impulses are always subdivided into a set of 5 lower-degree waves, alternating again between motive and corrective character, so that waves 1, 3, and 5 are impulses, and waves 2 and 4 are smaller retraces of waves 1 and 3. Corrective waves subdivide into 3 smaller-degree waves starting with a five-wave counter-trend impulse, a retrace, and another impulse. In a bear market the dominant trend is downward, so the pattern is reversed—five waves down and three up. Motive waves always move with the trend, while corrective waves move against it.
The patterns link to form five and three-wave structures which themselves underlie self-similar wave structures of increasing size or higher degree. Note the lower most of the three idealized cycles. In the first small five-wave sequence, waves 1, 3 and 5 are motive, while waves 2 and 4 are corrective. This signals that the movement of the wave one degree higher is upward. It also signals the start of the first small three-wave corrective sequence. After the initial five waves up and three waves down, the sequence begins again and the self-similar fractal geometry begins to unfold according to the five and three-wave structure which it underlies one degree higher. The completed motive pattern includes 89 waves, followed by a completed corrective pattern of 55 waves.
Each degree of a pattern in a financial market has a name. Practitioners use symbols for each wave to indicate both function and degree—numbers for motive waves, letters for corrective waves (shown in the highest of the three idealized series of wave structures or degrees). Degrees are relative; they are defined by form, not by absolute size or duration. Waves of the same degree may be of very different size and/or duration.
The classification of a wave at any particular degree can vary, though practitioners generally agree on the standard order of degrees (approximate durations given):
- Grand supercycle: multi-century
- Supercycle: multi-decade (about 40–70 years)
- Cycle: one year to several years (or even several decades under an Elliott Extension)
- Primary: a few months to a couple of years
- Intermediate: weeks to months
- Minor: weeks
- Minute: days
- Minuette: hours
- Subminuette: minutes
Elliott Wave personality and characteristicsEdit
Elliott wave analysts (or Elliotticians) hold that each individual wave has its own signature or characteristic, which typically reflects the psychology of the moment. Understanding those personalities is key to the application of the Wave Principle; they are defined below. (Definitions assume a bull market in equities; the characteristics apply in reverse in bear markets.)
|Five wave pattern (dominant trend)||Three wave pattern (corrective trend)|
|Wave 1: Wave one is rarely obvious at its inception. When the first wave of a new bull market begins, the fundamental news is almost universally negative. The previous trend is considered still strongly in force. Fundamental analysts continue to revise their earnings estimates lower; the economy probably does not look strong. Sentiment surveys are decidedly bearish, put options are in vogue, and implied volatility in the options market is high. Volume might increase a bit as prices rise, but not by enough to alert many technical analysts.||Wave A: Corrections are typically harder to identify than impulse moves. In wave A of a bear market, the fundamental news is usually still positive. Most analysts see the drop as a correction in a still-active bull market. Some technical indicators that accompany wave A include increased volume, rising implied volatility in the options markets and possibly a turn higher in open interest in related futures markets.|
|Wave 2: Wave two corrects wave one, but can never extend beyond the starting point of wave one. Typically, the news is still bad. As prices retest the prior low, bearish sentiment quickly builds, and "the crowd" haughtily reminds all that the bear market is still deeply ensconced. Still, some positive signs appear for those who are looking: volume should be lower during wave two than during wave one, prices usually do not retrace more than 61.8% (see Fibonacci section below) of the wave one gains, and prices should fall in a three wave pattern.||Wave B: Prices reverse higher, which many see as a resumption of the now long-gone bull market. Those familiar with classical technical analysis may see the peak as the right shoulder of a head and shoulders reversal pattern. The volume during wave B should be lower than in wave A. By this point, fundamentals are probably no longer improving, but they most likely have not yet turned negative.|
|Wave 3: Wave three is usually the largest and most powerful wave in a trend (although some research suggests that in commodity markets, wave five is the largest). The news is now positive and fundamental analysts start to raise earnings estimates. Prices rise quickly, corrections are short-lived and shallow. Anyone looking to "get in on a pullback" will likely miss the boat. As wave three starts, the news is probably still bearish, and most market players remain negative; but by wave three's midpoint, "the crowd" will often join the new bullish trend. Wave three often extends wave one by a ratio of 1.618:1.||Wave C: Prices move impulsively lower in five waves. Volume picks up, and by the third leg of wave C, almost everyone realizes that a bear market is firmly entrenched. Wave C is typically at least as large as wave A and often extends to 1.618 times wave A or beyond.|
|Wave 4: Wave four is typically clearly corrective. Prices may meander sideways for an extended period, and wave four typically retraces less than 38.2% of wave three (see Fibonacci relationships below). Volume is well below than that of wave three. This is a good place to buy a pull back if you understand the potential ahead for wave 5. Still, fourth waves are often frustrating because of their lack of progress in the larger trend.|
|Wave 5: Wave five is the final leg in the direction of the dominant trend. The news is almost universally positive and everyone is bullish. Unfortunately, this is when many average investors finally buy in, right before the top. Volume is often lower in wave five than in wave three, and many momentum indicators start to show divergences (prices reach a new high but the indicators do not reach a new peak). At the end of a major bull market, bears may very well be ridiculed (recall how forecasts for a top in the stock market during 2000 were received).|
Pattern recognition and fractalsEdit
Elliott's market model relies heavily on looking at price charts. Practitioners study developing trends to distinguish the waves and wave structures, and discern what prices may do next; thus the application of the wave principle is a form of pattern recognition.
The structures Elliott described also meet the common definition of a fractal (self-similar patterns appearing at every degree of trend). Elliott wave practitioners say that just as naturally-occurring fractals often expand and grow more complex over time, the model shows that collective human psychology develops in natural patterns, via buying and selling decisions reflected in market prices: "It's as though we are somehow programmed by mathematics. Seashell, galaxy, snowflake or human: we're all bound by the same order."
Elliott wave rules and guidelinesEdit
A correct Elliott wave "count" must observe three rules:
- Wave 2 never retraces more than 100% of wave 1.
- Wave 3 cannot be the shortest of the three impulse waves, namely waves 1, 3 and 5.
- Wave 4 does not overlap with the price territory of wave 1, except in the rare case of a diagonal triangle.
A common guideline observes that in a five-wave pattern, waves 2 and 4 will often take alternate forms; a sharp move in wave 2, for example, will suggest a mild move in wave 4. Corrective wave patterns unfold in forms known as zigzags, flats, or triangles. In turn these corrective patterns can come together to form more complex corrections.Similarly, a triangular corrective pattern is formed usually in wave 4 (very rarely in wave 2) and is the indication of end of correction.
R. N. Elliott's analysis of the mathematical properties of waves and patterns eventually led him to conclude that "The Fibonacci Summation Series is the basis of The Wave Principle". Numbers from the Fibonacci sequence surface repeatedly in Elliott wave structures, including motive waves (1, 3, 5), a single full cycle (8 waves), and the completed motive (89 waves) and corrective (55 waves) patterns. Elliott developed his market model before he realized that it reflects the Fibonacci sequence. "When I discovered The Wave Principle action of market trends, I had never heard of either the Fibonacci Series or the Pythagorean Diagram".
The Fibonacci sequence is also closely connected to the Golden ratio (1.618). Practitioners commonly use this ratio and related ratios to establish support and resistance levels for market waves, namely the price points which help define the parameters of a trend. See Fibonacci retracement.
Finance professor Roy Batchelor and researcher Richard Ramyar, a former Director of the United Kingdom Society of Technical Analysts and formerly Global Head of Research at Lipper and Thomson Reuters Wealth Management, studied whether Fibonacci ratios appear non-randomly in the stock market, as Elliott's model predicts. The researchers said the "idea that prices retrace to a Fibonacci ratio or round fraction of the previous trend clearly lacks any scientific rationale". They also said "there is no significant difference between the frequencies with which price and time ratios occur in cycles in the Dow Jones Industrial Average, and frequencies which we would expect to occur at random in such a time series".
Robert Prechter replied to the Batchelor–Ramyar study, saying that it "does not challenge the validity of any aspect of the Wave Principle...it supports wave theorists' observations," and that because the authors had examined ratios between prices achieved in filtered trends rather than Elliott waves, "their method does not address actual claims by wave theorists". The Socionomics Institute also reviewed data in the Batchelor–Ramyar study, and said these data show "Fibonacci ratios do occur more often in the stock market than would be expected in a random environment".
Extracted from the same relationship between Elliott Waves and Fibbonacci ratio, a 78.6% retracement level is identified as a best place for buying or selling (in continuation to the larger trend) as it increases the risk to reward ratio up to 1:3.
It has been suggested that Fibonacci relationships are not the only irrational number based relationships evident in waves.
- Example of the Elliott Wave Principle and the Fibonacci relationship
The GBP/JPY currency chart gives an example of a fourth wave retracement apparently halting between the 38.2% and 50.0% Fibonacci retracements of a completed third wave. The chart also highlights how the Elliott Wave Principle works well with other technical analysis tendencies as prior support (the bottom of wave-1) acts as resistance to wave-4. The wave count depicted in the chart would be invalidated if GBP/JPY moves above or even touches the wave-1 low.
Following Elliott's death in 1948, other market technicians and financial professionals continued to use the wave principle and provide forecasts to investors. Charles Collins, who had published Elliott's "Wave Principle" and helped introduce Elliott's theory to Wall Street, ranked Elliott's contributions to technical analysis on a level with Charles Dow. Hamilton Bolton, founder of The Bank Credit Analyst, provided wave analysis to a wide readership in the 1950s and 1960s. Bolton introduced the Elliott's wave principle to A.J. Frost, who provided weekly financial commentary on the Financial News Network in the 1980s. Frost co-authored Elliott Wave Principle with Robert Prechter in 1978.
Rediscovery and current useEdit
Robert Prechter came across Elliott's works while working as a market technician at Merrill Lynch. His prominence as a forecaster during the bull market of the 1980s brought the greatest exposure to date to Elliott's work, and today Prechter remains the most widely known Elliott analyst.
Among market technicians, wave analysis is widely accepted as a component of their trade. Elliott's Wave principle is among the methods included on the exam that analysts must pass to earn the Chartered Market Technician (CMT) designation, the professional accreditation developed by the Market Technicians Association (MTA).
Robin Wilkin, Ex-Global Head of FX and Commodity Technical Strategy at JPMorgan Chase, says "the Elliott Wave principle ... provides a probability framework as to when to enter a particular market and where to get out, whether for a profit or a loss."
Jordan Kotick, Global Head of Technical Strategy at Barclays Capital and past President of the Market Technicians Association, has said that R. N. Elliott's "discovery was well ahead of its time. In fact, over the last decade or two, many prominent academics have embraced Elliott’s idea and have been aggressively advocating the existence of financial market fractals."
It is intriguing that the log-periodic structures documented here bear some similarity with the "Elliott waves" of technical analysis ... A lot of effort has been developed in finance both by academic and trading institutions and more recently by physicists (using some of their statistical tools developed to deal with complex times series) to analyze past data to get information on the future. The 'Elliott wave' technique is probably the most famous in this field. We speculate that the "Elliott waves", so strongly rooted in the financial analysts’ folklore, could be a signature of an underlying critical structure of the stock market.
Paul Tudor Jones, the billionaire commodity trader, calls Prechter and Frost's standard text on Elliott "a classic," and one of "the four Bibles of the business":
[Magee and Edwards'] Technical Analysis of Stock Trends and The Elliott Wave Theorist both give very specific and systematic ways to approach developing great reward/risk ratios for entering into a business contract with the marketplace, which is what every trade should be if properly and thoughtfully executed.
The premise that markets unfold in recognizable patterns contradicts the efficient market hypothesis, which states that prices cannot be predicted from market data such as moving averages and volume. By this reasoning, if successful market forecasts were possible, investors would buy (or sell) when the method predicted a price increase (or decrease), to the point that prices would rise (or fall) immediately, thus destroying the profitability and predictive power of the method. In efficient markets, knowledge of the Elliott Wave Principle among traders would lead to the disappearance of the very patterns they tried to anticipate, rendering the method, and all forms of technical analysis, useless.
Benoit Mandelbrot has questioned whether Elliott waves can predict financial markets:
But Wave prediction is a very uncertain business. It is an art to which the subjective judgement of the chartists matters more than the objective, replicable verdict of the numbers. The record of this, as of most technical analysis, is at best mixed.
Robert Prechter had previously stated that ideas in an article by Mandelbrot "originated with Ralph Nelson Elliott, who put them forth more comprehensively and more accurately with respect to real-world markets in his 1938 book The Wave Principle."
Critics also warn the wave principle is too vague to be useful, since it cannot consistently identify when a wave begins or ends, and that Elliott wave forecasts are prone to subjective revision. Some who advocate technical analysis of markets have questioned the value of Elliott wave analysis. Technical analyst David Aronson wrote:
The Elliott Wave Principle, as popularly practiced, is not a legitimate theory, but a story, and a compelling one that is eloquently told by Robert Prechter. The account is especially persuasive because EWP has the seemingly remarkable ability to fit any segment of market history down to its most minute fluctuations. I contend this is made possible by the method's loosely defined rules and the ability to postulate a large number of nested waves of varying magnitude. This gives the Elliott analyst the same freedom and flexibility that allowed pre-Copernican astronomers to explain all observed planet movements even though their underlying theory of an Earth-centered universe was wrong.
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Elliott, Ralph Nelson (1994). R.N. Elliott's Masterworks, 70, 217, 194, 196, Gainesville, GA: New Classics Library.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Poser, Steven W. (2003). Applying Elliott Wave Theory Profitably, 2–17, New York: John Wiley and Sons.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 (2005) Elliott Wave Principle, 10th, 31, 78–85, Gainesville, GA: New Classics Library.
- ↑ John Casti (31 August 2002). "I know what you'll do next summer". New Scientist, p. 29.
- ↑ Alex Douglas, "Fibonacci: The man & the markets," Standard & Poor's Economic Research Paper, February 20, 2001, pp. 8–10. PDF document here
- ↑ Roy Batchelor and Richard Ramyar, "Magic numbers in the Dow," 25th International Symposium on Forecasting, 2005, p. 13, 31. PDF document here
- ↑ Robert Prechter (2006), "Elliott Waves, Fibonacci, and Statistics," p. 2. PDF document here
- ↑ Deepak Goel (2006), "Another Look at Fibonacci Statistics". PDF document here
- ↑ (2011), "Evidence of the silver ratio in financial market time series data".
- ↑ Landon Jr., Thomas (13 October 2007), "The Man Who Won as Others Lost", The New York Times, http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/13/business/13speculate.html?scp=1&sq=robert%20prechter&st=cse, retrieved on 26 May 2010
- ↑ Robin Wilkin, Riding the Waves: Applying Elliott Wave Theory to the Financial and Commodity Markets The Alchemist June 2006
- ↑ Jordan Kotick, An Introduction to the Elliott Wave Principle The Alchemist November 2005
- ↑ Sornette, D., Johansen, A., and Bouchaud, J.P. (1996). "Stock market crashes, precursors and replicas." Journal de Physique I France 6, No.1, pp. 167–175.
- ↑ Mark B. Fisher, The Logical Trader, p. x (forward)
- ↑ Mandelbrot, Benoit and Richard L. Hudson (2004). The (mis)Behavior of Markets, New York: Basic Books, p. 245
- ↑ Mandelbrot, Benoit (February 1999). Scientific American, p. 70.
- ↑ Details here.
- ↑ Aronson, David R. (2006). Evidence-Based Technical Analysis, Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons, p. 61. ISBN 978-0-470-00874-4.
- Elliott Wave Principle: Key to Market Behavior by A.J. Frost & Robert R. Prechter, Jr. Published by New Classics Library. ISBN 978-0-932750-75-4
- Mastering Elliott Wave: Presenting the Neely Method: The First Scientific, Objective Approach to Market Forecasting with Elliott Wave Theory by Glenn Neely with Eric Hall. Published by Windsor Books. ISBN 0-930233-44-1
- Applying Elliott Wave Theory Profitably by Steven W. Poser. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN 0-471-42007-7
- R.N. Elliott's Masterworks by R.N. Elliott, edited by Robert R. Prechter, Jr. Published by New Classics Library. ISBN 978-0-932750-76-1
- Elliott Wave Principle Applied to the Foreign Exchange Markets by Robert Balan. Published by BBS Publications, Ltd.
- Elliott Wave Explained by Robert C. Beckman. Published by Orient Paperbacks. ISBN 978-81-7094-532-1
- Harmonic Elliott Wave: The Case for Modification of R.N. Elliott's Impulsive Wave Structure by Ian Copsey, Published by John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-82870-0
- investorwords.com glossary - Elliott Wave Theory
- Elliott Wave International - What Is the Wave Principle?
|This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).|
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Literature can be tough to decipher, and poetry especially can confuse and intimidate students. One way to overcome that fear is to relate poetry to music. Song writers understand poetry, so the lyrics fit the beat of the music. Here's a fun way to learn about rhyme in songs and poetry, and to get your kids writing some poetry of their own!
What You Do:
Some of the words, such as the ones marked “e,”don't quite rhyme (“well” would rhyme better with “fell” or “sell”), but they rhyme well enough to count. These rhymes are called “slant rhymes” - they're not a perfect fit, but they get the job done.
There was an Old Man with a beard (a)
Who said, 'It is just as I feared! (a)
Two Owls and a Hen (b)
Four Larks and a Wren (b)
Have all built their nests in my beard!' (a);
A sonnet is a poetic form that Shakespeare used often. From the Italian for “little song,” it has a strict 14-line rhyme scheme that looks like this: a-b-a-b/c-d-c-d/e-f-e-f/g-g.
- Have your child play one of his or her favorite songs, and write down the lyrics, trying to make line breaks where it sounds like the singer is pausing for breath. If necessary, look up the lyrics online or in the CD sleeve.
- Read the written lyrics, and notate the rhyme structure. It's easy! To determine the rhyme scheme of a poem or song lyrics, look at the last word of each line and letter them beginning with “a.” When a line rhymes with a previous line, it will have the same letter. For example, this is a section from Hannah Montana's “Nobody's Perfect”:
- jam (a)
- I'm gonna make a plan (a)
- It might be crazy (b)
- I do it anyway (b)
- No way to know for sure (c)
- I figure how to cure (c)
- I'm patchin' up the holes (d)
- But then it overflows (d)
- If I'm not doin' too well (e)
- Why be so hard on myself (e)
- Once your child understands the concept, it's time to introduce a few classic poetic structures. Many kinds of poems follows strict guidelines, like limericks and sonnets. These rely not only on rhyme, but also on the “meter” (rhythmic structure). But to keep things simple, here's a rundown on the rhyme structure of the limerick and sonnet. A limerick is a five line poem with an a-a/b-b/a rhyme structure. For instance, take this one from Edward Lear:
- It's time to get writing! Challenge your child to come up with their own poems, and encourage them to follow a rhyme structure. They can be as silly or as serious as they want. They can even sing their poems into songs. After all, music is poetry!
Kelly Saunier has been teaching middle school English for five years. Currently she serves as a sponsor for her school's Drama Club, Builders Club, and Junior Forensics Tournament.
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To receive more information on upcoming events and stay up-to-date on Center activities, please click here to join our mailing list.
New Evidence and Arguments about the Original Meaning of the U.S. Constitution
Suppose we knew what dictionaries the founding generation was using when they wrote or interpreted the U.S. Constitution. Or, suppose we had pre-ratification translations of the Constitution that could help show us original public meaning. Indeed, this historical evidence exists, but has only recently been put to good scholarly use. The panel will discuss their work on this topic and explore whether historical evidence is useful in interpreting original meaning. Is historical evidence sufficient to interpret the Constitution, or do we need a theory of originalism to interpret the evidence?
The panel will consist of Christina Mulligan (Assistant Professor, Brooklyn Law School) and Michael Douma (Director, Georgetown Institute for the Study of Markets and Ethics), co-authors of an article on founding-era translations of the U.S. Constitution; Peter Jaworski (Assistant Teaching Professor, McDonough School of Business, Georgetown University), who has written on the theory of originalism, and Gregory Maggs (Professor of Law, George Washington University), author of many works on using historical sources to interpret original meaning.
RSVP here to join us on Friday, January 29 in Hotung 2000 from 2:00-3:00. Food will be provided during the panel discussion, and a reception will immediately follow.
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Writing after the war, Admiral Spruance expressed the opinion, "The Tinian operation was probably the most brilliantly conceived and executed amphibious operation in World War II."1 To General Holland Smith's mind, "Tinian was the perfect amphibious operation in the Pacific war."2 Historians have--by and large--endorsed these sentiments.3
Much of this praise is well deserved, although a close examination of the facts reveals that these, like most superlatives, are somewhat misleading. The invasion of Tinian, like other military operations, was not entirely without flaw. Various deficiences can be charged to both plan and execution. Yet, as an exercise in amphibious skill it must be given a superior rating, and as a demonstration of ingenuity it stands as second to no other landing operation in the Pacific war.
Situated only about 3.5 miles off the southern coast of Saipan, Tinian is the smaller of the two islands. (Map IV) From Ushi Point in the north to Lalo Point in the south, it measures about 12.5 miles, and in width it never extends much more than 5 miles.4 In one respect its terrain is not as formidable for would-be attackers than that of Saipan--it is far less mountainous. In the northern part of the island Mount Lasso rises to 564 feet, or only a little more than a third of the height of Tapotchau. Another hill mass of almost the same height dominates the southern tip of the island and terminates in heavily fissured cliffs that drop steeply into the sea. Most of the rest of the island is an undulating plain, which in the summer of 1944 was planted in neat checkerboard fields of sugar cane.
It was indeed the relative flatness of Tinian's terrain that made it such a desirable objective--that and the fact that its proximity to Saipan made its retention by the Japanese militarily inadmissible. Tinian's sweeping plains and gentle slopes offered better sites for bomber fields than its more mountainous sister island, and of course one of the main objectives of the Marianas operation was to obtain sites for air bases for very long range bombers. To a limited extent, the Japanese had already realized this possibility and near Ushi Point had constructed an airfield that boasted a runway almost a thousand feet longer than Aslito's. In addition, smaller fields were located just south of the Ushi Point field and at Gurguan Point, and another was under
COASTAL AREA, NORTHWEST TINIAN, showing WHITE Beach areas, checkerboard terrain inland, and Ushi Point airfield in background.
construction just northeast of Tinian Town.5
But if the island was well suited by nature for the construction of airfields, its natural features were also well disposed to obstruct a landing from the sea. Tinian is really a plateau jutting up from the surrounding ocean, and most of its coast line consists of cliffs rising sharply out of the water. Only in four places is this solid cliff line interrupted. Inland of Sunharon Bay, in the area of Tinian Town on the southwest coast, the land runs gradually to the sea, offering a fairly wide expanse of beach protected by the usual reef line. South of Asiga Point on the east coast there is an indenture in the cliff wall that forms a small approachable beach about 125 yards in length. The northwest coast line offers other possible routes of ingress through the cliffs over two tiny beaches about 60 and 50 yards in length, respectively.6
The peculiar features of the coast line placed American planners in a dilemma. The beaches off Tinian Town were obviously the best suited for a landing operation, but by the same token they were the best fortified and defended. The other beaches, which were little more than dents in the cliff line, were obviously not desirable sites for an amphibious assault of corps dimensions. The risks of troops and supplies being congested to the point of immobility as they tried to pour through these narrow bottlenecks were considerable and alarming. For these reasons, which were just as apparent to the Japanese as to the Americans, defenses on the smaller
beaches were less formidable than those elsewhere.
In the end, the American planners seized the second rather than the first horn of their dilemma, chose the narrow beaches on the northwest coast, and accepted the risks that troops, equipment, and supplies might pile up in hopeless confusion at the water's edge. Having made the choice, the planners were compelled to devise special means of overcoming the accepted risks. This involved working out novel techniques that were radical modifications of standard amphibious doctrine as it had been evolved during the war in the Pacific. Paradoxically then the invasion of Tinian was a "perfect amphibious operation" largely because it was atypical rather than typical--because of its numerous departures from, rather than its strict adherence to, accepted amphibious doctrine.
Plan for the Invasion
From the very outset of the planning for the seizure of the southern Marianas, Tinian had been considered one of the three main targets of the operation. Holland Smith's Northern Troops and Landing Force was ordered to "land, seize, occupy and defend SAIPAN Island, and then . . . be prepared for further operations to seize, occupy and defend TINIAN Island."7 Consequently, planning for the Tinian phase commenced at the same time as that for the capture of Saipan and was continuous until the very day of the landing on Saipan. By the time Admiral Turner's task force set sail from Pearl Harbor, maps, photographs, and charts of Tinian had been distributed and tentative arrangements had been made for loading and for resupply shipping. While at sea, Holland Smith's staff had more leisure than earlier to concern itself with this phase of the operation, and by the time the ships reached Eniwetok a draft plan was ready for the commanding general. In devising this plan, the staff gave due consideration to the relative merits of the various landing beaches and recommended that a landing be made on northern Tinian in order to make full use of artillery emplaced on southern Saipan.8
While the fighting for Saipan was in process, the Americans were afforded ideal opportunities for scrutinizing the island to the south from every angle. Beginning on 20 June, when artillery first bombarded Tinian from southern Saipan,9 observation planes flew daily over northern Tinian. Frequent photo reconnaissance missions were flown, and many valuable documents throwing light on Tinian's defenses were captured on Saipan.10 Opportunities for gathering intelligence were almost without limit, and it is doubtful if any single enemy island was better reconnoitered during the Pacific war.
With Saipan secured and the preparations for the next landing in mid-passage, a change in command within the Northern Troops and Landing Force was ordered. On 12 July General Holland Smith was relieved and ordered to take command of Fleet Marine Force, Pacific, a newly created headquarters for all Marine Corps combat units in the theater. The new commanding general of Northern Troops and Landing Force was General Schmidt, who
was in turn relieved of his command of the 4th Marine Division by General Cates.11 Concurrently, a shift in the naval command structure took place. Admiral Hill, who had served as Admiral Turner's second in command, took over a reconstituted Northern Attack Force (Task Force 52) and thus became responsible, under the Commander, Joint Expeditionary Force (Admiral Turner as Commander, Task Force 51), for the capture of Tinian.12
As planning for Tinian went into high gear, it was becoming increasingly apparent to all hands that the original concept of landing the assault troops somewhere in the northern part of the island was sound. Members of the staff of the 4th Marine Division, notably Lt. Col. Evans F. Carlson, the division's planning officer, had already decided that an amphibious landing in this area was desirable. Working independently of the Marines, Admiral Hill had arrived at the same conclusion.13 All agreed that the Tinian Town area was too well defended to justify an amphibious assault there and that the advantages of heavy artillery support for landings on the northern beaches were too considerable to ignore.
All, that is, but one. Admiral Turner was still not convinced. In his mind, the Tinian Town beaches offered important advantages that should not be lightly dismissed. From the point of view of gradient and inland approaches, the Tinian Town beaches were even more favorable to the attacker than those used on Saipan and certainly far better than Tinian's other beaches. Also, Sunharon Bay offered an excellent protected harbor for small craft and good facilities for unloading supplies, once the beachhead was secured. On the other hand, the beaches in the northern half of the island, argued the admiral, were too narrow to permit a rapid landing of a force of two divisions with full supplies and equipment, and if the weather took a turn for the worse the shore-to-shore movement of supplies in small craft from Saipan might be seriously endangered. In addition, an advance down the full length of the island would take too much time, and the troops would soon outrun their artillery support based on Saipan--an especially dangerous prospect should weather conditions forbid shifting the heavy artillery pieces from Saipan to Tinian.14
In the light of these objections and out of ordinary considerations of military caution, General Schmidt ordered a physical reconnaissance of the northern beaches. The task fell to the Amphibious Reconnaissance Battalion, V Amphibious Corps, commanded by Capt. James L. Jones, USMCR, and naval Underwater Demolition Teams 5 and 7, commanded by Lt. Comdr. Draper L. Kauffman, USN, and Lt. Richard F. Burke, USN, respectively. Their job was to reconnoiter YELLOW Beach 1 on the eastern coast below Asiga Point and WHITE Beaches 1 and 2 on the northwestern coast. Under cover of darkness the three groups were to be carried part way to their destinations by the high-speed transports Gilmer and Stringham. Then, launched in rubber landing boats (LCR's), they would be paddled to distances about 500 yards offshore and swim in the rest of the way. The men were charged with the responsibility of investigating and securing
MARIANAS LEADERS CONFER AT TINIAN. Left to right: Rear Adm. Harry Hill, Maj. Gen. Harry A. Schmidt, Admiral Spruance, General Holland Smith, Admiral Turner, Maj. Gen. Thomas E. Watson, and Maj. Gen. Clifton B. Cates.
accurate information concerning the height of surf, the height and nature of the reef shelf, depth of water, location and nature of mines and underwater obstacles, the slope of the bottom off the beaches, the height and nature of cliffs flanking and behind the beaches, exits for vehicles, and the nature of vegetation behind the beaches. The naval personnel would conduct the hydrographic reconnaissance while members of the Marine amphibious reconnaissance group were to reconnoiter the beaches themselves and the terrain inland.15
After dark on 10 July, but well before moonrise, Gilmer and Stringham got under way from Magicienne Bay on the east coast of Saipan to take their respective stations off of YELLOW Beach 1 and WHITE Beaches 1 and 2. As the rubber boats approached YELLOW Beach 1, the men heard sharp reports and thought they were being fired on, but went about their business anyway. Two of the men swam along the cliffs south of the beach and discovered them to be 20 to 25 feet high and unscalable by infantry without ladders or nets. One Marine officer, 2d Lt. Donald Neff, left two of his men at the highwater mark and worked his way along inland for some thirty yards to investigate the possibilities for vehicle exits. Japanese sentries were apparently patrolling the entire area, but the suspected rifle shots proved to be exploding caps being used by construction workers
nearby. In any case, all hands got back to their ships without being detected.16
Meanwhile, on the other side of the island, the reconnaissance of WHITE Beaches 1 and 2 hit a snag. As the rubber boats cast off they were set rapidly to the north by a strong current that they had not been compensated for. Hence the swimmers assigned to WHITE Beach 2, the southernmost of the two, ended up on WHITE 1, while the second group destined for the latter beach were set ashore about 800 yards to the north. This left WHITE 2 unreconnoitered, and next night another group of swimmers had to return to finish the job.17
The information gathered during the two nights fully justified the valiant labor expended. YELLOW Beach 1 was clearly unsuitable for an amphibious landing. In addition to its natural disadvantages, the beach was strung with strong double-apron wire, and large, floating, contact mines were found anchored about a foot underwater off the reef.18 On the other side of the island no man-made obstacles were reported on WHITE Beaches 1 and 2. Although WHITE Beach 1 to the north was only sixty yards in length, the bluffs that flanked it for about 150 yards on either side were only from six to ten feet in height and offered enough small breaks to permit men to proceed inland in single file without the need of cargo nets or scaling ladders. From the reef to the shore line the water depth was never more than four feet and the gradient was slight. Of the hundred and fifty yards of WHITE Beach 2, only the central seventy yards were approachable by amphibian vehicles, the flanks of the beach being guarded by coral barriers jutting out from the reef. Nevertheless, the barriers offered no obstacle to infantrymen, who could scramble over them and wade the rest of the way in. At two hours before high tide the water inside the reef was nowhere more than four feet in depth.19 In short, although the WHITE Beaches were far from ideal for landing purposes, they were better than YELLOW Beach 1, and except for their narrowness offered no known natural or man-made obstacles.
With this information in hand, Admiral Turner's objections to a landing on the northwest coast, however strong they may once have been, were overcome. At a meeting held aboard his flagship on 12 July, General Schmidt made a forceful presentation of the case for the WHITE Beaches. An amphibious assault against the strong enemy defenses in the Tinian Town area would be too costly; artillery could be more profitably employed against the northern beaches; Ushi Point airfield would be more quickly seized and made ready; tactical surprise could be obtained; the operation could more easily be conducted as a shore-to-shore movement from Saipan; and, finally, most of the supplies could be preloaded on Saipan and moved on amphibian tractors and trucks directly to inland dumps on Tinian. Admiral Hill concurred, and Admirals Turner and Spruance gave their consent to a landing on WHITE Beaches 1 and 2.20
The next day, 13 July, General Schmidt issued the operation plan that was to govern the invasion of Tinian.21 General Cates' 4th Marine Division was assigned the task of conducting the amphibious assault
over WHITE Beaches 1 and 2 on JIG Day, which was later established as 24 July. On landing, the division was to make main effort toward Mount Lasso and, before reorganizing, seize the Force Beachhead Line, which included Faibus San Hilo Point, Mount Lasso, and Asiga Point. Once this area was captured, it was presumed that the beachhead would be safe from ground-observed enemy artillery fire. To accomplish the division's mission General Cates ordered the 24th Marines to land in column of battalions on WHITE Beach 1 on the left, the 25th Marines with two battalions abreast on WHITE Beach 2. The 23d Marines would remain in division reserve.22
The assault troops would be carried ashore in the customary fashion in amphibian tractors discharged fully loaded from LST's. Of the 415 tractors assigned to carry troops, 225 were supplied by Army units--the 715th, 773d, and 534th Amphibian Tractor Battalions. The remainder were Marine LVT's from the 2d, 5th and 10th Amphibian Tractor Battalions. Because of the narrowness of the landing beaches, only one company of amphibian tanks could be employed in the assault, Company D, 2d Armored Amphibian Tractor Battalion (Marine). The battalion was ordered to precede the first wave of troops, fire on the beaches after naval gunfire was lifted, and move to the flanks before reaching land. The 708th Armored Amphibian Tank Battalion (Army) was ordered to stand by off the beaches and be prepared to land and support the infantry ashore.23
As before, command of the entire operation was vested in Admiral Turner as Commander, Joint Expeditionary Force (Task Force 51), under Admiral Spruance; General Holland Smith, who still retained his position of Commander, Expeditionary Troops, continued in over-all command of troops ashore. In fact, however, both of these officers had sailed aboard Rocky Mount on 20 July to be on hand for the Guam landings, which took place the next day, and did not return to the Saipan-Tinian area until the 25th.24 During the landing then, Admiral Hill, as Commander, Northern Attack Force (Task Force 52), commanded all naval craft and supporting forces, while General Schmidt commanded the landing forces.25 Even after Admiral Turner returned, Admiral Hill retained the responsibility "for offensive and defensive surface and air action" in the area and for all practical purposes Schmidt remained in tactical control of the troops.26
Because most of the heavy artillery pieces could more profitably be employed from emplacements on Saipan, the 4th Marine Division would carry only 75-mm. pack howitzers in the initial assault. In addition to its own two battalions (1st and 2d Battalions, 14th Marines), it was loaned the two light battalions of the 2d Marine Division (1st and 2d Battalions, 10th Marines). These battalions would be carried ashore in Marine DUKW's. Additional fire power was afforded the division by attaching the 2d Division's tank battalion. Army troops (1341st Engineer
LVT WITH RAMP
Battalion) would make up part of the assault division's shore party, the remainder being provided by the 2d Battalion, 20th Marines.27
To the rest of General Watson's 2d Marine Division was assigned the role of landing in the rear of the assault division once the latter had cleared an initial beachhead and moved inland. Before this, the division was to conduct a demonstration landing off Tinian Town for the purpose of diverting Japanese attention from the main assault to the north.28
The 27th Infantry Division, less the 105th Infantry and less its organic artillery, was to remain in corps reserve and "be prepared to embark in landing craft on 4 hours notice and land on order . . . on Tinian."
One of the main justifications for the final decision to land over the unlikely beaches on the northwestern shore of the island was the feasibility of full exploitation of artillery firing from Saipan. Consequently, all of the field pieces in the area except for the four battalions of 75-mm. pack howitzers were turned over to XXIV Corps Artillery during the preliminary and landing phase. General Harper arranged his thirteen battalions, totaling 156 guns and howitzers, into three groupments, all emplaced on southern Saipan. Groupment A, commanded by Col. Raphael Griffin, USMC, consisted of five 105-mm. battalions, two each from the Marine divisions and one from V Amphibious Corps. It was to reinforce the fires of the 75-mm. pack howitzers and be ready to move to Tinian
on order. Groupment B, under the 27th Division's artillery commander, General Kernan, was made up of all of that division's organic artillery except the 106th Field Artillery Battalion. It was to reinforce the fires of Groupment A and also to be ready to displace to Tinian. Groupment C, commanded by General Harper himself, contained all the howitzers and guns of XXIV Corps Artillery plus the 106th Field Artillery Battalion. It was to support the attack with counterbattery, neutralization, and harassing fire before the day of the landing, deliver a half-hour preparation on the landing beaches immediately before the scheduled touchdown, and execute long-range counterbattery, harassing, and interdiction fire.29
In addition to the artillery, the troops would of course have the support of carrier-borne aircraft, aircraft based on Aslito field, and naval gunfire. Although all three supporting arms were to be employed against targets everywhere on Tinian, primary responsibility for the northern half was allocated to artillery while naval gunfire and air took over the southern half. The task of co-ordinating the three was vested in a XXIV Corps Artillery representative at General Schmidt's headquarters.30
The most unique feature of the plan for Tinian was its logistical provisions. Because only slightly more than 200 yards of beach were available, it was essential that precautions be taken to avoid congestion. Hence, a supply plan was developed that allowed all supplies to cross the beach on wheels or tracks and move directly to division dumps without rehandling. This entailed devising a double shuttle system in which loaded trucks and Athey trailers traveled back and forth between the base supply dumps on Saipan and division supply dumps on Tinian, and all amphibian vehicles carrying supplies between ship and shore moved directly to division dumps. The objective was to avoid any manhandling of supplies on the beaches themselves. The solution represented a marked departure from standard amphibious practice and was made possible, of course, by the proximity of Tinian to the supply center on Saipan.31
The plan called for preloading thirty-two LST's and two LSD's at Saipan with top-deck loads of all necessary supplies except fuel. Ten LST's were allotted to each Marine division, eight to general reserve, and four primarily to 75-mm. artillery. All amphibian tractors and trucks available, both Army and Marine Corps, were initially assigned to the 4th Marine Division, but after the assault was over were to be distributed between the two divisions. The supplies were loaded on the LST's in slings, and the ships carried crawler cranes on their top decks so that the slings could drop supplies into DUKW's and LVT's coming alongside. To carry out the shuttle system, the plan called for preloading eighty-eight cargo trucks and twenty-five Athey trailers on Saipan to be taken to Tinian aboard LCT's and LCM's. A special provision for fuel supply was made. Seven ponton barges loaded with drums of captured Japanese gasoline and matching lubricants were to be towed to positions off the landing beaches to act as floating supply and fueling points for LVT's and DUKW's. Other fuels for initially refueling the trucks were
placed on barges that were to be spotted off the beaches.32
One other innovation introduced in the Tinian campaign was a special portable LVT bow ramp. Ten amphibian tractors were equipped with this device so as to provide a means for extending the narrow beach area. The ramps were so constructed that an LVT could drive up to a cliff flanking the beaches, place the ramp in position along the ledge, then back down leaving the ramp to act as a sort of causeway by which other vehicles could get to shore.33
Finally, precautions were taken to supply the troops in case of unexpected bad weather after the landing. Plans were made to drop about 30 tons of supplies by parachute and to deliver 100 tons by air daily to Ushi Point airfield as soon as it had been captured.34
As already observed, the opportunities for gaining detailed intelligence of Tinian's defenses were superior to those enjoyed by American forces in most Pacific operations. Proof of this superiority lies in the accuracy with which General Schmidt's staff was able to estimate Japanese strength and dispositions. As of 13 July they predicted, on the basis of captured documents, photo reconnaissance, and other intelligence data, that the strength of the Tinian garrison came to 8,350, plus possible home guard units. The main part of this force was believed to consist of the 50th Infantry Regiment (reinforced)--about 4,000 men--and the 56th Keibitai (Naval Guard Force)--about 1,100 men--plus sundry air defense, base force, and construction personnel. The Army troops were believed to be disposed in three sectors, northern, western, and southern, which included respectively the Ushi Point-Asiga Bay region, the west coast north of Gurguan Point including WHITE Beaches 1 and 2, and the southern part of the island including Tinian Town. The northern and southern sectors were thought to be defended by at least one infantry battalion each, but the western sector where WHITE Beaches 1 and 2 were located had, it was estimated, only one company with one antitank squad. It was predicted that in each of these sectors the Japanese would first try to repulse the landing at the water's edge and would shift two thirds of each defense force from the areas not under attack to the beaches where the actual landings were taking place. A reserve force of one battalion was believed to be located near Mount Lasso, and it too was expected to move to the specific area under amphibious attack. One artillery battalion was thought to be located in the Tinian Harbor area, one battery near Asiga Bay. These estimates, except those pertaining to artillery strength, were remarkably accurate.
The defense of Tinian was in the charge of Col. Takashi Ogata, commanding officer, 50th Infantry Regiment, which represented the bulk of the Japanese Army forces on the island. Other important units were the 1st Battalion, 135th Infantry; the Tank Company, 18th Infantry; the 56th Naval Guard Force; and two naval antiaircraft defense units. All together, Ogata had four Army infantry battalions, none of which were straggler units, plus additional
TABLE I--ESTIMATED STRENGTH OF THE JAPANESE GARRISON ON TINIAN Unit Unit Commander Est. Strength Grand total 8,039 Army--total 3,929 50th Infantry Regiment Col. Takashi Ogata Headquarters ---- 60 1st Battalion ---- a576 2d Battalion ---- 576 3d Battalion ---- 576 Artillery Battalion (12 75-mm. mountain guns) Maj. Katuro Kahi 360 Engineer Company Lt. Chuichi Yano 169 Antitank Platoon (6 37-mm. antitank guns) 2d Lt. Moto Otani 42 Signal Company Lt. Hayashi 141 Supply Company Lt. Kenishi Nozaki 200 Medical Company Lt. Masaakira Narazawa 130 Fortification Detachment Capt. Masagi Hiruma 60 1st Battalion, 135th Infantry Regiment Capt. Isumi b714 18th Infantry Regiment Tank Company (9 tanks and 2 amphibian trucks) Lt. Katsuo Shikamura c65 264th Independent Motor Transport Company platoon ---- 60 29th Field Hospital Detachment ---- 200 Navy--total 4,110 56th Naval Guard Force Capt. Goichi Oya 950 82d Antiaircraft Defense Unit (24 25-mm. antitank guns) Lt.(s.g.) Kichitaro Tanaka 200 83d Antiaircraft Defense Unit (6 dual-purpose 75-mm. guns) Lt.(s.g.)Meiki Tanka 250 233d Construction Unit ---- 600 Headquarters, 1st Air Fleet Vice Adm. Kakuji Kakuta 200 Air Units (mostly 523d TOKA) ---- 1,110 Miscellaneous construction personnel ---- 800
a. Strength figures for the three infantry regiments given here are somewhat lower than those estimated by NTLF, chiefly because the latter included attached artillery units in its infantry strength estimates. The figure 576 is the actual strength of the 2d Battalion, 50th Infantry, as of February 1944 (Headquarters, 2d Battalion, 50th Infantry Regiment, War Diary, February 1944, NA 27434). It is assumed that the other regiments were approximately the same.
b. Estimated on the basis of unit records for May 1944 of Headquarters, 1st and 3d Companies, and Infantry Gun Company NA 22237, 27394, 27393).
c. Shikamura Tai War Diary, 29 April to 23 July 1944 (NA 22831).
Source: These strength figures are derived from NTLF Rpt Marianas, Phase III, Incl A, G-2 Rpt, pp. 24-30 and TF 56 Rpt FORAGER, Annex A, G-2 Rpt, p. 57.
infantry in the 56th Naval Guard Force and other naval units. For artillery, the Japanese commander had his regimental artillery battalion, the coast artillery manned by part of the 56th Naval Guard Force, and two naval antiaircraft defense units. The 18th Infantry Tank Company had nine tanks, which constituted the entire armored strength present. Total personnel strength, as indicated in Table I, came to a little more than eight thousand officers and men, Army and Navy.
As foreseen by General Schmidt's intelligence section, the Japanese Army plan for the defense of Tinian provided for the disposition of forces in three sectors. (Map 15.) The northern sector force guarding Ushi Point, Asiga Bay, and part of Masalog Point was the responsibility of the 2d Battalion, 50th Infantry, and a platoon of engineers; the western sector, containing Mount Lasso and the northwest coast, was guarded only by the 3d Company, 1st Battalion, 50th Infantry, and an antitank squad. Regimental reserve in the southern sector consisted of the 1st Battalion, 50th Infantry, less the 3d Company and less one antitank squad and was located about 3,000 yards southeast of Faibus San Hilo Point. The 1st Battalion, 135th Infantry, was designated "mobile counterattack force," and was in effect another reserve. Ogata's armored strength came to only nine tanks of the Tank Company, 18th Infantry, which was located on the northeast side of Marpo Well with orders to advance either to Tinian Town or Asiga Bay, wherever the landings came. In addition, this company had two vehicles rarely found among Japanese forces, amphibious trucks similar to the American DUKW.35
Japanese naval personnel on the island were under the command of Capt. Goichi Oya, who reported to Colonel Ogata. There was another, more senior, naval officer present on the island, but he held no position in the chain of command and had nothing to do with the defense of Tinian. This was Vice Adm. Kakuji Kakuta, Commander in Chief, 1st Air Fleet, who was responsible only to Admiral Nagumo of the Central Pacific Area Fleet. After the loss of most of his planes in the Battle of the Philippine Sea, Kakuta made several efforts to escape Tinian by submarine. Each time he failed, and in the end he apparently committed suicide.36
Captain Oya appears to have made some effort to integrate his command with that of the Army. The 56th Naval Guard Force was charged with the defense of the air bases, defense of harbor installations and ships in the harbor, and destruction of enemy attack forces. The force was divided into two parts. One was to man the coastal defense guns and antiaircraft weapons and the other, called the Coastal Security Force, was to maintain small coastal patrol boats and lay beach mines. No matter what the intentions of either commander, however, it would seem that there was little real co-ordination or even co-operation between Army and Navy forces. There may have been serious interservice friction.37 This is at least suggested in the captured diary of one Army noncommissioned officer, who wrote:
15 June: The Naval aviators are robbers. There aren't any planes. When they ran off to the mountains, they stole Army provisions, robbed people of their fruits and took cars. . . .
25 June: Sailors have stolen our provisions. They took food off to the mountains. We must bear with such until the day of decisive battle. . . .
6 July: Did Vice-Admiral Kakuta when he heard that the enemy had entered our area go to sleep with joy?38
JAPANESE DEFENSE SECTORS ON TINIAN
Responsibility for coastal defense was divided about equally between Army and Navy. Because of the small number of beaches over which hostile troops could possibly land, the problem was somewhat simplified. Consequently, even with the rather limited means at hand, it was possible for the Japanese to distribute their fixed gun positions so as to place a fairly heavy guard around the only feasible approaches to the shore. The Tinian Town area boasted three British-made 6-inch coastal defense guns, two 75-mm. mountain guns,39 and six 25-mm. twin-mount antiaircraft and antitank automatic cannons. Just up the coast from Tinian Town in the area of Gurguan Point were three 120-mm. naval dual-purpose guns and nine 25-mm. twin mounts that guarded the northern approaches to Sunharon Bay as well as the Gurguan Point airfield. The northwest coast from Ushi Point to Faibus San Hilo Point, including the area of WHITE Beaches 1 and 2, was quite well fortified, especially considering that the Japanese had no real expectations of hostile amphibious landings in that area. All together, this stretch of coast line contained three 140-mm. coastal defense guns, two 75-mm. mountain guns, two 7.7-mm. heavy machine guns in pillboxes, one 37mm. covered antitank gun, two 13-mm. antiaircraft and antitank machine guns, two 76.2-mm. dual-purpose guns, and three 120-mm. naval and dual-purpose guns. In addition, in the hills behind and within range of this shore line were two 47-mm. antitank guns, one 37-mm. antitank gun, and five 75-mm. mountain guns. Guarding Ushi Point airfield were six 13-mm. antiaircraft and antitank guns, fifteen 25-mm. twin mounts, four 20-mm. antiaircraft automatic cannons, and six 75-mm. antiaircraft guns. On the northeast coast, between Ushi Point and Masalog Point, were seven 140-mm. coastal defense guns, three 76.2-mm. dual-purpose guns, one 37-mm. antitank gun, and twenty-three pillboxes containing machine guns of unknown caliber. Except for the coastal defense guns, all of these weapons were concentrated in the area of YELLOW Beach 1, south of Asiga Point. Finally, inland from Marpo Point on the southeast coast there were four 120-mm. dual-purpose guns.40
The most surprising feature of the distribution of fixed positions is the relatively heavy concentration of guns within range of WHITE Beaches 1 and 2. In spite of the fact that General Ogata assigned a low priority to the infantry defenses in that region, it is quite apparent that the Japanese were by no means entirely neglectful of the area. The figures cited here of course give no indication of the damage wrought on these positions by naval gunfire, field artillery, and aerial bombardment before the landing. But had American intelligence estimates of Japanese artillery dispositions been as accurate as they were in other respects, the plan for an amphibious landing over the WHITE Beaches might not have been undertaken so optimistically.
More accurate knowledge of Japanese mining activities off of WHITE Beaches 1 and 2 might also have given the American
planners pause. The reports of the amphibious reconnaissance and underwater demolition groups to the contrary, the Japanese had set up a mine defense of sorts along the northwest coast. Off WHITE Beach 1 they had laid a dozen horned mines, though by the time of the landing these had deteriorated to the point of impotence. WHITE Beach 2 was mined in depth. Hemispherical mines were placed in two lines offshore, conical yardstick, and box mines covered the exits from the beach. All together, more than a hundred horned mines were laid in the area. In addition, there were many antipersonnel mines and booby traps concealed in cases of beer, watches, and souvenir items scattered inland. On the other side of the island, YELLOW Beach 1 was protected by twenty-three horned mines and by double-apron barbed wire. In the Tinian Town area a strip about thirty-five yards wide from the pier north along the water's edge to the sugar mill was completely mined. The beach south of the pier was laid with hemispherical mines that had steel rods lashed across the horns. Behind these were conical mines placed in natural lanes of approach from the shore line.
Until the very eve of the landing, the Japanese worked furiously to improve their beach defenses, especially in the Tinian Town and Asiga Bay areas. Even the gathering rain of American shells and bombs failed to stop them entirely, for when the pressure became too great they worked at night and holed up during the day.41
Ogata was well aware that an invasion of Tinian was inevitable, and in one respect he was more fortunate than Saito.42 Unlike the commanding general of Saipan, he had no stragglers to deal with, and his Army troops were well trained, well equipped, and well integrated under a unified command. He had had his regiment since August of 1940. For almost four years before moving to Tinian the unit had been stationed in Manchuria, and, under the semifield conditions obtaining there, Ogata was able to develop a high degree of homogeneity and esprit.43
Ogata's plan of defense conformed to standard Japanese doctrine at this stage in the war. The enemy was to be destroyed at the water's edge if possible and, if not, was to be harried out of his beachhead by a counterattack on the night following the landing. "But," read the order, "in the eventuality we have been unable to expel the enemy . . . we will gradually fall back on our prepared positions in the southern part of the island and defend them to the last man."44
Whichever of the three possible beach areas was hit by the Americans, the bulk of the Japanese forces in the two other sectors was to rush to the point of attack and close arms with the invader. Tinian Town and Asiga Bay were strongly favored as the probable landing beaches, the northwest coast being relegated to third place in Ogata's list of priorities.45 Thus, when the Americans chose this unlikely lane of approach, they achieved complete tactical surprise--a rare accomplishment in the Central Pacific theater of war.
1. Quoted in Maj. Carl W. Hoffman, USMC. The Seizure of Tinian, Historical Division, Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps (Washington, 1951) (hereafter cited as Hoffman, Tinian), p. III.
2. Smith, Coral and Brass, p. 201.
3. See Isely and Crowl, U.S. Marines and Amphibious War, p. 352; Morison, New Guinea and the Marianas, p. 351; Hoffman, Tinian, passim.
4. JICPOA Bull 73-74, 10 May 44, p. 20ff.
5. NTLF Rpt Marianas, Phase III, Incl D, G-2 Rpt, p. 32.
6. Ibid., Annex A.
7. NTLF Opn Plan 30-44, 10 May 44, in NTLF Rpt Marianas, Phase I, Incl A.
8. NTLF Rpt Marianas, Phase III, p. 2.
9. XXIV Corps Arty Final Rpt on FORAGER Opn, S-3 Rpt, p. 6.
10. NTLF Rpt Marianas, Phase III, p. 3.
11. Ibid., p. 4; Smith, Coral and Brass, p. 201.
12. TF 51 Opn Rpt Marianas, p. 2.
13. Hoffman, Tinian, pp. 20, 161.
14. Ltr, Turner to Comdt USMC, 21 Dec 50, quoted in Hoffman, Tinian, p. 21.
15. NTLF Rpt Marianas, Phase III, Incl L, Amph Rcn Bn Rpt, Annex A, pp. 1-2.
16. Ibid., Annex A; Annex E.
17. Ibid., Annex R.
18. Ibid., Annex E.
19. Ibid., Annexes D and E.
20. Hoffman, Tinian, pp. 23-24.
21. NTLF Opn Plan 30-44, 13 Jul 44, NTLF Rpt Marianas, Phase III, Incl A.
22. 4th Marine Div Opn Order 34-44.
23. NTLF Rpt Marianas, Phase III, Incl H, LVT Rpt, pp. 1-3.
24. TF 51 Opn Rpt Marianas, Incl A, pp. 17-19.
25. NTLF Opn Plan 30-44, Annex I.
26. TF 51 Opn Rpt Marianas, Incl A, pp. 17-19.
27. NTLF Opn Plan 30-44, 13 Jul 44.
28. This scheme was not part of the original operation plan but was devised shortly before the assault took place.
29. NTLF Opn Plan 30-44, Annex F.
30. Ibid., Annexes C, D, F.
31. NTLF Rpt Marianas, Phase III, Incl F, G-4 Rpt, p. 1.
32. Ibid., p. 2.
33. NTLF Rpt Marianas, Phase III, Incl H, LVT Rpt, p. 3.
34. TF 52 Rpt Tinian, pp. 1-3.
35. NTLF Rpt Marianas, Phase III, Incl A, G-2 Rpt, pp. 8-9.
36. Ibid., p. 21; 4th Marine Div Opns Rpt Tinian, G-2 Rpl, Special lntel Rpt 4.
37. 4th Marine Div, Representative Translations Made on Tinian, Record and Research sec Hist Br, G-3 Hq USMC, Sec. I, sec. IX, p. 3.
38. CINCPAC-CINCPOA Trans 11405, excerpts from the diary of a noncommissioned officer, a member of the Medical Administrative Unit, Mountain Artillery Battalion, 50th Infantry Regiment.
39. The JICPOA report cited below, note 45, lists these as 75-mm. M94 mountain howitzers. This must be an error because the Japanese had no 75-mm. howitzers and their Model 94 field piece was a 75-mm. mountain (pack) gun. (War Dept Technical Manual E 30-480, 15 Sep 44, Handbook on Japanese Military Forces, p. 220.)
40. JICPOA Study of Japanese Fixed Gun Positions, 24 Jul-5 Aug; Hoffman, Tinian, p. 15.
41. CINCPAC-CINCPOA Trans 11962, excerpts from the diary of Kaneko Tokutaro, noncommissioned officer at Hq, 2d Bn, 50th Inf Regt; Shikamura Tai War Diary, 29 Apr to 23 Jul, NA 22831.
42. 4th Marine Div Representative Trans.
43. NTLF Rpt Marianas, Phase III, Incl A, G-2 Rpt, p. 25.
44. Ibid., p. 9.
45. 4th Marine Div Representative Trans.
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Professor explores race in the classroom
October 13, 2011
Dyan Watson believes the best teachers understand their students just as well as their subject matter.
An assistant professor of education at Lewis & Clark Graduate School of Education and Counseling, Watson is passionate about fully preparing teachers to enter the classroom: she trains them in the field of social studies as well as in the methods of the most effective educators.
“Pedagogy is about understanding how to teach that content in a way that reaches your students,” she said in a recent interview with The Skanner. “So if you are going to teach 10th graders, you have to understand 10th graders developmentally.”
Central to this mission of getting through to students, Watson argues, is an understanding of how race and culture influence the classroom.
“I believe any teacher who is willing to do the work of exploring race and how it affects teaching can reach all students,” she told The Skanner. “That means understanding how one’s own race interacts with other races. That means being willing to get to know the neighborhoods and the cultures from which the students come.”
In this video, Watson describes her research into how teachers encode race by using words like “urban” and how that evasiveness impacts discourse in the schools.
“It would serve us well as a nation to be more honest in our language,” she told The Skanner. “You can’t work on anything that’s hidden by code words.”
Watson credits Portland’s Jefferson High School with preparing her for future success, including earning her doctorate at Harvard. She join the Lewis & Clark faculty in 2010 and now serves as social studies coordinator for the secondary program in teacher education.
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Definitions for surgeonˈsɜr dʒən
This page provides all possible meanings and translations of the word surgeon
surgeon, operating surgeon, sawbones(noun)
a physician who specializes in surgery
One who performs surgery; a doctor who performs operations on people or animals.
The surgeon refused to operate because the patient was her son.
Origin: From surgien, sirogen (Old French serurgien et al.), from a derivative of chirurgia.
one whose profession or occupation is to cure diseases or injuries of the body by manual operation; one whose occupation is to cure local injuries or disorders (such as wounds, dislocations, tumors, etc.), whether by manual operation, or by medication and constitutional treatment
any one of numerous species of chaetodont fishes of the family Teuthidae, or Acanthuridae, which have one or two sharp lancelike spines on each side of the base of the tail. Called also surgeon fish, doctor fish, lancet fish, and sea surgeon
Origin: [OE. surgien, OF. surgien, contr. fr. chirurgien. See Chirurgeon.]
In medicine, a surgeon is a specialist in surgery. Surgery is a broad category of invasive medical treatment that involves the cutting of a body, whether that of a human or other animal, for a specific reason such as the removal of diseased tissue or to repair a tear or breakage. Surgeons may be physicians, dentists, podiatrists or veterinarians. In the U.S., surgeons train for longer than other specialists; only after 9 years of training do they qualify. These years include 4 years of medical school and a minimum of 5 years of residency.
Chambers 20th Century Dictionary
sur′jun, n. one who treats injuries or diseases by manual operations.—ns. Sur′geoncy, Sur′geonship, the office or employment of a surgeon in the army or navy; Sur′gery, act and art of treating lesions or malformations of the human body by manual operations, mediate and immediate: a place for surgical operations.—adj. Sur′gical, pertaining to surgeons, or to surgery: done by surgery.—adv. Sur′gically. [A doublet of chirurgeon (q.v.).]
British National Corpus
Rank popularity for the word 'surgeon' in Nouns Frequency: #2118
The numerical value of surgeon in Chaldean Numerology is: 4
The numerical value of surgeon in Pythagorean Numerology is: 9
Sample Sentences & Example Usage
The surgeon is the captain of the ship.
My job is cutting and sewing - I am a surgeon.
Never ask a surgeon whether you need an operation.
She got her looks from her father. He's a plastic surgeon.
A poor surgeon hurts 1 person at a time. A poor teacher hurts 130.
Images & Illustrations of surgeon
Translations for surgeon
From our Multilingual Translation Dictionary
- cirurgiàCatalan, Valencian
- Chirurg, ChirurginGerman
- cirujana, cirujanoSpanish
- chirurgien, chirurgienneFrench
- lighicheScottish Gaelic
- cirurxián, cirurxiáGalician
- 執刀医, 外科医Japanese
- хирург, оташыKazakh
- cerah, operator, kîrûrg, birînsaz, emeliyatkerKurdish
- хирургOssetian, Ossetic
- hirurg, хирург, kirurg, кирургSerbo-Croatian
- cérudjin, cérudjinneWalloon
Get even more translations for surgeon »
Find a translation for the surgeon definition in other languages:
Select another language:
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New Research on Children with ASD and Aggression
Information shared by families participating in the Simons Simplex Collection project helps researchers explore questions about aggression in children on the autism spectrum.
Aggressive behaviors in children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) often cause a great deal of difficulty for families. Hitting, kicking, biting, throwing objects, and other behaviors common during a temper tantrum or meltdown can greatly increase parent stress.1 To make things worse, a vicious cycle can begin so that behavior problems increase stress and increased stress (together with fraying nerves and poorer parental responses to the behavior) result in even worse behavior problems.2
Disruptive behaviors also may interfere with interventions meant to help a child, and with a child’s ability to succeed at school. They may keep a child barred from a variety of community activities. (Children with aggressive behaviors may not be welcome in after-school, scouting, sports, or other programs.) Furthermore, fear of aggressive incidents may keep a family at home, increasing their sense of isolation and decreasing their quality of life.
However, little work had been done to study aggression in children with ASD. Now, a new study reveals that aggression is extremely common in children on the autism spectrum, but is not associated with the same factors usually linked to aggression in typical children.
Asking Questions about Autism and Aggression
Despite its importance in the lives of children with ASD and their families, aggression has rarely been investigated by autism researchers. That is why Drs. Stephen Kanne and Micah Mazurek of the Thompson Center for Autism and Neurodevelopmental Disorders at the University of Missouri recently set out to explore two vital questions:
- How often do children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) exhibit aggressive behavior?
- What risk factors are associated with aggressive behavior in children with ASD?
Thanks to families that participated in the Simons Simplex Collection (SSC), providing information about their children’s development and behavior at 13 university-based autism centers across North America, Drs. Kanne and Mazurek had enough information to take an in-depth look at these questions in a way that had not been possible before.
Many studies have examined risk factors for aggression in children with no disabilities. Factors such as male gender, low IQ, low family income, low parental education, and harsh parenting techniques have all been associated with increased aggression or antisocial behavior in typical children.3,4,5,6 Most studies looking at aggression in people with ASD, on the other hand, have focused on just a few individual cases, not on risk factors for people with ASD as a group.
Drs. Kanne and Mazurek set out to change this, carefully evaluating aggressive behaviors in 1,380 children with ASD between the ages of 4 and 17.7 Because the children had participated in the Simons Simplex Collection, the researchers had a rich set of information to draw upon, including the results of gold-standard autism assessments such as the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) and the Autism Diagnostic Interview - Revised (ADI-R), the results of IQ tests, and measures of repetitive behaviors, receptive language, and emotional and behavioral functioning.
How many children with ASD had aggressive behaviors?
Among the entire group of 1,380 children with ASD, the researchers found that 56% were engaging in aggressive behaviors towards caregivers, while a smaller number (32%) engaged in these behaviors towards non-caregivers. Similarly, 68% of the children had previously behaved aggressively towards caregivers and 49% towards non-caregivers. These are extremely high rates, especially when compared with those for people who have intellectual disability (ID) but not autism. Aggressive behavior has been documented in only 7-11% of these individuals.8,9
This study therefore provides solid evidence that aggressive behaviors are a major challenge for families of children with ASD.
What risk factors are associated with aggressive behaviors for children with ASD?
The researchers wondered whether the same factors that are associated with aggression in typical children also would be associated with aggression in children with ASD. To find out, they divided the children into two groups: 489 children who had definitely displayed physical aggression such as hitting and biting and 549 children who had never or very rarely displayed aggression. Children in the middle, who had displayed only mild aggression, were dropped from the analysis so that the two other groups would be very distinct from one another.
The researchers were surprised to find that many of the risk factors associated with aggressive behaviors in typical children don’t apply at all to children with ASD. For example, being male is usually associated with a much higher risk of aggressive behavior, but this isn’t the case among children with ASD. Girls and boys with ASD are equally likely to be aggressive. In the same way, lower parental education, lower IQ, and lower language or communication ability are not associated with risk of aggressive behavior in this group of children with ASD, although they are in typical children. The only factor that seems to work the same way for children with ASD as it does for typical children is age: in both groups, the younger the child, the more likely he or she is to be aggressive. The children with ASD who are most likely to have aggressive behaviors, when compared with other children on the spectrum, are those with the following characteristics:
- More repetitive behaviors, especially self-injurious or ritualistic behaviors, or extreme resistance to change
- More severe autistic social impairment
- A higher family income
The information available did not permit the researchers to explore when and why children with ASD have aggressive outbursts. Their results do seem to dovetail with those of other researchers, however. For example, in 2005, researchers at the University of Kansas compared aggressive behaviors in 23 children with autism and 23 typically developing children and found the motivations behind the behavior are very different for the two groups. Typical children use aggression to achieve social goals, such as getting attention or avoiding adults’ demands. Children with autism – especially boys – become aggressive when adults interfere with a repetitive behavior, when someone tries to take away an item they need to continue a repetitive routine, or when they are trying to escape uncomfortable sensory input.10 The new (and much larger) study has again identified a link between repetitive behaviors and aggression.
One result is especially perplexing, and the researchers don’t know what to make of it. They had expected that families with more resources would have more access to interventions, and that their children would have fewer behavior issues. Why would higher family income be associated with a higher risk of aggression in children with ASD? “It is possible,” they wrote, “that families with higher incomes are better able to access interventions that challenge (and may be frustrating for) their child with ASD, and in turn may create situations that produce aggressive behaviors.”7 Another possibility is that people at different income levels may be more or less likely to report aggression. Perhaps those in lower income brackets are more sensitive to potential criticism of their parenting and blame for their child’s aggressive behavior, while higher income people are more immune to societal blame and so more freely report aggression in their children. Further research will be needed to see if this unexpected result holds up over time and, if so, how to explain it.
Shedding Light on Aggression and ASDs to Help Families
This new study provides confirmation that aggression is a major issue for caregivers of children on the autism spectrum, validating the experience of many and laying the groundwork for future research. It underscores the need for interventions to address aggression in children with ASD, and to support families coping with it.
- Lecavalier, L., Leone, S., & Wiltz, J. (2006). The impact of behaviour problems on caregiver stress in young people with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of intellectual disability research: JIDR, 50(Pt 3), 172-183.
- Baker, B. L., McIntyre, L. L., Blacher, J., Crnic, K., Edelbrock, C., & Low, C. (2003). Pre-school children with and without developmental delay: Behaviour problems and parenting stress over time. Journal of intellectual disability research: JIDR, 47(Pt 4-5), 217-230.
- Campbell, S. B., Spieker, S., Vandergrift, N., Belsky, J., Burchinal, M., & NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (2010). Predictors and sequelae of trajectories of physical aggression in school-age boys and girls. Development and psychopathology, 22(1), 133-150.
- Lahey, B. B., Waldman, I. D., & McBurnett, K. (1999). Annotation: The development of antisocial behavior: An integrative causal model. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines, 40(5), 669-682.
- NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (2004). Trajectories of physical aggression from toddlerhood to middle childhood: Predictors, correlates, and outcomes. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 69(4), vii, 1-129.
- Tremblay, R. E., Nagin, D. S., Seguin, J. R., Zoccolillo, M., Zelazo, P. D., Boivin, M., et al. (2005). Physical aggression during early childhood: Trajectories and predictors. The Canadian child and adolescent psychiatry review = La revue canadienne de psychiatrie de l'enfant et de l'adolescent, 14(1), 3-9.
- Kanne, S. M., & Mazurek, M. O. (2011). Aggression in children and adolescents with ASD: Prevalence and risk factors. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41(7), 926-937.
- Emerson, E., Kiernan, C., Alborz, A., Reeves, D., Mason, H., Swarbrick, R., et al. (2001). The prevalence of challenging behaviors: A total population study. Research in developmental disabilities, 22(1), 77-93.
- Holden, B., & Gitlesen, J. P. (2006). A total population study of challenging behaviour in the county of Hedmark, Norway: Prevalence, and risk markers. Research in developmental disabilities, 27(4), 456-465.
- Reese, R. M., Richman, D. M., Belmont, J. M., & Morse, P. (2005). Functional characteristics of disruptive behavior in developmentally disabled children with and without autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 35(4), 419-428.
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PHP provides us so many facilities, php.ini file is one of them, with the help of it we can customize the behavior of php. Using this file maintaining PHP will be as easy as maintaining Apache. The php.ini file is used after implementation and using it you can configure all PHP's runtime configurations. It is also better in the sense that we do not need to recompile PHP again and again.
When PHP starts up its engine, one of the first thing it looks up for the php.ini in the current working directory, whenever we compile PHP, most of the time a copy of ini file places a copy of itself in /usr/local/lib/php.
To find out the ini file in Unix system you need to type "locate php.ini " or "find / -name php.ini -print". On the other hand in Windoows you can use the simple search option from start menu.
php.ini file allows to customize PHP dynamically but at the same time if it is running as an Apache module configuration directives reside in memory until a new Apache process has been started. The configuration information is read again and again PHP as CGI program whenever the CGI program starts a new process and this is the reason PHP considers as dynamic, otherwise until the web server starts PHP configuration remains unchanged
In the earlier versions of PHP, you could admit the configuration directives as Apache directives in either httpd.conf or .htaccess files. From PHP version 4.x onwards it became necessary to keep all directives in php.ini file.
It should be keep in mind that if we use PHP as CGI then we must keep the "safe mode" as ON, and after that set safe_mode_exec_dir directive. By doing this you can be assure that user can access only those information which are documented as root.
The structure of php.ini file is very much similar to Windows .ini files, it is based on standard "directive = value" syntax. Semicolon is used to make comments, so lines start with semicolon are ignored. To put an empty value to a directive use value blank or use keyword none. Sections are defined within [ and ] brackets.
Posted on: December 17, 2009 If you enjoyed this post then why not add us on Google+? Add us to your Circles
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The quick answer: Spinach, kale, other dark greens, and eggs contain two antioxidants important to eye health: lutein and zeaxanthin.
The Rise and Fall of Diseases
Changes in society bring new diseases. In the rise of the Industrial Revolution, people left the farm and crowded into cities to work in factories. My ancestor Robert Hellewell was an example: In England’s first general census, taken in 1841, he and his wife Mary had left the villages of their birth for the textile mills in the city of Leeds. He was a machinist, she a loom tender.
It was spontaneous—cities weren’t designed, they just happened. Systems for delivering clean water and taking away sewage didn’t exist. Increasingly, the perishable foods of the farm were replaced with foods processed to extend shelf life. In times past, you ate what you or a neighbor could grow; now you could eat whatever was for sale, including a modern treat once reserved for kings: sugar. The body was used to scarcity, but it had few controls to protect against this new year-around bounty. The times were a changing and food traditions were tossed aside.
In crowded cities infectious diseases, once rare, became common. Children were the primary victims; in 1900 half the funerals in our largest East Coast cities were for children. Of the diseases, tuberculosis was the most frightening but epidemics like colera were scary too.
It was cholera that gave birth to a new science, epidemiology—the study of epidemics. A London doctor named John Snow observed how a cholera outbreak centered on a public well. He had the well shut down and the outbreak stopped. (The well's source was sewage-polluted water from the river Thames.) In retrospect, the infectious diseases were simple: one bacterium caused one disease.
Though simple, it took a century to control the infectious diseases and the solution was through public works: clean water, sewage systems, and street drains. By the middle of the 20th century mortality among children had declined and the rise of vaccines and antibiotics added a further measure of control.
A New Paradigm
Unfortunately, a new health threat arose—the chronic diseases. Epidemiology, the old paradigm, caused us to look in the wrong places for a solution to these modern diseases.
- First, they weren’t diseases of a single cause; they have multiple causes.
- Second, because of their complexity the cure is elusive. Now prevention would be the "cure" but society doesn't easily change its paradigms.
- Third, these diseases develop slowly, over decades, so in a lifetime of living it’s difficult to find causes hidden, like needles, in a haystack as big as society.
- Maybe there is a fourth issue: diet is a big part of these diseases and in a free society we can’t control what people eat, so observational studies—which use occasional “food frequency questionnaires”—are an ineffective tool.
The effect of chronic disease can be seen in one statistic, longevity. We imagine that longevity has greatly increased in the last century, and it has for children but not for adults. The life expectancy for a 65-year old in 1900 was 12 additional years, in 2000 it was 18 years—only a six-year improvement despite an enormous investment in health care.
A New Strategy
Though society moves at glacial speed, individuals can respond quickly, if they don't mind being different. The wise person understands that a new paradigm calls for a new strategy. If you read this blog and apply the Healthy Changes, you’ve on the leading edge. To use a quaint term from the past, you're a pioneer. People have different needs, but the new strategy for saving one's health looks something like this:
- Focus on prevention; let the scientists chase the elusive cure.
- Make many changes. It’s not one thing; the chronic diseases are multifactorial so you must change many risk factors.
- Focus on what you can change. Scientists are in love with genetics, it’s the new thing, but you’ve already chosen your parents.
- Start with diet. We eat 15-20 pounds of food a week plus we live in a toxic food environment. Over the years, unhealthy food is a giant source of toxins.
- Start early and be patient. These diseases develop over decades and though the body has remarkable healing powers if well fed, it takes time.
Lutein and Zeaxanthin
Vegetables (and fruits) contain hundreds of antioxidants from the carotenoid family. (Carotenoids get their name from carrots, but they come in other colors.) Dark green veggies are a key source of antioxidants. Two—lutein and zeaxanthin—found in spinach and other dark greens (and natural eggs, too) play a special role in eye health. Of all the carotenoids, only zeaxanthin and lutein are found in the retina. As these are fat-soluble nutrients, eating them with healthy fats aids absorption. There's hidden wisdom in the tradition of splashing olive oil on salads.
The diseases of the week are cataracts and age-related macular degeneration (AMD).
Macular degeneration: Zeaxanthin protects the retina against oxidative stress. The center of the retina, the macula, provides the sharp vision needed for reading, and is rich in leutin. Leutin protects the macula against harmful blue light. In 2007, a 6-year National Eye Institute study confirmed that lutein and zeaxanthin protect against AMD blindness. The study also found the omega-3 fats EPA and DHA protective. We discussed the role of these omega-3 fats in a prior post, “The Worst Food Mistake of the Last Century” and suggested they be included in every meal.
Lutein and zeaxanthin are traveling cousins; foods like spinach, kale, and eggs that contain one, contain the other. Science has not yet determined an optimum level for lutein and zeaxanthin in the diet. Until we know more, it’s important to eat a diet rich in whole foods, especially greens and other colored fruits and vegetables. These foods are also rich in beneficial vitamins, minerals, other antioxidants, fiber, and yet undiscovered nutrients which likely work together in a synergistic way.
What about lutein and zeaxanthin in pill form? While supplements provide certain nutrients, most studies do not find a benefit from eating supplements alone and adverse effects have been seen. A 2006 Cochrane Review of the AMD research did not find a protective role for supplements. So get your lutein, zeaxanthin, omega-3s and other nutrients in whole foods, unless a qualified doctor recommends otherwise.
Cataracts form from degraded protein buildup in the eye lens. There are many causes, though age is always a factor. Causes noted in the last post included cigarette smoke, excessive UV exposure, heavy alcohol consumption, and certain drugs. Photosensitizing drugs (steroids, antihistamines, birth control pills, tranquilizers, NSAIDS, and antidepressants) are a cataract risk factor if used long-term. Occupational exposure to radiation is another cause. Astronauts and airline pilots (cosmic radiation), and radiologists (X-rays and other ionizing radiation) have a high risk for cataract formation.
How about your kitchen microwave? There is no credible evidence, to my knowledge, showing increased cataract risk from kitchen microwaves. On the other hand, I find no serious studies of the subject. If there is an influence, it is likely small but should not be ignored. My personal conclusion is to limit microwave use to warming food (not cooking) and try not to stand with my face to the door waiting to eat (which in my impatience I have done many times).
Does cell phone radiation contribute to cataracts? Same answer, I think. We don’t really know but the influence is most likely small. Still, it's a good reason to text, as the phone isn’t near your head. Speaking of cell phones, there is a new iPhone app for checking cataracts in 3rd world countries. MIT researchers just announced a hand-held device they named Catra that attaches to an iPhone to scan your eye for cataracts. Termed “a radar for the human eye” it opens the door to an idea many would like: do-it-yourself eye care. Catra is still in beta stage but it's a way cool idea.
The Bottom Line
Because of the way research is funded, there is surprisingly little solid guidance on how we should protect our eyes. I know someone who was diagnosed with early-stage cataracts. The doctor made no recommendation for protective action and almost seemed pleased to have a new candidate for their cataract surgery business. Protecting vision is a little like the immune system—what’s good for the whole body is likely also good for the immune system . . . and your eyes. But for starters, eat a naturally colorful diet that includes antioxidants like lutein and zeaxanthin, and get plenty of exercise. Maintain a healthy weight and occasionally check your blood pressure and blood sugar levels. And try to find a doctor passionate about preventing eye diseases. In upcoming posts we’ll talk about the importance of getting enough sleep and managing the stresses in our lives.
Please comment on your experience with eye health. This is a subject too seldom discussed so lets share what we’ve learned.
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To be, or to be more? It's an easy question to answer. We all want more for our children, for our families, for our communities and nation. The more difficult question to answer is how can we achieve it?
We all face challenges in helping our children succeed. NCFL believes that all parents—regardless of socioeconomic or educational level—can help their children succeed in school and in life. As a nation, we need to make the most of the time parents have with our children, with the 7,800 hours children spend out of school each year (compared to 900 hours in school). The family unit—no matter the composition—is the one constant across the educational spectrum.
Statistics tell us the challenge is daunting but also confirm the tremendous opportunity all parents have when we engage in education:
- America ranks 16 out of 23 for literacy, 21 out of 23 in math, and 17 out of 19 in problem solving, according to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development.
- More than 50 percent of students at four-year post-secondary schools and more than 75 percent at two-year colleges lacked the skills to perform complex literacy tasks. In addition, almost 20 percent of students pursuing four-year degrees had only basic quantitative skills (The National Survey of America's College Students).
- The performance advantage among students whose parents read to them in their early school years is evident regardless of the family's socioeconomic background (PISA-OECD).
- Parental involvement is a more significant factor in children's academic performance than the qualities of their school (NC State University).
- A single year of parental education has a greater impact on the likelihood of a son or daughter attending a post-secondary institution than does $50,000 in parental income (Seeds of Literacy).
- Parental involvement is directly tied to student performance and has a sustained impact—15-year-old students whose parents often read books with them during their first year of primary school show markedly higher scores in Program for International Student Assessment than students whose parents read with them infrequently or not at all.
Our own research tells us that middle class parents struggle to help their children with homework as their children advance in school, worry about financing future education, and are unsure where to turn for help.
NCFL provides support and strategies to a network of entities involved in advancing education and families learning together, including educators, schools, community based organizations, and libraries. Our efforts support learners of all ages in these environments in concert with our advocates and partners.
Family engagement in education doesn't happen on its own. More than seven in 10 educators identify engaging parents and the community as challenging or very challenging for school leaders, according to the latest annual MetLife Survey of the American Teacher. NCFL supports family engagement educators in their work, bridging the gap in education that often exists between school, home, and community.
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Figure 12--Map of northeastern Kansas showing thickness of rocks between top of Maquoketa shale and the base of the Chattanooga shale.
Isopachous lines connecting points of equal thickness are drawn at intervals of 50 feet. Dots show locations of wells used as source of data. Diagonal lines show margin of area from which Maquoketa shale was removed by pre-Devonian and pre-Chattanooga erosion. Checkered area indicates area from which base of Chattanooga shale was removed by post-Mississippian erosion.
Kansas Geological Survey, Forest City Basin
Comments to [email protected]
Web version July 2005. Original publication date Dec. 1943.
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2 Answers | Add Yours
In composing the thesis for an essay, especially a comparison/contrast one, the writer will want to peruse the outline she has made of similarities and differences and then generalize them into three points.
Perhaps, the best approach is to make the thesis, or general statement, reflect the causes of the insanity caused by the creation of fantasy in the two female characters' minds. With regard to both Emily of "A Rose for Emily" and the unnamed narrator of "The Yellow Wallpaper," the oppressive environments are certainly contributors to the mental imbalance of the women. For instance, Faulkner's narrator's initial comment about Emily suggests that she has not come from a normal environment since after her father's death, she became for the townspeople "a fallen monument,....a tradition, a duty, and a care...." The narrator in "The Yellow Wallpaper" also is confined in her life in an unnatural environment: "colonial mansion, a hereditary estate,....a haunted house" where she, too, becomes a "care."
Likewise, their responses to these environments result from the repression that they suffer. This, then, is the unifying factor of the two stories although the reactions and mental deterioration of the two protagonists differs, of course.
So, in examining some of the other responses to questions you have asked on these two stories, here is an example of a thesis that may suit your comparison/contrast essay:
Oppressed under patriarchy, the protagonists of "A Rose for Emily" and "The Yellow Wallpaper" lose realistic perspective as their desires are repressed and they react in irrational ways that result in their own descent into insanity.
With the three points made in this thesis--environment of repressed desires, irrational responses and imaginings, and losing sanity--comparisons and contrasts can be made between the two different protagonists of Faulkner's and Gilman's stories.
“A Rose for Emily” by William Faulkner and “The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman provide interesting protagonists. The problems that these women face are both similar but also quite different.
- One approach to the essay might evaluate the emotional support or lack of it given the characters.
- The characters themselves present two similar problems with different outcomes.
- The breakdowns of the characters in these stories were caused by loneliness, lack of support, and obsession.
- The obsession of both characters creates a setting for their downward spirals into emotional instability.
- The people who knew and loved these women failed them in their treatment for their problems.
- Isolation brings both women to a point of no return.
These are ideas to consider when deciding exactly what the thesis will be.
Probably the easiest one to use would be this statement:
Loneliness, isolation, and lack of attention forced the protagonists in these stories to sink into psychosis.
This quotation supports the lack of attention paid to the narrator in “The Yellow Wallpaper.”
John is away all day, and even some nights when his cases are serious.
I am glad that my case is not serious!
But these nervous troubles are dreadful depressing.
John does not know how much I suffer, and that satisfies him.
Of course, it is only nervousness. It does weigh on me so not to do my duty in any way!
The thesis concerning insanity has to approach the essay from what, why, and who.
We’ve answered 328,071 questions. We can answer yours, too.Ask a question
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Skylab was the first space station launched by NASA, and remained in orbit from 1973-1979. After a botched launch, in which damage was sustained to the station's solar power system and micrometeoroid shield, a repair crew was able to save the station from uninhabitability. Skylab was used for scientific experiments until 1974, when it was abandoned. In 1979 the station fell back to earth, large parts of it ending up near the town of Esperance, Australia. Local authorities fined the US government $400 for littering. To this day, the fine remains unpaid.
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|DAVID HUME: THE
OBVIOUSNESS OF THE TRUTH OF DETERMINISM
-- The Determinism and Freedom Philosophy Website --
In this splendid section from his Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, Hume's first concern is our ordinary belief that the natural world -- the world leaving our own conscious existence aside -- is a world of determinism, all cause and effect. He gives his account of what this ordinary belief can come to, the fact of the matter. Turning to our own conscious existence, he finds the same fact of the matter. Hence our world too is a world of determinism, all cause and effect. That is the story with the man who comes to dinner and does not rob Hume of his silver standish. The story of Indeterminism, and in particular of the kind of freedom that is origination, must be a mistake.
It is universally allowed that matter, in all its operations, is actuated by a necessary force, and that every natural effect is so precisely determined by the energy of its cause that no other effect, in such particular circumstances, could possibly have resulted from it. The degree and direction of every motion is, by the laws of nature, prescribed with such exactness that a living creature may as soon arise from the shock of two bodies as motion in any other degree or direction than what is actually produced by it. Would we, therefore, form a just and precise idea of necessity; we must consider whence that idea arises when we apply it to the operation of bodies.
It seems evident that, if all the scenes of nature were continually shifted in such a manner that no two events bore any resemblance to each other, but every object was entirely new, without any similitude to whatever had been seen before, we should never, in that case, have attained the least idea of necessity, or of a connection among these objects. We might say, upon such a supposition, that one object or event has followed another; not that one was produced by the other. The relation of cause and effect must be utterly unknown to mankind. Inference and reasoning concerning the operations of nature would, from that moment, be at an end; and the memory and senses remain the only canals, by which the knowledge of any real existence could possibly have access to the mind. Our idea, therefore, of necessity and causation arises entirely from the uniformity observable in the operations of nature, where similar objects are constantly conjoined together, and the mind is determined by custom to infer the one from the appearance of the other. These two circumstances form the whole of that necessity, which we ascribe to matter. Beyond the constant conjunction of similar objects, and the consequent inference from one to the other, we have no notion of any necessity or connection.
If it appear, therefore, that all mankind have ever allowed, without any doubt or hesitation, that these two circumstances take place in the voluntary actions of men, and in the operations of mind; it must follow, that all mankind have ever agreed in the doctrine of necessity, and that they have hitherto disputed, merely for not understanding each other.
As to the first circumstance, the constant and regular conjunction of similar events, we may possibly satisfy ourselves by the following considerations. It is universally acknowledged that there is a great uniformity among the actions of men, in all nations and ages, and that human nature remains still the same, in its principles and operations. The same motives always produce the same actions: The same events follow from the same causes. Ambition, avarice, self-love, vanity, friendship, generosity, public spirit: these passions, mixed in various degrees, and distributed through society, have been, from the beginning of the world, and still are, the source of all the actions and enterprises, which have ever been observed among mankind. Would you know the sentiments, inclinations, and course of life of the Greeks and Romans? Study well the temper and actions of the French and English: You cannot be much mistaken in transferring to the former most of the observations which you have made with regard to the latter. Mankind are so much the same, in all times and places, that history intorms us of nothing new or strange in this particular. Its chief use is only to discover the constant and universal principles of human nature, by showing men in all varieties of circumstances and situations, and furnishing us with materials from which we may form our observations and become acquainted with the regular springs of human action and behaviour. These records or wars, intrigues, factions, and revolutions, are so many collections of experiments, by which the politician or moral philosopher fixes the principles of his science, in the same manner as the physician or natural philosopher becomes acquainted with the nature of plants, minerals, and other external objects, by the experiments which he forms concerning them. Nor are the earth, water, and other elements, examined by Aristotle, and Hippocrates, more like to those which at present lie under our observation than the men described by Polybius and Tacitus are to those who now govern the world.
Should a traveller, returning from a far country, bring us an account of men, wholly different from any with whom we were ever acquainted; men, who were entirely divested of avarice, ambition, or revenge; who knew no pleasure but friendship, generosity, and public spirit; we should immediately, from these circumstances, detect the falsehood, and prove him a liar, with the same certainty as if he had stuffed his narration with stories of centaurs and dragons, mirades and prodigies. And if we would explode any forgery in history, we cannot make use of a more convincing argument, than to prove, that the actions ascribed to any person are directly contrary to the course of nature, and that no human motives, in such circumstances, could. ever induce him to such a conduct. The veracity of Quintus Curtius is as much to be suspected, when he describes the supernatural courage of Alexander, by which he was hurried on singly to attack multitudes, as when he describes his supernatural force and activity, by which he was able to resist them. So readily and universally do we acknowledge a uniformity in human motives and actions as well as in the operations of body.
Hence likewise the benefit of that experience, acquired by long life and a variety of business and company, in order to instruct us in the principles of human nature, and regulate our future conduct, as well as speculation. By means of this guide, we mount up to the knowledge of men’s inclinations and motives, from their actions, expressions, and, even gestures; and again descend to the interpretation of their actions from our knowledge of their motives and inclinations. The general observations treasured up by a course of experience, give us the clue of human nature, and teach us to unravel all its intricacies. Pretexts and appearances no longer deceive us. Public declarations pass for the specious colouring of a cause. And though virtue and honour be allowed their proper weight and authority, that perfect disinterestedness, so often pretended to, is never expected in multitudes and parties; seldom in their leaders; and scarcely even in individuals of any rank or station. But were there no uniformity in human actions, and were every experiment which we could form of this kind irregular and anomalous, it were impossible to collect any general observations concerning mankind; and no experience, however accurately digested by reflection, would ever serve to any purpose. Why is the aged husbandman more skilful in his calling than the young beginner but because there is a certain uniformity in the operation of the sun, rain, and earth towards the production of vegetables; and experience teaches the old practitioner the rules by which this operation is governed and directed.
We must not, however, expect that this uniformity of human actions should be carried to such a length as that all men, in the same circumstances, will always act precisely in the same manner, without making any allowance for the diversity of characters, prejudices, and opinions. Such a uniformity in every particular, is found in no part of nature. On the contrary, from observing the variety of conduct in different men, we are enabled to form a greater variety of maxims, which still suppose a degree of uniformity and regularity.
Are the manners of men different in different ages and countries? We learn thence the great force of custom and education, which mould the human mind from its infancy and form it into a fixed and established character. Is the behiviour and conduct of the one sex very unlike that of the other? Is it thence we become acquainted with the different characters which nature has impressed upon the sexes, and which she preserves with constancy and regularity? Are the actions of the same person much diversified in the different periods of his life, from infancy to old age? This affords room for many general observations concerning the gradual change of our sentiments and inclinations, and the different maxims which prevail in the different ages of human creatures. Even the characters, which are peculiar to each individual, have a uniformity in their influence; otherwise our acquaintance with the persons and our observation of their conduct could never teach us their dispositions, or serve to direct our behaviour with regard to them.
I grant it possible to find some actions, which seem to have no regular connection with any known motives, and are exceptions to all the measures of conduct which have ever been established for the government of men. But if we would willingly know what judgement should be formed of such irregular and extraordinary action; we may consider the sentiments commonly entertained with regard to those irregular events which appear in the course of nature, and the operations of external objects. All causes are not conjoined to their usual effects with like uniformity. An artificer, who handles only dead matter, may be disappointed of his aim, as well as the politician, who directs the conduct of sensible and intelligent agents.
The vulgar, who take things according to theft first appeannce, attribute the uncertainty of events to such an uncertainty in the causes as makes the latter often fail of their usual influence; though they meet with no impediment in their operation. But philosophers, observing that, almost in every part of nature, there is contained a vast variety of springs and principles, which are hid, by reason of their minuteness or remoteness, find, that it is at least possible the contrariety of events may not proceed from any contingency in the cause, but from the secret operation of contrary causes. This possibility is converted into certainty by farther observation, when they remark that, upon an exact scrutiny, a contrariety of effects always betrays a contrariety of causes, and proceeds from their mutual opposition. A peasant can give no better reason for the stopping of any clock or watch than to say that it does not commonly go right: But an artist easily perceives that the same force in the spring or pendulum has always the same influence on the wheels; but fails of its usual effect, perhaps by reason of a grain of dust, which puts a stop to the whole movement. From the observation of several parallel instances, philosophers form a maxim that the connection between all causes and effects is equally necessary, and that its seeming uncertainty in some instances proceeds from the secret opposition of contrary causes.
Thus, for instance, in the human body, when the usual symptoms of health or sickness disappoint our expectation; when medicines operate not with their wonted powers; when inegular events follow from any particular cause; the philosopher and physician are not surprised at the matter, nor are ever tempted to deny, in general, the necessity and uniformity of those principles by which the animal economy is conducted. They know that a human body is a mighty complicated machine: That many secret powers lurk in it, which are altogether beyond our comprehension: That to us it must often appear very uncertain in its operations: And that therefore the irregular events, which outwardly discover themselves, can be no proof that the laws of nature are not observed with the greatest regularity in its internal onerations and government
The philosopher, if he be consistent, must appiy the same reasoning to the actions and volitions of intelligent agents. The most irregular and unexpected resolutions of men may frequently be accounted for by those who know every particular circumstance of their character and situation. A person of an obliging disposition gives a peevish answer: But he has the toothache, or has not dined. A stupid fellow discove an uncommon alacrity in his carriage: But he has met with a sudden piece of good fortune. Or even when an action, as sometimes happens, cannot be particularly accounted for either by the person himself or by others; we know, general, that the characters of men are, to a certain degree inconstant and irregular. This is, in a manner, the constant character of human nature; though it be applicable, a more particular manner, to some persons who have fixed rule for their conduct, but proceed in a continued course of caprice and inconstancy. The internal principles and motives may operate in a uniform manner, notwithstanding these seeming irregularities; in the same manner as the winds, rain, clouds, and other variations of the weather are supposed to be governed by steady principles; though not easily discoverable by human sagacity and enquiry.
Thus it appears, not only that the conjunction between motives and voluntary actions is as regular and uniform as that between the cause and effect in any part of nature but also that this regular conjunction has been universally acknowledged among mankind, and has never been the subject of dispute, either in philosophy or common life. Now, as it is from past experience that we draw all inferences concerning the future, and as we conclude that objects will always be conjoined together which we find to have always been conjoined; it may seem superfluous to prove that this experienced uniformity in human actions is a source whence we draw inferences concerning them. But in order to thrc the argument into a greater variety of lights we shall also insist, though briefly, on this latter topic.
The mutual dependence of men is so great in all societies that scarce any human action is entirely complete in itself, or is performed without some reference to the actions of others, which are requisite to make it answer fully the intention of the agent. The poorest artificer, who labours alone, expects at least the protection of the magistrate, to ensure him the enjoyment of the fruits of his labour. He also expects that, when he carries his goods to market, and offers them at a reasonable price, he shall find purchasers, and shall be able, by the money he acquires, to engage others to supply him with those commodities which are requisite for his subsistence. In proportion as men extend their dealings, and render their intercourse with others more complicated, they always comprehend, in their schemes of life, a greater variety of voluntary actions, which they expect, from the proper motives, to co-operate with their own. In all these conclusions they take their measures from past experience, in the same manner as in their reasonings concerning external objects; and firmly believe that men, as well as all the elements, are to continue, in their operations, the same that they have ever found them. A manufacturer reckons upon the labour of his servants for the execution of any work as much as upon the tools which he employs, and would be equally surprised were his expectations disappointed. In short, this experimental inference and reasoning concerning the actions of others enters so much into human life that no man, while awake, is ever a moment without employing it. Have we not reason, therefore, to affirm that all mankind have always agreed in the doctrine of necessity according to the foregoing definition and explication of it?
Nor have philosophers ever entertained a different opinion from the people in this particular. For, not to mention that almost every action of their life supposes that opinion, there are even few of the speculative parts of learning to which it is not essential. What would become of history, had we not a dependence on the veracity of the historian according to the experience which we have had of mankind? How could politics be a science, if laws and forms of goverment had not a uniform influence upon society? Where would be the foundation of morals, if particular characters had no certain or determinate power to produce particular sentiments, and if these sentiments had no constant operation on actions? And with what pretence could we employ our criticism upon any poet or polite author, if we could not pronounce the conduct and sentiments of his actors either natural or unnatural to such characters, and in such circumstances? It seems almost impossible, therefore, to engage either in science or action of any kind without acknowledging the doctrine of necessity, and this inference from motive to voluntary actions, from characters to conduct.
And indeed, when we consider how aptly natural and moral evidence link together, and form only one chain of argument, we shall make no scruple to allow that they are of the same nature, and derived from the same principles. A prisoner who has neither money nor interest, discovers the impossibility of his escape, as well when he considers the obstinacy of the gaoler, as the walls and bars with which he is surrounded; and, in all attempts for his freedom, chooses rather to work upon the stone and iron of the one, than upon the inflexible nature of the other. The same prisoner, when conducted to the scaffold, foresees his death as certainly from the constancy and fidelity of his guards, as from the operation of the axe or wheel. His mind runs along a certain train of ideas: The refusal of the soldiers to consent to his escape; the action of the executioner; the separation of the head and body; bleeding, convulsive motions, and death. Here is a connected chain of natural causes and voluntary actions; but the mind feels no difference between them In passing from one link to another: Nor is less certain of the future event than if it were connected with the objects present to the memory or senses, by a train of causes, cemented together by what we are pleased to call a physical necessity. The same experienced union has the same effect on the mind, whether the united objects be motives, volition, and actions; or figure and motion. We may change the name of things; but their nature and their operation on the understanding never change.
Were a man, whom I know to be honest and opulent, and with whom I live in intimate friendship, to come into my house, where I am surrounded with my servants, I rest assured that he is not to stab me before he leaves it in order to rob me of my silver standish; and I no more suspect this event than the falling of the house itself, which is new, and solidly built and founded.—But he may have been seized with a sudden and unhnown frenzy.— So may a sudden earthquake arise, and shake and tumble my house about my ears. I shall therefore change the suppositions. I shall say that I know with certainty that he is not to put his hand into the fire and hold it there till it be consumed: And this event, I think I can foretell with the same assurance, as that, if he throw himself out at the window, and meet with no obstruction, he will not remain a moment suspended in the air. No suspicion of an unknown frenzy can give the least possibility to the former event, which is so contrary to all the known principles of human nature. A man who at noon leaves his purse full of gold on the pavement at Charing Cross, may as well expect that it will fly away like a feather, as that he will find it untouched an hour after. Above one half of human reasonings contain inferences of a similar nature, attended with more or less degrees of certainty proportioned to our expenence of the usual conduct of mankind in such particular situations.
I have frequently considered, what could possibly be the reason why all mankind, though they have ever, without hesitation, acknowledged the doctrine of necessity in their whole practice and reasoning, have yet discovered such a reluctance to acknowledge it in words, and have rather shown a propensity, in all ages, to profess the contrary opinion. The matter, I think, may be accounted for after the following manner. If we examine the operations of body, and the production of effects from their causes, we shall find that all our faculties can never carry us farther in our knowledge of this relation than barely to observe that particular objects are constantly conjoined together, and that the mind is carried, by a customary transition, from the appearance of one to the belief of the other. But though this conclusion concerning human ignorance be the result of the strictest scrutiny of this subject, men still entertain a strong propensity to believe that they penetrate farther into the powers of nature, and perceive something like a necessary connection between the cause and the effect. When again they turn their reflections towards the operations of their own minds, and feel no such connection of the motive and the action; they are thence apt to suppose, that there is a difference between the effects which result from material force, and those which arise from thought and intelligence. But being once convinced that we know nothing farther of causation of any kind than merely the constant conjunction of objects, and the consequent inference of the mind from one to another, and finding that these two circumstances are universally allowed to have place in voluntary actions; we may be more easily led to own the same necessity common to all causes. And though this reasoning may contradict the systems of many philosophers, in ascribing necessity to the determinations of the will, we shall find, upon reflection, that they dissent from it in words only, not in their real sentiment. Necessity, according to the sense in which it is here taken, has never yet been rejected nor can ever, I think, be rejected by any philosopher. It may only, perhaps, be pretended that the mind can perceive, in the operations of matter, some farther connection between the cause and effect; and connection that has no place in voluntary actions of intelligent beings. Now whether it be so or not, can only appear upon examination and it is incumbent on these philosophers to make good their assertion, by defining or describing that necessity, and pointing it out to us in the operations of material causes.
It would seem, indeed, that men begin at the
wrong end of this question concerning liberty and necessity, when they
enter upon it by examining the faculties of the soul, the influence of
the understanding, and the operations the will. Let them first discuss
a more simple question, namely, the operations of body and of brute
unintelligent matter; and try whether they can there form any idea
causation and necessity, except that of a constant conjunction of
objects, and subsequent inference of the mind from or to another. If
these circumstances form, in reality, the whole of
that necessity, which we conceive in matter, and if these circumstances
also universally acknowledged to take place in the operations of the
the dispute is an end; at least, must be owned to be thenceforth merely
But as long as we will rashly suppose, that we have some farther idea
necessity and causation in the operation of external objects; at the
time, that we can find nothing farther in the voluntary actions of the
there is no possibility of bringing the question to any determinate
while we proceed upon so erroneous a supposition. The only method of
us is to mount up higher; to examine the narrow extent of science when
to material causes; and to convince ourselves that all we know of them
the constant conjunction or inference above mentioned. We may, perhaps,
that is with difficulty we are induced to fix such narrow limits to
understanding: But we can afterwards find no difficulty when we come to
this doctrine to the actions of the will. For as it is evident that
have a regular conjunction with motives and circumstances and
and as we always draw inferences from one to the other, we must be
to acknowledge in words that necessity, which we have already avowed,
every deliberation of our lives, and in every step of our conduct and
Footnote 1: The prevalence of the doctrine of liberty may be accounted for, from another cause, viz, a false sensation or seeming experience which we have, or may have, of liberty or indifference, in many of our actions. The necessity of any action, whether of matter or of mind, is not, properly speaking, a quality in the agent, but in any thinking or mtelligent being, who may consider the action; and It consists chiefly in the determination of his thoughts to infer the existence of that action from some preceding objects; as liberty, when opposed to necessity, is nothing but the want of that determination, and a certain looseness or indifference, which we feel, in passing, or not passing, from the idea of one object to that of any succeeding one. Now we may observe, that, though, in reflecting on human actions, we seldom feel such a looseness, or indifference, but are commonly able to infer them with considerable certainty from their motives, and from the dispositions of the agent; yet it frequently happens, that, in performing the actions themselves, we are sensible of something like it: And as all resembling objects are readily taken for each other, this has been employed as a demonstrative sad even intuitive proof of human liberty. We feel, that our actions are subject to our will, on most occasions; and imagine we feel, that the will itself is subject to nothing, because, when by a denial of it we are provoked to try, we feel, that it moves easily every way, and produces an image of itself (or a Velleity, as it is called in the schools) even on that side, on which it did not settle. This image, or faint motion, we persuade ourselves, could, at that time, have been completed into the thing itself; because, should that be denied, we find, upon a second trial, that, at present, it can. We consider not, that the fantastical desire of showing liberty, is here the motive of our actions. And it seems certain, that, however we may imagine we feel a liberty within ourselves, a spectator can commonly infer our actions from our motives and character; and even where he cannot, he concludes in general, that he might, were he perfectly acquainted with every circumstance of our situation and temper, and the most secret springs of our complexion and disposition. Now this Is the very essence of necessity, according to the foregoing doctrine.
Well, Hume goes a long way towards convincing me. He didn't convince Kant, to whom you might turn. Or you could turn to a view of 2002 by a philosopher of science as to the bearing of old and new physics on the truth of determinism -- John Earman.
Home: Determinism & Freedom Philosophy
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Farming and ranching is not a one-size-fits-all approach. Agriculture in the United States is a mixing bowl of diversity, and it’s most evident when comparing large- and small-scale farming operations. Having grown up on a small, family farm in Iowa, I saw first-hand not only how important our small farmers and ranchers are to the nation, but also the challenges they face daily.
There is much variation among small family farms and ranches. No one definition comes close to capturing the richness and diversity of these operations. For example, while many farmers and ranchers are loyal to their traditional production systems, others constantly seek new opportunities and experiment with alternative crops, production methods and innovative marketing approaches. As a result, the United States produces a striking range of food and fiber, from soybeans to sesame, from beef to buffalo.
Yet, with all this variation, there are common challenges they face that many large farms don’t, such as access to capital, acquiring land, opening doors to new markets, learning to manage risk and finding training and mentoring services.
USDA works every day for producers of all sizes. This week, the department announced additional support and resources for America’s small and midsized farmers and ranchers, including an investment in grants from USDA’s National Institute of Food and Agriculture (NIFA) to support research, education and Extension work at universities across the nation. This announcement is part of USDA’s continued support for America’s small and midsized producers.
The work being undertaken at these 10 universities will develop programs to assist small and medium-sized farmers grow their operations, enhance their production and become economically viable. The grants are part of NIFA’s Agriculture and Food Research Initiative and focuses on developing models to assist small farmers in their decision making respect to management strategies, new technologies, sustainability, competitiveness and viability.
A few examples from this year’s funding include a project at the University of Illinois to research risk mitigation strategies for producers in the advanced biofuel industry, while Oklahoma State University is researching economic development opportunities in the local and regional food systems. The University of Vermont is studying how to improve the quality of labor management decisions for small and medium-sized farm operators. A full list of awardees is available on the NIFA website.
Small farmers and ranchers account for nearly 90 percent of all farms in the country. They are helping the United States produce the most affordable, abundant, safe, and healthy food supply in the world. With an impact that huge, we need to ensure that they have access to the resources they need to thrive.
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Carbon dioxide emissions related to energy use dropped 4.7 percent in New Jersey from 2000 to 2010, according to a federal paper released today.
The figures were 121.1 million metric tons in 2000 and 115.4 million metric tons in 2010, according to the U.S. Energy Information Administration.
But emissions in the Garden State grew by 4.5 percent from 2009 to 2010, according to the EIA report, which compares states’ emissions.
Emissions from energy use increased in most states during that year because the nation was recovering from the recession, according to the EIA.
Carbon dioxide is the leading greenhouse gas linked to climate change, according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
A warming trend in the Mount Everest region has led to shrinking glaciers, according to an American Geophysical Union statement today.
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Technical Feature: Fuel Systems
What is the function of an engine's fuel system?
The task of the engine’s fuel system is to recover the fuel from the fuel tank and deliver it to the engine where it is sprayed into the trumpets to mix with air on the way into the cylinder, where the fuel-air mix is ignited to generate torque. The fuel must be delivered to the injectors at the correct pressure so the quantity injected can be accurately metered, so the fuel system is designed to recover fuel from the tank and increase and regulate this pressure by means of a sophisticated mechanical pump.
The fuel system starts with the fuel cell (tank), which is located within the monocoque behind the driver, but in front of the engine. It is a large leak proof flexible bladder made of military grade ballistics material to contain all the fuel necessary for the car during a race (approximately 160 kg or 230 L). The hoses feeding fuel to the engine are equipped with dry-break frangible couplings so if the engine and chassis become separated in an accident, fuel cannot leak from the broken hose, which would create an obvious fire risk as per the fiery accidents of the 1970s.
The fuel inside the bladder is subject to lateral and longitudinal g-forces due to cornering, acceleration and braking. The fuel therefore sloshes around the tank, moving from side to side and back and forth. As a result it can be tricky to recover the fuel as it moves around in the tank, particularly at low level – imagine drinking with a straw from water bumping around on a tray compared with drinking the same water with a straw in a bottle!
The tank therefore contains a number of low-pressure electrically powered “lift pumps”, typically 3 or 4 of them, positioned to suck up fuel from the tank corners. Filters at the entry to these pumps protect them from damage that may be caused by impurities that may have entered the fuel cell. The lift pumps deliver to a smaller vessel within the fuel cell known as a “collector”, which typically has a capacity of 2.5 kg or 3 L.
The collector is pressurized by the lift pumps, and it contains enough fuel to feed the main pump continuously even if supply from lift pumps becomes intermittent at low fuel levels, particularly bearing in mind that an engine running at full revs will need up to 3.5 L/min of fuel. It looks like an upside down soda bottle – that is, tall and slim, to ensure the fuel supply is constant.
The next stage is for the collector to deliver fuel to a mechanically driven fuel pump that in turn delivers fuel to the injectors. In fact, the role of the main pump could be compared to a domestic jet washer operated by a push button – it takes tap water at low pressure and delivers it at much higher pressure to the spray lance when required, but when the button is not pushed nothing is delivered.
The pump is entirely mechanical and must be protected by a fine filter at the entry. This pump delivers fuel flow fundamentally proportional to engine RPM. The fuel consumed by the engine is also approximately proportional to RPM at full throttle, but at closed throttle, the engine uses no fuel. To match the fuel supplied to the fuel required, the main pump has a variable displacement mechanism actuated by a sophisticated pressure regulating device.
After passing through the pump and a final filter in the fuel rail, the fuel is delivered to the injectors at high pressure (95 bar). Technical regulations forbid a pressure higher than 100 bar.
The injectors are – in technical parlance – precision electro-mechanical solenoid valves controlled by the SECU (Standard Electronic Control Unit). The SECU hardware and control software is common to all F1 engines, but the calibrations are free within range permitted by FIA. Fuel is delivered when the solenoid is energized, delivering it at high pressure into the intake air at precisely the right instant in the engine cycle to achieve optimum cylinder filling and mixture preparation, ultimately promoting efficient combustion and therefore engine performance.
How has the fuel system changed over the V8 era?
Other than routine changes due to year on year car development, the overall layout of the system has changed little other than the change to the size of the fuel cell to accommodate the refuelling ban since in 2010. Previously, the fuel cell could be smaller; containing the fuel needed between pit stops (say 70kg) but now it must be large enough to hold up the fuel for the whole race.
The larger cell highlights the problems of recovering the last fuel in the tank:
• The large shallow fuel volume at low tank level is more tricky to recover with the lift pumps
• Fuel temperature is also a greater concern. Fuel is heated by conduction and radiation from the rest of the car – the exhausts, the engine etc. Higher fuel temperature reduces engine performance and it also makes the fuel more difficult to pump by the lift pumps.
There have been developments to overcome these challenges, including changes in car design to reduce heat transfer to the fuel, additional constraints on fuel formulation, and fuel cell and lift pump design improvements.
What would we now be seeing if there had not been an engine freeze?
Actually in this case, development has been more limited by technical regulation than by the engine freeze. Injection pressure is limited to a maximum of 100 bar, (or 100 times normal air pressure at sea level) and a single injector per cylinder must be positioned in the inlet tract.
These regulations have outlawed the use of ultra-high pressure injection systems, and also the use of direct injection into the combustion chamber.
With greater technical freedom, it is probable that more complex injection systems would have been developed, perhaps multiple injectors per cylinder, with delivery pressures towards 500bar (the pressure of being 5km under the sea or equivalent to the weight of an elephant balanced on a postage stamp, or the equivalent of one person trying to support 50 jumbo jets!)
The performance payback for this work would have been improved power, drivability and fuel consumption.
Any interesting stats and facts?
At 18,000rpm – before the limiter kicks in – the fuel injector is fired once every 6.6ms for a duration of 2.7ms at full throttle. The fuel delivered by each injection event is 0.049cc, approximately the same volume of venom in a snakebite. However the fuel used by the engine at full throttle in the same conditions is between 3.5L/min and 4L/min depending on ambient conditions, about half as much as a normal power shower dispenses during your daily shower!
Feedback can be sent to [email protected]
Go to our forums to discuss this article
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Regional hazards and emergency management
The Regional Hazards Team's aim is to identify, collate, analyse and provide regional scale hazard information to stakeholders, the general public and Civil Defence Emergency Management agencies. Our main goal is to ensure the risks from hazards are reduced over time and that sound decision making results in respect to current and future development of hazard prone areas. The team is involved in everything from flood warning, to oil spills in our oceans.
Effective hazard planning shapes the places where people live, work and play. It plays a key role in supporting Waikato Regional Council’s strategic direction for supporting sustainable communities.
Find out more about natural hazards and the work the Regional Hazards team is doing in the links below.
Natural hazards in our region
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Common student exercises in computer science
From Citizendium, the Citizens' Compendium
- Hello World
- Write one of the smallest possible programs printing "Hello World" on the screen. Simple problem to show syntax.
- Eight queens problem
- Arrange eight queens on a chess board so that none can capture the others. The implementation of this problem uses recursion and backtracking.
- Dining philosophers problem
- Five philosophers want to eat spaghetti with five forks but each one needs two of them. Shows the concepts of deadlock and starvation(!).
- Byzantine generals problems
- A number of locally distributed byzantine generals try to reach a consensus on when to attack a superior enemy. But there are traitors amongst them. Demonstrates failure scenarios where fault tolerance becomes difficult.
- Is a square a rectangle?
- Most object-oriented programming languages just say "No"! Example used to explain why combining inheritance and specialization relationships into the subclass relationship might not have been such a good idea after all.
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STEVE INSKEEP, host:
It's MORNING EDITION from NPR News. I'm Steve Inskeep.
RENEE MONTAGNE, host:
And I'm Renee Montagne.
Intelligence agencies around the world are trying to determine the authenticity of a puzzling document, purported to come from Iran. The document lays out a series of experiments that could be used to trigger nuclear explosions. If it is genuine, some experts believe it could be proof Iran is working toward a nuclear weapon. But the document raises questions it doesn't answer. NPR's Mike Shuster has more.
MIKE SHUSTER: The document concerns something called a neutron initiator. This device is a component of a nuclear warhead. It generates a short burst of neutrons that ignites the chain reaction that leads to a nuclear explosion.
There are different kinds of neutron initiators in nuclear weapons. The one described in the document is associated with a compound called uranium deuteride.
The document, which appears to come from an office in Iran's Defense Ministry, lays out a series of experiments designed to test such a device. It also discusses how many people would be necessary to perform such experiments, and it hints at precautions that might be needed to keep the experiments secret. The document is titled "Outlook for special neutron-related activities over the next four years."
It was first disclosed by The Times of London early this week, and it was posted on the Web site of the Institute for Science and International Security in Washington. David Albright is head of the group, known as ISIS, and he points out an obvious problem � the document has no date.
Mr. DAVID ALBRIGHT (Head, Institute for Science and International Security): It's a little hard to pin down how long this was envisioned to last. But if you take the title literally, then it was a four-year program to master the development of this kind of device that would, when compressed by high explosives, would give off a small spurt of neutrons.
SHUSTER: So it's not known whether this is a proposal for future experiments, or whether these experiments are now under way. Albright says he was told the source of the document came from inside Iran and the source says the document was written in 2007.
If that is indeed true, it could be evidence that Iran is engaged, now, in work on components of a nuclear weapon � in contrast to the most recent U.S. National Intelligence Estimate on Iran. That NIE, in late 2007, concluded that Iran stopped work on nuclear weapons a few years earlier.
The CIA is believed to be studying the document. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton was asked about it, this week, at the State Department. She declined to discuss the document but did point to other worrying developments in Iran.
Secretary HILLARY CLINTON (Department of State): The concerns that we have, regarding Iranian intentions with their nuclear program, have been heightened already in the last months with the disclosure of the concealed facility at Qom. Certainly, the recent announcement by their Parliament that they intend to build 10 or 20 more nuclear plants, should raise deep concerns among all people.
SHUSTER: The existence of the facility near Qom � a secret uranium facility � was revealed in September. It is just one of several recent developments that raise new suspicions about Iran's nuclear intentions.
Analysts are leery of giving too much credence to the neutron initiator document, especially after the intelligence fiasco on weapons of mass destruction in Iraq, which did involve some forged documents. But, says Ivan Oelrich, an expert on nuclear weapons with the Federation of American Scientists, the document is consistent with the other recent disclosures about Iran's hidden nuclear activities.
Mr. IVAN OELRICH (Federation of American Scientists): Whether they intend to build a nuclear weapon or not, they certainly are investing a great deal of effort in maintaining that option into the future. If this document is real and it's recent, then that would indicate that they're aggressively exploring some of the components that would be needed to build a weapon, and it looks more and more suspicious for Iran.
SHUSTER: Iran's government continues to maintain that its nuclear program is for civilian purposes only. But analysts say a neutron initiator is good for only one thing � to spark a nuclear explosion.
Mike Shuster, NPR News.
NPR transcripts are created on a rush deadline by Verb8tm, Inc., an NPR contractor, and produced using a proprietary transcription process developed with NPR. This text may not be in its final form and may be updated or revised in the future. Accuracy and availability may vary. The authoritative record of NPR’s programming is the audio record.
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Earth Day - a day to remember the importance of clean air, land and water - became a day of protest Monday in Williamsport.
Environmental organizations of the protest said they want to hold the state Department of Environmental Protection Agency more accountable for oversight of companies that drill for natural gas.
The protesters marched outside the department's regional office building holding banners and signs
Anti-fracking protesters and those opposed to natural gas drilling impacts march at the corner of West Third and William streets during Earth Day Monday.
and demanding answers on the potential impacts of hydraulic fracking on natural resources.
Fracking is the process of using chemically treated water forced into the ground at well sites at a high volume to fracture the Marcellus Shale rock formation. The formation is more than a mile below the surface and lower than the water tables. Drillers then extract the gas that is trapped in the pockets of the rock. There are processes of vertical and horizontal drilling.
"It has taken years to find out (that) some of the chemicals used in the gas drilling process contain radioactive elements," said Lynne Whelden, of Canton.
While Whelden said he isn't against the men and women who work in the industry and doesn't blame them, he said its impact is all encompassing, from the glow at night from wells flaring to (potential) damage done to drinking and bathing water.
"Many gas wells are too close to the residential areas," he said. "Wells are all around us," he said. "The tunnels are under our water supply in the rock formation, which is ripe for infiltration."
A lack of precise answers of the toxic makeup in fracking water has bothered Nancy Shipley, of Cogan Station. "I get most upset about the inability to find out what toxic chemicals are used in hydraulic fracking," she said.
Jeff and Tina Richardson said they live near the Pennsylvania Grand Canyon outside of Wellsboro. The couple claimed that gas drilling damaged their water supply. The damage occurred, they claim, because of an "unrepaired" gas well and impedes their ability to shower and do laundry, which they do nearby, but not at their house.
Despite the gas industry providing fresh drinking water for the Richardsons, the couple doesn't feel safe with the well so close by.
Some of the banners on display were representative of the alleged impact of gas well drilling on nature. Among them was "The River of Life," an exhibit from Lewisburg that served as both community art and a warning.
The drawings include pictures of fowl, fish and aquatic life living along or in the river, according to Nancy Cleaver, who brought the material to the protest.
Jack Miller, of Middleburg, simply held up an anti-fracking sign. He didn't say much else.
City resident Michael Ochs said he viewed the need to establish a national energy policy to emphasize solar, wind and other renewable energy technologies.
Local activists were not alone, as a coalition of 60 organizations and individuals were spread throughout the state at regional offices of the department.
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Four Stroke Cycle Compression Ignition (Diesel) Engine
Compression-ignition (C.I) engines burn fuel oil which is injected into the combustion chamber when the air charge is fully compressed. Burning occurs when the compression temperature of the air is high enough to spontaneously ignite the finely atomized liquid fuel. In other words, burning is initiated by the self-generated heat of compression (Fig. 1.1-8). Compression-ignition (C.I) engines are also referred to as 'oil engines', due to the class of fuel burnt, or as 'diesel engines' after Rudolf Diesel, one of the many inventors and pioneers of the early C.I. engine. Note: in the United Kingdom fuel oil is known as 'DERV', which is the abbreviation of 'diesel-engine road vehicle'.
Just like the four-stroke-cycle petrol engine, the Compression-ignition (C.I.) engine completes one cycle of events in two crankshaft revolutions or four piston strokes. The four phases of these strokes are (i) induction of fresh air, (ii) compression and heating of this air, (iii) injection of fuel and its burning and expansion, and (iv) expulsion of the products of combustion.
Induction stroke (Fig. 1.1-8(a)) With the inlet valve open and the exhaust valve closed, the piston moves away from the cylinder head (Fig. 1.1-8(a)).
The outward movement of the piston will establish a depression in the cylinder, its magnitude depending on the ratio of the cross-sectional areas of the cylinder and the inlet port and on the speed at which the piston is moving. The pressure difference established between the inside and outside of the cylinder will induce air at atmospheric pressure to enter and fill up the cylinder. Unlike the petrol engine, which requires a charge of air-and-petrol mixture to be drawn past a throttle valve, in the diesel-engine inlet system no restriction is necessary and only pure air is induced into the cylinder. A maximum depression of maybe 0.15 bar below atmospheric pressure will occur at about one-third of the distance along the piston's outward stroke, while the overall average pressure in the cylinder might be 0.1 bar or even less.
Compression stroke (Fig. 1.1-8(b)) With both the inlet and the exhaust valves closed, the piston moves towards the cylinder head (Fig. 1.1-8(b)).
The air enclosed in the cylinder will be compressed into a much smaller space of anything from 1/12 to 1/24 of its original volume. A typical ratio of maximum to minimum air-charge volume in the cylinder would be 16:1, but this largely depends on engine size and designed speed range.
During the compression stroke, the air charge initially at atmospheric pressure and temperature is reduced in volume until the cylinder pressure is raised to between 30 and 50 bar. This compression of the air generates heat which will increase the charge temperature to at least 600 °C under normal running conditions.
Power stroke (Fig. 1.1-8(c)) With both the inlet and the exhaust valves closed and the piston almost at the end of the compression stroke (Fig. 1.1 -8(c)), diesel fuel oil is injected into the dense and heated air as a high-pressure spray of fine particles. Provided that they are properly atomized and distributed throughout the air charge, the heat of compression will then quickly vaporize and ignite the tiny droplets of liquid fuel. Within a very short time, the piston will have reached its innermost position and extensive burning then releases heat energy which is rapidly converted into pressure energy. Expansion then follows, pushing the piston away from the cylinder head, and the linear thrust acting on the piston end of the connecting-rod will then be changed to rotary movement of the crankshaft.
Exhaust stroke When the burning of the charge is near completion and the piston has reached the outermost position, the exhaust valve is opened. The piston then reverses its direction of motion and moves towards the cylinder head (Fig. 1.1-8(d)).
The sudden opening of the exhaust valve towards the end of the power stroke will release the still burning products of combustion to the atmosphere. The pressure energy of the gases at this point will accelerate their expulsion from the cylinder, and only towards the end of the piston's return stroke will the piston actually catch up with the tail-end of the outgoing gases.
Fig. 1.1-8(e) illustrates the sequence of the four operating strokes as applied to a four-cylinder engine, and the combined operating events expressed in terms of cylinder pressure and piston displacement are shown in Figs. 1.1-8(f) and (g).
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Mashed potatoes. Four or more servings a week of baked, boiled, or mashed potatoes was associated with an increased risk of hypertension compared with less than one serving a month in women, but not in men.
Higher intakes of boiled, baked, or mashed potatoes, and French fries is associated with an increased risk of developing high blood pressure (hypertension) in adult women and men, according to a study published by The BMJ today.
The US-based researchers suggest that replacing one serving a day of boiled, baked, or mashed potatoes with one serving of a non-starchy vegetable is associated with a lower risk of developing hypertension.
But a linked editorial argues that studying overall dietary patterns and risk of disease is more useful than a focus on individual foods or nutrients.
Potatoes are one of the world's most commonly consumed foods -- and have recently been included as vegetables in US government healthy meals programs, due to their high potassium content. But the association of potato intake with hypertension has not been studied.
So researchers based at Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School set out to determine whether higher long term intake of baked, boiled, or mashed potatoes, French fries, and potato chips (crisps) was associated with incident hypertension.
They followed over 187,000 men and women from three large US studies for more than 20 years. Dietary intake, including frequency of potato consumption, was assessed using a questionnaire. Hypertension was reported by participants based on diagnosis by a health professional.
After taking account of several other risk factors for hypertension, the researchers found that four or more servings a week of baked, boiled, or mashed potatoes was associated with an increased risk of hypertension compared with less than one serving a month in women, but not in men.
Higher consumption of French fries was also associated with an increased risk of hypertension in both women and men. However, consumption of potato chips (crisps) was associated with no increased risk.
After further analyses, the researchers suggest that replacing one serving a day of boiled, baked, or mashed potatoes with one serving of a non-starchy vegetable is associated with a decreased risk of hypertension.
The authors point out that potatoes have a high glycaemic index compared with other vegetables, so can trigger a sharp rise in blood sugar levels, and this could be one explanation for the findings.
They also acknowledge some study limitations and say that, as with any observational study, no firm conclusions can be drawn about cause and effect.
Nevertheless, they say their findings "have potentially important public health ramifications, as they do not support a potential benefit from the inclusion of potatoes as vegetables in government food programs but instead support a harmful effect that is consistent with adverse effects of high carbohydrate intakes seen in controlled feeding studies."
In a linked editorial, researchers at the University of New South Wales argue that, although diet has an important part to play in prevention and early management of hypertension, dietary behaviour and patterns of consumption are complex and difficult to measure.
"We will continue to rely on prospective cohort studies, but those that examine associations between various dietary patterns and risk of disease provide more useful insights for both policy makers and practitioners than does a focus on individual foods or nutrients," they conclude.
The above post is reprinted from materials provided by BMJ. Note: Materials may be edited for content and length.
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Deriving the ecological footprint results: Component by component
Deriving ecological footprint conversions is different for each component. The following sections illustrate the key data and methodology issues involved.
The direct energy footprint
The National Footprint Accounts present energy consumption data for a nation, and per person. The Stepwise™ methodology enables this total to be broken down into direct and indirect energy.
Direct energy includes domestic energy, and energy for the provision of services, for example hotels and schools.
Indirect energy use is accounted for in other component ecological footprints. For example, energy used to produce materials and products (known as embodied energy) is accounted for in the materials and waste ecological footprint, and energy for transport is accounted for in the personal transport component.
CO 2 emissions associated with direct energy usage are calculated according to energy source (see Table 3), and the ecological footprint derived by calculating the global hectares of new forest required to assimilate these emissions* (see formulae in Stepwise™ Step 1). The conversion factor used for brown grid electricity is given in Table 4.
* The default method for accounting CO 2 (using new forest area to assimilate emissions) assumes that 31% of CO 2 emissions are assimilated by the sea (these emissions are excluded (Wackernagel et al., 2002)). This is used as the default as it indicates the implications of current climate change abatement policies adopted in many countries.
|Energy source||Kg CO 2 per kWh|
|Source: DETR, 1999|
|Brown grid electricity (per GWh)||Energy land|
|A||Carbon per GWh (tonnes)||131.47|
|C||World carbon absorption (tonnes C/ha/yr)**||0.95|
|( A x B x D ) / C||Ecological footprint (gha/GWh)||128.89|
|* CO2 emissions assimilated by the sea are excluded from the ecological footprint, which leaves approximately 69% of emissions to be accounted.
** See glossary.
The materials and waste footprint
The National Footprint Accounts assess the bioproductive land and energy land requirements of materials and products separately. The bioproductive land requirements are all accounted for in the raw materials production, import and export data. Additional embodied energy impacts, which occur during the manufacture and production of materials and products are not identified separately, but aggregated as part of a national energy consumption figure adjusted for imports and exports.
The Stepwise™ methodology uses the same approach, but disaggregates energy and materials into more detailed components. Consumption data is taken from the resource flow analysis, where double counting between materials and products has been removed (see Resource Flow Analysis Methodology).
Unlike the other components, official data on consumption of materials and products was not available for the South West and was therefore based on UK data. In the resource flow analysis UK ProdCom data was proxied to reflect the economic activity of the South West (geographical principle). For the ecological footprint analysis the UK data was proxied using domestic waste as a proxy to reflect South West residents' consumption (responsibility principle).
Consumption by area type (energy land, crop land, pasture, forest and sea) is first calculated from the National Footprint Accounts for the UK and then disaggregated into Stepwise TM components (see Barrett & Simmons (2003) for further details). Built land is not included in the 'materials and waste' component but is presented as a separate component.
To adjust the UK material and products data to estimate South West consumption, household waste was used as a proxy. This proxy is a comparison between household waste arisings in the UK for 1999 (Barrett & Simmons, 2003)) and the South West for 2001:
|UK household waste arisings||=||480 kg per person|
|South West household waste arisings||=||504 kg per person|
|Proxy||=||South West waste / UK waste|
|=||504 / 480|
The South West per person footprint for materials and waste in 2001 will be 5% more than the UK footprint for materials and waste in 1999.
Materials and products
Energy ecological footprints are captured separately from other area types for materials and products, driven by data availability and the necessity to discount double counting between material and product consumption data.
Energy land ecological footprints for materials and products are captured from the embodied energy associated with final products, which includes energy inputs throughout the lifecycle of the product, including extraction and harvesting of the raw materials. Embodied energy figures used in the National Footprint Accounts were applied to the 4,800 products outlined in ProdCom (ONS, 2001) to ensure consistency. See Appendix 5 for a detailed discussion of ProdCom data.
The energy ecological footprint calculations do not capture data for materials consumed as raw materials. This was the case for SIC 13: 'metal ores' and SIC 14: 'other quarrying and mining' and part of SIC 2: 'timber'. These categories were analysed further to incorporate associated energy land requirements not elsewhere captured.
Ecological footprints for the other bioproductive area types (arable, pasture, forest and sea) are captured from raw materials consumption data, which includes all the materials used in the production of final products. Examples of the algorithms used to derive the bioproductive ecological footprints are shown earlier (see formulae in Stepwise™ Step 1) and are compatible with those used for the National Footprint Accounts .
Once the separate ecological footprints were calculated for materials and products, they were combined to give a total ecological footprint for materials and products in the South West.
This approach is summarised in Figure 4.
The boundaries considered for calculating the ecological footprint of materials and products
Where waste was sent to landfill for disposal, no embodied energy savings were assumed. Where waste was sent for incineration, the energy reclaimed from the incineration of waste was accounted for in the energy data. Where waste was recycled or composted, it was assumed to reduce the need for virgin resource consumption: embodied energy savings of 51% were assumed (Barrett & Simmons, 2003) for recycled and composted materials. Waste sent for recycling or composting resulted in a net deduction from the materials ecological footprint.
The food footprint
The National Footprint Accounts (Redefining Progress, 2002) identify food materials and products only at the raw material stage, for example wheat, potatoes, bovine meat. Food products such as ice cream or soup are not identified. For this study, food was disaggregated into categories listed in the National Food Survey (DEFRA, 2000). The embodied energy associated with food production was also identified and accounted. The methodology for calculating the ecological footprint of fish and seafood in the National Footprint Accounts is based on the bioproductivity of the continental shelves, the trophic level of the fish catch, normalisation of ocean and land bioproductivity, and also includes freshwater fish and aquaculture (Wackernagel et al., 2002).
The consumption of food products in the South West (net consumption) (taken from DEFRA, 2000) was converted into the raw materials required to produce them. Thus the energy used, and biodegradable waste produced, during the production and manufacturing of food products (not post-consumer food waste, which was included in the 'materials and waste component'), were included in the ecological footprint of food consumed by South West residents.
The area required for growing crops and rearing animals to supply the South West population with food, was calculated using global yield factors from the National Footprint Accounts, and converted to global hectares following methodology set out there. Embodied energy of food products was derived from South West consumption data, and embodied energy estimates are shown in Table 5. An example of calculating a food ecological footprint is shown in Table 6.
|Food type||MJ per kg|
|Fish & seafood||40|
|Other aquatic products||40|
|Sugar & sweeteners||15|
|Sources: Based on Redefining Progress, 2002 and Coley et al., 1998|
|Beef & veal* (1 tonne)||Energy land|
|A||Carbon per tonne||0.681|
|C||World carbon absorption (tC/ha/yr)**||0.95|
|( A x B x D ) / C||Ecological footprint (gha/tonne)||0.668|
|Beef & veal* (1 tonne)||Pasture|
|A||World yield (tonnes/ha/yr)||0.032|
|B||World waste factor||1|
|( 1 / ( A x B ) ) x C||Ecological footprint (gha/tonne)||14.92|
|Beef & veal* (1 tonne)||Crop area|
|UK imports as % of world production||0.10%|
|A + B||Ecological footprint (gha/tonne)||3.03|
|* Tables relate to imports only. Separate calculations are undertaken for home production and exports.
** See glossary.
Note: National Footprint Accounts (Redefining Progress, 2002) conversion factors are used.
The personal transport footprint
The National Footprint Accounts do not identify transport impacts separately; instead the energy and built land impacts are aggregated within the total ecological footprint calculations. Freight transport was accounted for in the 'food' and 'materials and waste' ecological footprints, with only passenger transport data accounted for in the personal transport component.
In this study , personal transport impacts were disaggregated by mode. A range of personal transport modes was considered. Carbon emissions associated with each mode are given in Table 7. An example calculation for the ecological footprint of air transport is shown in Table 8.
|Transport mode||CO 2 /pass-km (kg)|
|Motorbike & scooters||0.10|
|Bus & coach||0.05|
|Tram & metro||0.03|
|Air intra-EU (short haul)||0.25|
|Air extra-EU (long haul)||0.16|
|Sources: CAA, 2002; DfT, 2002 & 2002a and Scottish Executive, 2002a|
|Air intra-EU (1 pass-km)||Energy land|
|A||Carbon per pass-km (kg)||0.067|
|C||Air uplift2 factor||168%|
|E||World carbon absorption (tonnes C/ha/yr)*||0.95|
|( ( A / 1000 ) x B x C x D x F ) / E||Ecological footprint (gha/pass-km)||1.6 x 10-6|
| 1: The uplift factor represents the fuel equivalent used for manufacturing and maintenance, and comes from Wackernagel & Rees (1996). Other sources suggest the uplift factor can range between 11% (derived from Hill et al., 1995 and Teufel et al., 1993) and 93% (derived from Teufel et al., 1993).
2: The air uplift factor is an additional adjustment used to account for international air travel.
* See glossary.
The water footprint
The supply and consumption of water is not identified in the National Footprint Accounts (Redefining Progress, 2002). For this study, the ecological footprint of water was calculated by measuring the energy used to supply, collect and treat water, as well as treatment of wastewater and release back into the environment. Table 9 shows the ecological footprint calculations for the supply of water.
|Water supply (1 Megalitre)||Energy land|
|A||Carbon per megalitre (tonnes)||0.1|
|C||World carbon absorption (tonnes C/ha/yr)*||0.95|
|( A x B x D ) / C||Ecological footprint (gha/megalitre)||0.099|
|* See glossary.|
It has been argued (see Chambers et al., 2000) that water catchment area should also be included in water ecological footprints. However, including the catchment area would incur a double counting of existing areas of demand (arable, energy, pasture, forest and sea areas), because most land types also serve a water catchment function.
The built land footprint
The National Footprint Accounts include built land as a separate component, but do not distinguish different uses. Built land includes all areas that are built on, contaminated or degraded to the degree that they are rendered biologically unproductive. This study used South West-specific data to identify land uses within the region. To calculate each built land ecological footprint, a yield factor was applied to the raw data to convert it into hectares of global average crop area (National Footprint Accounts assume that most built land was once productive). A crop area equivalence factor was then applied to convert the data into global hectares. Table 10 shows the ecological footprint calculation for built land.
|Built land (per hectare)||Built land|
|A||Built land (ha)||1|
|B||Crop yield factor||2.44|
|A x B x C||Ecological footprint (gha/hectare)||5.32|
|* See glossary.|
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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|
en
| 0.897843 | 2,814 | 3.359375 | 3 |
In the years after the Homestead Act, Europeans moved in ever greater numbers into Native American territory. In the 1860s and ’70s, the United States Army was engaged in war with the Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho tribes. The Pawnee tribe had fought these other tribes for years, and so the Army turned to the Pawnee for help against a common foe.
The Pawnee became scouts. They were very successful in helping protect the railroad as it was being built across Nebraska, and they accompanied several U.S. Amy expeditions against the warring Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho. But, by the late 1870s, the Pawnee Scouts were disbanded, and the U.S. Government had removed most members of the Pawnee tribe from Nebraska to Indian Territory south of Nebraska.
The Lakota (Sioux), on the other hand, had much more trouble with
early emigrants, and their experience sets the stage for the history
of homesteading. Trouble with whites began with the California gold
rush. In 1850 approximately 50,000 gold seekers traveled the Overland
Trail through the heart of Lakota country. The Lakota did not take
kindly to these newcomers crossing their land, competing for resources.
The government tried to intervene by peaceful means.
Ft. Laramie Treaty of 1851. In 1851 government officials
met with Cheyenne, Crow, Blackfeet, Arapaho, Assiniboine, Dakota,
Lakota and Nakota tribal members at Fort Laramie, just west of what
would become Nebraska in Wyoming. Approximately 10,000 Native Americans
camped and talked with U.S. representatives. The tribes and the
government negotiated a treaty that had several main points:
- The treaty called for peace and friendship among rival tribes.
- It promised each tribe $50,000 each year for 10 years.
- In exchange, the treaty recognized the U.S. government’s right
to establish roads and forts and the rights of immigrants to travel
on the Overland Trail in peace.
- The treaty drew lines on the map where tribes were allowed to
hunt and fish; later treaties established actual reservations.
- And the treaty allowed the government to without the money if
the tribes violated the terms of the agreement.
The Fort Laramie Treaty set the precedent for U.S. recognition
of tribal sovereign rights, and it set off several
decades of treaty negotiations and agreements that eventually
transferred almost all of the tribal lands to the U.S.
Unfortunately the peace did not last. In 1854 — eight years before
the Homestead Act — some Lakota near Fort Laramie butchered an
emigrant’s cow they thought was abandoned. Lt. John Grattan and
29 soldiers were sent to investigate the incident. Grattan opened
fire on the Indian camp. The Indians retaliated, killing all of
the soldiers. The next year Gen. William Harney was ordered to restore
peace on the trail. He found a Lakota camp at Blue Water Creek in
Garden County and attacked it, although the camp residents had nothing
to do with the Grattan slaughter. Harney’s troops killed 136 men,
women, and children. Although peace was restored, pressure continued
to build, and war broke out again in 1863 with attacks on Overland
Trail travelers. In 1867 the Lakota pushed eastward and attacked
a Union Pacific railroad train in Dawson County, Nebraska. Attempts
at peaceful settlements resulted in payments of food, guns, and
other goods to the Lakota.
There were similar conflicts during the early homestead period
with a band of Cheyenne in the Republican River valley of south
central Nebraska. Again, a military expedition was sent out in 1869
to subdue the Cheyenne. The campaign killed 50 warriors.
For the immigrants, the threat they felt from Native Americans
was probably greater than the actual history. There was conflict
— theft, fights and murder on both sides. But there were also hundreds
of treaty negotiations across the continent. These treaties lessened
the conflict and, more importantly, transferred legal title for
land that native tribal people had lived and hunted on for centuries
to the U.S.
Some "Indian Campaign" Medal of Honor recipients
in the Nebraska Hall of Fame
Find about all its members.
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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| 0.964059 | 938 | 4.4375 | 4 |
By Robert Bluthardt
Director, Fort Concho National Historic Landmark
Published November 2010
To the first-time visitor, Fort Concho presents a commanding appearance—a large Parade Ground with a center flagpole surrounded by several rows of 1800s buildings, all restored to their military exteriors. Little of the current century intrudes, as power poles, city streets and other modern distractions have mostly been removed or hidden. Perhaps, thinks the visitor, it was always this way, but many long-time residents know, “it was not always thus.”
Built and operated between 1867 and 1889, Fort Concho was never meant to be permanent. The U. S. Army built, relocated, and abandoned forts across the west as quickly as the frontier moved. Many forts crumbled into ruins; a few were stripped of their valued building materials; and some survived in very changed fashions.
What saved Fort Concho was both an accident of its limestone construction and the development of a viable community across the river. These well built structures offered San Angelo citizens new homes and commercial locations at the close of the 19th century. By the early 1900s, the fort anchored what was called the “Fort Concho Addition,” and the old post settled into nearly 40 years of semi-retirement.
Amazingly, local folks made some efforts as early as 1905 to save the place as a monument to the pioneer past, as former post trader J. L. Millspaugh suggested that the city could buy the entire site for $15,000. A dollar bought more in those days, and 15,000 of them was far beyond the newly incorporated city’s budget. In 1913, the Santa Fe Railroad gave the eastern third of the parade ground to the city, and for a century that parcel has remained clear of any new buildings or distractions. Meanwhile, in 1923, the Daughters of
the American Revolution announced their plans to save the whole fort, but they fell far, far short in fundraising and settled for a stone marker that now sits near our visitor entrance at Barracks 1.
Ginevra Wood Carson, a lady of vision, energy, and endurance, took on the project in the late 1920s, creating the West Texas Museum in the old Tom Green County Courthouse in 1928, and moving the museum to the fort’s Headquarters Building in 1930 at the dawn of the Great Depression. Through that difficult decade, World War II, and the great drought of the 1950s, she directed the preservation efforts, never losing faith when resources were scarce. Mrs. Carson had to have a sense of humor—or at least great patience—as the city sometimes purchased old fort property, but then assigned it to some other municipal function. In 1939, for example, the city bought the old commissary building and Mrs. Carson’s dream of new exhibit space were dashed when the large structure became the city transit bus barn.
After World War II, both the schoolhouse and two barracks and mess halls were returned to the museum and offered new spaces for displays, but the majority of the military post remained in private hands. In addition, a 1907 elementary school squatted in the middle of the Parade Ground, several 1900s buildings fronted South Oakes Street, new streets cut through the site, and a series of residences filled the gap where Barracks 3 and 4 had tumbled into ruins a generation before. Many of the old officers’ quarters had become private homes too, saved from destruction, but in some cases renovated far beyond their simple military styles.
Mrs. Carson and her allies had accomplished much, but original visions of returning the whole fort to its 1800s glory seemed far away. Administratively, the fort preservation had some support, as it had been owned by the city of San Angelo since 1935 and made a full unit of city government by 1955, and it received the very prestigious honor of being declared a national historic landmark in 1961.
Money, staff, and planning all came together in the 1960s. Mrs. Carson’s successors raised the funds to purchase one officers’ quarters after another, adding a piece of land here and another there throughout the decade. The fort hired a professionally trained staff in the late 1960s. Foundation and government money became available for land and building acquisitions, and the fort made substantial progress on holding events, creating new exhibits, a collections, and a research library. Visitation increased and supporters realized that the best days were ahead.
In the 1970s, major renovation projects included restoring Officers’ Quarters 7 into offices and a research library. The San Angelo Junior League helped to create the fort’s education department in 1976. Major land purchases included the old quartermaster storehouse, the site of the old post hospital, the land between Barracks 2 and 5, and property facing the parade ground and Officers’ Row. At the end of the decade, the Fort board and staff commissioned the Austin firm of Bell, Klein, and Hoffman to create a master plan for development and restoration.
The “Master Plan” as it was often called, spurred the restoration of the commissary into a meeting hall with a second partnership with the Junior League which had assisted the fort in the professional restoration of Officers’ Quarters 8 a decade earlier. The quartermaster storehouse became the first home of the newly created San Angelo Museum of Fine Arts, and Officers’ Quarters 9, after full restoration, became the site’s education building.
Two major developments occurred in the 1980s: the fort board bought the old Monarch Tile block on South Oakes Street, getting back the original Barracks 1 and 2, and eventually worked with the city to see the non-historic property renovated into state office space. Also, the “Hospital-School Project” reconstructed the old post hospital in its 1870s form, created a new Fort Concho Elementary School nearby, and cleared the parade ground for the first time in almost a century. Now you could “see” the fort across the open field and the same impressive vista offered itself to passing drivers on South Oakes Street.
Over the past 20 years, improvements have continued with a new visitor center at Barracks 1, part of the overall creation of the Paseo de Santa Angela across South Oakes Street. Avenue C was closed in 1997 and replaced 10 years later with a period “company street,” while a new pathway and traffic light offered a safe and attractive entrance for guests. The fort finally purchased the original stables block in 1997, transforming one non-historic section into more revenue-producing office space, another two sections into storage space, and a last section becoming a huge rental hall for parties and gatherings.
But what is ahead? Mrs. Carson would be pleased with the progress since her first efforts over 80 years ago, but were she still with us (she passed away in 1958), she might recommend the following:
- Remove Avenue D, create the company street, and bring back the entire fort grounds to those traffic-free days of the 1870s.
- Rebuild the Post Surgeon’s Quarters, a portion of which sits in the current Avenue D, so maybe #1 and #2 can be combined.
- Rebuild the Guardhouse, located between Barracks 6 and the Quartermaster, identical in appearance to a barracks and slightly smaller.
- Fill that gap between Barracks 2 and 5 by rebuilding both Barracks 3 and 4 and their mess halls. The fort’s ever-expanding library, archives, and collections deserve new homes and better spaces to display our fine artifacts.
- Rebuild Officers’ Quarters 5, the only quarters along the row that did not survive.
- Reconstruct the Post Bandstand, a handsome structure at the far west end of the Parade Ground. It would be an appropriate site for future concerts
Fort Concho will mark its 150th anniversary of establishment in 2017, so some of the above goals are not impossible. Established in the 19th century and restored in the 20th century, Fort Concho has already made great progress in the 21st century and looks forward to the ultimate goal of putting the fort back together as its first residents would have recognized it. The fort also thanks its many supporters, volunteers, board, and staff who have kept the faith, when the site “was not always thus!”
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en
| 0.97195 | 1,738 | 2.921875 | 3 |
How to Get Kids to Play Outdoors
Several studies have shown that regular, unstructured playtime in nature makes kids smarter, calmer, more self-disciplined, more cooperative, and happier. As a child, I loved going outdoors for its own sake, but looking back, I value the gifts it gave me: a strong, healthy body; an up-close-and-personal relationship with the birds and bugs and plants of northern Michigan; a resilience borne of the many scraped shins and bike crashes I never let slow me down; and the joy of knowing that every day held adventure and excitement right outside my front door.
So what's keeping our kids indoors? Read on for a rundown of the attitudes, both ours and theirs, most likely to prevent them from heading for the backyard — and parent-tested ways to overcome them.
Barrier: "It's not safe!"
Parents have been so inundated with dire media warnings about child abductions and pedestrian accidents that many think going outside is too dangerous for their preteens. "There are things outside that can be risky, but keeping kids under house arrest has risks, too," Louv says. For example, the CDC reports that about one in three American children are now overweight or at risk for becoming so, increasing their chances of developing type 2 diabetes, heart disease, and high blood pressure. While we should undoubtedly be aware of the potential — but usually rare — hazards of letting kids play outside, we also need to pay attention to the much more prevalent dangers of not letting them play outside.
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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en
| 0.957107 | 322 | 2.625 | 3 |
wc defines a word as a set of contiguous letters, numbers and/or symbols which are separated from other characters by one or more spaces, tabs and/or newline characters (which are generated when the RETURN key is pressed). When counting the number of characters, all characters are counted, not only letters, numbers and symbols, but also spaces, tabs and newline characters. A line is only counted if it ends with a newline character.
wc's syntax is
The items in square brackets are optional. If no file names are provided, wc reads from its standard input, which by default is text entered at the keyboard.
This can be seen by typing
at the command line (i.e., in the all-text mode), pressing the ENTER key to move to a new line and then typing some text on one or more lines. The command is executed (i.e., run) by pressing the ENTER key again and then pressing the CONTROL and d keys simultaneously. This causes wc to write in a new line (under the lines of text) its count of the numbers of lines, words and characters in the text.
The following command counts the number of lines, words and characters in a file named file1 that resides in the current directory (i.e., the directory in which the user is currently working) and likewise writes them, followed by the name of the file, to standard output, which is by default the display monitor:
wc can provide its output for multiple files by listing the name of each separated by a space. For example,
The numbers of lines, words and characters for each file along with its name will be displayed on a separate line and in the order that the files are listed as arguments (i.e., input files). In the case of multiple arguments such as this, wc also provides an additional line that shows the total number of lines, words and characters for all the files.
Likewise, wc can provide a count for all of the text files within a directory. This is accomplished by using the star wildcard character, which represents everything and is designated by an asterisk ( * ). For example, the following will display the number of lines, words and characters for each file in the current directory (which is represented by a dot) as well as totals for all files in the directory:
wc has only a few options, the most commonly used of which restrict the information it provides. The -l option tells wc to count only the number of lines, the -w option tells it to count only the number of words, the -m option tells it to count only the number of characters and the -c option tells wc to count only the number of bytes.
Thus, for example, the following displays just the number of words in a file named file4:
The following displays the number of characters in the same file:
As is generally the case with commands in Unix-like operating systems, any combination of options can be used together. For example, the following would count both the numbers of lines and words in a file named file5:
Redirection can be used with wc to create more complex commands. For example, the output from the above command can be redirected using the standard output redirection operator (which is designated by a rightward pointing angle bracket) from the display screen to a file named file6 with the following:
If file6 already exists, its contents will be overwritten; if it does not exist, it will be created. The contents of file6 can be easily confirmed with a text editor or with a command such as cat, which is commonly used to read text files, i.e.,
As another example, wc with its -l option can be used to count the total number of objects (i.e., files, links and directories) in the current directory. This is accomplished by first employing the ls command, which by default lists the contents of the current directory, and then sending its output via a pipe (designated by the vertical bar character) to wc, which counts the number of lines in the output from ls, i.e.,
wc can count the words, lines and/or characters only in text files. However, when used with its -c option, it can count the bytes in any type of file, i.e. a plain text file or a binary file. (A binary file is any file that contains at least some non-text data, such as an image file, a compressed text file or an executable program.) This can be a convenient way of determining the size of a file.
For example, the following command displays the size for each jpeg image file in the current directory as well as the total for all of them:
Created June 2, 2004. Last updated May 24, 2006.
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.linfo.org/wc.html
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|
en
| 0.935235 | 999 | 3.875 | 4 |
In your construct:
EncryptAB(K1||K2, PT) = EncryptA(K1, EncryptB(K2, PT))
it is easy to show that, as long as the keys K1 and K2 are independent, that this cannot be any less secure than the stronger of EncryptA and EncryptB.
Here is a sketch of how this is shown; suppose that there is a chosen plaintext attack against EncryptAB; that is, the attacker submits known values to EncryptAB, examines its results, and somehow rederive the value K1||K2. Then, this method can be used to attack EncryptA; the attacker would choose a random value for K2; he would take his chosen plaintexts, EncryptB them with his K2 value, and then submit them as chosen plaintexts to the EncryptA with the known key. Then, he can use those encrypted values to rederive the K1||K2 values, which includes the value K1 which he was interested in. The attack against EncryptB works in exactly the same manner.
Now, this method doesn't prove that EncryptAB is any stronger than the stronger of EncryptA and EncryptB (and, indeed, it might not be); however, it does show that using the two of them doesn't make things any worse. Also, we need to assume that that keys K1 and K2 are independent, because this simulation has the attacker picking one of those values; if they are interrelated, he wouldn't be able to do that.
Now, for your related question: how about interleaving the rounds of two different ciphers. That doesn't have any such security reduction, and in practice, it would give me the willies. Encryption round functions don't have that much strength in themselves (that's why we use multiple rounds); what a good round function is designed to do is play nicely with the round functions that'll be next to it in the designed cipher. For example, if there is a good differential through one round, it's going to be the case that it doesn't have any good paths through the next one (or the one after that). This is not by accident; the cipher designer (at least, if they knew what they were doing) went through some serious analysis to make sure that was the case.
In contrast, if you interleave the round functions from two different ciphers, well, no one has done any such analysis. Yes, it might be secure, but without someone spending a lot of time looking at it, you couldn't be certain. It'd be far better to use your original suggestion, and do a full set of rounds from your first cipher, and then do a second set of rounds from your second.
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://crypto.stackexchange.com/questions/1737/can-nesting-different-ciphers-with-different-keys-ever-decrease-security/1738
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Lesson 2: Chronological Order
Let's Read About…Rosa Parks
- Learning Goal
- Explain that a biography tells about a person’s life in chronological order.
- Put events from a biography in chronological order.
- Approximately 50 minutes
- Necessary Materials
- Provided: Unit Example Chart, Independent Practice Worksheet
Not Provided: Let’s Read About . . . Rosa Parks by Courtney Baker, A Picture Book of Sacagawea by David A. Adler, chart paper, markers
will explain that another characteristic of a biography is that it presents a real person’s life in chronological order. I will add this to my Characteristics of Biographies Chart (Example Chart is provided in Unit Teacher and Student Materials). Chronological order means “in order of time.” If I told you a story about yesterday in chronological order, I would start with my alarm clock waking me up in the morning and end with me getting back into bed to go to sleep. The time covered in my story of yesterday was only one day, but biographies are about a person’s entire life. Biographies usually start with when a person is born and end when a person grows old. It tells the reader the important events of a person’s life in the order that they happen. I will use the familiar biography (from Lesson 1) Let’s Read About . . . Rosa Parks to model putting major events in Rosa’s life in order. I will write the following events on the board or chart paper (mixed up) and number them in order while I think aloud. I will explain that to put them in order, I will refer to the order of information in the text. • Rosa was born in February 1913 in Tuskegee, Alabama. • Rosa was sent to a special school in Montgomery, Alabama where she could get a good education. • Rosa and Raymond Parks got married. • Rosa stood up to a white bus driver who would not let her sit up front because she was African American. • Rosa fought the bus company in court and won. After putting the events in order by numbering them, I will reflect that a biography tells me what happened to Rosa Parks in chronological order, or in order of time. I will add the title of the book to my chart.
Ask: "How did I put the major events in a biography in chronological order?" Students should respond that you used the information in the book to help you put the events in order. Since biographies tell you about someone’s life in order, you numbered the events in the order in which they happened.
will read A Picture Book of Sacagawea by David A. Adler. After reading the first half of the book, we will look at a mixed up list of events in Sacagawea’s life so far (list provided below). Then, we will number the events from 1-4, referring to the information in the book to help us figure out the order. We will reflect that a biography shows us the events in a person’s life in order, so we will add the title of the book to our chart. We will finish reading A Picture Book of Sacagawea.
Sacagawea was born in 1788 or 1789 in the Rocky Mountains.
Sacagawea’s tribe was attacked by Hidatsa warriors, and she was captured and taken hundreds of miles away to the Missouri river
Sacagawea was sold to a white trader named Charbonneau to be his wife.
Lewis and Clark arrived at the Hidasta village.
will put major events from Sacagawea’s life in chronological order by numbering them on your Independent Practice worksheet. You will explain how you know A Picture Book of Sacagawea is a biography.
Build Student Vocabulary discover
|Tier 2 Word: discover|
|Contextualize the word as it is used in the story||Lewis and Clark were explorers sent by the President to “draw maps, discover new plants and animals, and learn about the Native Americans who lived in the West, telling them about the United States.”|
|Explain the meaning student-friendly definition)||To discover means to find or learn something new. Lewis and Clark were supposed to go West to find new plants and animals.|
|Students repeat the word||Say the word discover with me: discover.|
|Teacher gives examples of the word in other contexts||Every time I clean my room, I discover something I thought I lost. I love to discover new things about the world when I read.|
|Students provide examples||Have you ever discovered anything? Where did you discover it? Start by saying “Once I discovered ________.”|
|Students repeat the word again.||What word are we talking about? discover|
|Additional Vocabulary Words||surrounded, captive|
After reading A Picture Book of Sacagawea, trace Lewis and Clark’s journey on a map of the United States. Explain to students that the explorers were traveling West to see what land was available to build on. Show students North, South, East, and West on the map. Show students the symbols on a map that tells which direction something is. Explain to students that the United States became populated on the East Coast first and then people migrated further West over time.
Texts & Materials
(To see all of the ReadWorks lessons aligned to your standards, click here.)
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.readworks.org/lessons/grade1/genre-studies-biography/lesson-2
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• A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P R S T U V W Y •
Above Grade - The location of a structure or transit guideway above the surface of the ground (also known as elevated or aerial).
Accessible Service - Buses operating in regular service with wheelchair lifts, kneeling functions or other devices that permit disabled passengers to use the service.
Accessibility - (1) The extent to which facilities are barrier free and useable by disabled persons, including wheelchair users. (2) A measure of the ability or ease of all people to travel among various origins and destinations.
Activity Center - An area with high population and concentrated activities which generate a large number of trips (e.g., shopping centers, business or industrial parks, recreational facilities.
Alignment - The horizontal and vertical ground plan of a roadway, railroad, transit route or other facility.
Allocation - An administrative distribution of funds, for example, federal funds among the states; used for funds that do not have legislatively mandated distribution formula.
Alternative Fuel - A liquid or gaseous non-petroleum fuel, used to power transit vehicles. Usually refers to alcohol fuels, mineral fuels, natural gas, and hydrogen.
A.M. Peak - The morning commute period, about two hours, in which the greatest movement of passengers occurs, generally from home to work; the portion of the morning service period where the greatest level of ridership is experienced and service provided.
AMTRAK (National Railroad Passenger Corporation) - A quasi-public corporation created by the federal Rail Passenger Service Act of 1970 to improve and develop intercity passenger rail service throughout the United States. Operates a depot at 1914 North Tryon Street in Charlotte.
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) - The law passed by Congress in 1990 which makes it illegal to discriminate against people with disabilities in employment, services provided by state and local governments, public and private transportation, public accommodations and telecommunications.
Appropriation - An act of Congress that permits federal agencies to incur obligations and make payments for specific purposes.
APTA - American Public Transportation Association is an international organization that has been representing the transit industry for over 100 years, since 1882. APTA members include bus, rapid transit and commuter rail systems, and the organizations responsible for planning, designing, constructing, financing and operating transit systems.
At Grade - The location of a structure or transit guideway at the same level as the ground surface.
Authorization - Basic, substantive federal legislation that established or continues the legal operation of federal program agencies, either indefinitely or for a specific period of time.
Automatic Passenger Counts (APC) - A technology installed on transit vehicles that counts the number of boarding and alighting passengers at each stop while also noting the time. Passengers are counted using either pulse beams or step treadles located at each door. Stop location is generally identified through use of either global positioning systems (GPS) or signpost transmitters in combination with vehicle odometers.
Automatic Vehicle Location (AVL) - A system that senses, at intervals, the monitors the real-time location of transit vehicles carrying special electronic equipment that communicates a signal back to a central control facility, locating the vehicle and providing other information about its operations or about its mechanical condition.
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Best Work Place -"Best Workplaces for Commuters" is a national program sponsored by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) that honors businesses and organizations that meet the National Standard of Excellence for commuter benefits.
Board - To go onto or into a transit vehicle.
Bus - A rubber-tired road vehicle designed to carry a substantial number of passengers commonly operated on streets and highways for public transportation service.
Bus Bay - Bus staging area in a facility such as a transit center or rail station.
Bus Hours - The total hours of travel by bus, including both revenue service and deadhead travel.
Bus Lane - A lane of roadway intended primarily for use by buses, either all day or during specified periods.
Bus Operations Division (BOD) - Serves as CATS' principal fixed-route bus service provider. Provides service utilizing approximately 250 vehicles and over 700 employees.
Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) - BRT can operate on exclusive transitways, HOV lanes, expressways, or ordinary streets. A BRT system combines transportation systems technology, priority for transit, rapid and convenient fare collection, and integration with land use policy in order to substantially upgrade bus system performance.
Bus Stop - A curbside place where passengers board or alight transit.
Bus Miles - The total miles of travel by bus, including both revenue and deadhead travel.
Bus Shelter - A structure constructed near a bus stop to provide seating and protection from the weather for the convenience of waiting passengers.
Busway - A special roadway designed for exclusive use by buses. It may be constructed at, above, or below grade and may be located in separate rights-of-way or within highway corridors.
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Capital - Long-term assets, such as property, buildings, roads, rail lines and vehicles.
Capital Costs - Costs of long-term assets of a public transit system such as property, buildings, vehicles, etc.
Capital Improvement Program - The list of capital projects for a five to seven-year programming period.
Capital Project - Construction and/or procurement of district assets, such as transit centers, transit vehicles and track.
Car Pool - An arrangement where people share the use and cost of a privately owned automobile in traveling to and from pre-arranged destinations.
Central Business District (CBD) - An area of a city that contains the greatest concentration of commercial activity, the "Center City". The traditional retail, trade, and commercial area of a city or an area of very high land valuation, traffic flow, and concentration of retail business offices, theaters, hotels and services.
Charlotte Area Transit System (CATS) - CATS is managed by the Public Transit Department. The Department maintains a dual focus, managing and continually improving day-to-day operations of the City's transit services while moving swiftly ahead with planning for a regional transit system which will include bus rapid transit, light rail, commuter rail, and expanded bus service within a six-county area.
Charlotte Department of Transportation (CDOT) - CDOT provides a variety of services directly to the community - such as maintaining streets; installation, maintenance and monitoring of traffic signals; traffic calming devices; and services to neighborhoods. The department also provides overall transportation planning in order to improve roads and streets and make them safer.
Charlotte-Mecklenburg Planning Commission (CMPC) - Serves as a resource to a number of City and County departments in a wide range of coordinated planning efforts such as housing, transportation/transit, community facilities, annexation, demographics, GIS mapping, parks and open space, general zoning, and land development activities.
Citizen Transit Advisory Group (CTAG) - CTAG reviews long-range transit system planning and proposed operating and capital programs from the community's perspective, and makes recommendations to the MTC. This advisory body is made up of members of the community appointed by the Mecklenburg County Board of Commissioners, the Charlotte City Council, each of the six Towns, and the Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education.
Commuter Rail - Local and regional passenger train service between a central city, its suburbs and/or another central city, operating primarily during commutes hours. Designed to transport passengers from their residences to their job sites. Differs from rail rapid transit in that the passenger cars generally are heavier, the average trip lengths are usually longer, and the operations are carried out over tracks that are part of the railroad system.
Corridor - A broad geographical band that follows a general directional flow or connects major sources of trips. It may contain a number of streets and highways and many transit lines and routes.
Crosstown Route - Non-radial bus service that normally does not enter the Central Business District (CBD).
Crush Load - The maximum passenger capacity of a vehicle, in which there is little or no space between passengers (i.e., the passengers are touching one another) and one more passenger cannot enter without causing serious discomfort to the others.
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Deadhead - There are two types of deadhead or non-revenue bus travel time:
(1) Bus travel to or from the garage and a terminus point where revenue service begins or ends;
(2) A bus' travel between the end of service on one route to the beginning of another.
Deboard - To get on or into a transit vehicle.
Diesel Particulate Filters - An emissions control technology that removes particulate matter from diesel exhaust by physical filtration.
Disabled - With respect to an individual, a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more of the major life activities of such an individual; a record of such an impairment; or being regarded as having such an impairment.
Discretionary - Subject to the discretion of legislators or an administrator. The federal Section 5309 New Starts Program is an example of a discretionary program.
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Employer Transportation Coordinator (ETC) - The ETC program provides organizations with the tools and benefits to offer transportation alternatives and provide cost saving options to employees.
Express Service - Express service is deployed in one of two general configurations:
(1) A service generally connecting residential areas and activity centers via a high speed, non-stop connection, e.g., a freeway, or exclusive right-of-way such as a dedicated busway with limited stops at each end for collection and distribution. Residential collection can be exclusively or partially undertaken using park-and-ride facilities.
(2) Service operated non-stop over a portion of an arterial in conjunction with other local services. The need for such service arises where passenger demand between points on a corridor is high enough to separate demand and support dedicated express trips.
Exclusive Right-of-Way - A right-of-way that is fully grade separated or access controlled and is used exclusively by transit.
Extra Board - Operators who have no assigned run but are used to cover runs deliberately left open by the scheduling department (extra runs), or runs that are open because of the absence of regularly assigned operators.
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Fare - Payment in the form of coins, bills, tickets and tokens collected for transit rides.
Fare Box - A device that accepts the coins, bills, tickets and tokens given by passengers as payment for rides.
Farebox Recovery Ratio - A measure of the proportion of transit operating expenses covered by passenger fares. It is calculated by dividing a transit operator's fare box revenue by its total operating expenses.
Fare Box Revenue - Total revenue derived from the payment of passenger fares.
Fare Collection System - The method by which fares are collected and accounted for in a public transportation system.
Fare Elasticity - The extent to which ridership responds to fare increases or decreases.
Fare Structure - The system set up to determine how much is to be paid by various passengers using the system at any given time.
Federal Transit Administration (FTA) - A part of the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) which administers the federal program of financial assistance to public transit.
Feeder Service - Service that picks up and delivers passengers to a regional mode at a rail station, express bus stop, transit center, terminal, park and ride, or other transfer facility.
Fixed Cost - An indirect cost that remains relatively constant irrespective of the level of operational activity.
Fixed-Guideway System - A system of vehicles that can operate only on its own guideway constructed for that purpose (e.g., rapid rail, light rail). Federal usage in funding legislation also includes exclusive right-of-way bus operations, trolley buses, and ferryboats as "fixed-guideway" transit.
Fixed Route - Transit service provided on a repetitive, fixed-schedule basis along a specific route, with vehicles stopping to pick up passengers at and deliver passengers to specific locations.
Frequency - The amount of time scheduled between consecutive buses or trains on a given route segment; in other words, how often the bus or train comes (also known as Headway).
Full Funding Grant Agreement (FFGA) - An agreement executed by the federal government with a public transit operator that assures the operator of the federal government's intention to fully fund the federal share of a New Starts project.
FY (Fiscal Year) - A yearly accounting period designated by the calendar year in which it ends (e.g. FY 2000). The fiscal year for the federal government runs from July 1 to June 30.
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Garage - The place where revenue vehicles are stored and maintained and from where they are dispatched and recovered for the delivery of scheduled service.
Grade Separated - A crossing of two forms of transportation paths (e.g., light rail tracks and a highway) at different levels to permit unconstrained operation.
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Headway - The scheduled time interval between any two revenue vehicles operating in the same direction on a route. Headways may be LOAD driven, that is, developed on the basis of demand and loading standards or, POLICY based, i.e., dictated by policy decisions such as service every 30 minutes during the peak periods and every 60 minutes during the base period.
Heavy Rail - An electric railway with capacity for a "heavy volume" of traffic, and characterized by exclusive rights-of-way, high speed and rapid acceleration. Heavy rail is different from commuter rail and light rail.
High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) - Vehicles that can carry more than two persons. Examples of high occupancy vehicles are a bus, vanpool and carpool.
HOV Lane - A traffic lane in a street or highway reserved for high occupancy vehicles, which may include two person vehicles in some applications.
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Incident - Traffic or passenger accident that include collisions with other vehicles, pedestrians or fixed object, and passenger accidents while boarding, on-board, or disembarking the transit vehicle.
Interlining - Interlining is used in two ways: Interlining allows the use of the same revenue vehicle and/or operator on more than one route without going back to the garage. Interlining is often considered as a means to minimize vehicle requirements as well as a method to provide transfer enhancement for passengers. For interlining to be feasible, two (or more) routes must share a common terminus or be reasonably proximate to each other (see DEADHEAD).
Intermodal - Switching from one form of transportation to another.
Intermodal Facility - A building or site specifically designed to accommodate the meeting of two or more transit modes of travel.
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Joint Development - Development of land or airspace by a public or private entity at RT property where the RT Board has determined that there is excess property rights and the proposed development will not interfere with the existing or planned transit use of the property.
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Kiss and Ride - A place where commuters are driven and left at a station to board a public transportation vehicle
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Layover - Layover time serves two major functions: recovery time for the schedule to ensure on-time departure for the next trip and, in some systems, operator rest or break time between trips. Layover time is often determined by labor agreement, requiring "off-duty" time after a certain amount of driving time.
Light Rail Transit (LRT) - Powered by an overhead electric line, LRT is capable of high speeds and rapid acceleration making it best suited for serving stations spaced as far as a mile apart. Although LRT typically operates within exclusive rights-of-way, it can also operate in mixed traffic on tracks embedded in the street.
Light Rail Vehicle (LRV) - Modern-day term for a streetcar type of transit vehicle, e.g., tram or trolley car.
Limited Service - Higher speed train or bus service where designated vehicles stop only at transfer points or major activity centers, usually about every 1/2 mile. Limited stop service is usually provided on major trunk lines operating during a certain part of the day or in a specified area in addition to local service that makes all stops. As opposed to express service, there is not usually a significant stretch of non-stop operation.
Linked Passenger Trips - A linked passenger trip is a trip from origin to destination on the transit system. Even if a passenger must make several transfers during a one way journey, the trip is counted as one linked trip on the system. Unlinked passenger trips count each boarding as a separate trip regardless of transfers.
Load Factor - The ratio of passengers actually carried versus the total passenger seating capacity of a vehicle. A load factor of greater than 1.0 indicates that there are standees on that vehicle.
Local Service - A type of operation that involves frequent stops and consequent low speeds, the purpose of which is to deliver and pick up transit passengers as close to their destinations or origins as possible.
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Maximum Load Point - The location(s) along a route where the vehicle passenger load is the greatest. The maximum load point(s) generally differ by direction and may also be unique to each of the daily operating periods. Long or complex routes may have multiple maximum load points.
Metropolitan Transit Commission (MTC) - The MTC has responsibility for reviewing and recommending all long-range public transportation plans. The MTC is composed of the mayors and managers of the City, the County and the Towns; and includes five non-voting members representing local governments outside
Mecklenburg County to ensure regional involvement, and one non-voting member each from the North Carolina and South Carolina Departments of Transportation.
Minivan - The minivan service consists of four to seven passengers with one rider agreeing to be the driver and at least one other rider agreeing to be the backup driver. CATS covers the cost of gas, maintenance, insurance and the Guaranteed Ride Home program.
Missed Trip - A schedule trip that did not operate for a variety of reasons including operator absence, vehicle failure, dispatch error, traffic, accident or other unforeseen reason.
Mode - A particular form of travel (e.g., bus commuter tail, train, bicycle, walking or automobile.
Mode Split - The proportion of people that use each of the various modes of transportation. Also describes the process of allocating the proportion of people using modes. Frequently used to describe the percentage of people using private automobiles as opposed to the percentage using public transportation.
Model - An analytical tool (often mathematical) used by transportation planners to assist in making forecasts of land use, economic activity, and travel activity.
Monthly Pass - A prepaid farecard or ticket, valid for unlimited riding within certain designated zones for one-month period.
Multidestinational Network - A bus route network that is designed to make it easy to travel by transit between any two points in the service area.
Mecklenburg Union Metropolitan Planning Organization (MUMPO) - The Mecklenburg Union Metropolitan Planning Organization is a Transportation body that is responsible for over seeing the development of the transportation system in Mecklenburg and Union Counties of North Carolina. The group consists of voting representatives from Charlotte, Cornelius, Davidson, Huntersville, Matthews, Mecklenburg County, Mint Hill, and Pineville in Mecklenburg County. Indian Trail, Monroe, Stallings, Union County, Waxhaw, Weddington, Wesley Chapel and Wingate each have voting representatives from Union County.
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Network - The configuration of streets or transit routes and stops that constitutes the total system.
New Starts - Federal funding granted under Section 5309 (B) of the United States Code. These discretionary funds are made available for the construction of new fixed guideway systems or extensions of existing fixed guideway systems.
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Off-Peak - Non-rush periods of the day when travel activity is generally lower and less transit service is scheduled.
Operating - Maintaining the ongoing functions of an agency or service. "Operating expenses" include wages, benefits, supplies, and services. "Operating assistance" is used to pay for the costs of providing public transit service.
Operating Cost - The total costs to operate and maintain a transit system including labor, fuel, maintenance, wages and salaries, employee benefits, taxes, etc.
Operating Expense - Monies paid in salaries and wages; settlement of claims, maintenance of equipment and buildings, and rentals of equipment and facilities.
Operating Ratio - A measure of transit system expense recovery obtained by dividing total operating revenues by total operating expenses.
Operating Revenue - Revenue derived from passenger fares. See also Farebox Revenue.
Operating Speed - The rate of speed at which a vehicle in safely operated under prevailing traffic and environmental conditions.
Operator - An employee of a transit system who spends his or her working day in the operation of a vehicle, e.g., bus driver, streetcar motorman, trolley coach operator, cable car gripman, rapid transit train motorman, conductor, etc.
Origin - The location of the beginning of a trip or the zone in which a trip begins. Also known as a "Trip End".
Origin-Destination Study - A study of the origins and destinations of trips made by vehicles or passengers.
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Paratransit - Transportation service required by ADA for individuals with disabilities who are unable to use
fixed-route transit systems. The service must be comparable to the fixed-route service.
Park and Ride - A parking area for automobile drivers who then board vehicles, shuttles or carpools from these locations.
Pass - A means of transit prepayment, usually a card that carries some identification that is displayed to the driver or conductor in place of paying a cash fare.
Passenger - A person who rides a transportation vehicle, excluding the driver.
Passenger Check - A check (count) made of passengers arriving at, boarding and alighting, leaving from, or passing through one or more points on a route. Checks are conducted by riding (ridecheck) or at specific locations (point check). Passenger checks are conducted in order to obtain information on passenger riding that will assist in determining both appropriate directional headways on a route and the effectiveness of the route alignment. They are also undertaken to meet FTA Section 15 reporting requirements and to calibrate revenue-based ridership models.
Passenger Miles - A measure of service utilization which represents the cumulative sum of the distances ridden by each passenger. It is normally calculated by summation of the passenger load times the distance between individual bus stops. For example, ten passengers riding in a transit vehicle for two miles equals 20 passenger miles.
Passenger Revenue - Fares paid by passenger traveling aboard transit vehicles.
Peak Hour/Peak Period - The period with the highest ridership during the entire service day, generally referring to either the peak hour or peak several hours (peak period).
Pick - The selection process by which operators are allowed to select new work assignments, i.e., run or the Extra Board in the next (forthcoming) schedule. Also known as Bid.
Program - (1) verb, to assign funds to a project; (2) noun, a system of funding for implementing transportation projects or policies.
Pull-In Time - The non-revenue time assigned for the movement of a revenue vehicle from its last scheduled terminus or stop to the garage.
Pull-Out Time - The non-revenue time assigned for the movement of a revenue vehicle from the garage to its first scheduled terminus or stop.
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Revenue - Receipts derived from or for the operation of transit service including farebox revenue, revenue from other commercial sources, and operating assistance from governments. Farebox revenue includes all fare, transfer charges, and zone charges paid by transit passengers.
Recovery Time - Recovery time is distinct from layover, although they are usually combined together. Recovery time is a planned time allowance between the arrival time of a just completed trip and the departure time of the next trip in order to allow the route to return to schedule if traffic, loading, or other conditions have made the trip arrive late. Recovery time is considered as reserve running time and typically, the operator will remain on duty during the recovery period.
Revenue Vehicle Hour - The measure of scheduled hours of service available to passengers for transport on the routes, equivalent to one transit vehicle traveling in one hour in revenue service, excluding deadhead hours but including recovery/layover time. Calculated for each route.
Revenue Service - When a revenue vehicle is in operation over a route and is available to the public for transport.
Revenue Miles - Miles operated by vehicles available for passenger service.
Revenue Passenger - A passenger from whom a fare is collected.
Reverse Commute - Movement in a direction opposite to the main flow of travel, such as from the Central City to a suburb during the morning commute hour.
Riders Code of Conduct - Acts as a guideline for acceptable behavior by customers while riding mass transit.
Ridesharing - A form of transportation, other than public transit, in which more than one person shares in the use of the vehicle, such as a van or car, to make a trip.
Ridership - The number of rides taken by people using a public transportation system in a given time period.
Right-of-Way (ROW, R/W) - The land over which a public road or rail line is built. An exclusive right-of-way is a road, lane, or other right-of-way designated exclusively for a specific purpose or for a particular group of users, such as light rail vehicles or buses.
Road Call - A mechanical failure of a bus in revenue service that causes a delay to service, and which necessitates removing the bus from service until repairs are made.
Road Supervisor - The individual who is responsible for keeping buses or trains on schedule.
Rolling Stock - The vehicles used in a transit system, including buses and rail cars.
Route - A specified path taken by a transit vehicle usually designated by a number or a name, along which passengers are picked up or discharged.
Route Miles — The total number of miles included in a fixed route transit system network.
Running Time — The time assigned for the movement of a revenue vehicle over a route, usually done on a [route] segment basis by various time of day.
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Schedule — From the transit agency (not the public timetable), a document that, at a minimum, shows the time of each revenue trip through the designated time points. Many properties include additional information such as route descriptions, deadhead times and amounts, interline information, run numbers, block numbers, etc.
Scheduling — The planning of vehicle arrivals and departures and the operators for these vehicles to meet consumer demand along specified routes.
Service Area — A geographic area which is provided with transit services. Service area is now defined consistent with ADA requirements.
Service Span - The span of hours over which service is operated, e.g., 6 a.m. to 10 p.m. Service span often
varies by weekday, Saturday, or Sunday.
Service Standards - A benchmark by which service operations performance is evaluated. These standards are provided in the Short Range Transit Plan.
Smart Commute - By purchasing your home near a CATS bus stop and riding CATS to commute to work, you could qualify for the added benefits of getting a mortgage offered by lenders participating in the Smart Commute* Initiative.
Streetcar - The streetcar operates on embedded rails, and is capable of operating in streets with mixed traffic. It is electric and is powered by an overhead wire 18 feet above the street.
Subsidy - Funds granted by federal, state or local government.
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Time Point -A designated location and time that a bus or LR vehicle can arrive before – but not leave earlier than – the stated time as indicated in the route schedule.
Timed Transfer - A point or location where two or more routes come together at the same time to provide positive transfer connections. A short layover may be provided at the timed transfer point to enhance the connection. Timed transfers have had increasing application as service frequencies have been reduced below 15 to 20 minutes and hub-and-spoke network deployment has grown.
Transfer -A slip of paper issued to a passenger that gives him or her the right to change from one transit
vehicle to another according to specified limitations.
Transit Center - A fixed location where passengers transfer from one route to another.
Transit Corridor - A broad geographic band that follows a general route alignment such as a roadway of rail right-of-way and includes a service area within that band that would be accessible to the transit system.
Transfer Passenger - A passenger who transfers to a line after paying a fare on another line.
Transit Dependent - Someone who must use public transportation for his/her travel.
Transit Priority - A means by which transit vehicles are given an advantage over other traffic, e.g., preemption of traffic signals or transit priority lanes.
Transit Services Advisory Committee (TSAC) - The TSAC focuses on day-to-day operations of the transit service to ensure that it meets the needs of the community. It is made up of representatives appointed by the City of Charlotte, Mecklenburg County, and the six Towns.
Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21) - The 1998 law that reauthorizes federal surface transportation programs for six years (FY 1998 to FY 2003). TEA-21 preserves much of the basic programmatic structure of its predecessor, the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA).
Travel Time - The time allows for an operator to travel between the garage and a remote relief point.
Trip - The one-way operation of a revenue vehicle between two terminal points on a route. Trips are generally noted as inbound, outbound, eastbound, westbound, etc. to identify directionality when being discussed or printed.
Total Miles - The total miles includes revenue, deadhead, and yard (maintenance and servicing) miles.
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Ultra Low Sulfur Diesel - A refined fuel with significantly lower sulfur content than regular highway diesel.
Unlinked Passenger Trips - The total number of passengers who board public transit vehicles. A passenger is counted each time he/she boards a revenue vehicle even though the boarding may be the result of a transfer from another route to complete the same one-way journey. Where linked or unlinked is not designated, unlinked is assumed.
Unlinked Trip - A trip taken by an individual on one specific mode. A linked trip may involve two or more unlinked trips.
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Vanpool - A vanpool consists of nine to 15 passengers with one rider agreeing to be the driver and at least one other rider agreeing to be the backup driver. CATS covers the cost of gas, maintenance, insurance and the Guaranteed Ride Home program.
Variable Cost - A cost that varies in relation to the level of operational activity.
Vehicle Miles - The number of miles traveled by a vehicle, and are usually calculated by mode.
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Wheelchair Lift - A device used to raise and lower a platform in a transit vehicle for accessibility by handicapped individuals.
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Yard - An area in a system used for maintenance, storing or holding trains.
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<urn:uuid:e17f5c02-ca41-4f89-a9df-24ebdad37d78>
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http://charmeck.org/city/charlotte/cats/news/Pages/glossary.aspx
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00028-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.934206 | 6,592 | 2.828125 | 3 |
Properties of amino acid side chains report ni lady
PROPERTIES OF AMINO ACID
PROPERTIES OF AMINO ACID SIDE CHAINS: CLASSES OF α-AMINO ACIDS
The 20 amino acids contain, in their different side
chains, a remarkable collection of chemical
groups. It is this diversity of the monomers that
allows proteins to exhibit such a great variety of
structures and properties.
Many ways have been proposed to group the
amino acids into classes, but none is wholly
AMINO ACIDS WITH ALIPHATIC SIDE
Glycine, alanine, valine, leucine, and isoleunine
have aliphatic, or alkaline, side chains.
Isoleunine for example, has a much greater
tendency to transfer from water to a
hydrocarbon solvent than does alanine.The
more hydrophobic amino acids such as
isoleunine are usually found within a protein
Proline which is difficult to fit in any category,
shares many properties with the aliphatic amino
acids. Although it is a cyclic amino acid, its side
chain has a primarily aliphatic character.
However, the rigidity of the ring, compared with
the flexibility of most amino acid side chains,
often makes the folding of proline residues into
protein structures difficult.
AMINO ACIDS WITH HYROXYL- OR
SULFUR- CONTAINING SIDE CHAINS
Serine, cystein, threonine, and
methionine can be placed in this
These amino acids, because of their
weakly polar chains, are generally
more hydrophilic than their aliphatic
analog, although methionine is fairly
Among the group, cystein is noteworthy in two
First, the side chain can ionize at moderately high
Second, oxidation can occur between pairs of
cystein side chains to form a disulfide bond.
AROMATIC AMINO ACIDS
Phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan, carry
aromatic side chains. Phenylalanine, together
with the aliphatic amino acids.Tyrosine and
Tryptophan have some hydrophobic
character as well, but it is tempered by the
polar groups in there side chains. In addition,
tyrosine can ionize at high pH.
The aromatic amino acids, like most compounds
carrying conjugated rings, strongly absorbs light
in the near-ultraviolet region of the spectrum.
This characteristic is frequently used for the
analytical detention of proteins, by measuring
absorption at 280 nm.
BASIC AMINO ACIDS
Histidine, lysine, and arginine carry basic
groups in their side chains.
The basic amino acids are strongly polar, and as
consequences they are usually found on the
exterior surfaces of proteins, where they can
be hydrated by the surrounding aqueous
ACIDIC AMINO ACIDS AND THEIR
Aspartic acid and glutamic acids are the only
amino acids that carry negative charges at pH
The pKa is values of the acidic amino acids are
so low that even when the amino acids are
incorporated into proteins, the negative
charge on the side chain is retained under
physiological conditions. hence, these amino
acid residues are often referred to as
aspartate and glutamate
Companions to aspartic and glutamic acids are
their amides, asparagine and glutamate. Unlike
their acidic analogs, asparagine and glutamine
have uncharged side chains, although they are
decidedly polar. Like the basic and acidic amino
acids, they are definitely hydrophilic and tend to
be on the surface of a protein molecule, in
conatct with the surrounding water.
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<urn:uuid:9af79007-c91a-4476-a33a-a19a0e26aea3>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.slideshare.net/yaning05/properties-of-amino-acid-side-chains-report-ni-lady-5605210
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394937.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00139-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.890334 | 835 | 3.15625 | 3 |
News Display: Falling Meteorite, Monday, 11/30Need to keep current, look to the past, teach a topic? The Everett Cafe features daily postings of headlines from around the world, as well as wide-ranging educational news displays.
In November, we highlight historic science news to complement the Cafe News book display Landing on Mars.
On November 30, 1954 a sulfide, 7 inch and 8.5 pound meteorite crashed through the roof of a house in Sylacauga, Alabama and struck a sleeping Mrs. Elizabeth Hodges on the hip. Although the victim suffered no serious injuries, the experience was a dramatic one!
On November 3, 1957 the Soviet Union sent the first dog into space to orbit the Earth and inform scientists about the biological effects of space travel. Laika, who was part Siberian husky and a stray from the streets of Moscow, boarded the Sputnik 2 -- only to survive a few days on a battery operated life support system that sent signals and information back to Earth. A dozen dogs followed suit in preparation for the first manned spacecraft, the Vostok 1 which carried Yuri Gagarin off into orbit and safely back again in 1961.
November 12, 1799 marks the day of the first recorded meteor shower in North America. Andrew Ellicott Douglass, an early American astronomer, witnessed the spectacular Leonids meteor shower -- an annual event, associated with the comet Tempel-Tuttle, from a ship in the Florida keys.
Tiros 2, a weather satellite operated by NASA, was launched on November 23, 1960 from Cape Canaveral, Florida. Powered by silicon solar cells, it orbited the Earth once every 98 minutes and tool pictures of cloud cover, as it measured radiation. Tiros 2's mission ended on December 4, 1961.
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<urn:uuid:230bc4f5-412e-43a2-93d3-80d526b71a2c>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://library.tc.columbia.edu/news.php?id=1345
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00031-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.935717 | 366 | 3.03125 | 3 |
The tide may be turning for the rare species of giant tortoise thought to have gone extinct when its last known member, the beloved Lonesome George, died in June.
This isn't the first time Chelonoidis abingdoni has been revived: The massive reptiles were last seen in 1906 and considered extinct until the 1972 discovery of Lonesome George, then around 60 years old, on Pinta Island. The population had been wiped out by human settlers, who overharvested the tortoises for meat and introduced goats and pigs that destroyed the tortoises' habitat and much of the island's vegetation.
Now, in an area known as Volcano Wolf—on the secluded northern tip of Isabela, another Galápagos island—the researchers have identified 17 hybrid descendants of C. abingdoni within a population of 1,667 tortoises.
Genetic testing identified three males, nine females, and five juveniles (under the age of 20) with DNA from C. abingdoni. The presence of juveniles suggests that purebred specimens may exist on the island too, the researchers said.
"Even the parents of some of the older individuals may still be alive today, given that tortoises live for so long and that we detected high levels of ancestry in a few of these hybrids," Yale evolutionary biologist Danielle Edwards said.
How did Lonesome George's relatives end up some 30 miles (50 kilometers) from Pinta Island? Edwards said ocean currents, which would have carried the tortoises to other areas, had nothing to do with it. Instead, she thinks humans likely transported the animals.
Crews on 19th-century whaling and naval vessels hunted accessible islands like Pinta for oil and meat, carrying live tortoises back to their ships.
Tortoises can survive up to 12 months without food or water because of their slow metabolisms, making the creatures a useful source of meat to stave off scurvy on long sea voyages. But during naval conflicts, the giant tortoises—which weighed between 200 and 600 pounds (90 and 270 kilograms) each—were often thrown overboard to lighten the ship's load.
That could also explain why one of the Volcano Wolf tortoises contains DNA from the tortoise species Chelonoidis elephantopus, which is native to another island, as a previous study revealed. That species is also extinct in its native habitat, Floreana Island.
(Related: "No Lovin' for Lonesome George.")
Life After Extinction?
Giant tortoises are essential to the Galápagos Island ecosystem, Edwards said. They scatter soil and seeds, and their eating habits help maintain the population balance of woody vegetation and cacti. Now, scientists have another chance to save C. abingdoni and C. elephantopus.
With a grant from the National Geographic Society's Committee for Research and Exploration, which also helped fund the current study, the researchers plan to return to Volcano Wolf's rugged countryside to collect hybrid tortoises—and purebreds, if the team can find them—and begin a captive-breeding program. (National Geographic News is part of the Society.)
If all goes well, both C. abingdoni and C. elephantopus may someday be restored to their wild homes in the Galápagos. (Learn more about the effort to revive the Floreana Galápagos tortoises.)
"The word 'extinction' signifies the point of no return," senior research scientist Adalgisa Caccone wrote in the team's grant proposal. "Yet new technology can sometimes provide hope in challenging the irrevocable nature of this concept."
The new Lonesome George study was published by the journal Biological Conservation.
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<urn:uuid:4cdfab7a-9573-4722-ba73-259add490f70>
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http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/11/121116-lonesome-george-not-extinct-galapagos-tortoise-science/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396959.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00013-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.938623 | 786 | 3.640625 | 4 |
“Come, listen, all you girls and boys, I’m just from Tuckahoe; I’m going to sing a little song, My name’s Jim Crow.”
These are the two opening lines to a song entitled “Jump Jim Crow” made famous by a prominent minstrel actor named Thomas Dartmouth “Daddy” Rice in 1828. When Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia made his derogatory, insensitive comments last Wednesday about Section 5 of the Voting Rights Act from his bench, this was the first thing that popped up in my mind.
What Justice Scalia and his fellow justices may need is a history lesson on why Section 5 of the Voting Rights Act was put there in the first place and why it must remain there. Scalia is known for hurling verbal bombs from his seat in the chamber, but last Wednesday he crossed the line.
Under Section 5, parts of the country with histories of discriminatory election practices have to ask for preclearance from the Justice Department before making any changes to their voting rules.
Scalia declared, “I think it is attributable, very likely attributable, to a phenomenon that is called perpetuation of racial entitlement. It’s been written about. Whenever a society adopts racial entitlements, it is very difficult to get out of them through the normal political processes.”
After he uttered those words, it was reported that collective gasps were heard around the room. It seems he shares a similar sentiment of his conservative Republican brethren. Mitt Romney after being trounced by President Obama during the 2012 election said Obama gave “gifts” to minority voters. Paul Ryan blamed the Republicans defeat on “the urban vote.” FOX commentator Bill O’Reilly said the people who voted for Obama “want stuff.” Other Republican talking heads have made comparable claims.
From this day forward, the word conservative means segregationist. The modern day Republican Party resembles the former Dixiecrat political party from the 1940s. The so-called conservative Supreme Court justices subscribe to the same radical, extreme beliefs of the Tea Party and right wing elements within the GOP. There isn’t another plausible conclusion to draw other than these folks have an enormous problem with minorities, but particularly, Blacks.
Chief Justice John Roberts and Justice Samuel Alito stood alongside their colleague when they asked, “Is it the government’s submission that the citizens in the South are more racist than the citizens in the North?” “Why shouldn’t it apply everywhere in the country?” I felt like I was back in the 19th century when I heard these views being espoused from people who supposedly represent the highest court in our country. These folks already voted in favor of Citizens United, which led to the most spending during a presidential campaign cycle ever. Now they’re dangerously close to removing the heartbeat from the Voting Rights Act.
For some reason this mantra of Blacks taking over reigns supreme in most Republicans minds. Here is the statistical truth: Blacks constitute 13.6% of the population, but yet there are 2 Black Senators (both promoted not elected), 41 Congressmen and congresswomen, Black unemployment is double the national average at 14%, there are more Black men in prison today than there were enslaved in 1850, the dropout rates for Black students in inner city schools hovers around 50%, and somehow Blacks are taking over. Republicans please. While there is a Black man in the oval office, Black folks aren’t receiving racial entitlements. Blacks are still struggling for a piece of the American dream that our forefathers and foremothers helped to create through their blood, sweat, tears, and free labor.
Apparently, Bert Rein, the attorney from Shelby County, Alabama leading the legal challenge to the Voting Rights Act and Justices Scalia, Alito, Roberts, Kennedy, and Thomas believe that racism is dead. Rein implied as much, “There is an old disease, and that disease is cured.” I’m guessing these men didn’t notice the act received reauthorization in 2006 for another 25 years by an overwhelming margin in Congress. They didn’t notice the prevalence of voter suppression tactics being used by the Republican Party during the 2012 election cycle. They didn’t notice how 37 states began that process before the 2012 presidential campaign or how most Republican-led state legislatures across the country have gerrymandered districts in their political party’s favor on purpose including their own county in 2008.
Without Section 5 of the Voting Rights Act, Mitt Romney would’ve been elected President of the United States instead of President Obama. Chief Justice Roberts has been an advocate for eliminating the Voting Rights Act for 30 years. The Republican Party is determined to erase the federal government out of their state affairs and go back to operating under states rights. With Section 5, many citizens in highly populated minority areas had access to the ballot box and still waited for five and six hours to cast their ballots. Without Section 5, I shudder to think if they can even cast their votes without some recycled 19th and 20th Century apparatus to hinder them.
All these facts indicate that Section 5 is not only necessary, but it is a just practice under the law. And if America is to live up to everything it stands for, then the notion of Jim Crow has to go once and for all.
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<urn:uuid:e637249b-6453-4dcd-9935-efec7270fbc7>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://politic365.com/2013/03/06/the-voting-rights-act-isnt-a-racial-entitlement/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00148-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.967489 | 1,114 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Gene silencing vectors based on Barley stripe mosaic virus (BSMV) are used extensively in cereals to study gene function, but nearly all studies have been limited to genes expressed in leaves of barley and wheat. However since many important aspects of plant biology are based on root-expressed genes we wanted to explore the potential of BSMV for silencing genes in root tissues. Furthermore, the newly completed genome sequence of the emerging cereal model species Brachypodium distachyon as well as the increasing amount of EST sequence information available for oat (Avena species) have created a need for tools to study gene function in these species.
Here we demonstrate the successful BSMV-mediated virus induced gene silencing (VIGS) of three different genes in barley roots, i.e. the barley homologues of the IPS1, PHR1, and PHO2 genes known to participate in Pi uptake and reallocation in Arabidopsis. Attempts to silence two other genes, the Pi transporter gene HvPht1;1 and the endo-β-1,4-glucanase gene HvCel1, in barley roots were unsuccessful, probably due to instability of the plant gene inserts in the viral vector. In B. distachyon leaves, significant silencing of the PHYTOENE DESATURASE (BdPDS) gene was obtained as shown by photobleaching as well as quantitative RT-PCR analysis. On the other hand, only very limited silencing of the oat AsPDS gene was observed in both hexaploid (A. sativa) and diploid (A. strigosa) oat. Finally, two modifications of the BSMV vector are presented, allowing ligation-free cloning of DNA fragments into the BSMV-γ component.
Our results show that BSMV can be used as a vector for gene silencing in barley roots and in B. distachyon leaves and possibly roots, opening up possibilities for using VIGS to study cereal root biology and to exploit the wealth of genome information in the new cereal model plant B. distachyon. On the other hand, the silencing induced by BSMV in oat seemed too weak to be of practical use. The new BSMV vectors modified for ligation-free cloning will allow rapid insertion of plant gene fragments for future experiments.
© 2010 Pacak et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
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<urn:uuid:7f03c7b1-558d-42ae-8588-fbe2501e4491>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://orbit.dtu.dk/en/publications/investigations-of-barley-stripe-mosaic-virus-as-a-gene-silencing-vector-in-barley-roots-and-in-brachypodium-distachyon-and-oat(4babd9f9-033c-4fdc-9e0b-d773bcbf23dc).html
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398869.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00111-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.916007 | 551 | 2.6875 | 3 |
“I am asked sometimes if I teach registers of the voice. I can say decidedly no, I do not teach registers. The voice should be one and entire, from top to bottom, and should be produced as such, no matter in what part of the voice you sing. Throughout the voice the same instrument is doing the work. So, too, with voices of different caliber, the coloratura, lyric and dramatic. Each and all of these may feel the dramatic spirit of the part, but the lighter quality of the voice may prevent the coloratura from expressing it. The world recognizes the dramatic singer in the size of the voice and of the person. From an artistic point of view, however, there are two ways of looking at the question, since the lyric voice may have vivid dramatic instincts, and may be able to bring them out with equal or even greater intensity than the purely dramatic organ.
“Vocal Mastery is acquired through correct understanding of what constitutes pure vowel sounds, and such control of the breath as will enable one to convert every atom of breath into singing tone. This establishes correct action of the vocal chords and puts the singer in possession of the various tints of the voice.
“When the diaphragm and respiratory muscles support the breath sufficiently and the vocal chords are permitted to do their work, you produce pure tone. Many singers do not understand these two vital principles. They either sing with too much relaxation of the diaphragm and respiratory muscles, or too much rigidity. Consequently the effort becomes local instead of constitutional, which renders the tone hard and strident and variable to pitch. Again the vocal chords are either forced apart or pinched together, with detriment to tone production.
“The real value of control is lost when we attempt to control the singing instrument and the breath by seeking a place for the tone the singing instrument produces. When the vocal chords are allowed to produce pure vowels, correct action is the result and with proper breath support, Vocal Mastery can be assured.”
SOME SECRETS OF BEAUTIFUL SINGING
A young French girl had just sung a group of songs in her own language and had won acclaim from the distinguished company present. They admired the rich quality of her voice, her easy, spontaneous tone production and clear diction. A brilliant future was predicted for the young singer. One critic of renown remarked: “It is a long time since I have heard a voice so well placed and trained.”
“And who is your teacher?” she was asked.
“It is Mr. Duval; I owe everything to him. He has really made my voice; I have never had another teacher and all my success will be due to him,” she answered.
We at once expressed a desire to meet Mr. Duval and hear from his own lips how such results were attained.
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<urn:uuid:6df1b7eb-7e36-438b-9610-df428f2958a4>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.bookrags.com/ebooks/15446/96.html
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397695.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00095-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.965187 | 596 | 3.140625 | 3 |
Scientists are always discovering new species — around 15,000 per year — and you can read all about the highlights of 2013 here. Today, we learned about a new species that's promising to be a highlight of 2014.
A team of scientists from the Federal University of Amazonas in Manaus, Brazil have discovered a new species of freshwater river dolphin in the Amazon, the BBC reports. The small group of dolphins was living in the Araguaian basin, where they were assumed to be Amazon river dolphins (Inia geoffrensis) that had broken off from the larger population.
Not so, the scientists reported in the journal Plos One. DNA tests showed that the population of dolphins were genetically distinct from their dolphin cousins and that the species likely diverged more than two million years ago.
River dolphins are extremely rare, and the Araguaian Boto is the first new species to be discovered since 1918, when scientists found the Yangtze river dolphin (Lipotes vexillifer) in China.
The Yangtze river dolphin became extinct in 2006, and the Araguaian Boto population faces its own threats. The scientists who discovered the new dolphin recommended that the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classify the new species as "vulnerable."
The world is so cool.
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<urn:uuid:d1add363-3927-4dd2-b600-7b756f11089f>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/science/140123/new-species-river-dolphin-discovered-the-amazon
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00200-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.945449 | 271 | 3.5 | 4 |
Definitions for vicariousvaɪˈkɛər i əs, vɪ-
This page provides all possible meanings and translations of the word vicarious
experienced at secondhand
"read about mountain climbing and felt vicarious excitement"
occurring in an abnormal part of the body instead of the usual site involved in that function
suffered or done by one person as a substitute for another
Experienced or gained by the loss or to the consequence of another, such as through watching or reading.
People experience vicarious pleasures through watching television.
Done on behalf of others
The concept of vicarious atonement, that one person can atone for the sins of another, is found in many religions.
Origin: From vicārius "vicarious, substituted"
of or pertaining to a vicar, substitute, or deputy; deputed; delegated; as, vicarious power or authority
acting of suffering for another; as, a vicarious agent or officer
performed of suffered in the place of another; substituted; as, a vicarious sacrifice; vicarious punishment
acting as a substitute; -- said of abnormal action which replaces a suppressed normal function; as, vicarious hemorrhage replacing menstruation
Origin: [L. vicarius, from vicis change, alternation, turn, the position, place, or office of one person as assumed by another; akin to Gr. e'i`kein to yield, give way, G. wechsel a change, and probably also to E. weak. See Weak, and cf. Vice, prep.]
"Vicarious" is a song by American rock band Tool. The song is the first single released from their fourth full-length studio album 10,000 Days. Debuting on April 17, 2006 on commercial radio, the seven-minute song entered the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart at #2. It received a nomination for Best Hard Rock Performance at the 49th Annual Grammy Awards.
The numerical value of vicarious in Chaldean Numerology is: 3
The numerical value of vicarious in Pythagorean Numerology is: 9
Sample Sentences & Example Usage
Experience is the best teacher- Personal but also vicarious
Sport in the sense of a mass-spectacle, with death to add to the underlying excitement, comes into existence when a population has been drilled and regimented and depressed to such an extent that it needs at least a vicarious participation in difficult feats of strength or skill or heroism in order to sustain its waning life-sense.
Unable to create a meaningful life for itself, the personality takes its own revenge: from the lower depths comes a regressive form of spontaneity: raw animality forms a counterpoise to the meaningless stimuli and the vicarious life to which the ordinary man is conditioned. Getting spiritual nourishment from this chaos of events, sensations, and devious interpretations is the equivalent of trying to pick through a garbage pile for food.
Images & Illustrations of vicarious
Translations for vicarious
From our Multilingual Translation Dictionary
Get even more translations for vicarious »
Find a translation for the vicarious definition in other languages:
Select another language:
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<urn:uuid:0e310211-813e-47a1-ab9c-f00f00033280>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.definitions.net/definition/vicarious
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00033-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.884152 | 669 | 2.6875 | 3 |
The speed at which sound/speech is played should be adjustable without noticeable reduction in the sound quality. A choice between a male or female voice may be an advantage.
The possibility of recording speech would motivate interaction. This function would also allow helpers to add extra information/help.
Auditory information is used in different ways: for messages, effects (not necessarily important for the game itself), interaction with the user, ...It is an advantage if the various types of auditory information can be adjusted individually (see 4.2 Sounds e.g. background music and alarms that can be switched off/on).
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<urn:uuid:0610f97c-8009-4873-94e5-3a4fc13423b2>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.medialt.no/rapport/entertainment_guidelines/p04-01.htm
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394987.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00183-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.937879 | 122 | 3.0625 | 3 |
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